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THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

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PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

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CASE

PLINY'S
NATURAL HISTORY.

IN

THIRTY-SEVEN BOOKS.

n '

A TRANSLATION

ON THE BASIS OF THAT BY DR. PHILEMON HOLLAND,
ED. 1601.

WITH CRITICAL AND EXPLANATORY NOTES.

VOL. I.

bp tf)e WUcnurtan Club.

PRINTED FOE THE CLUB

BY

GEOKGE BAKCLAY, CASTLE STEEET, LEICESTER SQUARE.

1847-48.

184-1
v.l-3

PURSUANT to a Resolution to the following effect, passed at a meeting of
the Committee held on Wednesday, 3rd February, 1847 : —

" The best thanks of the Club are hereby presented to —

JONATHAN COUCH, Esq. F.L.S., the Superintending Editor of this
Publication, and Translator of the Work.

Also to the following Gentlemen, viz. : —

In the Department of Astronomy,
SIR JOHN F. W. HERSCHEL, BART. F.R.S.

In the Department of Classical Literature,

Rev. GEORGE MUNI-ORD, M.A.
W. G. V. BARNEWALL, Esq. M.A.
Rev. T. FULCHER, B.A.

In the Departments of Antiquities and Geography,

JONATHAN COUCH, Esq. F.L.S.
C. J. B. ALDIS, Esq. M.D.
OCTAVIUS A. FERRIS, Esq.
CHARLES MOXON, Esq.

For the Editorial Assistance rendered by them in the preparation of the
accompanying Work."

PREFACE,

INCLUDING A

MEMOIR OF THE AUTHOR.

fAIUS PLINIUS SECUNDUS, usually
called the Elder, to distinguish him from
his nephew of the same name, who was
equally eminent in letters, but in a dif-
ferent field, was born of an illustrious
family of Verona, in the 23rd year of the Christian era.
According to the custom of Roman youths, he
served in the army, where he was honoured with the
regards of Titus, son of Vespasian, and afterwards
emperor, to whom he dedicated his great work on the
" History of Nature."

To one of his inclinations and tastes, the military
career was probably little suited ; yet every Roman
was called on to enter it, whatever department of the
public service he might afterwards occupy. With the
army in Germany he acquired distinction. On his
return to Rome he was enrolled in the College of
Augurs — a post which favoured his philosophic in-

VI PREFACE.

quiries ; and he was subsequently appointed Procu-
rator, or Vice-Governor, in Spain.

It has been remarked, that none labour more
strenuously in any favourite pursuit than those whose
time appears absorbed in the necessary affairs of life ;
none are so idle as those whose business is slight
enough to afford leisure for every occupation. Of this
truth history furnishes no example more striking than
is visible in the varied pursuits, the diligence, and the
research of Pliny ; while there can be no doubt also
but that his public services acquired additional value
from the wide range which his mind embraced, and
the rich stores of knowledge which it was his habit to
accumulate and arrange.

Such was the spirituality of his nature, that bodily
requirements — much more bodily indulgences — seemed
extinct in him. His relaxation from official business
was a change of labour. The greater portion of his
nights was devoted to study ; his very meals were an
abstraction ; for, lest he should forget the higher aim
of existence, his amanuensis read to him in their pro-
gress ; and, instead of walking, he drove in the cha-
riot — his secretary beside him — to save time and
escape distraction from his contemplations. So nume-
rous and valued were his extracts, remarks, and an-
notations, that Lartius Lutinius offered the philoso-
pher a sum equivalent to more than three thousand
pounds sterling for the possession of them ; but they
were more nobly bequeathed to his beloved and distin-
guished nephew. In the vast realms of Nature and
Art no object was indifferent to him ; in the province
of the Fine Arts, the accuracy of his judgment and
the fidelity of his details seemed only to be outmea-

PREFACE. Vll

sured by the extent of his acquirement ; and as a his-
tory, a critique, and a catalogue, nothing more pre-
cious in letters than his 34th, 35th and 36th books,
has escaped the ruin in which the fall of the Roman
empire had nearly involved all of enlightenment that
had grown up and flourished with it. To his huma-
nity and scientific curiosity combined, he became one
of the most memorable martyrs that stand on record.
The events of the day that closed his mortal career,
in the 79th year of the Christian era, are minutely and
touchingly detailed to Tacitus the historian, in one of
the most elegant of the epistles penned by a nephew
who was the worthy inheritor of the wealth, the fame,
and the virtues of his uncle. The body was found
three days after its destruction by the eruptions of
Vesuvius, and interred at Misenum, in face of the fleet
which he had quitted for the prosecution of his phy-
sical investigations. For the emulation of those who
delight to

" Look from nature up to nature's God,"

as the best eulogy that can be pronounced on Pliny
himself, and, at the same time, as a sentiment evincing
his nephew's exalted mind, the subjoined extract of
the memorable letter cannot be too often and too long
remembered : — " Equidem beatos puto, quibus Deo-
rum datum est, aut facere scribenda, aut scribere
legenda ; beatissimos vero quibus utrumque."

No impulse short of an intense love of nature
could have actuated a man so deeply engaged in the
high offices of the state to snatch at every fragment of
his time — as his nephew, in a letter to a friend, de-
scribes him — and appropriate it to forming a digest of

Vlll PREFACE.

the scattered rays of natural knowledge. The subject
was scarcely popular with his countrymen ; and its
materials were to he sifted from Greek writers of
every school, with a toil and patience which few can
duly estimate. The abstracts thus made filled one
hundred and sixty closely written volumes, and though
the sentiments, or, as we should now term them, the
theories, of his authors were not a little discordant, he
was well able to separate their matter from their
opinions ; and, if sometimes found to have hastily
adopted hypotheses for facts, it must be remembered
that there existed then no standard for the test of
fact — that what he had abstracted had the sanction of
venerable names — and that the period of sound criticism
comes in only when vast stores of facts and incidents
have been collected ; and Pliny was then the most dili-
gent accumulator for a riper age. To him belongs
the glory of having harvested the materials for future
science. Where attempts at explanation were made,
occult causes, in the ignorance of experiment, were
the only resource ; and even the great Galileo took
refuge in " Nature's abhorrence of a vacuum," for the
only solution he could give of an operation which now
admits of such rational explanation. Even the errors
of these authors are a portion of the " History of
Nature," and Pliny's record of them becomes valuable,
where otherwise his narrative tempts only to a smile.

The light of modern science clears away the mist ;
yet few, even of ourselves, are privileged, from our
higher sphere of advancement, to look down con-
temptuously on the erroneous conjectures or super-
stitious feelings exemplified in this cyclopaedia of the
Roman naturalist : for too many such failings are still

PREFACE. IX

visible amongst ourselves, and these from a wrong and
sometimes cherished bias in us, which were only an
inability to penetrate more deeply in themselves.

To Pliny's especial honour be it mentioned (and
instances of the merit will be frequently referred to in
the notes), wherever a rational explanation of natural
appearances can be given, he uniformly prefers it to
the traditionary and the vulgar, however the latter may
have been interwoven with the religion of the state, to
which, on other occasions, he paid the homage which
it required : a practice like this demanded no ordinary
courage, when it might easily have provoked the
charge of scepticism and profanity ; and his escape
from this may not, perhaps, unreasonably be traced to
the support he obtained for his remarks from Greek
authors, to whom, in points of speculation, the Romans
peculiarly deferred.

By many it was feared, that if what the people
were accustomed to worship as deities were shewn to
their understandings as only natural influences, they
might sink into atheism, and the little restraint winch
this worship exercised over their morals have been en-
tirely dissipated. The Rationalism of the philosophers
thus appeared a formidable evil ; and the prevalence of
the notion that certain remarkable natural causes pro-
ductive of great good or great evil, according to our
limited judgment, were deities themselves, is amply
illustrated by the fact, that it was triumphantly asked
of the first Christians to shew their God ; and much
of the contempt, persecution, and reproach of atheism
they incurred, may have had its origin in this seeming
incapacity to conform to this demand.

To modern eyes, Pliny's mode of conducting his

X PREFACE.

investigations has changed its aspect ; and his credu-
lity is gravely urged against him as a crime which his
exposure of much error and superstition is not thought
sufficient to outweigh. Some of the matters which he
announces, it is true, might well have shaken the
strongest tendency to belief : and Herodotus, when re-
porting similar occurrences which had been narrated
to him, is known to have carefully separated between
what was given on the authority of others, and on his
own responsibility. On the other hand, it must be
borne in mind, that a proneness to belief in the case of
natural wonders was the feature -of the age ; and had
these been omitted, the author would have incurred
censure on this ground — an accusation, the reverse,
doubtless, of what is now advanced, but which would,
nevertheless, have affected his character for fidelity.

There is, moreover, reason to believe that he has
softened down much of the wonderful which he ex-
tracted from other authors, and the following coinci-
dence may be regarded as giving confirmation to this
estimate of Pliny's discretion. When Aulus Gellius
landed at Brundusium, on his passage from Athens to
Rome, he found on the book-stalls some bundles of
Greek works, which he read with eager curiosity. But,
with every disposition to credit the authorities, he calls
some of the narratives of Aristeas, Isigonius, Ctesias,
Onesicritus, Polystephanus, and Hegesias, unheard
of and incredible. Accordingly, in making extracts
from these volumes, which bore marks of having been
much read, it would appear that he passed by those
incidents which were most absurd, and selected such
only as he deemed worthy of further inquiry. The
selections thus made are found remarkably to corre-

PREFACE. XI

spond with those which Pliny has introduced in his
own work.

Narratives of similar stamp and character gained
equal credit in Europe during the middle ages : the
famous traveller, Maundeville, believed what he nar-
rated, and found, as he expected, readers ready to be-
lieve him ; and the more so, perhaps, for the marvels
which the history of his tour contains. Indeed, in the
infancy of observation, when the Causes of Natural
Phenomena were little known, so much was seen as to
render every thing probable, and so little understood,
that any explanation was alike satisfactory.

Rapid as is the foregoing sketch of the great natu-
ralist's life and character, enough, it is hoped, has been
glanced at to commend the revival of the volume be-
fore us, and to secure for its author among ourselves a
reverence as great as is the undying interest given by
his name to the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii,
which perished with him.

The following translation may be regarded as that
of Dr. Philemon Holland, who flourished in the reign
of Elizabeth, and is the only writer who has given a
complete rendering of Pliny's works in English. Some
liberties have been taken with the original translation.
An attempt has been made to reduce its verbosity, and
to approximate it more closely to the brevity and terse-
ness of the Latin text ; while the Editor has been at
the same time studious of not interfering unnecessarily
with the simplicity of style by which writers of that day
were distinguished. The notes are given by various
members of the Club, to whom application has been
severally made by the general Editor, according to
the department in which each may be found most

Xll

PREFACE.

competent. The contributions have received the
approval of the Committee, and been specially ac-
knowledged in each volume.

The first and thirty-third books of Pliny were
translated by Dr. Bostock in 1828, as specimens of
a new version, which, but for his death, would in all
probability have been completed. Of the notes ap-
pended to these sample chapters, such use has been
made as subserves the purposes of our republishing
Pliny in English ; but, in the main, they are found to
be more critical than explanatory.

SSternerfan

Bone Ticket of Admission to the Amphitheatre, found at Pompeii

THE FIRST BOOK

NATURAL HISTORY

BY C. PLINIUS SECUNDUS.

The Preface to Vespasian\ his [friend'] C. Plinius
Secundus sendeth greeting.

HESE Books, containing the
History of Nature, which a
few days since I brought to
Light (a new work among
the Romans, your Citizens),
I purpose by this Epistle of
mine to present and conse-
crate unto you, most gentle
Prince (for this Title2 ac-
cordeth fittest unto you, seeing that the Name of
[Most mighty3] sorteth well with the Age of your
Father:) which haply might seem boldness and
presumption in me, but that I know how at other
Times you were wont to have some good Opinion of
my light Matters*. Where, by the Way, you must
give me Leave to soften a little the Verses which

1 Titus. 8 Suavissimm. 3 Maxim-its.

" Namque tu solebas,
Mcas esse aliquid putare nugas"

14 Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian. [BooK 1.

I borrow of my Tent-fellow, Catullus (to this Term of Camps1
you are no Stranger) : for he, as you know well, changing
the former Syllables of his Verses2, one for another, made
himself somewhat more harsh than he would seem to be
unto the fine Ears of his familiar Friends, the Veranioli and
Fabulli. And I would be thought by this my intrusive
Writing to you, to satisfy one point, which, as you com-
plained in your Answer of late to another bold Letter of
mine, I had not performed, that is, that all the World might
see (as it were upon Record) how the Empire is managed by
you and your Father equally : and notwithstanding this
Imperial Majesty whereunto you are called, yet is your
Manner of conversing with your old Friends affable, and
the same that always heretofore it had been. For although
you have triumphed with him for your noble Victories, ful-
filled the Office of Censor, and also six times that of Consul3,
shared the Authority of Tribune, Patrons, and Protectors of
the Commons of Rome, together with him : although, I say,
you have otherwise shewed your noble Heart in honouring
and gracing both the Court of the Emperor your Father,
and also the whole State of the Knights and Gentlemen of
Rome, whilst you were Captain of the Guard, and Grand
Master of his House and royal Palace (in all which Places
you demeaned yourself in respect to the Good of the Com-
monwealth), yet to all your Friends, and especially to my-
self, you have borne the same Countenance as in former
Times, when we served under the same Colours, and lodged
together in one Tent. In all the Greatness to which you are
elevated, there is no other Change seen in your Person but
this : That your Power is now commensurate with your Will,
and you are able now to perform that Good which you have
ever intended.

1 Conterranewn.

2 It seemeth that Pliny read thus in Catullus :

" Tuputare namque,
Nugus esse aliquid meas solebas"
which, indeed, was but an hard composition and couching of the words.

3 Sexies, or rather Septies; out of Suetonim.

BOOK I.] Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian . 15

And however this great Majesty resplendent in you on
every Side, in regard of those high Dignities, may induce the
World at large to reverence your Person, yet 1 for my part
am aided only with the strength of Confidence to shew my
Duty in a more familiar manner than others : and, therefore,
this my Boldness you will impute unto your own Courtesy ;
and if it be a Fault in me, you will seek your Pardon from
yourself. I have laid Bashful ness aside, but to no Purpose.
For although your Gentleness and Humanity induce me to
draw near to your Presence, yet you appear in other re-
spects in great Majesty : for the Sublimity of your Mind,
your high Attainments, set me as far behind as if the Lictors
marched before you. Was there ever any Man, whose
Words passed from him more powerfully, and who more
truly might be said to flash forth as Lightning the Force of
Eloquence ? What Tribune was ever known more effectu-
ally to move the People with agreeable Language ? How
admirably you thundered out the Praise of the worthy Acts
of your Father ! What a Testimony of Love to your Bro-
ther! How skilful in Poetry! How ingeniously you find
means to imitate your Brother1 in this respect2! But who is
able boldly to give sufficient Estimate of these Gifts ? How
may any One enter into the due Consideration of them with-
out Fear of the exact Judgment of your Wit, especially being
challenged therunto as you are ? For the case of such as
publish a Work in general is unlike theirs who dedicate it
by Name to yourself. For had I set forth this my Book
without any personal Dedication, I might have said, Sir,
why should a mighty Commander and General3 busy him-
self to read such Matters ? These Treatises were written for
the lower Classes, for rude Husbandmen and Peasants of
the Country, for the Mass of Artisans, and those who had
Leisure for studying them. Why should you make yourself

1 For Domitian Vespasian was reputed an excellent Poet.

2 The sense of the passage, as seen by supplying the ellipsis of the
original, is this : " With what testimony of love you set forth the praises
of your brother to the full." — Wern. Club.

'A Iraperator.

16 Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian. [BooK L

a Censor of this Work? When I first thought of this Enter-
prise of mine, I never reckoned you in the Number of those
Judges that should stoop to pass sentence upon these Writ-
ings. It is a common case, and incident to Men of deep
Learning, that their Judgment be rejected in this behalf.
Even that illustrious Orator, M. Tullius, who for Wit and
Learning had not his Fellow, useth the Benefit of this
Liberty : and (whereat we may well marvel) maintaineth the
Action by an Advocate, taking Example (for his Defence)
from Lucilius : for in one Part of his Works thus he saith,
/ wish not the learned Persius to read these Books of mine ;
but I prefer Lcelius Decimus. Now if such a one as Lucilius,
who was the first that durst control the Writings of others,
had reason thus to say ; if Cicero borrowed the same Speech
in his Treatise of the Republic1, how much greater Cause
have I to decline the Censure of a competent Judge? But
I am cut off from this refuge, in that I expressly make
choice of you in this Dedication of my Work : for it is one
Thing to have a Judge, either selected by Plurality of
Voices, or cast upon a Man by drawing Lots ; arid another
Thing to choose and nominate him from all others : and
there is great Difference between that Provision which we
make for a Guest solemnly bidden and invited, and the
sudden Entertainment which is ready for a Stranger who

1 This work of Cicero, entitled " De Republica," is more than once
referred to by Pliny. The high standard of morals which it upheld
caused it to be much respected by the most eminent Fathers of the Latin
Church : insomuch that it is thought to have suggested to St. Augustine
the idea of his celebrated work, " De Civitate Dei." During the. dark
ages, however, the Treatise " De Republica " was so completely lost, that
upon the revival of letters, not a single manuscript of it could be any
where discovered. At length, about thirty years since, a large portion of
it was found by Angelo Ma'i, then Librarian of the Vatican, in a parch-
ment manuscript. The parchment had been washed, and again used for
a manuscript ; but the original writing was so far from having been en-
tirely effaced by the ablution, that the large Roman letters were soon
rendered legible again by the aid of a peculiar process. The recovered
portion of this valuable work, being about one-third of the entire Trea-
tise, was printed in London in one volume, 8vo. 1823. — Wern. Cluib.

BOOK l.J Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian. 17

cometh to our House unlocked for. Cato, that professed
Enemy of Ambition, who took as great Contentment in
those Estates and Dignities which he refused as in them
which he enjoyed, attained to such a good Name of upright-
ness, that when in the hottest Contention about the Election
of Magistrates, they that contested for these Offices put into
his Hands their Money upon Trust, as an Assurance of their
Integrity and Fidelity in this respect; they professed that they
did it in Testimony of their Opinion of his Equity and Inno-
cence : whereupon ensued that noble and memorable Exclam-
ation of M. Cicero in these Words : " Oh ! happy M. Portius,
whom no Man would ever venture to solicit to any thing
contrary to right!" When L. Scipio, surnamed Asiaticus,
appealed to the Tribunes, and besought their lawful Favour
(among whom, C. Gracchus was one, a Man whom he took
for his mortal Enemy), he exclaimed, "That his very Ene-
mies, if they were his Judges, could not choose but give Sen-
tence on his Side." Thus every Man maketh him the supreme
Judge of his Cause, whom himself hath chosen : which Man-
ner of Choice the Latins call an Appeal (Provocatio). As
for yourself, who are set in the most eminent Place, and
endued with the highest Eloquence and deepest Learning, it
is no Wonder if those who do their Duty unto you approach
with the utmost Respect and Reverence: in which regard,
exceeding Care above all Things would be had, that what-
soever is said or dedicated unto you, may become your Per-
son, and be worthy your Acceptance. And yet the Gods
reject not the humble Prayers of country Peasants, yea, and
of many Nations, who offer nothing but Milk unto them :
and such as have no Incense, find grace with the Oblation
of a Cake made only of Meal and Salt ; and never was any
Man blamed for his Devotion to the Gods, if he offered ac-
cording to his best Ability.

I may be more challenged for my inconsiderate Boldness,
in that I would seem to present these Books unto you, com-
piled of such slender Matter : for in them can be comprised
no great Ability (which otherwise in me was ever meagre),
neither admit they any Digressions, Orations, and Discourses,

18 Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian. [BooK I.

nor wonderful Incidents and variable Issues ; nor any other
Circumstances that may be agreeable to rehearse, or pleasant
to hear. The Nature of all Things in this World, that is to
say, Matters concerning our ordinary Life, are here deli-
neated ; and that in barren Terms, without any Show of
Phrases : and what I have noted concern the commonest
Points thereof, so that I am to deliver the Matter either
in rustic, or foreign, nay, even barbarous Language, such
as may not well be uttered, but with Apology to the Reader.
Moreover, the Way that I have pursued hath not been
trodden before by other Writers ; being indeed so strange,
that no one would willingly travel therein. No Latin Author
among us hath hitherto ventured upon the same Argument,
no Grecian whatsoever hath handled all : and that because
most study rather to pursue Matters of Delight and Plea-
sure. It may be confessed, that others have made profession
of doing so, but they have done it with such Subtilty and
Deepness, that their Efforts lie as if buried in Darkness. I,
therefore, take upon me to gather a complete Body of Arts
and Sciences (which the Greeks call lyptuxXcwra/ds/og), that are
either altogether unknown or have been rendered doubtful
through too great Refinement of Ingenuity ; other Matters
are dealt with in such long Discourses, that they are ren-
dered tedious to the Readers. It is a difficult Enterprise
to make old Matters new, to give Authority and Credit to
Novelties, to polish that which is obsolete, to set a Lustre
upon that which is dim, to grace Things disdained, to
procure Belief to Matters doubtful, and, in one Word, to
reduce all to their own Nature. And to make the Attempt
only, although it be not effected, is a fair and magnificent
Enterprise. I am confidently of opinion, that the greatest
Credit belongs to those learned Men who have forced their
Way through all Difficulties, and have preferred the Profit
of instructing to the Grace of pleasing, the Gratification of
mere Desire of pleasing the present Age; and this I have
aimed at, not in this Work only, but in other of rny Books.
And I wonder at T. Livius, a very celebrated Writer, who,
in a Preface to one of his Books of the Roman History,

BOOK I.] Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian. 19

which he compiled from the Foundation of Rome, thus pro-
tested : That he had gotten Glory enough by his former
Writing, and might now be at ease, but that his Mind was
so little able to abide Repose, that it could not subsist but in
labour. But, surely, in finishing those Chronicles, he should
have respected the Glory of a People of Conquerors, who
had advanced the Honour of the Roman Name, rather than
displayed his own Praise : his Merit had been the greater to
have continued his History for Love of the Subject, rather
than his private Pleasure; to have preferred the Gratification
of Rome to his own mere Pleasure. As touching myself
(forasmuch as Domitius Piso saith, " That Books ought to be
Treasuries, and not bare Writings"), I will be bold to say,
that in Thirty-six Books I have comprised 20,000 Things
that are worthy of Consideration, and these I have collected
out of about 2000 Volumes that I have diligently read (and
of which there are few that Men otherwise learned have
ventured to meddle with, for the deep Matter therein con-
tained), and those written by one hundred several excellent
Authors ; besides a Multitude of other Matters, which either
were unknown to our former Writers, or Experience has lately
ascertained. And yet we cannot doubt but there are many
Things which we have overlooked : for we are Men, and
employed in a Multiplicity of Affairs ; and we follow these
Studies at vacant Times; that is to say, by Night Season
only ; so that you may know, that to accomplish this we
have neglected no Time which was due to your Service.
The Days we assign to your Person ; we sleep only to satisfy
Nature, contenting ourselves with this Reward, that whilst
we study (as Varro saith) these Things, we gain so many
Hours to our Life ; for surely we live then only when we
are awake. Considering those Occasions and Hindrances, I
had no Reason to promise much ; but as you have embol-
dened me to dedicate my Books to you, yourself supply what-
ever in me is wanting ; not that I place Dependency on the
Worth of the Work ; so much as that by this Means it will
be better esteemed, for many Things there be that appear

20 Pliny s Epistle to 1\ Vespasian. [BooK I.

the more precious only because they are consecrated in the
sacred Temples.

We, indeed, have written of you all — your Father, your-
self, and your Brother, in an adequate Volume, which we
compiled touching the History of our Times, beginning at
the Place where Aufidius Bassus ended. If you inquire of
me, Where that History is ? I answer, That it is long since
finished, and by this Time is justified and approved by your
Deeds : otherwise I was determined to leave it unto my
Heir, and I gave Order that it should be published only
after my Death, to remove the Suspicion that it had been
written to obtain some selfish End. And by so doing, I do
both them a great Favour, who, perhaps, were inclined to
publish the like Chronicle ; and Posterity, also, who, I well
know, will compete with us as we have done with our Pre-
decessors. A sufficient Argument of this my Mind you shall
have by this, that in the Front of these Books now in Hand,
I have set down the Names of those Writers whose Help I
have used in the compiling of them : for I am of Opinion,
that it is the Part of an honest Man, and one that has a
Claim to any Modesty, to confess by whom he hath pro-
fited ; and not as many of those Persons have done, whom I
have alleged for my Authors. For, to tell you the Truth, in
conferring them together about this Work of mine, I have
met with some of our modern Writers, who, Word for Word,
have copied out whole Books of old Authors, and never
vouchsafed so much as the Naming of them ; but have taken
their Labours to themselves. And this they have not done
in the Spirit to imitate and match them, as Virgil did
Homer: much less have they shewed the Simplicity and
Openness of Cicero, who, in his Books on the Common-
wealth, professeth himself to follow Plato; in his consola-
tory Epistle written to his Daughter, he saith, " I follow
Crantor" and Pancetius likewise, in his Treatise concerning
Offices. Which Volumes of his (as you know well) deserve
not only to be handled, but read daily, and committed en-
tirely to Memory. It is the Part of a base and servile Mind

BOOK I.] Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian. 21

to choose rather to be taken in a Theft, than to bring Home
borrowed Goods, or to repay a due Debt ; especially when
the Interest thereof hath gained a Man as much as the
Principal.

In the Titles and Inscriptions of Books, the Greeks have
a happy Art. Thus one has been entitled K»j£/ov, whereby
they would give us to understand of a Honeycomb: others1
Kygag A^aXSs/ag, that is to say, the Horn of Plenty ; so that
whosoever readeth these goodly Titles must hope for some
great Matters ; and as the Proverb goes, look to drink there
a Draught of Hen's Milk2. You shall have, moreover, their
Books set out with these glorious Inscriptions ! The Muses,
The Pandects3, Enchiridion4, As/^wv5, r/vax/<rr/oi/6: so that one
might even consent to forfeit a Recognisance or Obligation
in a Court of Law, to turn over the Leaf. But let a Man
enter into them, and behold, what a Nothing shall he find
within ! As for our Countrymen, they are gross in Compa-
rison of them in giving Titles to their Books : for they come
with their Antiquities, Examples, and Arts ; and those also
be such Authors as are of finest Invention amongst them.
Valerius, who (as I take it) was named AntiaSj both for that
he was a Citizen of Antium, and also because his Ancestors
were so called, was the first that gave to a Book the Title of
Lucubratio, or Night Study. Varro terms some of his Satires
Sesculyxes and Flex'ibulce. Diodorus, among the Greeks,
laid aside such empty Titles, and entitled his Book, JBiblio-
theca, or, a Library. Apion7, the Grammarian, whom Tiberius

1 To wit, Helius Melissus.

3 " Lac gallinaceum summa felicitate olim usurpabatur." — STBABO, lib.
xiv. " Eos, qui Sami fcecunditatem laudabant, ei proverbium accommo-
dasse tradit, quo aiunt <p'.gi*> ogvduv ><«>.«." — DAUBCHAMPIUS. — Wern. Club.

" Proverbium de re singular! et admodum rara." — Note in Valpy, p. 18.
— Wern. Club.

3 Containing all things, as Tyro Tuttius did.

4 A Manual to be carried always in Hand.

5 Meadow. 6 A Table or Index.

7 Apion, sometimes called Appion, was an Egyptian, but he had a
great desire to be regarded as of Greek extraction. His works were
numerous, and among them was one on all the wonders he had seen or

22 Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian. [BOOK I.

CcBsar called the Cymbal of the World (whereas, indeed, he
deserved to be rather named the Drum of public Fame), was
so vainglorious, that he professed to confer Immortality on
all those whom he mentioned in his Writings. I am not
ashamed I have not devised a prettier Title for my Book ;
yet because I would not be thought altogether to condemn
the Greeks, I am willing to be regarded in this Behalf like
those excellent Masters in Greece for Painting and Statuary,
whom you shall find in these Reports of mine, to have enti-
tled their rare and perfect Pieces of Work (which the more
we look upon, the more we admire) with Half-Titles and im-
perfect Inscriptions, in this Manner : Apelles worked at this
Picture*: or,Polycletus undertook this Image: as if they were
but begun and never finished, and laid out of their Hands :
which was done (no doubt) to this End, that for all the
Diversity of Men's Judgments scrutinising their Work, yet
the Artificer thereby had Recourse to an Apology, as if he
meant to have amended any Thing therein amiss, in Case he
had not been prevented. These noble Workmen, therefore,

heard of in Egypt. It seems to have been his practice to regard every
thing in proportion to the wonders it would enable him to relate. He is
the sole authority for some curious facts in Natural History ; which Pliny
seems to have taken from him. Aulus Gellius admits that he was prone
greatly to embellish the truth ; and Josephus has given evidence of his
emptiness and scurrility, which he poured out abundantly against the
Jews, to whom he bore a mortal antipathy. He had an opportunity of
displaying this in an address before the Emperor Caligula, when he repre-
sented their refusal to worship him as a god as a proof of their disaffec-
tion to his person and government ; by which he excited the indignation
of the emperor against the illustrious Philo and his companions. His
notoriety for reviling and noisy opposition was such as to cause his name
to be selected by a Christian writer of the third century, who assumed
the name of Clement of Rome, as the fictitious opponent of St. Peter, in
a disputation concerning the Christian religion : as mentioned by Eusebius
and Lardner. His conceit appears from what Pliny says of him ; and
it would have been to him the deepest mortification, could he have been
told that he would only be known to posterity through the mention made
of him by his opponents. He is sometimes called Plistonicus and Poly-
histor.— Wern. Club.
1 Apelles faciebat.

BOOK I.] Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian. 23

shewed great Modesty, that the Inscriptions on their Works
were as if they had been their last Pieces, and their Perfec-
tion was hindered by their Death : for there were not known
( I believe ) above three which had their absolute Titles
written upon them in this Form : Ille fecit, or, This Apelles
finished : and those Pictures I will specify in the proper
Place. By which it appeared evidently, that the said three
Pictures were so fully finished, that the Workman was
highly satisfied with their Perfection, and feared the Censure
of no Man: no Marvel, then, if all three were so much
admired throughout the World, and every Man desired to
be Master of them.

For myself, I confess that many more Things may be
added, not to this Story alone, but to all the Books that I
have published before : which I say, because I would antici-
pate those Fault-finders and Scourgers1 of Homer (for surely
that is their very Name) ; because I hear say there be certain
Stoic Philosophers, professed Logicians, and Epicureans also
(for at the Hands of Critics I never looked for any other),
who are in Labour to be delivered of somewhat against my
Books which I have published on Grammar : and the Space
of Ten Years has produced nothing but Abortion, when the
Elephant is not so long in producing her young one. But
this does not trouble me ; for I am not ignorant that a
Woman wrote against Theophrastus*, though he was a Man
of such Eloquence that from thence he obtained his divine
Name, Theophrastus : from whence arose this Proverb, "Then
go choose a Tree to hang thyself."3 I cannot refrain, but I

1 Homeromastiges.

* Her name was Leontium, and she studied philosophy under Epi-
curus, where she became more celebrated for her talents than her virtue.
The elegancy of her style is praised by Cicero. — Wern. Club.

3 There is a passage in Plutarch's " Life of Antony," which shews how
lamentably the antients were addicted to the crime of suicide, and at the
same time illustrates this proverb. It is thus translated by Langhorne :—
" Once, in an assembly of the people, he (Timon of Athens) mounted the
rostrum, and the novelty of the thing occasioned an universal silence and
expectation : at length he said, ' People of Athens, there is a fig-tree in
my yard, on which many worthy citizens have hanged themselves ; and

24 Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian. [BoOK I.

must set down the very Words of Cato the Censor, so perti-
nent to this purpose ; whereby it may appear, that even
Cato himself, who wrote of Military Discipline, who had
been trained to War under Scipio Africanus, or rather, in-
deed, under Hannibal; who, in the end, could not endure
Africanus himself, but was able to control him in martial
Affairs ; and who, besides having the Conduct, as Imperator,
of the Roman Army, achieved the Superiority over his Ene-
mies in the Field, and returned with Victory : this Cato
could not avoid such Slanderers ; but knowing that there
would be many of them ready to purchase to themselves
some Reputation by reproving the Knowledge and Skill of
others, brake out into a certain Speech against them : and
what was it ? "I know well" (says he, in that Book) "that if
these Writings be published to the World, many will step
forth to cavil at them, and those soonest who are themselves
void of all Praise. But I let their Words flow by." It was
well said by Plancus, when being informed that Asinius
Pollio was framing certain Orations against him, which
should be published either by himself or his Children, after
the Decease of Plancus, that they might not be answered by
him ; he remarked : " That none but Bugbears1 fight with
the Dead :" with which Word he gave those Orations such a
Rebuff, that (by the Judgment of the Learned) none were

as I have determined to build on the spot, I thought it necessary to
give this public notice, that such as choose to have recourse to this tree
for the aforesaid purpose, may repair to it before it is cut down.'" —
Wem. Club.

1 Bugbears. Larvae. — It was supposed that the soul of man, when
freed from the bonds of the body, and not obliged to perform its func-
tions, became a kind of demon, and this was denominated generally
Lemur. Of these Lemures, those who were kind to their families, and
preserved them in peace, were called Lares familiar es, or domestic Lares;
but those who, for punishment of their crimes committed during life,
were condemned to continual wandering, without finding a place of rest,
frightening good men and plaguing the wicked, were denominated Larvce.
The sarcasm consisted in comparing Asinius Pollio to such a perturbed
spirit. In the singular number, Larva signifies a mask, used to terrify
children. — Wern. Club.

BOOK I.] Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian,

25

accounted more Impudent than they. Therefore, feeling
myself secure against these Busy-bodies, (and verily Cato
hath given such Fellows a proper Name when he called
them Vitilitigatores, by a Term elegantly compounded of
Vices and Quarrels: for to say a Truth, what do they else
but pick Quarrels and make Brawls?) I will proceed in
my intended Purpose.

To conclude my Epistle : knowing that for the Good of
the Commonwealth you ought to be spared in any private
Business of your own, and especially in perusing these long
Volumes of mine ; to prevent such a Trouble, therefore, I
have adjoined to this Epistle, and prefixed before these
Books, the Summary or Contents of every one : and care-
fully have I endeavoured, that you should not need to read
them throughout to ascertain their Contents ; whereby alt
others also, after your Example, may ease themselves of the
like Labour: and as any Man is desirous to know this or
that, he may readily find in what Place to meet with the
same. This Plan I learned of Valerius Sorranus, one of our
own Latin Writers, who hath done the like before me in
those Books which he entitled

Brass coin of T. Vespasian, in the possession of Mr. Coticft.

IN THE SECOND BOOK

IS CONTAINED THE

DISCOURSE OF THE WORLD, OF CELESTIAL IMPRESSIONS AND

METEORS, AS ALSO OF THOSE THAT APPEAR IN THE

AIR, AND UPON EARTH.

CHAP.

1 . Whether the World be limited ?

and whether there be but one ?

2. The Form of the World.

3. The Motion of Heaven.

4. Why the World is called Mun-

dus?

5. Of the Four Elements.

6. Of the Seven Planets.

7. Concerning God.

8. The Nature of the fixed Stars

and Planets : their Revolution.

9. The Nature of the Moon.

10. The Eclipse of Sun and Moon:

also of the Night.

11. The Magnitude of Stars.

12. The divers Discoveries of Men

and their Observations of the
Celestial Bodies.

13. Of Eclipses.

14. The Motion of the Moon.

15. General Rules concerning Pla-

nets and Lights.

16. The Reason why the same

Planets seem higher or lower
at sundry times.

17. General Rules concerning the

Planets.

18. What is the Cause that Planets

change their Colours ?

19. The Course of the Sun: his Mo-

tion : and whence proceedeth
the Inequality of Days.

20. Why Lightnings are assigned

to Jupiter.

CHAP.

21. The Distances between the

Planets.

22. The Harmony of Stars.

23. The Geometry of the World.

24. Of Stars appearing suddenly.

25. Of Comets and other prodi-

gious Appearances in the
Sky : their Nature, Situa-
tion, and Kinds.

26. The Opinion of Hipparchus of

the Stars, Torches, Lamps,
Pillars or Beams of Fire,
burning Darts, Gapings of
the Sky: with Instances.

27. Strange Colours appearing in

the Sky.

28. Flames seen in the Sky.

29. Circles or Garlands in the Sky.

30. Of Celestial Circles and Gar-

lands of short Duration.

31. Of many Suns.

32. Of many Moons.

33. Of Nights as light as Day.

34. Of Meteors resembling fiery

Shields.

35. A wonderful Appearance in

the Sky.

36. The extraordinary Shooting of

Stars.

37. Of the Stars named Castor and

Pollux.

38. Of the Air.

39. Of certain set Times and Sea-

sons.

Contents of the Second Book.

27

CHAP.

40. The Power of the Dog- Star.

41. The Influences of Stars accord-

ing to the Seasons and De-
grees of the Signs.

42. The Causes of Rain, Wind, and

Clouds.

43. Of Thunder and Lightning.

44. Whereupon cometh the Re-

doubling of the Voice, called
Echo.

45. Of Winds again.

46. Considerations on the Nature

of Winds.

47. The Kinds of Winds.

48. Of sudden Blasts.

49. Other strange Kinds of Tem-

pests.

50. In what Regions there fall no

Thunderbolts.

5 1 . Divers Sorts of Lightnings, and

wondrous Accidents by them
occasioned.

52. The Observations [of the Tus-

cans in old Time] about
Lightning.

53. Of causing Lightning.

54. General Rules concerning

Lightning.

55. What Things are not struck

by Lightning.

56. Of monstrous Showers of

Milk, Blood, Flesh, Iron,
Wool, Brick, and Tile.

57. The rattling of Armour : and

the Sound of Trumpets heard
from the Sky.

58. Of Stones falling from the

Sky.

59. Of the Rainbow.

60. Of Hail, Snow, Frost, Mists,

and Dew.

61. Of Shapes represented in the

Clouds.

62. The particular Properties of

the Sky in certain Places.

63. The Nature of the Earth.

64. The Figure of the Earth.

CHAP.

65. Of the Antipodes: and whe-

ther there be such. Also, of
the Roundness of the Water.

66. How the Water resteth upon

the Earth.

67. Of Seas and Rivers of Naviga-

tion.

68. What Parts of the Earth be

habitable.

69. That the Earth is in the Midst

of the World.

70. Whence proceedeth the In-

equality in the Rising of the
Stars. Of the Eclipse : where
it is, and why.

71. The Reason of Daylight upon

Earth.

72. A Discourse thereof according

to the Gnomon : also of the
first Sun-dial.

73. Where and when no Shadows

are cast.

74. Where the Shadows fall oppo-

site twice in the Year.

75. Where the Days are longest,

and where shortest.

76. Likewise of Dials.

77. The divers Observations and

Acceptations of the Day.

78. Reasons of the Difference of

Nations.

79. Of the Earthquake.

80. Of Openings in the Earth.

81. Signs of an Earthquake.

82. Helps against approaching

Earthquakes.

83. Strange Wonders seen only

once in the Earth.

84. Miraculous Accidents of Earth-

quakes.

85. In what Parts the Seas went back

86. Islands appearing new out of

the Sea.

87. What Islands have thus shewed,

and at what Times.

88. Into what Lands the Seas have

forcibly broken.

28

Contents of the Second Book.

CHAP.

89. What Islands have been joined

to the Continent.

90. What Lands Jmve become all

Sea.

91. Of Lands that have been swal-

lowed up of themselves.

92. What Cities have been over-

flowed by the Sea.

93. Wonderful Things of Lands.

94. Of Lands that always suffer

Earthquake.

95. Of Islands that float continu-

ally.

96. In what Countries it never

raineth : also, of Miracles, as
well of the Earth as other
Elements, accumulated to-
gether.

97. The Reason of the Sea- tides,

as well ebbing as flowing,
and where the Sea floweth
extraordinarily.

CHAP.

98. Wonderful Things in the Sea.

99. The Power of the Moon over

Sea and Land.

100. The Power of the Sun : and

why the Sea is salt.

101. Also of the Nature of the

Moon.

102. Where the Sea is deepest.

103. Remarkable Observations of

the Waters, of Fountains,
and Rivers.

104. Remarkable Things in Fire

and Water jointly together :
also of Maltha.

105. Of Naphtha.

106. Of Places that burn continu-

ally.

107. Wonders of Fire alone.

108. The Dimension of the Earth,

in length and breadth.

109. The harmonical Circumfer-

ence of the World.

In Sum, there are in this Book, of Histories and Observations, Four
Hundred and Eighteen in Number.

LATIN AUTHORS ABSTRACTED IN THIS BOOK :

M. Varro, Sulpitius Gallus, Tiberius Ccesar the Emperor, Q. Tubero,
Tullius Tiro, L. Piso, T. Livius, Cornelius Nepos, Statins, Sebosus, Ccelius
Antipater, Fabianus, Antias, Mutianus, Cecina (who wrote of the Tuscan
Learning), Tarquitius, L. Aquila, and Sergius Paulus !.

FOREIGN AUTHORS :

Plato, Hipparchus, Timceus, Sosigenes, Petosiris, Necepsus, Pythagoras,
Posidonius, Anaximander, Epigenes, Gnomonicus, Euclides, Cceranus Philo-
sophus, Eudoxus, Democritus,Crisodemus, Thrasyllus, Serapion, Diccearchus,
Archimedes, Onesicritus, Eratosthenes, Pytheas, Herodotus, Aristoteles,
Ctesias, Artemidorus Ephesius, Isidorus Characenus, Theopompus.

1 Sergius Paulus. There can be no doubt that this writer on Natural
Philosophy— whose works are lost— is the same person that is mentioned
in the 13th Chapter of the Acts of the Apostles; and from the nature of
his pursuits we are enabled to perceive the reason why, at one time, he
was the patron of Elymas the Sorcerer. The greater portion of the Im-
postors-of those days were accustomed to found their claims to regard on
their acquaintance with some branches of Philosophy, in which Sergius
Paulus was an inquiring student. We do not find the name of the Sorcerer
among the numerous authors referred to by Pliny.— Wern. Club.

THE SECOND BOOK

HISTORY OF NATURE

WRITTEN BY

C. PLINIUS SECUNDUS.

CHAPTER I.
Whether the World be finite, and but one.

HE World1, and that which, by another Name.
Men have thought Good to call Heaven
(under the Compass of which all Things are
covered), we ought to believe, in all Reason, to
be a Divine Power, eternal, immense, without
Beginning, and never to perish. What is beyond the Compass

1 The Author manifests a philosophic, as well as pious spirit, in begin-
ning his work with a reference to Divine power ; but in giving this idea
of the nature of the world, and representing it as a separate and inde-
pendent divinity, he adopts an ancient speculative opinion derived from the
Oriental philosophy, in preference to the popular opinion of his country,
which is selected by Ovid in his Introduction to the " Metamorphoses;" and
which ascribed the creation of the world to an already existing or eternal
God — " whichever God he was :" though not to the highest in rank of the
Heathen Mythology ; for the latter is represented as descended from pre-
viously existing, or humanly deified, parents, and consequently was of a
subsequent age. The knowledge of the Great Eternal having been left

30 History of Nature. [ BOOK II.

thereof, neither is it fit for Men to search, nor within Man's
Understanding to conceive. Sacred it is, everlasting, infi-
nite, all in all, or rather itself all and absolute : limited, yet
seeming infinite : in all Motions, certain ; though in Appear-
ance uncertain : comprehending in itself all both without
and within : Nature's Work, and yet very Nature itself. It
is Madness that some have thought in their Mind to mea-
sure it ; yea, and durst in Writing set down the Dimensions
thereof: that others again, by Occasion hereupon taken,
or on this founded, have taught, That there are Worlds in-
to slip from the minds of learned Heathens, through their speculations
into occult causes, and the wrapping up of religion from the inquiries of
the vulgar, as being too high for their comprehension, they were led to
the conception of what, in fact, was no more than a mere abstraction, and
destitute of all proper personality : a simple, unconscious fatality, with
little volition : and, in truth, no better than a diffusive aether, or, as it
would now be denominated, galvanic influence. The philosophy of
Pythagoras was derived from the East; "But it was this," says Lord
Bacon (" Natural History," 10th century), " which did first plant a mon-
strous imagination, which afterwards was, by the school of Plato and
others, watered and nourished. It was, that the world was one, entire,
perfect, living creature ; insomuch as Apollonius of Tyana, a Pythagorean
prophet, affirmed that the ebbing and flowing of the sea was the respira-
tion of the world, drawing in water as breath, and putting it forth again.
They went on, and inferred, that if the world were a living creature, it
had a soul and spirit ; which also they held, calling it ' spiritus mundij the
spirit or soul of the world. By which they did not intend God (for they
did admit of a deity besides), but only the soul, or essential form, of the
universe. This foundation being laid, they might build upon it what
they would; for in a living creature, though never so great (as, for
example, in a great whale), the sense and the effects of any one part of
the body instantly make a transcursion throughout the whole body. So
that by this they did insinuate, that no distance of place, nor want nor
indisposition of matter, could hinder magical operations ; but that, for
example, we mought here in Europe have sense and feeling of that which
was done in China ; and likewise we mought work any effect without and
against matter; and this not holden by the co-operation of angels or
spirits, but only by the unity and harmony of nature." This was the
occult cause, to which all the otherwise unaccountable operations of
nature might easily be referred. We have a curious instance of such a
method of explanation at the end of the ninety-third chapter of this book.
— Wern.Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 3 1

numerable : as if we are to believe so many Natures as there
are Heavens : or if all were reduced to one, yet there should
be so many Suns and Moons, with the Rest also of those
immeasurable and innumerable Stars in that one : as though
in this plurality of Worlds we should not always meet with
the same Question still at every Turn of our Thought, for
Want of some End to rest upon : or, if this infiniteness could
possibly be assigned to Nature, the Work-mistress of all ;
the same might not be understood more easily in that one
Heaven which we see ; so great a Work as it is. Now surely
it is more than Madness to quit this, and to keep seeking
without, as if all Things within were well and clearly known
already : as if any Man could take the Measure of another
Thing, who knoweth not his own : or the Mind of Man
might see those Things which the World itself may not
receive.

CHAPTER II.
Of the Figure of the World.

THAT the Form of the World is round1, in the Figure of
a perfect Globe, its Name in the first Place, and the Consent
of all Men agreeing to call it in Latin Orbis (a Globe), as
also many natural Reasons, evidently shew. For not only
because such a Figure every Way falleth and bendeth upon
itself, is able to uphold itself, includeth and containeth itself,
having need of no joints for this purpose, as finding in any
Part thereof no End or Beginning : or because this Form
agreeth best to that Motion, whereby continually it must
turn about (as hereafter will appear) : but also because the
Eyesight doth approve the same ; because, look which Way
soever you will, it appeareth convex, and even on all sides;
a Thing not incident to any other Figure.

1 That it was an oblate spheroid, flattened at the poles, was little
likely to be known by observers, however acute, whose opinion of the
uninhabitable nature of the frigid and torrid zones would lead them to
limit their practical inquiries to the temperate. The good sense of Pliny
induced him to prefer the opinion of the rotundity of the globe, to that of
Epicurus, that it was an extended plane. — Wern. Club.

32 History oj Nature. [^OOK **•

CHAPTER III.
The Motion of the World.

THAT the World thus framed, in a continued Circuit,
with unspeakable Swiftness turneth round in the Space of
four-and-twenty Hours, the ordinary Rising and Setting of
the Sun leaves no Room to doubt. Whether it being in
Height exceedingly great, and therefore the Sound of so
huge a Frame, whilst it is whirled about unceasingly, cannot
be heard with our Ears, I cannot easily imagine : no more,
by Hercules ! than 1 may vouch the Ringing of the Stars that
are driven round therewith, and roll their own Spheres : or
determine, that as the Heaven movetb, it represents a plea-
sant and incredibly sweet Harmony : although to us within,
by Day and Night, it seemeth to roll on in Silence. That
there is imprinted on it the Figures of living Creatures, and
of all Kinds of Things besides without Number, as also that
the Body thereof is not all over smooth and slippery (as we
see in Birds' Eggs), which excellent Authors have termed
Tenerum, is shewn by Arguments ; for by the Fall of natural
Seeds of all Things from thence, and those for the most Part
mixed one with another, there are produced in the World,
and in the Sea especially, an immense Number of monstrous
Shapes. Besides this, our Sight testifieth the same ; for in
one Place there appeareth the Resemblance of a Chariot, in
another of a Bear, or a Bull, and of a Letter (A), and prin-
cipally the middle Circle over our Head, where it is more
white than the Rest.

CHAPTER IV.
Why the World is called Mundus.

FOR my own Part, I arn ruled by the general Consent of
all Nations. For, the World, which the Greeks, by the
Name of Ornament, called Ko<r/y,o$, we, for the perfect Neat-
ness and absolute Elegance thereof, have termed Mundus.
And we have named the Sky Calum, because it is engraven,

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 33

according as M. Varro interpreteth it. Arid the Order of
Things therein contributes to this, and especially the defined
Circle called Signifer, or the Zodiac, divided by the Forms
of Twelve living Creatures, through which is the Sun's Track ;
preserving the same Course for so many Ages.

CHAPTER V.
Of the four Elements l.

I SEE no doubt regarding the Number of the Elements,
that they are four. The highest, Fire : from whence are
those bright Eyes of so many shining Stars. The next,
Spirit, which the Greeks and our Countrymen by one Name
called Air : this Element is vital, and it soon passeth through
all, and is intrinsically mixed in the Whole : by the Power
whereof, the Earth hangeth suspended in the midst, together
with the fourth Element, of Water. Thus, by a mutual em-
bracing of each other, divers Natures are linked together :
and so the light Elements are restrained by the heavier, that
they do not fly off: and, on the contrary, the massier are
held up, that they fall not down, by means of the lighter,
which seek to mount aloft. So, through an equal Endeavour
to the Contrary, each of them holds its own, bound as it
were by the restless Circuit of the World itself: which, run-
ning evermore upon itself, the Earth falleth to be lowest,
and in the Middle of the Whole : and the same hanging
steadily by the Pole of the Universe, poiseth those Ele-
ments by which it hangeth. Thus it alone resteth un-
movable, whilst the whole Frame of the World turneth

1 The idea here conveyed of the existence of four elements, which
enclose each other, each heavier one in succession subsiding below the
other, is more fully expressed by Ovid, in his account of the creation
of the world at the beginning of the first book of his " Metamorphoses."
The opinion was generally entertained, of these elements being the con-
stituents of all things, until modern chemical analysis demonstrated that
themselves are compounded of other and more simple elements. Yet
the language of the ancient opinion has not altogether ceased from use,
even at the present time. — Wern. Club.

C

34 History of Nature. [BoOK II.

about it : and as it is united by all, so all of them rest upon
the same.

CHAPTER VI.

Of the seven Planets.

BETWEEN the Earth and Sky, there hang in the Air above-
named, seven Stars, divided one from another at distinct
Distances ; and these, on account of their variable Motion,
we call Wandering Planets ; whereas, indeed, none wander
less than they. In the midst of them the Sun taketh his
Course, as being the greatest and most powerful of all : the
very Ruler, not of Times and Seasons only, and of the Earth,
but also of the Stars and Sky itself. We ought to believe
this Sun1 to be the very Life and (to speak more plainly) the
Soul of the whole World, and the principal Governance of
Nature; and, considering his Operations, nothing less than a
divine Power. He it is that giveth Light to all Things, and
scatters their Darkness : he hideth the other Stars ; he or-
dereth the Seasons in their alternative Course ; he tempereth
the Year, which ariseth ever fresh again for the Good of the
World. He disperseth the Sadness of the Sky, and cleareth
the Cloudiness of the Mind of Man ; to other Stars, likewise,
he lendeth his own Light. Most excellent and glorious he
is, as seeing all, and hearing all ; as, I see, is the Opinion of
Homer* (the Prince of Learning) regarding him alone.

1 We find the ascription of Divinity to be the last resource in ex-
plaining the operation of a hidden cause in nature. A false divinity was,
therefore, the foundation of errors in philosophy ; and the latter again
reacted on the former. — Wern. Club.

3 Pliny here refers to a passage in the eleventh hook of the " Odys-
sey," where Ulysses descends into Hell, and meets with Tiresias, who, in
recounting the future fortunes of the hero, says : " You shall find feeding
the oxen and fat sheep of the sun, who sees and hears all things:" or,
more diffusively, by Pope ; where —

u Graze numerous herds along the verdant shores ;
Though hunger press, yet fly the dangerous prey ;
The herds are sacred to the god of day,
Who all surveys with his extensive eye,
Above, below, on earth and in the sky." Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 35

CHAPTER VII.
Of God.

I SUPPOSE, therefore, that to seek after any Shape of God1,
and to assign a Form and Image to him, is a Proof of Man's
Folly. For God, whosoever he be (if haply there be any other,
but the World itself), and in what Part soever resident, all
Sense He is, all Sight, all Hearing : He is the whole of the Life
and of the Soul, all of Himself. And to believe that there be
Gods innumerable, and those according to Men's Virtues and
Vices, as Chastity, Concord, Understanding, Hope, Honour,
Clemency, Faith ; or (as Democritus was of Opinion) that
there are two Gods only, that is, Punishment and Benefit :
these Conceits render Men's idle Negligence the greater. But
frail and wearisome mortal Men, remembering their own
Infirmity, have digested these Things apart, to the End that
each one might from thence choose to worship that whereof
he stood most in need. And hence it is, that in different
Nations we find the Gods named diversely : and in the same
Region there are innumerable Gods. The infernal Powers,
likewise, and Diseases, yea, and many Plagues, have been
ranged in Divisions, and reckoned for Gods ; which, with

1 In this chapter the author openly asserts his disbelief of the truth of
the established system of religion of his country ; and his manner of doing
this sufficiently shews the confidence he felt, of finding sympathy in his
scepticism among the learned and refined classes of society. This system
was, indeed, singularly destitute of evidence ; and the reasons he gives
for his disbelief shew it to have been as absurd to the eye of examination
as it was unsupported by argument. That the chief deities of the Hea-
then were no more than deceased men who had benefited the world in
their lives, or at least acquired human respect, is asserted by many other
ancient authors ; but it is to be regretted that the author should so far
join in the error as from it to find occasion for thereby mixing up with
it the flattery of a court. The treatise of Cicero, " On the Nature of the
Gods," and the remarks of Pliny, are proofs that the ancient Heathens
were not slow to discern the errors of the popular system of religion,
though they were incapable of discovering or appreciating the true. —
Wern. Club.

36 History of Nature. [BooK II.

trembling Fear, we have desired to pacify. This Superstition
hath caused a Fane to be dedicated to Fever, in the Palatine
Mount, by Order of the State ; and likewise an Altar to
Orbona, near the Temple of the Lares: besides another
erected to Bad Fortune on the Esquiline. By this it may be
conceived that there are a greater Number of Gods in Hea-
ven than of Men upon Earth, since every one makes as many
Gods as he pleases, fitting himself with Junoes and Genii for
his Patrons. There are certain Nations that account Beasts,
and even some filthy Things, for Gods ; yea, and many other
Matters more shameful to be spoken : swearing by stinking
Meats, by Garlic, and such-like. But, surely, to believe
that Gods have contracted Marriage, and that in so long a
Time no Children should be born to them : also that some
are aged, and ever grey-headed : others, again, young and
always Children : that they be black of Complexion, winged,
lame, hatched of Eggs, living and dying on each alternate
Day ; are mere childish Fooleries. But it exceedeth all Im-
pudency to imagine Adulteries among them : and presently,
also, scolding, and Malice ; and more than that, how there
be Gods that are Patrons of Theft and Wickedness. He is
a God to a Man that helpeth Him : and this is the true Way
to everlasting Glory. In this Way went the Romans in old
Time : and in this Track, at this Day, goeth, with heavenly
Pace, Vespasian Augustus, with his Children ; the most
mighty Ruler of the whole World : relieving the afflicted
State of the Empire. And this is the most ancient Manner
of Requital to such Benefactors, that they should be enrolled
with the Gods. And hereof came the Names as well of all
other Gods, as of the Stars (which I have mentioned before),
in Recognisance of Men's good Deserts. As for Jupiter and
Mercury, and others ranged among the Gods, who doubteth
that they were called otherwise among themselves ? and who
confesseth not how these be celestial Denominations, to ex-
press and interpret their Nature ?

To suppose that the sovereign Power, whatsoever it is,
should exercise Care over Mankind, is ridiculous. For can
we choose but believe that the Godhead must be polluted

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 37

with so base and manifold a Ministry ? And hardly can it
be judged, whether it be better for Mankind to believe that
the Gods have Regard of us, or that they have none ; con-
sidering that some Men have no Respect and Reverence for
the Gods, and others so much that their Superstition is a
Shame to them. These are devoted to them by foreign Cere-
monies .- they wear their Gods upon their Fingers in Rings,
yea, they worship Monsters : they forbid some Meats ; and
yet they devise others. They impose upon them hard
Charges, riot suffering them to rest and sleep in quiet. They
choose neither Marriages, nor Children, nor any one Thing
else, but by the Allowance of sacred Rites. Others are so
godless, that in the very Capitol they use Deceit, and for-
swear themselves even by the Thunder of Jupiter. And as
some speed well with their Irreligion, so others suffer from
their own holy Ceremonies.

Between these Opinions, Men have found out a Medium
of Divine Power, to the End that there should be a still more
uncertain Conjecture regarding God. For throughout the
whole World, in every Place, at all Times, and in all Men's
Mouths, Fortune alone is called upon : she only is named ;
she alone is blamed and accused. None but she is thought
upon ; she only is praised, she only is rebuked ; yea, and
worshipped with railing : and even when she is taken to be
mutable : and of the most sort supposed also to be blind :
roving, inconstant, uncertain, variable, and favouring the
Unworthy : whatever is spent and lost, whatever is gotten : A
and in all Men's Accounts she makes up the Book. Even
the very Chance of Lots is taken for a God, by which God
himself is shewn to be uncertain.

There is another Sort that reject Fortune, but attribute
Events to their Stars, and the ascendant of their Nativity :
affirming that the same shall ever happen which once hath
been decreed by God : so that he for ever after may remain
at Rest. And this Opinion now takes deep Root, insomuch
as both the learned and the ignorant Multitude agree to it.

1 " Won and gotten," to balance " spent and lost."

38 History of Nature. [BooK II.

From hence proceed the Admonitions of Lightnings, the
Foreknowledge by Oracles, the Predictions of Aruspices,
yea, and other contemptible Things, as Auguries of Sneezing,
and stumbling with the Foot. Divus Augustus Ccesar hath
recorded that his left-foot Shoe was untowardly put on be-
fore the right, on that very Day when he had like to have
suffered in a Mutiny among his Soldiers.

Thus all these Things entangle silly Mortals, so that this
only point remaineth certain — that Nothing is certain : nei-
ther is there any Thing more wretched and proud than
Man. For all living Creatures beside take Care only for
their Food : wherein Nature's Goodness of itself is sufficient :
which one Point is to be preferred before all good Things
whatsoever, inasmuch as they never think of Glory, Riches,
Ambition, nor, beyond all the rest, of Death. However, the
Belief that in these Matters the Gods have care of Men's
Estate, is profitable to the Course of Life : as also that the
Punishment of Malefactors will come, though late (whilst
God is busily occupied in so huge a Frame of the World),
but that it never misseth in the End : and that Man was not
made so near in Degree unto God, for this, that he should
be almost as base as the brute Beasts. Moreover, the chief
Comfort that Man hath, for his Imperfections in Nature, is
this, that even God himself cannot do all Things. For nei-
ther is He able to work his own Death, if even He desired it,
as He hath given to Man as his best Gift when he is weary
of the Miseries of his Life ; nor endow Mortals with ever-
lasting Life ; nor recall the Dead to Life again ; nor bring to
pass that one who lived did not live ; nor he that bore
honourable Offices, has not borne them. Nay, He hath no
Power over Things past, save only Oblivion : no more than
He is able to effect (to come with Arguments to prove our
Fellowship therein with God) that twice ten should not make
twenty : and many similar Things. Whereby is evidently
proved the Power of Nature, and how it is she only which we
call God. I thought it not impertinent thus to digress to
these Points, by Reason of ordinary Questions regarding the
Essence of God.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 39

CHAPTER VIII.
Of the Nature of Planets, and their Circuit.

LET us return now to the Rest of Nature's Works. The
Stars, which we said were fixed in the World, are not (as the
common Sort thinketh) assigned to every one of us ; namely,
the bright for the rich ; the less for the poor : the dim for
the weak and feeble : neither shine they out more or less,
according to the Fortune of every one, nor arise they each
one together with that Person unto whom they are appro-
priated ; and die likewise with the same : nor yet as they set
and fall, do they signify that any Body is dead. There is
not so great a Society between Heaven and us, that, together
with the Necessity of our Death, the Light of the Stars
should fade. When they are thought to fall, they do but
shoot from them a Quantity of Fire out of that Abundance
of Nutriment which they have gotten by the Attraction of
Moisture unto them : like as we also observe in lighted
Lamps with the Liquor of Oil1. The celestial Bodies, which
frame the World, and are compact together, have an im-
mortal Nature : and their Power extendeth much to the
Earth : which by their Operations, Light and Greatness,
might be known, though they are so subtle ; as we shall in
due Place make Demonstration. The Mariner likewise of the
heavenly Circles shall be shewn more fitly in our "Geogra-
phical Treatise of the Earth ;" forasmuch as the Consideration
thereof appertaineth wholly thereunto : only we will not put
off the Devisers of the Zodiac, wherein the Signs are placed.

The Obliquity of this, Anaximander the Milesian is
reported to have observed first, and thereby opened the Pas-
sage to Astronomy, and the Knowledge of these Things :
and this happened in the fifty-eighth Olympiad. Afterwards
Cleostratus marked the Signs therein ; and those first of
Aries and Sagittarius. As for the Sphere itself, Atlas devised
it long before. For the present we will leave the Body of

1 See note 2, p. 63.

40 History of Nature. [BooK II.

the starry Heaven, and treat of all the rest between it and
the Earth.

The Planet which they call Saturn* is the highest, and
therefore seemeth to be least : also he performeth his Revo-
lution in the greatest Circle of all : and it is certain, that in
thirty Years' Space he retnrneth again to the Point of his
first Place. Moreover, the Motion of all the Planets, and
also of the Sun and Moon, go a contrary Course to that of
the starry Heaven ; namely, to the left hand [i. e. eastward] ;
whereas the said Sky itself always hasteneth to the right
[i. e. westward]. And whereas in that continual turning
with exceeding Celerity, those Planets be lifted up aloft, and
hurried by it into the West, and there set : yet by a contrary
Motion of their own, they pass every one through their
several Ways eastward ; and this because that the Air, roll-
ing ever one Way> and to the same Part, by the continual
turning of the Heaven, should not grow stagnant whilst the
Globe thereof resteth idle ; but should be minutely divided
by the violent adverse Action of these Stars. The Planet
Saturn is of a cold and frozen Nature, but the Circle
of Jupiter is much lower than it, and therefore his Revo-
lution is performed with a more speedy Motion, in twelve
Years. The third, of Mars, which some call Hercules, is
fiery and ardent, by Reason of the Sun's Vicinity, and run-
neth his Race in about two Years. And it is by the exceed-
ing Heat of Mars, and the Cold of Saturn, that Jupiter, who
is placed betwixt, is well tempered of them both, and so be-
cometh salutary. Next to them is the Course of the Sun,
consisting of 360 Parts [or Degrees] : but that the Observa-
tion of the Shadows which he casteth may return again to
their former Marks, five Days be added to every Year, with
the fourth Part of a Day over and above. Whereupon, in
every fifth Year one odd Day is added to the Rest ; to the
End that the Reckoning of the Seasons may agree with the

1 The planets since discovered — two of them, Herschel, or Uranus,
and the new, and as yet unnamed, star, still more remote than it, and the
others exceedingly small — must have been beyond the reach of ancient
observation, from ignorance of the telescope.— Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 41

Course of the Sun. Beneath the Sun there is a large Star
called Venus, which wandereth this Way and that, by turns ;
and by her Names testifieth her Emulation of the Sun and
Moon. For while she anticipateth the Morning, and riseth
Orientally, she taketh the Name of Lucifer, as a second Sun
hastening the Day. Contrariwise, when she shineth from
the West, lengthening the Daylight, and supplying the Place
of the Moon, she is named Vesper. This Nature of hers,
Pythagoras of Samos first found out, about the 42nd
Olympiad ; which was the 142nd Year after the Foundation
of Rome. Now this Planet, in Greatness, exceedeth all the
other Stars : and so shining also, that the Beams of this Star
only cast Shadows upon the Earth. And hereupon cometh
such great Diversity of the Names thereof; for some have
called it Juno, others Isis, and others the Mother of the
Gods. By the natural Efficacy of this Star all Things are
generated on Earth. For whether she rise in the East or
West, she sprinkleth all the Earth with prolific Dew, and
not only filleth the same with Seed, but stirreth up to in-
crease the Nature of all living Creatures. This Planet goeth
through the Circle of the Zodiac in 348 Days, departing
from the Sun never above 46 Degrees, as Timceus was of
Opinion. Next unto it, but Nothing of that Bigness and
Power, is the Star Mercury, of some called Apollo : carried
along in an inferior Circle, after the like Manner, but in
a swifter Course by nine Days ; shining sometimes before the
Sun rising, at others after his setting, never farther distant
from him than 23 Degrees, as both the same Timceus and
Sosigenes teach. And therefore these two Planets have a
peculiar Consideration from others, and not common with
the rest above-named. For those are seen from the Sun
a fourth, yea, and third Part of the Sky : oftentimes also in
Opposition against the Sun. And all of them have other
greater Circuits of full Revolution, which are to be spoken
in of the Discourse of the great Year1.

1 The enumeration of the planets here given is on the Ptolemaic sys-
tem of astronomy, which supposes the earth to be fixed in the centre of

42 .History of Nature. [BooK II.

CHAPTER IX.
Of the Moons Nature.

BUT the Moon, being the last of all, most familiar with
the Earth, and devised by Nature for the Remedy of Dark-
ness, exceedeth the Admiration of all the rest. She with her
changing in many Shapes, hath troubled much the Minds of
Beholders, angry because that of this Star, the nearest of all,
they should be the most ignorant; growing as it doth, or
else wasting continually. One while she bended into Horns ;
another while divided in the half, and again moulded into a
rounded Figure : spotted sometime, arid soon after, on a
sudden, exceeding bright : one while large and full, and sud-
denly nothing to be seen. Sometime shining all Night long,
and at others late ere she riseth ; she also helpeth the Sun's
Light some Part of the Day; eclipsed, and yet visible in
that Eclipse. The same at the Month's End lieth hidden,
at which Time (it is supposed) she laboureth not. At one
Time she is below, and presently aloft : and that not after
one Manner, but one while reaching up to the highest Hea-
ven, and another while close to the Mountains ; now mounted
to the North, and again brought down to the South. Which
several Motions in her, the first Man that observed was
Endymion : and hence sprung the Report that he was ena-
moured of the Moon. We are not thankful, as we ought to
be, to those who by their Labour and Care have given us
Light in this Light ; but we are delighted rather (such is the
wicked Disposition of Man) to record in Chronicles, Blood-
shed and Murders: that Men's mischievous Deeds should be
known, while we are ignorant of the World itself. The
Moon being next to the Centre, and therefore of least Com-
pass, performeth the same Course in seven-and-twenty Days,
and one-third Part of a Day : which Saturn, the highest
Planet, runneth (as we said before) in thirty Years. After

their orbits ; and which, in ancient times, was commonly received without
dispute.— Wern. Club.

BOOK 1 1 .] History of Nature. 43

this, remaining in conjunction with the Sun two Days, forth
she goeth, and by the thirtieth Day, at the most, returneth
to the same Point again : the Mistress, if I may so say, and
the Teacher of all Things that may be known in the Sky.
By her means are we taught that the Year ought to be
divided into twelve Months : forasmuch as the Moon over-
taketh the Sun so many Times before he returneth to the
Point where he began his Course. Likewise that she loseth
her Light (as the Rest of the Planets) by the Brightness of
the Sun when she approacheth near. For she shineth by bor-
rowing of him her Light, much like to that which we see in
the Reflexion of the Sunbeams from the Water. And here-
upon it is that she, by her more mild and imperfect Power
dissolveth, and also increaseth, so much Moisture ;x which
the Sunbeams may consume. Hence it cometh also, that
her Light is not equal in Sight, because it is only when she
is opposite to the Sun that she appeareth full : but in all
other days she sheweth no more to the Earth than she con-
ceiveth from the Sun. In Time of Conjunction, she is not
seen at all : for that whilst she is turned away, all the
Draught of Light she casteth back again from whence she
received it. That these Stars are fed with earthly Moisture,
is evident by the Moon ; which, so long as she appeareth by
the Half, never sheweth any Spots, because as yet she hath
not her full Power of Light sufficient to draw Humour
unto her. For these Spots be nothing else but the Dregs
of the Earth, caught up with other Moisture among the
Vapours.2

1 Lucretius supposes that all animals, and all the stars, are fed by
exhalations from earth and air. Lucian also expresses the same idea. And
as Pliny was of an adverse sect to the Epicureans, and consequently did
not derive it from them, we may suppose the opinion to have been gene-
rally received. See the beginning of chapter Ixviii. — Wern. Club.

2 The reader will, of course, accept of these remarks and explanations,
as well of the moon as of the other planets, as descriptive of the condition
of the astronomical philosophy of the day ; which it is, at least, amusing
to compare with the results of modern observation. — Wern. Club.

44 History of Nature. [BooK II.

CHAPTER X.
Of Eclipses of the Sun and Moon : and of the Night1.

THE Eclipse of the Moon and Sun is a Thing throughout
the universal Contemplation of Nature most marvellous, and
resembling a Prodigy, and shews the Magnitude and Shadow
of these two Planets. For it is evident that the Sun is hidden
by the Intervention of the Moon ; and the Moon again by
the Opposition of the Earth : as also that the one doth equal
the other, in that the Moon, by her Interposition, bereaveth

1 The opinions of the ancients on the subject of Eclipses were two-
fold:— that of the vulgar was built on the supposition that certain sorce-
rers, working by magic art, were able to draw this planet from her orbit,
even to the earth, to accomplish their nefarious purposes in inflicting
injury on particular persons or on communities. They were supposed to
have a further object in view, by compelling her to deposit on some
appropriate herbs a foam that was useful in magic arts : as we learn from
Apuleius and Lucan. Horace represents his witch Canidia as thus en-
gaged, in his 5th and 17th Epodes. Under these circumstances the moon
was supposed to labour in agony ; and the method taken to relieve her
throes, and prevent her total extinction, was by making such a clamour
that the verse or influence might not ascend to her sphere ; and by not
hearing, her dread might be relieved. Livy speaks of this clamour as an
ordinary occurrence (lib. xxvi.) ; but it does not seem to have been an
official proceeding. Another opinion was founded on the doctrines of
Divinity, and therefore formed a portion of the religion of the state : the
phenomena being regularly observed, reported, and registered by consti-
tuted officers. According to this idea, every unusual appearance in the
sky was a portent of some coming event — usually of an awful nature —
and which it became the priesthood to avert, by those processions, sacri-
fices, and supplications, that were appointed in the sacred books, as appro-
priate to each appearance. It was no small effort of courage, as well as
skill, in the philosophers whose names are given by Pliny, to venture to
inquire into the nature and causes of phenomena which must have
appeared inscrutable to one portion of the public, and too sacred to be
meddled with to the other. The operation of both opinions appears in
the narrative that Plutarch gives of the proceedings of Paulus Emilius,
preparatory to the battle with the Macedonians, where, while the aid of
the philosopher, Sulpitius Gallus, was used to remove their fears, his
own office of augur was not neglected to work on their superstitious
confidence.— Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 45

the Earth of the Sun's Rays, and the Earth again doth the
like by the Moon. Neither is the Night any Thing else but
the Shade of the Earth. The Figure of this Shadow resem-
bleth a Pyramid pointed forward, or a Top turned upside
down : namely, when it falleth upon it with its sharp End,
and goeth not beyond the Heights of the Moon ; for no other
Star is in that Manner darkened : and such a Figure as this
always endeth in a Point. And that Shadows grow to No-
thing in a great Distance, appeareth by the exceeding high
Flight of some Birds. So the Confines of these Shadows is
the utmost Bound of the Air, and the Beginning of Mther.
Above the Moon all is pure and lightsome continually. And
we in the Night see the Stars as other Lights from out of
Darkness. For these Causes also the Moon is eclipsed only
in the Night. But the Reason why the Sun and Moon are
not both in the Eclipse at set Times and Monthly, is the
Obliquity of the Zodiac, and the wandering Turnings of the
Moon (as hath been said): and because these Planets do not
always in their Motion meet just in the Points of the ecliptic
Line, that is, in the Head or Tail of the Dragon.

CHAPTER XI.
Of the Magnitude of Stars.

IT is this Reason that lifteth up Men's Minds into Hea-
ven : and as if they looked down from thence, discovereth
unto them the Magnitude of the three greatest Parts of
Nature. For the Sun's Light could not wholly be taken
away from the Earth, by the Moon coming between, if the
Earth were bigger than the Moon. But the Immensity of
the Sun is more certainly known, both by the Shadow of the
Earth and the Body of the Moon : so that it is needless to
inquire into the Magnitude thereof, either by the Proof of
Eyesight, or by Conjecture of the Mind. How immea-
surable it is, appeareth by this, that Trees which are planted
in Limits from East to West, cast Shadows equal in Propor-
tion ; although they are many Miles asunder in Length : as
if the Sun were in the Midst of them all. This appeareth

46 History of Nature. [BooK II.

also at the Time of the Equinox in all Regions of the same
Meridian, when the Sun shineth directly over Men's Heads,
and causeth no Shadow. In like Manner, the Shadows of
them that dwell northerly under the solstitial Circle, fall all
at Noontide, northward, but at Sunrising, westward ; which
could not be possible unless the Sun were far greater
than the Earth. Moreover, when he riseth, he surpasseth
in breadth the Mountain Ida, encompassing the same at
large both on the right Hand and the left, which only is
from being so far distant. The Eclipse of the Moon sheweth
also the Magnitude of the Sun, by an infallible Demon-
stration ; as his own Eclipse declareth the Littleness of the
Earth. For as there are of Shadows three Forms, and it is
evident, that if the dark material Body which casteth a Sha-
dow be equal in Bigness to the Light, then the Shadow is
fashioned like a Pillar, and hath no Point at the End : if it
be greater, it yieldeth a Shadow like a Top standing upon
the Point, so as the lower Part thereof is narrowest, and
then the Shadow likewise is of infinite length : but if the
Body be less than the Light, then is represented a pyramidal
Figure, falling out sharp-pointed in the Top ; which Manner
of Shadow appeareth in the Moon's Eclipse : it is, without
doubt, therefore, that the Sun is much larger than the
Earth, as the same is seen by the silent Proofs of Nature
itself. For why, in dividing the Times of the Year, departeth
the Sun from us in the Winter? even because by means
of the Night's length he may refresh the Earth, which
otherwise he would have burnt up : for, notwithstanding
this, he burneth it in some measure, from his excessive
Greatness.

CHAPTER XII.

The Inventions of Men in the Observation of the Heavens.

THE first Roman that published the true Reason of both
Eclipses was Sulpitius Gallus, who afterwards was Consul
with M. Marcellus: but at that Time being a Tribune, the
Day preceding that on which King Perseus was vanquished
by Paulus, he was brought by the General into open Audi-

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 47

ence before the whole Army, to foretel the Eclipse which
was about to happen : whereby he delivered the Army from
Anxiety; and presently after he compiled a Book of the
same. But among the Greeks, Thales Milesius1 was the first
that investigated it ; who, in the fourth Year of the 48th
Olympiad did foreshew the Sun's Eclipse that happened in
the Reign of Halyattes, and in the 170th Year after the
Foundation of the City of Rome. After them, Hipparchus
compiled his " Ephemerides," containing the Course and
Aspects of both these Planets, for six hundred Years en-
suing : comprehending also the Months according to the
Reckonings of sundry Nations, the Days, the Hours, the
Situation of Places, the Aspects, and Latitudes of divers
Towns and Countries ; as the World will bear him witness :
and that no less assuredly, than if he had been privy to
Nature's Counsels. Great Persons and excellent these
were, doubtless, who, above the Reach of the Capacity of
mortal Men, found out the Reason of the Course of such
mighty Stars and divine Powers : and whereas the Mind of
Men was before at a Loss, fearing in these Eclipses of the
Stars some great Violence, or the Death of the Planets, they
secured them in that behalf : in which dreadful Fear stood
Stesickorus and Pindarus the Poets (notwithstanding their
lofty Style), and particularly at the Eclipse of the Sun, as
will appear by their Poems. As for the Moon, Mortals
imagine that at that Time by Charms she is enchanted, and
therefore help her by dissonant ringing of Basins. In this
Terror, Nicias, the General of the Athenians (as a Man igno-
rant of the Cause), feared to set sail with his Fleet out of

1 The minuteness of observation displayed by these illustrious philo-
sophers, from whom Pliny has borrowed his materials, appears to imply
the existence of instruments of no small accuracy, though we have no
account of their possessing such. Of the telescope, we have evidence that
they were ignorant.

As the account given by Pliny of ancient astronomy will be read
chiefly for its curiosity, we have no need to do more than refer to
modern treatises on the subject for correction of what is mistaken.
— Wem. Club.

48 History of Nature. [Boo* II.

the Harbour, and thus greatly distressed the State of his
Country. Be ye prosperous, then, for your excellency,
O noble Interpreters of the Heavens ! capable of Nature's
Works, and the Devisers of that Reason whereby ye have
subdued both Gods and Men. For who is he that, seeing
these Things, and the ordinary Labours (since that this Term
is now taken up) of the Stars, would not bear with his own
Infirmity, and excuse this Necessity of being born to die ?
Now, for this present, I will briefly and summarily touch
those principal Points which are acknowledged concerning
the said Eclipses, having lightly rendered a Reason thereof in
the proper Places : for neither doth such proving and argu-
ing of these Matters belong properly to our purposed Work ;
neither is it less Wonder to be able to yield the Reasons and
Causes of all Things than to be constant in some.

CHAPTER XIII.
Of Eclipses.

IT is certain, that all Eclipses in 222 Months have their
Revolutions, and return to their former Points : as also that
the Sun's Eclipse never happeneth but either in the last of
the old, or first of the new, Moon ; which they call the Con-
junction : and that the Moon is never eclipsed but in the
full, and always somewhat anticipateth the former Eclipse.
Moreover, that every Year both Planets are eclipsed at cer-
tain Days and Hours under the Earth. Neither be these
Eclipses seen in all Places when they are above the Earth,
by Reason sometimes of cloudy Weather, but more often, for
that the Globe of the Earth hindereth the Sight of the Con-
vexity of the Heaven. Within these two hundred Years it
was found out by the Sagacity of Hipparchus, that the Moon
sometime was eclipsed twice in five Months' Space, and the
Sun likewise in seven. Also that the Sun and Moon twice
in thirty Days were darkened above the Earth : though this
was not seen equally in all Quarters, but by Men in divers
Places : and that which is most surprising in this Wonder,
is, that when it is agreed that the Moon's Light is dimmed

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 49

by the Shadow of the Earth, at one Time this Eclipse hap-
peneth in the West, and at another in the East : as also, by
what Reason it happeneth, that seeing after the Sun is up,
that Shadow which hideth the Light of the Moon must
needs be under the Earth : it fell out once, that the Moon
was eclipsed in the West, and both Planets were seen at once
above the Ground. For that in twelve Days both these
Lights were missing, and neither Sun nor Moon were seen : it
happened in our Time, when both the Vespasians (Emperors)
were Consuls, the Father the third Time, and the Son the
second.

CHAPTER XIV.
Of the Moons Motion.

IT is clear that the Moon, always in her increasing, hath
her Horns turned from the Sun toward the East : but in her
decrease, contrariwise westward ; and also that she shineth
(the first Day of her Appearance) three quarters and the
twenty-fourth Part of one Hour, and so riseth in Proportion
the second Day forward unto the full : likewise decreasing in
the same Manner to the Change. She is also always hidden
in the Change within fourteen Degrees of the Sun. By
which Argument we collect, that the Magnitude of the other
Planets is greater than that of the Moon, because they ap-
pear when they be but seven Degrees off. But the Cause
why they shew less, is their Altitude : like the fixed Stars,
which by Reason of the Sun's Brightness are not seen in
the Daytime : whereas, indeed, they shine as well by Day as
Night: and that is manifestly proved by Eclipses of the Sun,
and by exceeding deep Pits1, for so they are to be seen by
Daylight.

1 In the absence or imperfection of optical instruments, this expedient
was necessarily resorted to, for the purpose here stated ; but the improve-
ment of the telescope has superseded this contrivance. There was for-
merly, at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, a well of this kind, a
hundred feet in depth, with a winding staircase of stone leading to the
bottom ; it is now arched over. — Wern. Club.

D

50 History of Nature. [Boox II.

CHAPTER XV.

General Rules concerning the Motions and Lights of other

Planets.

THOSE three Planets which we say are above the Sun,
are hidden when they go their Course with him. They rise
in the Morning, and never depart farther than eleven De-
grees. Afterwards meeting with his Rays, they are covered :
and in their triple Aspect retrograde, they make their Morn-
ing Stations 120 Degrees off, which are called the first : and
by and by, in a contrary Aspect, 180 Degrees off, they rise
in the Evening, and appear as Evening Stars. In like Sort
approaching from another Side within 120 Degrees, they
make their evening Station, which also they call the second,
until he overtake them within twelve Degrees ; and so hide
them : and these are called the Evening Settings. The
Planet Mars, as he is nearer to the Sun, feeleth the Sun-
beams by a quadrant Aspect, from ninety Degrees : where-
upon that Motion took the Name called the first and second
Nonagenary, from both Risings. The same Planet keepeth
this stationary Residence six Months in the Signs : whereas
otherwise, of his own Nature, he would do it but two Months.
But the other Planets in both Stations continue not four
Months each. The other two inferior Planets are hidden
after the same Manner in the evening Conjunction : and
leaving the Sun in as many Degrees, they make their morn-
ing Rising : and from the farthest Bounds of their Distance,
they follow after the Sun : and after they have once over-
taken him, they set again in the Morning, and so outgo
him. And by and by keeping the same Distance, in the
Evening they rise again unto the same Limits which we
named before, from whence they return to the Sun, and by
the evening Setting they be hidden. The Star Venus like-
wise maketh two Stations, according to the two Manners of
her Appearance, Morning and Evening, when she is in far-
thest Bounds of her Distance. But Mercury keepeth his
Stations so small awhile, that they cannot be observed. This

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 5 1

is the Order, as well of the Appearances of the Planets as of
their Occultations and their mere Motion, enfolded within
many strange Wonders. For they change their Magnitudes
and Colours, and sometimes they approach to the North,
sometimes they go back toward the South, and, all on a sud-
den, they appear one while nearer to the Earth, and another
while to the Heaven : wherein, if we shall deliver many
Points otherwise than former Writers, yet we confess, that
for these Matters we are beholden unto them, who first made
Demonstration of seeking out the Ways thereto : and there-
fore let no Man despair of profiting and going forward in
Knowledge from Age to Age. For, these strange Motions
fall out upon many Causes. The first is by Reason of those
Circles in the Stars, which the Greeks call Absides : for we
are compelled to use the Greek Terms. Each one of the
Planets hath a particular Circle by itself, and these different
from those of the starry Heaven : because the Earth from
those two Points which they call Poles, is the Centre of the
Heaven, as also of the Zodiac, situated obliquely between
them. All which Things are certainly known to be so be-
yond Question by the Compass. And therefore from every
Centre there arise their own Absides, and so they have
diverse Circuits and different Motions, because of necessity
the interior Absides must be shorter.

CHAPTER XVI.

Why the same Planets seem sometimes higher, and sometimes

lower.

THE highest Absides, therefore, from the Centre of the
Earth are of Saturn, in the Sign Scorpio : of Jupiter in
Virgo : of Mars in Leo : of the Sun in Gemini : of Venus in
Sagittarius: of Mercury in Capricorn: and in the Middle of
the said Signs : and contrariwise the said Planets in the
same Degrees of the opposite Signs are lowest and nearest
to the Centre of the Earth. So it happeneth that they seem
to move more slowly when they go their highest Circuit : not
for that natural Motions do either hasten or slacken, which

52 History of Nature. [Boon. ii.

be certain and several to every one, but because the Lines
which are drawn from the Top of the Absis must needs
approach each other about the Centre, as the Spokes in
Wheels : and the same Motion, by Reason of the Nearness
of the Centre, seemeth in one Place greater, in another less.
The other Cause of their Sublimities is, for that in other
Signs they have the Absides elevated highest from the
Centre of their own eccentric Circles. Thus Saturn is in the
greatest Height in the 20th Degree of Libra, Jupiter in the
15th of Cancer, Mars in the 28th of Capricorn, the Sun in
the 29th of Aries, Venus in the 1 6th of Pisces, Mercury in
the 15th of Virgo, and the Moon in the 4th of Taurus. The
third Reason of their Altitude is not taken from their Circles,
but understood by the Convexity of the Sky, for that these
Planets seem to the Eye, as they rise and fall, to mount up
or settle downward through the air. To this is united an-
other Cause also, which is, the Zodiac Obliquity and Latitude
of the Planets, in Regard of the Ecliptic : for through it the
Stars which we called wandering do take their Course.
Neither is there any Place inhabited upon Earth, but that
which lieth under it. For all the Rest without the Poles are
desert. Only the Planet Venus goeth beyond the Circle of
the Zodiac, two Degrees : which is supposed to be the effi-
cient Cause, that certain living Creatures are bred even in
the desert Parts of the World. The Moon likewise rangeth
throughout all the Breadth of it, but never goeth out of it.
Next after these the Star Mercury hath the largest Scope
in the Zodiac, but yet so, as of twelve Degrees (for that is the
Breadth thereof) he wandereth but eight, and those not
equally, but two in the midst, four above, and two beneath.
Then the Sun in the midst, goeth always between the two
Extremities of the Zodiac ; but in his declining Course he
seemeth to wind unequally, after the Manner of Serpents.
Mars leaveth the ecliptic Line four half Degrees, Jupiter
two Degrees and a half, Saturn two, like as the Sun. Thus
you see the Manner of the Latitudes, as they descend south-
ward, or ascend northward. And upon this is the Reason
grounded of the third Opinion of them, who imagine that

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 53

the Planets do rise and mount from the Earth upward into
Heaven. For very many have thought, although untruly,
that they climb in this Manner. But to the End that they
may be confuted, we must lay open an immense Subtlety,
which containeth all those Causes and Reasons abovesaid.
First, therefore, this is admitted, that these Stars in their
Evening Setting are nearest to the Earth, both in Latitude
and Altitude : and when they be farthest from the Earth, as
well in Latitude as Elevation, they appear in the Morning
before the Sun : as also that then they are Stationaries in the
middle Points of the Latitudes, which they call Ecliptics.
Likewise it is acknowledged, that so long as the Planets are
near to the Earth, their Motion increaseth : and as they de-
part on hi«:h it decreaseth. And this Reason is confirmed
principally by the Elevations of the Moon. And it is beyond
a Doubt, that every Planet in its Morning Rising riseth
every Day higher than the former. The superior three
above the Sun diminish from their first Stations unto the
second. Which being so, it will plainly appear, that every
Planet rising before the Sun ascendeth to the Latitudes : so
that from the Time they begin, their Motion increaseth by
little and little more sparely. But in the first Stations, they
are at the highest Altitude : for then first the Numbers begin
to be withdrawn, and the Planets to go backward ; whereof
a particular Reason may be given in this Manner : the
Planets being smitten in that Part whereof we spoke, they
are both restrained by the triangular Beams or trine Aspect
of the Sun, to hold on a direct Course, and are raised up
aloft by the fiery Power of the said Sun. This cannot im-
mediately be understood by our Eyesight : and so they are
supposed to stand, and hence the Name of Stations is de-
rived. Then proceedeth forward the Violence of the Sun's
Beams, and the Vapour thereof, by Repercussion, forceth
them to go backward. And much more is this perceived
in their Evening Rising, when the Sun is wholly against
them, and they be driven to the very Top of their Absides,
and so not seen at all, because they are at the highest, and
are carried on by their least Motion, which is so much the

54 History of Nature. [ BOOK II.

less, when it happeneth in the highest Signs of their Absides.
From the evening Rising the Latitude descendeth, for now the
Motion less diminisheth, but yet increaseth not before the
second Stations : because they are forced to descend by Rea-
son of the Sunbeams coming from the other Side ; and the
same Force beareth them downward to the Earth, which by
the former triangular Aspect raised them aloft toward Hea-
ven. Of so much Importance is it whether these Beams
come from beneath or above. The same happeneth much
more in the Evening Setting. This is an Explanation of
the Motions of the superior Planets; but the Theory of the
rest is more difficult, and hath by no Man before us been
delivered.

CHAPTER XVII.

General Rules concerning the Planets.

FIRST, therefore, let us set down the Cause why Venus
never departeth from the Sun more than forty-six Degrees,
and Mercury not above twenty-three : and why oftentimes
they retire back unto the Sun within that Space. To be
resolved in this Point, we must remark, that both of them
have their Absides turned opposite to the rest, as being
seated under the Sun : and so much of their Circles is under-
neath, as the forenamed were above ; and therefore farther
off they cannot be, because the Curvature of their Absides
in that Place hath no greater Longitude. Therefore both
Margins of their Absides, by a like Proportion, keep Mean,
and their Course is limited : but the short Spaces of their
Longitudes they compensate by the wandering of their Lati-
tudes. But what is the Reason that they reach not always
to forty-six Degrees, and to twenty-three? They do so truly:
but here the Explanation fails. For it is apparent, that their
Absides also move, because they never overpass the Sun.
And therefore when their Margins from either Side are per-
ceived to fall upon the very Point, then the Planets also are
understood to reach unto their longest Distances : but when
their Margins be short so many Degrees, the Stars them-
selves are thought to return more speedily in their Retro-

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 55

gradation than in their direct Course forward, though their
utmost Extremity is ever the same. And from hence is the
Reason understood of the contrary Motions of these two
Planets. For the superior Planets move most swiftly in the
Evening Setting, but these most slowly. They be highest
above the Earth, when they move slowest ; and these, when
they go swiftest : for as in the former the Nearness of the
Centre hasteneth them, so, in these, the Extremity of the
Circle : they, from their Morning Rising, begin to slacken
their Celerity ; but these to increase it : they return back
from their Morning Station to their Evening Mansion ; but
Venus, contrariwise, is retrograde from the Evening Station
to that of the Morning. But, she from the Morning Rising
beginneth to climb the Latitude : but to follow the Altitude
and the Sun from the Morning Station : as being most swift
and at the highest in the Morning Setting. Moreover she
beginneth to digress in Latitude, and to diminish her Motion,
from the Morning Rising : but to be retrograde, and to digress
in Altitude, from the Evening Station. Again, the Planet
Mercury rising in the Morning, beginneth both Ways to
climb, but to digress in Latitude from the Evening Rising :
and when the Sun hath overtaken him within the Distance
of fifteen Degrees, he standeth still for four Days almost
immovable. Presently, he descendeth from his Altitude,
and goeth back from the Evening Setting to that of the
Morning. This Star only, and the Moon, descend in as
many Days as they ascend. But Venus ascendeth up to her
Station in fifteen Days and a little more. Again, Saturn and
Jupiter are twice as long descending, and Mars four Times.
So great Variety is in their Nature, but the Reason thereof is
evident. For they which go against the Vapour of the Sun
do also descend with Difficulty. Many Secrets more of
Nature, and Laws whereunto she is obedient, might be shewn
about these Things. As, for Example: the Planet Mars,
whose Course, of all others, can be least observed, never
maketh Station but in quadrate Aspect : and Jupiter, in
triangular Aspect ; and very seldom separated from the Sun
sixty Degrees, which Number maketh six angled Forms of

56 History of Nature. [BooK II.

the Heaven (that is, it is the sixth Part of the Heaven) :
neither doth Jupiter shew his rising in any, save only two
Signs, Cancer and Leo. The Planet Mercury seldom hath
his Evening Rising in Pisces, but very often in Virgo ; and
the Morning Rising in Libra. In like Manner, the Morning
Rising is in Aquarius, but very seldom in Leo. Neither
becometh he retrograde in Taurus and Gemini : and in
Cancer, not under the twenty-fifth Degree. As for the
Moon, she entereth not twice in Conjunction with the Sun
in any other Sign but Gemini : and sometime hath no Con-
junction at all, and that only in Sagittarius. As for the last
and first of the Moon, to be seen in the same Day or Night,
happeneth in no other Sign but in Aries, and few Men have
had the Chance to see it. And hereupon came Linceus to be
so famous for his Eyesight. Also, the Planets Saturn and
Mars appear not in the Heaven at the most 170 Days:
Jupiter 36, or at least ten Days wanting : Venus 69, or when
least, 52 : Mercury 13, or at least, 17.

CHAPTER XVIII.
What is the Cause that the Planets alter their Colours ?

THE Reason of the Planet's Altitudes is it that tetnpereth
their Colours, for they take the Likeness of the Air, into
which they enter ; and the Circle of another Planet's Motion
coloureth them as they approach either Way, ascending or
descending. The colder setteth a pale Colour, the hotter a
red, and the windy a fearful Hue. Only the Points and
Conjunctions of iheAbsides, and the utmost Circumferences,
shew a dark black. Each Planet hath a several Colour;
Saturn is white, Jupiter clear and bright, Mars a fiery red,
Venus glowing, when Lucifer; when Occidental, or Vesper,
resplendent ; Mercury sparkling, the Moon pleasant, the
Sun when he riseth, burning, afterwards radiating1. Upon

1 Many of the colours here mentioned are only optical deceptions, but
that of the planet Mars must proceed from something inherent in the
planet itself, or the atmosphere by which it is surrounded ; for while

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 57

these Causes the Sight is entangled, and discovereth those
Stars also which are fixed in the Sky. For one while a
Number of them appear about the Half-moon, when in a
clear and calm Night she gently beautlfieth them ; and at
another they are seen but here and there, insomuch that we
may wonder how they are fled upon the full Moon, which
hideth them ; or when the Beams either of the Sun or other
abovesaid have dazzled our Sight. Yea, the Moon herself
perceiveth the Sun's Beams, as they come upon her : for
those Rays that come sidelong, according to the Convexity
of the Sky, give but an obscure Light to the Moon, in Com-
parison of them that fall directly with straight Angles. And,
therefore, in the quadrangular Aspect of the Sun she ap-
peareth divided in Half; in the triangular she is well near
environed, but her Circle is half empty ; but in Opposition
she appeareth full. And again, as she is in the Wane, she
representeth the same Forms, decreasing by Quarters as she
increased : with like Aspects as the other three Planets
above the Sun.

CHAPTER XIX.

The Reason of the Suns Motion, and the Inequality of Days.

THE Sun himself hath four Differences in his Course :
twice in the Year, in Spring and Autumn, making the Night
equal to the Day ; for then he falleth on the Centre of the
Earth, in the eighth Degree of Aries and Libra. Twice
likewise he exchangeth the Compass of his Race : to lengthen
the Day from the Bruma, or Midwinter, in the eighth De-
gree of Capricorn; and again to lengthen the Night from the
summer Solstice, being in as many Degrees of Cancer. The
Cause of unequal Days is the Obliquity of the Zodiac: when
the one Half of the World is at all Times above and under
the Earth. But (hose Signs which mount upright in their

it reflects to us a red tinge, the light it obtains from the sun is the same
with that which comes to us from the sun, and in which the prismatic
rays produce a colourless mixture.— Wern. Club.

58 History of Nature. [BooK II.

Rising, hold Light in a longer Tract, and make the Days
longer: whereas they which arise obliquely pass away in
shorter Time.

CHAPTER XX.

Why Lightnings are attributed to Jupiter.

MOST Men are ignorant of that Secret which, by great
Study of the Heavens, Men of deep Learning have found
out : namely, that it is the Fires of the three uppermost
Planets, which, falling to the Earth, carry the Name of
Lightnings ; but those especially which are seated in the
midst, because participating in the excessive Cold and Mois-
ture from the upper Circle, and the immoderate Heat from
the lower, by this Means he dischargeth the Superfluity :
and hereupon it is commonly said, that Jupiter darteth
Lightnings1. Therefore, as out of burning Wood a Coal of
Fire flieth forth with a Crack, so from a Star is spit out this
celestial Fire, carrying with it Presages of future Things : so
that it sheweth Divine Operations, even in these Portions
which are cast away as superfluous. And this most com-
monly happeneth when the Air is troubled; either because
the collected Moisture stirreth that Abundance to fall ; or
because it is disquieted, as it were, with a Birth from a
pregnant Star.

1 Much of the religious system of the ancients was founded on the
persuasion that every appearance of lightning and thunder, as well as
other aerial phenomena, were direct manifestations of Divine interposition
in the affairs of men ; and a college of officers (augurs) was appointed to
observe, record, report, and explain such appearances, for the guidance of
the state in its most important proceedings. From a slight expression of
Pliny in the course of this chapter, it appears that he hesitated to deny
this popular idea in a direct manner : in apprehension, perhaps, of laying
himself open to the charge of infidelity. But by implication, he expresses
his disbelief of what was so generally credited; for the ascribing to the
natural effect of Jupiter as a planet, what was believed by the priests and
the state to be a voluntary action of Jupiter, the supreme deity, can be
regarded as little better than a subterfuge. For a natural explanation of
thunder and lightning, such as it is, the reader is referred to chapter
xliii. of this book ; and for other curious particulars, to the chapters l.-lv.
— Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 59

CHAPTER XXI.
The Distances of the Planets.

MANY have endeavoured to find out the Distance and
Elevation of the Planets from the Earth, and have set down
in Writing, that the Sun is distant from the Moon eighteen
Degrees, as the Moon is also from the Earth. But Pytha-
goras, a Man of much Sagacity, hath collected, that there
are 126,000 Stadia1 from the Earth to the Moon, and a
double Distance from her to the Sun, and from thence to the
twelve Signs three Times so much. Of which Opinion was
also our countryman, Gallus Sulpitius.

CHAPTER XXII.
Of the Music of the Planets.

BUT Pythagoras at the same Time uses the Terms of
Music, by calling the Space between the Earth and the
Moon a Tone ; saying, that from her to Mercury is Half a
Tone : and from him to Venus about the same Space. But
from her to the Sun so much and a Half more : but from the
Sun to Mars a Tone, that is to say, as much as from the
Earth to the Moon. From him to Jupiter Haifa Tone:
likewise from him to Saturn Half a Tone : and so from
thence to the Zodiac so much and a Half more. Thus are
composed seven Tunes, which Harmony they call Diapason;
that is to say, the Universality of Consent. In this, Saturn
rnoveth by the Doric Tune ; Mercury by Phthongus, Jupiter
by the Phrygian, and the Rest likewise : a Subtlety more
pleasant than needful2.

1 The Stadium differed in different countries ; but the standard may
be fixed at a furlong ; as may be seen in chapter xxiii. One hundred and
twenty-five paces make a stadium. In the larger numbers, therefore, it
has been sometimes judged best to translate the equivalent expressions
into miles. — Wern. Club.

2 Ideas of the harmony of creation seem to have entered deeply into
the opinions of Pythagoras, on the system of creation, and especially on

60

History of Nature.

[BooK II.

CHAPTER XXIII.
The Geometry of the World.

A STADIUM maketh of our Paces 125, that is to say, 625
Feet. Posidonius saith, that from the Earth it is no less than
forty Stadia to that Height wherein thick Weather, Winds,
and Clouds are formed. Above this, the Air is pure, clear,
and light, without any troubled Darkness. But from the
cloudy Region to the Moon is 2,000,000 Stadia : from thence
to the Sun, 5000. By means of which Interval it cometh to
pass, that so exceeding great as the Sun is, he burneth not

the order and distances of the planets, the motions of which he appears to
have compared to the graceful and measured dances of the ancients to
the sound of the harp. But, as often happens, when philosophers confine
their views of Nature to a single aspect, what has a shadow of truth in
itself becomes, when thus interpreted, egregious trifling. The supposition
enounced is, that not only are the motions performed according to musical
time, but the intervals between the chords (of each planet's path) are
properly measured by their relative tones. The following diagram, taken
from the notes to Dalechamp's edition of Pliny, will more clearly repre-
sent the ideas of this eminent Greek philosopher : —

12THESPH,

TERRA THE EARTH

The tone or unit of Pythagoras is taken for 125,000 stadia, or 15,625
miles. — Wern. Club.

BOOK If.] History of Nature. 61

the Earth. Many there be, however, who have taught that
the Clouds are elevated to the Height of 900 Stadia. These
Points are undiscovered, and beyond Man's Reach ; but they
may now be delivered to others, as they have been taught :
in which, notwithstanding, one infallible Reason of a geome-
trical Collection cannot be rejected, if a man would search
deep into these Matters. Neither need a Man to seek an
exact Measure hereof (for to desire that is a foolish Idleness),
but only to make an Estimate of Probability. For, whereas
it is clear by the Course of the Sun, that the Circle through
which he passeth containeth three hundred, threescore, and
almost six Degrees ; and it is a Rule that the Diameter
formeth a third Part of the Circumference, and little less
than a seventh Part of a third : it is plain, that deducting
one Half thereof (because the Earth, situated in the Centre,
cometh between), about the sixth Part of this great Circuit
which he maketh about the Earth (so far as our Mind doth
comprehend), is the very Height from the Earth up to the
Sun, but the twelfth Part to the Moon, because she runneth
so much a shorter Circuit than the Sun ; whereby it ap-
peareth, that she is in the Midst between the Earth and the
Sun. It is a Wonder to see how far the Presumption of the
Heart of Man will proceed when instigated by some little
Success, as in the abovenamed Matter. The Reason whereof
ministereth plenteous Occasion of Impudency, for they who
dared to give a Guess at the Space between the Sun and the
Earth are so bold as to do the like from thence to Heaven.
For, presuming that the Sun is in the Midst, they have at
their Fingers' Ends the very Measure of the whole World.
For how many seven Parts the Diameter hath, so many
twenty-two Parts hath the whole Circle : as if they had got-
ten the certain Measure of the Heaven by the Plumb-line.
The Egyptians, according to the Reckoning which Petosiris
and Necepsos have invented, do collect, that every Degree in
the Circle of the Moon, which is the least (as hath been said)
of all other, containeth thirty-three Stadia, and somewhat
more; in Saturn^ the greatest of all, double as much ; and in
the Sun, which we said was the midst, the Half of both Mea-

62 History of Nature. [BooK II.

sures. And this Computation hath very great Importance,
for he that will reckon the Distances between the Circle of
Saturn and the Zodiac, by this Calculation shall multiply an
infinite Number of Stadia.

CHAPTER XXIV.
Of Sadden Stars.

THERE remain yet a few Points concerning the World :
for in the very Heaven there be Stars that suddenly appear,
whereof there are many Kinds1.

CHAPTER XXV.

Of Comets and Celestial Prodigies , their Nature, Situation,
and Kinds.

THESE Stars which the Greeks call Cometas, our Romans
term Crinitas (hairy) : dreadful, with bloody Hair, and
shagged like the Bush of Hair upon the Top of the Head. The
same Greeks call those Stars Pogonias*, which from the lower
Part have a Mane hanging down like a long Beard. Those

1 This important fact in astronomy, that stars have suddenly appeared,
remained for a time visible in a fixed position, and then have either be-
come of less apparent brightness or disappeared altogether, is established
by the observations of modern as well as ancient astronomers ; and to
ascertain beyond doubt whether such a phenomenon might be repeated,
was the first motive for which a map of the heavens and a catalogue of
the known stars were constructed. Hipparchus (chap, xxvi.) is the first
that is known to have observed this phenomenon ; a detection of the
occurrence is no slight proof of the minuteness of inquiry of the ancient
astronomers. But it is to be remarked, that Pliny classes meteors and
shooting stars, not only with comets, but also among the more permanent
or fixed stars. — Wern. Club.

2 The various names and comparisons here applied to what, for the
most part, are mere meteoric appearances have probably a reference to
the classification by which the augurs divided them, for the purposes of
divination ; for certainly a strong imagination is required to discern any
likeness between these aerial appearances and those material objects from
which they derive their names. — Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 63

named Acontice, shake like a Spear, signifying great Swift-
ness. This was it whereof Tiberius Ccesar, the Emperor,
wrote an excellent Poem in his fifth Consulship ; the last
that ever was seen to this Day. The same, if they be shorter
and sharp-pointed at the Top, are called Xiphias, which are
the palest of all, and glittering like a Sword, but without any
Rays: which another Kind of them, named .Disceus (resem-
bling a Disc or Quoit, whereof it beareth the Name, but in
Colour like to Amber), putteth forth here and there out of
its Margin. Pitheus is in the Form of Tuns environed in
the Cavity of a smoky Light. Ceratias resembleth a Horn :
and such an one appeared when Greece fought the Battle of
Salamis. Lampadias is like to burning Torches : and Hip-
peus to Horses' Manes, very swift in Motion, and revolving
in a Globe. There is also a white Comet with silver Hair,
so bright and shining that it can hardly be looked at ; and
in Man's Shape it sheweth the very Image of a God. More-
over, there be blazing Stars that become all shaggy, com-
passed round with a hairy Fringe like a Mane. One of these,
appearing in the Form a Mane, changed into that of a Spear,
in the hundred and eighth Olympiad, and the three hundred
and ninety-eighth Year from the Foundation of Rome. It
hath been observed, that the shortest Time of their Appear-
ance is seven Days, and the longest eighty Days. Some of
them move like the Planets ; others are immovably fixed.
Almost all are seen under the very North Star ; some in no
certain Part thereof, but especially in that white which hath
taken the Name of the Milky1 Way. Aristotle saith2, that

1 Galaxy.

3 The author is here referring to those appearances which are now
denominated shooting stars ; and which, in ancient times, were believed
to be the very things the modern name denotes. St. John refers, figura-
tively, to this idea (Book of Revelation, vi. 13): " And the stars of
heaven fell unto the earth." Modern opinion has varied greatly with
regard to the nature and cause of these appearances ; and the diversity of
explanation is a proof how little satisfactory any of them is judged to be.
There have been times, chiefly in the autumn, and at long intervals, when
these meteors have been particularly abundant, and it appears that
Aristotle refers to such a luminous shower ; the rarity of which may be

64 History of Nature. [BooK II.

many are seen together; a Thing that no Man but he hath
known, so far as I can learn. They signify boisterous Winds,
and very hot Weather. They are seen also in Winter, and
about the South Pole : but in that Place without any Beams.
A terrible one likewise was seen by the People in Ethiopia
and Egypt, which the King who reigned in that Age, named
Typhon. It resembled Fire, and was twisted like a Wreath,
hideous to the Sight ; and not to be counted a Star, but truly
a Ball of Fire. Sometimes the Planets and other Stars are
spread over with Hairs ; but a Comet J is never seen in the
West Part of the Heaven.

A fearful Star, for the most Part, this Comet is, and not
easily expiated2 : as it appeared by the late civil Troubles
when Octavius was Consul : as also a second Time by the
War of Pompey and Ccesar. And in our Days about the
Time that Claudius Ccesar was poisoned, and left the Empire
to Domitius Nero ; in the Time of whose Reign there was
another almost continually seen, and always terrible. It is
thought to be material for Presage, to observe into what
Quarters it shooteth, or what Star's Power and Influence it
receiveth : also what Similitudes it resernbleth, and in what
Parts it first shineth out. For if it be like unto Flutes
( Tibice}, it portendeth somewhat to Musicians : if it appear
in the obscene Organs of the Signs, it threatens filthy Per-

concluded from Pliny's incredulity. Modern theory would refer this
abundance of shooting stars to a very limited period of the month of No-
vember ; but on the only occasion in which the Editor was an observer of
a very remarkable quantity, the observation was made on the second or
third day of October ; when, in a ride of more than two hours, the sky
was never free from them ; although no more than three were visible at
any one time. — Wern. Club.

1 Dalechamp remarks, that in this observation Pliny has mistaken
the meaning of Aristotle, whom he is copying. The latter says, that a
comet disappears, or is dissipated, before it sinks so low as the horizon.—
Wern. Club.

2 This expiation was the business of the priests ; and in the affair of a
comet could only be judged to have taken effect when the awful manifest-
ation had disappeared: and consequently not until after a considerable
period. — Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 65

sons. It regards Men of Talents and Learning, if it put forth
a triangular or four-square Figure, with even Angles, to any
Situations of the fixed Stars. It sprinkleth Poison, if seen in
the Head of the Dragon, either North or South.

In one only Place of the whole World, namely, in a
Temple at Rome, a Comet is worshipped : even that which
by Divus Augustus Ccesar himself was judged fortunate to
him: who, when it began to appear, acted in Person as
Overseer in those Games which he made to Venus Genetrix,
not long after the Death of his father, Ccesar, in the College
by him erected. For, that Joy of his he testified in these
Words : In those very Days of my Games, there was seen a
Comet for seven Days together, in that Region of the Sky
which is under the North Star. It arose about the eleventh
Hour of the Day, bright and clear, and evidently seen in all
Lands. By that Star it was signified (as the common Sort
believed) that the Soul of (Julius) Csesar was received among
the Divine powers of the immortal Gods. In which regard,
that Mark of a Star was set on the Head of the Statue of
Julius Caesar, which soon after we dedicated in the Forum.
These Words he published abroad : but in a more inward
Joy to himself, he interpreted that this Comet1 was made for

1 It is a strong proof of the popular bias at that time, as well as of the
political tact of Augustus, that he was so far able to dissipate the appre-
hensions usually entertained on the appearance of a comet, as to convert
the phenomenon into a prognostic of especial good to his government ;
and to associate with it, what he wished them to believe of the Divine
adoption of his deceased uncle, the Dictator. The latter had, indeed, al-
ready given him some examples of the art of overruling a portent, when
its understood meaning did not correspond with his wishes ; and Suetonius
observes, that no ominous presage could ever deter or divert him from
the prosecution of his designs. That this celestial phenomenon, which
appeared about an hour before sunset, and was seen for seven successive
days, excited much attention, appears from Ovid (" Metamorphoses,"
b. xv.), who speaks of it as if he wished to avoid the dreaded name of
Comet, a word which, in the original, Pliny also does not use : —
" Dumque tulit, lumen capere, atque ignescere sensit,
Emisitque sinu. Luna volat altius ilia,
Flammiferumque trahens spatioso limite crinem
Stella micat."

66 History of Nature. [BooK II.

him, and that himself was born in it. And if we may con-
fess a Truth, a happy Presage that was to the whole World.
Some there he who believe that these Stars be perpetual, and
go their Course round ; but are not seen, unless they be left

" (She) bore it upwards to its native skies :
Glowing with newborn fire she saw it rise :
Forth springing from her bosom, up it flew,
And kindling as it soar'd, a (sparkling star it) grew ;
Above the lunar sphere it took its flight,
And shot behind it a long trail of light."

But the particular object of Augustus seems to have been to connect this
appearance of a star with his family in their claim of Divine honour, as
being directly descended from the goddess Venus, whose particular ensign
this was. Dalechamp mentions a Roman coin, bearing on the obverse
the head and inscription of the deified Caesar, and, on the reverse, a temple
of Venus, with a star, and a statue of Caesar in the augural dress, and an

(From a Coin in the British Museum.)

altar for offerings and vows, with the inscription, " Divo Julio." It was
because of this alleged consanguinity to the goddess, that at his funeral
the Repository was made in the form of the temple of this divinity. The
origin of this story of the star of Venus may be traced to a Phoenician or
Trojan source ; for we find, in the Fragments of Sanchoniatho, the fol-
lowing account : — " But travelling about the world, she found a star fall-
ing from the sky ; which she, taking up, consecrated in the Holy Island
Tyre. And the Phoenicians say, that Astarte is she who is amongst the
Greeks called Aphrodite:' — (Bishop Cumberland's Trans, p. 36.) This
Tyrian or Trojan deity was the Marine Venus, and is to be distinguished
from Venus Urania, the heavenly, the greatest ; who, according to Cicero,
(N. D. iii. 23.) and other authority, was the Syrian Astarte, and the
Ashteroth of sacred Scripture ; whose ensigns were : on her head, the
horns of a bull ; about her, thunderbolts ; and round her, many stars.
Lucian, describing her statue, which he had seen, says : " She had a splen-
did stone on her head, which was called xvx»b, which in the night gave
much light to the temple, but shone weakly in the day-time, and looked
like fire. Nor were these, the Roman deities Venus and Juno, the only
powers that were designated by a star. The prophet Amos (chap. v. 26)

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 67

by the Sun. Others, again, are of opinion, that they are pro-
duced casually by some Humour and the Power of Fire, and
thereby do consume away.

CHAPTER XXVI.

The Opinion of Hipparchus concerning the Stars. Also,
historical Examples of Torches, Lamps, Beams, Fiery
Darts, Opening of the Firmament.

HIPPARCHUS, the aforesaid Philosopher (a man never
sufficiently praised, as being he that more than any other
proved the Affinity of Stars with Men ; affirming also, that
our Souls were Parcel of Heaven), discovered and observed
a new Star produced in his Time, and by the Motion thereof
on the Day it first shone, he was led into a doubt, whether it
happened not very often that new Stars should arise ? and
whether those Stars also moved not, which we imagine to be
fixed ? The same Man went so far, that he attempted (a
Thing even hard for God to perform) to deliver unto Pos-
terity the exact Number of the Stars. He brought the said
Stars within the Compass of Rule, by devising certain In-
struments to take their several Places, and set out their
Magnitudes : that thereby it might be easily discerned, not
only whether the old died, and new were born, but also
whether they moved, and which Way they took their Course?
likewise, whether they increased or decreased? Thus he left
the Inheritance of the Sky unto all Men, if any one haply
could be found able to enter upon it as lawful Heir.

There be also certain flaming Torches shining out in the
Sky, though they are never seen but when they fall. Such
an one was that which, at the Time that Germanicus Ccesar
exhibited a Show of Gladiators, passed at Noontide in the

refers to a male deity, that, so early as the days of Moses, was worshipped
in a portable shrine by the people of Israel, and by them probably derived
from Egypt. A star thus became associated with the idea of Divine
benignity ; and how widely so, appears from the history of the Magi,
who came from the East to Jerusalem, to seek out the Desire of all Nations,
in pursuance of a prophecy that must have been of the highest antiquity.
— Wern. Club.

68 History of Nature. [BooK II.

Sight of all the People. And there are two Sorts of them.
One is Lampades, which they call plain Torches ; and the
other, Bolides, or Lances, such as the Mutinians saw in their
Calamity. They differ, in that those Lamps or Torches form
long Trains, of which the forepart only is on Fire. But
Bolis burneth all over, and draweth a longer Tail. There
shine out, after the same Manner, certain Beams, which
the Greeks call Docus ; which appeared when the Lacede-
monians, being vanquished in a Sea-fight, lost the Dominion
of Greece. The Firmament also is seen to open ; and this they
name Chasma.

CHAPTER XXVII.

Of the strange Colours of the Shy.

THERE appeareth in the Sky also a Resemblance of
Blood1, and (than which Nothing is more dreadful to
Mortals) a burning, falling from Heaven to Earth : as it
happened in the third Year of the hundred and seventh
Olympiad, when King Philip terrified all Greece. And
these Things I suppose to come at certain Times by Course
of Nature, like other Things; and not, as the most Part

1 Showers of blood have been recorded in chronicles of various ages ;
and in those turbulent times it was never difficult to find some public
evil which such unwonted phenomena might be supposed to have fore-
told. By modern inquiry these appearances have been ascribed to the
excrements of a mighty swarm of butterflies — to the extraordinary abun-
dance of an animalcula, called Oscellatoria Vubesuns — and to the red
vegetable Protococcus Nivalis, swept up by winds from the snow, on which
it naturally grows. None of these explanations, however, appear to an-
swer so completely to Pliny's account, as the following; to which the
Editor was once a witness. On the 15th of February, 1837, when the
weather had long been damp, misty, and rather windy — the direction of
the wind being South of West — at a quarter of an hour after five in the
evening, there came in a mist, of a bright red colour ; which attracted
attention, through a window, by the glare of light it diffused. On pro-
ceeding to examine it in the open air, it was observed to have become of
a pink colour ; and presently passing into violet, it settled into a grey ; in
which tint it remained until the evening hid it from view. No refraction
of sunbeams can be allowed to account for this appearance ; for the sun
had long before been hidden by intervening hills from the valley in
which this beautiful coloured mist appeared.— Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 69

think, of sundry Causes, which the Wit of ingenious Men is
able to devise. They have, indeed, been Forerunners of ex-
ceeding great Miseries ; but I suppose those Calamities to
have happened, not because these Appearances were seen, but
these were procreated to foretell the Accidents that ensued
afterward. Now, it is because they fall out so seldom, that
the Reason of them is hidden, as is the Case with the
Rising of Planets abovesaid, the Eclipses, and many other
Things.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

Of the Flame of Heaven.

LIKEWISE there are seen Stars with the Sun1 all Day long :
yea, and very often about the Compass of the Sun, other
Flames, like unto Garlands of Ears of Corn : also, Circles of
various Colours, such as those were when Augustus C&sar,
in the Prime of his Youth, entered the City of Rome after
the Decease of his Father, to take upon him his great
Name.

CHAPTER XXIX.

Of Celestial Crowns.2

ALSO the same Garlands appear about the Moon, and
the brighter Stars which are fixed in the Firmament. Round

1 The only star seen near the sun at mid-day is the planet Venus : —
" No stars beside their radiance can display
In Phoebus' presence, the dread lord of day ;
E'en Cynthia's self, the regent of the night,
Is quite obscur'd by his emergent light ;
But Venus only, as if more divine,
With Phoebus dares in partnership to shine."

Wern. Club.

3 None of the appearances in this and the following chapters, to the
37th, can be regarded as unusual ; and the explanation of them is to be
found in the fact, of the refraction of the light by peculiar conditions of
the air. Records of those things would scarcely have been found in the
books of the augurs, if some political object had not been mixed with the
report of the occurrences. It is well known that during the Republican
days of Rome, the reckoning of dates by the years of the consuls was
the common order of chronology. The consulship of L. Opimius and
Q. Fabius Maximus was in the 630th year of Rome, and 123 years before

70 History of Nature. [Boox II.

about the Sun there was seen an Arch, when Lu. Opimius
and Q. Fabius were Consuls ; and a Circle, when L. Porcius
and M. Acilius were Consuls.

CHAPTER XXX.
Of Sudden Circles.

THERE appeared a Circle of red Colour, when L. Julius
and P. Rutilius were Consuls. Moreover, there are strange
Eclipses of the Sun, continuing longer than ordinary ; which
happened when Ccesar the Dictator was slain. In the Wars
of Antony also, the Sun continued almost a whole Year, with
a pale and wan Colour.

CHAPTER XXXI.
Many Suns.

AGAIN, many Suns are seen at once, neither above nor
beneath the Body of the true Sun, but obliquely: never near,
nor directly against, the Earth ; neither in the Night, but when
the Sun either riseth or setteth. Once they are reported to
have been seen at Noon-day in the Bosphorus, and they con-
tinued from Morning to the Evening. Three Suns together
our Ancestors have often beheld ; as, for instance, when
Sp. Posthumius with Q. Mutius, Q. Martins with M. Porcius,
M. Antonius with P. Dolabella, and Mar. Lepidus with
L. Plancus, were Consuls. And our Age hath seen the like in
the Time of Divus Cl. Ccesar s Sovereignty and joint-Consul-
ship, with Cornelius Orfitus, his Colleague. More than three
we never to this Day find to have been seen together.

the Christian era. That the former of these consuls was capable of any
violence or fraud, to secure political preponderance, appears from his his-
tory in connexion with the Gracchi. He was openly accused of forging
portents ; and when one of his lictors had knocked down Tiberius Grac-
chus, whose person as tribune was sacred, in the riots that followed he
offered a reward, of its weight in gold, for the head of his opponent. The
bribe was successful : the head was found to weigh 171bs. 8oz. ; and to
shew his pious gratitude for the result, as well, perhaps, as to divert
public attention, he built a temple to Concord.— Wern. Club.

BOOK I L] History of Nature. 7 1

CHAPTER XXXII.
Many Moons.

THREE Moons also appeared at once, when Cn. Domitius
and C. Fannius were Consuls ; and these most Men call
Night Suns.

CHAPTER XXXIII.

Daylight in the Night.

OUT of the Firmament by Night, there was seen a Light1,
when C. Coelius and Cn. Papyrius were Consuls ; and often-
times besides, so as the Night seemed as light as the Day.

CHAPTER XXXIV.
Burning Shields.

A BURNING Shield ran sparkling from the West to the
East, at the Sun's Setting, when L. Valerius and C. Marius
were Consuls.

CHAPTER XXXV.

A strange Sight in the Shy.

BY Report there was once seen, and never but once,
when Cn. Octavius and C. Scribonius were Consuls, a Spark
to fall from a Star : and as it approached the Earth it waxed
greater, and after it came to the Bigness of the Moon, it
shone out and gave Light, as in a cloudy Day : then, being
retired again into the Sky, it became a burning Lamp
(Lampas). This, Licinius Syllanus, the Pro-consul, saw,
together with his Attendants.

1 This remarkable phenomenon is rarely noticed in modern times, and
is in itself rare ; but one or two instances have been related by living
witnesses. On one occasion, in a very dark night, two or three indivi-
duals, scarcely able to grope their way, were surprised at finding them-
selves able to see every object as clearly as in a moderate daylight. They
were so much astonished and alarmed at the sudden brightness, that,
being engaged in an exploit, in which they had no desire of recognition,
they were glad to hurry off with hasty expedition.— Wern. Club.

72 History of Nature. [BooK II.

CHAPTER XXXVI.
The extraordinary Shooting of Stars in the Sky.

STARS are also seen to shoot hither and thither, but
never to any purpose : for, from the same Quarter where
they appear, there rise terrible Winds, and after them Tem-
pests both by Sea and Land.

CHAPTER XXXVII.
Of the Stars called Castor and Pollux1.

I HAVE seen myself, in the Camp, from the Sentinels in
the Night-watch, the Resemblance of Lightning to fix on the
Spears set before the Rampart. They settle also upon the
Yards, and other Parts of the Ship, at Sea : making a Kind
of vocal Sound, and shifting their Places as Birds do which
fly from Bough to Bough. They are dangerous when they
come singly, for they sink those Ships on which they alight ;

1 Luminous meteors are mostly seen at night ; since daylight is too
powerful to allow them to be seen. They have not been studied as the
subject deserves ; and hence the futility of the explanations generally
given to their causes. There is little doubt, that they differ greatly in
nature. Some are undoubtedly electric; as may be judged from their
sudden explosion, sometimes with signs of great violence. The appear-
ances termed Castor and Pollux, and among modern sailors Corbisant, or
Corpo Santo, is exceedingly rare on land, and in the British seas ; but
common in warmer latitudes than Britain. Light of, perhaps, the same
nature, is sometimes seen on the ears of animals, as the horse, when tra-
velling in stormy weather. Pliny speaks of being himself an eye-witness
to the settling of meteors on the military spears ; and there is a record of
a similar appearance in the sixth volume (p. 38) of Hearne's edition of
Leland's Itinerary: "In the yere of our Lord 1098, Corborant, admiral
to the Soudan of Perce, was faught with at Antioche, and discumfited by
the Christianes. The night cumming on yn the chace of this bataile, and
waxing dark, the Christianes beying 4 miles from Antioche, God willing
the saufte of the Christianes, shewid a white starre or molette of fy ve
pointes on the Christen host, which to every manne's sighte did lighte and
arrest upon the standard of Alboy the 3rd, there shining excessively." —
Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 73

or they set them on Fire if they fall upon the Bottom of the
Keel. But if the Pair appear, they are salutary, and foretel
a prosperous Voyage ; for by their coming, it is supposed that
the dreadful and threatening Meteor called Helena, is driven
away. And therefore it is, that Men assign this mighty
Power to Castor and Pollux, and invocate them as Gods at
Sea. Men's Heads, also, in the Evening are seen to shine
round about ; which presageth some great Matter. Of all
these Things there is no certain Reason to be given ; but they
are hidden in the Majesty of Nature.

CHAPTER XXXVIII.
Of the Air.

HITHERTO we have treated of the World itself, and the
Stars. It remaineth now to speak of other memorable
Things observed in the Sky. For even that Part also have
our Forefathers called Cesium, or the Sky, which otherwise
they name the Air : even all that Portion which seeming
like a void and empty Place, yieldeth this vital Spirit
whereby all Things do live. This Region is seated beneath
the Moon, and far under that Planet (as I observe it is, in
Manner, by all Men agreed upon). And mingling together
an infinite Portion of the superior celestial Nature of Air,
with very much of earthly Vapours, it doth participate con-
fusedly of both. From hence proceed Clouds, Thunders,
and those terrible Lightnings. From hence come Hail,
Frosts, Rain, Storms, and Whirlwinds : from hence arise
most of the Calamities of mortal Men, and the continual
War that Nature maketh with herself. For these gross
Exhalations, as they mount upward to the Heaven, are
beaten back by the Violence of the Stars : and the same
again draw up to them those Matters, which of their own
Accord ascend not. For thus we see, that Showers of Rain
fall, Mists arise, Rivers are dried up, Hail-storms came down
amain, the Sunbeams scorch the ground, and drive it every
where to the midst : but the same again unbroken, and not
loosing their Force, rebound and take up with them whatso-

74 History of Nature. [BoOK II.

ever they are able. Vapours fall from aloft, and return again
on high: forcible Winds come empty, but return with a
Booty. So many living Creatures draw their Breath from
above : but the same laboureth contrariwise, and the Earth
infuseth into the Air a Spirit as if it were empty. Thus, while
Nature goeth to and fro, as forced by some Engine, by the
Swiftness of the Heaven the Fire of Discord is kindled.
Neither can she stand to the Fight, but being continually
carried away she is rolled about, and as she spreadeth about
the Earth, with an immeasurable Globe of the Heaven, so
ever and anon through the Clouds she frameth another Sky.
And this is that Region where the Winds reign. And there-
fore their Kingdom principally is there where they execute
their Forces. For Thunderbolts and Lightnings most Men
attribute to their Violence. Nay, and so it is supposed that
sometimes it raineth Stones, which may be taken up first by
the Wind ; and many similar Appearances. Wherefore many
Matters besides are to be treated of together.

CHAPTER XXXIX.
Of Ordinary Sedsons.

IT is manifest that of Seasons, as also of other Things,
some Causes be certain ; others, casual ; or, such as yet the
Reason thereof is unknown. For who doubteth that Sum-
mers and Winters, and those alternative Seasons which we
observe by yearly Course, are occasioned by the Motion of
the Planets? As, therefore, the Sun's Nature is understood
by tempering and ordering the Year, so the rest of the Stars
have every one their peculiar Power, and the same effectual
to perform their own Nature. Some are fruitful to bring
forth Moisture, that is turned into liquid Rain : others to
yield an Humour either congealed into Frosts, or gathered
and thickened into Snow, or else frozen into Hail : some
afford Winds ; others Warmth : some hot and scorching
Vapours ; some, Dews ; and others, Cold. Neither ought
these Stars to be esteemed no more than they shew in Sight,
seeing that none of them is less than the Moon ; as may

BOOK 1 1 .] History of Nature. 75

appear by the Reason of their exceeding Height. All of
them, then, every one in its own Motion, exercise their
several Natures : which appeareth manifestly by Saturn
especially, who setteth open the Gates for Rain and Showers
to pass. And not only the seven Wandering Stars possess
this Power, but many of them also that are fixed in the Fir-
mament ; so often as they be either driven by the Approach
of those Planets, or provoked by the Casting and Influence
of their Beams : like as we find it happeneth in the seven
Stars called Suculce, which the Grecians, of Rain, name
Hyades (because they ever bring foul Weather). Howbeit
some of their own Nature, and at certain set Times, do cause
Rain ; as the Rising of the Kids. The Star Arcturus very
rarely appeareth without some tempestuous Hail1.

CHAPTER XL.
The Power of the Dog- Star.

WHO knoweth not, that when the Dog-Star ariseth, the
Heat of the Sun is fiery and burning? the effects of which
Star are felt exceeding much upon the Earth. The Seas at
his Rising do rage, the Wines in Cellars are troubled, stand-
ing Waters are moved. A wild Beast there is in Egypt,
called Orix~, which the Egyptians say, doth stand full against

1 It is scarcely necessary to warn the modern reader, that throughout
these observations on the weather, an influence is ascribed to the rising of
certain stars, from no better cause than the coincidence of the occurrences.
—Wern. Club.

2 Pliny mentions this animal in book x. c. 73 ; and again in book xi.
c. 46 ; but modern naturalists have failed to identify it with any creature
known at the present time. Indeed, there is reason to believe that more
than one creature has been thus designated by the ancients ; for it has
been described as having only one horn; which would make it either
a species of rhinoceros, or the animal resembling a stag or horse, so often
spoken of under the name of Unicorn. It has also been compared to an
ox ; and four horns have been ascribed to it. But, more precisely, it is said
to be white, with horns and a beard ; which renders it probable that it
was of the goat kind. As the religion of the ancient Heathens was merely
ceremonial, the imputing to the creature, in the practice of sneezing, an
act of adoration to Anubis, or the Dog- Star, one of the chief deities of the

76 History of Nature. [BooK II.

the Dog-Star when it riseth, looking wistly upon it, and tes-
tifieth by sneezing, a Kind of Worship. As for Dogs, no
Man doubteth but all the Time of the canicular Days they
are most ready to run mad.

CHAPTER XLI.

That the Stars have their several Influences in sundry Parts
of the Signs, and at divers Times.

MOREOVER1, the Parts of certain Signs have their peculiar
Force, as appeareth in the autumnal Equinox, and in Mid-
Winter ; at which Time we perceive that the Sun maketh
Tempests. And this is proved, not only by Rains and Storms,

Egyptians, will appear less absurd than at the first mention would
appear. For a similar reason Pliny ascribes religion to elephants, and
even poultry.

In his 28th book, the Author (ch. 2) has some observations on the
superstition of the Romans, relative to the act of sneezing ; and it is
not a little remarkable, that a similar practice, of imprecating a bless-
ing in such case, is not even now uncommon among ourselves. — Wern.
Club.

1 In this chapter there is a confusion of cause and effect that is diffi-
cult to unravel ; and which can only be accounted for by involving what
are undoubtedly natural influences — in modern times easily explained —
with occult causes, the bounds of which the ancients were not able to
define. The influence of the sun's heat on currents of air, constituting
winds and tempests, and even its simple action on the texture of a
membrane, are thus confounded with the powers which the Signs of
the Zodiac were supposed to exert on the functions of the organs or re-
gions of the human body. According to this philosopy, each of the
twelve signs exerted a peculiar influence on a distinct portion ; beginning
with the head, which was governed by Aries; and proceeding downward
by regular spaces, each opposite sign in the Annual Circle became the
monarch of its season, until the Twins, opposite to Aries, displayed their
power over the feet. To the reproach of modern science, these imaginary
influences, which derived their origin in popular opinion, from a supposed
sympathetic connexion of the spirit pervading these signs — a portion of
the great soul of the world (Note to ch. 1), and therefore a portion of
a very ancient idolatry — maintains its place in the popular almanacs,
published under the superintendence of a public company especially
instituted for the promotion of an improved literature. — Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 77

but by many Experiments in Men's Bodies, and Accidents to
Plants in the Country. For some Men are struck by the
Planet, and blasted : others are troubled at certain Times in
their Bowels, Sinews, Head, and Mind. The Olive Tree, the
White Poplar, and Willows, turn their Leaves about at
Midsummer, at the Solstice. And contrariwise, in Mid-
winter, the Herb Pennyroyal flowereth fresh, even as it
hangs dry within the House. At which Time all Parch-
ments are so stretched with the Wind that they burst. A
Man might marvel hereat who marketh not by daily Expe-
rience, that one Herb called Heliotropium1, looketh toward
the Sun, ever as he goeth, turning with him at all hours,
notwithstanding he be shadowed under a Cloud. It is cer-
tain also, that the Bodies of Oysters, Mussels, Cockles, and
all Shell-fishes, grow and waste by the Power of the Moon ;
and some have found out by diligent Search, that the Fibres
in the Livers of Rats and Mice answer in Number to the
Days of the Moon's Age : also that the very little Creature,
the Emmet, feeleth the Power of this Planet, and always in
the Change of the Moon ceaseth from Work. It is the more
Shame to Man to be ignorant, especially seeing that he must
confess, that some labouring Beasts have certain Diseases in
their Eyes, which with the Moon do grow and decay. How-
beit the excessive Greatness of the Heaven and exceeding
Height thereof, divided as it is into seventy-two Signs, make
for him, and serve for his Excuse. These Signs are the
Resemblances of Things, or living Creatures, into which the
skilful Astronomers have digested -the Firmament. For Ex-
ample, in the Tail of Taurus there be seven, which they
have named Veryilice*; in the Forehead other seven called
SuculcB : and Bootes who followeth after the great Bear
(Septentriones).

1 This plant is again referred to (b. xxii. c. 21) as a good country-
man's weather-glass. It is a question whether it belong to the genus
Heliotropium of Linnaeus, or be not rather the Caltha PalustriSj or Marsh
Mary gold. — Wern. Club.

3 Better known by the name of Pleiades. — Wern. Club.

78 History of Nature. [BooK It.

CHAPTER XLIL
The Causes of Rain, Showers, Winds, and Clouds.

I CANNOT deny, but without these Causes there arise
Rains and Winds : for it is certain there is exhaled from the
Earth a Mist, sometimes moist, at other Times smoky, by
Reason of hot Vapours. Also, that Clouds are produced by
Vapours which are gone up on high, or else of the Air
gathered into a watery Liquor : that they be thick, and of a
bodily Consistence, we collect by no doubtful Argument,
considering that they overshadow the Sun, which otherwise
may be seen through Water; as they know well that dive to
any good Depth,

CHAPTER XLIII.
Of Thunder and Lightning.1

I WOULD not deny, therefore, that the fiery Impressions
from Stars above, may fall upon these Clouds, such as we
oftentimes see to shoot in clear and fair Weather : by the
forcible Stroke whereof, good Reason it is. that the Air
should be mightily shaken, seeing that Darts when they are
discharged, make a Noise as they fly. But when they en-
counter a Cloud, there ariseth a Vapour with a dissonant
Sound (as when a red-hot Iron maketh an Hissing when
thrust into Water), and Smoke rolls up in Waves. Hence
Storms are bred. And if this Flatus, or Vapour, do struggle
within the Cloud, Thunder is given out ; if it break through
still burning, then flieth out the Thunderbolt : if it be a

1 An attempt to explain the cause of thunder and lightning could
scarcely be otherwise than futile, in the entire absence of a knowledge of
the existence of such a matter as electricity. But any attempt at a natural
explanation was an effort of courage, and far in advance of the popular
opinion. On this account the Author is entitled to pardon, when, at the
conclusion of the chapter he finds himself disposed to make some conces-
sion, in admitting it to be possible, that some of these phenomena were
premonitory, and direct from the gods. — Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 79

longer Time in struggling, then Lightning-flashes are seen.
With these the Cloud is cloven ; with the other, burst in
sunder. The Thunders are the Blows given by the Fires
beating hard upon the Clouds : and therefore presently the
fiery Rifts of those Clouds do flash and shine. It is possible,
also, that the Wind, elevated from the Earth, being repelled,
and kept down by the Stars, and so restrained within a
Cloud, may thunder, while Nature choketh the rumbling
Sound all the while it striveth ; but sendeth forth a Crash
when it breaketh out, as we see in a Bladder puffed up with
Wind. Likewise it may be, that the same Wind or Spirit is
set on Fire by Attrition, as it violently passeth headlong
down. It may also be stricken by the Conflict of the Clouds,
as if two Stones hit one against another ; and so the Flashes
sparkle forth. But all these are Accidents. And from hence
come those insignificant and vain Lightnings, which have no
natural Cause. With these are Mountains and Seas smitten :
and of this Kind be all other Explosions that do no Hurt to
living Creatures. Those that come from above, and of fixed
Causes, yea, and from their proper Stars, foretel future
Events. In like Manner, it may be that the Winds, or rather
Blasts, proceed from a dry Exhalation of the Earth, void of
all Moisture : neither will I deny that they arise from Waters
breathing out an Air, which neither can thicken into a Mist,
nor gather into Clouds : also they may be driven by the
Impulsion of the Sun, because the Wind is conceived to be
Nothing else but the flowing of the Air, and that by many
means. For some we see to rise out of Rivers, Snows, and
Seas, even when they be still and calm : as also others out of
the Earth, which Winds they name Altani. And those verily
when they come back again from the Sea, are called Tropcei:
if they go onward, Apogcei.

CHAPTER XLIV.
What is the Reason of the Resounding of the Echo.

BUT the Windings of Hills, and their close Turnings,
their many Tops, their Ridges also bending like an Elbow,

80 History of Nature. [BooK II.

and arched, as it were, into Shoulders, together with the
Hollows of Vallies, do cut unequally the Air that reboundeth
from them : which is the Cause of reciprocal Voices called
Echoes, answering one another in many Places.

CHAPTER XLV.
Of Winds again.

THERE are, again, certain Caves1 which breed Winds with-
out end : such as that one which is in the Edge of Dalmatia,
gaping with a wide Mouth, and leading to a deep Cavern :
into which, if there be cast any Matter of light Weight, be
the Day never so calm, there ariseth presently a Tempest like
a Whirlwind. The Place's Name is Senta. Moreover, in
the Province Cyrenaica there is reported to be a Rock con-
secrated to the South-wind, which without Profanation may
not be touched with Man's Hand ; but if it be, presently the
South-wind doth arise and cast up Heaps of Sand. Also in
many Houses there be hollow Places devised by Man's Hand
for the Receipt of Wind ; which being enclosed with Shade,
gather their Blasts. Whereby we may see how all Winds
have a Cause. But great Difference there is between such
Blasts and Winds. As for these, they be settled, and conti-
nually blowing ; which, not some particular Places, but
whole Lands do feel ; which are not light Gales nor stormy
Puffs of the Sea, named Aurce and Procellce, but properly

1 That there is an intimate connexion between the interior of the
earth and the atmosphere, operating in the production or direction of the
nature or force of winds, is exceedingly probable ; although the particular
instances here given are either imaginary, or strangely misinterpreted.
A simple change in the pressure of the atmosphere — a meteorological
phenomenon of which the ancients were ignorant, from not being aware
that air possessed positive weight — will account for many of these sudden
gusts from caverns ; and for those hollow murmurs that have been popu-
larly remarked in hilly countries, before the approach of a storm ; and
the utility of these outbursts will appear when we remember, that with-
out them, poisonous exhalations, as marsh miasmata, and carbonic acid
gas, would be suffered to accumulate, to the destruction of a neighbour-
hood.— Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 81

called Winds, by the masculine Name Venti : which, whether
they arise by the continual Motion of the Heaven, and the
contrary Course of the Planets ; or whether this Wind be
that Spirit of Nature that engendereth all Things, wandering
to and fro, as it were, in some Womb ; or rather the Air,
beaten and driven by the unlike Influences of the Planets,
and the Multiplicity of their Beams : or whether all Winds
come from their own nearer Stars ; or rather fall from them
that be fixed in the Firmament : plain it is, that they
are guided by an ordinary Law of Nature, not altogether
unknown, although it be not yet thoroughly known.

CHAPTER XLVI.
The Natures and Observations of the Winds.

MORE than twenty of the old Greek Writers have re-
corded their Observations of the Winds. I marvel so much
the more, that the World being so at Discord, and divided
into Kingdoms, that is to say, dismembered ; so many Men
have employed their Care to seek after these Things, so diffi-
cult to be found out ; and the more especially in Time of
Wars, and amid those Places where was no safe Abode ; and
especially when Pirates, those common Enemies to Mankind,
held well near all Passages of Communication : I marvel,
also, that at this Day each Man in his own Tract of Country
obtaineth more Knowledge of some Things by their Com-
mentaries, who never set Foot there, than he doth by the
Skill and Information of home-born Inhabitants ; whereas
now in Time of such blessed and joyous Peace, and under a
Prince who taketh such Delight in the Progress of the State
and of all good Arts, no new Thing is learned by farther
Inquisition ; nay, nor so much as the Inventions of old Wri-
ters are thoroughly understood. And verily it cannot be
said, that greater Rewards were in those Days given, consi-
dering that the Bounty of Fortune was dispersed : and in
truth, most of these learned Men sought out these Secrets
for no other Regard than to do good to Posterity. But
now Men's Customs are waxed old and decay : and notwith-

F

82 History of Nature. [BooK II.

standing that the Fruit of Learning be as great as ever it
was, yet Men are become idle in this behalf. The Seas are
open to all, an infinite Multitude of Sailors have discovered
all Coasts whatsoever ; they sail through and arrive fami-
liarly at every Shore ; but all is for Gain, nothing for the
Sake of Knowledge. Their Minds altogether blinded, and
bent upon nothing but Covetousness, never consider that the
same might with more Safety be performed by Science. And
therefore, seeing there be so many thousand Sailors that
hazard themselves on the Seas, I will treat of the Winds more
curiously than, perhaps, would otherwise be necessary to the
present Work.

CHAPTER XLVII.
Many Sorts of Winds.

THE Ancients observed four Winds1 only, according
to so many Quarters of the World (and therefore Homer
nameth no more) : a feeble Reason this, as soon after it was
judged. The Age ensuing added eight more, and they were
on the other Side in their Conceit, too subtle and concise.
The modern Sailors have found a Mean between both : and
they put unto that short Number of the first, four Winds
and no more ; which they took out of the latter. Therefore
every Quarter of the Heaven hath two Winds to itself.
From the equinoctial Sun-rising bloweth the East Wind, Sub-
solanus: from the Rising thereof in Midwinter the South-east,
Vulturnus. The former of these two the Greeks call Apeliotes,
and the latter Eurus. From the Midday riseth the South
Wind : and from the Sun-setting in Midwinter the South-west,
Africus. They also name these two, Notus and Libs. From
the equinoctial going down of the Sun, the West Wind,

1 The impression of this precise number of winds appears to have been
popular ; and is referred to in the Book of Revelation by St. John, vii. 1 :
" I saw four angels standing on the four corners of the earth, holding the
four winds of the earth." Pliny evidently supposes that the winds were
not simply determined according to the quarter from which they blew,
but by separate and inherent qualities of heat, moisture, violence, health,
or sickness. — Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 83

JFavonius, cometh : but from that in Summer, the North-
west, Corns: and by the Greeks they are termed Zephyrus
and Argestes. From the North bloweth the North Wind, Sep-
tentrio: between which and the Sunrising in Summer is the
North-east Wind, Aquilo, named Aparctias and Boreas by the
Greeks. A greater Reckoning than this for Number is
brought in by some, who have thrust in four more between :
namely, Thracias between the North and the Summer Setting
of the Sun ; in like Manner Ccecias, in the midst between the
North-east, Aquilo, and that of the Sunrising in the equi-
noctial, Sub-solanus. Also, after the Sunrising in Summer,
Phceniceas in the midst, between the South-east and the South.
Last of all, between the South and the South-west, Lybo-
notus, just in the midst, compounded of them both, namely,
between the Meridian and the Sun-setting in Winter. But
here they did not end. For others have set one more, called
Mese, between the North-east Wind Boreas and Ccecias: also
JSuronotuSj between the South and South-west Winds. Besides
all these, there be some Winds peculiar to every Nation,
and which pass not beyond one certain Region : as, namely,
Scyros among the Athenians, declining a little from Argestes;
a Wind unknown to other Parts of Greece. In some other
Place it is more aloft, and the same then is called Olympias
(as coming from the Mountain Olympus). But the usual
Manner of Speech understandeth by all these Names Ar-
gestes only. Some call Ccecias by the Name of Hellespontias,
and give the same Winds in sundry Places divers Names.
In the Province, likewise, of Narbonne, the most notorious
Wind is Circius, and for violence inferior to none, driving
directly before it, very often, the Current at Ostia into the
Ligurian Sea. The same Wind is not only unknown in all
other Parts of the Heaven, but reacheth not so much as to
Vienna, a City in the same Province. As great and bois-
terous a Wind as this is otherwise, yet it meets with a Re-
straint before it come thither, and is kept within narrow
Bounds by the Opposition of a small Hill. Fabianus also
avoucheth, that the South Winds enter not so far as into
Egypt. Whereby the Law of Nature sheweth itself plainly,
that even Winds have their Times and Limits appointed.

84 History of Nature. [BooK II.

To proceed, then, the Spring openeth the Sea for Sailors:
in the Beginning whereof, the West Winds mitigate the Win-
ter Weather at the Time when the Sun is in the 25th Degree
of Aquarius, and that is the sixth Day before the Ides of
February. And this Order holdeth for the most Part with
all other Winds, which I will set down one after another : so
that in every Leap Year we anticipate and reckon one Day
sooner, and then again keep the same Rule throughout all
the four Years following. Some call Favonius (which begin-
neth to blow about the seventh Day before the Calends of
March) by the Name of Chelidonius, upon the Sight of the
first Swallows1: but many name it Orinthias, coming the
seventy-first Day after the shortest Day in Winter ; by occa-
sion of the coming of Birds : which Wind bloweth for nine
Days. Opposite to Favonius is the Wind which we called
Sub-solanus. Unto this Wind is attributed the Rising of the
Vergilice, or Seven Stars, in as many Degrees of Taurus, six
Days before the Ides of May ; which Time is a southerly
Constitution : and to this Wind the North is contrary.
Moreover, in the hottest Season of the Summer the Dog-star
ariseth, when the Sun entereth into the first Degree of Leo,
which commonly is the fifteenth Day before the Calends of
August. Before the Rising of this Star for eight Days'
Space, or thereabout, the North-east Winds blow ; which the
Greeks call Prodromi, or Forerunners. And two Days after
it is risen, the same Winds hold still more stiffly for the
Space of forty Days, which they name Etesia. The Sun's

1 Ovid (" Fasti ") says, on the day which is equivalent to about the
25th of February:—

" Fallimur ? an veris praenuntia venit hirundo ?
Et metuit, nequa versa recurrat hyems ? "

" Am I deceived ? is that the swallow's wing ?
That flits along, the herald of the spring.
Fearful of cold, she still seeks shelter here ;
And dreads that winter may reclaim the year."

In Sardinia it is noted on the last day of the same month, in the " Calendar
of the Transactions of the Royal Academy of Brussels." But these are
early appearances ; and in general this bird arrives in Italy in the first
ten days of March.— Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 85

Vapour, redoubled by the Hotness of that Star, is thought to
be assuaged by them : and no Winds keep their set Times
better than they. Next after them come the South Winds
again, which are usually up, until the Star Arcturus riseth,
and that is eleven Days before the autumnal Equinox. With
it entereth Corns, and thus Corns beginneth the Autumn ;
and to this Vulturnus is contrary. After that Equinox about
four-and-forty Days, the Vergilice go down and begin Win-
ter, which Season usually falleth upon the third Day before
the Ides of November. This is the Winter North-east Wind,
which is far unlike to that in Summer, opposite and contrary
to Africus. Seven Days before the Midwinter Day, and as
much after, the Sea is allayed and calm for the Sitting and
Hatching of the Birds Halciones1, from which these Days
took the Name Alcionis: the Time behind belongs to Winter.
And yet these boisterous Seasons, full of Tempests, shut not
up the Sea : for Pirates at first forced Men, with Peril of
Death, to run headlong upon their Death, and to hazard
themselves in Winter Seas ; and now Covetousness compels
them to do the like.

The coldest Winds of all other are those which, we said,
blow from the North, and together with them their Neigh-
bour, Corns. These Winds allay all others, and drive away
Clouds. Moist Winds are Africus, and especially the South
Wind of Italy, called Auster. Men report also, that Ccecias
in Pontus gathereth to itself Clouds. Corns and Vulturnus
are dry, but only when they cease. The North-east and the
North produce Snow. The North Wind also bringeth Hail,
as doth Corns. The South Wind is exceeding hot. Vulturnus
and Favonius be warm. They also be drier than the East :

1 Ovid relates the fable of the origin of the Halcyon, or Alcyon,
" Metamorphoses," book xi. fable 10; and Pliny describes the bird in his
book x. c. 32. 2Elian also speaks of it, book i. c. 36 ; and he describes the
wonders of the nest, b. ix. c. 17, in a manner which the ancients gene-
rally appear to have regarded as substantially true; but it is scarcely
necessary to remark, that modern observation has not corroborated this
belief in any particular. In book xxxii. c. 8, Pliny speaks of a medicine
which was supposed to be prepared from the nest of the Alcyon, or King-
fisher.— Wern. Club.

86 History of Nature. [BOOK II.

and generally all Winds from the North and West are drier
than from the South and East. Of all Winds the Northern
is most healthful : the Southern Wind is noisome, and the
rather when it is dry ; haply, because that when it is moist
it is the colder. During the Time that it bloweth, living-
Creatures are thought to be less hungry. The Etesice give
over ordinarily in the Night, and arise at the third hour of
the Day. In Spain and Asia they blow from the East : but
in Pontus, from the North : in other Quarters, from the
South. They blow also after the Midwinter, when they be
called OrinthicB ; but those are more mild, and continue
fewer Days. Two there be that change their Nature with
their Place : the South Wind in Africa bringeth fair Weather,
and the North Wind there is cloudy. All Winds keep their
Course in Order for the more Part, or else when one ceaseth
the contrary beginneth. When some are laid and the next
to them arise, they go about from the left Hand to the right,
according to the Sun. Of their Manner and Order monthly,
the fourth Day after the Change of the Moon doth most
commonly determine. The same Winds will serve to sail
contrary Ways, by means of setting out the Sails : so as many
Times in the Night, Ships in sailing run one against another.
The South Wind raiseth greater Billows than the North : for
that the South Wind ariseth below, from the Bottom of the
Sea ; the other descends from on high. And, therefore, after
Southern Winds, Earthquakes are most hurtful. The South
Wind in the Night Time is more boisterous, the Northern
Wind in the Day. The Winds blowing from the East con-
tinue longer than those from the West. The Northern Winds
give over commonly with an odd Number : which Observa-
tion serveth to good use in many other Parts of natural
Things, and therefore the male Winds are judged by the odd
Number. The Sun both raiseth and also allayeth the Winds.
At rising and setting he causeth them to blow : at Noontide
he represseth them in Summer. And therefore at Mid-day
or Midnight commonly the Winds are allayed ; for both Cold
and Heat, if they be immoderate, do consume them. Also,
Rain doth lay the Winds : and most commonly from thence
they are looked for to blow, where Clouds break and lay

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 87

open the Sky. And Eudoxus is of opinion (if we list to ob-
serve the least Revolutions) that after the End of every
fourth Year, not only all Winds, but, for the most Part, other
Tempests and Constitutions of the Weather, return again to
the same Course as before. And always the Lustrum1 or Com-
putation of the five Years, beginneth at the Leap Year, when
the Dog-star doth arise. And thus much concerning general
Winds.

CHAPTER XLVIII.

Of Sudden Blasts.

Now will we speak of sudden Blasts : which being raised
(as hath been said before) by Exhalations of the Earth, and
cast down again, in the meanwhile appear of many Fashions,
enclosed within a thin Course of Clouds. For such as be wan-
dering and rushing in Manner of Land-floods (as some Men
were of opinion, as we have shewed), bring forth Thunder
and Lightning. But if they come with a greater Force and
Violence, and cleave a dry Cloud asunder, they breed a
Storm, which of the Greeks is called Ecnephias: but if the
Breach be not great, so that the Wind be constrained to re-
volve in his Descent without Fire, that is to say, Lightning,
it makes a Whirlwind called Typhon, that is to say, the
vibrated Ecnephias. This snatches with it a Piece broken
out of a congealed cold Cloud, turning and rolling it round,
and with that Weight inaketh its own Fall more heavy, and
changeth from Place to Place with a vehement Whirling.
It is the greatest Danger that Sailors have, breaking not
only their Yards, but also wrecking the very Ships to twisted
Fragments : and yet a small Matter is the Remedy for it,
namely, the casting of Vinegar out against it as it cometh ;
which is of very cold Nature. The same Storm beating upon
a Thing is itself smitten back again with Violence, and
snatcheth up whatever it meeteth in the Way aloft into the
Sky, carrying it back, and swallowing it up on high. But if
it break out from a greater Hole of the said Cloud, by it so

1 This space of time came round at the beginning of every fifth year ;
at which period, originally, the census was taken, and the taxes fixed
until the recurrence of the same period.— Wern. Club.

88 History of Nature. [BOOK II.

borne down, and yet not altogether so broad, as the above-
named Storm Procella doth, nor without a Crack, they call
this boisterous Wind Turbo, which overthroweth all that is near
it. The same, if it be more hot and catching Fire as it rageth,
is named Prester; burning and laying along whatsoever it
encountereth.

CHAPTER XLIX.

Other prodigious Kinds of Tempests.

No Typhon cometh from the North, nor any Ecnephias
with Snow, or while Snow lieth on the Ground. If this tem-
pestuous Wind when it broke the Cloud, burned fiercely,
having Fire of its own before, and catched it not afterward,
it is true Lightning; and diifereth from Prester only as Flame
from a Coal of Fire. Again, Prester spreadeth widely with a
Flash ; the other gathereth into a Globe with Violence. Vor-
tex differeth from Turben in flying back : and as much as a
Crash from a Crack. The Storm Procella differs from them
both in Breadth, and rather scattereth than breaketh the
Cloud. There riseth also a dark Mist, resembling a mon-
strous Beast ; and this is ever a terrible Cloud to Sailors.
Another, likewise, is called a Pillar1, when the Humour is so
thick and congealed that it standeth compact of itself. Of
the same Sort also is that Cloud which draweth Water to it,
as it were, into a long Pipe.

CHAPTER L.
In what Lands Lightnings fall not.

IK Winter and Summer seldom are there any Lightnings,
because of contrary Causes : for in Winter the Air is con-
densed, and thickened with a deeper Course of Clouds : and all
the Exhalations from the Earth being chilled and frozen hard,
extinguish what fiery Vapour soever otherwise they receive :
which is the Reason that Scythia, and other frozen Countries

1 The Author clearly means what, in modern times, is denominated a
Water-spout : a phenomenon not uncommon in the Mediterranean Sea,
and in other warm climates ; but exceedingly rare, if at all occurring, in
northern regions. — Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 89

thereabout, are free from Lightnings. And Egypt1, likewise,
from a contrary Cause, is exempt from Lightnings, the Rea-
son being its excessive Heat : for the hot and dry Exhalations
of the Earth gather into very slender, thin, and weak Clouds.
But in the Spring and Autumn, Lightnings are more rife ;
because in both those Seasons the Causes as well of Summer
as Winter are corrupt. And this is the Reason that Light-
nings are common in Italy ; for the Air being more mov-
able, by Reason of a milder Winter and a cloudy Summer, is
always of the Temperature of Spring or Autumn. In those
Parts, also, of Italy, which lie off from the North, and in-
cline to Warmth (as, namely, in the Tract about Rome and
Campania), there is Lightning in Winter and Summer alike,
which happeneth in no other Part thereof.

CHAPTER LI.
Sundry Sorts of Lightnings, and Wonders thereof.

VERY many Kinds of Lightning are set down by Authors.
Those that come dry burn not, but only disperse. They that
come moist do not burn, but blast and embrown. A third
Kind there is, which they call Bright and Clear; and that is
of a wonderful Nature, whereby Tuns are drawn dry, and
their Sides, Hoops, and Heads never touched, nor any other
Token thereof is left behind. Gold, Copper, and Silver2 are

1 The circumstance that Egypt is naturally exempt from lightning,
must have greatly heightened the terrors of the Seventh Plague with
which God visited this land in the days of the Exodus. But though
very rare, thunder and lightning are not unknown in Egypt, at least
in modern times. Thevenot mentions a man who was killed by light-
ning at Cairo, when he was there ; — but such a circumstance had never
been known before. Rain, and even hail, have also been seen; but
all these phenomena are less severe than in other countries. — Wern.
Club.

2 The facts here mentioned must have appeared as unaccountable as
stupendous, before the modern discoveries of Franklin and others, relative
to the attractions of the electric fluid : the existence of which, as an agent
of Nature, was not dreamt of in the philosophy of Pliny and the ancient
observers. — Wern. Club.

90 History of Nature. [BoOK II.

melted in the Bags, and the Bags themselves unscorcbed ;
and not even the Wax of the Seal defaced. Martia, a noble
Lady of Rome, being great with Child, was struck with
Lightning : the Child she went with was killed within her,
and she survived without any Harm. Among the Catiline
Prodigies it is found upon Record, that M. Herennius (a
Counsellor of the incorporate Town Pompeianum) was in a
fair and clear Day smitten with Lightning.

CHAPTER LII.
Of Observations touching Lightning.

IT is held in the Writings of the ancient Tuscans1, that
there be nine Gods that send forth Lightnings, and those
of eleven Sorts : for Jupiter (say they) casteth three at once.
The Romans have observed two of them, and no more; attri-
buting those in the Day-time to Jupiter, and those of the
Night to Summanus or Pluto. And these verily be more
rare, for the Cause before-named ; namely, the Coldness
of the Air above. In Etruria, they suppose that some
Lightnings break out of the Earth, which they call Infera,
or Infernal ; and such be made in Midwinter. And these
they take to be earthly, and of all most mischievous and exe-
crable : neither be those general and universal Lightnings,
nor proceeding from the Stars, but from a very near and
more troubled Cause. And this is an evident Argument
for Distinction, that all such as fall from the upper Sky strike
obliquely : but those which they call earthly, smite straight.
But the Reason why these are thought to issue from the
Earth is, because they fall from out of a Matter nearer to
the Earth ; forasmuch as they leave no Marks of a Stroke

1 This people was famed for the study of prognostications from natural
appearances : an art they had probably derived from Egypt or Assyria,
and which the neighbouring nations learned from them. It consisted in
minutely observing every unusual occurrence, and in deducing thence,
according to rules known only to the proper authorities, the will of the
gods, or the indications of a fixed necessity. This science is farther spoken
of in the seventh book. — Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 91

behind: which are occasioned by Force not from beneath,
but coming full against. Such as have searched more closely
into these Matters are of opinion that these Lightnings
come from the Planet Saturn, as the burning Lightning from
Mars; and with such Lightning was Volsinii (a very wealthy
City of the Tuscans), entirely burnt to Ashes. The Tuscans
call those Lightnings familiar which presage the Fortune
of some Race, and are significant during their whole Life ;
and such are they that come first to any Man, after he is
newly entered into his own Family. However, their Judg-
ment is, that these private Lightnings do not portend for
above ten Years : unless they happen either upon the Day of
first Marriage, or on a Birth-day. Public Lightnings be not
of Force above thirty Years, except they chance at the very
Time that Towns or Colonies be erected and planted.

CHAPTER LIII.
Of calling out Lightnings.

IT appeareth upon Record in Chronicles, that by certain
Sacrifices and Prayers1, Lightnings may be either compelled

1 There are many proofs of imposture in these ancient ceremonies ; but
when modern science is able to produce some of the effects ascribed to
these Etrurian priests, it seems just to conclude that they may have pos-
sessed the secret of a method of drawing the electric fluid from the sky.
The danger attending a failure in the requisite proceedings, as in the case
of Tullius Hostilius, would necessarily confine the practice to an instructed
few ; whose credit for sanctity would, therefore, be highly exalted. Ovid,
in his third book of the " Fasti," obscurely intimates the acquaintance of
Numa with such arts : —

" Jupiter hue veniet, valida perductus ab arte . . .

.... quid agant, quae carmina dicant,
Quoque trahant superis sedibus arte Jovem."

" To thee, by powerful art compelled,
Shall Jupiter approach . . .

.... And then they tell

What deeds, what powerful charms, the Man must use,
To draw the God compell'd from seats above."

The secret consisted in Numa's being a scholar of Pythagoras, and studying
" Quae sit rerum Natura."

Wern. Club.

92 History of Nature. [BooK II.

or obtained by Entreaty. There is an ancient Report in
Etruria, that such a Lightning was procured by Entreaty,
when there entered into the City Volsinii (after all the Terri-
tory about it was destroyed) a Monster, which they named
Volta. Also, that another was called forth by P or senna,
their King. Moreover, L. Piso (a Writer of good Credit)
reporteth in his first Book of Annals, that Numa before him
performed the same Act many a Time : and when Tullius
Hostilius would have imitated him (for that he observed not
all the Ceremonies accordingly), he was himself struck with
Lightning. And for this Purpose, we have sacred Groves,
Altars, and Sacrifices. And among the Jupiters surnamed
Statores, Tonantes, and Peretrii, we have heard that one
also was called Elicius. Men's Opinions are various con-
cerning this Point, and every Man according to his own
Liking. To believe that Nature may be compelled, is a very
audacious Opinion : but it is as senseless on the other Side
to make her Benefits of no effect ; considering that in the
Interpretation of Lightning, Science hath thus far proceeded
as to foretell when they will come at a prescribed Day : and
whether they will frustrate the Dangers pronounced, or
rather open other Destinies, which lie hidden in innumerable
public and private Experiments of both Kinds. And there-
fore (since it hath so pleased Nature) let some of these Things
be certain, others doubtful : some proved, and others con-
demned. As for us, we will not omit the Rest which in
these Matters are worth Remembrance.

CHAPTER LIV.
General Rules of Lightning.

THAT the Lightning is seen before the Thunderclap is
heard, although they come indeed jointly together, is cer-
tain. And no Wonder, for Light is more rapid than Sound.
And yet Nature doth so modulate, that the Stroke and
Sound shall accord together. But when there is a Noise1,

1 Ovid refers to this also, as the popular opinion. But silent lightning
in a clear sky was judged to be unaccountable, except as coming from the
gods. Hence Horace, though disposed to the doctrines of Epicurus, found

BOOK 1 1 .] History of Nature. 93

it is a Sign of the Lightning proceeding of some natural
Cause, and not sent by some God : and yet a Breath cometh
before the Thunderbolt : and hereupon it is, that every Thing
is shaken and blasted before it is smitten : neither is any
Man struck, who either saw the Lightning before, or heard
the Thunderclap. Those Lightnings that are on the left
Hand are supposed to be prosperous, for that the East is the
left Side of the World : but the Coming thereof is not so
much regarded as the Return : whether it be that the Fire
leap back after the Stroke given ; or whether after the Deed
done and Fire spent, the Spirit abovesaid retire back again.
In that respect the Tuscans have divided the Heaven into
sixteen Parts. The first is from the North to the Sun's
Rising in the Equinoctial Line : the second, to the Meridian
Line, or the South : the third, to the Sun-setting in the
Equinoctial : and the fourth taketh up all the Rest from the
said West to the North Star. These Quarters again they
have parted each into four Regions : of which eight from the
Sun-rising they called the Left ; and as many again from
the contrary Part, the Right. Those Lightnings are most
dreadful which from the Sun-setting reach into the North :
and therefore it is of much importance from whence Light-
nings come, and whither they go : the best Thing observed
in them, is when they return into the easterly Parts. And,
therefore, when they come from that principal Part of the
Sky, and return again into the same, it portends the highest
Good : and such was the Sign given (by report) to Sylla
the Dictator. In all other Parts of the World, they be less
fortunate or dreadful. They believe that there be Light-
nings, which to utter abroad is held unlawful ; as also is to
give Ear unto them, unless they be declared either to Parents
or to a Friend. How great is the Folly of this Observation
was found at Rome upon the blasting of Juno's Temple by
Scaurus, the Consul, who soon after was President of the
Senate. It lightneth without Thunder, more in the Night

his confidence staggered by this phenomenon ; and Suetonius informs us,
that it was viewed by Titus as a portent of evil to himself, just before his
death; and his spirits became proportionally depressed. — Wern. Club.

94 History of Nature. [BoOK II.

than by Day. Of all Creatures, Man only it doth not always
kill ; the Rest it despatcheth instantly. This Honour we see
Nature hath given to him ; whereas many great Beasts sur-
pass him in Strength. All other Creatures smitten with
Lightning fall down upon the contrary Side ; Man only (un-
less he turn upon the Parts stricken) dieth not. Those that
are smitten from above upon the Head, sink down directly.
He that is struck watching, is found dead with his Eyes close
shut: but whoever is smitten sleeping, is found with his Eyes
open. A Man thus coming by his Death, may not by Law
be burned : Religion hath taught that he ought to be buried
in the Earth. No living Creature is set on Fire by Light-
ning, unless it is breathless first. The Wounds of them
that be smitten with Lightning are colder than all the Body
besides.

CHAPTER LV.

What Things are not Smitten with Lightning.

OF all those Things which grow out of the Earth, Light-
ning blasteth not the Bay-tree ; nor doth it enter at any Time
above five Feet deep into the Ground : and, therefore, Men
fearful of Lightning, suppose the deeper Caves to be the
most safe : or else Booths made of Skins of Beasts, which
they call Sea-Calves1; for of all Creatures in the Sea, this
alone is not subject to the Stroke of Lightning : like as of
all Birds, the Eagle (which for this Cause is feigned to be
the Armour-bearer of Jupiter, for this Kind of Weapon). In
Italy, between Tarracina arid the Temple of Feronia, they
gave over in Time of War to build Towers ; for not one of
them escaped being overthrown with Lightning.

1 Seals (Phocae) are the creatures here intended ; and, probably, not
any particular species. Suetonius informs us, that Augustus Caesar, who
was greatly afraid of thunder, was accustomed to carry the skin of a seal
along with him, wherever he went. Tiberius always wore a crown of
bay-leaves on his head, with the same object. — Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 95

CHAPTER LVI.

Of strange and prodigious Rain1, of Milk, Blood, Flesh,
Iron, Wool, Tiles, and Bricks.

BESIDES these Things in this lower Region under Hea-
ven, we find recorded on Monuments that it rained Milk
and Blood when M. Acilius and C. Porcius were Consuls.
And many Times beside it rained Flesh ; as, namely, whilst
L. Volumnius and Serv. Sulpitius were Consuls : and what
of it the Fowls of the Air carried not away, never putrified.
In like Manner, it rained Iron in Lucania, the Year before
that in which M. Crassus was slain by the Parthians; and

1 A coloured mist has been mentioned, in a note to chap, xxvii. Ruysch
mentions a flight of butterflies in 1543, which sprinkled the herbage, roofs
of houses, and human clothing, with drops of their dung, like blood. A
similar circumstance in England, recorded by Pennius, was supposed
to have presaged the plague. There are sufficient modern proofs that
living fishes, frogs, and other creatures or materials, have fallen in
showers : in the former instance, remote from the sea or any great river.
These things can only be explained by supposing them to have been first
taken up by some whirlwind, or sudden gust ; and it is not unlikely that
the ashes of a volcano were the materials of some of these showers. Ovid,
by poetic license, accumulates all the bad omens on record or in tradition,
hi the alarming prognostications of the death of Julius Caesar (" Meta-
morphoses," b. xv.) ; and it may be a principal reason why Pliny specifies
the times of these occurrences, to shew that Ovid's narrative is only a
poetic fiction.

The following translation of a paragraph in the " Museum Wormi-
anum" (p. 17, De Terris Miracvlusis), is a specimen of the manner in
which such extraordinary events were regarded, even at a very modern
date : — " In the year 1619, when the preposterous fashion of neck-bands,
kerchiefs, and other female ornaments of linen, dyed of cerulean blue, in-
vaded Denmark, and in spite of the remonstrances of the ministers of
God obstinately persisted, by adding pride to luxury, Almighty God,
that he might by all means declare how abhorrent this sin was to him,
and recall mortals to repentance by a miracle, in many places of Scania
rained down abundantly a kind of earth of a blue colour, very similar
to a sort sold by the dealers in spices. A small quantity of this was
given to me at the time by my good friend, Dr. Fincking, professor
of medicine at Copenhagen, &c." It probably proceeded from Hecla. —
Wern. Club.

96 History of Nature. [BooK II.

together with him all the Lucani his Soldiers, of whom there
were many in his Army. That which came down in this
Rain resembled in some sort Sponges : and the Aruspices
gave Warning to take Heed of Wounds from above. But in
the Year that L. Paulus and C. Marcellus were Consuls, it
rained Wool about the Castle Carissa, near to which, a Year
after, T. Annius Milo was slain. At the Time that the same
Mito pleaded his own Cause at the Bar, there fell a Rain of
Tiles and Bricks, as is related in the Records of that Year.

CHAPTER LVII.

Of the Rustling of Armour, and the Sound of Trumpets heard
from Heaven.

IN the Time of the Cimbrian Wars, we have been told
that Armour was heard to rustle, and the Trumpet to sound,
out of Heaven. And this happened very often, both before
and after those Wars. But in the third Consulship of
Marius, the Amerines and Tudertes saw Men in Arms in the
Sky1, rushing one against another, from the East and West ;
and those of the West were discomfited. That the very
Firmament itself should be on Fire is no Wonder, for often
it hath been seen when Clouds have caught any great deal
of Fire.

CHAPTER LVIII.

Of Stones falling from the Sky*.

THE Greeks greatly celebrate Anaxagoras Clazomenius,
who, by the Learning that he had in Astronomy, foretold in

1 This was probably the Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights; a
phenomenon rarely seen so far to the South. It is, perhaps, the same
that is referred to by Josephus, in his narrative of the terrors sent by
God before the fatal siege of Jerusalem. The account of what was seen
in the county of Cumberland, immediately preceding the invasion of
England by the Pretender, will shew how nearly aerial appearances may
approach to realities. — Wern. Club.

2 For a long time the fall from the sky, of what are denominated
Meteorolites, was deemed too preposterous to be believed ; but since the

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 97

the second Year of the Seventy-eighth Olympiad, what Time
a Stone would fall from the Sun : and the same happened
accordingly, in the Daytime, in a Part of Thracia, near the
River .ZEgos ; which Stone is shewed at this Day as big as a
Wain-load, carrying a burnt Colour : at which Time a Comet
also burned by Night. Which if any Man believe that it
was fore-signified, he must needs also confess, that this fore-
telling by Anaxagoras was more miraculous than the Thing
itself: and that it destroyed the Knowledge of Nature's
Works, and confounds all Things, if we should believe that
either the Sun were a Stone, or that ever any Stone were in
it. But, that Stones fall often, no Man will make any doubt-
In the public Place of Exercise in Abydos, there is one at
this Day upon the same Cause preserved, and held in great
Reverence : it is but of small size, yet it is reported to be the
same that Anaxagoras foretold to be about to fall in the
midst of the Earth. There is one revered also at Cassandria,
which was called Potidsea, a Colony from thence deducted.
I myself have seen another in the Territory of the Vocantians,
which was brought thither but a little before.

CHAPTER LIX.
Of the Rainbow.

THOSE which we call Rainbows, are seen often without any
Wonder, or betokening Portent : for they foretel not so much

facts are no longer doubted, the instances recorded by Pliny become
valuable evidences of their antiquity. A still more ancient instance is
found in the Book of Joshua, x. 11, where, in the conquest of Canaan,
the Lord threw down great stones from heaven on the enemy, and dis-
comfited them. The miraculous nature of this last transaction does not
remove it from the class of natural occurrences ; for Nature itself is only
an instrument in the hands of its Creator. With regard to the prognos-
tication of Anaxagoras, it can only be taken to signify the high reputation
of this philosopber ; which led the public to believe that they could not
attribute too much to his insight into the occurrences of Nature. There
is reason to suppose that some of the images which were said to have fallen
down from Jupiter (Acts of the Apostles, xix. 35) were derived from tbis
source. — Wern. Club.

98 History of Nature. [BooK 1 1 .

as rainy or fair Days, in a Manner that we can trust them.
But it is manifest that the Sunbeams striking upon an hollow
Cloud, when their Edge is repelled, are beaten back against
the Sun : and thus ariseth a Variety of Colours by the Mix-
ture of Clouds, Air, and fiery Light. Certainly, they never
are known but opposite to the Sun ; nor at any Time other-
wise than in Form of a Semicircle ; nor yet in the Night
Season, although Aristotle saith1 there was a Rainbow seen
by Night : however he confesseth, that it could not possibly
be but at the full of the Moon. They happen for the most
Part in Winter, chiefly from the Autumnal Equinox, as the
Days decrease. But as Days grow longer after the Spring
Equinox, they be not seen, no more than about the Summer
Solstice, when the Days are longest. But in Bruma, that is
to say, when they be shortest, they appear often. The same
appear aloft when the Sun is low ; and below, when he is
aloft. Also, they be of narrower Compass when the Sun
either riseth or setteth, but their Body spreadeth broad : and
at Noon they are narrower, but wider in Circumference. In
Summer they be not seen about Noon, but after the Autumnal
Equinox at all hours ; and never more than two at once.
The Rest of the same Nature, I see few Men do make any
doubt of.

CHAPTER LX.
Of Hail , Snow, Frost, Mist, and Dew.

HAIL is formed of Rain, congealed into Ice : and Snow
of the same Humour grown together, but not so hard. Frost
is made of Dew frozen. In Winter Snows fall, and not Hail.
It haileth oftener in the Daytime than in the Night ; yet Hail
sooner melteth by far than Snow. Mists be not seen either
in Summer, or in very cold Weather. Dews shew not either
in Frost or in hot Seasons, neither when there is Wind ; but

1 A rainbow by night is so far from being rare, that it is only
the difference of climate that will explain why Aristotle and Pliny
speak so doubtfully about it. It is usually void of colour. — Wern.
Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 99

only after a calm and clear Night. Frosts dry up moisture ;
for when the Ice is thawed the like Proportion of Water is
not found.

CHAPTER LXI.

Of the Shapes of Clouds.

A VARIETY of Colours and Shapes are seen in Clouds,
according as the Fire intermingled therein is either more or
less.

CHAPTER LXII.
Of the Properties of Weather in various Places.

MOREOVER there are many Properties of the Weather
peculiar to certain Places. The Nights in Africa be dewy in
Winter; in Italy, about Locri and the Lake Velinus, there is
not a Day but a Rainbow is seen. At Rhodes and Syracuse,
the Air is never so cloudy, but one Hour or other the Sun
shineth out. But such Things as these shall be related more
fitly in due Place. Thus much of the Air.

CHAPTER LXIII.
Of the Nature of the Earth.

THE Earth followeth next : unto which alone of all Parts
of the World, for her especial Benefits, we have given the
reverend Name of Mother1. For like as the Heaven is the

1 The earth was so commonly termed Mother by Greek and Roman
writers, in prose and verse, that it is unnecessary to refer to particular in-
stances. And it is not to be regarded as merely a poetic metaphor or
idle declamation, for it was their belief that the earliest origin of mankind
was from the ground, by an inherent property ; as explained by Lucre-
tius in his Second Book on the " Nature of Things : " so that each primi-
tive nation arose from its own soil. And even the renewal of the earth
with inhabitants after the flood, from the stones cast by Deucalion and
Pyrrha, was not popularly regarded as a fable ; although it is probable
that a mystical meaning was also supposed to be couched in the narrative.
But by Pliny this idea of maternity was extended more widely through
his adoption of the Pythagorean notion of the earth's being a living

100 History of Nature. [BooK 11.

(Mother) of God, even so is she of Men. She it is that
taketh us when we are coming into the World, nourisheth us
when we are new born : and once being come abroad, ever
sustaiueth us: and at the last, when we are rejected of all
the World besides, she embraceth us : then most of all, like
a kind Mother, she covereth us all over in her Bosom : by
no Merit more sacred than by it, wherewith she maketh us
sacred !; even bearing our Tombs and Titles, continuing our
Name, and extending our Memory against the Shortness of
our Age: whose last Power we, in our Anger, wish to be
heavy unto our Enemy2, and yet she is heavy to none; as if
we were ignorant that she alone is never angry with any
Man. Waters ascend into Clouds; they harden into Hail,
swell into Waves, and hasten headlong into Torrents. The
Air is thickened into Clouds, and rageth with Storms. But
She is bountiful, mild, and indulgent ; ready at all Times to
attend, as a Handmaid, upon the Good of Mortals. See
what she breeds being forced ! nay, what she yieldeth of her
own accord ! what odoriferous Smells, and pleasant Tastes !
what Juices, what soft Things, what Colours ! how faithfully
doth she repay, with Usury, that which was credited out unto
her ! Finally, what Things doth she nourish for our sake !
for hurtful Creatures, when the vital Breath was to blame in
giving them Life, she could not refuse to receive, after they

being; and as such, feeling and producing, by a kind of intelligence,
all the effects of pleasure or pain that can be ascribed to a sensitive being.
— Wern. Club.

1 To few things were the ancients more sensitive than to the honour
or unhappiness of interment after death. In various parts of the sacred
Scriptures the exposure of the inanimate body is threatened as a dreadful
calamity ; as in the instance of Goliath to David (1 Sam. xvii. 44) ; and
its infliction was felt to be a reproach, by both Israelites and Philistines,
in the case of Saul (1 Sam. xxxi. 12, 13). The instance of Elpenor, in the
eleventh book of the " Odyssey," and of Antigone, in the celebrated
Greek play of " Sophocles," are proofs how strongly the same feeling
existed in Greece. An ancient law of the Romans said : " Where the
body is interred, let the spot be sacred." — Wern. Club.

a " Sit tibi terra levis" was the earnestly expressed wish of the Romans
over the ashes of their friends ; and that it might lie heavy on their foes,
was an equally grave denunciation.— Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 101

were sown in her ; and being once bred, to sustain them.
That they proved venomous the Fault was to be laid upon
the Parents that engendered them, and not to her. For she
entertaineth no more a Serpent l after it hath stung a Man :
nay, she requireth punishment for them that are slow and
negligent of themselves to seek it. She bringeth forth mecli-
cinable Herbs, and evermore produces Something good for
Man. Moreover, it may be believed, that in compassion to
us, she appointed Poisons2, that when we were weary of Life,
cursed Famine (most adverse of all others to the Merits of
the Earth) should not consume us with pining Consump-
tion ; that lofty Precipices should not dash our Bodies to
pieces ; nor the preposterous Punishment by the Halter dis-
tort our Necks, and stop that Breath which we seek to be rid
of: last of all, that we might not seek our Death in the Sea,
and so be Food for Fishes ; nor yet the Edge of the Sword
mangle our Body, and so inflict extreme Pain. It is, there-
fore, in Compassion to us that she hath brought forth that
by which, in one gentle and easy Draught, we might die
without any Hurt of our Body, and without diminishing one
Drop of our Blood : without grievous Pain, and like them
that be athirst: that being in this Manner dead, neither
Fowl of the Air, nor wild Beast, prey upon our Bodies, but

1 We have not met with any thing to support this strange opinion of
Pliny, unless the following from Sir T. Browne's " Vulgar Errors " may
be thought to do so :— " Some veins of the earth, and also whole regions,
not only destroy the life of venomous creatures, but also prevent their
productions." — Wern. Club.

2 It was among the most awful of the customs of the Heathen, that
suicide was resorted to by even the most excellent men, on very slight
occasions. Not only are there instances where diseases of no great
severity were regarded as authorising this last resource, but on the least
disappointment or failure of success in a public undertaking it was consi-
dered as a point of honour, and an instance of commendable courage ; of
which the case of the illustrious stoic Brutus, at Philippi, is an eminent
instance. Pliny seems not to have imagined that no substance in nature
is really a poison, and that the plants and minerals so denominated are
only injurious when wrongly or too powerfully administered ; their more
concentrated strength, when properly used, only rendering them the
better instruments of good.— Wern. Club.

102 History of Nature. [BooK II.

that he should be reserved for the Earth, who perished by
himself and for himself: and, to confess the Truth, the Earth
had bred the Remedy of all Miseries, however we have
made it a Poison to our Life. For in the same Manner we
also employ Iron, which we cannot possibly be without. And
yet we should not do justly to complain, if she had brought
it forth to do hurt. Surely to this only Part of Nature we
are unthankful, as though she served not Man's Turn for all
Dainties ; not for Reproach to be misused. She is thrown
into the Sea, or to let in Arms of the Sea, eaten away with
Water. With Iron Tools, with Wood, Fire, Stone, Burthens
of Corn, she is tormented every Hour : and all this much
more for our Pleasures than to serve us with Food and
Necessaries. And yet these Misusages which she abideth
above, and in her outward Skin, may seem in some Sort
tolerable. But we pierce into her very Bowels in search of
Veins of Gold and Silver, Copper and Lead. And to seek
out Gems and some little Stones, we sink Pits deep in the
Ground. Thus we pluck the very Bowels from her to wear
on our Finger one Gem to fulfil our Pleasure, How many
Hands are worn with digging, that one Joint of our Finger
may shine ! Surely, if there were any infernal Spirits be-
neath, ere this Time these Mines (to feed Covetousness and
Luxury) would have brought them above Ground. Do we
wonder, then, if she hath brought forth some Things hurt-
ful ? But savage Beasts (I think) preserve her ; they keep
sacrilegious Hands from doing her Injury. Dig we not
amongst Dragons and Serpents ? and, together with Veins of
Gold, handle we not the Roots of poisonous Herbs ? Never-
theless, this Goddess we find the more appeased for all this
Misusage, because the End of all this Wealth tendeth to
Wickedness, to Murders, and Wars, and her whom we
drench with our Blood, we cover also with unburied Bones.
Which, nevertheless, as if she did reproach us for this Fury,
she herself covereth in the End, and hideth even the Wick-
edness of Mortals. Among other Imputations of an un-
thankful Mind, I may allege this also, that we be ignorant
of her Nature.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 103

CHAPTER LXIV.
Of the Form of the Earth.

THE first Thing that offereth itself to be considered, is
her Figure, in which by a general Consent we all agree.
For surely we utter nothing more commonly than the round
Ball1 of the Earth ; and confess that it is a Globe enclosed
within two Poles. But yet the Form is not that of a perfect
Globe, considering so great Height of Mountains, and such
Extent of Plains; nevertheless, if the Compass thereof might
be taken by Lines, the End of those Lines would meet just
in Circuit, and prove the Figure to be an accurate Circle.
And this the very Consideration of natural Reason doth
convince, although there were not those Causes which we
alleged about the Heaven. For in it the hollow Convexity
declineth upon itself, and on every Side resteth upon the
Centre thereof, which is that of the Earth. But this being
solid and compact, ariseth as if it swelled, and is stretched
without. The Heaven inclineth toward the Centre, but the
Earth goeth from the Centre ; whilst the World, with con-
tinual Volubility and turning about it, driveth the huge
Globe thereof into the Form of a round Ball.

1 The Egyptian Cosmogony, as delivered by Diodorus Siculus, de-
scribes the earth as "rolled within itself, and turned continually;" although
a subsequent idea was founded on its being merely an extended surface,
where the earth was inclosed within a field of waters, which was again
encompassed with darkness and impenetrable mist. But after what
Pliny has said in this, and the immediately following chapters, on the
form of the earth, and the proofs he has given of its being a globe, it
seems surprising that a contrary opinion should have prevailed, even to
comparatively modern times; and especially among men accustomed to
regard every thing delivered by the ancients as unquestionably true. This
perversity can only be accounted for by having made a religious dogma
of the contrary idea, on the authority of some ill-understood passages of
Scripture.— Wern. Club.

104 History of Nature. [BooK II.

CHAPTER LXV.

Of the Antipodes, whether there be any such. Also of the
Roundness of Water.

THERE is here great Debate between learned Men ; and
contrariwise of the ignorant Multitude : for they hold, that
Men are overspread on all Parts upon the Earth, and stand
one against another, Foot to Foot : also that the Summit of
the Heaven is alike unto all : and in what Part soever Men
be, they still tread after the same Manner in the midst. But
the common Sort ask, How, then, it happeneth, that they
who are opposite against us, do not fall into Heaven ? as if
there were not a Reason also ready, That the Antipodes
again should wonder why we also fell not off? Now there is
Reason that cometh between, carrying a Probability with it,
even to the untaught Multitude, that in a Globe of the Earth,
with many Ascents, as if its Figure resembled a Nut of the
Pine Tree; yet, nevertheless, it may be well inhabited in
every Place. But what Good doth all this, when another
great Wonder ariseth ? namely, that itself hangeth, and
falleth not with us: as if the Power of that Spirit1 especially
enclosed in the World were doubted: or that any Thing
could fall when Nature is repugnant thereto, and affordeth
no Place whither to fall : for as there is no Seat of Fire, but
in Fire ; of Water, but in Water ; of Air and Spirit, but in
Air ; even so there is no Room for Earth but in Earth, see-
ing all the Elements besides are ready to repel it from them.
Nevertheless, it is wonderful still how it should become a
Globe, considering so great Flatness of Plains and Seas. Of
which Opinion, Dicearchus (a Man of the first Rank in
Learning,) is a Favourer ; who, to satisfy the curious Inquiry
of Kings, had a Commission to take the Measure of Moun-
tains : of which he said that Pelion, the highest, was a Mile-
and-a-half high by the Plumb-line; and collected thereby,

1 What we now know to arise from the power of gravity, Pliny as-
cribes to the Anima Mundi, or vivifying effect of the soul of the world ;
with him, an answer to all difficulties.— Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 1 05

that its Proportion was Nothing in Comparison of the uni-
versal Rotundity of the Whole. But to me this was an
uncertain Guess of his, since I am not ignorant that certain
Tops of the Alps, for a long Tract, arise not under fifty Miles
in Height.

But this is it that the common People resist the most, if
they should be forced to believe that the Form of Water also
gathereth itself round at the Top. And yet there is Nothing
in the Nature of Things more evident to the Sight ; for the
Drops every where, not only as they hang, appear like little
round Balls ; but also if they light upon Dust, or rest upon
the Down of Leaves, we see them keep a perfect Roundness.
Also in Cups that are filled brimful, the middle Part in the
Top swelleth most. Which Things, considering the Thinness
of the Fluid, and its Softness settling upon itself, are sooner
found out by Reason than the Eye. And this is more won-
derful, that when Cups are filled to the full, if a very little
more Liquor be added, the overplus will run over all about :
but it falleth out the contrary, if you put in any solid
Weights, even if it were to the Weight of Twenty Denarii.
The Reason is, that Things received within, lift up the Li-
quor aloft to the Top, but poured upon the Tumour that
beareth aloft above the Edges, it must needs glide off. The
same is the Reason why the Land cannot be seen by them
that stand on the Deck of a Ship, but very plainly at the
same time from the Top of the Masts. Also as a Ship goeth
off from the Land, if any Thing that shineth be fastened on
the Top of the Mast, it seemeth to go down into the Sea by
little and little, until at last it is hidden entirely. Last of
all, the very Ocean, which we confess to be the utmost Bound
environing the whole Globe : by what other Figure could it
hold together, since there is no Bank beyond it to keep it
in? And this also cometh to be a Wonder how it happeneth,
although the Sea grow to be round, that the utmost Edge
thereof falleth not down ? Against which, if that the Seas
were plain, and of the Form they seem to be, the Greek
Philosophers, to their own great Joy and Glory, prove by
geometrical Demonstration, that it cannot possibly be that
the Water should fall. For seeing that Waters run naturally

106 History of Nature. [BOOK II.

from above to the lower Parts, and that all Men confess that
this is their Nature, and no Man doubteth that the Water of
the Sea hath always come on any Shore so far as the Sloping
would have suffered : doubtless it appeareth, that the lower
a Thing is, the nearer it is to the Centre ; and that all the
Lines which from thence are sent out to the next Waters, are
shorter than those which from the first Waters reach to the
utmost Extremity of the Sea. Hereupon the whole Water,
from every Part thereof, bendeth to the Centre, and there-
fore falleth not away, because it inclineth naturally to the
inner Parts. And this we must believe, that Nature, the
Work-mistress, framed it so : to the End that the Earth,
which being dry could not by itself, without some Moisture,
keep any Consistence ; and the Fluid, likewise, which could
not abide, unless the Earth upheld it, might mutually em-
brace one another ; the one opening all the Creeks, and the
other running wholly into the other, by the Means of secret
Veins within, without, and above, like Bands to clasp it ;
yea, and so break out at the Tops of the Hills : whither
being partly carried by a Spirit, and partly expressed by the
Weight of the Earth, it mounteth, as it were, in Pipes : and
so far is it from Danger of falling away, that it leapeth up
to the highest and loftiest Things. By which Reason it is
evident, why the Seas do not increase, although so many
Rivers daily run into them.

CHAPTER LXVI.
How the Water is united to the Earth.

THE Earth, therefore, in its whole Globe, is in the midst
thereof hemmed in with the Sea, that flows round about it.
And this needeth not to be sought out by Argument, for it is
known already by Experience.

CHAPTER LXVII.
Navigation upon the Sea and great Rivers.

FROM Gades and the Pillars of Hercules, the whole of the
West Sea is at this Day sailed over in the whole Compass of

BOOK 1 1 .] History of Nature. 107

Spain and France. But the North Ocean was for the most
Part discovered, under the Conduct of Divus Augustus
Casar1, who, with a Fleet, compassed Germany, and as far
as to the Cape of the Cimbrians : and from thence having
viewed the vast Sea, or taken Knowledge thereof by Report,
he passed to the Scythian Climate and those cold Coasts
abounding with too much Moisture. For which Cause tKere
is no likelihood, that in those Parts the Seas are at an End,
where the Power of Moisture predominates. And near it,
from the East, out of the Indian Sea, that whole Part under
the same Clime which bendeth toward the Caspian Sea, was
sailed throughout by the Macedonian Armies, when Seleucus
and Antiochus reigned, who commanded that Seleucida
and Antiochida should bear their Names. About the Caspian
Sea, also, many Coasts of the Ocean have been discovered ;
and by Piecemeal, rather than all at once, the North of one
Side or other hath been sailed or rowed over. But to put
all out of Conjecture, there is a great Argument collected by
the Palus Maeotis, whether it be a Gulf of that Ocean (as
many have believed) or an overflowing of the same, divided
from it by a narrow Piece of the Continent. In another Side
of Gades, from the same, West, a great Part of the South
Gulf, round about Mauritania, is at this Day sailed. And,
indeed, the greater Part of it, as well as of the East, also the
Victories of Alexander the Great encompassed on every Side,
as far as to the Arabian Gulf. Wherein, when Cams Ccesar
the son of Augustus warred in those Parts, the Marks are
reported to have been seen remaining from the Spaniards'
Shipwreck. Hanno, likewise, in the Time that the Power of
Carthage flourished, sailed round from Gades to the utmost
Bounds of Arabia2, and set down that Voyage in Writing :

1 This can only refer to an expedition, mentioned by Suetonius in his
life of the Emperor Claudius, of Drusus, the son of Livia ; who, while
commanding in the Rhetian and German wars, was the first of the Romans
that navigated the Northern Ocean. — Wem. Club.

2 The only fragment of the geographical knowledge of the Cartha-
ginians that has come down to our times is the " Periplus" of Hanno. It
is printed in Hudson's " Geographic Veteris Scriptores Graeciae," 4 vols.

108 History of Nature. [BooK II.

like as also Himilco, at the same Time, was sent out to dis-
cover the remote Coasts of Europe. Moreover, Cornelius
Nepos writeth, that in his Time a certain Eudoxus1, when he
fled from King Lathyrus, departed out of the Arabian Gulf,

8vo. Leipsic ; and has been investigated by three competent geographers.
First, by Bougainville, who conceives Hanno to have reached the Gulf of
Benin ; next, by Major Rennell, who carries his course only to a little
beyond Sierra Leone ; and lastly, by M. Gosselin, who insists upon termi-
nating it about the river Nun. According to these authorities, Pliny has
greatly extended the voyage of Hanno, when he says he reached the utmost
bounds of Arabia. Herodotus does not seem to have been informed of this
voyage of Hanno, he merely says (" Melpomene," xliii.) : — " The Cartha-
ginians affirm, that they ascertained that Libya is surrounded by the sea."
— Wern. Club.

1 Strabo has thrown some discredit on the voyage of Eudoxus to make
the circuit of Africa : but he does not seem to adduce any argument strong
enough to controvert the general belief of antiquity, that repeated at-
tempts were made by Eudoxus to explore the unknown coasts of the
African continent. He was a native of Cyzicus, and employed first by
Ptolemy Euergetes, and afterwards at his own instigation, in several
maritime expeditions. A digest of the narratives of Strabo respecting
these voyages of Eudoxus, may be seen in Murray's " Encyclopedia of
Geography," p. 14.

That the circumnavigation of Africa was really accomplished, even
prior to the time of Herodotus, we learn from " Melpomene," xlii. " For
Libya is clearly surrounded by the sea, except so much of it as borders on
Asia ; this, Neco, king of the Egyptians, was the first we know of to
demonstrate. That prince, having ceased his excavations for the canal
leading out of the Nile into the Arabian Gulf, despatched certain natives
of Phoenicia on shipboard, with orders to sail back through the Pillars
of Hercules, even into the North Sea, and so make good their return into
Egypt. The Phosnicians of consequence having departed out of the Ery-
threan Sea, proceeded on their voyage in the Southern Sea : when it was
autumn, they would push ashore, and sowing the land, whatever might
be the part of Libya they had reached, await the harvest time : having
reaped their corn, they used to continue their voyage : thus, after the
lapse of two years, having in the third doubled the Pillars of Hercules,
they came back into Egypt ; and stated what is not credible to me, but
may be so, perhaps, to some, that in their circumnavigation of Libya they
had the sun on the right. Thus was Libya first known to be surrounded
by the sea." — LAURENT'S Herodotus.

" Herodotus," says Murray, " seems inclined to credit this information,
unless on the ground of one general statement, -<- that they had the sun

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 109

and held on his Course as far as Gades. And Ccelius Antipater,
long before him, reporteth, that he saw the Man who had
sailed from Spain to Ethiopia, in pursuit of Merchandise.
The same Nepos maketh Report concerning the compassing
about of the North, that unto Qu. Metellus Celer (Colleague
to-C. Afranius in the Consulship, but at that Time Proconsul
in Gaul) certain Indians were given by a King of the Sue-
vians1, who, as they sailed out of India, for Traffic, as Mer-

on the right ; which being the very thing that should have happened,
and disbelieved only through his ignorance, strongly fortifies our inclina-
tion to credit the story." — Wern. Club.

1 At an early period the Phoenicians, and probably the Greeks, did
not scruple to entrap, and sell for slaves, strangers and others who had
never kindled their resentment. In the fourteenth book of the " Odys-
sey," Ulysses represents himself as having narrowly escaped a snare of this
kind; and as the whole narrative is an artful fiction, intended to have
the appearance of truth to an Ithacan peasant, the practice of kidnapping
slaves could not then have appeared incredible to any inhabitant of that
island : —

" A false Phoenician, of insidious mind,
Versed in vile arts, and foe to humankind,
With semblance fair invites me to his home ;
I seized the proffer (ever fond to roam) :
Domestic in his faithless roof I stay'd,
Till the swift sun his annual circle made.
To Libya then he meditates the way ;
With guileful art a stranger to betray,
And sell to bondage in a foreign land :
Much doubting, yet compell'd, I quit the strand.
* * * * *

* * but Jove's intent

Was yet to save the oppress'd and innocent." — POPE.

Tacitus ("Agricola," cap. xxviii.) mentions an instance of shipwrecked
persons having been treated as pirates, and sold into slavery. He is speak-
ing of a cohort of the Usipians serving in Britain, who, having left the
island in three light galleys, became the sport of winds and waves. In
this distress they sailed round the extremity of the island, and, through
want of skill in navigation, were wrecked on the Continent, where they
were treated as pirates, first by the Suevians, and afterwards by the Fri-
sians. Being sold to slavery, and in the way of commerce turned over to
different masters, some of them reached the Roman settlements on the
banks of the Rhine, and there grew famous for their sufferings, and the

110 History of Nature. [BooK II.

chants, were driven by tempestuous Weather, and cast upon
Germany. Thus the Seas flowing on every Side about this
divided Globe, bereave us of a Part of the World : so that
neither from thence hither, nor from hence thither, is there
a Passage. The Contemplation of this, serving to discover
the Vanity of Men, seenieth to require that I should submit
to the Eye, how great this is, whatever it be ; and wherein
there is nothing sufficient to satisfy the Appetite of every
Man.

CHAPTER LXVIII.

What Portion of the Earth is habitable.

Now, in the first Place, it seems to be computed as if the
Earth were the just Half of the Globe, and that no Portion
of it were cut off by the Ocean: which notwithstanding,
clasping round about all the midst thereof, yielding forth
and receiving again all other Waters, and what Exhalations
go out into Clouds, and feeding the very Stars, so many as
they be, and of such great magnitude ; what a mighty Space
will it be thought to take up, and how little can there be left
for men to inhabit ! Surely the possession of so vast a Mass
must be excessive and infinite. Add to this, that of that
which is left, the Heaven hath taken away the greater Part.
For whereas there be of the Heaven five Parts, which they

bold singularity of their voyage. — See the " Agricola " of Tacitus, cap.
xxviii., translated by Murphy.

It would even appear that such distressed strangers were deemed a
proper sacrifice to the gods : Herodotus reports it as a tradition (book ii.)
that when Hercules, in his journeyings, arrived in Egypt, the Egyptians
crowned him with a garland, and designed to sacrifice him to Jupiter, if
he had not delivered himself by his great strength. The objection of the
historian to this story, on the ground of the unbloody sacrifices of the
Egyptians, is sufficiently answered by the fact that they were in the habit
of sacrificing red-haired men to their evil deity. Again, in his fourth book,
he says, that the Taurians, a people of Scythia, were accustomed to sacrifice
to a virgin all strangers that suffered shipwreck on their coast, and all
Grecian sailors they were able to seize. The people of Israel, on the con-
trary, were commanded by their law kindly to welcome strangers; for
they themselves had been strangers in a foreign land. — Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 1 1 1

call Zones1 : all that lieth under the two utmost, on both
Sides about the Poles, namely, the one which is called Sep-
tentrio, or the North, and the other over against it, named
the South, is overcharged with extreme Cold and perpetual
Frost. In both Zones it is always dim, and because the
Aspect of the milder Planets is diverted from thence, the
Light that is, sheweth but little, and appeareth white with the
Frost only. But the Middle of the Earth, in which the Sun
keepeth his Course, scorched and burnt with Flames, is pre-
sently parched with its hot Gleams2. Those two only on
either Side, between this burnt Zone and the two frozen, are
Temperate : and even those have not a Passage one to the

1 The poetical account of Ovid, in his " Metamorphoses," expresses
the belief of the ancients in this division. — Wern, Club.

2 Whatever acquaintance with the remote regions of the earth the
Phoenicians and Carthaginians might have acquired, was concealed from
the rest of mankind with mercantile jealousy ; and every thing relative
to the course of their navigation was not only a mystery of trade, but a
secret of state. Hence the ignorance of geography manifested by Pliny
and other writers, long after these celebrated voyagers had effected the
circumnavigation of Africa. Polybius, whose history was written about
150 years B. c., and who was particularly distinguished by his attention
to geographical researches, affirms that it was not known, in his time,
whether Africa was a continued continent stretching to the south, or
whether it was encompassed by the sea. Strabo mentions, indeed, the
voyage of Eudoxus, but treats it as a fabulous tale : and Ptolemy, the
most inquisitive and learned of all the ancient geographers, was equally
unacquainted with any parts of Africa situated a few degrees beyond the
Equinoctial Line ; for he supposes that this great continent was not
surrounded by the sea, but that it stretched, without interruption, to-
wards the South Pole ; and he so far mistakes its true figure, that he
describes it as becoming broader and broader as it advances towards the
South.

The notion of the ancients concerning such an excessive degree of heat
in the Torrid Zone as rendered it uninhabitable, and their persisting in
this error long after they began to have some commercial intercourse with
several parts of India lying within the Tropics, is very extraordinary.
Pliny, in this chapter, falls in with both these errors : and Cicero (" Som-
nium Scipionis") holds the same opinion, — and other authorities might be
adduced. — See the Notes to Robertson's " History of America," where he
attempts to account for the apparent inconsistency of the ancients with
respect to their theory and experience. — Wern. Club.

1 12 History of Nature. [BooK II .

other, by .Reason of the burning Heat of the Planet. Thus
the Heaven hath taken from the Earth three Parts : and
what the Ocean hath plucked from it besides, is uncertain.
And even that one Portion remaining unto us, I know not
whether it be not even in greater Danger. For the same
Ocean entering (as we will shew) into many Creeks, keepeth
a Roaring against the other Seas within the Earth, and
so near cometh unto them, that the Arabian Gulf is not from
the Egyptian Sea above 115 Miles: the Caspian likewise
from the Pontic no more than 375. And the same floweth
between, and entereth into so many Arms, as thereby it
divideth Africa, Europe, and Asia asunder. What a Quan-
tity of the Land it taketh up may be reckoned at this Day
by the Measure of so many Rivers and Marshes. Add
thereto the Lakes and Pools : and take also from the Earth
the high Mountains, bearing their Heads aloft into the Sky,
so as hardly the Eye can reach their Heights; with the
Woods and steep Descents of the Valleys, the Wildernesses,
and Wilds left desert for a thousand Causes. These, so many
Pieces of the Earth, or rather as most have written, this little
Point of the World (for surely the Earth is nothing else in
Comparison of the whole) is the only Matter and Seat of our
Glory : here we seek for Honours, here we exercise our
Dominion : here we covet Wealth : here all Mankind is set
upon Turbulence : here we raise Wars even between Citizens
of the same Country : and with mutual Murders we make
more Room in the Earth^ And to let pass the public Fury
of Nations abroad, this is it wherein we drive out our Neigh-
bours on our Borders, and by Stealth dig Turf from our
Neighbour's Soil to put it unto our own : and when a Man
hath extended his Lands, and gotten Countries to himself far
and near, what a goodly deal of the Earth doth he enjoy !
but if he extends his Bounds to the full of his Covetous-
ness, what Portion thereof shall he hold when at last he is
dead?

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 113

CHAPTER LXIX.
That the Earth is in the midst of the World.

THAT the Earth is in the midst of the whole World,
appeareth by undoubted Reasons : but most evidently by the
equal Hours of the Equinox. For, unless it were in the
midst, the Instruments called Dioptrce have proved that
Nights and Days could not be found equal : and those In-
struments, above all other, confirm the same : seeing that in
the Equinox, by the same Line, both Rising and Setting of
the Sun are seen ; but the Summer Sun rising, and the Win-
ter setting, by their own several Lines. Which could by no
means happen if the Earth resteth not in the Centre.

«

CHAPTER LXX.

Of the Unequal Rising of the Stars: of the Eclipse, both
where and how it cometh.

THERE are three Circles closed within the Zones afore-
named, which distinguish the Inequalities of the Days :
which are, the (Summer) Solstitial Tropic, from the highest
Part of the Zodiac, in regard of us, toward the North Clime ;
and against it, another called the Winter Tropic, toward the
Southern Pole : and in like Manner the Equinoctial, which
goeth in the midst of the Zodiac Circle. The Cause of the
rest, which we wonder at, is in the Figure of the Earth itself,
which, together with the Water, is, by the same Arguments,
known to be like a Globe : for so, doubtless, it cometh to
pass, that with us the Stars about the North Pole never set ;
and those contrariwise of the South, never rise. And again,
those which are here be not seen of them, by Reason that the
Globe of the Earth swelleth up in the midst between. Again,
Trogloditine, and Egypt bordering upon it, never see the
North Pole Stars : neither hath Italy a Sight of Canopus, or
that which they name Berenice's Hair. Likewise another,
which, under the Empire of Augustus, men surnamed Ccesaris

H

1 14 History of Nature. [BooK 1 1 .

Thronon*: which yet are remarkable Stars. And so evidently
bendeth the Convexity of the Earth, that Canopus at Alex-
andria seemeth to the Beholders elevated above the Earth
almost one-fourth Part of a Sign ; but at Rhodes, the same
appeareth almost to touch the very Horizon, and in Pontus,
where the Elevation of the North Pole is highest, it is not
seen at all : yea, and this same Pole at Rhodes is hidden,
but more in Alexandria. In Arabia it is all hid at the first
Watch of the Night in November ; but at the second, it is
visible. In Meroe, at Midsummer, in the Evening, it ap-
peareth for a while ; but some few Days before the Rising
of Arcturus it is seen with the very Dawning of the Day.
Sailors, by their Voyages, come to the Knowledge of these
Stars most of any other, by Reason that some Seas are oppo-
site unto some Stars ; but others lie flat and incline forward
to others : so that also those Pole Stars appear suddenly, as
rising out of the Sea, which lay hidden before under the
winding Compass of a Ball. For the Heaven (Mundus)
riseth not aloft in this higher Pole, as some Men have said ;
for if so, these Stars should be seen in every Place : but those
that to the nearest Observers are supposed to be higher, the
same seem to them afar off to be immersed in the Sea. And
as this North Pole seemeth to be aloft to those that are
situated directly under it, so to them that be removed so far
as the other Devexity or Fall of the Earth, those abovesaid
Stars rise up aloft there, while these decline downward which
here were mounted on high. Which Thing could not possibly
fall out but in the Figure of a Ball. And hence it is, that
the Inhabitants of the East perceive not the Eclipses of the
Sun and Moon in the Evening, no more than those that
dwell West in the Morning : but those that be at Noon in the
South they often see. At the Time that Alexander the Great
obtained his famous Victory at Arbela, it is said that the
Moon was eclipsed at the second Hour of the Night : but this
Eclipse was at the Time of her Rising in Sicily. The Eclipse

1 Ccesaris Thronon: a new name affixed to an old constellation by
some flattering Greek ; but of which no further clue remains. The name
is not found in any other writer. — Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 115

of the Sun which happened before the Kalends of May, when
Vipsanus and Fonteius were Consuls (and that was not many
Years past) was seen in Campania between the seventh and
eighth Hours of the Day : but Corbulo (a Commander then
in Armenia) made Report, that it was seen there between the
tenth and eleventh Hours of the same Day : which was be-
cause the Compass of the Globe discovereth and hideth some
Things to some, and other to others. But if the Earth were
level, all Things should appear at once to all Men ; for neither
would one Night be longer than another, nor would the Day of
twelve Hours appear equal to any but to those that are seated
in the midst of the Earth, which now in all Parts agree toge-
ther alike.

CHAPTER LXXI.

What is the Reason of the Daylight upon the Earth?

AND hence it is, that it is neither Night nor Day at one
Time in all Parts of the World ; because the Opposition of
the Globe bringeth Night, and the Circuit thereof the Day.
This is known by many Experiments1. In Africa and Spain
there were raised by Annibal, high Watch-towers : and in
Asia, for the Fear of Pirates, the like Help of Beacons was
erected. Wherein it was observed oftentimes, that the Fires
giving Warning before (which were set on Fire at the sixth
Hour of the Day), were descried by them that were farthest
off in Asia, at the third Hour of the Night. Philonides, the
Courier of the same Alexander, despatched in nine Hours of
the Day 1200 Stadia, as far as from Sicyone to Elis : and
from thence again (although he went down Hill all the Way)
he returned oftentimes, but not before the third Hour of the
Night. The Cause was, because he had the Sun with him in
his Setting out ; and in his Return to Sicyon he went against
it, and ere he came home, left it in the West behind. Which
is the Reason also, that they who by Daylight sail Westward
in the shortest Day of the Year, pass along more Way than
those who sail all the Night long at the same Time, because
the others accompany the Sun.

1 These effects of longitude are either greatly exaggerated or untrue.
-— Wem. Club.

116 History of Nature. [BoOK II.

CHAPTER LXXII.

The Gnomonic Art of the same Matter : and also of the first

Dial

ALSO the Instruments serving for the Hours will not
serve for all Places : but in every 300 Stadia, or 500 at the
farthest, the Shadows that the Sun casteth are changed ; and
therefore the Shadow of the Style in the Dial, which they
call the Gnomon, in Egypt, at Noon, in the equinoctial Day,
is little more in length than half the Gnomon. But in the
city of Rome the Shadow wanteth the ninth Part of the
Gnomon. In the Town of Ancona it is longer by a thirty-
fifth Part. But in that Part of Italy which is called Venice,
at the same Time and Hour the Shadow and the Gnomon
are of one Length.

CHAPTER LXXIII.
Where and when there be no Shadows.

IN like Manner they say, that in the Town of Syene
(which is above Alexandria fifty Stadia), at Noon, in the
midst of Summer, there is no Shadow : and that for Experi-
ment thereof, a Well that was sunk in the Ground was lighted
to the Bottom ; whereby it appeareth that the Sun at that
Time is directly over that Place. Which also at the same
Time happeneth in India, above the River Hypasis, as Onesi-
critus hath written. And it is known that in Berenice, a
City of the Trogloditse, and from thence 4820 Stadia in the
same Country, at the Town of Ptolemais (which was built at
first on the Border of the Red Sea, for the Pleasure of hunt-
ing Elephants), the same is to be seen forty-five Days before
the Summer Solstice, and as long after : so that for the
Space of ninety Days all Shadows are cast toward the South.
Again, in the Island of Meroe, which is the capital Place of
the Ethiopian Nation, and is inhabited 5000 Stadia from
Syene, upon the River Nile, twice in the Year the Shadows
disappear ; which is, when the Sun is in the eighteenth De-
grees of Taurus , and in the fourteenth of Leo. In the Coun-

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 1 1 7

try of the Oretes, in India, there is a Mountain named Maleus,
near which the Shadows in Summer are cast into the South,
and in Winter to the North. There, for fifteen Nights only,
the Constellation Septentrio is to be seen. In the same
India, at Patales (a famous Port), the Sun riseth on the
right Hand, and Shadows fall to the South. While Alex-
ander was there, Onesicritus, an Officer of his, wrote that it
was observed there, that the North Star was seen the first
Part only of the Night : also that in such Places of India where
there were no Shadows, the North Star did not appear : and
that those Quarters were called Ascia*9 where they kept no
Reckoning of Hours.

CHAPTER LXXIV.

Where Twice in the Year the Shadows fall in contrary
Directions.

BUT throughout all Trogloditice, -Eratosthenes hath writ-
ten, that the Shadows twice a- Year, for forty-five Days, fall
in contrary Directions.

CHAPTER LXXV.
Where the Day is longest, and where shortest.

IT cometh thus to pass, that by the variable Increment of
the Daylight, the longest Day in Meroe doth comprehend
twelve equinoctial Hours, and eight Parts of one Hour: but
in Alexandria, fourteen Hours ; in Italy, fifteen ; in Britain,
seventeen, where, in Summer, the Nights being light, by
infallible Experience shew that which Reason forceth to be-
lieve : namely, that at Midsummer, as the Sun approacheth
near to the Pole of the World, the Places of the Earth lying
underneath, have Day continually for six Months: and con-
trariwise, Night, when the Sun is remote as far as Bruma.
And this, Pythias of Massiles hath written of Thule2, an
Island distant Northward from Britain six Days' sailing ; and

1 That is, without shadow.

2 This is judged to be Iceland. The geography of Britain will be
found in the fourth book. — Wern. Club.

118 History of Nature. [BoOK II.

some affirm the same of Mona, which is an Island distant
from Camalodunum, a Town of Britain, about two hundred
Miles.

CHAPTER LXXVI.

Of the Horologium, or Dial.

THIS Understanding of Shadows, and what is named
Gnonomice, Anaximenes the Milesian, the Disciple of Anaxi-
mander above-named, discovered : and he was the first also
that shewed in Lacedsemon the Horologe (or Dial1) which
they call Sciotericon.

CHAPTER LXXVII.
How the Days are observed.

THE very Day itself Men have, after divers Manners,
observed. The Babylonians count for Day all the Time be-
tween two Sun-risings ; the Athenians between the Set-
tings ; The Umbrians from Noon to Noon : but all the
common Sort from Daylight until it be dark : the Roman
Priests, and those that have defined a Civil Day, and likewise
the Egyptians and Hipparchus, from Midnight to Midnight2.
That the Spaces between Lights are greater or less betwixt
Sunrisings, near the Solstices, than the Equinoctials ap-
peareth by this : that the Position of the Zodiac, about the
Middle Parts thereof, is more oblique ; but toward the Sol-
stice more direct.

CHAPTER LXXVIII.
The Reason of the Difference of Nations.

HEREUNTO we must annex such Things as are linked to
celestial Causes. For it is beyond doubt that the Ethiopians,

1 The Greeks were accustomed to regard as discoverers those who first
made any thing known to their nation. But the dial was in use at the
palace of Ahaz at Jesusalem, nearly 150 years before the time that Pliny
mentions. — Wern. Club.

2 The Jews began their day from the first appearance of stars in the
evening ; believing this to mark the period when creation began to be set
in order, and time to be measured.— Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 1 19

by Reason of the Sun's Vicinity, are scorched with the Heat
thereof, like to them that be burnt, having their Beards and
Hair curled. Also, that in the opposite Climate of the
World to it, in the frozen Regions, the People have white
Skins, Hair growing long, and straight, and yellow; but they
be fierce by Reason of the rigorous Cold : howbeit, the one,
as well as the other, in this Change, are dull : and the very
Legs argue the Temperature. For in the Ethiopians the
Juice is drawn upward again by the Nature of Heat : but
among the northern Nations the same is driven to the infe-
rior Parts, because Moisture is apt to fall downward. Here
are bred hurtful wild Beasts : but there are found Crea-
tures of a Variety of Shapes ; and especially Fowls and Birds
of many Forms : they are tall of Stature, as well in one Part
as the other : in the hot Regions, by occasion of the natural
Tendency of Fire ; in the other, through the Nourishment by
Moisture. But in the Midst of the Earth there is an whole-
some Mixture from both Sides ; the whole Tract is fruitful
for all Things, and the Habit of Men's Bodies of a balanced
Constitution. In the Colour, also, there existeth a great
Temperature. The Manners of the People are gentle, their
Senses clear, their Capacity fertile and capable of all Things
within the Compass of Nature. They also bear sovereign
Rule, and sway Empires, which those uttermost Nations
never had : yet true it is, that even they who are out
of the Temperate Zones may not consent to be subject nor
accommodate themselves unto these : for such is their
savage Nature that it urgeth them to living solitary by
themselves.

CHAPTER LXXIX.

Of Earthquakes*.

THE Babylonians were of Opinion, that Earthquakes and
Chasms, and all other Occurrences of this Nature, are occa-

1 The definition of an earthquake is, — the transit of a wave of elastic
compression in any direction, from vertically upwards, to horizontally in
any azimuth, through the surface and crust of the earth, from any centre
of impulse (whether producing flexure or fracture), or from more than

120 History of Nature. [BOOK IF.

sioned by the Influence of the Planets : bat of those three
only to which they attribute Lightnings. And it is effected
by the Means of their keeping their Course with the Sun, or
meeting with him : and especially when this Concurrence is
about the Quadratures of the Heaven. And if it be true, as
it is reported, of Anaximander, the Milesian Natural Philo-
sopher, his Foreknowledge of Things was excellent and wor-
thy of Immortality : for they say he forewarned the Lacede-
monians to look well to their City and Dwelling-houses, for
that an Earthquake approached ; which fell out accord-
ingly : when not only their whole City was shaken, but also
a great Part of the Mountain Taygetus, which projected like

one ; and which may be attended with tidal and sound waves, dependent
upon the former, and upon circumstances of position as to sea and land.—
MALLET : Transactions of Royal Irish Academy, vol. xix.

The causes, and many of the attending phenomena, are as much a
matter of conjecture now as when Pliny wrote ; but he does not even
deem worthy of notice the popular supposition, that the giants who had
rebelled against the gods were buried beneath these mountains, where
by their struggles they gave occasion to those commotions : nor that the
shop of Vulcan was beneath Etna, of which the crater was the chimney.
It is more remarkable that he makes no reference to the idea of Pytha-
goras (Ovid's " Metamorphoses," b. xv.), that the phenomena of volcanic
eruption was a vital action of the earth, regarded as an animal ; for that
the earth was such we find Pliny expressing a decided opinion. But the
concluding explanation of the poet, however, was that which best suited
his inquiries.

Ceremonies concerning Earthquakes. — Whilst it was a maxim of the
state religion, that earthquakes were caused by the displeasure of some
divinity, it was still necessary that each occurrence of such phenomenon
should be fully announced by the proper officers, before the religious
observances appropriate to the case could be required ; and thus was se-
cured a guard against such alarms as might agitate the public mind, if
any neglect might seem to arise. The ceremonies were by public an-
nouncement ; and they were so imperative upon all, that any one engaging
in ordinary work at the time of these feriae would be judged to have
violated them. The salutation to the divine power that may have caused
the shock was, " Si Deo, si Dea," &c., to obviate the danger of an error
regarding which god, or which sex of these deities, had caused the calamity.
And this was of importance, because if a wrong name were called, so far
from being pacified, the real author might become still more offended. —
From Aulus Gellius.— Wern. Club.

BOOK If.] History of Nature. 121

the Poop of a Ship, being broken from the Rest, came down,
and with the Fall covered over the other Ruins. There is re-
ported another Conjecture byPherecydes, who was the Teacher
of Pythagoras; and the same was likewise of divine character;
for, by drawing Water out of a Well he both foresaw and
foretold an Earthquake there. Which, if they be true, how
far off, I pray you, may such Men seem to be from God, even
while they live upon Earth ? But I leave these Things free
for every Man to weigh according to his Judgment : and for
my own Part, I suppose that, without Doubt, the Winds are
the proper Cause. For the Earth never quakes but when
the Sea is still, and the Weather so calm that Birds, in their
flying, cannot hover in the Air; because all the Spirit which
should bear them up, is withdrawn : nor yet at any Time, but
after the Winds are laid ; namely, when the Blast is hidden
within the Veins and Caves of the Earth. Neither is this
Shaking in the Earth any other Thing than is Thunder in the
Cloud : nor the Chasm thereof aught else, but, like the Cleft
out of which the Lightning breaketh, when the Spirit enclosed
within struggleth and stirreth to go forth at Liberty.

CHAPTER LXXX.
Of Chasms of the Earth.

VARIOUSLY, therefore, the Earth is shaken, and thereupon
ensue wonderful Effects. In one Place the Walls of Cities
are laid prostrate : in another they are swallowed up in a deep
Chasm : here are cast up mighty Heaps of Earth ; there are
poured out Rivers of Water; sometimes Fire doth burst forth,
and hot Springs : and again the Course of Rivers is turned
away backward. There goeth before and cometh with it a
terrible Noise : one while a Rumbling more like the lowing
of Beasts : and then again it resembleth a Man's Voice, or
the clattering and rustling of Armour and Weapons; accord-
ing to the Quality of the Matter that receiveth the Noise, or
the Fashion either of the hollow Caverns within, or the
Cranny by which it passeth ; whilst in a narrow Way it
soundeth with a more slender Tone : and the same keepeth
an hoarse Din in winding Caves ; rebounding again in hard

122 History of Nature. [BooK II.

Passages ; roaring in moist Places ; waving and floating in
standing Waters ; boiling against solid Things. And there-
fore, oftentimes a Noise is heard without an Earthquake :
and never doth it shake after exactly the same Manner, but
trembleth and vibrateth. The gaping Chink sometimes re-
maineth wide open, and sheweth what it hath swallowed up ;
and at other Times it closeth up the Mouth, and hideth all :
and the Earth is brought together so again that there remain
no Marks to be seen : notwithstanding many a Time it hath
devoured Cities, and drawn into it a whole Tract of Country.
Maritime Regions, most of all, feel Earthquakes : neither
are the hilly Countries without this Calamity. I myself
have known by examination, that the Alps and Apennines
have oftentimes trembled. In the Autumn and Spring there
happen more Earthquakes than at other Times, the same as
Lightnings. And, therefore, Gallia and Egypt least of all be
shaken : for in Egypt the continual Summer1, and in Gallia
the Winter, is against it. Also, Earthquakes are more rife
by Night than by Day. But the greatest Shocks are in the
Morning and Evening. Toward Daylight there be many :
and if by Day, it is usually about Noon. They are also
when the Sun and Moon are eclipsed, because then Tempests
are laid to Rest: but especially, when after much Rain there
followeth a great Heat; or after Heat, much Rain.

CHAPTER LXXXI.
Signs of Approaching Earthquakes.

SAILORS also perceive it by an undoubting Conjecture,
when the Waves swell suddenly without any Gale of Wind,
or when they feel a Shock. And then do the Things quake

1 It has been contended that the internal actions of the earth, causing
or affected by volcanic motion, are intimately connected with changes in
the atmosphere and the variety of the seasons ; giving rise also to epidemic
diseases, both in man and animals, and even in vegetables : and on the
other hand, that the actions of the earth, in earthquakes and volcanoes,
are connected with what we now denominate the electric state of the
atmosphere. Several coincidences of this kind have been remarked;
and in either case they are applicable to Egypt above other countries. —
Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 123

which are within the Ships, just as those in Houses, and with
their rustling give Warning beforehand. Birds, likewise,
sit not quietly without Fear. In the Sky, also, there is a
Sign, for there goeth before, either in Daytime, or soon after
the Sun is gone down in Serenity, a thin Streak or Line of a
Cloud stretched out in great Length. Moreover, the Water
in Wells1 is more troubled than ordinary, and not without
an offensive Smell.

CHAPTER LXXXII.
Helps against approaching Earthquakes.

BUT there is a Remedy for the same, such as Caverns in
many Places do yield : for they discharge the Wind that was
conceived there before : a Thing observed in certain Towns,
which because they stand hollow, and have many Sinks dug
to convey away their Filth, are less shaken. And in the
same Towns, those Parts which be pendant are the safer : as
is well seen in Naples, in Italy, where that Quarter thereof
which is solid is subject to such Casualties. And in Houses
the Arches are most safe, and the Angles of Walls, and
those Posts which, in shaking, will jog to and fro every Way.
Walls made of Brick or Earth take less Harm when they be
shaken in an Earthquake. And a great Difference there is
in the Manner of Earthquakes ; for the Motion is after many
Sorts. The safest is, when Houses as they rock keep a trem-
bling and warbling Noise : also when the Earth seemeth to
swell up in rising : and again to settle down with an alterna-
tive Motion. It is harmless, also, when Houses run on End
together by a contrary Stroke, and jut one against another:
for the one Motion doth withstand the other. The bending
downward in Manner of waving, and a rolling like to surging
Billows, is that which is so dangerous ; or when the whole

1 A consideration of the fact here expressed might have mitigated the
wonder felt by Pliny at the prognostication of approaching earthquakes,
referred to in chapter Ixxix. Their prescience only proved a close ob-
servance of Nature by these illustrious inquirers, and how far they were
in advance of the philosophy of the day. — Wern. Club.

124 History of Nature. [ BOOK II.

Motion forceth itself to one Side. These Tremblings of the
Earth give over when the Wind is vented out : but if they
continue, then they cease not for forty Days : yea, and many
Times it is longer, so that some of them have lasted for the
Space of a Year or two.

CHAPTER LXXXIII.
Portentous Earthquakes, seen only once.

THERE happened once (which I found in the Books of
Tuscan Science) within the Territory of Modena (whilst
L. Martins and Sex. Julius were Consuls) a mighty Portent
of the Earth : for two Mountains rushed together, and with
the utmost Clamour assaulted one another, and then retired
again. It fell out in the Daytime : and between them there
issued flaming Fire and Smoke, mounting up into the Sky :
while a great Number of Roman Knights, a Multitude of
Servants, and Passers-by, stood and beheld it from the Mml-
lian Way. With this Conflict all the Villages upon them
were dashed in Pieces ; and very much Cattle that was
within died therewith. And this happened the Year before
the social War ; which I doubt whether it were not more
pernicious to the Land of Italy than the Civil Wars. That was
no less wonderful a Prodigy, which was known also in our
Age, in the last Year of Nero the Emperor (as we have shewn
in his Acts), when Meadows and Olive-rows (notwithstanding
the great public Road lay between) passed across into one
another's Place, in the Marrucine Territory, within the Lands
of Vectius Marcellus, a Roman Knight, Procurator under
Nero in his Affairs.

CHAPTER LXXXIV.
Wonders of Earthquakes.

THERE happen together with Earthquakes, Inundations
of the Sea ; which is infused into the Earth with the same
Wind, or else received into the hollow Receptacle as it set-
tleth down. The greatest Earthquake within the Remem-
brance of Man, was that which happened during the Reign

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 125

of Tiberius Ccesar, when twelve Cities of Asia were over-
turned in one Night. But Earthquakes were most frequent
in the Punic War, when within one Year there were an-
nounced at Rome seven-and-fifty l. In which Year, indeed,
when the Carthaginians and Romans fought a Battle at the
Lake Thrasymenus, none of either army perceived the Oc-
currence of a great Earthquake. Neither is this a simple
evil Thing, nor doth the Danger consist only in the Earth-
quake itself, but that which it portendeth is as bad or worse.
Never did the City of Rome experience an Earthquake, but
it proved a Warning of some unhappy Event to follow.

CHAPTER LXXXV.
In what Places the Seas have gone back.

THE same Cause is to be rendered of some new Piece of
Ground, when the before-named Wind within the Earth,
able to inflate and raise the Ground, was still not of Power
sufficient to break forth and escape. For there groweth firm
Land not only by that which Rivers bring in (as the Islands
Echinades, which were raised up by the River Achelous ;
and also by the Nile the greater Part of Egypt, into which,
if we believe Homer, from the Island Pharus there was a
Course by Sea of a Day and Night's Sailing), but also by the
retiring of the Sea; as the same Poet hath written of the
Circeice. The like is said to have happened both in the
Haven of Ambracia, for the Space of ten thousand Paces ;
and also in that of the Athenians for five thousand Paces,
near Piraeeum : also at Ephesus, where formerly the Sea
flowed near to the Temple of .Diana. Indeed, if we believe
Herodotus, it was all a Sea from above Memphis to the
Ethiopian Mountains : and likewise from the Plains of Arabia.
It was Sea also about Ilium, and all Teuthrania ; and where
the River Meander now runneth by Meadows2.

1 Announced by the augurs, and therefore a strong proof of the agita-
tion of the public mind. — Wern Club.

2 The records of all nations afford proof of similar facts, which are
still more extensively shewn by the discoveries of modern geology. It

126 History of Nature. [BooK II.

CHAPTER LXXXVI.
The Reason of Islands rising out of the Sea.

THERE be Lands also that are produced after another
Manner, and emerge on a sudden in some Sea : as if Nature
struck a Balance with herself, by giving again in one Place
that which her gaping Gulfs had swallowed up in another.

CHAPTER LXXXVII.
What Islands have sprung up, and at what Times1.

THOSE Islands, long since famous, Delos and Rhodes,
are recorded to have risen out of the Sea : and afterwards,
others that were less, namely, Anaphe, beyond Melos ; Nea,
between Lemnus and Hellespont ; Alon£, between Lebedus
and Teos ; and Thera, and Therasia, among the Cyclades ;
which latter shewed in the fourth Year of the 135th Olym-
piad. Moreover, among the same Islands, 130 Years after,
Hiera, which is the same as Automate. And two Stadii from
it, after 110 Years, Thia, in our own Time, upon the eighth
Day before the Ides of July, when M. Junius Syllanus and
L. Balbus were Consuls.

CHAPTER LXXXVIII.
What Lands the Seas have broken in between.

IN our own Presence, and near to Italy, between the
JEtolian Islands ; and also near to Crete, there was one that
shewed itself with hot Fountains out of the Sea, for 1500

was a part of the teaching of Pythagoras, as we learn from Ovid (book
xv.) ; and by him it seems to have been made a portion of his doctrine of
the metempsychosis. — Wern. Club.

1 What are denominated eruptions of elevation have occurred in
various ages, and in almost every quarter of the world. The latest, and,
perhaps the most precise, account, of such an elevation of an island from
the bottom of the sea, is that of Graham's Island, in 1831, in the Medi-
terranean Sea, between Partellaria and Sciacca ; of which many parti-
culars are given in several publications of that date : and popularly in
London's "Magazine of Natural History," vol. iv.— Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 127

Paces: and another in the third Year of the 143rd Olympiad,
within the Tuscan Gulf, which latter burned with a violent
Wind. It is recorded, also, that when a great Multitude of
Fishes floated about it, those Persons died presently that
fed thereof. So they report, that in the Campain Gulf the
Pithecusae Islands appeared. And soon after, the Mountain
Epopos in them (at which Time there suddenly shone out a
flaming Fire from it) was laid level with the plain Country.
Within the same, also, there was a Town swallowed up by
the deep Sea ; and in another Earthquake there appeared a
standing Pool : but in another, by the Fall of some Moun-
tains, there grew the Island Prochyta: for after this Manner,
also, Nature hath formed Islands. Thus, she disjoined Sicily
from Italy, Cyprus from Syria, Euboea from Bceotia, Ata-
lante and Macris from Euboea, Besbycus from Bithynia,
Leucostia from the Promontory of the Syrenes1.

CHAPTER LXXXIX.
What Islands became joined to the Main.

AGAIN, she hath taken Islands from the Sea, and joined
them to the Main Land ; as, for Instance, Antissa to Lesbos,
Zephyria to Halicarnassus, Aethusa to Myndus, Dromiscos
and Pern£ to Miletus, and Narthecusa to the Promontory
Parthenius. Hybanda, once an Island of Ionia, is now dis-
tant from the Sea 200 Stadia. As for Syria, Ephesus hath it
now in the midland Parts far from the Sea. So Magnesia,
neighbour to it, hath Derasitas and Sophonia. Epidaurus
and Oricum have ceased to be Islands.

CHAPTER XC.
What Lands have been turned wholly into Sea.

NATURE hath altogether taken away some Lands ; the
chief of which was where now is the Atlantic Sea, but which

1 To this may be added, Britain from France. But, in truth, to dis-
ruptions of this kind we owe, for the most part, the present distribution of
the geography of the world. — Wern. Club.

128 History of Nature. [BooK II.

was formerly a Continent for a mighty Space of Ground ; if
we may credit Plato. And soon after, in our Mediter-
ranean Sea, all men may see at this Day how much hath
been immersed ; as, Acarnania by the inward Gulf of Am-
bracia ; Achaia within that of Corinth ; Europe and Asia
within Propontis and Pontus. And besides, the Sea hath
broken through Leucas, Antirrhium, Hellespont, and the
two Bosphori.

CHAPTER XCI.
What Lands have swallowed up themselves.

AND now to pass over Arms of the Sea and Lakes, the
Earth hath devoured and buried herself: as, for Example,
that very high Mountain, Cybotus, with the Town Curites ;
Sipylus in Magnesia : and in the same Place before that, the
most noble City called Tantalus : the Territories of Galanis
and Gamale in Phcenice, together with the Cities themselves.
Phogium, also, a very high Hill in Ethiopia, as if the very
Shores were not to be trusted, but they also must work
mischief.

CHAPTER XCII.
What Cities have been swallowed up by the Sea.

THE Sea of Pontus hath overwhelmed Pyrrha and Antyssa,
about Maeotis ; and Elice, and Bura in the Gulf of Corinth :
whereof the Marks are to be seen in the deep Water. Out
of the Island Cea more than 30,000 Paces of Ground were
lost suddenly, with very many Men. In Sicily, also, the Sea
came in and took away half the City Thindaris, and all
between Italy and Sicily. The like it did in Bosotia and
Eleusina.

CHAPTER XCIII.
Of the Wonders of the Land.

LET us speak no more of Earthquakes, and any Thing
else of that Kind ; for we will rather speak of the Wonders

BOOK II.] History «/ Nature. 129

of the Earth than of the mischievous Freaks of Nature. And
surely the History of celestial Things was not more hard to
be related : the Wealth is such of Metals, in such Variety, so
rich, so fruitful, rising still one under another, for so many
Ages ; notwithstanding that daily there is so much consumed
throughout the World, with Fires, Ruins, Shipwrecks, Wars,
and fraudulent Practices : yea, and so much spent in luxury
by so many Men living ! yet how many Sorts of Gems there
be still so painted ! In precious Stones, what Variety of
Colours! 'and how bespotted ! And among them, the Bril-
liancy of some one excluding all else but Light! The Virtue
of medicinable Fountains : the continual Burning for so
many Ages of Fire issuing forth in so many Places : the
deadly Exhalations in some Places, either emitted from Pits
when they were sunk, or else from the very Position of the
Ground ; present Death in one Place to the Birds only (as at
Soracte, in a Quarter near the City) ; in others, to all other
living Creatures, save only Man : yea, and sometime to Men
also, as in the Territories of Sinuessa and Puteoli. Which
damp Holes1, breathing out a deadly Air, some call Charonece
Scrobes, or Charon's Ditches. Likewise in the Hirpines'
Land, that of Amsanctus, a Cave near the Temple of Me-
phitesy into which as many as enter die presently. After the
like Manner, at Hierapolis in Asia there is another such,
fatal to all except the Priest of the great Mother. In other
Places there be also Caves possessing a prophetical Power :
by the Exhalation of which Men are intoxicated, and so

1 The nature of the air now denominated carbonic acid gas, which,
when attempted to be inhaled, is destructive to animal life, was unknown,
except in these effects, to the ancients. It is to this that the well-known
Grotto del' Cane in Italy, as well as sometimes deep, moist, and stagnant
pits among ourselves, owe their fatal qualities. The inhalations at Delphi
were probably artificial ; and those who visited the prophetic cave of
Trophonius were observed to be ever afterward affected with constitu-
tional gloom ; which, however, might be the effect of the drugs that were
given them to drink, under the name of the "Waters of the Mnemosme."
In chap. ciii. a reference is made to a natural spring producing similar
effects.— Wern. Club.

1 30 History of Nature. [BoOK 1 1 ,

foretell Things to come ; as at Delphi, that most renowned
Oracle. In which Things, what other Reason can any mortal
Man assign, than the divine Power of Nature diffused through
all, which breaketh forth at Times in sundry Sorts?

CHAPTER XCIV.
Of Lands always trembling.

SOME Parts of the Earth there be that tremble under
Men's Feet as they go ; as in the Territory of the Gabians,
not far from Rome, where there be almost 200 Jugera of
Ground, which tremble as Horsemen ride over them : and
the same in the Territory of Reate.

CHAPTER XCV.
Of Islands ever floating.

SOME Islands are always floating1 ; as in the Country
about Caecubum, Reate above-named, Mutina, and Statonia.
Also in the Lake Vadimonis, and near the Waters Cutyliae,
there is a dark Grove, which is never seen in one Place for
a Day and Night together. Moreover, in Lydia, the Isles
Calaminae are not only driven to and fro by Winds, but also
many be thrust about with long Poles, which Way a Man
will : a Thing that saved many a Man's Life in the War
against Mithridates. There are other little ones also in the
River Nymphaeus, called Saltuares (or Dancers), because in
any Concert of Musicians, they are moved at the Stroke of
the Feet, as keeping their Time. In the great Lake of
Italy, called Tarquiniensis, two Islands carry about with
them Groves : one while appearing triangular, another while
round, when they close one to the other by the Drift of
Winds, but never four-square.

It is believed there is something similar in the north of England.
— Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. \ 3 1

CHAPTER XCVI.

In what Lands it never raineth. Also, Wonders of the Earth,
and other Elements heaped together.

PAPHOS hath in it a famous Temple of Venus: upon a
certain Floor and Altar whereof it never raineth1. Likewise
in Nea, a Town of Troas, it never rains about the Image of
Minerva. In the same, also, the Beasts killed for Sacrifice,
if they be left there, never putrify. Near to Harpasa, a
Town in Asia, there stands a craggy and awful Rock, movable
with one Finger, but if you thrust it with your whole Body,
it will stiffly resist2. In the Peninsula of the Tauri and City
Parasinum, there is a kind of Earth that healeth all Wounds,
But about Assos, in Troas, there grows a Stone by which all
Bodies are consumed, and thereupon it is termed Sarco-
phagus. There be two Mountains near the River Indus : the
Nature of the one is to hold fast all Manner of Iron, and of
the other, to reject it : andr therefore, if the Sole of a Man's
Shoes be clouted with Nails, in the one of them a Man can-
not pluck away his Foot, and in the other he cannot take
any footing. It is noted, that in Locri and Crotone the Pes-
tilence was never known, nor any Danger by Earthquake.
And in Lycia, after an Earthquake, it is fair Weather for
forty Days. In the Territory of Arda, if Corn be sowed, it
never groweth. At the Altars Murtiae in the Veientian
Country, and in Tusculanum, and the Wood Cyminia, there
be certain Places, wherein whatever is pitched into the
Ground can never be plucked up again. In the Crustumin
Country all the Hay there growing is hurtful in the same
Place : but if removed, it is good and wholesome.

1 Tacitus alludes to the same circumstance, b. xviii. — Wern. Club.

2 The Logan stone, near the Land's End, in Cornwall, is a well-known
example of the same thing. The simple fact is, that a very large stone is
poised very nearly on its centre of gravity, while the limit of oscillation is
narrow.— Wern. Club.

1 32 History of Nature. [BooK 1 1 .

CHAPTER XCVI1.

What is the Reason of the Ebb and Flow of the Sea : and
where it is that they keep no Order.

OF the Nature of Waters much hath been said ; but that
the Tide of the Sea should flow and ebb, is a very wonderful
Thing indeed. The Manner thereof is various, but the Cause
is in the Sun and Moon. Between two Risings of the Moon
they flow twice and twice go back, and always in the Space
of four-and- twenty Hours. And first as she riseth aloft
together with the World, the Tides swell ; and presently
again, as she goeth from the Height of the Meridian Line
and inclineth Westward, they subside : again, as she moveth
from the West, under our Horizon, and approacheth to the
Point contrary to the Meridian, they flow, and then they are
received back into the Sea until she rise again : and never
keepeth the Tide the same Hour that it did the Day before :
for it giveth Attendance upon the Planet, which greedily
draweth with it the Seas, and evermore riseth to Day in some
other Place than it did yesterday. Nevertheless, the Tides
keep just the same Times between, and hold always six
Hours a-piece : I mean not of every Day and Night or Place
indifferently, but only the Equinoctial. For in regard of
Hours, the Tides of the Sea are unequal : forasmuch as by
Day and Night the Tides are more or less one Time than
another : in the Equinoctial only they are equal in all Places.
A powerful Argument this is, and full of Light, to convince
the Dulness of those who are of opinion, that the Planets
being under the Earth lose their Power : and that their
Virtue beginneth when they are above only. For they shew
their Effects as well under as above the Earth, as well as the
Earth which worketh in all Parts. And plain it is, that the
Moon performeth her Operations as well under the Earth as
when we see her visibly above : neither is her Course any
other beneath than above our Horizon. But yet the Altera-
tion of the Moon is manifold, and first every seven Days:
for while she is new, the Tides be but small, until the first

BOOK 1 1 .] History of Nature. \ 33

Quarter : and as she groweth bigger they flow more, so that
at the full they swell most of all. From that Time they be-
come more mild : and in the first Days of the decrease unto
the seventh, the Tides are equal. Again, when she is divided
on the other Side they are increased. And in the Conjunc-
tion they are equal to the Tides of the full. And evidently
it appeareth, that when she is Northerly and removed far-
ther from the Earth, the Tides are more gentle than when
she is gone Southerly : for then she worketh nearer Hand,
and putteth forth her full Power. Every eight Years, also,
and after the hundredth Revolution of the Moon, the Seas
return to the Beginning of their Motions, and to the like
Increase : by Reason that she augmenteth all Things by the
yearly Course of the Sun : forasmuch as in the two Equi-
noctials they always swell most, yet more in that of the
Autumn than the Spring ; but nothing to speak of in Mid-
winter, and less at Midsummer. And yet these Things fall
not out in these very Instants of the Times which I have
named, but some few Days after ; like as neither in the
full nor in the change, but afterward : nor yet immediately
as the Heaven either shevveth us the Moon in her rising, or
hideth her from us at her setting, or as she declineth from us
in the middle Climate, but later almost by two equinoctial
Hours. Forasmuch as the Effect of all Influences in the
Heaven reach not so soon unto the Earth, as the Eyesight
pierceth up to the Heaven : as appeareth by Lightnings,
Thunders, and Thunderbolts. Moreover, all Tides in the
main Ocean overspread arid cover much more within the Land
than in other Seas : either because in the whole it is more
violent than in a Part : or for that the open Greatness thereof
feeleth more effectually the Power of the Planet, working
forcibly as it doth widely at Liberty, than when the same is
restrained within those Straits. Which is the Cause that
neither Lakes nor little Rivers ebb and flow in like Manner.
Pythias of Massiles writeth, that above Britain the Tide
floweth in Height eighty Cubits. But the more inward Seas
are shut up within the Lands, as in a Harbour. Nevertheless,
in some Places a more spacious Liberty there is that yieldeth

134 History of Nature. [ BOOK II.

to the Power [of the Moon] : for there are many Examples
of those who, in a calm Sea, without Wind and Sail, by a
strong Current only, have passed from Italy to Utica in three
Days. But these Motions are found about the Shores more
than in the deep Sea; just as in our Bodies the extreme
Parts have a greater Feeling of the Beating of Arteries, or in
other Words, the vital Spirits. Yet notwithstanding in many
Estuaries of the Sea, because of the unequal Risings of the
Planets in every Coast, the Tides are diverse, and disagreeing
in Time ; but not in their Cause ; as particularly in the Syrtes.
And yet some there be that have a peculiar Nature ; as the
Firth Taurominitanum, which ebbeth and floweth oftener
than twice: and that other in Eubcea, called likewise Eu-
npus, which hath seven Tides forward and back in a Day
arid Night. And the same Tide three Days in a Month
standeth still, namely, in the seventh, eighth, and ninth Days
of the Moon's Age. At Gades1, the Fountain near the Chapel
of Hercules is enclosed about like a Well, which sometimes
riseth and falleth with the Ocean ; and at other Times it
doth both at contrary Seasons. In the same Place there is

* Cadiz, on the Atlantic coast of Spain, was founded in a very remote
age by the Phoenicians, under the conduct of one of their most illustrious
chiefs, Melcartus ; whose name is significant of a royal race ; and who has
been denominated the Tyrian Hercules, from a supposition that his
labours were somewhat similar to those of the son of Alcmena. The city
was at this time called Gadira, and in it was a temple devoted to this first
of celebrated navigators, but retaining the marks of primitive purity of
worship, in having no- image. (Silius Italicus, quoted in Cumberland's
" Sanchoniatho.") The Phoenicians were accustomed to select for their
colonies such islands as this Spanish peninsula then was, both for pru-
dential and religious reasons ; and the city long continued the centre of
trade to the British islands and northern regions ; while at the same time
it was unknown to the rest of the world. There is even reason to believe,
that during the Roman dominion of Europe an intercourse was main-
tained between Cadiz and the independent Britons — scarcely known to
any beside the merchants engaged in it. From an expression of Pliny in
chap, cviii. of this book, it would appear that there were at this place two
pillars, properly termed the "Pillars of Hercules :" though the name has
since been applied to the mountains at the entrance of the Mediterranean
Sea.— Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 135

another Spring that agrees with the Motions of the Ocean.
On the Bank of Betis there is a Town, the Wells whereof, as
the Tide floweth, ebb; and as it ebbeth, flow; but in the
intermediate Times they do not move. Of the same Nature
there is one Well in the Town Hispalis ; while the Rest be
as others are. And the Sea Pontus evermore floweth out
into Propontis, but the Sea never retireth back again within
Pontus.

CHAPTER XCVIII.

Wonders of the Sea.

ALL Seas are cleansed at the full Moon; and some besides
at certain Times. About Messala and Nylse, there is thrown
upon the Shore Dregs like Beasts' Dung ; from which arose
the Fable, that the Sun's Oxen were there kept in Stall.
Hereunto addeth Aristotle (that I may not omit any Thing
that I know), that no living Creature dieth but in the Ebb of
the Sea1. This is observed much in the Ocean of Gaul, but
found only in Man by Experience.

CHAPTER XCIX.

What Power the Moon hath over Things on Earth
and in the Sea.

BY which it is truly guessed, that not in vain the Planet
of the Moon is supposed to be a Spirit : for this is it that
saturates the Earth in her approach, filling Bodies full; and
in her retiring emptying them again2. And hereupon it is,

1 " I was not so curious as to entitle the stars upon any concern of his
death, yet could not but take notice that he died when the moon was in
motion from the meridian ; at which time, an old Italian, long ago, would
persuade me that the greatest part of mankind died : but herein I confess
I could never satisfy my curiosity, although from the time of tides in places
upon or near the sea there may be considerable deductions ; and Pliny hath
an odd and remarkable passage concerning the death of men and animals
upon the recess or ebb of the sea.*1 — Sir THOMAS BROWN'S Worhs, by
WILKIN, vol. iv. p. 40. — Wem. Club.

a In this, to chap, ci., is an account of the effects which were supposed
to be produced by the influence of the moon on natural bodies ; and that

136 History of Nature. [BooK II.

that with her growth all Shell-fish increase : and those Crea-
tures which have no Blood, most of all do feel her Spirit.
Also, the Blood in Men doth increase or diminish with her
Light ; and the Leaves of Trees and the Fodder (as shall be
said in a convenient Place) feel her Influence; which, ever-
more the same, pierceth effectually into all Things.

CHAPTER C.
The Power of the Sun, and why the Sea is salt.

THUS by the fervent Heat of the Sun all Moisture is dried
up : for we have been taught that this Planet is masculine,
burning and sucking up the Humidity of all Things. Thus
the broad and spacious Sea hath the Taste of Salt sodden into
it : or else it is because, when the sweet and thin Substance
is drawn out of it, which the fiery Power of the Sun very
easily draweth up, all the sharper and grosser Parts thereof

which was believed to be the cause of the tides requires no further re-
mark, than that the cause and effect are acknowledged, and that the mode
of influence is the only subject of error. The moon's influence in causing
shell-fish and vegetables to increase and decrease, was believed by Aris-
totle, and maintained its place in the popular opinion until a late date.
But in tropical countries it is regarded as beyond all doubt, that the
bright shining of the moon has a deleterious effect on all bodies exposed
to it ; and the fact is implicitly credited by many Europeans who have in-
quired into it. Thus, slaughtered cattle so exposed, are believed to pass
into speedy putrefaction ; its influence on eyes when asleep, causes blind-
ness, and on the head a tendency to delirium or death. The antiquity
and extent of these opinions appear from Psalm cxxi. ; where the writer
expresses his trust, that " the sun shall not smite thee by day, nor the
moon by night." But the influence is not always hurtful : at least on
vegetation ; for, in the blessing of Moses at the time of his death, on the
tribe of Joseph, he speaks of" the precious things put forth by the moon"
(Deut. xxxiii. 14). Dr.Prichard ("Egyptian Mythology," p. 156) says:
" The idea that the moon exerts an influence favourable to propagation, is
so strange and absurd, that we are at a loss to imagine how it can have
arisen ; and it is truly astonishing to find that similar fictions were ex-
tended through a great part of the Pagan world. Young maids among
the Greenlanders are afraid to stare long at the moon, imagining that they
incur a danger of becoming pregnant." Sec chap. ci.~ Wern, Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 137

remain behind : and hereupon it is, that the deep Water to-
ward the Bottom is less salt than that at the Top. And
this is a truer Reason of that unpleasant Taste it hath, than
that the Sea should be a Sweat issuing out of the Earth con-
tinually : or, because overmuch of the dry Element is min-
gled in it without any Vapour : or else because the Nature
of the Earth infecteth the Waters with some strong Medi-
cine. We find among Examples that there happened a Pro-
digy to Dionysius, Tyrant of Sicily, when he was expelled
from his Power, which was : that the Sea-water, in one Day,
in the Harbour became fresh.

CHAPTER CI.
Also, of the Moons Nature.

ON the contrary, they say that the Moon is a Planet
feminine, tender and nightly; that it dissolveth Humours,
drawing the same, but carrying them not away. And this
appeareth evidently because that the Carcasses of wild Beasts
which are slain, she putrifieth by her Influence, if she shine
upon them. When Men also are found asleep, the dull
Numbness thereby gathered she draweth up into the Head :
she thaweth Ice, and with a moistening Breath relaxeth all
Things. Thus you see how Nature's turn is served, and is
always sufficient ; while some Stars thicken the Elements,
and others again resolve the same. But as the Sun is fed by
the salt Seas, so the Moon is nourished by the fresh Waters.

CHAPTER CII.
Where the Sea is deepest.

FABIANUS saith, that the Sea, where it is deepest, ex-
ceedeth not fifteen Stadii. Others again report, that in Pon-
tus the Sea is of an unmeasurable Depth over against the
Nation of the Coraxians, at the Place they call Bathea Ponti,
whereof the Bottom could never be sounded at the Distance
of three hundred Stadii from the Continent.

138 History of Nature. [BooK II.

CHAPTER CIII.
The Wonders of Waters^ Fountains, and Rivers.

OF all Wonders this is among the greatest, that some
fresh Waters close by the Sea spring forth as out of Pipes :
for the Nature of the Waters also ceaseth not from mira-
culous Properties. Fresh Waters are borne on the Sea, as
being, no doubt, the lighter : and, therefore, the Sea-water
(which naturally is heavier) beareth up whatsoever is brought
into it. Also, among fresh Waters, some there be that float
over others. As in the Lake Fucinus, the River that runneth
into it ; in Larius, Addua ; in Verbanus, Ticinus ; in Benacus,
Mincius; in Sevinus, Ollius ; in Lemanus, the River Rho-
danus. As for this River beyond the Alps, and the former in
Italy, for many a Mile as they pass they carry forth their own
Waters from thence as Strangers, and none other ; and the
same no larger than they brought in with them This is
reported likewise of Orontes, a River in Syria, and of many
others. Some Rivers again there be, which, upon an Hatred
to the Sea, run under the Bottom thereof; as Arethusa, a
Fountain in Syracuse : wherein this is observed, that what-
soever is cast into it cometh up again at the River Alpheus,
which, running through Olympia, falleth into the Sea-shore
of Peloponnesus. There go under the Ground, and appear
above the Ground again, Lycus in Asia, Erasinus in Argolica,
Tigris in Mesopotamia. And at Athens, the Things that are
immersed in the Fountain of ^Esculapius are cast up again
in Phalericus. Also in the Atinate Plains, the River that
becomes buried under the Earth 20,000 Paces off, appeareth
again; as doth Tirnavus in the Territory of Aquileia. In
Asphaltites (a Lake in Judea which produceth Bitumen) no-
thing will sink ; nor will it in Arethusa, in the greater Ar-
menia : and the same, though it be full of Nitre, produceth
Fish. In the Salentines' Country near the Town Manduria
there is a Lake full to the Bank, out of which, if there be
laden as much Water as you will, it decreaseth not ; nor is it
augmented, though any Quantity be poured in. In a River

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 139

of the Cicones, and in the Lake Velinus in the Picene Terri-
tory, if Wood be thrown in it becomes covered over with a
stony Bark. Also in Surius, a River of Colchis, the like is
to be seen : insomuch that the Bark which overgroweth it is
as hard as a Stone. Likewise in the River Silarus beyond
Surrentum, not Twigs only that are dipped therein, but
Leaves also, grow to be Stones ; and yet the Water thereof
otherwise is wholesome to be drunk. In the Outlet of the
Reatin Marsh, a Rock groweth bigger; and in the Red Sea
there be Olive-trees and other Shrubs, that grow up green.
There be also very many Springs which have a wonderful
Nature for their boiling Heat : and that also upon the very
Mountains of the Alps ; and in the Sea between Italy and
uEnaria : as in the Bay Baianus, and the River Liris, and
many others. For in very many Places you may draw fresh
Water out of the Sea ; as about the Islands ChelidonisB and
Aradus : and in the Ocean about Gades. In the hot Waters
of the Patovans there grow green Herbs : in those of the
Pisanes there breed Frogs : and at Vetulonii in Etruria, not
far from the Sea, Fishes also are bred. In the Territory
Casinas there is a River called Scatebra, which is cold, and
in Summer Time more abounding in Water than in Winter :
in it, as also in Stymphalis of Arcadia, there are brought
forth River Mussels. In Dodone, the Fountain of Jupiter
being exceedingly chill, quencheth lighted Torches when
dipped therein ; but if you hold the same near it when they
nre extinguished, it setteth them on Fire again. The same
Spring at Noontide evermore wanteth Water, for which
Cause they call it Anapavomenos : by and by it beginneth to
rise until it be Midnight, and then it hath great Abundance :
and from that Time again it subsideth by little and little. In
Illyricum there is a cold Spring, over which, if there be
spread any Clothes, they catch Fire and burn. The Foun-
tain of Jupiter Amman in the Daytime is cold, and all Night
it is boiling hot. In the Troglodytes Country there is a
Fountain of the Sun, called the Sweet Spring, which about
Noon is exceeding cold ; but by and by and gradually it

140 History of Nature. [Boox II.

groweth warm, and at Midnight it is offensive for Heat and
Bitterness. The Fountain of the Po, at Noon in Summer,
intermitteth to boil, and is then ever dry. In the Island
Tenedos there is a Spring, which, after the Summer Solstice,
evermore from the third Hour of the Night to the sixth,
doth overflow. And in the Island of Delos, the Fountain
Inopus falleth and riseth after the same Sort as the Nile
doth, and together with it. Over against the River Timavus
there is a little Island in the Sea, having hot Springs, which
ebb and flow in Time and Manner as the Tide of the Sea.
In the Territory of the Pitinates, beyond the Apennines, the
River Novanus, at every Midsummer Time, is in Flood ; but
in Midwinter is dry. In the Faliscan Country the Water of
the River Clitumnus maketh the Cattle white that drink of
it. And in Boeotia, the River Melas maketh Sheep black :
Cephyssus running out of the same Lake, causeth them to be
white : and Penius, again, giveth them a black Colour :
but Xanthus, near to Ilium, coloureth them reddish; and
hereupon the River took that Name. In the Land of Pon-
tus there is a River that watereth the Plains of Astace, upon
which, those Mares that feed give black Milk for the Food
of that Nation. In the Reatin Territory there is a Fountain
called Neminia, which, according to its issuing forth out of
this or that Place, signifieth the Change in the Price of Vic-
tuals. In the Haven of Brundusium there is a Well that
yieldeth to Sailors Water which will never corrupt. The
Water of Lincestis, called Acidula (or Sour), maketh Men
drunken no less than Wine. Also, in Paphlagonia, and in
the Territory of Gales. Also in the Isle of Andros there is a
Fountain in the Temple of Father Bacchus, which upon the
Nones of January always runneth with Water that tasteth
like Wine ; as Mulianus verily believeth ; who was a Man
that had been thrice Consul : the Name of the Spring is
Dios Tecnosia. Near Nonacris, in Arcadia, is the River
Styx ; differing from the other Styx neither in Smell nor
Colour : drink of it once, and it is present Death. Also, in
Berosus (an Hill of the Tauri), there be three Fountains, the

BOOK 1 1 .] History of Nature. \ 4 1

Water whereof whosoever drinketh is sure to die of it, reme-
diless, and yet without Pain. In a Country of Spain, called
Carrinensis, two Springs run near together, the one rejecting
and the other swallowing up all Things. In the same Coun-
try there is another Water which sheweth all Fishes within
it of a golden Colour; but if they be taken out of that Water,
they be like other Fishes. In the Cannensian Territory,
near the Lake Larius, there is a large Fountain, which every
Hour continually swelleth and falleth down again. In the
Island Sidonia, before Lesbos, there is a hot Fountain that
runneth only in the Spring. The Lake Sinnaus, in Asia, is
infected with the Wormwood growing about it. At Colo-
phon, in the Cave of Apollo Clarius, there is a Channel with
Water: they that drink of it foretell strange Things like
Oracles ; but they live the shorter Time for it. Rivers run-
ning backward even our Age hath seen in the latter Years of
the Prince Nero, as we have related in the Acts of his Life.
Now, that all Springs are colder in Summer than Winter,
who knoweth not? as also these wondrous Works of Nature,
that Brass and Lead in the Lump sink down in Fluid, but if
they be spread out into thin Plates they float : and let the
Weight be all one, yet some Things settle to the Bottom ; and
others, again, are borne above : that heavy Burdens be re-
moved with more Ease in Water. Likewise that the Stone
Thyrreus, however large, doth swim when entire: but broken
into Pieces, it sinketh. Bodies newly dead fall to the Bottom
of the Water, but when swollen they rise again. Empty Ves-
sels are not so easily drawn out of the Water as those that be
full : Rain-water for Salt-pits is more profitable than any
other : and Salt cannot be made unless fresh Water be min-
gled : Sea-water is longer before it freezes, but it is sooner
made hot. In Winter the Sea is hotter, and in Autumn
salter. The whole Sea is made still with oil : and therefore
the Divers under the Water scatter it with their Mouths, be-
cause it allayeth the rough Nature thereof, and carrieth a
Light with it. No Snows fall where the Sea is deep. And,
whereas all Water runneth downward, yet Springs leap up;
even at the very Foot of ^Etria, which burneth so far as that

142 History of Nature. [BooK II.

for fifty, and even an hundred, Miles, Balls of Fire cast out
Sand and Ashes1.

CHAPTER CIV.

The Wonders of Fire and Water jointly together, and
of Maltha.

Now let us relate some Wonders of Fire also, which is
the fourth Element of Nature. But first, out of Waters. In
a City of Comagene, named Samosatis, there is a Pond
yielding forth a burning, slimy Mud (called Maltha2). When
it meeteth with any Thing sqlid it sticketh to it ; and if it be
touched it followeth them that flee from it. By this means
the Townsmen defended their Walls when Lucullus assaulted
it ; and his Soldiers were burned in their own Armour. It
burns even in Water. Experience hath taught, that Earth
only will quench it

CHAPTER CV.
Of Naphtha.

OF the like Nature is Naphtha : for so is it called about
Babylonia, and in the Austacenes' Country in Parthia ; and
it runneth in the Manner of liquid Bitumen. There is great
Affinity between Fire and it ; for Fire is ready to leap unto
it immediately, if it be near it. Thus (they say) Medea
burnt her Husband's Concubine, by Reason that her Crown
anointed therewith was caught by the Fire after she had
approached to the Altars with the Intention to sacrifice3.

1 Many of the phenomena here related are merely exaggerations of
the truth ; and many, however strange, are easily explained : as the inter-
mitting springs, and those which kindle into fire : the latter owing this pro-
perty either to the extrication of hydrogen gas or naphtha. — Wcrn. Club.

2 This is evidently a natural mineral pitch ; to which the artificial sub-
stance bearing the same name, and described in b. xxxvi. c. 24, could only
have been similar in its effects, especially of combustion. — Wern. Club.

3 There are many things in the history of Medea which shew her to
have been a skilful chemist, and possessed of a high degree of knowledge
of the science of the age in which she lived. — Wern. Club.

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 143

CHAPTER CVI.
Of Places continually burning.

BUT amongst the Wonders of Mountains, JStna burneth
always in the Nights : and for so long Continuance of Time
yieldeth sufficient Matter to maintain those Fires : in Winter
it is full of Snow, and covereth the Ashes cast up with Frosts.
Neither in it alone doth Nature rage, threatening the con-
suming of the whole Earth by Fire. For in Phaselis the
Mountain Chimaera likewise burneth, and that with a con-
tinual Fire both Night and Day : Ctesias of Gnidos writeth,
that the Fire thereof is inflamed with Water, but quenched
with Earth. In the same Lycia the Mountains Hephaestii
being touched with a flaming Torch, do so burn that the
very Stones of the Rivers and the Sand in the Waters are
set on Fire ; and the same Fire is maintained with Rain.
They report that if a Man make a Furrow with a Staff that
is set on Fire by them, there follow Gutters of Fire. In
the Bactrians' Country, the Top of the Cophantus burneth
by Night. Amongst the Medians, also, and the Caestian
Nation, the same Mountain burneth : but principally in the
Confines of Persis. At Susis, indeed, in a Place called the
White Tower, the Fire proceeds out of fifteen Chimneys, and
the greatest of them, even in the Daytime, carrieth Fire.
There is a Plain about Babylonia1, in Manner of a Fish-pond,
which, for the Quantity of an Acre, burneth likewise. Also,
near the Mountain Hesperius in Ethiopia, the Fields in the
Night-time shine like Stars. The like is to be seen in the
Territory of the Megapolitans, although the Field there
be pleasant within, and not burning the Boughs of the thick
Grove above it. And near a warm Spring the hollow,

1 These natural fires were objects of idolatrous veneration by the in-
habitants of this country, from a very early period : and opinions of a
similar nature have continued in the East to the present day. Zoroaster,
if not the author, is believed to have been the great reformer of this doc-
trine ; which by some is supposed to have had its origin in times before
the Flood.— Wern. Club.

144 History of Nature. [BooK II.

burning Cavity, called Crater Nymphsei, always portendeth
some fearful Misfortunes to the Apolloniates, the Neigh-
bours thereby, as Theopompus hath reported. It increaseth
with Showers of Rain, and casteth out Bitumen, to be com-
pared with that Fountain or Water of Styx that is not to be
tasted ; otherwise weaker than all Bitumen besides. But
who would wonder at these Things ? In the Midst of the
Sea, Hiera, one of the ^Etolian Islands near to Italy, burned
together with the Sea for certain Days together, during
the Time of the social War, until a Legation of the Senate
made Expiation. But that which burneth with the greatest
Fire is a Hill of the Ethiopians called Theonochema ;
which sendeth out the fiercest Flames in the hottest Sun-
shine. In so many Places with so many Fires doth Nature

burn the Earth.

i

CHAPTER CVII.
Wonders of Fires by themselves.

MOREOVER, since the Nature of this Element of Fire
alone is to be so fruitful, that it produceth itself, and groweth
from the least Sparks, what may be thought will be the
End of so many funeral Fires of the Earth1? What a Nature
is that which feedeth the most greedy Voracity in the whole
World without Loss of itself? Add thereto the infinite Num-
ber of Stars, the immense Sun ; moreover, the Fires in Men's
Bodies, and those that are inbred in Stones ; the Attrition,
also, of certain Woods one against another ; yea, and those
within Clouds, the Original of Lightnings. Surely it ex-
ceedeth all Miracles that any one Day should pass in which
all Things are not set on Fire, when the concave Mirrors
also, set opposite to the Sunbeams, set Things a-burning
sooner than any other Fire. What should I speak of innu-

1 This natural, but awful, inquiry, is best answered in the words of the
apostle Peter, 2nd Epist. iii. 7 : — " But the heavens and the earth which
are now, by the same word are kept in store, reserved unto fire against the
day of judgment and perdition of ungodly men." — Wern. Club.

BOOK IT.] History of Nature. \ 45

merable small Matters, which naturally are poured out in
Abundance ? In Nymphaeum there cometh a Flame out of
a Rock, which is set a-burning with Rain. There is the
like at the Waters called Scantiae. But this is but feeble
when it passeth, neither endureth it long in any other Mat-
ter. There is an Ash-tree covering this fiery Fountain, which,
notwithstanding, is always green. In the Territory of Mu-
tina, there riseth up Fire also, upon Days devoted to Vulcan.
It is found written, that if a Coal of Fire fall upon the arable
Fields under Aricia, the Soil presently is on Fire. In the
Sabines Territory, as also in that of the Sidicines, Stones
anointed will be set on Fire. In aTown of the Salentines, called
Egnatia, if Wood be laid upon a certain hallowed Stone there,
it will immediately flame out. Upon the Altar of Juno
Lacinia, standing in the open Air, the Ashes lie immovable,
blow what stormy Winds that will on every Side. Besides,
there be Fires that suddenly arise, both in Waters and even
about the Bodies of Men. Valerius Antias reporteth, that
the Lake Thrasymenus once burned all over : also, that when
Servius Tullius, in his childhood, lay asleep, a Flame shone
out of his Head l : likewise, as L. Martins made an Oration
to the Army after the two Scipios were slain in Spain, and
exhorted his Soldiers to revenge their Death, his Head was,
in like Manner, in a Flame. More of this, and more dis-
tinctly, will we write by-and-by. For now we exhibit the
Wonders of all Things intermingled together. But my Mind
being passed beyond the Interpretation of Nature, hasteneth
to lead, as it were, by the Hand, the Minds of the Readers
throughout the whole World.

1 There are instances in modern, as well as in ancient times, of such
luminous appearances proceeding from the human body : most commonly
when it is in a state of emaciation or chronic disease. Its cause is, the
excretion of phosphoric vapour mixed with the perspiration. This lu-
minous appearance has been largely interpreted by superstition. — Wern.
Club.

1 46 History of Nature. [ BOOK 1 1 .

CHAPTER CVIIl.
The Measure of the whole Earth in Length and Breadth.

THIS our Part of the Earth of which I speak, floating, as
it were, within the Ocean (as hath been said), lieth out most
in Length from East to West, that is, from India to the Pil-
lars of Hercules, consecrated at Gades : and as my Author,
Artemidorus, thinketh, it containeth 8578 Miles. But, ac-
cording to Isidorus, 9818. Artemidorus addeth, more-
over, from Gades within the Circuit of the sacred Promon-
tory to the Cape Artabrum, where the Front of Spain beareth
out furthest, in Length 891 Miles. This Measure runneth
two Ways. From the River Ganges and the Mouth thereof,
where it dischargeth itself into the East Ocean, through
India and Parthyene to Myriandrum, a City of Syria, situ-
ated upon the Gulf of Isa, 5215 Miles. From thence by the
nearest Voyage, to the Island Cyprus, to Patara in Lycia,
Rhodes, and Astypatsea (Islands lying in the Carpathian Sea),
to Taenarus in Laconia, Lilybseum in Sicily, Calaris in Sar-
dinia, 3450 Miles. Then to Gades 1450 Miles. Which
Measures being put together, make, from the said Sea, 8578
Miles. The other Way, which is more certain, lieth most
open by Land, from Ganges to the River Euphrates, 5021
Miles. From thence to Mazaca, in Cappadocia, 244 Miles ;
and thence through Phrygia and Caria to Ephesus, 498 Miles.
From Ephesus, through the ^Egean Sea, to Delos, 200 Miles.
Then to Isthmus, 212 Miles. From thence by Land, arid by
the Laconian Sea and the Gulf of Corinth, to PatraB in
Peloponnesus, 202J Miles : to Leucas, 86J Miles, and as
much to Corcyra. Then to Acroceraunia, 132£ Miles : to
Brundusium, 86£ Miles : so to Rome, 360 Miles. Then to
the Alps, as far as the Village of Cincomagus, 518 Miles.
Through Gaul to the Pyrenean Mountains, unto Illiberis,
556 Miles ; to the Ocean and Sea-coast of Spain, 332 Miles.
Then the Passage over to Gades, 1\ Miles. Which Measure,
by Artemidorus9 Estimation, maketh in all 8685 Miles. Now

BOOK II.] History of Nature. 147

the Breadth of the Earth, from the Meridian Point to the
North, is collected to be less almost by One-half; that is,
5462 Miles. Whereby it appeareth plainly, how much of
the one Side the Heat of Fire, and on the other Side frozen
Water hath stolen away. For I am not of opinion that the
Earth goeth no further than this ; for then it would not have
the Form of a Globe ; but that the Places on either Side be
uninhabitable, and therefore not discovered. This Measure
runneth from the Shore of the Ethiopian Ocean, where now
it is inhabited, to Meroe, 550 Miles. From thence to
Alexandria, 1240 Miles; to Rhodes, 583 Miles; to Gnidus,
84J Miles; to Cos, 25 Miles; to Samus, 100 Miles; to
Chius, 84 Miles ; to Mitylen£, 65 Miles ; to Tenedos, 28
Miles ; to the Promontory Sigaeum, 12J Miles ; to the Mouth
of Pontus, 312J Miles; to Carambis, the Promontory, 350
Miles; to the Mouth of Maeotis, 312J Miles; to the Haven
of Tanais, 265 Miles : which Voyage may be made shorter
(with the Vantage of sailing directly) by 89 Miles. From
the Haven of Tanais, the most diligent Authors have set
down no Measure. Artemidorus was of opinion, that all be-
yond was not discovered, allowing that about Tanais the
Sarmatian Nations inhabit ; who lie to the North. Isidorus
hath added hereto 1200 Miles, as far as to Thule : which is
grounded upon bare Conjecture. I understand that the Bor-
ders of the Sarmatians are known to have no less an Extent
than this last-mentioned cometh to. And otherwise, how
much must it be that would contain such innumerable Na-
tions, shifting their Seats every now and then. Whereby I
judge that the Over-measure of the Clime inhabitable is
much greater. For I know certainly, that from Germany
very great Islands have been discovered not long since. And
thus much of the Length and Breadth of the Earth, which
I thought worth the writing. Now the universal Circuit
thereof, Eratosthenes, who was learned in all Kind of Lite-
rature, and in this Knowledge better qualified than others ;
and whom I see of all Men approved, hath set down to be
252,000 Stadia. This Measure, by the Romans' reckoning,
amounteth to 31,500 Miles. A wondrous bold Attempt ! but

1 48 History of Nature. [ BOOK 1 1 .

yet so exquisitely calculated, that it were a Shame not to be-
lieve him. Hipparchus, a wonderful Man, both for con-
vincing him, and for all his other Diligence, addeth more-
over little less than 25,000 Stadia.

CHAPTER CIX.
The harmonica! Measure of the World.

ANOTHER Kind of Faith may be given to Dionysodorus ;
for I will not withhold a very great Example of Grecian
Vanity. This Man was a Melian, famous for his Skill in
Geometry : he died very aged in his own Country : his near
Kinswomen, who were his Heirs, solemnised his Funerals.
These Women, as they came some few Days after to perform
the Obsequies thereto belonging, are said to have found in
his Monument an Epistle of this Dionysodorus, written in his
own Name, To them above ; to this Effect : that he had gone
from his Sepulchre to the Bottom of the Earth, and that it
was thither 42,000 Stadia. Neither wanted there Geome-
tricians who made this Interpretation, that this Epistle was
sent from the Centre of the Earth ; to which Place down-
ward from the uppermost, the Way was longest; and the
same was just half the Diameter of the Ball : whereupon
followed this Computation, that they pronounced the Circuit
to be 255,000 Stadia. The harmonical Proportion which
forceth this Nature of Things to agree unto itself, addeth
unto this Measure 7000 Stadia, and maketh the Earth to be
the 96,000th Part of the whole World.

IN THE THIRD BOOK

ARE COMPREHENDED THE

REGIONS, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, PORTS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS,

WITH THEIR MEASURES, AND PEOPLE, EITHER AT THIS

DAY KNOWN, OR IN TIMES PAST ;

AS FOLLOWETH :

CHAP.

1. Of Europe.

2. The Length and Breadth of

Boetica (a Part of Spain, con-
taining Andalusia, and the
Realm of Grenada).

3. That nearer Part of Spain

(called by the Romans Ilis-
pania Citerior).

4. The Province of Narbonensis

(wherein is Dauphine, Lan-
guedoc, and Provence).

5. Italy, Tiberis, Rome, and Cam-

pania.

6. The Island Corsica.

7. Sardinia.

8. Sicily.

9. Lipara.

10. Of Locri, and the Frontiers of
Italy.

In this Book are described twenty-six Islands within the Adriatic and
Ionian Seas : their principal Cities, Towns, and Nations. Also the chief
and famous Rivers : the highest Hills : particular Islands : Towns and
Countries that have perished. In Sum, here are comprised Histories and
Observations to the Number of 326.

CHAP.

11. The second Gulf of Europe.

12. The fourth Region of Italy.

13. The fifth Region.

14. The sixth Region.

15. The eighth Region.

16. Of the River Po.

1 7. Of Italy beyond the Po, counted

the eleventh Region.

18. Venice, the tenth Region.

19. Of Istria.

20. Of the Alps, and Alpine Na-

tions.

21. Illyricum.

22. Liburnia.

23. Macedonia.

24. Noricum.

25. Pannonia and Dalmatia.

26. Mcesia.

LATIN WRITERS ABSTRACTED:

Turannius Graccida, Cor. Nepos, T. Livius,Cato Censor ius, M. Agrippa,
M. Varroj Divm Augustus the Emperor, Varro Attacinus, AnHas, Hyginus,
L. Vetus, Mela Pomponius, Curio the Father, Coelius Aruntius, Sebosus,
Lidnius Mutianus, Fabricius Thuscus, L. Atteius Capttd, Verrius Flaccus,
L. Piso, C. JElianus, and Vuleriamis.

FOREIGN AUTHORS:

Artemidojiis, Alexander Polyhistor, Thitcydides, Theophrastiis, Isidorus,
Theopompm, Metrodorus Scepsius, Callicratcs, Xenophon, Lampsaccuns,
Diodorus SyracMsanus, Nymphodorus, CaUiphanes, and Tinwgenes.

THE THIRD BOOK

HISTORY OF NATURE

WRITTEN BY

C. PLINIUS SECUNDUS.

THE PREFACE.

we have written of the Position and
Wonders of the Earth, Waters, and Stars : also
of the Proportion and Measure of the whole
World. Now we proceed to the Parts thereof;
although this also be judged an infinite Piece
of Work, and not lightly to be handled without
some Reprehension : and yet in no kind of Enterprise is
Pardon more due ; since it is little Wonder, if he who is born
a Man knoweth not all Things belonging to Man. And
therefore, I will not follow one Author particularly, but
every one as I shall think him most true in each Part. Be-
cause it hath been common, in a Manner, to them all, to de-
scribe the Situations of those Places most exactly, from
whence themselves proceeded : and, therefore, neither will I
blame nor reprove any Man. The bare Names of Places
shall be simply set down ; and that with as much Brevity as
I can : the Excellency, as well as the Causes, being deferred
to their several Treatises : for now the Question is touching
the Earth in general. And, therefore, I would have Things
to be taken as if the Names of Countries were put down void
of Renown, and such only as they were in the Beginning,

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 151

before any Acts were done ; and as if they had indeed an
Enduement of Names, but respective only to the World and
Nature of Things.

The whole Globe of the Earth is divided into three Parts,
Europe, Asia, and Africa. The Beginning we take from the
West and the Straits of Gades, where the Atlantic Ocean
breaking in, is spread into the inland Seas. Entering there,
Africa is on the right Hand, Europe on the left, and Asia
between them. The Bounds confining these are the Rivers
Tanais and Nil us. The Mouth of the Ocean of which I spoke
lyeth out in Length fifteen Miles, and in Breadth five, from
a Village in Spain called Mellaria to the Promontory of
Africa called the White, as Turannius Graccula, who was
born there, writeth. T. Livius and Nepos Cornelius have
reported, that the Breadth, where it is narrowest, is seven
Miles, and ten Miles where it is broadest. From so small a
Mouth spreadeth so vast an Expanse of Waters ; nor doth
such exceeding Depth lessen the Wonder. In the very
Mouth of it are many Shelves of white Sands, to the great
Terror of Ships passing that Way. And therefore, many
have called those Straits the Entry of the Mediterranean Sea.
Near to the Sides of this Gullet, are set two Mountains, one
on each Side, as Barriers to shut all in : which are, Abila for
Africa, and Calpe for Europe, the Limits of the Labours of
Hercules. For which Cause, the Inhabitants of those Parts
call them the Pillars of that God ; and they believe, that
by Ditches digged within the Continent, the Ocean, before
excluded, was let in ; and so the Face of the Earth was
changed.

CHAPTER I.

Of Europe 1 .

AND first, of Europe, the Nurse of that People which is
the Conqueror of all Nations ; and of all Lands by many

1 This claim of superiority is advanced by the Roman, in the con-
sciousness of his country's power and greatness; and although 1800 years

1 52 History of Na ture. [BooKllI.

Degrees the most beautiful : which many rightly have made
not the third Portion of the Earth, hut the half, the whole
Globe being divided into two Parts : from the River Tanais
to the Straits of Gades. The Ocean, then, at this Space
abovesaid entereth into the Atlantic Sea, and with a greedy
Current drowneth those Lands which dread his coming ;
but those Shores that resist, with its windings it eateth and
hollo weth continually, excavating many Creeks in Europe,
wherein four remarkable Gulfs are to be seen.

Of these the first, from Calpe, the remotest Promontory
(as is abovesaid) of Spain, is bent with an exceeding great
Compass, to Locri ; and as far as the Promontory Brutium.
Within it lieth Spain, the first of Lands ; that Part, I mean,
which, in regard of Rome, is the further off, and is named
also Boetica. And presently from the End of Virgitanus,
the hither Part, otherwise called Tarraconensis, as far as the
Pyrenean Mountains. That further Part is divided into two
Provinces through the Length : for on the North Side of
Boetica lieth Lusitania, divided from it by the River Ana.

This River beginneth in the Territory Larninitanus of the
nearer Spain, one while spreading out itself into Pools, then
again gathering into narrow Brooks : or altogether hidden
under Ground, and taking Pleasure to rise up oftentimes,
falleth into the Atlantic Ocean. But the Part named Tarra-
conensis, lying close to the Pyrenean Mountain and running
along all the Side thereof, and, at the same Time, stretching
out itself across from the Iberian Sea to the Gallic Ocean,
is separated from Boetica and Lusitania by the Mountain

have passed, and that greatness has departed like a dream, European
superiority still exists. A prophecy from the remotest ages (Gen. ix. 27)
— delivered under circumstances in which its fulfilment was exceedingly
unlikely — has proclaimed, that the God whom Pliny did not know shall
enlarge Japhet, the father of European nations ; — that he shall dwell in
the tents of Shem, and Canaan shall be his servant. And, accordingly,
we see the inhabitants of Europe spreading out, and exerting a mastery,
in the most distant climes ; in the strength of their superiority in the arts
of life, in science, the freedom of their political institutions, and, above all,
in religion. The superiority must continue so long as this foundation of
it shall exist. Esto perpetua. — Wern. Club.

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 153

Salarius and the Cliffs of the Oretanes, Carpetanes, and
Asturians.

Bcetica, so called from the River Bcetis, that cutteth it in
the midst, excelleth all the other Provinces in Produce, arid
a certain plentiful and peculiar Beauty. Therein are held
four judicial Assemblies; the Gaditan, Cordubian, Astigitan,
and Hispalensian. All the Towns in it are in (Oppida) Num-
ber 175; whereof eight are Colonies; free Boroughs (Muni-
cipia), eight ; Towns endued with the ancient Franchises of
Latiuni, twenty-nine : with Freedom, six; Confederate, four;
Tributary, 120. Of which those that be worth the naming,
or are more current in the Latin Tongue, be these under-
written : from the River Ana the Coast of the Ocean, the
Town (Oppidum) Ossonoba, surnamed also Lusturia. Two
Rivers, Luxia and Urium1, run between the Mountains Ariani :
the River Bretis: the Shore Corense : with a winding Creek.
Over against which lieth Gades, to be spoken of among the
Islands. The Promontory of Juno : the Haven Besippo.
The Towns Belon and Mellaria. The Straits out of the
Atlantic Sea. Carteia, called Tertessos by the Greeks ; and
the Mountain Calpe. Then, within the Shore, the Town
Barbesula, with the River. Also, the Town Salbula ; Suel-
Malacha, with the River of the Confederates. Next to these,
Menoba, with a River: Sexi-firmum, surnamed Jiilium :
Selaubina, Abdera, and Murgis, the Frontier of Boetica. All
that Coast M. Agrippa thought to have had their Beginning
from the Carthaginians (Poeni). From Ana there lieth
against the Atlantic Ocean, the Region of the Bastuli and
the Turduli.

M. Varro saith, that there entered into all Parts of Spain,
the Iberians, Persians, Phoenicians, Celts, and Carthaginians
(Posni) : for Lusus, the Companion of Father Liber, or
Lyssa, (which signifieth the frantic Fury of those that raged
with him), gave the Name to Lusitania; and Pan was the
Governor of it all. But those Things which are reported of
Hercules and Perene, or of Saturn, I think to be fabulous

1 These rivers are now called Oilier and Tin to.

154 History of Nature. [Boox III.

Tales in a high Degree. Boetls, in the Tarraconensian Pro-
vince, rising, not as some have said, at the Town Mentesa,
but in the Forest Tugrensis, which the River Tader watereth,
as it doth the Carthaginian Country at Ilorcum1, shunneth
the Funeral Pile of Scipio : and, turning into the West,
maketh toward the Atlantic Ocean, adopting the Province,
is at first small, but receiveth many other Rivers, from
which it taketh away both their Fame and their Waters.
And first being entered from Ossigitania into Boetica, running
gently with a pleasant Channel, it hath many Towns, both
on the left Hand and the right, seated upon it. The most
famous between it and the Sea-coast, in the Mediterranean,
are Segeda, surnamed Augurina : Julia, which is also called
Fidentia : Virgao, otherwise Alba : Ebura, otherwise Cere-
alis: Illiberi, which is also Liberini: Ilipua, named likewise
Laus. Artigi, or Julienses : Vesci, the same as Faventia :
Singilia, Hegua, Arialdunum, Agla the Less, Baebro, Castra
Vinaria, Episibrium, Hipponova, Ilurco, Osca, Escua, Suc-
cubo, Nuditanum, Tucci the Old, all which belong to Basti-
tania, lying toward the Sea. But within the Jurisdiction of
Corduba, about the very River standeth the Town Ossigi,
which is surnamed Laconicum : llliturgi, called also Forum
Julium: Ipasturgi, the same as Triumphal^ ; Sitia : and four-
teen Miles within the Country, Obulco, which is named
Pontificense\ And presently Ripepora. a Town of the Con-
federates, Sacili, Martialum, Onoba. And on the right Hand
Corduba, surnamed Colonia Patritia: and then beginneth
Bcetis to be navigable. The Towns Carbulo, Decuma, the

* The river makes a bend to avoid the funeral pile of Cneius Stipio,
concerning the manner of whose death there is some difference of opinion.
Apianus, in " Iberic," p. 263, says, that the victorious forces of Hasdrubal
drove him, with a band of his followers, into a certain castle, where they
were all destroyed by fire. Livy tells us (lib. xxv. 36), that " Cneius
Scipio, according to some accounts, was killed on the hill, in the first as-
sault : according to others, he fled into a castle standing near the camp :
this was surrounded with fire, and the doors, which were too strong to be
forced, being then burned, they were taken ; and all within, together with
the general himself, were put to death." The modern name of Ilorcum
is Lorquinum, in the province of Murcia. — Wern. Club.

BOOK III.] History of Nature. \ 55

River Singulis, falling into the same Side of Bcetis. The
Towns of the Jurisdiction Hispalensis are these : Celtica Axa-
tiara, Arruci, Menoba, Ilipa, surnamed Italica. And on the
left Hand, Hispalis, a Colony, surnamed likewise Romulensis.
Opposite to it, the Town Osset, which is also called Julia Con-
stantia: Vergenturn, which also is JuliiGenitor; Hippo Caura-
siarum, the River Menoba, which also entereth into Bcetis on
the right Side. But within the Estuaries of the Boetis there
is the Town Nebrissa, surnamed Veneria and Colobona : also
Colonies, as Asta, which is called Regia. And in the midland
Part Asido, which is also Caesariana. The River Singulis
breaking into the Boatis in the order I have said, runneth
by the Colony Astigitania, surnamed also Augusta Firma, and
so forward it is navigable. The Rest of the Colonies belonging
to this Jurisdiction are free : namely, Tucci, which is surnamed
Augusta Gemella : Itucci, called also Virtus Julia: Attubi,
called Claritas Julia : Urso, which is Genua Urbanorum : and
among these was Munda, taken together with Pompeys Son.
Free Towns, Astigi the Old, Ostippo. Stipendiary, Callet,
Calucula, Castra Gemina, llipula the Less, Merucra, Sacrana,
Obulcula, Oningis. Coming from the Coast, near the River
Menoba, itself navigable, there dwell not far off the Alonti-
gicili, and Alostigi. But this Region, which, without the
forenamed, reacheth from the Boetis to the River Ana, is
called Beturia : divided into two Parts, and as many Sorts of
People : the Celtici, who border on Lusitania, and are within
the Jurisdiction Hispalensis: and the Turduli, who inhabit
close upon Lusitania and Tarraconensis : and they resort to
Corduba. It is clear that the Celtici came from the Celtibe-
rians, out of Lusitania, as appeareth by their Religion,
Tongue, and Names of Towns, which in Bcetica are distin-
guished by their Surnames ; as Seria, which is called Fama
Julia: Ucultuniacum, which now is Curiga : Laconimurgi,.
Constantia Julia ; Terresibus is now Fortunales ; and Callen-
sibus, Emanici. Besides these, in Celtica Acinippo, Arunda,
Arunci, Turobrica, Lastigi, Alpesa, Ssepona, Serippo. The
other Beturia, which we said belonged to the Turduli and
to the Jurisdiction of Corduba, hath Towns of no base Ac-

156 History of Nature. [BooK III.

count, Arsa, Mellaria, and Mirobrica: and the Regions Osrutigi
and Sisapone. Within the Jurisdiction of Gades, there is a
Town of Roman Citizens called Regina : of Latins, there are
Laepia, Ulia, Carisa, surnamed Aurelia, Urgia, which is like-
wise named Castrurn Julium : also, Csesaris Salutariensis.
Stipendiaries there be, Besaro, Belippo, Berbesula, Lacippo,
Besippo, Callet, Cappagum, Oleastro, Itucci, Brana, Lacibi,
Saguntia, Andorisippo. The whole Length of it M . Agrippa
hath set down 463 Miles, and the Breadth 257. But because
the Bounds reached to Carthage, which Cause occasioneth
oftentimes Errors in computing the Measure ; at one Place
in the Limits of the Provinces, and in another the Paces in
journeying being either more or less ; also, considering that
the Seas in so long a Time have encroached here upon the
Land, and the Banks again gotten there of the Sea ; or that
the Rivers have either turned crooked or gone straight : be-
sides, that some have begun to take their Measure from this
Place, others from that, and gone divers Ways : it is by these
Means come to pass, that no two agree together.

CHAPTER II.
The Length and Breadth of Bcetica.

THE Length of Bcetica at this day, from the Bound of the
Town Castulo to Gades, is 475 Miles : and from Murgi on
the Sea-coast, more by twenty-two Miles. The Breadth
from the Border of Carteia is 224 Miles. And who would
believe that Agrippa (a Man so diligent, and in this Work
principally so careful) did err, when he purposed to set out a
View of the whole World for the City, and Divus Augustus
with him ? For he finished the Portico begun according to
the Designation and Memorials appointed by the Sister of
M. Agrippa.

CHAPTER III.
The nearer Spain.

THE old Form of the nearer Spain is somewhat changed,
as also of many other Provinces, as Pompey the Great in the

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 157

Trophies which he erected in Pyrenaeus, testifieth, that
846 Towns between the Alps and the Borders of the further
Spain, were by him brought to Obedience. Now the
whole Province is divided into seven Jurisdictions : the Car-
thaginian, the Tarraconensian, Caesar Augustanian, Cluni-
ensian, Asturian, Lucensician, and of Bracarum. There are
besides Islands, which we set aside without naming them,
and excepting the Cities that are annexed to others, the
Province itself containeth 294 Towns. In which Colonies
there be twelve Towns, of Roman Citizens thirteen, of old
Latins seventeen, of Allies one, stipendiary 136. The first
in the Frontiers be the Bastulians : behind them, in such
Order as shall be said, those receding Interiorly, the Men-
tesani, Oretani, and the Carpetani, upon the River Tagus.
Near to them, the Vaccaei, Vectones, Celtiberi, and Arrebaci.
The Towns next to the Borders, Urci and Barea, assigned to
Bcetica : the Country of Mauritania, then Deitania : after
that, Contestania, and New Carthage, a Colony. From the
Promontory of which, called Saturn s Cape, the Passage
over the Sea to Caesaries, a City in Mauritania, is 187 Miles.
In the residue of that Coast is the River Tader : the Free
Colony Illici, of which the Bay took the name Illicitanus.
To it are annexed the Icositani : soon after, Lucentum, a
Town of the Latins. Dranium, a Stipendiary ; the River
Sucro, and what was sometime the Frontier Town of Con-
testania. The Region Edetania, which retireth to the Cel-
tiberians, having a pleasant Pool bordering along the Front
of it. Valentia, a Colony lying three Miles from the Sea.
The River Turium ; and just as far from the Sea, Saguntum,
a Town of Roman Citizens renowned for their Fidelity.
The River Idubeda, and the Region of the Ilergaoni. The
River Iberus, rich by Commerce and Navigation, which
beginneth in the Cantabrian's Country, not far from the
Town luliobrica, and holdeth on its course 430 Miles, and,
for 260 of them, from the Town Varia, carrieth Vessels; in
regard of which River, the Greeks named all Spain Iberia.
The Region Cossetania, the River Subi, the Colony Tarraco,
built by the Scipios, like as Carthage of the Poani. The

1 58 History of Nature. [BooK 111.

Country of the Illergetes, the Town Subur, the River Ru-
bricatum ; from thence the Lacetani and Indigetes. After
them in this order following : retiring within at the Foot of
Pyrenaeus, the Ausetani, Itani, and Lacetani : and along
Pyrenaeus, the Cerretani, and then the Vascones. But in
the Borders, the Colony Barcino, surnamed Faventia :
Towns of Roman Citizens, — Baetulo, Illuro, the River Lar-
num, Blandee : the River Alba, Emporiae: two there be of
these, of the old Inhabitants, and of Greeks, who were
descended from the Phocaeans. The River Tichis; from
whence to Pyrenaea Venus on the other side of the Pro-
montory, are forty Miles. Now, besides the forenamed,
shall be related the principal places as they lie in every
Jurisdiction. At Tarracon there plead in Court four and
forty States. The most famous among them are, of Roman
Citizens, the Dertusani and Bisgargitani : of Latins, the
Ausetani and Cerretani, surnamed Juliani : they also who
are named Augustani, the Sedetani, Gerundenses, Ges-
sorienses, Teari, the same with Julienses. Of Stipendiarii,
the Aquicaldenses, Onenses, and Baetulonenses. Caesar Au-
gusta, a free Colony, upon which the River Iberus floweth,
where the Town before was called Salduba : these are of
the Region Sedetania, and receiveth 152 States, and among
these, of Roman Citizens, the Bellitani and Celsenses ; and
out of the Colony, the Calaguritani, surnamed also Nascici.
The Ilerdenses of the Surdaon's Nation, near to whom
runneth the River Sicoris : the Oscences, of the Region Ves-
cetania, and the Turiasonenses. Of old Latins, the Cas-
cantenses, Erganicenses, Gracchuritani, Leonicenses, Ossi-
gerdenses : of Confederates, the Tarragenses. Stipendiarii,
the Arcobricenses, Andologenses, Arocelitani, Bursaonenses,
Calaguritani, surnamed Fibularenses, Complutenses, Ca-
renses, Cincenses, Cortonenses, Dammanitani, Larrenses,
Iturisenses, Tspalenses, Ilumberitani, Lacetani, Vibienses,
Pompelonenses, and Segienses. There resort to Carthage
for Law sixty-two several States, besides the Inhabitants of
the Islands. Out of the Colony Accitana, the Gemellenses,
also Libisosona, surnamed Foroaugustana, which two are

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 159

endued with the Franchises of Italy : out of the Colony
Salariensis, the Citizens of Old Latium, Castulonenses, whom
Ccesar calleth Venales. The Setabitani, who are also Au-
gustani, and the Valerrienses. But of the Stipendiarii, of
greatest name be the Babanenses, the Bastiani, the Con-
saburenses, Dianenses, Egelestani, Ilorcitani, Laminitani,
Mentesani, the same as Oritani ; arid Mentesani, who other-
wise are Bastuli ; Oretani, who also are called Germani ;
the Chief of the Celtiberians, the Segobrigenses, and the
Toletani of Carpetania, dwelling upon the River Tagus :
next to them, the Viacienses and Virgilienses. To the Juris-
diction of Cluniensis the Varduli bring fourteen Nations, of
which it is necessary to name none but the Albanenses ;
the Turmodigi four, among whom are the Segisamonenses,
Sagisainejulienses. To the same Jurisdiction the Carietes
and the Vennenses go out of five Cities, of which the Ve-
lienses are. Thither repair the Pelendones, with four States
of the Celtiberians, of whom the Numantini were famous ;
as in the eighteen Cities of the Vaccsei. the Intercatienses,
Pallantini, Lacobricenses, and Caucenses: for in the four
States of the Cantabrici only Juliobrica is named. In the
ten Cities of the Autrigoni, Tritium and Vironesca. To
the Arevaci the River Areva gave name. Of them there be
seven Towns : Saguntia and Uxama, which Names are often
used in other Places ; besides Segovia and Nova Augusta,
Termes, and Clunia itself, the very utmost bound of Cel-
tiberia. All the rest lie toward the Ocean ; and of the
above-named, the Verduli, together with the Cantabri. To
these there are joined twelve Nations of the Astures, divided
into the Augustanes and Transmontani, having a stately
City, Asturica. Among these are Giguri, Pesici, Lancienses,
and Zoclae. The number of the whole Multitude ariseth to
240,000 Polls of free Men. The Jurisdiction Lucensis com-
priseth sixteen Nations (besides the Celtici and Lebuni) of
base Condition, and having barbarous Names ; but of Free-
men, almost 166,000. In like manner, twenty-four Cities,
having 275,000 Polls of Bracari; of whom, besides the
Bracari themselves, the Vibali, Celerini, Galleeci, ^Equesilici,

1 60 History of Nature. [ BOOK III.

and Quinquerni, may be named without Disdain. The
length of the hither Spain, from Pyrenaeus to the Bound of
Castulo, is 607 Miles, and the Coast thereof somewhat more.
The Breadth from Tarracon to the Shore of Alarson, 307
Miles ; and from the Foot of Pyrenseus where, between two
Seas, it is Pointed with the Straits, and so opening itself
by little and little until it come to touch the farther Spain,
it is as much, and addeth somewhat more to the Breadth.
All Spain is full of Metal, as Lead, Iron, Copper, Silver,
and Gold : the hither part thereof aboundeth with Specular
Stone,1 and Bostica, particularly, with Vermillion. There
are also Quarries of Marble. Unto all Spain, Vespasianus
Augustus, the Emperor, tossed with the Tempests of the
Commonwealth, granted the Franchises of Latium. The
Mountains Pyreuaei define the Boundaries of Spain and Gaul,
their Promontories projecting into two opposite Seas.

CHAPTER IV.
The Province Narbonensis.

THAT Part of Gallia which is washed by the Mediter-
ranean Sea is called the Province Narbonensis, named for-
merly Braccata ; divided from Italy by the River Varus and
the Alps, most Friendly Mountains to the Roman Empire ;
and from the other Parts of Gaul, on the North side, by the
Mountains Gehenna and Jura. For Tillage of the Ground,
for reputation of Men, regard of Manners, and for Wealth,
worthy to be set behind no other Provinces whatever ; and,
in one word, to be counted Italy more truly than a Pro-
vince. In its Borders lyeth the Country of the Sardoni ;
and within, the Region of the Consuarani. The Rivers be
Tecurn and Vernodubrum ; the Towns, llliberis (a poor
relic of a City that was once Great), and Ruscio, inhabited
by the Latins. The River Atax, springing out of Pyrenaeus,
runneth through the Lake Lubrensis: Narbo Martins, a
Colony of the Tenth Legion, twelve Miles distant from the

' i. e. Talc. See Lib. xxxvi. cap. 22.

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 161

Sea : Rivers Araris nnd Liria. Towns in the other Parts
scattered here and there, by reason of Pools lying before
them : Agatha, in Times past belonging to the Massilians,
and the Region of Volscae Tectosages. Also, where Rhoda
of the Rhodians was, whereof Rhodanus took its name, the
most fruitful River of all Gallia, running swiftly out of the
Alps through the Lake Lemanus, and carrying with it
the slow Araris ; and Isara running as fast as itself,
together with Druentia ; of which the two small Mouths are
called Lybica; of which the one is Hispaniensum, the other
Metapinum : there is a third, which is the most Wide
and Large, named Massalioticum. Some write that the
Town Heraclea likewise stood at the Mouth of Rhodanus.
Beyond the Ditch, out of Rhodanus, which was the Work
of C. Marius and beareth his Name, there was remarkable
Pool ; moreover, the Town Astromela, and the maritime
Tract of the Avsetici ; and above, the stony Plains, the Me-
morial of the Battles of Hercules. The Region of the
Anatilii, and within, of the Desuviates and Caviarae. Again,
from the Sea, Tricorium ; and within, the Region of the
Tricolli, Vocantii, Segovellauni, and presently of the Allo-
broges ; but in the Borders, Massilia of Greek Phocaeans
confederate : the Promontory Citharista, Zaopartus, and the
Region of the Camatullici. After them the Suelteri ; and
above them, Verucines; but in the Coast, Athenopolis of
the Massilians ; Forum Julii, a Colony of the ninth Legion,
which also is called Parensis and Classica : in it is the River
Argenteus, the Region of the Oxubii and Ligaunii ; above
whom are the Suetri, Quariates, and Adunicates : but in the
Borders, a Latin Town, Antipolis. The Region of the
Deciates, the River Varus gushing out of a Mountain of the
Alps, called Acema : in the middle Part thereof, the Colonies
Arelate of the sixth Legion, Bliterae of the seventh, and
Arausia of those belonging to the second . In the Territory
of the Caviarae, Valentia and Vienna, of the Allobroges.
Latin Towns, Aquas Sextiae of the Saiyi, and Avenio of the
Caviarae, Apta Julia of the Vulgienties, Alebecerriorum of
the Apollinares, Alba of the Helvi, Augusta of the Tricos-

162 History of Nature. [BOOK III.

tines ; Anatilia, Aeria, Bormannico, Comacina, Cabellio,
Carcasum of the Volscan Tectosages ; Cessero, Carpen-
toracte of the Menines ; the Cenicenses, Cambolecti, who
are named Atlantici, Forum Voconii, Glanum, Livii, Lu-
tevani, who are the same as the Foro-neronienses : Ne-
rnausum of the Arecomici, Piscense, Ruteni, Sanugenses, and
Tolosani of the Tectosages. The Borderers upon Aquitane,
Tasco-dumetari, Canonienses, Umbranici : two capital
Towns of the confederate City of the Vocontians, Vasco and
Lucus Augusti ; but Towns of no importance nineteen, as
twenty-four annexed to the Nemausienses. To this Charter
Galba the Emperor added of the Alpine Inhabitants, the
Avantici and Eproduntii, whose Town is named Dima.
Agrippa saith that the Length of the Province Narbonensis
is 270 Miles, and the Breadth 248.

CHAPTER V.
Italy, Tiber, Rome, Campania.

NEXT to them is Italy ; and the first of it the Ligurians :
then Hetruria, Umbria, Latium, where are the Mouths of
Tiberis and Rome, the Head of the whole Earth, sixteen
Miles distant from the Sea. After it is the maritime Country
of the Volscians, and Campania : then Picentium, Lu-
canum, and Brutium, the furthest Point in the South, to
which, from the moonshaped Mountains of the Alps, Italy
shooteth out to the Seas. From it is the Sea-coast of
Graecia, and soon after, the Salentini, Pediculi, Apuli,
Peligni, Ferentani, Marrucini, Vestini, Sabini, Picentes,
Galli, Urnbri, Tusci, Veneti, Carni, lapides, Istri, and
Liburni.

Neither am I ignorant that it might be thought justly a
point of an unthankful and stupid Mind, if briefly in this
sort, and cursorily, that Land should be spoken of which is
the Nurse of all Lands. She also is the Mother, chosen by
the Power of the Gods, to make even Heaven itself more
Glorious ; to gather into One the scattered Empires, to
soften the Fashions of other Countries ; and whereas the

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 163

Languages of so many Nations were repugnant and savage,
to draw them together by commerce of Speech, to a Con-
ference; to endue Man with Humanity; and briefly, that of
all Nations in the World there should be one only Country.
But so noble are all the Places that a Man shall come to,
so excellent is every thing, and each State so famous, that I
am at a loss what to say. The City of Rome, the only fair
Face therein worthy to stand upon so stately a Neck, what
Work would it ask to be described as it ought l ? The very
Tract of Campania by itself, so pleasant and happy, how
should it be described? So that it is evident in this one
Place there is the Work of rejoicing Nature. Besides this,
the whole Temperature of the Air is evermore so vital, the
Fields so fertile, the Hills so open to the Sun, the Forests
so harmless, the Groves so shady, the kinds of Wood so
bounteous, the Mountains so breezy ; the Corn, the Vines,
the Olives so fertile ; the Sheep so enriched with such noble
Fleeces.; such Necks to the Oxen ; so many Lakes, such
abundance of Rivers and Springs watering it throughout ; so
many Seas and Havens, that it is the very Bosom lying open
to receive the Commerce of all Lands ; and as of itself
earnestly desiring to lie far into the Sea to help all Mankind.
Neither do I speak now of the Natures and Manners of the
Men ; nor of the Nations subdued by their Tongue and
Hand. Even the Greeks (a Nation of all other most given
to praise themselves) have given their judgment of her, in
that they called a certain Part thereof Great Greece. But
that which we did in the mention of the Heaven, namely, to
touch some known Planets and a few Stars, the same must

1 The Romans were proud of the glory of their city ; and believed it
to be the only one worthy the regard of the gods :—

" Jupiter arce sua cum totum spectat in orbem,

Nil nisi Romanum, quod tueatur, habet." — OVID, Fasti, lib. i.

From his high citadel when Jove surveyed

The extended earth beneath his sovereign sway,

Nought but the Roman widely spread he spied.
Worthy t'engage his care. — Wern. Club.

164 History of Nature. [BooK III.

we do in this Part : only I pray the Readers to remember
that I hasten to rehearse every particular Thing through
the whole Globe.

Italy is fashioned like to an Oak leaf, being much larger
in Length than in Breadth: to the left Side bending with
the Top, and ending in the Figure of an Amazonian Shield :
and where, from the middle Extension, it is called Cocin-
thos, it putteth forth through two moonshaped Promontories
two Horns : the one, Leucopetra, on the right Hand ; the other,
Lacinium, on the left. In Length it reacheth from the Foot
of the Alps to Prsetoria Augusta, through the City of Rome,
and so to Capua, with a course leading to Rhegium, a Town
situated upon the Shoulder thereof: from which beginneth
the bending, as it were, of the Neck, and beareth 1020
Miles. And this Measure would be much more if it went
as far as Lacinium ; but such an Obliquity might seem to
decline out too much to one Side. Its Breadth is various ;
being 410 Miles between the two Seas, the Higher and
the Lower, and the Rivers Varus and Arsia. The middle
portions of this Breadth, which is much about the City of
Rome, from the Mouth of the River Aternus running into
the Adriatic Sea, unto the Mouths of Tiber, 136 Miles; and
somewhat less from Novum Castrum by the Adriatic Sea, to
Alsium, and so to the Tuscan Sea : and in no Place ex-
ceedeth it in Breadth 300 Miles. But the full Compass of
the whole, from Varus to Arsia, is 20,049 Miles. It is
distant by Sea from the Lands round about, that is, from
Istria and Liburnia, in some Places 100 Miles; from Epirus
and Illyricuni, 50 Miles ; from Africa, less than 200, as Varro
affirmeth ; from Sardinia, 120 Miles ; from Sicily, a Mile and
a half ; from Corey ra, less than 70 ; from tssa, 50. It goeth
along the Seas even to the Meridional Line of the Heaven ;
but if a Man examine it very exactly, it lieth between the
Sun-rising in Mid-winter, and the Point of the Meridian.

Now we will describe the Circuit of this Country, and
reckon the Cities : wherein it is necessary to be premised,
that we shall follow our Author Divus Augustus, and the
Description by him made of all Italy ; arranged into eleven

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 1 65

Regions. The Maritime Towns I will set down in the order
as they stand, according to their vicinity one to another.
But as in so running a Speech, the rest cannot be so
orderly described, therefore in the Inland part thereof I
will follow him as he hath digested them in Letters, but
mentioning the Colonies by Name which he hath delivered
in that number. Neither is it easy to follow thoroughly
their Positions and Origins, considering the Ingaun Li-
gurians (to say nothing of all the rest) were endowed with
Lands thirty times. To begin with the River Varus, there-
fore, there is the Town Nicsea, built by the Massilians ; the
River Po ; the Alps ; the People within the Alps, of many
Names, but chiefly the Capillati : the Town Vediantiorum,
the City Cemelion (or a Town belonging to the State of the
Vedianti, called Cemelion) ; the Port of Hercules Monoscus ;
the Ligustian Coast. Of the Liguri, the most renowned
beyond the Alps are the Sally i, Deceates, and Oxubii : on
this Side, the Veneni, and, descended from the Caturiges,
the Vagienni, Statilli, Vibelli, Magelli, Euburiates, Cas-
monates, Veliates, and those whose Towns we will declare
in the next Coast. The River Rutuba, the Town Albium,
Intemelium, the River Merula, the Town Albium Ingaunum,
the Port Vadum Sabatium, the River Porcifera, the Town
Genua, the River Feritor ; the Port Delphini, Tigulia :
within, Segesta Tiguliorum : the River Macra, which limiteth
Liguria. But on the back of all these Towns above-named
is Apenninus, the highest Mountain of all Italy, reaching
from the Alps, with a continual ridge of Hills, to the
Straits of Sicily. From the other Side of this to Pad us,
the richest River of Italy, all the Country shineth with noble
Towns : Liberna, Dertona a Colony, Iria, Barderates, In-
dustria, Pollentia, Cartea, which also is named Polentia;
Foro Fulvii the same as Valentinum ; Augusta of the Va-
gienni : Alba Pompeia, Asta, and Aquae Statiellorum. This
is the ninth Region, according to the Arrangement of Au-
gustus. The Coast of Liguria lieth between the Rivers Varus
and Macra, 211 Miles. To it is adjoined the seventh,

166 History of Nature. [BooK III.

wherein is Hetruria, from the River Macra : and itself,
with the Names often changed. In old Time the Pelasgi
drove the Umbri from thence : and by them the Lydi did
the like, of whose King they were named Tyrrheni: but
soon after, of their Ceremonies in Sacrificing, in the Greek
Language Thusci. The first Town of Hetruria is Luna, with
a famous Harbour ; then the Colony Luca, lying from the
Sea : and nearer to it is Pisae, between the River Auser
and Arnus, which took the Beginning from Pelops and the
Pisi, or Atintani, a Greek Nation. Vada Vollaterranea, the
River Cecinna. Populonium of the Hetrusci, in Times past
situate only upon this Coast. After these, the Rivers Prille,
and, soon after, Umbro, navigable : so forward the Tract of
Umbria, and the PortTelamon : Cossa Volscientium, planted
by the People of Rome ; Graviscae, Castrum Novum, Pyrgi,
the River Cseretanus, and Caere itself, standing four Miles
within ; Agylla, named by the Pelasgians, who built it ;
Alsium and Frugenae. The River Tiber, distant from
Macra 284 Miles. Within are these Colonies : Falisca,
descended from Argi (as Cato saith), and called Hetrus-
corum : Lucus Feronise, Russellana, Senensis, and Sutriva.
For the rest : Aretini the Old, Aretini Fidentes, Aretini
Julienses, Amitinenses, Aquenses, surnamed Taurini : Blerani,
Cortonenses, Capenates, Clusini the Old, Clusini the New,
Fluentini, fast upon the River Arnus that runneth before
them, Fesulse, Ferentinum, Fescennia, Hortanum, Herbanum,
Nepet, Novempagi, Prefectura Claudia, Foro Clodii : Pis-
torium, Perusia, Suanenses, Saturnini, who beforetime were
called Aurinini, Sudertani, Statones, Tarquinienses, Tus-
canienses, Vetulonienses, Veientani, Vesentini, Volaterrani,
surnamed Hetrusci, and Volsinienses. In the same Part lie
the Territories Crustuminus and Cseletranus, bearing the
Names of the old Towns. Tiber, before named Tybris,
and, before that, Albula, from almost the middle of the
Length of the Apennine runneth along the Borders of the
Aretini : small at the first, and not Navigable without being
gathered together by Fishponds into an Head, and so let

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 167

go : as Tinia and Glanis, which run into him ; and which
require nine Days for the collection of Waters, and so are kept
in for running if they have no Help from Rain. But Tiber,
hy reason of the rough and rugged Channel, notwithstanding
that Device, holdeth on no long Course together, but only
for Troughs, more truly than Boats ; and thus it doth for
150 Miles, to not far from Tifernum, Perusia, and Otriculum :
dividing as it passeth Hetruria from the Umbri and Sa-
bini : and presently, within thirteen Miles of the City
(Rome), it parteth the Veientian country from the Crustu-
mine: and soon after, the Fidenate and Latin Territories from
the Labican. But, besides Tinia and Glanis, it is augmented
with forty-two Rivers ; and especially with Nar and Anio :
which River being also itself Navigable, encloseth Latium
from behind, and that notwithstanding so many Waters
and Fountains are brought thereby into the City ; whereby
it is able to receive large Ships from the Italian Sea, being
the kindest Merchant of Things growing in the whole World :
it is the only River of all others to speak of, and more Vil-
lages stand upon it and see it, than all other Rivers in any
lands soever. No River hath less Liberty than it, as having
the Sides thereof enclosed on both Hands ; and yet he doth
not resist, although he hath many and sudden Swellings,
and in no Place more than in the City itself do his Waters
overflow : yet is he taken to be a Prophet rather, and a
Counsellor, and in Swelling more truly Religious than Cruel.
Old Latium, from Tiber to Circeios, was observed to be in
Length fifty Miles; so slender were at first the Roots of
this Empire. The Inhabitants thereof changed often, and
held it, some one time, some another; that is, the Abo-
rigines, Pelasgi, Arcades, Siculi, Aurunci, and Rutili. And
beyond Circeios, the Volsci, Osci, Ausones, from whence the
Name of Latium reached soon after, as far as to the River
Liris. In the beginning of it standeth Ostia, a Colony,
brought thither by a Roman King : the Town Laurentum,
the Grove of Jupiter Indiges, the River Numicius, and Ardea,
built by Dande, the Mother of Perseus. Then the Colony
Antium, once Aphrodisium ; Astura, the River and the

168 History of Nature. [BooK III.

Island. The River NymphaBUS, Clostra Romana, Circeii1,
in Times past an Island, environed with a mighty Sea (if we
believe Homer\ but now with a Plain. A Wonder it is what
we are able to deliver concerning this thing, to the know-
ledge of Men. Theophrastus, who of Foreigners was the first
that wrote any Thing diligently concerning the Romans (for
Theopompus, before whom no Man made any mention, said
only, That the City was taken by the Gauls : and Clitarchus
next after him, spake of nothing but an Embassage sent
to Alexander} ; this Theophraslus^ with more certainty than
bare hearsay, hath set down the Measure of the Island
Circeii to be eighty Stadia ; in that Book which he wrote to
IVicodorus, the chief Magistrate of the Athenians, who lived
in the 460th year after the Foundation of our City. What-
ever Land, therefore, above ten Miles' compass, lieth near
about it, hath been annexed to the Island. A year after
that another wonderful Thing fell out in It<sly : for not far
from Circeii there is a Pond called Pomptina, which Mu-
tianusy a Man who had been thrice Consul, reporteth to have
been a Place wherein stood twenty-three Cities. Then there
is the River Ufens, upon which is the Town Terracina,
called in the Volscian tongue Anxur, and where was the City
Aioycle, destroyed by Serpents. After it is the Place of a

1 Cerceia was a town of the Volsci, on whose ruins is now built the
little village Santa Felicita. Homer (" Odyssey," K. 194) represents it
as the abode of Circe, and says it was an island —

" An isle encircled with the boundless flood."

But the country all around is now one vast plain, and constitutes the well-
known Pontine Marshes, which being raised but little above the level of
the sea, may not improbably have been once covered by its waves. " If
the traveller can spare a day," says Eustace in his " Classical Tour," " he
may hire a boat, and sail along the coast to the promontory of Circe,
which forms so conspicuous a figure in his prospect, and appears from
Terracina, as Homer and Virgil poetically describe it, a real island. As
he ranges over its lofty cliffs, he will recollect the splendid fictions of the
one and the harmonious lines of the other. He may traverse the un-
frequented groves ; but instead of the palace of Circe he will discover the
lonely village of Santa Felicita, a few solitary towers hanging over the
sea, and perhaps some faint traces of the ancient Cerceia, covered with
bushes and overgrown with shrubs." — Wern. Club.

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 169

Cave, the Lake Fundanus, and the Port Cajeta. The Town
Formiae, named also Hormiae, the ancient Seat (as Men
thought) of the Laestrigones. Beyond it was the Town
Pyrae, the Colony Minturnae, divided by the River Liris,
called Clauius. The furthest Town in the adjoins of Latium
is Sinuessa, which, as some have said, was commonly called
Sinope. Thence cometh the pleasant Country Campania.
From this Vale begin the Hills which are full of Vineyards,
and famous for Drunkenness, proceeding of the Liquor so
celebrated, commended in all Countries : and (as they were
wont to say in old Time) there was the chief Strife between
Father Liber and Ceres. From hence the Setine and Ce-
cubine Countries spread forth : and to them join the Falern
and Calene. Then arise the Mountains Massici, Gaurani,
and Surrentim. There the Laborini Fields are spread about,
and the good Wheat harvest to make Dainties at the table.
The Sea-coasts here are watered with hot Fountains ; and
beside. other Things through all the Sea, they are famous
for the rich purple Shell-fish1 and other excellent Fishes2.
In no Place is there better Oil from the Olive ; and this
contest of Human pleasure, the Osci, Grecians, Umbri,
Tusci, and Campi, have held. In the Border of this is the
River Savo ; Vulturnum, the Town, with the River; Li-
ternum, and Cumo, inhabited by Chalcidians, Misenum,
the Harbour Baiae, Baiili, the Lakes Lucrinus and Aver-
nus, near which was once the Town Cimmerium. Then
Puteoli, called also the Colony Dicaearchia : after that, the
Plains Phlegraei, and the Marsh Acherusia, near to Cumes.
And by the Shore Naples3, a City also of the Chalcidians;

1 The famous Tyrian dye was procured from shell-fish, but the par-
ticular species are not certainly known. Of the Purpura and Buccinum
described by Pliny in his 9th book, the former is probably the Murex
trunculus of Linnaeus, and the other the Purpura patula of Lamark. —
Wern. Club.

2 The Scarus, described by Pliny, lib. ix. 29, is perhaps intended, but
it is difficult to determine what the Scarus was. Baian and Lucrine oysters
may also be referred to; these are described, lib. ix. 79. — Wern. Club.

3 Livy, lib. viii. 22, says, " Naples was inhabited by a people that
came from Cumae, and the Cumans derive their origin from Chalcis, in
Euboaa."— Wern. Club.

170 History of Nature. [BOOK III.

as Parthenope, so called from the Tomb of a Siren : Her-
culaneum, Pompeii : and, not far off, the Mountain
Vesuvius overlooketh, and the River Sernus runneth by
the Territory of Nuceria ; and within nine Miles of the Sea,
Nuceria itself. Surrentum, with the Promontory of Mi-
nerva, the Seat once of the Sirens. From Circeii the Navi-
gation lieth open seventy-eight Miles. This is counted the
first Region of Italy, from Tiber, according to the Descrip-
tion of Augustus. Within it are these Colonies : Capua, so
called of the Champaign Country ; Aquinum ; Suessa, Ve-
nafrum, Sora, Teanum, named also Sidicinum ; and Nola :
the Towns Abellinum, Aricia, Alba Longa, Acerrani, Allifani,
Atinates, Aletrinates, Anagnini, Atellani, Asulani, Arpinates,
Auximates, Avellani, Aifaterni ; and they who of the Latin,
Hernic, and Labicane Territories, are surnamed accordingly :
Bovillse, Calatiae, Casinum, Calenum, Capitulum, Cernetum>
Cernetani, who are called also Mariani. Corani, descended
from Dardanus the Trojan. Cubulterini, Castrimonienses,
Cingulani. Fabienses, and in the Mount Albanus, Foro-popu-
lienses. Out of the Falern Territory, Frusinates, Feren-
tinates, Freginates, Fabraterni the Old, Fabraterni the New,
Ficolenses, Fricolenses, Foro-Appi, Forentani, Gabini, In-
terramnates, Succasani, called also Lirinates, Ilionenses,
Lavinii, Norbani, Nementani Prenestini, whose City was in
Times past named Stephanus, Privernates, Setini, Signini,
Suessulani, Telini, Trebutini, surnamed Balinienses, Trebani,
Tusculani, Verulani, Veliterni, Ulubrenses, Ulvernates, and
above Rome herself: the other Name1 whereof to utter is

1 Valentia.

In the second chapter of book xxviii., Pliny tells us, on the autho-
rity of authors adduced by Verrius Flaccus, that the Romans, when about
to commence the siege of any place, first called upon their priests to in-
voke the deity under whose protection that place was, and promised him
the same, or even a greater, degree of worship than he had previously
received. And that the enemies of Rome might not have recourse to the
same expedient, it was kept ; a strict secret under the protection of what
particular deity their own city was placed. Valentia appears to have been
the secret name, and it was never divulged till Valerius Soranus rashly
uttered it, and, as we learn from Plutarch (in " Quaest. Rom." p. 278),
uffered the punishment of his impiety. St. Paul found at Athens an

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 171

counted in the Mysteries of the Ceremonies an impious and
unlawful Thing : which, after it was abolished, for the faithful
Safety thereof, Valerius Soranus pronounced, and soon after
suffered the Penalty. I think it not amiss to insert in this
Place an Example of the ancient Religion, instituted espe-
cially for this Silence: for the Goddess Angerona, to whom
is sacrificed on the twelfth Day before the Kalends of January,
is represented by an Image having her Mouth bound and
sealed up. The City had three Gates when Romulus left it ;
or rather four (if we believe most Men that write thereof),
its Walls, when the two Vespasians, Emperors and Censors,
took the Measure, in the Year after the Foundation of it,
828, were in circuit thirteen1 Miles and almost a quarter.
It containeth within it seven Mountains, and is divided into
fourteen Regions and 265 cross Streets, called Compita
Larium. The Measure of the same space of Ground, running
from the Milliarium, erected at the Head of the Roman
Forum, to every Gate, which are at this Day thirty-seven in
number (so ye reckon once the twelve Gates always open,
and overpass seven of the old, which no longer exist2), maketh
thirty Miles, three-quarters, and a little more, in a straight
Line : but from the same Milliarium 3, to the utmost ends of
the Houses, with the Praetorian Camps, and the clumps
(vicos) of all the Streets, it cometh to somewhat above
seventy Miles : to which if a Man put the Height of the
Houses, he may truly conceive by it a worthy Estimate of it,
and confess that the Magnitude of no City in the World

altar dedicated to the Unknown God; this had, probably, been erected
with a reference to the custom above-mentioned, as there is no reason for
supposing it confined to the Romans. — Wern. Club.

1 Some read, thirty.

2 In ancient times the most frequented roads to the city of Rome had
double gates. They who came into the city passed through the left-hand
gates ; and they who went out took the right-hand gate. (Nardini,
" Roma Antica," lib. x. cap. 9.) When Pliny, speaking of the gates of
the city, says that twelve of the thirty-seven gates should only be num-
bered once, he alludes to such of them as were double in this

Note in the " Pursuits of Literature" Dia. 4th.— Wern. Club.

3 For figure of the Milliarium, see the end of this book.

172 History of Nature. [BooK lit.

could be compared to it. It is enclosed on the East Side
with the Rampart of Tarquinius the Proud ; a very won-
derful piece of Work : for he raised it as high as the Walls
on that Side where the approach to it was most open. On
the other Part it was fortified with exceedingly high Walls,
or with steep Hills, except where there the Buildings lie out,
and make many Cities. In that first Region there were
besides, for Latium, these distinguished Towns : Satricum,
Pometia, Scaptia, Pitulum, Politorium, Tellene, Tifata.
Caemina, Ficana, Crustumerium, Ameriola, Medullia, Cor-
niculum, Saturnia, where now Rome standeth : Antipolis,
which now is Janiculum, in a Part of Rome : Antemnse,
Carnerium, Collatise : Amiternum, Norbe, Sulmo ; and with
these, the Alban People, who were accustomed to receive
Flesh in Mount Alban ; Albani, ^Esolani, Acienses, Aholani,
Bubetani, Bolani, Casuetani, Coriolani, Fidenates, Foretii,
Hortenses, Latinenses, Longulani, Manates, Macrales, Mu-
tucumenses, Munienses, Numinienses, OHiculani, Octulani,
Pedani, Pollustini, Querquetulani, Sicani, Sisolenses, Tole-
rienses, Tutienses, Virnitellarii, Velienses, Venetulani, Vi-
cellenses. Thus of the Old Latium there be fifty-three States
perished, without any Remains left behind. Moreover, in
the Campaign Country, the Town Stabiae continued to the
Time that Cn. Pompeius and L. Carbo were Consuls, the
last Day of April ; upon which Day L. Sylla, Legate in the
Social War, destroyed it utterly : which now is turned into
Farm-houses. There is decayed also there Taurania. There
be also some little Relics left of the dying Casilinum.
Moreover, Antias writeth, that Apiolae, a Town of the
Latins, was taken by L. Tarquinius^ the King ; with the
Pillage whereof he founded the Capitol. From Surrentum
to the River Silarus was the Picentine Country, for the
space of thirty Miles, renowned for the Tuscan's Temple
built by Jason in honour of Juno Argiva. Within it stood
the Towns Salernum and Picentia. At Silarus, the third
Region beginneth, together with the Lucan and Brutian
Countries : and there also the Inhabitants changed not a
few times. For it was possessed by the Pelasgi, (Enotri,

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 173

I tali, Morgetes, Siculi, People for the most part of Greece :
and last of all by the Lucani, descended from the Samnites,
under their Leader Lucius. In which standeth the Town
Paestum, called by the Greeks Posidonia: the Bay Psestanus,
the Town Helia, now Velia. The Promontory Palinurum,
Creek receding, from which there is a Passage to the Column
Rhegia, 100 Miles over. Next to this, the River Melphes :
the Town Buxentum, in Greek Pyxus; the River Laiis ;
and a Town there was likewise of the same Name. From
thence the Sea-coast of Brutium, the Town Blanda, the
River Batnm, the Haven Parthenius belonging to the
Phocaeans : the Bay Vibonensis ; the Grove Clampetia, the
Town Ternsa, called by the Greeks Temese : and Terina of
the Crotonians, and the very large Bay Terinseus : the Town
Consentia. Within, in a Peninsula, the River Acheron,
from which the Townsmen are called Acherontini. Hippo,
which now we call Vibovalentia ; the Port of Hercules, the
River Metaurus, the Town Tauroentum, the Port of Orestes,
and Medua : the Town Scylleum, the River Cratais, Mother
(as they say) to Scylla. Then the Column Rhegia : the
Sicilian Straits, and two Capes, one over against the other ;
namely, Caenis from Italy, and Pelorum from Sicily, a Mile
and half asunder : from whence to Rhegium is twelve Miles
and a half: and so forward to a Wood in the Apennine
called Sila ; and the Promontory called Leucopetra, twelve
Miles. Beyond which, Locri (carrying the Name also of the
Promontory Zephyrium) is from Silarus distant 303 Miles.
Here is included the first Gulf of Europe, wherein are named
these Seas : first, Atlanticum (from which the Ocean breaketh
in), called of some Magnum : the Passage through which it
entereth is by the Greeks called Porthmos; by us FretumGadi-
tanum ; when it hath entered the Spanish Sea, so far it washeth
the Coasts of Spain, Freturn Hispanum : of others, Ibericum,
or Balearicum : and presently it taketh the Name of Gallicum,
before the Province Narbonensis : and after that, Ligusticum :
from whence, to the Island Sicily, it is called Tuscum ; which
some of the Grecians term Notium, others Tyrrhenum, but
most of our Countrymen Inferum. Beyond Sicily to the

174 History of Nature. [BooK III.

Salentini, Polybius calleth it Ausonium : but Eratosthenes
naraeth all the Sea Sardonuin, that is, between the Mouth of
the Ocean and Sardinia : and from thence to Sicily, Tyr-
rhenum : and from it to Greta, Siculum : beyond which it is
called Creticum. The Islands along these Seas are these :
the first of all, those by the Greeks named Pityusae, of the
Pine plant ; but now, Ebusus : they are both a City con-
federate, and a narrow Arm of the Sea runneth between
them : they are forty-two Miles apart. From Dianeum they
are distant seventy Stadia : and so many are there between
Dianeum and New Carthage, by the main Land : and as far
from Pityusse into the main Ocean, lie the two Baleares ;
and toward Sucro, Colubraria. These Baleares, in War,
use much the Sling ; and the Greeks name them Gymnesiae.
The greater of them is 100 Miles in Length, and in Circuit
380. It hath Towns of Roman Citizens, Palma and Pol-
lentia : of Latins, Cinium and Cunici : and Bochri was a
Town confederate. From it the lesser is 30 Miles off,
being in Length 60 Miles, and in Compass 150. Cities
in it are Jamno, Sanisera, and Mago. From the greater,
12 Miles in the Sea, lieth the Isle Capraria, dangerous for
Shipwrecks : and opposite the City Palma, Menariae, and
Tiquadra, and little Annibalis. The Soil of Ebusus chaseth
Serpents away, but that of Colubraria breedeth them ; and
therefore it is Dangerous for all that come into it, unless they
bring with them some of the Ebusian earth. The Greeks
call this Island, Ophiusa. Neither doth Ebusus produce
any Rabbits ; which are so common in the Baleares, that
they eat up the Corn. There be about twenty more little
ones in the shallow Part of the Sea. But in the Coast of
Gallia, in the Mouth of Rhodanus, there is Metina ; and
soon after, that which is called Blascon ; and the. three
Stoechades, called so by their Neighbours the Massilians, for
their Order ; and they give each one a several Name, as
Prote, Mes£ (which also is called Pornponiana), and the
third, Hypea. After them, are Sturium, Phrenice, Phila,
Lero, and Lerina, over against Antipolis; wherein is a
Memorial of the Town Vergaonum.

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 1 75

CHAPTER VI.

i
Of Corsica.

IN the Ligurian Sea is Corsica, which the Greeks called
Cyrnos, but it is nearer to the Tuscan Sea, stretching out
from the North into the South, and in Length is 150 Miles :
in Breadth, for the more Part, 50: in Circuit, 322: it is
distant from the Shallows of Volaterrae 62 Miles. It hath
35 Cities : and the Colonies, Mariana, planted by C. Marius;
Aleria, by the Dictator Sylla. On this Side of it is Oglasa ;
but within 60 Miles of Corsica is Planaria ; so called of its
Form, which is level with the Sea; and, therefore, deceiveth
Ships. Bigger than it are Urgo and Capraria, which the
Greeks called .ZEgilos. Also, ^Egilium and Danium, the
same as Artemisia ; both lying over against the Coast of
Cosanum. Other small ones, also, as Maenaria, Columbraria,
Venaria, Ilua, with the Iron Mines, in Circuit 100 Miles,
10 Miles from Populonia, called by the Greeks, .ZEthalia :
from it is Planasia, 39 Miles off. After them, beyond the
Mouths of Tiber in the Antian (Creek), is Astura; and close
by Palmaria, Sinonia ; and just against, Formias, Pontiae.
But in the Bay of Puteolanum, Pantadaria and Prochyta, so
called, not of jEneass Nurse, but because of the gushing of
the Sea from JEnaria. ^Enaria itself took its Name from the
Station of the Ships of uEneas ; called by Homer Inarime, by
the Greeks, Pithecusa; not for the Number of Apes there, as
some have thought, but of the Work-houses of those that
made earthen Vessels. Between Pausilipus and Naples, Me-
garis ; and soon after, eight Miles from Surrentum, Capreae,
renowned for the Castle of the Prince Tiberius ; in Circum-
ference 400 Miles. Next, Leucothea; and out of Sight Jieth
Sardinia, close upon the African Sea, but less than nine Miles
from the Coast of Corsica : and still those Straits are made
more narrow by reason of the small Islands named Cunicu-
larise. Likewise Phintonis and Fossae, whereof the very
Strait itself is named Taphros.

1 76 History of Nature. [ BOOK III.

CHAPTER VII.
Of Sardinia.

SARDINIA, on the East Side, is in Extent 188 Miles; on
the West, 170 ; Southward, 74; and Northward, 122 : so that,
in all, it taketh up the Compass of 560 Miles. It is from the
Cape of Caralitanus to Africa 200 Miles : from Gades, 1400
Miles. It hath two Islands on that Side where the Promon-
tory Gorditanum standeth ; which be called Hercules' Is-
lands : on the Side of Sulsensis, Enosis ; of Caralitanum,
Ficaria. Some Place not far from it the Islands Belerides
and Col 1 odes : and another which they call Heras Lutra, or
Hieraca. The most celebrated People therein are the Ilienses,
Balari, and Corsi : and of the fourteen Towns, the Sul-
citana, Valentin), Neapolitan!, Bosenses, and Caralitani, who
are Roman Citizens ; arid Norenses. There is one Colony
which is called Ad Turrim Libysonis. This Island Sardinia
Timceus called (from the Shape of a Shoe) Sandaliotis : but
Myrsylus (from its Resemblance to a Footstep), Ichnusa.
Over against the Bay Psestanum is Leucasia, so called from
a Siren there buried. Opposite Vestia, lie Pontia and Issia ;
both jointly called by one Name, (Enotides ; an Argument
that Italy was possessed by the CEnotrians. And opposite
Vibo other little ones, called Ithacesise, the Watch-places of
Ulysses.

CHAPTER VIII.
Of Sicily.

BUT Sicily excelleth all other of these Islands. It is
named by Thucydides, Sicania ; by many, Trinacria, or Tri-
quetra, from its triangular Form. It is in Circuit (as Agrippa
saith) 198 Miles. In Times past it was joined to the Bru-
tians' Country ; but soon after, by the Rush of the Sea, it
was torn from it, and a Strait was left of 12 Miles in
Length, and one and a half in Breadth, near the Column
Rhegium. Upon this Occasion of opening, the Greeks gave
a Name to the Town Rhegiurn, situated on the Edge sf Italy.

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 177

In this Strait is the Rock called Scylla, and likewise another
named Charybdis : the Sea is full of Whirlpools, and both
those Rocks are notorious for their Rage. The utmost Cape
of this Island Triquetra (as we have said) is called Pelorus,
projecting against Scylla toward Italy. Pachynum lieth to-
ward Graecia, and from it Peloponnesus is distant 144 Miles.
Lilybaeum lieth toward Africa, and between it and the Cape
of Mercury there are 180 Miles : and from the said Lilybaeum
to the Cape of Caraleis in Sardinia, 120. Now these Pro-
montories and Sides lie one from the other at this Distance :
by Land, from Pelorus to Pachynum, 166 Miles : from thence
to Lilybaeum, 200 Miles : so forward to Pelorus, 170. In it,
of Colonies, Towns, and Cities, there are 72. Beyond
Pelorus, which looketh toward the Ionian Sea, is the Town
Messana, inhabited by Roman Citizens, which are called
Mamertini. Also the Cape Drepanum ; the Colony Tau-
rominium, formerly called Naxos; the River Asines; the
Mountain ^Etna, wonderful for its Fires in the Night ; the
Cavity (Crater) of it is in Compass two Miles and a half;
the burning Ashes thereof fly as far as to Taurominium and
Catana : but its crashing Noise may be heard as far as to
Maron, and the Hills Gemellis. There are also, the three
Rocks of the Cyclops ; the Port of Ulysses, the Colony
Catana ; the Rivers Symethum and Terias : within the Isle
the Fields Laestrigonii. The Towns Leontini and Megaris :
the River Pantagies : the Colony Syracusae, with the Foun-
tain Arethusa. Also, there are other Springs in the Territory
of Syracusa that yield Water for drink, as Temenitis, Archi-
demia, Magaea, Cyan£, and Milichie. The Port Naus-
tathmos, the River Elorum, the Promontory Pachynum :
and on this Front of Sicily, the River Hirminium, the Town
Camarina, the River Helas, and Town Acragas, which our
Countrymen have named Agrigentum. The Colony Thermae :
Rivers, Atys and Hypsa : the Town Selinus : and next to it
the Promontory Lilybaeum, Drepana, the Mountain Eryx.
The Towns Panhormum, Solus, Hymetta with the River,
Cephaloedis, Aluntium, Agathirium, Tyndaris a Colony, the

M

178 History of Nature. [BooK III.

Town Mylse ; and, whence we began, Pelorus. Within, of
Latin condition, the Centuripines, Netini, and Segestini.
Stipendiaries, Assarini, .ZEtnenses, Agyrini, Acestaei, and
Acrenses : Bidini, Citarii, Caciritani, Drepanitani, Ergetini,
Ecestienses, Erycini, Eutellini, Etini, Enguini, Gelani, Gala-
tani, Halesini, Ennenses, Hyblenses, Herbitenses, Herbes-
senses, Herbulenses, Halicyenses, Hadranitani, Iinacarenses,
Ichanenses, Jetenses, Mutustratini, Magellini, Murgentini,
Mutyenses, Menanini, Naxii, Nooeni, Pelini, Paropini, Phin-
thienses, Semellitani, Scherrini, Selinuntii, Symaetii, Tala-
renses, Tissinenses,Triocalini, Tiracienses, Zanchaei belonging
to the Messenians in the Straits of Sicily. Islands bending
to Africa : Gaulos, Melita, from Camerina, 84 Miles ; and
from Lilybaeum, 113: Cosyra, Hieronesus, Caene, Galata,
Lopadusa, ^Ethusa, which others have written ^Egusa ; Bu-
cina, and 75 Miles from Solus, Osteodes : and opposite the
Paropini, Ustica. But on this Side Sicily, opposite the
River Metaurus, about 12 Miles from Italy, seven others
called JEoliae. The same Islands belonged to the Liparaei,
and by the Greeks were called Hephaestiades, and by our
People, Vulcaniae ; ^oliae, also, because ^Eohts reigned there
in the Time that Ilium flourished.

CHAPTER IX.
Of Lipara.

LIPARA, with a Town of Roman Citizens, so called from
King Liparus, who succeeded ^Eolus, but before that named
Melogonis, or Meligunis, is twelve Miles from Italy ; and is
itself somewhat less in Circuit. Between it and Sicily there
is another, formerly named Therasia, now Hiera, because it
is sacred to Vulcan, wherein there is a Hill that casteth up
Flames in the Night. A third is named Strongyl£, a Mile
from Lipara, lying toward the Sun-rising, wherein JEolus
reigned ; and it differeth from Lipara only in that it sendeth
forth more lively Flames : by the Smoke thereof the People

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 179

of that Country are said to tell, three Days before-hand1,
what Winds will blow : from whence it is commonly thought,
that the Winds were obedient to JEolus. A fourth is named
Didym&, less than Lipara : and a fifth, Ericusa : a sixth,
Phoenicusa, left to feed the Rest that are next to it : the last
and least is Euonymus. And thus much concerning the first
Gulf that divideth Europe.

CHAPTER X.
Of Locri, the Front of Italy.

AT Locri beginneth the Front of Italy, called Magna
Graecia, retiring itself into three Bays of the Ausonian Sea ;
because the Ausones first occupied it. It extendeth eighty-
two Miles, as Varro testifieth ; but the greater Number of
Writers have made it but seventy-two. In that Coast are
Rivers without Number; but the Things which are worth
the writing of near Locri, are these : Sagra, and the Vestiges
of the Town Caulon : Mystia, the Camp Consilinum, Cerin-
thus, which some think to be the longest Promontory of
Italy. Then the Bay of Scylaceum, which was called by the
Athenians, when they built it, Scylletium. Which Place the
Bay Terinaeus meeting with, maketh a Peninsula : in which
there is a Port called Castra Annibilis : and in no Place is
Italy narrower, being but twenty Miles broad. And, therefore,
Dionysius the Elder wished to have there cut it off, and
added it to Sicily. Rivers navigable there : Caecinos, Cro-
talus, Semirus, Arocha, Targines. Within is the Town Pe-
tilia, the Mountain Alibanus, and the Promontory Lacinium :
before the Coast of which is an Island ten Miles from the
Land, called Dioscoron ; and another Calypsus, which Homer

1 Wheelwright, in his translation of Pindar, thinks the following lines
from the seventh Nemean Ode refer to the circumstance mentioned by
Pliny :—

" Three days ere yet the tempest rise,
The skilful mariner descries," &c.

Wern. Club.

180 History of Nature. [BOOK III.

is supposed to have called Ogygia ; and also Tyris, Eranusa,
Meloessa. And this is seventy Miles from Caulon, as Agrippa
hath recorded.

CHAPTER XI.

The second Bay of Europe.

FROM the Promontory Lacinium beginneth the second
Bay of Europe, bent with a great Winding ; and it endeth at
Acrocerauriium, a Promontory of Epirus, from which it is
seventy Miles distant. In it is the Town Croto, and the
River Naeathus. The Town Thurium, between the two
Rivers, Arathis and Sybaris ; where there was a Town of the
same Name. Likewise, between Siris and Aciris there
standeth Heraclea, once called Siris. Rivers, Acalandrum,
Masuentum ; the Town Metapontum, in which the third
Region of Italy endeth. The inland Inhabitants, the Aprus-
tani only, are of the Brutians : but of the Lucani, Thoati-
nates, Bantini, Eburini, Grumentini, Potentini, Sontini,
Sirini, Tergilani, Ursentini, Volcentani, to whom the Nu-
mestrani are joined. Besides these, Cato writeth, that Thebes
of the Lucani hath perished. And Theopompus saith, that
Pandosia was a City of the Lucani, wherein Alexander the
Epirote was slain. Attached to it is the second Region,
containing within it the Hirpini, Calabria, Apulia, and the
Salentini, within a Bay, in Compass 250 Miles ; which is
called Tarentinus, from a Town of the Laconi, situated in
the Recess : and to it was annexed the maritime Colony
which was there : it is distant from the Promontory Laci-
nium 136 Miles ; putting forth Calabria into a Peninsula
against it. The Greeks called it Messapia, from the Name
of a Leader, and before this, Peucetia, of Peucetius, the bro-
ther of CEnotrus. In the Salentine Country, between the
Promontories, there is the Distance of 100 Miles. The
Breadth of this Peninsula, from Tarentum to Brundisium, by
Land, is two-and-thirty Miles ; but far shorter from the Port
Sasina. The Towns in the Continent from Tarentum, are
Varia, surnamed Apula, Cessapia and Aletium. But in the
Coast of the Senones, Gallipolis, now Auxa, sixty-two Miles

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 181

from Tarentum. Two-and-thirty Miles off is the Promontory
which they call Acra Japygia, from which Italy runneth
furthest into the Sea. Beyond it is the Town of Basta, and
Hydruntum, the Space of nineteen Miles, to make a Par-
tition between the Ionian and the Adriatic Sea ; through
which is the shortest Passage into Greece, over against the
Town of Apollonia ; where the Strait running between is not
above fifty Miles over. This Space between, Pyrrhus King
of Epirus, intending to have a Passage over on Foot, first
thought to make Bridges across : after him, M. Varro, at the
Time when in the Pirates' War, he was Admiral of Pompeys
Fleet. But both of them were stopped by other Cares. Next to
Hydrus, is Soletum, a City not inhabited : then, Fratuertium :
the Port Tarentinus, the Garrison Town Lupia, Balesium,
Caelium, Brundusium, fifteen Miles from Hydrus, much re-
nowned among the chief Towns of Italy for the Harbour,
especially for the surer sailing, although it be the longer ;
and the City of lllyricum Dyrrhagium is ready to receive the
Ships : the Passage over is 220 Miles. Upon Brundusium
bordereth the Territory of the Psediculi. Nine young Men
there were of them, and as many Maids, descended from the
Illyrians, who begat thirteen Nations. The Towns of the
Psediculi are Rhudia, Egnatia, Barion, formerly Japyx, from
the Son of Dedalus ; who also gave Name to Japygia.
Rivers, Pactius and Aufidus, issuing out of the Hirpine
Mountains, and running by Canusium. Then followeth
Apulia of the Dauni, so named from their Leader, Father-
in-law to Diomedes. In which is the Town Salapia, famous
for the Love of an Harlot loved by Annibal: then, Sipontum
and Uria : also the River Cerbalus, where the Dauni end :
the Port Agasus, the Cape of the Mountain Garganus, from
Salentinum or Japygium 234 Miles, fetching a Compass
about Garganus : the Harbour Garnae, the Lake Pantanus.
The River Frento, full of Harbours ; and Teanum of the
Apuli. Also, Larinum, Aliternia, and the River Tifernus.
Then the Region Frentana, So there be three Kinds of
Nations : Teani, of their Leader, from the Greeks : the
Lucani, subdued by Calchas ; which Places now the Atinates

182 History of Nature. [BooK III.

hold. Colonies of the Dauni besides the above-named, Lu-
ceria and Venusia : Towns, Canusium ; Arpi, sometime Argos
Hippium, built by Diomedes, but soon after called Argyrippa.
There Diomedes destroyed the Nations of the Monadi and
Dardi, with two Cities, which grew to a laughable Proverb;
Apina and Trica. The rest be inward in the second Region :
one Colony of the Hirpini, called Beneventum, more auspici-
ously by a Change of Name ; whereas, in Times past, it was
denominated Maleventum : the ^Eculani, Aquiloni, and
Abellinates, surnamed Protropi : the Campsani, Caudini ;
and Ligures, surnamed Corneliani : as also Bebiani, Vescel-
lani, Deculani, and Aletrini : Abellinates, surnamed Marsi ;
the Atrani, .ZEcani, Asellani, Attinates, and Arpani : the
Borcani, the Collating Corinenses : and, famous for the
overthrow of the Romans there, the Cannenses : the Dirini,
the Forentani, the Genusini, Hardonienses and Hyrini : the
Larinates, surnamed Frentani, Metinates, and out of Gar-
ganus the Mateolani, the Neritini and Natini, the Robustini,
the Sylvini and Strapellini, the Turmentini, Vibinates, Venu-
sini and Ulurtini, the inland Inhabitants of the Calabri, the
.ZEgirini, Apanestini and Argentini. The Butuntinenses and
Brumbestini, the Deciani, the Norbanenses, the Palionenses,
Sturnini, and Tutini. Also of Salentini, the Aletini, Baster-
bini, Neretini, Valentini, and Veretini.

CHAPTER XII.
The fourth JReyion of Italy.

Now followeth the fourth Region ; even of the most
valiant Nations of Italy. In the Coast of the Frentani, next
to Tifernus, is the River Trinium1, full of Harbours.
The Towns Histonium, Buca, and Ortona ; with the River
Aternus. Inland are the Anxani, surnamed Frentani: the
Carentini, both higher and lower; the Lanuenses; of Maurici,
the Teatini : of Peligni, the Corsinienses ; Super- .ZEquani and
Sulmonenses : of Marsi, the Anxantini and Atinates, the
Fucentes, Lucentes, and Maruvii : of Alpenses, Alba upon

1 Now Trigno.

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 183

the Lake Fucinus : of Jjlquiculani, the Cliternini and Carseo-
lani : of the Vestini, the Augulani; Pinnenses; Peltuinates,
to whom are joined the Aufinates on this Side the Moun-
tains : of Samnites, whom the Greeks called Sabelli and
Saunitse ; the Colony Bovianum, the old ; and another, sur-
named Undecimanorum : the Aufidenates, Esernirii, Fagi-
sulani, Ficolenses, Sepinates, Treventinates : of Sabini, the
Amiternini, Curenses, Forum Decii, Forum Novum, the
Fidenates, Interamnates, Nursini, Nomentani, Reatini, Tre-
bulani, who are surnamed Mutuscaei, and also Suflfonates ;
the Tiburtes, and Tarinates. In this Quarter of the JSqui-
culse, there have perished the Comini, Tadiates, Acedici, and
Alfaterni. Gellianus writeth, that Archippe, a Town of the
Mar si, built by Marsyas^ a Leader of the Lydi, was swallowed
up by the Lake Fucinus. Also Valerianus reporteth, that a
Town of the Vidicini in Picenum was utterly destroyed by
the Romans. The Sabini, as some have thought, were, for
their Religion and worship of the Gods, called Seveni : they
dwell close by the Veline Lakes, upon the dewy Hills. The
River Nar draineth them with its sulphury Waters. Which
River running from these toward Tiberis, filleth it : and flow-
ing from the Mountain Fiscelius, near to the Groves of
Vacuna and Reate, it is hidden in the same. But from ano-
ther Side, the River Anio, beginning in the Mountain of the
Trebani, bringeth into Tiberis three Lakes of noble Beauty,
which gave the Name to Sublaqueo1. In the Reatine Ter-
ritory is the Lake Cutilise, wherein floateth an Island : and
this Lake, M. Varro saith, is the very midst of Italy. Be-
neath the Sabini lieth Latium ; on the Side, Picenum ; be-
hind, Umbria; and the Crags of the Apennine on either
Hand enclose, as with a Rampart, the Sabini.

CHAPTER XIII.
The fifth Region of Italy.

THE fifth Region is Picene, in Times past exceedingly
populous; 360,000 of the Picentes came under the Protec-

1 Now Subiaquo.

184 History of Nature. [BOOK III.

tion of the People of Rome. They are descended from the
Sabini, upon a Vow truly sacred. They dwelt by the River
Aternus, where now is the Territory Adrianus, and the Colony
Adria, seven Miles from the Sea. There is the River Voma-
num and the Preetutian and Palmensian Territories. Also,
Castrum Novum, the River Batinum, Truentum with the
River ; which is the only Remains of the Liburnians remain-
ing in Italy. The Rivers Alpulates, Suinum, and Helvinum,
at which the Praetutian Country endeth, and the Picentian
beginneth. The Town Cupra, a Castle of the Firmans, and
above it the Colony Ascuum, of all Picenum the most noble.
Within standeth Novana. In the Borders are Cluana, Po-
tentia, and Numana, built by the Siculi. Next to those is
the Colony Ancona, with the Promontory Cumerum, lying
close by it, in the very Elbow of the Border thereof as it
bendeth; and it is from Garganus 183 Miles. Within are
the Auximates, Beregrani, Cingulani, Cuprenses, surnamed
the Mountaineers ; Falarienses, Pausulani, Pleninenses,
Ricinenses, Septempedani, Tollentinates, Triacenses, the City
Sal via, and the Tollentini.

CHAPTER XIV.
The sixth Region of Italy.

To these adjoineth the sixth Region, embracing Umbria
and the Gallic Country about Ariminum. From Ancona
begin the Gallic Borders, by the Name of Togata Gallia. The
Siculi and Liburni possessed most Parts of that Tract, and
principally the Territories Palmensis, Prsetutianus, and
Adrianus. Them the Umbrii expelled : these Etruria, and
these again the Galli. The People of Umbria are supposed,
of all Italy, to be of greatest Antiquity ; as being they whom
Men think to have been by the Greeks named Ombri, be-
cause in the Deluge of the Country by Rain, they only re-
mained alive. The Thusci are known to have subdued 300
Towns of theirs. At this Day, in the Border, there are,
the River .^Esus, and Senogallia : the River Metaurus, the
Colony Fanurn Fortunse. Pisaurum, with the River. And
within, Hispellum and Tuder. In the Rest, the Amerini,

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 185

Attidiates, Asirinates, Arnates, and ^Esinates. Camertes,
Casventillani, Carsulani, Delates surnamed Salentini, Ful-
ginates, Foro - flaminienses, Foro-Julienses, named also
Concubienses, Foro-bremitiani, Foro-Sempronienses, Iguini,
Interamnates, surnamed Nartes, Mevanates, Mevanienses,
and Matilicates, Narnienses, whose Town formerly was
called Nequinum. Nucerini surnamed Favonienses, and
Camelani. The Otriculani and Ostrani. The Pitulani, sur-
named Pisuertes, and others surnamed Mergentini ; the
Pelestini, Sentinates, Sarsinates, Spoletini, Suarrani, Sesti-
nates, and Suillates, Sadinates, Trebiates, Tuficani, Tifer-
nates, named also Tribertini ; also others named Metau-
renses. The Vesionicates, Urbinates, as well they that be
surnamed Metaurenses, as others Hortenses ; the Vettio-
nenses, Vindenates and Viventani. In this Tract there are
extinct the Feliginates, and they who possessed Clusiolum
above Interamna : also the Sarranates, with the Towns
Acerrae, called also Vafriae; and Turceolum, the same as
Vetriolum. Also, the Solinates, Suriates, Fallienates, Apien-
nates. There are gone, likewise, the Arienates, with Crino-
volum, and the Usidicani and Plangenses, the Pisinates and
Caelestini, As for Amera above written, Cato hath left in
Record, that it was built 964 Years before the War against
Perseus.

CHAPTER XV.

The eighth Region of Italy.

THE eighth Region is bounded by Ariminum, Padus, and
Apennine. In the Borders thereof is the River Crustumi-
num, the Colony Ariminum, with the Rivers Ariminum and
Aprusa. Then the River Rubico, once the utmost Limit of
Italy. After it, Sapis, Vitis, and Anemo ; Ravenna, a Town of
the Sabini, with the River Bedeses, 102 Miles from Ancona.
And not far from the Sea of the Umbri, Butrium. Within
are these Colonies ; Bononia, usually called Felsina, when it
was the head City of Etruria ; Brixillum, Mutina, Parma,
Placentia. Towns, Caesena, Claterna, Forum-Clodii, Livii
and Popilii, pertaining to the Truentini: also, [Forum]
Cornolii, Laccinir Faventini, Fidentini, Otesini, Padinates,

186 History of Nature. [BooK III.

Regienses a Lepido, Solonates : also the Forests Galliani,
surnamed Aquinates ; Tanetani, Veliates, surnamed Vecteri,
Regiates and Umbranates. In this Tract the Boii have
perished; who had 112 Tribes, as Cato maketh Report.
Likewise the Senones, who took Rome.

CHAPTER XVI.
Of the River Padus.

PADUS issuing out of the Bosom of the Mountain Vesulus,
bearing up his Head into a very lofty Height, runneth from
a Spring1 worth the seeing, in the Borders of the Ligurian
Vagienni ; and hiding itself within a narrow Passage under
the Ground, and rising up again in the Territory of the Foro-
vibians, is inferior to no other Rivers in Excellency. By the
Greeks it was called Eridanus, and well known for the
Punishment of Phaeton. It increaseth about the Rising of
the Dog-star, by Reason of the melting Snow : more violent
to the Fields thereby, than to the Vessels : nevertheless,
nothing is stolen away to itself; but when it hath left the
Fields, its Bounty is more abundant by their Fruitfulness :
from its Head it holdeth on its Course 300 Miles, adding, for
its meandering, 88 Miles. It receiveth not only the navi-
gable Rivers of the Apennines and the Alps, but large Lakes
also that discharge themselves into it : so that in all it car-
rieth into the Adriatic Sea, 30 Rivers. The most celebrated
of them are these, sent out of the Side of Apennine : Tanarus,
Trebia, Placentinus, Tarus, Nicia, Gabellus, Scultenna, Rhe-
nus. But running out of the Alps, Stura, Morgns, two
Duriae, Sessites, Ticinus, Lambrus, Addua, Olius, and Min-
cius. And there is no River that in so little Way groweth to
a greater Stream ; because it is driven on with the Mass of
Water, and stirred to the Bottom, heavy to the Earth, al-
though it be drawn into Rivers and Trenches between Ra-
venna and Ativum, for 120 Miles : yet because it casteth
them out in great Abundance, it is said to make seven

1 Pliny tells us (lib. ii. 106) that this wonderful spring ceased to flow
at mid-day in the summer season. Under the modern name of Po, this
river is not less celebrated than in ancient times. — Wern. Club.

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 187

Seas. It is drawn to Ravenna by a narrow Channel, where
it is called Padusa, and in Times past, Messanicus. The
next Mouth that he maketh from thence, carrieth the Big-
ness of a Harbour, which is named Vatreni : at which Clau-
dius Ctesar, as he came triumphant from Britain, entered
into Adria, with that Vessel, more like a huge House than a
Ship. This Mouth of it was formerly called Eridanum : by
others, Spineticum, from the neighbouring City Spinae, built
by Diomedes (as some think), with the Treasures of Delphi.
There the River Vatrenus, from out of the Territory of
Forum Cornelii, increaseth Padus. The next Mouth is
Caprasise, then Sagis, then Volane, which before was named
Olane. All those Rivers and Trenches, the Thusci were the
first to make out of Sagis, carrying the forcible Stream of the
River across into the Atrian Ponds, which are called the seven
Seas ; and they made the famous Harbour of Atria, a Town
of the Thusci ; of which the Atriatic Sea took the Name
aforetime ; which now is called Adriaticum. From thence
are the full Mouths of Carbonaria, and the Fosses Phylis-
tinse, which others call Tartarus ; but all spring out of the
overflowing of the Foss Phylistina, with Athesis coming out of
the Tridentine Alps, and Togisonus out of the Territory of the
Patavini. Part of them made also the next Port Brundulum :
like as the two Medoaci and the Foss Clodia, make Edron.
With these Padus mingleth itself, and by these it runneth
over ; and, as it is said by most Writers, like as in Egypt
Nilus maketh that which they call Delta, so it shapeth a
triangular Figure between the Alps and the Sea-coast, two
Miles in Compass. It is a Shame to borrow from the Greeks
the Explanation of Things in Italy : but Metrodorus Scepsius
saith, that because about the Head of this River there grow
many Pitch Trees, called in the Gallic Language, Pades,
therefore it took the Name of Padus. Also, that in the
Ligurian Language, the River itself is called Bodincus,
which means bottomless. And to approve this Argument,
there is a neighbouring Town called Industria, but by an old
Name, Bodincomagum ; where beginneth its greatest Depth.

188 History of Nature. [BOOK III.

CHAPTER XVII.
Italy beyond Padus, the eleventh Region.

NEXT to it is the Region called Transpadana, the eleventh1
in Number ; and all in the Midland Part ; into which the
Seas bring all Things with fruitful Channel. The Towns
therein be, Vibi-Forum, and Segusius. The Colonies from
the Foot of the Alps, Augusta of the Taurini, an ancient
Descent from the Liguri : from whence Padus is navigable.
Then, Augusta Prsetoria, of the Salassi, near the two-fold
Passages of the Alps, Graijae and Peninse : for it is recorded,
that the Carthaginians (Pseni) came through the one, and
Hercules in at the other, named Graijae. There standeth the
Town, Eporedia, built by the People of Rome by direction
of the Books of the Sibyls. The Gauls, in their Tongue, call
good Horse-breakers Eporedicse. Also, Vercella of the
Lybici, descended from the Sallii : Novaria, from the Verta-
comacori ; which at this Day is a Village of the Vocontii,
and not, as Cato thinketh, of the Liguri ; of whom the Levi
and Marici built Ticinum, not far from the Padus : like as
the Boii coming over the Alps, founded Laus Pompeia ; arid
the Insubrias, Mediorlapum. That Comus and Bergomus,
and Licini- Forum, with other People thereabout, were of the
Orobian Race, Cato hath reported : but the Original of that
Nation, he confesseth that he knoweth not. Which Corne-
lius Alexander sheweth to have descended from the Greeks;
and this by the Interpretation of their Name, which signi-
fieth, Men living in Mountains. In this Tract, Barra, a
Town of the Orobians, is perished ; from whence, Cato saith,
the Bergomates took their Beginning ; discovering by their
Name, that they were seated more highly than happily.
There are perished also the Caturiges, banished Persons of

1 Pliny says, the eleventh region; and he may be accurate according
to his original authority: which was a survey ordered by Augustus
Caesar, and in some measure equivalent to the English Domesday survey.
This measure of the emperor may be, perhaps, the same that is referred
to by St. Luke, ii. 1. But in Pliny's order of reckoning it is only the
ninth region. — Wern. Club.

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 189

the Insubri : likewise Spina, before-named. Also, Melpum,
a Town remarkable for Wealth ; which, as Nepos Cornelius
hath written, was by the tnsubres, Boii, and Senones, razed
on that very Day on which Camillus took Veii.

CHAPTER XVIII.
Venetia, the tenth Region.

Now followeth the tenth Region of Italy, Venetia, lying
upon the Adriatic Sea : the River whereof, Silis, cometh from
the Mountains Taurisani : also the Town Altinum, the River
Liquentia, issuing from the Mountains Opitergeni ; and a
Harbour of the same Name; the Colony Concordia. Rivers
and Havens : Romatinum, Tilaventum, the greater and the
less : Anassum, by which Varranus runneth down : Alsa,
Natiso, with Turrus, running by Aquileia, a Colony situated
12 Miles from the Sea. This is the Region of the Carni,
joining that of Japides : the River Timavus, and the Castle
Pucinum, famous for good Wine. The Bay Tergestinus, the
Colony Tergeste, 23 Miles from Aquileia : beyond which six
Miles, is the River Formio, 189 Miles from Ravenna: the
ancient Limit of Italy enlarged, but at this Day of Istria,
which they report, was so named of the River Ister, flowing
out of the River Danubius into Adria : and over against the
same Ister, the Mouth of Padus : by the contrary rushing
Streams of which two Rivers, the Sea between beginneth to
be more mild ; as many Authors have reported, but untruly ;
and Cornelius Nepos, also, although he dwelt just by Padus :
for there is no River that runneth out of Danubius into the
Adriatic Sea. They were deceived (1 suppose), because the
Ship Argos1 went down a River into the Adriatic Sea, not far

1 The Argonauts embarked at Jolcos, in Thessaly, and steered first to
Lemnos : from whence, after many adventures, they reached the Phasis,
which flows through Colchis into the Black Sea. It would be no easy
task to point out the course they took on their return. Pindar, in the
Fourth Pythian Ode, makes them pass the Erythraean Sea—
" Then mingling in the ocean deep,
The Erythraean Sea they sweep."
By the Erythraean Sea the Indian Ocean is to be understood, through

190 History of Nature. [BOOK III.

from Tergeste; but what River it was, is unknown. The
more diligent Enquirers say, that it was carried upon Men's
Shoulders over the Alps : and that it was embarked into
Ister, and so into Saus, and then Nauportus, which upon
that occasion took his Name, which riseth between ^Emona
and the Alps.

CHAPTER XIX.
Istria.

ISTRIA runneth out like a Peninsula. Some have deli-
vered, that it is 40 Miles broad, and 122 Miles in Circuit.
The like they say of Liburnia adjoining to it, and of the Bay
Flanaticus. But others say, that the Circuit of Liburnia is
180 Miles. Some have set out Japidia to the Bay Flanaticus,
behind Istria, 130 Miles : and so have made Liburnia in Cir-
cuit 150 Miles. TuditanuSj who subdued the Istri, upon his
own Statue there set this Inscription : from Aquileia to
the River Titius, are 200 Stadia. The Towns in Istria, of
Roman Citizens, are ^Egida and Parentium. A Colony there
is, Pola, now called Pietas Julia ; built in old Time by the
Colchii. It is from Tergeste, 100 Miles. Soon after, the
Town Nesactium, and the River Arsia, now the Bound of
Italy. From Ancona to Pola, there is a Passage over the
Sea of 120 Miles. In the Midland Part of this tenth Region
are the Colonies, Cremona and Brixia, in the Country of
the Cenomanni : but in the Country of the Veneti, Ateste.
Also the Towns Acelum, Patavium, Opitergium, Belunum,
Vicetia : Mantua of the Tusci, the only Place left beyond
the Padus. That the Veneti were the Offspring of the Tro-

which it seems they came into Africa, and when arrived on land, carrying
the ship on their shoulders until they came to the Tritoniari Lake, they
sailed into the Mediterranean, and touched at Thera; thence through
the Ocean they came to the island of Lemnos. — (See Wheelwright's
" Pindar.") But a more probable course would be one approaching that
given by Pliny in the text. The whole story of the Argonauts, how-
ever, having, in the lapse of time, become a mere fable, it is not worth the
attempt to illustrate it. — Wern. Club.

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 191

jans Cato informs us, and also, that the Cenomanni, near to
Massilia, dwell among the Volsci. Fertini, Tridentini, and
Bernenses, are Towns of Rhetia. Verona is of the Rheti and
Euganei; Julienses of the Garni. Then follow these, whom
we need to use no Strictness in naming ; Alutruenses, Asse-
riates, Flamonienses, Vannienses, and others surnamed
Gulici : Foro Julienses, surnamed Transpadani : Foretani,
Venidates, Querqueni, Taurisani, Togienses, Varvani. In
this Tract there have perished in the Borders, Itamine, Pel-
laon, Palsicium. Of the Veneti, Atina and Caelina : of the
Garni, Segeste and Ocra : and of the Taurissi, Noreia. Also
from Aquileia twelve Miles, there was a Town destroyed by
M. Claudius Marcellus, in spite of the Senate, as L. Piso
hath recorded. In this Region there are also ten remarkable
Lakes and Rivers, either issuing forth of them as their Off-
spring, or else maintained by them, if they send them out
again, when they have received them : as Larius doth Addua,
Verbanus Ticinus, Benacus Mincius, Sebinus Ossius, Eupi-
lius Lamber, all seated in the Padus. The Alps reach in
Length ten Miles from the upper Sea to the lower, as Ccdius
saith : Timogenes, two-and-twenty : but Cornelius Nepos, in
Breadth 100 Miles : T. Livius saith, 3000 Stadia. But both
of them take Measure in different Places ; for sometimes they
exceed 100 Miles, where they separate Germany from Italy :
and in other Parts they are so narrow, that they make not
full out three score and ten Miles ; as if by the Provi-
dence of Nature. The Breadth of Italy, from Varus under
the Foot of them through the Shallows of Sabatia, the Tau-
rini, Comus, Brixia, Verona, Vicetia, Opitergium, Aquileia,
Tergeste", Pola, and Aristia, maketh 702 Miles.

CHAPTER XX.
Of the Alps and Alpine Nations.

MANY Nations inhabit the Alps, but those of special
Name, from Pola to the Tract of Tergestis, are these : the
Secusses, Subocrini, Catili, Menocaleni : and near to the
Garni, those who in Times past were called Taurisci, but

192 History of Nature. [Boox III.

now Norici. To these are Neighbours the Rheti and Vin-
delici, all divided into many Cities. The Rheti are judged
to be descended from the Thusci, driven out by the Galli,
with their Leader Rhcetus1. But turning our Breast to Italy,
we meet with the Euganean Nations of the Alps, who en-
joyed the Right of the Latins, and whose Towns Cato reck-
oneth to the number of four and thirty. Of them, the
Triumpilini, both People and Lands, were sold. After them
the Camuni, and many such, were annexed to the next Muni-
cipii. The Lepontii and the Salassi, Cato thinketh to be of
the Tauric Nation. But almost all others suppose that the
Lepontici were a Residue left behind of the Companions of
Hercules , through the interpretation of the Greek Name, as
having their Members burned with the Alpine snows as they
passed through : that the Graii likewise were of the same
Company, planted in the Passage, and inhabiting the Alps
Graiae : also that the Euganei were noblest in Birth, from
which they took their Name. The Head of them is Stonos.
Of those Rhoeti the Vennonetes and Sarunetes inhabit the
Heads of the River Rhenus : and of the Leponti, those who
are called Viberi dwell by the Fountain of Rhodanus, in
the same quarter of the Alps. There be also Inhabitants
within the Alps endowed with the Liberty of Latium : as
the Octodurenses, and their Borderers the Centrones, the
Cottian Cities. The Caturiges, and the Vagienni, from
them descended ; Ligures, and such as are called the Moun-
taineers : and many kinds of the Capillati, on the Borders
of the Ligusticus Sea. In seemeth not amiss in this Place
to set down an Inscription out of a Trophy erected in
the Alps, which runneth in this Form : To the Emperor
Caesar, Son o/Divus Augustus, Pontifex Maximus, Imperator
fourteen Times, and invested with the Authority of the
Tribune seventeen Times : the Senate and People of Rome :
For that under his Conduct and Auspices, all the Alpine

1 Justin, xx. 5, p. 181, says, " The Tusci, with their leader Koetus,
having lost their ancient territorial possessions, took possession of the
Alps, and laid the foundation of the nation of the Roeti, so called after the
name of their leader." — Wern. Club.

BOOK III.] History of Nature. J93

Nations which reached from the Upper Sea to the Nether,
were reduced under the Empire of the People of Rome. The
Alpine Nations subdued: Triumpilini, Camuni, Vennonetes,
Isarci, Breuni, Naunes, and Focunates. Of the Vindelici
four Nations: the Consuanetes, Virucinates, Licates, and
Catenates. The Abisontes, Rugusce, Suanetes, Calucones,
Brixentes, Lepontii, Viberi, Nantuates, Seduni, Veragri,
Salad, Acitavones, Medulli, Uceni, Caturiges, Brigiani,
Sogiontiiy Ebroduntii, Nemaloni, Edenates, Esubiani, Veamini,
Gallitce, Triulatti, Ectini, Vergunni, Eguituri, Nementuri,
Oratelli, Nerusivelauni, Suetri. There were not reckoned
among these the twelve Cottian Cities, which were not in
any Hostility, nor yet those which were assigned to the
Municipii by virtue of the Law Pouipeia. This is that
Italy sacred to the Gods, these are her Nations, and these
be the Towns of the People. And more than this, that
Italy which, when L. JEnilius Paulus and Caius Attilius
Regulus were Consuls, upon news of a Tumult of the Gauls,
alone, without any Foreign aids, and without any Nations
beyond the Padus, armed 80,000 Horsemen and 700,000
Foot. In plenty of all Metals it giveth place to no Land
whatsoever. But it is forbidden to dig any by an old Act
of the Senate, commanding to spare Italy.

CHAPTER XXI.
Illyricum.

THE Nation of the Liburni joineth to Arsia, as far as
the River Titius. A Part of it were the Mentores, Hymani,
Encheleae, Dudini, and those whom Callimachus nameth
Pucetiae. Now, the whole in general is called by one Name,
Illyricum. The Names of the Nations are few of them
worthy or easy to be spoken. The lapides, and fourteen
Cities of the Liburni, resort to the Convention at Scordona :
of which it is not irksome to name the Laciniensi, Stulpini,
Burnistee, and Albonenses. And in that Convention these
Nations following have the Liberty of Italians : the Alutas
and Flanates, of whom the Gulf is named: Lopsi, Varubarini,

194 History of Nature. [BooK III.

and the Assesiates that are exempt from Tribute: also of
Islands, the Fulsinates and Curictae1. Moreover, along
the maritime Coasts, beyond Nesactiuni, these Towns : Al-
vona, Flavona, Tarsatica, Senia, Lopsica, Ortopula, Vegium,
Argyruntum, Corinium, the City ^Enona, the River Pausinus,
and Tedanium, at which lapida endeth. The Islands lying
in that Gulf, with the Towns, besides those above noted,
Absirtium, Arba, Tragurium, Issa ; Pharos, beforetime
Pares, Crexa, Gissa, Portunata. Again, within the Con-
tinent, the Colony laderon, which is from Pola 160 Miles.
From thence, 30 Miles off, the Island Colentum ; and 18
to the Mouth of the River Titius.

CHAPTER XXII.
Liburnia.

THE End of Liburnia and Beginning of Dalmatia is
Scordona, which is twelve Miles from the Sea, situate upon
the said River (Titius). Then followeth the ancient Country
of the Tariotae, and the Castle Tariota, the Promontory of
Diomed, or, as some would have it, the Peninsula Hyllis ;
in Circuit 100 Miles. Also Tragurium, inhabited by Roman
Citizens, well known for its Marble : Sicum, into which
Place Divus Claudius sent the old Soldiers : the Colony
Salona, 222 Miles from ladera. There repair to it for Law
those that are described into Decuries, 382 : of Dalmatise,
22; Decuni,239; Ditiones,69; and Mezaei, 52; Sardiates. In
this Tract are Burnum, Mandetrium, and Tribulium, Castles
illustrious for the Battles of the Romans. There come also
for Law, of the Islands the Isssei, Collentini, Separi, and
Epetini. From these, certain Castles, Piguntise and Ra-
taneum, and Narona, a Colony, pertaining to the third Con-
vention, 72 Miles from Salona, lying close by a River of the
same Name, and 20 Miles from the Sea. M. Varro writeth,
that 89 Cities used to repair thither for Justice. Now, about
these only are known, Cerauni in 33 Decuries ; Daorizi
in 17; Destitiates in 103; Docleatse in 34 ; Deretini in 14;

1 Now Vegia.

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 195

Deremistae in 30 ; Dindari in 33 ; Glinditiones in 44 ; Mel-
comani in 24 ; Naresii in 102 ; Scirtari in 72 ; Siculotae
in 24 ; and the Vardsei, who formerly wasted Italy, in not
more than twenty Decuries. Besides these, there held this
Tract, Oenei, Partheni, Hemasini, Arthitae, and Armistae.
From the River Naron 100 Miles, is the Colony Epidaurum.
Towns of Roman Citizens, Rhizinium, Ascrinium, Butua,
Olchiniuin, which hefore was called Colchinium, built by
the Colchi. The River Drilo, and the Town upon it, Scodra,
inhabited by Roman Citizens, eighteen Miles from the Sea ;
besides many other Towns of Greece, and strong Cities, out
of all remembrance. For in that Tract were the Labeatae,
Enderoduni1, Sassgei, Grabsei, and those who properly were
called Illyrii, and Taulantii, and Pyrgei. The Promontory
Nymphgeum, in the Coast, keepeth the name : also Lissum,
a Town of Roman Citizens, 100 Miles from Epidaurum.

CHAPTER XXIII.
Macedonia.

FROM Lissum is the Province of Macedonia : the Nations
there are the Partheni, and on their Back, the Dassaretes.
The Mountains of Candavia seventy-nine Miles from Dyr-
rhachium. But in the Borders, Denda, a Town of Roman
Citizens; also the Colony Epidamnum2, which, for that
inauspicious Name, was by the Romans called Dyrrhachium.
The River Aous, named of some ^Eas ; Apollonia, once a
Colony of the Corinthians, seven Miles from the Sea ;
in the Recesses of which is the famous Nymphaeum3. The
Foreigners inhabiting about it are the Amantes and Bu-
liones; but in the Borders, the Town Oricum, built by the
Colchi. Then beginneth Epirus, the Mountains Acroce-

1 Now Endero, in Albania.

2 Mela, ii. 3. The Romans changed the name Epidamnum, because
it seemed ominous to those ivho were going to their loss. It is now Durazzo.
— Wern. Club.

8 The crater Nymphaei was a hot spring in the territory of Apollonia,
and is described by Pliny, lib. ii. 110.— Wern. Club.

196 History of Nature. [BooK III.

raunia, with which we have bounded this Bay of Europe.
Oricum is from Salentinum (a Promontory of Italy) four
score and five Miles.

CHAPTER XXIV.
Noricum.

BEHIND the Garni and lapides, where the great River
Ister runneth, the Norici are joined to the Rhaeti. Their
Towns are Virunum, Celeia, Teurnia, Aguntum, Viana,
^Emona, Claudia, Flavium, Tolvense. Near the Norici are
the Lake Peiso, the Deserts of the Boii. Nevertheless now,
by the Colony of Divus Claudius, Salaria, and by the Town
Scarabantia Julia, they are inhabited.

CHAPTER XXV.
Pannonia.

THENCE beginneth Mast-bearing Pannonia: from which
the Crags of the Alps, becoming more Smooth, turn through
the midst of Illyricum from the North to the South, and
settle lower by an easy Descent, both on the right Hand and
the left. That Part which looks toward the Adriatic Sea is
called Dalmatia, and Illyricum, above-named. Pannonia
bendeth toward the North, and is bounded with the River
Danubius. In it are these Colonies : ^Emonia, Siscia. And
these remarkable and navigable Rivers run into Danubius :
Draus, with more Violence, out of the Noric Alps ; and
Saus out of the Carnic Alps more gently, 115 Miles between.
Draus passeth through the Serretes, Serrapilli, Jasi, and
Sandrozetes: Saus through the Colapiani and Breuci. And
these be the chief of the People. Moreover, the Arivates,
Azali, Amantes, Belgites, Catari, Corneates, Aravisci, Her-
cuniates, Latovici, Oseriates, and Varciani. The Mountain
Claudius, in the Front of which are the Scordisci, and upon
the Back, the Taurisci. The Island in Saus, Metubarris,
the biggest of all the River Islands. Besides, remarkable
Rivers : Calapis, running into Saus, near Siscia ; where,
with a double Channel, it maketh the Island called Segestica.

BOOK III.] History of Nature. 197

Another River, Bacuntius, running likewise into Saus at
the Town Sirmium : where is the City of the Sirmians and
Amantines. Forty-five Miles from thence, Taurunum, where
Saus is intermingled with Danubius. Higher above there run
into it Valdanus and Urpanus, which are no obscure Rivers.

CHAPTER XXVI.
Mcesia.

To Pannonia is joined the Province called Mcesia, which
extendeth^'along Danubiusl unto Pontus. It beginneth
from the confluent above named. In it are the Dardani,
Celegeri, Triballi, Trimachi, Mcesi, Thraces, and the Scy-
thae, bordering upon Pontus. Fair Rivers, out of the
Dardanian Borders : Margis, Pingus, and Timachis. Out
of Rhodop£, Oessus : out of Haemus, Utus, Essamus, and
Jeterus. Illyricum, where it is broadest, taketh up 325
Miles : in Length from the River Arsia to the River Drinius,
800 Miles. From Drinium to the Promontory Acroce-
raunium, 182 Miles. M. Agrippa hath set down this whole
Gulf, comprehending Italy and Illyricum, in the compass of
1300 Miles. In it are two Seas, bounded as I have said:
that is, the Lower, otherwise called the Ionian, in the first
Part : the Inner, called Adriaticum, which also they name
the Upper. In the Ausonian Sea there are no Islands worth
the naming, but those above specified. In the Ionian Sea
there are but few : upon the Calabrian Coast, before Brun-
dusium, by the interposition of which the Harbour is made :
and against the Apulian Coast, Diomedea, famous for the
Tomb of Diomedes. Another of the same Name, called by
some Teutria. The Coast of Illyricum is heaped with more
than 1000 ; such is the nature of the Sea, full of Shallows,
with narrow Channels running^ between. But before the
Mouth of Timavus, there are Islands famous for hot Waters,
which flow with the Sea. And near the Territory of the
Istri, Cissa, Pullariaj, and those which the'Greeks name Ab-
syrtides, from Absyrtis, Brother of Medea, there slain. Near

198 History of Nature. [BooK III.

them they called the Islands Electridse, wherein is produced
Amber, which they call Electrum : a very certain Argument
to prove the Vanity of the Greeks ; inasmuch as the matters
they assigned to him were never known. Opposite lader is
Lissa ; and certain others over against the Liburni, called
Creteae : and as many of the Liburni, Celadusse. Opposite
Surium is Brattia, commended for Oxen and Goats. Issa,
inhabited by Roman Citizens, and Pharia with the Town.
Next to these, Corcyra, surnamed Melsena ; with the Town
of the Guidii, distant 22 Miles : between which and Illy-
ricum is Melita ; from whence (as Callimachus) testifieth)
the little Dogs Melitaei took their Name1 ; and twelve Miles
from thence, the three Elaphites. In the Ionian Sea, from
Oricum 1000 Miles, is Sasonis, well known for the Station of
Pirates.

1 There were two islands called Melita : one of them between Sicily
and Africa, famous for the shipwreck of St. Paul ; and from which, Strabo
says, the Melitean or Maltese dogs took their name. The other Melita
was on the coast of Illyria ; and from this, other authors besides Pliny
suppose these favourite animals to have been derived.— Wern. Club.

Note. — The reader will have observed in the preceding chapters a
strange diversity of opinion in the mind of the author : for whilst he
ascribes every ominous appearance to the deities presiding over the affairs
of men, yet, in other passages, he expresses his doubts as to their ex-
istence, or would limit to the earth itself the controlling power ; in other
words, he believed the earth to be a deity. From these incongruities we
can derive but one opinion, namely, that, heathen as he was, Pliny never-
theless doubted the truth of that which his countrymen and other heathen
nations believed, whilst he fell short of that true knowledge which, in
and before his day, had been vouchsafed to many like himself, who from
heathenism were converted to Christianity, either through the evidence
of miracles, by which its truth was supported, or through the opening of
the eyes of the understanding, by which means they acknowledged that
which seemed a mystery before. Considering these chapters in this light,
much interest is added to the style and spirit in which our author wrote.
— Wern. Club.

BOOK III.]

History of Nature,

199

Roman Milliarium, from Montfattfon. See page 171.

London : — Printed by George Barclay, Castle Street, Leicester Square.

PLINY'S
NATURAL HISTORY.

IN

THIRTY-SEVEN BOOKS.

A TRANSLATION

ON THE BASIS OF THAT BY DR. PHILEMON HOLLAND,
ED. 1601.

WITH CRITICAL AND EXPLANATORY NOTES.

VOL. II.

bt> tijf Wtrnman Club.

PRINTED FOR THE CLUB

BY

GEORGE BARCLAY, CASTLE STREET, LEICESTER SQUARE.
1848-49.

PURSUANT to a Resolution to the following effect, passed at a meeting of
the Committee held on Wednesday, the 15th March, 1848, —

" The best thanks of the Club are hereby presented to—

JONATHAN COUCH, Esq. F.L.S., the Superintending Editor of this
Publication, and Translator of the Work.

Also to the following Gentlemen, viz. : —

In the Department of Classics,

W. G. V. BARNEWALL, Esq. M.A.
Rev. GEORGE MUNFORD.

In the Department of Geography,

W. H. F. PLATE, Esq. LL.D.
GEORGE ALEXANDER, Esq. F.S.A.
CHARLES MOXON, Esq.

In the Department of Natural History and Physiology,

C. J. B. ALDIS, Esq. M.D.
C. R. HALL, Esq. M.D.
JONATHAN COUCH, Esq. F.L.S.
JOHN CHIPPENDALE, Esq. F.R.C.S.

For the Editorial Assistance rendered by them in the preparation of the
accompanying Work."

IN THE FOURTH BOOK

ARE COMPRISED

REGIONS, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, MOUNTAINS, PORTS, RIVERS,

WITH THEIR DIMENSIONS, AND PEOPLE, EITHER NOW

OR IN TIMES PAST KNOWN; VIZ. I

CHAP.

1. Epirus.

2. ^Etolia.

3. Locri.

4. Peloponnesus.

5. Achaia.

6. Arcadia.

7. Greece and Attica.

8. Thessaly.

9. Magnesia.

10. Macedonia.

11. Thracia.

12. The Islands lying between

those Countries : among
which, Greta, Euboea, the
Cyclades, Sporades : also,

CHAP.

the Isles within Hellespont,
near the Sea of Pontus,
within Moeotis, Dacia, Sar-
matia, and Scythia.

13. The Islands of Pontus.

14. The Islands of Germany.

15. Islands in the French Ocean.

16. Britain and Ireland.

17. Gaul.

18. Gallia Lugdunensis.

19. Aquitain.

20. High Spain (named Citerior).

21. Portugal.

22. Islands in the Ocean.

23. The Measure of all Europe.

Herein are contained many principal Towns and Countries, famous
Rivers and Mountains ; Islands, also, besides Cities or Nations that are
perished : in sum, Histories and Observations.

LATIN WRITERS ABSTRACTED :

M. Varro, Cato Censorius, M. Agrippa, Divus Augustus, Varro Ata-
, Cor. Nepos, Hyginus, L. Vetas, Pomponius Mela, Licinius Mutianus,
Fabricius Thuscus, Atteius Capita, and Atteius Philologus.

FOREIGN AUTHORS:

Polybius, Hecatceus, Hellanicus, Damastes, Eudoxus, Diccearchus,
Timosthenes, Ephorus, Crater the Grammarian, Serapion of Antioch, Cal-
limachus, Artemidorus, Apollodorus, Agathocles, Eumachus Siculus the
Musician, Alexander Polyhistor, Thucydides, Dosiades, Anaximander,
Philistides, Mallotes, Dionysius, Aristides, Callidemus, Mencechmus, j*Edas-
thenes, Anticlides, Heraclides, Philemon, Menephon, Pythias, Isidorus,
Philonides, Xenagoras, Astyonomus, Staphylus, Ariatocritus, Metrodorus,
Cleobulus, and Posidonius.

VOL. II. B

THE FOURTH BOOK

HISTORY OF NATURE.

WRITTEN BY

C. PLINIUS SECUNDUS.

From whence first arose all the fabulous Lies, and the
excellent Learning of the Greeks.

HE third Bay of Europe beginneth at the
Mountains of Acrocerannia, and endeth in
the Hellespont. It containeth, besides 19
smaller Bays, 25,000 Miles. Within it are
Epirus, Acarnania, ^Etolia, Phocis, Locris,
Achaia, Messania, Laconia, • Argolis, Megaris, Attica,
Bceotia. And again, from another Sea, the same Phocis
and Locris, Doris, Phthiotis, Thessalia, Magnesia, Ma-
cedonia, Thracia. All the fabulous Vein, as well as the
illustrious learning of Greece, proceeded first out of this
quarter; on which account we will therein stay somewhat
the longer. The Country Epirus, generally so called, be-
ginneth at the Mountains of Acroceraunia. In it are, first,
the Chaones, of whom Chaonia taketh the Name : then the
Thesproti, and Antigonenses : the Place Aornus, and Exha-
lation so deadly to Birds. The Cestrini, and Perrhoabi, with
their Mountain Pindus : the Cassiopsei, the Dryopes, Selli,
Hellopes, and Molossi, among whom is the Temple of Jupiter

BOOK IV.] History of Nature. 3

Dodonceus, so famous for the Oracle : the Mountain To-
marus, celebrated by Theopompus for the hundred Fountains
about its foot.

CHAPTER I.
Ejjirus.

EPIRUS itself reaching to Magnesia and Macedonia, hath
behind it the Dassaretae above named, a free Nation; but
presently the savage People of the Dardani. On the left
side of the Dardani, the Treballi and Nations of Moesia lie
ranged : from the Front are joined to them, the Medi
and Denthelatse ; upon whom the Thraces border, who
reach as far as to Pontus. Thus it is environed with
Rhodope, and is fenced presently also with the Heights of
Haetnus. In the Coast of Epirus, among the Acroceraunia,
is the Castle Chimsera, under which is the Spring of the
King's Water. The Towns are Maeandria and Cestria : the
River of Thesprotia, Thyamis : the Colony Buthrotium :
and the Gulf of Ambracia, above all others most famous,
receiving at its Mouth the wide Sea, 39 Miles in Length
and 15 in Breadth. Into it runneth the River Acheron,
flowing out of Acherusia, a Lake of Thesprotia, 36 Miles
from thence : and the Bridge over it, 1000 Feet long, ad-
mirable to those that admire all Things of their own. In
the Gulf is the Town Ambracia. The Rivers of the Molossi,
Aphas and Arachtus. The City Anactoria, and the Lake
Pandosia. The Towns of Acarnania, called formerly Curetus,
are Heraclea and Echinus : and in the very entrance, Actium,
a Colony of Augustus, with the noble Temple of Apollo, and
the free City Nicopolis. When out of the Ambracian Gulf
and in the Ionian Sea, we meet with the Leucadian Coast
and the Promontory of Leucate. Then the Bay, and Leu-
cadia itself, a Peninsula, once called Neritis, but by the
Labour of the neighbouring Inhabitants cut off quite from
the Continent, but joined to it again by means of the Winds

4 History of Nature. [BooK IV.

blowing together heaps of Sand ; which Place is called
Dioryctus, and is in Length half a mile. A Town in it is
called Leucas, formerly Neritum. Then the Cities of the
Acarnani, Halyzea, Stratos, Argos, surnamed Amphilo-
chicum. The River Achelous running out of Pindus, and
dividing Acarnania from ^tolia ; and by continual addition
of Earth joining the Island Artemita to the main Land.

CHAPTER II.
JEtolia.

THE ^Etolian People are the Athamanes, Tymphei,
Ephiri, jEnienses, Perrhoebi, Dolopes, Maraces and Atraces,
from whom the River Atrax falleth into the Ionian Sea.
The Town Calydon in ^Etolia is seven Miles and a half from
the Sea, near to the River Evenus. Then followeth Ma-
cynia and Molychria ; behind which Chalcis standeth, and
the Mountain Taphiassus. But in the Borders, the Pro-
montory Antirrhium, where is the Mouth of the Corinthian
Gulf, not a Mile broad where it runneth in and divideth
the JEtoli from Peloponnesus. The Promontory that shooteth
out against it is named Rhion : but in the Corinthian Gulf
are the Towns of JEtolia, Naupactum, and Pylene : and in
the Midland parts, Pleuron, Halysarna. The Mountains of
name : in Dodone, Tomarus : in Ambracia, Grania : in
Acarnania, Aracynthus : in ^Etolia, Acanthon, Panaetolium,
and Macinium.

CHAPTER III.
Locri.

NEXT to the ^Etoli are the Locri, surnamed Ozolae, free :
the Town Oeanthe : the Port of Apollo Phastius : the Bay
Crissaeus. Within, the Towns Argyna, Eupalia, Phsestum,
and Calamissus. Beyond are Cirrhsei, the Plains of Phocis,
the Town Cirrha, the Port Chalseon : from which, seven
Miles within the Land, is the free City Delphi, under the

BOOK IV.] History of Nature. 5

Mountain Parnassus, the most illustrious Place upon Earth
for the Oracle of Apollo. The Fountain Castalius, the River
Cephissus, running before Delphos, which ariseth in a former
City, Liloea. Moreover, the Town Crissa, and together with
the Bulenses, Anticyra, Naulochum, Pyrrha, Amphissa, a
free State, Trichone, Tritea, Auibrysus, the Region Drymaea,
named Daulis. Then, at the bottom of the Bay, the Angle
of Bceotia is washed by the Sea, with the Towns Siphae and
Thebae, which are surnamed Corsicae, near to Helicon. The
third Town of Breotia from this Sea is Pagse, from whence
projecteth the Neck of Peloponnesus.

CHAPTER IV.
Peloponnesus.

PELOPONNESUS, called formerly Apia and Pelasgia, is a
Peninsula, worthy to come behind no other Land for noble-
ness ; lying between two Seas, ^Egeum and Ionium : like
the Leaf of a Plane Tree1, in regard of the indented Creeks
thereof: it beareth a circuit of 563 Miles, according to
Isidorus. The same, if you comprise the Creeks, addeth
almost as much more. The Straits whence it passeth is
called Isthmos. In which Place the Seas above-named,
bursting from various ways, from the North and the East,
devour all the Breadth of it there : until, by the contrary
running in of such Seas, the Sides on both hands being
eaten away, and leaving a Space between, five Miles over,
Hellas, with a narrow Neck, meeteth with Peloponnesus.
The one Side thereof is called the Corinthian Gulf, the
other, the Saronian. Lecheum on the one hand, and Cen-
chreae on the other, are the Bounds of the Straits : where
such Ships as for their bigness cannot be conveyed over upon
Waggons, make a great compass about with some Danger.
For which cause, Demetrius the King, Caesar the Dictator,

1 Dionysius, the geographer, also compares the form of the Morea, or
ancient Peloponnesus, to the leaf of a plane-tree, making the footstalk to
be the isthmus by which it is joined to Greece. And in Martyn's " Virgil,"
a figure of this leaf is engraved to illustrate the subject.— Wern. Club.

6 History of Nature. [BooK IV.

Prince Caius, and Domitius Nero, endeavoured to cut
through the narrow portions, and make a navigable Channel :
but the attempt was unhappy, as appeared by the issue of
them all. In the midst of this narrow Strait which we
have called Isthmos, the Colony Corinthus, formerly called
Ephyra, situated on a little Hill, is inhabited, three score
Stadia from each Shore : which from the top of its Citadel,
which is named Acrocorinthus, wherein is the Fountain
Pirene, hath a prospect into both those opposite Seas.
Through the Corinthian Gulf is a Passage from Leucas to
Patrae, of 87 Miles. Patrse, a Colony, built upon the Pro-
montory of Peloponnesus that shooteth furthest into the
Sea, over against ./Etolia and the River Evenus, of less dis-
tance, as hath been said, than a Mile, in the very entrance,
sendeth out the Corinthian Gulf 85 Miles in Length, even
as far as Isthmos.

CHAPTER V.
Achaia.

ACHAIA, the name of a Province, beginneth at the
Isthmus : formerly it was called .ZEgialos, because of the
Cities disposed in order upon the Strand. The first there is
Lecheae above named, a Port of Lechese of the Corinthians.
Next to it Oluros, a Castle of the Pellensei. The Towns,
Helic£, Bura, and (into which the Inhabitants retired when
these before-named were swallowed up in the Sea) Sicyon,
JSgira, -ZEgion, and Erineos. Within, Cleone and Hysiae.
Also the Port Panhormus, and Rhium, described before :
from which Promontory, five Miles off, standeth Patrse,
above mentioned, and the Place called Pherae. Of nine
Mountains in Achaia, Scioessa is most known ; also the
Spring Cymothoe. Beyond Patrae is the Town Olenum, the
Colony Dymae. Places called Buprasium and Hirmene :
and the Promontory Araxum. The Bay of Cyllene, the
Cape Chelonates : from whence to Cyllene is two Miles.
The Castle Phlius. The Tract also by Homer named
Arethyrea, and afterwards Asophis : then the Country of

BOOK IV.] History of Nature. 7

the Elii, who before were called Epei. Elis itself is in the
Midland, 12 Miles from Pylos. Within is the Shrine of
Jupiter Olympius, which, for the fame of the Games there,
containeth the Calendars of the Greeks (fasti) : also, the
former Town of the Pisaei, before which the River Alpheus
runneth ; but in the Borders, the Promontory Icthys. The
River Alpheus is navigated to the Towns Aulos and Leprion.
The Promontory Platanestus. All these lie Westward. But
towards the South, the Bay Cyparissius, the City Cyparissa,
72 Miles in circuit. The Towns, Pylos, Methone, a Place
called Helos : the Promontory Acritas : the Bay Asinaeus of
the Town Asinum, and Coronseus of Corone : and these are
bounded by the Promontory Jsenarus. There also is the
Region Messenia with 22 Mountains : the River Paomisus.
But within, Messene itself, Ithome, Occhalia, Arene, Pteleon,
Thryon, Dorion, Zancluin, famous at various times. The
Compass of this Bay is 80 Miles, the Passage over 30 Miles.
Then from Taenarus, the Laconian Land pertaining to a free
People, and a Bay there in circuit about 206 Miles, but 39
Miles over. The Towns Taenarum, Amiclae, Pherae, Leuctra,
and within, Sparta, Theranicum : and where stood Car-
damyle, Pitan£, and Anthan£. The Place Thyrea, and
Gerania : the Mountain Taygetus : the River Eurotas, the
Bay ^Egylodes, and the Town Psammathus. The Bay
Gytheates, of a Town thereby (Gythaeum), from whence to
the Island Greta there is a very direct course. All these
are enclosed within the Promontory Maleum. The Bay
next following to Scyllaeus is called Argolicus, and is 50 Miles
over, and 172 Miles round. The Towns upon it, Boaa,
Epidaurus, Limera, named also Zarax : the Port Cyphanta.
Rivers, Inachus, Erasinus : between which standeth Argos,
surnamed Hippium, upon the Lake Lern£, from the sea two
Miles, and, nine Miles further, Mycenae. Also, where they
say Tiryntha stood, and the Place Mantinea. Mountains,
Artemius, Apesantus, Asterion, Parparus, and 11 others
besides. Fountains, Niobe, Amymone, Psammoth£. From
Scyllseum to the Isthmus, 177 Miles. Towns, Herraione,
Troezen, Coryphasium, and Argos. called of some Inachium,

8 History of Nature. [BooK IV.

of others Dipsium. The Port Caenites, the Bay Saronicus,
encircled in old Time with a Grove of Oaks, from whence it
had the Name, for so old Greece called an Oak. Within it
the Town Epidaurum, celebrated for the Shrine of JEscu-
lapius; the Promontory Spirseum, the Harbours Anthedon
and Bucephalus : and likewise Cenchreae, which we spoke of
before, being the other limit of the Isthmus, with the Shrine
of Neptune, famous for its Games every five Years. So
many Bays cut up the Peloponnesian Coast : so many Seas
roar against it. For on the North side the Ionian Sea
breaketh in : on the West it is beaten upon by the Sicilian.
From the South the Crethean Sea driveth against it : the
^gean from the South-east, and Myrtoan on the North-
east, which beginning at the Megarian Bay, washeth all
Attica.

CHAPTER VI.
Of Arcadia.

THE midland Parts of this, Arcadia most of all taketh
up, being every way remote from the Sea : at the beginning
it was named Drymodis, but soon after Pelasgis. The
Towns in it are Psophis, Man tinea, Stymphalum, Tegea,
Antigonea, Orchomenum, Pheneum, Palatium, from whence
the Mount Palatium at Rome took the Name, Megalepolis,
Catina, Bocalium, Carmon, Parrhasise, Thelphusa, Melansea,
Hersea, Pil£, Pellana, Agree, Epium, Cynsetha, Lepreon of
Arcadia, Parthenium, Alea, Methydrium, Enespe, Macistum,
Lamp£, Clitorium, Cleone ; between which Towns is the
Tract Nemea, usually called Berubinadia. Mountains in
Arcadia, Pholoe, with the Town : also Cyllene, Lyceus,
wherein the Shrine of Jupiter Lyceus, Msenalus, Artemisius,
Parthenius, Lampeus, and Nonacris : and eight besides of
base account. Rivers, Ladon, issuing out of the Fens of
Pheneus, Erymanthus out of a Mountain of the same Name,
running both down into Alpheus. The rest of the Cities to
be named in Achaea, Aliphiraei, Albeatae, Pyrgerises, Pareatse,
Paragenitiae, Tortuni, Typansei, Thryasii, Trittenses. All

BOOK IV.] History of Nature. 9

Achaea Domitius Nero endowed with Freedom. Pelo-
ponnesus, from the Promontory of Malea to the Town
Lechaeum upon the Corinthian Bay, lieth in Breadth 160
Miles: but across, from Elis to Epidaurum, 125 Miles:
from Olympia to Argos, through Arcadia, 63 Miles : from
the same Place to Phlius is the said measure. And the
whole, as if Nature weighed out a Recompense for the
irruptions of the Seas, riseth up into three score and sixteen
Mountains.

CHAPTER VII.
Greece and Attica.

FROM the Straits of the Isthmus beginneth Hellas, by our
Countrymen called Graecia. The first Tract thereof is Attica,
in old Time named Acte. It reacheth the Isthmus on that
Part of it which is called Megaris, from the Colony Megara,
from the Region of the Pagae. These two Towns, as Pelo-
ponnesus lieth out in Length, are seated on either Hand, as
it were, upon the Shoulders of Hellas. The Pagaei, and
more especially the ^Egosthenienses, lie annexed to the
Magarensians. In the Coast is the Harbour Schoenus.
Towns, Sidus, Cremyon, the Scironian Rocks for three Miles
long, Geranea, Megara, and Elcusin. There were besides,
CEnoa and Probalinthus, which now are 52 Miles from
the Isthmus. Pyraeeus and Phalera, two Ports joined to
Athens by a Wall, within the Land five Miles. This City
is free, and needeth no more any Man's praise : so abund-
antly noble it is. In Attica are these Fountains, Cephissia,
Larine, Callirrhoe, and Enneacreunos. Mountains, Brilessus,
Megialcus, Icarius, Hymettus, and Lyrabetus : the River
Ilissos. From Pyraeeus 42 Miles is the Promontory
Sunium ; likewise the Promontory Dpriscum. Also Po-
tamos and Brauron, Towns in time past. The Village
Rhamnus, the Place Marathon, the Plain Thriastius, the
Town Melita and Oropus, in the Border of Boeotia. To
which belong Anthedon, Onchestos, Thesprae, a free Town,
Lebadea : and Thebes, surnamed Boeotia, not inferior in

JO History of Nature. [BOOK IV.

Fame to Athens, as being the native Country (as Men will
have it) of two Gods, Liber and Hercules. Also, they attribute
the Birth of the Muses to the Grove Helicon. To this Thebes
is assigned the Forest Cithseron and the River Ismenus.
Moreover, Fountains in Boeotia, GEdipodium. Psammate,
Dirce, Epigranea, Arethusa, Hippocrene, Aganippe, and
Gargaphiae. Mountains, besides the forenamed, Mycalessus,
Adylisus, Acontius. The rest of the Towns between Megara
and Thebes, Eleutherse, Haliartus, Plateae, Pherae, Aspledon,
Hyle, Thisbe, Erythrse, Glissas, and Copse. Near the River
Cephissus, Lamia and Anichia : Medeon, Phligon£, Grephis,
Coronsea, Chseronia. But in the Borders, beneath Thebes,
Ocal&, Elseon, Scolos, Scoanos, Peteon, Hyrie, Mycalessus,
Hyreseon, Pteleon, Olyros, Tanagia, a free People ; and in
the very Mouth of Euripus, which the Island Euboea maketh
by its opposite Site, Aulis, renowned for its large Har-
bour. The Boeotians in old Time were named Hyantes.
The Locrians also are named Epicnemidii, in Times past
Letegetes, through whom the River Cephissus runneth into
the Sea. Towns, Opus (whereof cometh the Opuntinean
Bay), and Cynus. Upon the Sea-coast of Phocis, one
Daphnus. Within, among the Locrians, Elatea, and upon
the Bank of Cephissus (as we have said) Lilaea : and toward
Delphos, Cnemis and Hiarnpolis. Again, the Borders of
the Locrii, wherein stand Larymna arid Thronium, near
which the River Boagrius falleth into the Sea. Towns,
Narycion, Alope, Scarphia. After this, the Vale, called
by the People there dwelling, Maliacus Sinus, wherein are
these Towns, Halcyone, Econia, and Phalara. Then Doris,
wherein are Sperchios, Erineon, Boion, Pindus, Cytirium.
On the Back of Doris is the Mountain (Eta. Then fol-
loweth jEmonia that so often hath changed Name : for
the same hath beea called Pelasgicum, Argos, and Hellas,
Thessalia also, and Dryopis, and evermore it took the Name
of the Kings. In it was born a King called Gracus, from
whom Greece was named : there also was Hellen born,
from whence came the Hellenes. These being but one
People, Homer hath called by three Names: Myrmidons,

BOOK IV.] History of Nature. 1 1

Hellense, and Achaei. Of these, they are called Phthiotae
who inhabit Doris. Their Towns are Echinus, in the entrance
of the River Sperchius : and the Straits of Thermopylae, so
named by reason of the Waters : and, four Miles from
thence, Heraclea was called Trachin. There is the Mountain
Callidromus : and the famous Towns, Hellas, Halos, Lamia,
Phthia, and Arne.

CHAPTER VIII.
Thessalia.

MOREOVER, in Thessalia, Orchomenus, formerly called
Minyeus ; and the Town Almon, by some Elmon ; Atrax,
Pelinna, and the Fountain Hyperia. Towns, Pherse, behind
which Pierius stretcheth forth to Macedonia: Larissa, Gomphi,
Thebes of Thessalia, the Grove Pteleon, and the Bay Pa-
gasicus. The Town Pagasa, the same named afterwards
Demetrias ; Tricca, the Pharsalian Plains, with a free City :
Cranon, and Iletia. Mountains of Phthiotis, Nymphaeus,
beautiful for the natural Harbours and Garden-works there :
Buzigaeus, Donacesa, Bermius, Daphista, Chimerion, Atha-
mas, Stephane. In Thessalia there are 34, of which the
most famous are Cerceti, Olympus, Pierus, Ossa : over
against which is Pindus and Othrys, the Seat of the Lapithae ;
and those lie toward the West : but Eastward, Pelios ; all of
them bending in the manner of a Theatre : and before them,
in form of a WTedge, 72 Cities. Rivers of Thessalia,
Apidanus, Phoenix, Enipeus, Onochomus, Pamisus : the
Fountain Messeis, the Lake Boebeis : and illustrious above
all the rest, Peneus, which, rising near Gomphi, runneth
for 500 Stadia in a woody Dale between Ossa and Olympus,
and half that Way is navigable. In this Course are the
Places called Temp£, five Miles in Length, and almost an
Acre and a half Broad, where on both Hands the Hills arise
by a gentle Ascent above the reach of Man's Sight. Within,
Peneus glideth by, in a fresh green Grove, clear as Crystal,
over the gravelly Stones; pleasant for the Grass upon the
Banks, and melodious with the Harmony of Birds. It

12 History of Nature. [BooK IV.

taketh in the River Eurotas, but receiveth him not, but, as
Homer expresseth it1, floweth over him like Oil: and within a
very little while rejecteth the Burden, as refusing to mingle
with his own silver Streams those penal and cursed Waters
so direfully produced.

CHAPTER IX.
Magnesia.

To Thessalia, Magnesia is annexed : the Fountain there
is Libethra. The Towns, lolchos, Hirmenium, Pyrrha,
Methone, Olizon. The Promontory Sepias. Towns, Cas-
tana, Sphalatra, and the Promontory ^Enantium. Towns,
Meliboea, Rhisus, Erymne. The Mouth of Peneus. Towns,
Homolium, Orthe, Thespise, Phalanna, Thaumaciae, Gyrton,
Cranon, Acarne, Dotion, Melitsea, Phylace, Potinae. The
Length of Epirus, Achaia, Attica, and Thessalia, lying strait
out, is by report 480 Miles, the Breadth 287.

CHAPTER X.
Macedonia.

MACEDONIA, so called afterwards (formerly it was named
Emathia) is a Kingdom, consisting of 150 several People,
renowned for two Kings, and once ennobled for the Empire
of the World. This Country passing behind Magnesia and
Thessalia toward the Nations of Epirus Westward, is much
troubled with the Dardani. The North Parts thereof are
defended by Paeonia and Pelagonia, against the Triballi.
The Towns are these, -^Ege, wherein it was the Custom to inter

1 As Homer expresseth it. See " Iliad," b. 750 : —

" To these were join'd, who till the pleasant fields
Where Titaresius winds : the gentle flood
Pours into Peneus all his limpid stores,
But with the silver-eddied Peneus flows
Unmixt as oil ; for Stygian is his stream,
And Styx is the inviolable oath.

COWPER'S Homer. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IV.] History of Nature. 13

their Kings : Beroea, and jEginium, in that Quarter which,
from the Wood, is called Pieria. In the Borders, Heraclea,
and the River Apilas : Towns, Phina and Oloros : the River
Haliacmon. Within are the Haloritae, the Vallei, Phylacei,
Cyrrhestae, Tyrissaei : Pella, the Colony : the Town Stobi, of
Roman Citizens. Presently, Antigonia, Europus, upon the
River Axius, and another of the same Name, through which
Rhaedias runneth : Heordeco, Scydra, Mieza, Gordinise. Soon
after, in the Borders, Ichnae ; and the River Axius. To this
Extremity the Dardani : Treres and Pieres border upon
Macedonia. From this River are the Nations of Paeonia,
Parorei, Heordenses, Almopii, Pelagones, and Mygdones.
The Mountains Rhodope, Scopius, and Orbelus. Then the
Lap of the Earth spreading along, Arethusii, Antiochienses,
Idomenenses, Doberienses, Trienses, Allantenses, AndarU
stenses, Moryllii, Garesci, Lyncestae, Othrionei, and the free
States of the Amantini and Orestae. Colonies, Bulledensis
and Diensis. Xilopolitae, Scotussaei, free ; Heraclea, Sintica,
Tymphei, and Coronaei. In the Coast of the Macedonian
Bay, the Town Calastra, and within, Phileros, and Let£ :
and in the middle bending of the Coast, Thessalonica, of
free condition. To it from Dyrrhachium, is 114 Miles;
Thermae. In the Bay Thermaicus, are these Towns, Dicaea,
Pydna, Derrha, Scione : the Promontory Canastraeum.
Towns, Pallenei, Phlerga. In which Region these Moun-
tains, Hypsizorus, Epitus, Alchion^, Leuomn£. Towns,
Nissos, Brygion, Eicon, Mendae, and in the Isthmus of Pal-
lene, the Colony sometime called Potidaea, and now Cas-
sandria ; Anthemus, the Bay Holophyxus, and Mecyberna ;
Towns, Phiscella, Ampelos, Torone, and Singos : the Creek
(where Xerxes, King of the Persians, cut the Mountain
Athos from the Continent), in Length a Mile and a half.
The Mountain itself shooteth out from the Plain into the
Sea, 75 Miles. The Compass of the Foot thereof taketh
150 Miles. A Town there was on the Summit, Acroton.
Now there be Vranopolis, Palaeotrium, Thyssus, Cleon£,
Apollonia, the Inhabitants whereof are named Macrobii. The
Town Cassera, and a second Gullet of the Isthmus, Acan-

14 History of Nature. [BOOK IV.

thus, Stagira, Sitone, Heraclea, and the Region lying under
Mygdonia, wherein are, receding from the Sea, Apollonia
and Arethusa. Again, in the Coast, Posidium, and a Bay,
with the Town Cermorus : Amphipolis, a free State, and the
Nation Bisaltse. Then, the River Strymon, which is the
Bound of Macedonia, and which springeth in Haemus : of
which this is worthy to be remembered, that it runneth into
seven Lakes before it keepeth a direct Course. This is
Macedonia, which once obtained the Dominion over all the
Earth : this overran Asia, Armenia, Iberia, Albania, Cappa-
docia, Syria, Egypt, Taurus, and Caucasus : this ruled over
the Bactri, Medi, and Persi, and possessed all the East :
this having the Conquest of India, wandered through the
Tracts of Father Liber and Hercules. This is the very
same Macedonia, of which in one Day Paulus jEmylius,
our Imperator, sold 72 plundered Cities. So great a
Difference of Fortune befel two Men.

CHAPTER XI.
Thracia.

Now followeth Thracia, among the most valiant Nations of
Europe, divided into 52 Regiments (strategias) of Soldiers.
Of those People in it, whom it does not grieve me to name,
the Denseletes and Medi inhabit near the River Strymon, on
the right Side, as far as to the Bisaltse above-named : on the
left, the Digeri, and many Names of the Bessi, to the River
Nestus, which environeth the Bottom of the Mountain Pan-
gseus, between the Eleti, Diobesi, and Carbilesi ; and so
forward to the Brysae and Capaei. Odomanta, a Nation of
the Odrysee, poureth out the River Hebrus to the Neighbour-
borderers, the Carbiletes, Pyrogeri, Drugeri, Caenici, Hyp-
salti, Beni, Corpilli, Botisei, and Edoni. In the same Tract
are the Selletae, Priautae, Diloncae, Thyni, Celetse, the greater
under Haemus, the less under Rhodopae : between whom
runneth the River Hebrus. The Town situate beneath Rho-
dop£, before-time named Poneropolis ; soon after by the
Founder, Philippopolis ; but now, from its Site, Trimontium.

BOOK IV.] History of Nature. 15

The Elevation of Haemus taketh six Miles : the Back and
declining thereof down to Ister, the Moesi, Getae, Aoti,
Gaudae, and Clariae, and under them the Arraei, Sarmatae,
whom they call Areatae, and Scythae : and about the Sea-
coast of Pontus, the Moriseni and Sithonii, from whom the
Poet Orpheus descended, do inhabit. Thus Ister boundeth
it on the North : in the East, Pontus and Propontus : South-
ward, the Sea J£gaeum, in the Coast of which, from Strymon,
stand Apollonia, CEstima, Neapolis, and Polis. Within, the
Colony of Philip; and 325 Miles from Dyrrhachium, Sco-
tusa, Topiris, and the Mouth of the River Nestus. The
Mountain Pangaeus, Heraclea, Olynthos Abdera, a free City;
the Marsh and Nation of the Bistoni. There stood the Town
Tinda, terrible for the Stables of the Horses of Diomedes.
Now there are the Diceae, Ismaron, the Place Parthenion,
Phalesina, Maronea, called Ortagurea before-time. The
Mountain Serrium and Zonae : then, the Place Doriscus,
able to receive 1 0,000 1 Men : for so there Xerxes numbered
over his Army. The Mouth of Hebrus : the Port of Stentor:
the free Town .ZEnea, with the Tomb of Polydorus ; the
Region, sometime, of the Cicones. From Doriscus, the
Coast bendeth to Macron -Tichos for 122 Miles. About
which Place the River Melas, from which the Bay taketh its
Name. Towns, Cypsella, Bisanthe, and that which is called
Macron-Tichos, whence stretching forth the Walls from Pro-
pontis to the Bay Melanes, between two Seas, it excludeth
Cherronesus as it runneth out. For Thracia, on one Side,
beginning at the Sea-coast of Pontus, where the River Ister
is discharged, hath in that Quarter the very beautiful Cities,
Istropolis of the Milesii, Tomi, and Calatis, which before
was called Acernetis. It had Heraclea and Bizon, which
was destroyed in a Chasm of the Earth ; now it hath Diony-
sopolis, formerly called Crunos. The River Ziras runneth by
it. All that Tract, the Scythians named Aroteres possessed.
Their Towns, Aphrodisius, Libistos, Ziger£, Borcob&, Eu-
menia, Parthenopolis, Gerania, where it is reported were the

1 Or 100,000.

16 History of Nature. [BooK IV.

Nation of the Pygmei1, whom the Barbarians call Catizi, and
they believe that they were chased away by Cranes. In the
Borders from Dionysopolis is Odessus of the Milesii; the River
Pomiscus, the Town Tetranaulochos : the Mountain Haemus
bending down with a huge Top into Pontus, had in the Sum-
mit the Town Aristseum. Now in the Coast is Mesembria
and Anchialum, where Messa was. The Region Astice.
There was the Town Anthium, now there is Apollonia. The
Rivers Panissa, Rira, Tearus, Orosines. Towns, Thynnias,
Almedessos, Develton, with the Marsh which now is called
Deultum, belonging to the Veterans. Phinopolis, near which
is Bosphorus. From the Mouth of Ister to the Entrance of
Pontus others have made 555 Miles. Agrippa hath added
40 Miles more. From thence to the Wall above-named,
150 : and from it to Cherronesus, 126. But from the Bos-
phorus is the Bay Gasthenes. The Port Senum, and an-
other which is called the Port Mulierum. The Promontory
Chrysoceras, whereon standeth the Town Bizantium of free
Condition, and formerly called Lygos. From Dyrrhachium
it is 71 1 Miles. Thus much lieth out the Length between
the Adriatic Sea and Propontis. Rivers, Bathynias, Pydaras,
or Atyras. Towns, Selymbria, Perinthus, annexed to the
Continent, 200 Paces broad. Within, Byzia, the Castle of
the Thracian Kings, hated by Swallows2 for the horrible
Crime of Tereus. The Region Camica : the Colony Flavio-
polus, where formerly the Town was called Zela. And 50
Miles from Byria, the Colony Apros, which is from Philippi
188 Miles. But in the Borders, the River Erginus, where
was the Town Gonos. And there you leave Lysimachia,

1 The Pygmies are frequently spoken of by ancient writers, and the
existence of the diminutive race was never doubted. We defer the parti-
cular consideration of the monstrous races of mankind to the 7th Book,
c. 2, where they are all mentioned together ; but the Pygmies appear to
have attracted more of the imagination of the poets than any of the
others. The origin of their royal tyrant, the crane, is referred to by
Ovid, "Metamorphoses," b. vi.— Wern. Club.

2 See the story of Tereus, Procne, and Philomela, in Ovid's " Metamor-
phoses," lib. vi. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IV.] History of Nature. 17

now in Cherronesus. For there is another Isthmus of like
Straigbtness, of the same Name, and of equal Breadth.
On both Sides two Cities beautify the Shores, which they
hold in a Manner not unlike : Pactiae from Propontis, and
Cardia from the Bay Melane : this taketh its Name from the
Appearance of the Place : and both, afterwards, were en-
closed within Lysimaehia, three Miles from the long Walls1.
Cherronesus from Propontis had Tiristasis and Crithotes,
also Cissa, upon the River ^Egos : now it hath from the
Colony Apros 32 Miles ; Resistos, over against the Colony
Pariana. And Hellespontus, dividing Europe from Asia by
seven Stadia (as we have said), hath four Cities, opposite one
against another : in Europe, Calippolis and Sestos ; in Asia,
Lampsacum and Abydos. Then, is the Promontory of Cher-
ronesus, called Mastisia, opposite to Sigeum, in the crooked
Front whereof is Cynossema : for so is Hecuba s Tomb
named, the Station of the Achaei. The Tower and Shrine
of Proiesilaus : and in the utmost Front of Cherronesus,
which is called folium, the Town Elaeus. After it, as a
Man goeth to the Bay Melan£, the Port Cselos, Panhormus,
and the above-named Cardia. The third Bay of Europe is in
this Manner shut in. Mountains of Thracia above those
before rehearsed, Edonus, Gigemorus, Meritus, and Melam-
phyllon ; Rivers falling into Hebrus, Bargus, and Suemus.
The Length of Macedonia, Thracia, and Hellespontus, is set
down before. Some make it 720 Miles. The Breadth is 380
Miles. The Sea ^Egeum took that Name from a Rock, be-
tween Tenedos and Chios, more truly than from an Island
named MX, resembling a Goat, and therefore so called of the
Greeks ; which suddenly riseth out of the midst of the Sea.
The People that sail from Achaia to Andros, discover it on
the right Hand, dreadful and mischievous. Part of the
-^Egean Sea is given to Myrtoum, and is so called from a
little Island which sheweth itself to them that sail from
Gerestus to Macedonia, not far from Charystos in Euboea.
The Romans comprehend all these Seas in two Names :

1 Macron-Tichos.

VOL. II. C

18 History of Nature. [BooK IV.

Macedonicum, all that which toucheth Macedonia and
Thracia : and Grseciensum, where it beateth upon Greece.
For the Greeks divide the Ionian Sea, into Siculum and
Creticum, from the Islands. Also, Icarius (they call that),
between Samos and Mycionus. The other Names are given
by Bays, of which we have spoken. And thus much, indeed,
of the Seas and Nations contained in this Manner within the
third Bay of Europe.

CHAPTER XII.

Islands between those Lands, among which, Creta, Eubcea,
Cyclades, and Sporades: also, of Hellespont, Pontus,
Mceotis, Dacia, Sarmatia, and Scythia.

ISLANDS over against Thresprotia, Corey ra: 12 Miles from
Buthrotus, and the same from Acroceraunia, 50 Miles, with
a City of the same Name, Corcyra, of free Condition ; also,
the Town Cassiope, and the Temple of Jupiter Cassiopceus :
it lieth out in Length 97 Miles. Homer called it Scheria
and Phseacia : Callimachus also, Drepane\ About it are
some others : but verging toward Italy, Thoronos : and to-
ward Leucadia, the two Paxae, five Miles divided from Cor-
cyra. And not far from them before Corcyra, Ericusa,
Marate, Elaphusa, Malthace, Trachise, Pytionia, Ptychia,
Tarachie. And beyond Pholachrum, a Promontory of Corcyra,
the Rock into which it is feigned that the Ship of Ulysses was
turned, on Account of its Resemblance. Before Leucadia,
Sybota. But between Leucadia and Achaia there are very
many: of which are Teleboides, the same as Taphise.: of the
Inhabitants before Leucadia, they are called Taphias ; Oxiae
and Prinoessa : and before jEtolia, the Echinades, JEgialia,
Cotonis, Thyatira, Geoaris, Dionysia, Cyrnus, Chalcis,
Pinara, and Mystus. Before them in the deep Sea, Cepha-
lenia and Zacynthus, both free States : Ithaca, Dulichium,
Same, Crocylea, and Paxos. Cephalenia, formerly called
Meloena is 11 Miles off, and 44 Miles in Circuit. Sam£ was
destroyed by the Romans : nevertheless, it hath still three
Towns : between it and Achaia is Zacynthus, with a Town, a

BOOK IV.] History of Nature. 19

stately Island, and remarkably fertile. In Times past it was
called Hyrie, and is 22 Miles distant from the South-coast of
Cephalenia. The famous Mountain of Elatus is there. The
Island itself is in Circuit 25 Miles. Twelve Miles from it is
Ithaca, wherein is the Mountain Neritus. And in the whole
it taketh up the Compass of 25 Miles. From it 12 Miles off
is Araxum, a Promontory of Peloponnesus. Before this, in
the main Sea, Asteris and Prote. Before Zacynthus, 35
Miles in the Wind Eusus, are the Strophades, called by
others, Plotae : and before Cephalenia, Letoia. Before Pylos,
three Sphagise ; and as many before Messene, called GEriussae.
In the Bay Asinaeus, three Thyrides : in the Laconian Gulf,
Teganusa, Cothon, Cythera, with the Town formerly named
Porphyris. This lieth five Miles from the Promontory of
Malea, doubtful for Ships to come about it, by Reason of the
Straits there. In the Argolic Sea are Pityusa, Irine and
Ephyre : and against the Territory Hermonium, Typarenus,
Epiropia, Colonis, Aristera : over against Trcezenium Ca-
lauria, half a Mile from Platese : also, Belbina, Lacia and
Baucidias. Against Epidaurus, Cecryphalos, and Pytionesos,
six Miles from the Continent. Next to it is .ZEgina, of free
Condition, 17 Miles off, and the Navigation of it is 20 Miles
about. The same is distant from Pyrseeum, the Port of the
Athenians, 12 Miles, and in old Time it was usually called
CEnone. Over against the Promontory Spiraeum, lie Eleusa,
Dendros, two Craugise, two Caeciae, Selachusa, Cenchreis, and
Aspis. Also, in the Megarian Bay, there are four Methu-
rides. But ./Egilia is 15 Miles from Cythera; and the same
is from Phalasarna, a Town in Greta, 25 Miles. And Creta
itself, lying with one Side to the South, and the other to the
North, stretcheth forth in Length East and West ; famous
and noble for 100 Cities. Dosiades saith it took that Name
from the Nymph Creta, Daughter of Hesperis : but according
to Anaximander, from a King of the Curetes. Philistides,
Mallotes, Crates, have thought it was called first ^Eria, and
afterwards Curetis, and some have thought it was named
Macaros, on Account of the excellent Temperature of the
Air. In Breadth it exceedeth in no Place 50 Miles, and in

20 History of Nature. [BooK IV.

the middle Part it is broadest : in Length it is full 270
Miles : in Circuit, 589 Miles : and bending itself into the
Cretic Sea, so called from it, where it stretcheth out furthest
Eastward, it putteth forth the Promontory Sarnmonium,
opposite Rhodos ; and Westward, Criu-Metopon, toward
Cyrense. The principal Towns are Phalasarnae, Elaea, Cysa-
mum, Pergamum, Cydon, Minoum, Apteron, Pantoma-
trium, Amphimalla, Rhythymna, Panhormum, Cyteurn,
Apollonia, Matium, Heraclea, Miletos, Ampelos, Hiera-
pytna, Lebena, Hierapolis. And in the midland Parts, Cor-
tyna, Phaestum. Gnossus, Potyrrhenium, Myrina, Lycastus,
Rhamnus, Lyctus, Dium, Asum, Pyloros, Rhytion, Clatos,
Pharae. Holopyxos, Lasos1, Eleuthernse, Therapne, Mara-
thusa, Mytinos. And other Towns to about the Number of
60 stand yet upon Record. The Mountains : Cadiscus,
Idaeus, Dictaeus, and Morycus. The Isle itself, from the
Promontory in it called Criu-Metopon, as Agrippa reporteth,
is distant from Phycus, a Promontory of the Cyrense, 225
Miles. Likewise to Capescum from Malea in Peloponnesus,
it is 80 Miles. From the Island Carpathus, from the Pro-
montory Sammonia, in the Favonian Wind, 60 Miles. This
Island lieth between it and Rhodos. The Rest about it are
these : before Peloponnesus two Coricae, and as many Mylae :
and on the North Side, with Creta on the right Hand, there
appeareth Leuce over against Cydonia, with the two Budorae;
against Matium, Cia: against the Promontory Itanum Onisa
and Leuce : against Hierapytna, Chrysa, and Caudos. In
the same Tract are Ophiussa, Butoa, and Rhamnus : and
doubling Criu-Metopon, the Isles called Musagores. Before
the Promontory Sammonium, Phocse, Platiae, Sirnides, Nau-
lochos, Armedon, and Zephyre. But in Hellas, yet still in
.ZEgeum, Lichades, Scarphia, Maresa, Phocaria, and very
many more over against Attica ; but without Towns, and
therefore obscure : but against Eleusina, the noble Salamis,

1 Dr. Bloomfield (" Recens. Synop." in loco} thinks this place was the
Lasea of Acts xxvii. 8. Pliny makes it an inland town, but by inland
towns he only means such as were not ports ; and that Lasea was not a
port is clear, the Fair Havens being its port. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IV.] History of Nature. 2J

and before it Psytalia: and from Sunium, Helen£, five Miles
off: and Ceos, from thence as many ; which our Countrymen
have named Caea ; but the Greeks Hydrussa : cut off from
Euboea. In Times past it was 500 Stadia long : but soon
after, almost four Parts, which verged towards Boaotia, were
devoured by the same Sea : and now the Towns remaining
are Julis and Cartheea. For Coressus and Peecessa are
perished. From hence, as Varro saith, came the more deli-
cate Dress that Women use. Euboea itself hath been torn
from Boeotia, being divided with so little a Euripus, that a
Bridge joineth the one to the other : it is well marked by
Reason of two Promontories in the South Side, which are,
Genestum, bending toward Attica ; and Caphareus to Helles-
pontus : and upon the North Side, Ceeneus. In no Part doth
it extend broader than 40 Miles ; and no where doth it con-
tract beyond 20. But in Length from Attica, as far as Thes-
salia, it lieth along Boeotia for 150 Miles; and contained! in
Circuit 365. From Hellespont, on the Part of Caphareus, it
is 225 Miles. In Times past it was illustrious for these
Cities: Pyrrha, Porthmos, Nesos, Cerinthus, Oreum, Dium,
^Edepsum, Ocha, CEchalia, now Calcis, over against which
standeth Aulis on the Continent : but now noble for Geres-
turn, Eretria, Carystus, Oritanum, Artemisium, the Fountain
Arethusa, the River Lelantum, the hot Waters called Hel-
lopige ; but yet more known for the Marble of Carystus.
In former Time it was called commonly Chalcodontis or
Macris, as Dionysius and Ephorus say ; but Macra, ac-
cording to Aristides : and according to Callidemus, Chalcis,
from the Brass there first found: and as Mencecmus saith,
Abantias : and Asopis, as the Poets commonly name it. Be-
yond, in the Myrtoom Sea, are many Isles, but those prin-
cipally famous are Glauconnesus and jEgilia. And from the
Promontory Gerestuui, about Delos, some lying in a Circle
together, whence they took their Name Cyclades. The first
of them, Andrus, with a Town, is from Gerestum, 10 Miles ;
and from Ceum, 39. Myrsilius saith it was called Cauros,
and afterwards Antandros. Callimachus nameth it Lasia,
others Nonagria, Hydrussa, and Epagris. It lieth in Com-
pass 93 Miles. A Mile from the same Andros, and 15 from

22 History of Nature. [BooK IV.

Delos, lieth Tenos, with a Town stretched out 15 Miles in
Length : which, for the Plenty of Water, Aristotle saith, was
called Hydrussa, but others name it Ophiussa. The Rest are
these: Myconos, with the Mountain Dimastos, 15 Miles
from Delos. Scyros Syphnus, formerly named Meropia and
Acis, in Circuit 28 Miles : Seriphus, 12 Miles, Praepesinthus,
Cythnus. And Delos itself, of all others the most illustrious,
the midmost of the Cyclades, celebrated for the Temple of
Apollo, and for Merchandise; which, having a long Time
floated up and down (as it is reported), was the only Island
that never felt an Earthquake1 unto the Time of M. Varro.
Mutianus hath recorded that it was twice shaken. Aristotle
giveth a Reason of the Name in this Sort, because it was
produced and discovered on a sudden. jEylosthenes termeth
it Cynthia : others Ortygia, Asteria, Lagia, Chlamydia,
Cynethus, and Pyrpile ; because in it Fire was first found
out. It is but five Miles about, and riseth up by the Moun-
tain Cinthus. Next to it is Rhene, which Anticlides calleth
Celadussa, and Helladius, Artemite. Moreover, Syros, which
ancient Writers have reported to be in Circuit 20 Miles,
and Mutianus, 160. Oliatos, Paros, with a Town, 38 Miles
from Delos, of great Name for white Marble, which at
first they called Pactia, but afterwards Minois. From it
seven and a half Miles is Naxus, 18 Miles from Delos;
with a Town, which they called Strongyle, afterwards Dia,
soon after Dionysius, from its Fertility of Vines ; and by
others, Sicily the Less, and Callipolis. It reacheth in Cir-
cuit 75 Miles, and is half as long again as Paros. And thus
far, indeed, they note for the Cyclades: the Rest that follow,
for the Sporades. And these are Helenum, Phocussa, Phae-
casia, Schinussa, Phalegandros ; and 17 Miles from Naxos,
Icaros : which gave Name to the Sea, lying out as far in
Length ; with two Towns, for the third is lost : beforetime
it was called Dolichum, Macris, and Ichtyoessa. It is situated

1 Thucydides, book ii., says : " There was also a little before the time
of the Peloponnesian war, an earthquake at Delos, which, in the memory
of the Grecians, never shook before ; and was interpreted for, and seemed
to be a sign of, what was to come afterwards to pass." — HOBBES. — Wern.
Club.

BOOK IV.] History of Nature. 23

North-east, from Delos 50 Miles : and from Samos it is 35
Miles. Between Euboea and Andros there is a Strait 12
Miles over. From it to Gerestum is 112^ Miles. And then
no Order forward can be kept ; the Rest, therefore, shall be
set down promiscuous!}'. los from Naxos is 24 Miles, vene-
rable for the Sepulchre of Homer : it is in Length 25 Miles,
and in former Time was called Phaenice. Odia, Letandros ;
Gyaros, with a Town, in Circuit 12 Miles. It is distant from
Aneros, 62 Miles. From thence to Syrnus, 80 Miles. Cyne-
thussa ; Telos, famous for costly Ointment, and called by
Callimachus, Agathussa. Donysa ; Pathmos, in Circuit 30
Miles. Corasise, Lebinthus, Leros, Cynara, Sycinus, which
beforetime was (Enoe ; Heratia, the same as Onus ; Casus,
otherwise Astrabe; Cimolus, otherwise Echinussa ; Melos,
with a Town, which Aristides nameth Byblis ; Aristotle, Ze-
phyria ; Callimachus, Himallis ; Heraclides, Syphnus and
Acytos. And this, of all the Islands, is the roundest. After it
Machia; Hypere, sometime Patage, or after some Platage,
now Amorgos ; Potyaegos, Phyle, Thera ; when it first
appeared, called Calliste. From it afterwards was Therasia
torn away : and between those two soon after arose Auto-
mate, the same as Hiera : and Thia, which in our Days
appeared new out of the Water near Hiera. los is from
Thera, 25 Miles. Then follow Lea, Ascania, Anaphe, Hip-
puris, Hippurissusa. Astipalsea of free Condition, in Com-
pass 88 Miles : it is from Cadiscus, a Promontory of Creta,
125 Miles. From it is Platea, distant 60 Miles. And from
thence Camina, 38 Miles. Then Azibnitha, Lanise, Tragia,
Pharmacusa, Techedia, Chalcia ; Calydna, in which are
the Towns Coos and Olymna. From which to Carpathus,
which gave the Name to the Carpathian Sea, is 25 Miles :
and so to Rhodes with an African Wind. From Carpathus
to Casos, seven Miles : from Casos to Samonium, a
Promontory of Creta, 30 Miles. Moreover, in the Euboic
Euripus, almost at the first Entrance, are the four Islands,
Petalise ; and at the Outlet, Atalante, Cyclades, and Spo-
rades : inclosed on the East with the Icarian Sea-coasts of
Asia; on the West, with the Myrtoan Coasts of Attica;

24 History of Nature. [Boox IV.

Northward, with the ^Egean Sea ; and South, with the Cretic
and Carphacian Seas : and they lie in Length 200 Miles.
The Bay Pagasicus hath before it Eutychia, Cicynethus, and
Scyrus abovesaid : but the Outermost of the Cyclades and
Sporades, Gerontia, Scadira, Thermeusis, Irrhesia, Solinnia,
Eudemia, Nea, which is sacred to Minerva. Athos before
it hath four; Preparethus, with a Town, sometime called
Euonos, nine Miles off: Scyathus, five Miles: and Imbrus,
with a Town, 88 Miles off. The same is from Mastusia in
Corinthos, 75 Miles. Itself is in Circuit 72 Miles. It is
watered by the River Ilissus. From thence to Lemnos, 22
Miles : and the latter from Athos, 87. In Compass it con-
taineth 22J Miles. Towns it hath, Hepheestia and Myrina,
into the Market-place of which the Mountain Athos casteth a
Shadow at the Solstice. Thassos, a free State, is from it five
Miles : in Times past, called JEria, or jEthria. From thence
Abdera in the Continent is 20 Miles : Athos, 62 : the Isle
Samothrace as much, which is free, and lieth before Hebrus :
from Imbrus, 32 Miles: from Lemnus, 22 J Miles: from the
Borders of Thracia, 28 Miles : in Circuit it is 32 Miles, and hath
a Rising of the Hill Saoces for the Space of 10 Miles : and
of all the Rest is fullest of Harbours. Callimachus calleth it
by the old Name Dardania : between Cherronesus and
Samothrace is Halomesus, about 15 Miles from either of
them : beyond lieth Gethrone, Larnponia, Alopeconnesus
not far from Coelos, a Port of Cherronesus : and some
others of no importance. In this Bay are rehearsed also
the deserted Islands, of which the Names only can be disco-
vered : Desticos, Larnos, Cyssicos, Carbrusa, Celathusa,
Scylla, Draconon, Arconesus, Diethusa, Scapos, Capheris,
Mesat&, .ZEantion, Phaterunesos, Pateria, Calete, Neriphus,
and Polendus.

The fourth of those great Bays in Europe, beginning
from Hellespont, endeth in the Mouth of Mceotis. But we
are briefly to describe the Form of the whole Sea, that the
Parts may be more easily known. The vast Ocean lying
before Asia, and driven out from Europe in that long Coast
of Cherronesus, breaketh into the Land with a narrow

BOOK IV.] History of Nature. 25

Passage of seven Stadia (as hath been said) dividing Europe
from Asia. The first Straits they call Hellespontus. Over
this, Xerxes, King of the Persians, made a Bridge upon
Ships, and so led his Array across. From thence is extended
a small Euripus for the space of 86 Miles, to Priapus, a
City of Asia, where Alexander the Great passed over. From
that Place the Sea groweth wide, and again gathereth into
a Strait : the largeness is called Propontis ; the Straits, the
Thracian Bosphorus, 500 Paces over : by which Darius, the
Father of Xerxes, made a Bridge and transported his Forces.
The whole Length from Hellespont is 239 Miles. From
thence the vast Sea called Pontus Euxinus, and in Times
past Axenus, taketh up the space between Lands far remote,
and with a great winding of the Shores, bendeth backward
into Horns, and lieth stretched out from them on both Sides,
resembling evidently a Scythian Bow. In the midst of this
bending, it joineth close to the Mouth of the Lake Mreotis.
That Mouth is called Cimmerius Bosphorus, two Miles and
a half Broad. But between the two Bosphori, Thracius and
Cimmerius, there is a direct Course, as Polybius saith, of
500 Miles. But the Circuit of all this Sea, as Varro and
almost all the old Writers witness, is 2150 Miles. Nepos
Cornelius addeth thereto 350 Miles. Artemidorus maketh
it 2919 Miles: Agrippa, 2360 Miles: Mutianus, 2865
Miles. In like sort, some have determined the Measure
to the Side of Europe to be 4078J Miles: others, 11,072
Miles. M. Varro taketh his Measure in this manner : from
the Mouth of Pontus to Apollonia, 188J Miles: to Calatis,
as much : to the Mouth of Ister, 125 : to Borysthenes, 250 :
to Cherroriesus, a Town of the Heracleates, 375 Miles : to
Panticapaeus, which some call Bosphorus, the utmost Coast
of Europe, 222 1 Miles : the sum of which makes 1336J Miles.
Agrippa measureth, from Bizantium to the River Ister, 560
Miles : to Panticapseurn, 630 : from thence the very Lake
Mceotis, receiving the River Tanais which runneth out of
the Riphaean Mountains, is supposed to be in Compass 1306
Miles ; being the furthest Bound between Europe and Asia.
Others make 11,025 Miles. But it is evident, that from its

26 History of Nature. [BooK IV.

Mouth to the Mouth of Tanais, by a straight Course, it is 375
Miles. The Inhabitants of that Bay have been named in
the mention of Thracia, as far as to Istropolis. From thence
the Mouths of Ister. This River riseth among the Hills of
Abnoba, a Mountain of Germany, over against Rauricum, a
Town in Gallia, and passing many Miles beyond the Alps, and
through innumerable Nations, under the Name of Danubius,
with a mighty increase of Waters, and whence he first be-
ginneth to wash Illyricum taking the Name of Ister, after
he hath received 60 Rivers, and almost the one-half of them
navigable, rolleth into Pontus with six vast Streams. The
first Mouth of it is Peuces : soon after, the Island Peuce
itself, from which the next Channel took its name, and is
swallowed up in a great Marsh of 19 Miles. Out of the
same Channel, and above Astropolis, a Lake is produced of
63 Miles' compass ; which they call Halmyris. The second
Mouth is called Naracustoma : the third, Calostoma, near
the Island Sarmatica : the fourth, Pseudostoma, and the
Island Conopon Diabasis. After that, Boreostoma, and
Spireostoma. Each of these is so great, that by Report
the Sea, for 40 Miles' length, is overmatched with the
same, and the fresh Water may so far be tasted. From it,
into the inland Parts, the People are all Scythians : but
various other Nations inhabit close on the Coasts : in some
Places the Getae, called by the Romans Daci : in others the
Sarmatse, by the Greeks Sauromatse ; and among them, the
Hamaxobii or Aorsi. Elsewhere the degenerate Scythians,
who are sprung from Servants, or the Troglodites : presently,
the Alani and Rhoxalani. But the higher Parts between Da-
nubius and the Forest Hercynius, as far as to the Panrionian
wintering Places of Carnuntum, and the Confines there of
the Germans, the Fields and Plains of Jazyge, the Sar-
matians possess. But the Mountains and Forests, the Daci,
who were expelled by them, inhabit, as far as to the River
Parhyssus from Morus ; or this is Duria, dividing them
from the Suevi and the Kingdom of Vanni. The Parts
against these the Bastarnae hold ; and from thence other
Germani. Agrippa hath set down that whole Tract, from

BOOK IV.] History of Nature. 27

the Ister to the Ocean, as amounting to 2000 Miles, and
400 less in Breadth, from the Deserts of Sarmatia to the
River Vistula : the Name of Scythae everywhere continually
runneth into Sarmatae and Germani. Neither hath that old
denomination remained in any others but those, who, as I
have said, live the furthest off of these Nations, almost
unknown to all other Men. But the Towns next to the
Ister are Cremniscos and ^Epolium : the Mountains Ma-
crocrennii : the noble River Tyra, giving Name to the Town,
whereas before time it was called Ophiusa. Within the same
is a spacious Island, inhabited by the Tyragetae. It is from
Pseudostomum, a Mouth of the Ister, 130 Miles. Soon
after are the Axiacae, named after the River : beyond whom
are the Crobyzi : the River Rhode : the Bay Sagaricus, and
the Port Ordesus. And, 120 Miles from Tyra, is the River
Borysthenes, and a Lake and Nation of that Name :
and a Town 15 Miles within from the Sea, called by the
ancient Names Olbropolis and Miletopolis. Again, on the
Shore, the Harbour of the Achaeans : the Island of Achilles,
famous for the Tomb of that Man. And from it 135 Miles,
is a Peninsula, lying out across in the Form of a Sword,
and called Dromos Achilleos, upon occasion of his Exercise
there : the Length of which Agrippa hath declared to be 80
Miles. All that Tract, the Taurisci, Scythae, and Sarmatae
inhabit. Then the woody Region gave the name to the Sea
Hylaeum, by which it is encircled. The Inhabitants are called
Enaecadloae. Beyond is the River Panticapes, which divideth
the Nomades and Georgi : and soon after, Acesinus. Some
say that Panticape, with Borysthenes, run together beneath
Olbia ; but the more exact name Hypanis : so much they
erred who have described it in a part of Asia. The Sea
retires with a very great Ebb, until it is distant from Moeotis
with an interval of five Miles, compassing a vast Space, and
many Nations. There is a Bay called Corcinites, and a
River Pacyris. Towns, Naubarum and Carcine. Behind
is the Lake Buges, let out into the Sea by a foss. And
(Buges) itself is disjoined from Coretus, a Bay of the Lake
Moeotis, by a rocky Back. It receiveth the Rivers Buges,

28 History of Nature. [BooK IV.

Gerrhus, Hypanis, coming from different quarters : for
Gerrhus parteth the Basilides and Nomades. Hypanis
floweth through the Nomades and the Hyleans into Buges,
by a Channel made by Man's Hand, but in his natural
Channel into Coretus. The Region of Scythia is named
Sendica. But in Carcinites, Taurica beginneth : which in
Times past was environed with the Sea, where now there
lie Fields : afterwards it mounteth up with very great Hills.
Thirty People are in it : and of them 24 are within Land.
Six Towns, Orgocyni, Caraseni, Assyrani, Tractari, Archi-
lachitse, and Caliordi. The Crest of the Hill the Scytotauri
hold. They are shut in Westward by Cherronesus ; East-
ward by the Scythian Satarchi. In the Coast from Car-
cinites are these Towns : Taphrae, in the very Straits of the
Peninsula : then, Heraclea, Cherronesus, endowed with
Liberty by the Romans. Formerly it was called Megarice,
and is the most Elegant in all that Tract, as retaining the
Manners of the Greeks ; and it is encompassed with a Wall
of five Miles' extent. Then the Promontory Parthenium.
A City of the Tauri, Placia. The Harbour Symbolon : the
Promontory Criu-Metopon, over against Charambes, a Pro-
montory of Asia, running through the middle of Euxinus
for the space of 170 Miles : which is the cause especially
that maketh the Form abovesaid of a Scythian Bow. Near
to it are many Harbours and Lakes of the Tauri. The
Town Theodosia, distant from Criu-Metopon 122 Miles, and
from Cherronesus 165 Miles. Beyond, there have been
the Towns Cyte, Zephyrium, Acre, Nymphseum, and Dia.
And by far the strongest of them all remaineth still in the
very entrance of Bosphorus, namely, Panticapaeum of the
Milesians, from Theodosia 1035 Miles : but from Cim-
merum, a Town situated beyond the Strait, a Mile and a half,
as we have said. And this is all the Breadth there that
divideth Asia from Europe : and even that is for the most
part passable on Foot, when the Strait is frozen over. The
Breadth of Bosphorus Cimmerius is 12 Miles. It hath the
Towns Hermisium, Myrmecium ; and within it, the Island
Alopece. But through Mceotis, from the furthest part of

BOOK IV.] History of Nature. 29

the Isthmus, which Place is called Tapbrse, to the Mouth of
Bosphorus, it containeth 260 Miles. From Taphrae, the
Continent within is inhabited by the Anchetae, among whom
the Hypanis springeth : and Neuri, where Borysthenes hath
his Head ; also, the Geloni, Thussagetae, Budmi, Basilidae,
and the Agathyrsi, with blue Hair on their Heads. Above
them, the Nomades ; and then the Anthropophagi. From
Buges, above Moeotis, the Sauromates and Essedones dwell.
But along the Borders, as far as Tanais, the Mceotae, from
whom the Lake was so called ; and the last behind them,
the Arimaspi. Within a little are the Riphaean Mountains,
and a Country called Pterophoros, for the resemblance of
Wings (Feathers1) occasioned by the continual fall of
Snow : a Part of the World condemned by the nature of
Things, and immersed in thick Darkness, having no shelter-
ing Places but the work of Cold, the produce of the freezing
North Wind. Behind those Mountains, and beyond the
North Pole, there is a happy Nation (if we may believe it)
whom they call Hyperborei2, who live exceeding long, and

1 " A race of men there are, as fame has told,
Who shivering suffer Hyperborean cold,
Till nine times bathing in Minerva's lake
Soft feathers, to defend their naked sides, they take."

DBTDEN'S Ovid. Metam. lib. xv.

Herodotus, Melpo. 31, says: " In respect to the feathers wherewith
the Scythians affirm the air to be filled, my opinion is this : above that
country snow falls continually ; now any one that has seen snow falling
thick, and close to himself, must understand what I say. The snow does, in
fact, bear great resemblance to feathers. I think, therefore, that the
Scythians and the surrounding nations compare the snow to feathers. —
LAURENT. — Wern. Club.

2 The ancients denominated those people and places Hyperborean
which were to the northward of the Scythians. They had, indeed, but
very little acquaintance with these regions ; and all they tell us of them
is very precarious, while much of it is false. Herodotus, as well as Pliny,
doubts whether or not there were any such nations ; while Strabo pro-
fesses to believe that they really existed. See a very amusing account of
these fabulous Hyperboreans in Herodotus, Melpo. 32-36. From whence
much that Pliny says was borrowed. — Wern. Club.

30 History of Nature. [BooK IV.

are celebrated for fabulous Wonders. There are believed to
be the Poles of the World, and the very Ends of the revo-
lution of the Heavens, having for six Months together one
entire Day ; and Night as long, when the Sun is turned from
them : but their Day is not from the Spring Equinox (as
the Ignorant say) to the Autumn : for once in the Year, at
the Solstice, the Sun riseth with them : and once likewise
it setteth in Mid-winter. The Region is open to the Sun,
of a happy Temperature, void of all hurtful impulse of Air.
The Woods are their Habitations, and the Groves where
they worship the Gods Man by Man, and in Companies :
Discord and all Disease are unknown ; and they never die,
but when they are satiated with Life : when the aged Men,
having feasted and anointed their bodies, leap from a certain
Rock into the Sea. This kind of Sepulture is the most happy.
Some Writers have placed them in the first Part of the Sea-
coast in Asia, and not in Europe; because some are there re-
sembling them in manners and situation, named Atocori ;
others have set them in the midst, between both Suns ; that
is, the Setting of it with the Antipodes, and the Rising of it
with us : which cannot possibly be, so vast a Sea lying
between. Those that have placed them nowhere but in the
six Months' daylight, have written of them, that they sow in
the Morning, reap at Noon, at Sunset gather the Fruits from
the Trees, and by Night lie within Caves. Neither may we
make doubt of that Nation, since so many Authors testify,
that they were accustomed to send their first Fruits to
Delos, to Apollo, whom they chiefly worship. They were
Virgins that conveyed these Fruits ; who for certain Years
were venerated and entertained by all Nations, until, upon
breach of Faith, they appointed to bestow those sacred ob-
lations in the next Borders of their Neighbours : and these
again to convey them to those that bordered upon them, and
so on as far as to Delos : and, soon after, this custom wore
out. The Length of Sarmatia, Scythia, and Taurica, and of all
that Tract from the River Borysthenes, is 980 Miles, the
Breadth 717, as M. Agrippa hath delivered it. But I judge

BOOK IV.] History of Nature. 31

that the Measure of this Part of the Earth is uncertain.
But after the appointed Order, the remainder of this Gulf
may be spoken of; and we have already shewn the Seas of it.

CHAPTER XIII.
The Islands of Pontus.

HELLESPONT hath no Islands to be spoken of in Europe.
In Pontus are two, a Mile and a half from Europe, and 14
Miles from the Mouth : Cyaneae, of others called Symple-
gades : and by Report of Fables, they ran one into another :
because they being severed by a small Space, to them that
enter the Sea full upon them they seemed a Pair: but if
the Eye be a little turned aside, they made a Show as if they
met together. On this Side the Ister there is one, pertaining
to the Apolloniates, 80 Miles from Bosphorus Thracius : out
of which M. Lucullus brought Apollo Capitolinus1. What
were within the Mouths of the Ister we have declared al-
ready. Before Borysthenes is the above-named Achillea, and
the same is called Leuce and Macaron. This the modern
demonstration places 140 miles from Borysthenes : from
Tyra, 120 : from the Island Pence, 50. It is in Compass
about ten Miles. The rest are in the Bay Carcinites : Ce-
phalonnesos, Rhosphodusa, and Macra. I cannot pass by
the Opinion of many Writers, before we depart from Pontus,
who have thought that all the inland Seas arise from that
head, and not from the Straits of Gades ; and they lay for
their argument, not without some probability, because out
of Pontus the Tide always floweth, and never returneth.

But now we are to depart thence, that other Parts of

1 Apollonia was a colony of the Milesians in Thrace, the greatest
part of whose chief town was situated in a small island in the Euxine,
and contained a temple dedicated to Apollo. The colossal statue of the
god which Lucullus is said to have removed from thence, and placed in
the Capitol at Rome, is described by Pliny (lib. xxxiv. c. 7), as being 30
cubits high, and costing 500 talents. After its removal, it acquired the
name of Apollo Capitolinus. — (Note. HOLLAND'S Translation says 150
talents only.) — Wem. Club.

32 History of Nature. [BooK IV.

Europe may be spoken of; and passing the Riphaean Moun-
tains, we must proceed along the Shore of the Northern
Ocean to the left, until we come to Gades. In which
Tract there are reported to be very many Islands without
Names, of which, by the Report of Tim&us, there is one be-
fore Scythia called Bannomanna, distant from Scythia one
Day's Sailing, into which, in the Time of Spring, Amber is
cast up by the Waves. The other Coasts are of uncertain
Report. The North Ocean from the River Paropamisus,
where it washeth Scythia, Hecatceus nameth Amalchium,
which Word, in the language of that Nation, signifieth
Frozen. Philemon writeth, that the Cimbrians call it Mori-
marusa, that is Mortuum Mare [the Dead Sea], even as far
as to the Promontory Rubeae: then beyond, Cronium.
Xenophon Lampsacenus saith, That in three Days' sailing
from the Scythian Coast there is the Island Baltia, of ex-
ceeding magnitude. The same doth Pythias name Basilia.
There are reported the Isles Oonae, wherein the Inhabitants
live on Birds' Eggs and Oats. Others also, wherein men
are born with the Feet of Horses, and called Hippopodes.
Others of the Panoti1, who, being otherwise naked, have
immensely great Ears that cover their whole Bodies. Then
begins a clearer Report to open from the Nation of the
Ingevoni, the first of the Germans in those Parts. There is
the exceeding great Mountain Sevo, not inferior to the high
Crags of Riphaeus, which maketh a very large Gulf, as far
as to the Cimbrians' Promontory, called Codanus, and it is
full of Islands, of which the most celebrated is Scandinavia,
the Magnitude whereof is not yet discovered. A Part
only thereof, as much as is known, the Nation of Helle-
viones inhabiteth, in 500 Villages: and they call it a second
Worldj and as it is thought Enigia is not less. Some say,
that these Parts, as far as to the River Vistula, are in-
habited by the Sarmati, Veneti, Scyri, and Hirri : also that

1 Some editions read Fanesii, but Panotii seems the more correct ; for
as the Oonae were so called in consequence of their living on eggs, and the
Hippopodes because they had horses' feet, so the Panoti derived their
name from having immensely great ears that covered their whole bodies.

BOOK IV.] History of Nature. 33

the Gulf of the Sea is called Clylipenus : and that in the
Mouth of it is the Island Latris. Also that not far from it,
there is another Bay bounding upon the Cirnbri. The Pro-
montory of the Cimbriaris shooting far into the Seas; maketh
a Peninsula, which is called Cartris. Thence three-and-
twenty Islands are known by the Roman Armies. The
noblest of them are Burchana, called by our countrymen
Fabaria, from the Plenty of Vegetables growing there un-
sown. Likewise Glessaria, so called by the Soldiers from
Amber ; but by the Barbarians, Austrania ; and besides them
Actania. Along this Sea, until you come to the River Scaldis,
the German Nations inhabit : but the Measure of that Tract
can scarcely be declared, such very great Discord there
is among Writers. The Greeks and some of our own Writers
have described the Coast of Germany to be 2500 Miles.
Agrippa again, joining with it Rhaetia and Noricum, saith,
that it is in Length 686 miles, and in Breadth 268. And
of Rhaetia alone, the Breadth is almost greater, at least at
the time that it was subdued, and the People departed out
of Germany : for Germany was discovered many years after,
and is not all, even now. But if it be permitted to guess, there
will not be much wanting in the Coasts, from the opinion
of the Greeks ; nor in the Length as set down by Agrippa.

CHAPTER XIV.
Germania.

OF Germans, there are five Kinds ; the Vindili, a part of
whom are the Burgundiones, Varini, Carini, and Gurtones.
A second kind, the Ingaevones, part of whom are the Cimbri,
Teutoni, and the Nations of the Cauchi. The Istaevones are
the nearest to the Rhine (Rhenus), and part of them are the
Cimbri. Then the Midland Hermiones, among whom are
the Suevi, Hermunduri, Chatti, and Cherusci. The fifth
part are the Peucini, and Basternae, bordering upon the
abovenamed Dacae. Notable Rivers that run into the
Ocean; Guttalus, Vistillus or Vistula, Albis, Visurgis, Ami-
VOL. IT. D

34 History of Nature. [BooK IV.

sius, Rhenus, Mosa. And within, the Hircynium Hill,1 infe-
rior to none in estimation, is stretched forward.

CHAPTER XV.
Islands in the Gallic Ocean.

IN the Rhine itself, for almost an hundred Miles in
Length, is the most noble Island of the Batavi, Cannenu-
fates ; and others of the Frisii, Cauchi, Frisiaboni, Sturii,
and Marsatii, which are spread between Helius and Flevus.
For so are the Mouths called, into which Rhenus, as it gushes,
scatters itself: from the North into Lakes; from the West
into the River Mosa. But in the middle Mouth between
these, he keepeth a small Channel, of his own name.

CHAPTER XVI.
Britannia and Hybernia — England and Ireland.*

OVER against this Tract lieth the Island Britannia, be-
tween the North and West ; renowned in Greek and Roman

1 The Hercynian Hill (jugum) is elsewhere called the Hercynian
Forest (saltus).

Although Pliny had served with the army in Germany, and had
written a history of the war in which he was engaged, yet he makes no
mention, in this work, of any city or region of that country ; a proof
that the celebrity of a place as estimated at Rome, was the measure of its
importance with him. — Wern. Club.

a Different suggestions have been offered in explanation of the word
" Britannia." By some it has been supposed to be derived from the British
word " Brithy" — painted ; from a practice by the inhabitants of staining
their skin of a blue colour with woad, to render themselves formidable to
their enemies. But a name thence derived would only be applied by
strangers, who would not have selected a word foreign to their own lan-
guage to express the custom. It is more likely, therefore, to have been
derived from a foreign source ; and it is Bochart's opinion that it was
first applied by the Phrenicians, in whose language the word " Baratanac"
signifies the land of tin : the chief produce which tempted these adven-
turous merchants to visit this country, and make settlements in its most
western extremity, at a very remote period. The word became after-
wards translated into the Greek name " Cassiterides," which was applied by

BOOK IV.] History of Nature. 35

Records. It is opposite to Germania, Gallia, and Hispania,
the greatest Parts by far of Europe, and no small Sea lying be-
tween. Albion was its Name, when all the Islands were called
Britanniae, of which by and by we will speak. This (Island)
is from Gessoriacum, a Coast of the Nation of the Morini,
50 Miles by the nearest Passage. In Circuit, as M. Pytheas
and Isidorus report, it containeth 3825 Miles. And now for
about 30 Years the Roman Armies growing into further
knowledge, yet have not penetrated beyond the neighbour-

the latter people, more particularly to the Scilly Islands and the County
of Cornwall. Albion was more properly the Roman name of the coun-
try ; and was probably derived from its white appearance, as seen on their
approach to it from Gaul. This latter name was retained in official docu-
ments, even under the Saxon dominion, as appears from a charter of
JEthelred in the 10th century; in which he terms himself " Ego JEthel-
redus, totius Albionis, Dei gubernante moderamine, Basileus :" and end-
ing, " Ego JEthelredus Rex Anglorum." — HEARNE'S Leland, vol. ii.

As natives of the British Islands, we cannot but regret that, while the
Author has been so minute in the mention of places lying round the
borders of the Mediterranean Sea, he has passed over with neglect the
regions and towns of Britain and Ireland, as well as those of the north of
Europe. Although his knowledge of these was probably limited, the
omission can scarcely have proceeded from ignorance alone, for Suetonius
informs us, that the Emperor Vespasian, who was the great patron of Pliny,
had subdued twenty cities in Britain, together with the Isle of Wight ; and
we cannot suppose that Pliny remained unacquainted with the names of
any of them. In another place he names Camelodunum, which is be-
lieved to be Doncaster, as a station sufficiently known, from which to
measure the distance to the Island Mona, or Anglesea ; and the city of
the Trinobantes had been previously mentioned by Julius Caesar. His
distribution of the islands lying round Britain is contradictory as well
as obscure ; but he appears to regard all that are situated west of the
ordinary place of passage from the Continent into Britain, (Gessoriacum,
which is probably Boulogne on the one side, and the British port of the
Morini, whether Dover or Folkestone,) as being necessarily situated be-
tween Britain and Ireland. Vectis is admitted to be the Isle of Wight ;
but by some authors the same name is given to an island to which tin
was carried from Cornwall in carts, and from which it was afterwards
exported. From a comparison of ancient authors, Sir Christopher Haw-
kins was persuaded that this could be no other that St. Michael's Mount,
in Cornwall ; and the argument urged against this supposition, built on
the tradition that it once stood within the land, and was surrounded by

36 History of Nature. [BoOK IV.

hood of the Caledonian Forest. Agrippa belie veth that it
is in Length 800 miles, and in Breadth 300 ; and also that
Ireland is as broad, but not so long by 200 Miles. This
Island is seated above it, and but a very short Passage
distant ; 30 Miles from the Nation of Silures. Of the
other Islands there is none, by report, in Compass more than
125 Miles. But there are the Orcades 40, divided from each
other by small spaces : Acmodse 7, and 30 Hsebrides. Also
between Britannia and Hibernia are Mona, Monapia, Ricnea,

a wood, may be answered by believing that these facts refer to very different
ages of the world. The Mictis of Pliny may be this Cornish island ;
his error in the distance having arisen from confounding the place
of export for tin with the islands producing it. To the latter, or Scilly
Islands, it appears the Britons were accustomed to sail in their wicker boats
covered with leather, or coracles ; a mode of navigation perhaps not less
secure than the somewhat similar vessels at present in use among the
Greenlanders. That they were capable of a considerable voyage appears
from the fact, that they have been employed in crossing the channel
from Armorica to Cornwall so late as about the 7th century. It must
have been from misinformation that Pliny assigns the Cassiterides (Chap.
XXII.) to Spain ; but even this great error may be excused, by recol-
lecting that in a preceding age the merchants had succeeded in concealing
the situation of this Cornish group from the inquiry of Julius Caesar,
when he was tempted to invade the seat of pearls and tin; and that
Cadiz was the Continental port, from which this profitable intercourse
with Cornwall and Scilly had from the remotest ages been carried on.
The Islands mentioned by Pliny may be judged the following : —

Orcades . . . Orkneys.

AcmodcB . probably Zetland.

Habredes, Hebrides . Western Islands.

Mona . . . Anglesea.

Monapia, Monaadia, and by others Menavia, Isle of Man.

Ricnea, qu. Ricina f . Birdsey, between Wales and Ireland.

Vectzs . . . Isle of Wight.

Silumnus ... ?

Andros ... ?

Siambis ... ?

Axantos ... ?

Mictis . . .St. Michael's Mount.

Glessaria ) Nordstant, in the German Sea.

Electrides )

Wern. Club.

BOOK IV.] History of Nature. 37

Vectis, Silimnus, and Andros : but beneath Siambis and
Axantos: and on the contrary side, toward the German
Sea, there lie scattered the Glessariae, which the later Greek
Writers have named Electrides, because Amber was pro-
duced there. The farthest of all, which are spoken of, is
Thule ; in which there are no Nights, as we have declared,
at the Solstice, when the Sun passeth through the Sign
Cancer ; and on the other hand no Days in Midwinter ; and
each of these Times they supposed to last Six Months.
Timceus the Historiographer saith, That farther within, at
Six Days' sailing from Britannia, is the Island Mictis, in
which White Lead is produced, and that the Britanni sail
thither in Wicker Vessels, sewed round with Leather. Some
make mention of others, as Scandia, Durnna, and Bergos ;
and the biggest of all, Nerigos; from which Men sail to
Thule. Within one Day's Sail from Thule is the Frozen
Sea, named by some Cronium.

CHAPTER XVII.
Gallia.

ALL Gallia, by one Name called Comata, is divided into
three Kinds of People, and those for the most part divided
one from the other by Rivers : Belgica, from Scaldis to
Sequana : Celtica, from it to Garumna ; and this Part of
Gallia is also named Lugdunensis. From thence to the lying
out of the Mountain Pyrenseus, Aquitania, formerly called
Aremorica. Agrippa hath made this Computation of all
the Gallise lying between Rhenus, Pyrenaeus, the Ocean,
and the Mountains Gehenna and Jura ; whereby he ex-
cludeth Narbonensis Gallia; in Length 420 Miles, and in
Breadth 313. Next to Scaldis, the Toxandri inhabit the
utmost Borders, under many Names. Then the Menapii,
Morini, and Oromansaci ; joining upon that District which is
called Gessoriacus, the Brinanni, Ambiani, Bellonici, and
Hassi. Within, the Castologi, Atrebates, and the free Nervii.
TheVeromandui, Sueconi, and free Suessiones,free Ulbanectes,
Tungri, Rinuci, Frisiabones, Betasi, free Leuci. TheTreviri,

38 History of Nature. [BooK IV.

free formerly : the Lingeries Confederates : the Remi Confe-
derate : the Mediomatrici, the Sequani, the Raurici, and Hel-
vetii. Colonies, Equestris and Rauriaca. But, of German
Nations in the same Province, that dwell near the Rhenus,
the Nemetes, Tribochi, and Vangiones : then the Ubii, Co-
Ionia Agrippensis, Gugerni, Batavi, and those whom we
spake of in the Islands of the Rhenus.

CHAPTER XVIII.
Lugdunensis Gallia.

LUGDUNENSIS GALLIA containeth the Lexovii, Velocasses,
Galleti, Veneti, Abricatui, Osismii, and the noble River Li-
geris : but a remarkable Peninsula running out into the
Ocean from the Extremity of the Osismii, having in cir-
cuit 625 Miles: with its Neck 125 Miles broad. Beyond
it dwell the Nannetes : within, the Hcedui Confederates,
the Carnuti Confederates, the Boii, Senones, Aulerici,
surnamed Eburovices, and the Cenomannes, arid Meldi,
free. Parrhisii, Trecasses, Andegavi, Viducasses, Vadicasses,
Unelli, Cariosvelites, Diablindi, Rhedones, Turones, Itesui,
and free Secusiani, in whose Country is the Colony Lug-
dun urn.

CHAPTER XIX.
Aquitania.

To Aquitania belong the Ambilatri, Anagnutes, Pictones,
the free Santones (Bituriges), named also Vibisci, Aquitani,
from whom the Province is named, and the Sediboniates.
Then such as were enrolled into a Town from various Parts :
Begerri, Tarbeli, who came under 4 Ensigns; Cocossati,
under 6 Ensigns ; Venami, Onobrisates, Belendi, and the
Forest Pyrenseus. Beneath them, the Monesi ; Osquidates,
Mountaineers ; Sibyllates, Camponi, Bercorates, Bipedimui,
Sassumini, Vellates, Tornates, Consoranni, Ausci, Elusates,
Sottiates, the Field Osquidates, Succasses, Latusates, Basa-
bocates, Vassei, Sennates, Cambolectri, Agesinates joined to

BOOK IV.] History of Nature. 39

the Pictones. Then the free Bituriges, who are also called
Cubi. Next to them, Lemovices, the free Arverni, and Ga-
bales. Again, those that border upon the Province Narbo-
nensis ; the Rutheni, Cadurci, Autobroges, and the Petro-
gori divided from the Tolosani by the River Tarne. Seas
about the Coast: upon the Rhenus the North Ocean : between
the Rhenus and Sequana, the British Ocean : between it and
Pyrenseus, the Gallic Ocean. Islands : many of the Veneti,
which are called also Veneticse : and in the Gulf of Aquitaine,
Uliarus.

CHAPTER XX.

The Hither Hispania.

AT the Promontory of Pyrenseus beginneth Hispania
(Spain) ; narrower not only than Gallia, but also than itself
(as we may say), so vast a Quantity is wrought into it by
the Ocean of the one Coast, and the Iberian Sea on the
other. The Mountains of Pyrenseus, which from the
East spread all the way to the Southwest, make Hispania
shorter on the North Side than the South. The nearest
Border of this hither Province is the same as the Tract
of Tarracon, from Pyrenseus along the Ocean, to the
Forest of the Vascones. In the Country of the Varduli :
the Towns Olarso, Morosgi, Menosca, Vesperies, the Port
Amanum, where now is Flaviobriga, a Colony of nine Cities.
The Region of the Cantabri, the River Sada, the Port of
Victoria, inhabited by the Juliobrigenses. From that Place
the Fountains of Iberus, 40 Miles. The Port Biendium, the
Origeni, intermingled with the Cantabri. Their Harbours,
Vesei and Veca : the Country of the Astures, the Town
Noega, in the Peninsula Pesicus. And then the Conventus
Lucensis, from the River Navilubio, the Cibarci, Egovarri,
surnamed Namarini, ladoni, Arrotrebse, the Promontory
Celticum. Rivers, Florius and Nelo. Celtici, surnamed
Neriae : and above the Tamirici, in whose Peninsula are
three Altars called Sestianse, dedicated to Augustus ; Crepori,
the Town Noela. The Celtici, surnamed Prsesamarci, Cileni.
Of Islands worth the naming, Corticata and Aunios. From

40 History of Nature. [BooK IV.

the Cileni, the Conventus of the Bracae, Heleni, Gravii, the
Castle Tyde, all descended from the Greeks. The Islands
Cicae, the distinguished Town Abobrica ; the River Minius
with a broad Mouth, four Miles over; the Leuni, Seurbi,
Augusta, a Town of the Bracse : and above them, Gallaecia;
the River Limia. The River Durius, one of the greatest in
Hispania, springing in the Pelendones' Country, and running
by Numantia : and so on, through the Arevaci and Vaccsei,
dividing the Vettones from Asturia, and the Gallseci from
Lusitania : and there also it keepeth off the Turduli from the
Bracari. All this Region abovesaid from Pyrenaeus is full
of Mines, of Gold, Silver, Iron, Lead, both black and white
(Tin).

CHAPTER XXI.

Lusitania.

FROM the (River) Durius beginneth Lusitania, wherein
are Turduli the old, Pesuri, the River Vacca. The Town
Talabrica, the Town and River Minium. Towns, Conim-
brica, Olisippo, Eburo, Britium. From whence runneth out
into the Sea with a mighty Horn the Promontory, which
some have called Artabrum ; others, the Great ; and many,
Olissoponense, from the Town, making a Division of Land,
Sea, and Sky. By it is the Side of Hispania determined,
and from the Compass of it beginneth the Front.

CHAPTER XXII.
Islands in the Ocean.

ON the one hand, is the North and the Gallic Ocean :
on the other, the West and the Atlantic Ocean. The
shooting forth of the Promontory some have reported to
be 60 Miles, others 90. From thence to Pyrenaeus not a
few say it is 1250 Miles ; and that there is a Nation of the
Atabri, which never was, with a manifest Error. For they
have set the Arrotrebae, whom we have placed before the
Celtic Promontory, in this place, by exchanging some Let-
ters. They have erred also in certain famous Rivers. From

BOOK IV.] History of Nature. 41

Minius abovenamed (as Varro saith) ^minius is 200 Miles
distant (which some take to be elsewhere, and call it Limaea),
named by the ancients Oblivionis ; of which goeth many
a Fable. From Durius to Tagus is 200 Miles, and Munda
cometh between. Tagus is much renowned for Sand that
yieldeth Gold : 160 Miles from it the Promontory Sacrum
(Sacred) runneth out from about the middle Front of His-
pania : and Varro saith it is 14 Miles from it to the midst of
Pyrenaeus. But from Ana, by which we have separated
Lusitania from Baetica, 226 Miles : adding thereto from
Gades 102 Miles. Nations : Celtici, Varduli, and about the
Tagus, the Vettones. From Ana to Sacrum, the Lusitani.
Memorable Towns : from Tagus in the Coast Side, Olisippo,
noble for the Mares that conceive there by the Favonius
Wind. Salacia, denominated Urbs Imperatoria, and Mero-
brica : the Promontory Sacrum, and another called Caeneus.1
Towns : Ossonoba, Balsa, and Myrtius. The whole Province
is divided into three Conventions : Emeritensis, Pacensis,
and Scalabitanus. Itcontaineth in all five-and-forty People:
wherein are five Colonies, one Municipium of Roman Citi-
zens ; three of Old Latium. Stipendiaries, six-and-thirty.
Colonies, Augusta Emerita : and upon the River Ana,
Metallinensis ; Pacensis, Norbensis, which is named also
Caesariana. To it are laid Castra Julia and Castra Caecilia.
The fifth is Scalabis, called Praesidium Julium. The Muni-
cipium of Roman Citizens Olyssippo, named also Felicitas
Julia. Towns of the Old Latium, Ebora, which likewise was
called Liberalitas Julia : Myrtilis also, and Salatia, which we
have spoken of. Of Stipendiaries, which I am not loth to
name, beside the abovesaid, in the additions of Baetica,
Augustobrigenses, Ammienses, Aranditarii, Axabricenses,
Balsenses, Caesarobricenses, Caperenses, Caurenses, Colarni,
Cibilitani, Concordienses, the same as Bonori ; Interau-
senses, Lancienses, Mirobrigenses surnamed Celtici ; Medu-
bricenses, the same as Plumbarii ; Ocelenses, who also are
Lancienses; Turtuli, named Barduli, and Tapori. M.Agrippa

1 Cceneus is read in some editions, and Cuneus in others.

42 History of Nature. [BooK IV.

hath written, that Lusitania, with Asturia and Gallsecia, is in
Length 540 Miles, and in Breadth 526. But all the His-
panise (Spains), from the two Promontories of Pyrenaeus along
the Seas, are supposed to take up in Circuit of the whole
Coast 2900 Miles, and by others, 2700. Over against Celti-
beria are very many Islands, called by the Greeks Cassiterides,
from the plenty of Lead -,1 and from the region of the Pro-
montory of the Arrotrebae, six named Deorum (i. e. of the
Gods) which some have called Fortunatae. But in the very
Cape of Bsetica, from the Mouth of the Strait 75 Miles,
lieth the Island Gades, 12 Miles long, as Polybim writeth,
and 3 Miles broad. It is distant from the Continent, where
it is nearest, less than 700 Paces,2 in other Parts above 7
Miles. Its space containeth 15 Miles. It hath a Town of
Roman Citizens, which is named Augusta, Urbs Julia
Gaditana. On that side that looks toward Spain, within
about 100 Paces, is another Island, 3 Miles long, and a
Mile broad, wherein formerly was the Town of Gades. The
Name of this Island, according to Ephorus and Philistides, is
Erythia : but according to Timceus and Silenus, Aphrodisias :
by the Native Inhabitants, of Juno. The bigger, 'Timaus
saith, was by them called Cotinusa ; our Countrymen name
it Tartessos, the Pceni Gadir,3 which in the Punic Lan-
guage signifieth4 the number of seven.5 Erythia was
called, because the Tyri were reported to have had their
first beginning out of the (Red) Sea, Erythraeum. Some think
that Geryon here dwelt, whose Herds Hercules took away.
There are again some who think that it is another, over

See p. 36, c. xvi.

Less than three-quarters of a mile.

Or Gadiz.

Septem, or, as some read, Septum (i. e. a park or enclosure).

From the Hebrew root signifying to make a fence, the Phoenicians
called any enclosed space Gaddir, and particularly gave this name to their
settlement on the south-western coast of Spain, which the Greeks from
them called Gaderia, the Romans Gades, and we Cadiz. See Bochart,
vol. i. 628-734. This name is very appropriately given to the island
mentioned by Pliny ; but why it should be derived from a Punic word
signifying seven is not so apparent. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IV.] History of Nature. 43

against Lusitania, and there sometime called by the same
Name.

CHAPTER XXIII.
The Measure of all Europe.

HAVING finished the circuit of Europe, we must now
yield the total Sum, that such as are desirous of Knowledge
be not deficient in any thing. Artemidorus and Isldorus have
set down the Length of it from Tanais to Gades 84,014
Miles. Polybius hath put down the Breadth of Europe, from
Italy to the Ocean 1150 Miles, for then the largeness of it
was not known. But the Breadth of Italy itself (as we have
shewn) is 1220 Miles to the Alps : from whence by Lug-
dunum to the Port of the Morini in Britain, from which
Polybius seemeth to take his Measure, is 1168 Miles. But
the more certain Measure, and the longer, is directed from
the said Alps to the extreme West and the Mouth of the
Rhenus, through the Camps of the Legions of Germania,
1243 Miles. Now will we proceed to describe Africa and
Asia.

IN THE FIFTH BOOK

ARE CONTAINED

REGIONS, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, PORTS, HILLS, RIVERS, WITH

THEIR MEASURES, AND PEOPLE, EITHER AT THIS DAY

EXISTING, OR IN TIMES PAST, VIZ.: —

CHAP.

1. Mauritania.

2. The Province Tingitana.

3. Numidia.

4. Africa.

5. Gyrene.

6. Lybia Maraeotis.

7. Islands lying about Africa, and

over against Africa.

8. The Ethiopians.

9. Asia.

10. Alexandria.

11. Arabia.

12. Syria, Palsestina, Phoenice.

13. Idumsea, Syria, Palaestina, Sa-

maria.

14. Judaea, Galilea.

15. The River Jordan.

16. The Lake Asphaltites.

17. The Essenes (people).

18. The Country Decapolis.

19. Tyrus and Sidon.

20. The Mount Libanus.

CHAP.

21. Syria Antiochena.

22. The Mountain Casius.

23. Coele- Syria.

24. The River Euphrates.

25. The Region Palmyra.

26. Hierapolis (the Country).

27. Cilicia and the Nations adjoin-

ing : Pamphylia, Isauria,
Homonades, Pisidia, Lyca-
onia, the Mountain Taurus,
and Lycia.

28. The River Indus.

29. Laodicea, Apamia, Ionia, and

Ephesus.

30. JEolis, Troas, Pergamus.

31. Islands about Asia, the Pam-

phylian Sea, Rhodes, Samus,
and Chius.

32. Hellespont, Mysia, Phrygia,

Galatia, Nicea, Bithynia,
Bosphorus.

Herein you find Towns and Nations, principal Rivers, famous Moun-
tains, Islands, 117. Towns also that are perished. Affairs, Histories and
Observations.

LATIN AUTHOKS ABSTRACTED:

Agrippa, Suetonius Paulinus, Varro Atacinus, Cornelius Nepos, Hyginus,
L. Vetus, Mela, Domitius Corlulo, Licinius Mutianus, Claudius Ccesar,
Aruntius, Livius the Son, Sebosus, the Records of the Triumphs.

FOREIGN WRITERS:

King Juba, Hecatam, Hellanicus, Damastes, Diccearchus, Bion, Timo-
sihenes, Philonides, Xenagoras, Asty nonius, Staphylus, Aristotle, Dionysius,
Aristocritus, Ephorus, Eratosthenes, Hipparcnus, Pancetius, Serapion An-
tiochenus, Callimachus, Agathocles, Polybius, Timaus the Mathematician,
Herodotus, Myrsilus, Alexander Polyhistor, Metrodorus, Posidonius who
wrote Periplus or Periegesis, Sotades, Periander, Aristarchus Sicyonius,
Eudoxus, Antigenes, Callicrates, Xenophon Lampsacenus, Diodorus Syra-
cusanus, Hanno, Himilco, Nymphodorus, Calliphon, Artemidorus, Mega-
sthenes, Isidorus, Cleobulus, Aristocreon.

THE FIFTH BOOK

OF THE

HISTORY OF NATURE

WRITTEN BY

C. PLINIUS SECUNDUS.

The Description of Africa.

FRICA the Greeks have called Lybia; from
which the Lybian Sea before it beginneth, and
endeth in the Egyptian. No part of the Earth
receiveth fewer Gulfs in that long compass of
oblique Coasts from the West. The Names
of its People and Towns are exceedingly hard

to be Pronounced, unless by their own Tongues : and again,

they for the most part dwell in Castles.

CHAPTER I.
Mauritania.

AT the beginning, the Lands of Mauritania, until the
time of C. Ccesar (i. e. Caligula), son of Germanicus, were
called Kingdoms : but by his Cruelty it was divided into two
Provinces. The utmost Promontory of the Ocean is named
by the Greeks Ampelusia. The Towns were Lissa and Cotes

46 History of Nature. [BooK V.

beyond the Pillars of Hercules. Now there is Tingi, formerly
built by Antceus ; and afterwards by Claudius Ccesar, when he
made it a Colony, by whom it was called Traducta Julia. It
is from Belone, a Town in Baetica, by the nearest Passage, 30
Miles. Five-and-Twenty Miles from it, in the Coast of the
Ocean, is a Colony of Augustus, now Julia Constantia, exempt
from the Jurisdiction of the Kings of Zilis : and commanded
to seek for Law to Baetica. And 32 Miles from it is Lixos,
made a Colony by Claudius Caesar, of which in old Time there
were related many Fabulous Tales. There stood the Royal
Palace of Antceus ; there was the combat with Hercules ; there
also were the Gardens of the Hesperides. Now there floweth
into it out of the Sea a Creek by a winding Channel, in
which Men now interpret that there were Dragons serving
as Guards. It encloseth an Island within itself, which (not-
withstanding the Tract near it is somewhat higher) is alone
not overflowed by the Tides of the Sea. In it there standeth
an Altar of Hercules ; and except wild Olives, nothing is to
be seen of that Grove, reported to bear Golden Apples.
And indeed less may they wonder at the enormous lies of
Greece invented concerning these, and the River Lixus ;
who will think how of late our Countrymen have delivered
some Fables scarcely less monstrous, regarding the same
things : as, that this is a very strong City, bigger than great
Carthage : moreover, that it is situated over against it, and
almost at an immense way from Tingi : and other such,
which Cornelius Nepos hath been very eager to believe.
From Lixus 40 Miles, in the Midland Parts, standeth Babba,
another Colony of Augustus, called Julia Campestris : also
a third 75 Miles off, called Banasa, but now Valentia.
35 Miles from it is the Town Volubile, just in the midway
between both Seas. But in the Coast, 50 Miles from Lixus,
there runneth Subur, a copious and navigable River, near to
the Colony Banasa. As many Miles from it is the Town
Sala, standing upon a River of the same Name, near now to
the Wilderness, much infested with Herds of Elephants, but
much more with the Nation of the Autololes, through
which lieth the Way to Atlas, the most fabulous Mountain of

BooKV.] History of Nature. 47

Africa. For Writers have given out that, rising out of the
very midst of the Sands, it rnounteth to the Sky, rough and
ill-favoured on that side which lieth toward the Shore of the
Ocean, unto which it gave the Denomination : and the same
is shadowy, full of Woods, and watered with Sources of
spouting Springs, on the way which looketh to Africa, with
Fruits of all sorts, springing of their own accord, one under
another, in such a manner, that at no time is Fulness of Plea-
sure wanting. Moreover, that none of the Inhabitants are
seen by day : all is silent, like the Awe of Solitude : a secret
Devotion creepeth into the Hearts of those who approach
near to it; and besides this Awe they are lifted above the
Clouds, even close to the Circle of the Moon : that the same
(Mountain) shineth by Night with frequent Fires, and is
filled with the Lasciviousness of j£gi panes and Satyrs ; that it
resoundeth with the Melody of Flutes and Pipes ; and
ringeth with the Sound of Drums and Cymbals. These are
the Reports of famous Writers, besides the Labours of
Hercules and Perseus there. The Way unto it is exceedingly
long, and not certainly known. There were also Com-
mentaries of Hanno, the General of the Carthaginians, who
in the time of the most flourishing state of Carthage had a
charge to explore the Circuit of Africa. Him, most of the
Greeks as well as our Countrymen following, among some
other fabulous Stories, have written that he also built many
Cities there : but neither any Memorial, nor Token of them
remain. When Scipio jSZmylianus carried on War in Africa,
Polybius, the Writer of the Annals, received from him a Fleet ;
and having sailed about for the purpose of searching into that
part of the World, he reported, That from the said Mountain
West, toward the Forests full of Wild Beasts, which Africa
breedeth, to the River Anatis, are 485 Miles ; and from
thence to Lixus, 205. Agrippa saith, That Lixus is distant
from the Straits of Gades 112 Miles. Then, that there is a
Bay called Saguti; also a Town upon the Promontory,
Mutelacha. Rivers, Subur and Sala. That the Port
Rutubis is from Lixus 313 Miles. Then the Promontory
of the Sun. The Port Risardir : the Gaetulians, Autololes,

48 History of Nature. [BOOK V.

the River Cosenus, the Nation of the Scelatiti and Massati.
The Rivers Masatal and Darat, wherein Crocodiles are pro-
duced. Then a Bay of 516 Miles, enclosed within the Promon-
tory of the Mountain Barce, running out into the West, which
is called Surrentium . After it, the River Palsus, beyond which
are the ^Ethiopian Perorsi, and at their back are the Pharusi.
Upon whom join the inland People, the Geetuli Darae. But
upon the Coast are the ^Ethiopian Daratitee ; the River
Bambotus full of Crocodiles and Hippopotami. From which,
he saith, there is a Continuation of Mountains as far as to
that which we call Theon-Ochema (the Gods' Chariot).
Then, in sailing nine Days and Nights to the Promontory
Hesperium, he hath placed the Mountain Atlas in the mid-
way ; which by all other Writers is set down to be in the
utmost Borders of Mauritania. The Romans first warred in
Mauritania, in the time of Claudius the Prince : when
JEdcemon, the Freedman of King Ptolemceus, who was
slain by C. Ccesar, endeavoured to avenge his Death. For
as the Barbarians fled backward, the Romans came to the
Mountain Atlas. And not only to such Generals as had
been Consuls, and to such as were of the Senate, who at that
time managed affairs, but to Knights also, who from that
time had command there, was it a glory to have pene-
trated to the Atlas. *Five Roman Colonies, as we have
said, are in that Province, and by common fame it may seem
to be accessible. But this is found for the most part by
Experience very fallacious : because Persons of high Rank,
when it is irksome to search out the Truth, find it not irk-
some through the shame of Ignorance, to give out Untruths :
and never are Men more credulous to be deceived than when
some grave Author fathereth the lie. And indeed I less
wonder, that things are not known, when they of the Eques-
trian Order, and those now also of the Senatorial Rank,
admire nothing but Luxury: which very powerful and pre-
vailing Force is seen when Forests are searched for Ivory and
Citron-trees : and all the Rocks in Getulia for Murices and

* It seemeth that this clause is to be set in the beginning of the next
chapter.

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 49

Purpurae. Nevertheless the natural Inhabitants report, That
in the Sea-coast 150 Miles from Sala there is the River
Asana, that receiveth Salt Water into it, but with a goodly
Harbour : and not far from it a River, which they call Fut :
from which to Dyris (for that is the Name in their Language
of Atlas) are 200 Miles, with a River coming between,
named Vior. And there, by report, are to be seen the cer-
tain tokens of a Soil formerly inhabited ; the vestiges of
Vineyards and Date-tree Groves. Suetonius Paulinus (a
Consul in our time), who was the first Roman Leader that
passed over Atlas for the space of some Miles, also hath re-
ported regarding the height thereof: and moreover, that the
foot of it toward the bottom is full of thick and tall Woods,
with Trees of an unknown kind, but the height of them is
delightful to see, smooth and beautiful, the branches like
Cypress ; and, besides the strong smell, are covered over
with a thin Down, of which (with some help of Art) fine
Cloth may be made, such as the Silk-worm yieldeth : that
the top of it is covered with deep Snow, even in Summer,
and that he reached up to it on the tenth day, and beyond to
the River called Niger, through solitudes of black Dust,
with sometimes conspicuous ragged Rocks, appearing as if
burnt : places by reason of the Heat not habitable, although
tried in the Winter Season. Those who dwelt in the next
Forests were pestered with Elephants, wild Beasts, and
Serpents of all sorts ; and those People were called Canarii ;
because they and Animals feed together, and part among
them the Bowels of wild Beasts. For it is sufficiently
known that a Nation of ^Ethiopians, whom they call Peroresi,
joineth to them. Juba, the Father of Ptolemceus, who for-
merly ruled over both Mauritania, a Man more memorable
for his illustrious Studies than for his Kingdom, hath written
the like concerning Atlas ; and (he saith) moreover, that
there is an Herb growing there called Euphorbia, from his
Physician's name that first found it: the Milky Juice of
which he praiseth exceedingly much for clearing the Eyes
and against Serpents and all Poisons, in a dedicated Book by
itself. Thus much may suffice, if not too much, about Atlas.

VOL. II. E

50 History of Nature. [BooK V.

y CHAPTER II.

The Province Tingitania.

THE Length of the Province Tingitania is 170 Miles. The
Nations therein are these : The Mauri, which in times past
was the principal, and of whom the Province took its Name :
and those most Writers have called Marusii. Being by War
weakened, they wasted to a few Families. Next to them
were the Masssesuli, hut in like manner they were extin-
guished. Now are the Nations inhabited by the Getulae,
Bannurri, and the Autololes, the most powerful of all : a
part of whom were once the Vesuni : but being divided from
them, they became a Nation by themselves, and were turned
to the ./Ethiopians. This Province being full of Mountains
eastward, affordeth Elephants. In the Mountain Abila,
also, and in those which for their equal height they call
the Seven Brethren : these are joined to Abila, which looketh
over the arm of the Sea. From these beginneth the Coast of
the Inward Sea. The River Tamuda navigable, and for-
merly a Town. The River Laud, which also is able to
receive Vessels. The Town Rusardir, and the Harbour.
The navigable River Malvana. The Town Siga, over
against Malacha, situated in Hispania : the royal Seat of
Syphax, and now the other Mauritania. For a long time they
kept the names of the Kings, so that the furthest was called
Bogadiana: and likewise Bocchi, which now is Caesariensis.
Next to it is the Harbour for its space called Magnus, with a
Town of Roman Citizens. The River Muluca, which is the
limit of Bocchi and the Massaesuli. Quiza Xeriitana, a Town
of Strangers : Arsennaria, a Town of Latins, 3 Miles from the
Sea : Carcenna, a Colony of Augustus, the Second Legion :
Likewise another Colony of his, planted with the Pretorian
Cohort : Gunugi : and the Promontory of Apollo. And a
most famous Town there, Caesarea, usually in old time called
lol, the royal Seat of King Juba : endowed by Divus Clau-
dius with the Right of a Colony, by whose Appointment the
old Soldiers were there bestowed. A new Town, Tipasa,

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 51

with the Liberties of Latium. Likewise Icosium, endowed
by Vespasian the Emperor with the same Gift. The Colony
of Augustus, Rusconiae: and Ruscurum, by Claudius honoured
as a City : Rusoezus, a Colony of Augustus. Salde, a Colony
of the same. Igelgili also, and Turca, a Town seated upon
the Sea and the River Ampsaga. Within Land, the Colony
Augusta, the same as Succubar ; and likewise Tubrisuptus.
Cities, Timici, Tigavse. Rivers, Sardabala and Nabar. The
Nation, Macurebi : the River Usar and the Nation of the
Nabades. The River Ampsaga is from Caesarea 233
Miles. The Length of either Mauritania is 839 Miles, the
Breadth, 467.

CHAPTER III.
Numidia.

NEXT to Ampsaga is Numidia, renowned for the Name of
Masanissa: called by the Greeks, the Land Metagonitis.
The Numidian Nomades (so named from changing their Pas-
ture), who carry their Huts, that is, their Houses, about with
them upon Waggons. Their Towns are Cullu and Rusicade ;
from which 48 Miles off, within the midland Parts is the
Colony Cirta, surnamed of the Sittiani ; another also within
Cicca, and a free Town named Bulla Regia. But in the Coast,
Tacatua, Hippo Regius, and the River Armua. The Town
Trabacha, of Roman Citizens : the River Tusca, which
boundeth Numidia : and besides the Numidian Marble, and
abundance of wild Beasts, nothing is there worth the
noting.

CHAPTER IV.
Africa.

FROM Tusca forward is the Region Zeugitana, and the
Country properly called Africa. Three Promontories : the
White ; then that of Apollo, over against Sardinia: that of Mer-
cury opposite to Sicily ; which, running into the Sea, make
two Bays : the one Hipponensis, next to the Town which
they call Hipponis, named by the Greeks Diarrhyton, on

52 History of Nature. [BooK V.

account of Brooks of Water : upon this bordereth Theudalis,
an exempt Town, but further from the Sea-side ; then the
Promontory of Apollo. And in the other Bay, Utica, of
Roman Citizens, ennobled by the death of Cato : the River
Bagrada. A Place called Castra Cornelia : and the Colony
Carthago, among the Relics of great Carthage: and the
Colony Maxulla. Towns, Carpi, Misna, and the free Clupea,
upon the Promontory of Mercury. Also, free Towns, Cu-
rubis and Neapolis. Soon is another distinction of Africa
itself. Libyphoenices are they called, who inhabit Byzacium ;
for so is that Region named : containing in Circuit 250 Miles,
exceedingly fertile, where the Ground sown yieldeth to the
Husbandman an hundred-fold Increase. In it are free Towns,
Leptis, Adrumetum, Ruspina, and Thapsus : then, Thense,
Macomades, Tacape, Sabrata, reaching to the Lesser Syrtis :
unto which, the Length of Numidia and Africa from Am-
phaga is 580 Miles : the Breadth, of so much as is known,
200. This Part, which we have called Africa, is divided into
two Provinces, the old and the new ; separated by a Fosse
brought as far as to Thense, within the African Gulf; which
Town is 217 Miles from Carthage. The third Bay is sepa-
rated into two ; horrible Places for the Shallows and ebbing
and flowing of the Sea at the two Syrtes. From Carthage
to the nearer of them, which is the lesser, is 300 Miles, by
the Account of Polybius : who saith, also, that the said Pas-
sage of Syrtis is 100 Miles forward and 300 in Circuit. By
Land also, the Way to it is by observation of the Stars, and
through the Desert over Sands and through Places full of
Serpents ; you pass Forests filled with Numbers of wild
Beasts : and within, Solitudes of Elephants : and soon after,
vast Deserts, even beyond the Garamantes, who, from the
Augilae, are distant twelve Days' Journey. Above them was
the Nation of the Psylli : and above them the Lake of Lyco-
medes environed with Deserts. The Augilee themselves are
seated about the middle Way from Ethiopia ; which bendeth
Westward, and from the Country lying between the two
Syrtes, with an equal Distance on each Side : but the Shore
between the two Syrtes is 250 Miles. There standeth the

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 53

City Oeensis, the River Cinyps, and the Country. Towns,
Neapolis, Taphra, Abrotonum, the other Leptis, called also
the Great. Then the Greater Syrtis, in Compass 625 Miles,
and in direct Passage 313. Then inhabit the Nation of Cisi-
pades. In the inmost Gulf was the Coast of the Lotophagi,
whom some have called Alachroas, as far as to the Altars of
the Philaeni, and they are formed of Sand. Next to them, not
far from the Continent, the vast Marsh admitteth into it the
River Triton, and taketh its Name from it : but CaUimachus
calleth it Pallantias, and saith it is on this Side the lesser
Syrtes ; but many place it between both Syrtes. The Pro-
montory that encloseth the greater is named Borion. Beyond
is the Province Cyrenaica. From the River Ampsaga to this
Bound, Africa containeth 26 separate People, who are subject
to the Roman Empire : among which are six Colonies, be-
sides the above-named, Uthina and Tuburbis. Towns of
Roman Citizens, 15 ; of which those in the midland Parts to
be named are Azuritanum, Abutucense, Aboriense, Cano-
picum, Chilmanense, Simittuense, Thunusidens£, Tuburni-
cense, Tynidrumense, Tribigense, two Ucitana, the greater
and less; and Vagiense. One Latin Town, Usalitanum.
One stipendiary Town near Castra Cornelia. Free Towns,
30, of which are to be named, within, Acrolitanum, Achari-
tanum, Avinense, Abziritanum, Canopitanum, Melzitanum,
Madaurense, Salaphitanum, Tusdritanum, Tiricense, Tiphi-
cense, Tunicense, Theudense, Tagestense (Tigense), Ulusi-
britanum, another Vagense, Vigense, and Zamense. The
rest it may be right to call not only Cities, but also for the
most Part, Nations ; as the Natabudes, Capsitani, Misulani,
Sabarbares, Massili, Misives, Vamacures, Ethini, Massini,
Marchubii: and all Gsetulia to the River Nigris, which
parteth Africa and Ethiopia.

CHAPTER V.
CyrenS.

THE Region Cyrenaica, called also Pentapolitana, is
illustrious for the Oracle of Hammon, which is from Cyrenae

54 History of Nature. [BOOK V.

400 Miles, from the Fountain of the Sun ; and principally
for five Cities, Berenice, Arsinoe, Ptolemais, Apollonia, and
Gyrene itself. Berenice standeth upon the outermost Horn
of Syrtis, called formerly the City of the above-named Hes-
perides, according to the wandering Tales of Greece. And
before the Town, not far off, is the River Lethon, the sacred
Grove where the Gardens of the Hesperides are reported to
be. From Leptis it is 385 Miles. From it is Arsinoe, usually
named Teuchira, 43 Miles : and from thence 22 Miles,
Ptolemais, called in old time Barce. And then 250 Miles
off, the Promontory Phycus runneth out through the Cretic
Sea, distant from Tsenarus, a Promontory of Laconia, 350
Miles : but from Greta itself 125 Miles. And after it Gyrene,
1 1 Miles from the Sea. From Phycus to Apollonia is 24
Miles: to Cherrhonesus, 88: and so to Catabathnus, 216
Miles. The Inhabitants there bordering are the Marmaridse,
stretching out in Length almost from Parse to mum to the
Greater Syrtis. After them the Ararauceles : and so in the
very Coast of Syrtis, the Nesamones, whom formerly the
Greeks called Mesammones, by reason of the Place, as
seated in the midst between the Sands. The Cyrenaic
Country, for the Space of 15 Miles from the Sea-shore, is
fruitful for Trees : and for the same Compass within the
Land, for Corn only: but then for 30 Miles in Breadth, and
250 in Length, for Laser.1 After the Nasamones live the
Hasbitae and Masse. Beyond them the Hammanientes, 11
Days' Journey from the Greater Syrtis to the West ; and even
they also every Way are compassed about with Sands : but

1 The plant that yielded the Cyrenaic juice called Laser, was the
Silphion of the Greeks, and the Laserpitium of the Romans (Thapsia
Silphion, Viviani), and agrees tolerably well with the rude figures struck
on the Cyrenean coins. It would appear, however, that the Cyrenaic
juice becoming scarce, the ancients employed some other substance of
similar, though inferior properties, as a substitute, and to both of them
they applied the term Laser. Pliny (lib. xix. c. 3) says, " For a long
time past the only Laser brought to us is that which is produced abun-
dantly in Persia, &c., but it is inferior to the Cyrenaic." Now it is not at
all improbable that the Laser of Persia may have been our Asafcedita
(Ferula Asafa>dita, LIN.) — Wern. Club.

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 55

they find without much difficulty Wells almost in the Depth
of two Cubits, where the Waters of Mauritania settle. They
build themselves Houses of Salt, hewn out of their own
Mountains in the manner of Stone. From these to the Tro-
glodites, in the South-west Coast, the Country is four Days'
Journey ; with whom is a Traffic only for a precious Stone,
which we call a Carbuncle, brought out of Ethiopia. There
cometh between, the Country Phazania toward the Solitudes
of Africa, above the said Lesser Syrtis : where we subdued
the Nation of the Phazanii, with the Cities Alele and Cillaba.
Also Cydamum, over against the region of Sabrata. Next to
these is a Mountain, reaching a great way from East to
West, called by our People Ater, as if burnt by Nature, or
scorched by the reflection of the Sun. Beyond that Moun-
tain are the Deserts : also Matelgse, a Town of the Gara-
mantes, and likewise Debris, which casteth forth a Fountain,
the Waters boiling from Noon to Midnight, and for as many
Hours to Mid-day reducing again : also the very illustrious
Town Garama, the head of the Garamantes. All which
Places the Roman Arms have conquered, and over them
Cornelius Balbus triumphed ; the only Man of Foreigners
that was honoured with the (Triumphant) Chariot, and en-
dowed with the Freedom of Roman Citizens ; because being
born at Gades, he and his Uncle, Balbus the Elder, were
made free Denizens of Rome. And this wonder our Writers
have recorded, that besides the Towns above named by him
conquered, himself in his Triumph carried the Names and
Images, not of Cydamus and Garama only, but also of all
the other Nations and Cities ; which went in this Order.
The Town Tabidium, the Nation Niteris ; the Town Neglige-
mela, the Nation Bubeium ; the Town Vel, the Nation Enipi ;
the Town Thuben, the Mountain named Niger; the Towns
Nitibrum and Rapsa ; the Nation Discera, the Town Debris ;
the River Nathabur, the Town Tapsagum, the Nation Nan-
nagi, the Town Boin ; the Town Pege, the River Dasibari.
Presently these Towns lying continuously, Baracum, Buluba,
Alasi, Balsa, Galla, Maxala, and Zinnia. The Mountain
Gyri, wherein Titus hath reported "that precious Stones

56 History of Nature. [BOOK V.

were produced.1 Hitherto the Way to the Garamantes was
intricate, by reason of the Robbers of that Nation, who used
to dig Pits in the Way (which to them that know the Places
is no hard matter to do) and then cover them with Sand.
But in the last War which the Romans maintained against the
Oeenses, under the conduct of Vespasian the Emperor, there
was found a short Way of four Days' Journey : and this Way
is called Prceter caput Saxi [beside the Rock's Head]. The
Frontier of Cyrenaica is called Catabathmos ; which is a Town
and a Valley with a sudden Descent. To this Bound, from
the Lesser Syrtis, Cyrenaica Africa lieth in Length 1060
Miles, and in Breadth, for so much as is known, 800.

CHAPTER VI.
Libya Mareotis.

THE Country following is named Mareotis Libya, bounded
by Egypt; inhabited by the Marmaridse, Adyrmachidge, and
then the Mareotse. The Measure from Catabathmos to Pa-
retonium is 86 Miles. In that Tract there lieth in the way
the Village Apis, a place noble for the Religion of Egypt.
From it to Parsetonium, 12 Miles. From thence to Alexan-
dria, 200 Miles : the Breadth is 169 Miles. Eratosthenes
hath delivered, That from Cyrenae to Alexandria by Land the
Journey is 525 Miles. Agrippa saith, that the Length of all
Africa from the Atlantic Sea, with the inferior part of Egypt,
containeth 3040 Miles. Polybius and Eratosthenes, reputed
the most diligent, have set down from the Ocean to great
Carthage 600 Miles : from thence to Canopicum, the nearest
Mouth of Nilus, 1630 Miles. Isidorus reckoneth from Tingi
to Canopus 3599 Miles ; and Artemidorus, 40 less than
Isiodorus.

1 Some editions read Titus prodidit, while others have titulus pracepit.

In the triumph of Vespasian and Titus, so minutely described by
Josephus (" Wars of the Jews," book vii. cap. 5) a title was affixed to
the several images carried in procession, containing the names of the con-
quered nations and towns, with mention of their chief productions.—
Wern. Club.

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 57

CHAPTER VII.
Islands about Africa, and over against Africa.

THESE Seas do not contain very many Islands. The
fairest is Meninx, 35 Miles long and 25 broad, called by
Eratosthenes Lotophagitis. It hath two Towns, Meninx on
the side of Africa, and Thoar on the other : itself is situated
from the right-hand Promontory of the Lesser Syrtis 200
Paces.1 A hundred Miles from it against the left hand is
Cercina, with a free Town of the same Name, in Length 25
Miles, and half as much in Breadth where it is most : but
toward the end not above five Miles. To it there lieth a
little one toward Carthage called Cercinitis, and it joineth
by a Bridge. From these, almost 50 Miles, lieth Lopadusa,
six Miles long. Then, Gaulos and Galata, the Earth of which
killeth the Scorpion, a dangerous Creature of Africa. They
say also that they will die in Clupea, over against which
lieth Cosyra, with a Town. But against the Bay of Car-
thage are the two ^ginori, more truly Rocks than Islands,
lying for the most part between Sicily and Sardinia. Some
write that these were inhabited, but sunk down.

CHAPTER VIII.
The JEthiopes.

BUT within the inner Compass of Africa, toward the
South, and above the Gsetuli, where the Deserts come be-
tween, the first People that inhabit are the Libii jEgyptii,
and then the Leucsethiopes. Above them are the Ethiopian
Nations : the Nigritae, from whom the River was named : the
Gyrnnetes, Pharusi, and those which now reach to the Ocean,
whom we spake of in the border of Mauritania : the Perorsi.
From all these are vast Solitudes eastward, to the Gara-
mantes, Augylse, and Troglodites, according to the truest
opinion of them who place two ^Ethiopias above the Deserts
of Africa : and especially of Homer, who saith, that the
Ethiopians are divided two ways, towards the East and

1 Or 1500 paces, i. e. a mile and a half.

58 History of Nature. [BooK V.

West. The River Niger is of the same nature as Nilus ;
producing the Reed and Papyrus, and the same living Crea-
tures, and swelleth at the same Seasons. It springeth be-
tween the Tareleia jEthiopiae, and the Oecalicae. The Town
Mavin, belonging to this People, some have set upon the
deserts : near them the Atlantae ; the jEgipanae, half beasts ;
the Blemmyae, the Gamphasantae, Satyri, and Himantopodae.
Those Atlantae, if we will believe it, degenerate from Human
Manners : for neither call they one another by any Name :
and they look upon the Sun, rising and setting, with dread-
ful curses, as being pernicious to them and their Fields :
neither Dream they in their Sleep, as other Men. The
Troglodites dig Caverns, and these serve them for Houses :
they feed upon the Flesh of Serpents ; they make a gnash-
ing Noise, not a Voice, so little exchange have they of Speech.
The Garamantes live out of Marriage, and converse with
their Women in common. The Augylae only worship the
Infernal Gods. The Gamphasantes are naked, and know no
Wars, and associate with no Foreigner. The Blemmyae, by
report, have no Heads, but their Mouth and Eyes fixed in
their Breast. The Satyri, besides their Shape, have nothing
of Human Manners. The jEgipauae are shaped as you see
them commonly painted. The Himantopodae are some of
them wry-legged, with which they naturally go creeping.
The Pharusi, formerly Persae, are said to have been the
Companions of Hercules, as he went to the Hesperides.
More of Africa worth the noting does not occur.1

CHAPTER IX.
Of Asia.

UNTO it joineth Asia, which from the Mouth of Canopus
unto the Mouth of Pontus, according to Timosthenes, is 2639
Miles. But from the Coast of Pontus to that of Maeotis,
Eratosthenes saith it is 1545 Miles. The whole, together with
Egypt unto Tanais, according to Artemidorus and Isidorus,
taketh 8800 Miles. Many Seas there are in it, taking their

1 Notes on these alleged varieties of the human form will be found
b. vii. c. 2 ; see also b. vi. c. 30. — Wern. Club.

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 59

Names from the Borderers ; and therefore they shall he
declared together. The next Country to Africa that is
inhabited is Egypt, receding withinward to the South, so
far as to the ^Ethiopians, who are stretched out on its Back.
The Nilus is on the lower part, and is divided on the Right
'and Left; by its encircling it.boundeth it with the Mouth
of Canopus from Africa, and with the Pelusiac from Asia,
with an interval of 170 Miles. For which cause, some have
reckoned Egypt among the Islands, considering that Nilus
doth so divide itself as to make a triangular figure of the
Land. And so, many have called Egypt by the Name of the
Greek letter Delta (A). The Measure of it from the Channel
where it is single, from whence it first parteth into sides, to
the Mouth of Canopus, is 146 Miles ; and to the Pelusiac 256.
The upmost part bounding upon ^Ethiopia, is called Thebais.
It is divided into Townships, with separate Jurisdictions,
which they call Nomi : as Ombites, Phatunites, Apol-
lopolites, Hermonthites, Thinites, Phanturites, Captites,
Tentyrites, Diospalites, Antaeopolites, Aphroditopolites, and
Lycopolites. The Country about Pelusium hath these Nomi :
Pharboetites, Bubastites, Sethroites, and Tanites. But the
remainder, the Arabic, the Hammoniac which extendeth to
the Oracle of Jupiter Hammon, Oxyrinchites, Leontopolites,
Atarrhabites, Cynopolites, Hermopolites, Xoites, Mendesius,
Sebennites, Capastites, Latopolites, Heliopolites, Prosopites,
Panopolites, [Thermopolites, Saithes?] Busirites, Onuphites,
Sorites, Ptenethu, Pthernphu, Naucratites, Nitrites, Gynae-
copolites, Menelaites, in the Country of Alexandria. In like
manner of Libya Mareotis. ' Heracleopolites is in an Island of
Nilus, 50 Miles long, wherein also is the place they call the
Town of Hercules. There are two Arsinoetes; they and
Memphites reach as far as to the Head of Delta. Upon it there
border, out of Africa, the two Ouasitae. There are Writers
that change some of these Names, and substitute other Nomi:
as Heroopolites, and Crocodilopolites. Between Arsinoetes
and Memphites there was a Lake 250 Miles in Circuit ; or,
as Mutianus saith, 450, and 50 Paces deep (i. e. 150 Feet),
made by Hand ; called the Lake Moeridis, from a King who

60 History of Nature. [BOOK V.

made it : 72 Miles from thence is Memphis, the Castle in
old time of the Egyptian Kings. From which to the
Oracle of Hammon is 12 Days' Journey ; and to the Division
of Nilus, which we have called Delta, 15 Miles. The Nilus,
rising from unknown Springs, passeth through Deserts and
burning Countries: and going a vast way in Length, is
known by Fame only, without Arms, without Wars, which
have discovered all other Lands. It hath its beginning, so
far as King Juba was able to search, in a Mountain of the
lower Mauritania, not far from the Ocean, near to a stag-
nant Lake, which they call Nilides. In it are found the
Fishes called Alabetae,1 Coracini, Siluri, and also the Cro-
codile. Upon this argument the Nilus is thought to spring
from hence, for that it is seen dedicated by him at Csesarea,
in Iseum, at this day. Moreover, it is observed, that as the
Snow or Rain fills the Country in Mauritania, so the Nilus
increases. When it is run out of this Lake, it scorneth
to pass through the sandy and unclean Places, and hideth
itself for some Days' Journey. By and by out of another
greater Lake it breaketh forth in the Country of the Mas-
ssesyli, of Mauritania Csesariensis ; and as if it looks about for
the Company of Men, with the same arguments of living
Creatures, again becomes received within the Sands, where
it is hidden a second time for 20 Days' Journey in the
Deserts, as far as to the next ^Ethiopse : and so soon as it
hath again espied a Man, forth it leapeth (as it should seem)
out of that Spring, which they called Nigris. And then
dividing Africa from ^Ethiopia, being acquainted, if not pre-
sently with people, yet with the frequent company of wild and
savage Beasts, and creating the shade of Woods, it cutteth

1 The first named, Alabes or Alabetse, is a species of Lota of Cuvier,
or Burbot : though perhaps not the same with the fish of that name that
inhabits the fresh waters of Europe. The name Coracinus has been
applied to more than, one fish of a sooty colour : but the species referred
to by Pliny is probably the Perca Nilotica of Linnaeus : the Lates Nilo-
ticus of Cuvier. The Silurus of Pliny is perhaps a species of Cuvier's
genus Schilbe, although true Siluri are found in the Nile. The Croco-
dile will be more particularly referred to in another place. — Wern. Club.

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 61

through the midst of the ^Ethiopians : there surnamed
Astapus, which in the Language of those Nations signifieth
a Water flowing out of Darkness. Thus dasheth it upon
such an innumerable Multitude of Islands, and some of them
so very great, that although it bear a swift Stream, yet is it
not able to pass beyond them in less space than five Days.
About the fairest of them, Meroe, the Channel going on the
Left is called Astabores, which is, the Branch of a Water
coming forth from Darkness : but that on. the Right is
Astusapes, which adds the signification of Lying hid. And
it never taketh the Name of Nilus, until its Waters meet
again and accord together. And even so was it formerly
named Siris for many Miles: and by Homer altogether
jEgyptus : by others, Triton : here and there hitting upon
Islands, and stirred with so many Provocations : and at the
last enclosed within Mountains : and in no place is it more a
Torrent, while the Water that it beareth hasteneth to a
Place of the .ZEthiopii called Catadupi, where in the last
Cataract among the opposing Rocks it is supposed not to
run, but to rush down with a mighty Noise. But afterwards
it becometh gentle, as the Stream is broken and the violence
subdued and partly wearied with his long way : and so,
though with many Mouths, it dischargeth itself into the
Egyptian Sea. Nevertheless, on certain Days it swelleth
to a great height : and when it hath travelled through all
Egypt, it overfloweth the Land, to its great Fertility. Dif-
ferent causes of this Increase have been given : but those
which carry the most probability are either the rebounding
of the Water driven back by the Etesian Winds, at that time
blowing against it, and driving the Sea upon the Mouths of
the River : or the Summer Rain in ^Ethiopia, by reason
that the same Etesian Winds bring Clouds thither from
other parts of the World. Timceus the Mathematician
alleged an hidden reason for it, which is, that the Foun-
tain of the Nilus is named Phiala, and the River itself is
hidden within Trenches under the Ground, breathing forth
in a Vapour out of reeking Rocks, where it lieth concealed.
But so soon as the Sun during those Days cometh near, it is

62 History of Nature. [BooK V.

drawn up by the force of Heat, and while it hangeth aloft it
overfloweth : and then, lest it should be devoured, it hideth
again. And this happeneth from the rising of the Dog
through the Sun's entrance into Leo, while the Star standeth
perpendicularly over the Fountain : when in that Tract there
are no Shadows to be seen. Many again were of a different
Opinion : that a River floweth more abundantly when the
Sun is departed toward the North Pole, which happeneth in
Cancer and Leo, and therefore at that time it is not so easily
dried : but when it is returned again toward Capricorn and
the South Pole, it is drunk up, and therefore floweth more
sparily. But if, according to Timceus, it would be thought
possible that the Water should be drawn up, the want of
Shadows during those Days, and in those Places, continueth
still without end. For the River beginneth to increase at
the New Moon, that is after the Solstice, by little and little
gently, so long as the Sun passeth through Cancer, but most
abundantly when he is in Leo. And when he is entered
into Virgo it falleth in the same measure as it rose before.
And it is altogether brought within its banks in Libra, as
Herodotus thinketh, by the hundredth day. While it riseth
it hath been thought unlawful for Kings or Governors to sail
upon it. Its increasings are measured by Marks in certain
Pits. The ordinary Height is sixteen Cubits. The Waters
short of this do not overflow all ; when more than that they
are a hinderance, by reason that they retire more slowly. By
these the Seed Time is consumed, by the Earth being too
Wet ; by the other there is none, because the Ground is
Thirsty. The Province taketh reckoning of both. For
in 12 Cubits it findeth Famine : at 13 it feeleth Hunger ; 14
Cubits comfort their Hearts; 15 bring Safety; and 16
Dainties. The greatest Increase that ever was known until
these Days was 18 Cubits, in the time of Prince Claudius :
and the least, in the Pharsalian War : as if the River by
that Prodigy turned away with horror from the Slaughter of
that great Man.1 When the Waters have stood, they are

1 Pompey the Great, slain by treachery in Egypt. — Wern. Club.

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 63

admitted by opening the Flood-gates. And so soon as any
part of the Land is freed from the Water it is sowed. This
is the only River, of all others, that breatheth out no Air.
The Dominion of Egypt beginneth at Syene,from the Frontier
of Ethiopia, for that is the Name of a Peninsula a hundred
Miles in Compass, wherein are the Cerastae upon the side of
Arabia : and over against it the four Islands Philae, 600
Miles from the Division of Nilus, where it began to be called
Delta, as we have said. This space of Ground hath Arte-
midorus published ; and that within it were 250 Towns.
Juba setteth down 400 Miles. Aristocreon saith, That from
Elephantis to the Sea is 750 Miles. The Island Elephantis
is Inhabited beneath the lowest Cataract three Miles, and
above Syene 16 : and is the utmost Point that the Egyp-
tians sail unto. It is 586 Miles from Alexandria. So far
the Authors above written have erred : there the .^Ethiopian
Ships assemble ; for they are made to fold up together, and
are carried upon Shoulders, so often as they come to those
Cataracts. Egypt, above the other glory of Antiquity,
pretends that in the Reign of King Amasis there were in-
habited in it 20,000 Cities. And even at this Day it is full
of them, though of base account. Nevertheless, that of
Apollo is renowned ; and near to it that of Leucothea, and
Diospolis1 the Great, the same as Thebes, noble for the
Fame of its Hundred Gates. Also, Captos, a great commer-
cial Town very near to Nilus, frequented for Merchandise of
India and Arabia. Near is the Town of Venus, and another
of Jupiter ; and Tentyris, beneath which standeth Abydus,
the royal Seat of Memnon ; and renowned for the Temple of
Osiris, seven Miles and a half distant from the River, toward
Lybia. Then Ptolemais, Panopolis, and another of Venus.
Also in the Lybian Coast, Lycon, where Mountains bound
Thebais. After these, the Towns of Mercury, Alabastron,
Canum, and that of Hercules spoken of before. After these,
Arsinoe, and the abovesaid Memphis, between which and
the Nomos Arsinoetes, in the Lybian Coast, are the Towns
called Pyramids ; the Labyrinth built up out of the Lake

1 .The city of Jupiter.

64 History of Nature. [BooK V.

Moeris without any Timber to it; and the Town Crialon.
One besides, standing within and bounding upon Arabia,
called the Town of the Sun : of great importance.

CHAPTER X.
Alexandria.1

BUT justly worthy of praise is Alexandria, standing upon
the Coast of the Egyptian Sea, built by Alexander the Great
on the Part of Africa, 12 Miles from the Mouth of Canopus,
near to the Lake Mareotis : which Lake was formerly called
Arapotes.2 Dinochares, the Architect, renowned for his
remarkable Ability in many ways, laid out the Plan with
the great Extent of the Circuit of 15 Miles, according to the
Shape of a Macedonian Cloak ; full of Plaits, with the Circuit
waved on to the right Hand and on the left with an angular
Extension; and yet, even then, he assigned one-fifth Part of
this Space for the King's Palace, The Lake Mareotis3 from
the South Side of the City, meeteth with an Arm of the River
Nilus, brought from out of the Mouth of the said River
called Canopicus, for the more commodious Commerce out
of the inland Continent. This Lake containeth within it
sundry Islands, and, according to Claudius Ccesar, it is 30

1 Alexandria is connected with much that is interesting in the estima-
tion of the Christian and philosopher. It was built B.C. 331, and became
the capital of Egypt under the Ptolemies ; at a subsequent period, its
library was the most renowned in the world ; its school rose into high
repute during the second and third centuries ; it long continued a flou-
rishing bishopric of the early Christian Church (having been planted by
St. Mark), and was the scene of many Christian persecutions in common
with the rest of the empire. Of the ancient city little remains, the only
monuments of its extent and grandeur being, as Dr. Robinson relates,
" a few cisterns still in use, the catacombs on the shore, the granite obelisk
of Thothmes III., with its fallen brother, brought hither from Heliopolis,
and usually called ' Cleopatra's Needle ; ' and the column of Dioclesian,
commonly called 'Pompey's Pillar.'" — Wern. Club.

2 Or, Rachobes.

3 ( Various reading.} — " The Lake Mareotis, from the south part of
the city, by an arm of the sea, is sent through the mouth of Canopus for
inland traffic ; it also embraces many islands, and is 30 miles in breadth,
and 150 in circuit, as Claudius Ccesar says." — Wern. Club.

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 65

Miles over. Others say, that it lieth in Length 40 Schceni ;
and as every Schoenus is 30 Stadia, it cometh to be 150
Miles long, and as many broad. There are many Towns of
importance standing upon the Course of the River Nilus,
and those especially which have given Names to the Mouths,
not to all those (for there are 11 of them, besides 4 more,
which they themselves call false Mouths), but to the most
celebrated 7 : as, to that of Canopus, next to Alexandria ;
then Bolbitinum, Sebenniticum, Phatniticum, Mendesicum,
Taniticum, and last, Pelusiacum ; besides, Euros, Pharboetos,
Leontopolis, Athribis, the Town of Isis, Busiris, Cynopolis,
Aphrodites, Sais, Naucratis, whence some name the Mouth
Naucraticum, which others call Heracleoticum, preferring it
before Canopicum, next to which it standeth.

CHAPTER XL
Arabia.

BEYOND the Pelusiac Mouth is Arabia, bordering on the
Red Sea : and that Arabia, so rich and odoriferous, and re-
nowned with the Surname of Happy. This Desert Arabia is
possessed by the Catabanes, Esbonitae, and Scenite Arabians :
barren, except where it toucheth the Confines of Syria, and,
setting aside the Mountain Casius, nothing memorable. This
Region is joined to the Arabians, Canchlei on the East Side,
and to the Cedrsei Southward ; and they both are joined
afterwards with the Nabathsei. Moreover, two Bays there
be, one Bay is called that of Heroopoliticus, and the other,
Elaniticus : in the Red Sea, bordering on Egypt, 150 Miles
distant, between two Towns, Elana and Gaza, which is in our
[Mediterranean] Sea. Agrippa counteth from Pelusium to
Arsinoe, a Town upon the Red Sea, through the Deserts, an
hundred and five-and-twenty Miles. So small a Way lieth
between things of such Difference in Nature.

CHAPTER XII.
Syria, Palcestina, Pkcenict.

NEAR the Coast is Syria, a Region which in Times past
was the chiefest of Lands, and distinguished by many Names.

VOL. II, F

66 History of Nature. [BooK V.

For where it toucheth upon the Arabians, it was called Pales-
tine.,1 Judaea, Coele (Syria) ; and afterward, Phoenice : and
where it passes inward, Damascena. Still further south-
wards, it is named Babylonia. And the same between the
Rivers Euphrates and Tigris is called Mesopotamia, and
when it passeth the Mountain Taurus, it is Sophene : but on
this Side Comagene, and beyond Armenia, is Adiabene,
formerly named Assyria ; and where it meets Cilicia, it is
known by the Name of Antiochia. The whole Length of
Syria between Cilicia and Arabia is 470 Miles : the Breadth
from Seleucia Pieria to Zeugma, a Town seated upon the
Euphrates, is 175 Miles. They that minutely divide it
would have Phoenice to be environed with Syria ; and that
it is the Sea-coast of Syria, a Part of which compriseth
Idumaea and Judaea : then Phoenice, and then Syria. And
that Sea which lieth along that Coast beareth the Name of
the Phoenician Sea. This Nation of the Phoenicians hath
had great Glory for the Invention of Letters, and for the Arts
of the Stars, Navigation, and Skill in War. Beyond Pelu-
sium is Chabriae Castra, the Mountain Casius, the Temple of
Jupiter Casius, the Tomb of Pompeius Magnus; and Ostra-
cine. From Pelusium to the Frontiers of Arabia are 65
Miles.

CHAPTER XIII.
Idum&af Syria, Palcestina, Samaria.

SOON after beginneth Idumaea and Palestina, from the
Rising up of the Lake Sirbon, which some have reported to

1 The following division of Palestine under the Romans will throw
light upon the comments which follow : —

Palestina Prima, Kingdom of Judah (Judaea) and Samaria.
Palestina Secunda, Galilee and Trachonitis.
Palestina Tertia, Peraea and Idumaea Proper.

Wern. Club.

2 Idumaea comprised the country in the southern extremity of Judaea,
and embraced also a part of Arabia, which, from having been left nearly
depopulated during the Babylonian captivity, was seized upon by the
Idumseans, and continued to be called Idumaea in common with Iduma3a

BOOK V,] History of Nature. 67

possess a circuit of 150 Miles. Herodotus saith it lies close
by the Mountain Casius ; but now it is a small Lake. The
Towns are Rhinocolura ; and within the Land, Rapheea : also
Gaza, and within, Anthedon, and the Mountain Angoris.
Samaria, the Region through the Coast ; the free Town
Ascalon, and Azotus : the two Jamnes, whereof one is within
the Land ; and Joppe, in Phoanicia, which, by report, is
more ancient than the Deluge over the Earth.1 It is situated
upon a Hill, with a Rock before it, in which they shew the
Remains of the Chains of Andromeda. There the fabulous
Derccto is worshipped. Then is Apollonia ; the Town of
Strato, called also Caesarea, founded by Kmgfferod: itbeareth
now the Name of Prima Flavia, a Colony derived from Ves-
pasian the Emperor. The Bounds of Paleestina are 180 Miles
from the Confines of Arabia : and there entereth Phoanice.
But within-land are the Towns of Samaria, and Neapolis,
which formerly was named Mainortha [or Maxbota]. Also
Sebaste upon the Mountain, and Gamala, which yet standeth
higher than it.

Proper, to a later period than the date of our author. The bounds of
Palestine, in the time of the Romans, embraced Judaea, Samaria, Galilee,
and Trachonitis ; and Perasa and Idumsea. — Wern. Club.

1 Mandeville, who travelled through these countries about the year
1323, and collected all the information that fell in his way, without discri-
mination, says : " And whoso wil go longe tyme on the See, and come
nerrer to Jerusalem, he schal go fro Cipre, be see, to the Port Jaff. For
that is the nexte Havene to Jerusalem. For fro that Havene is not but
o Day Journeye and an half to Jerusalem. And the Town is called Jaff :
for on of the Sones of Noe, that highte Japhet, founded it ; and now it is
clept Joppe. And zee schulle undrestonde, that it is on of the oldest
Townes of the World : for it was founded before Noes Flode. And zitt
there schewethe in the Roche ther, as the Irene cheynes were festned,
that Andromade, a great Geaunt, was bounden with, and put in Presoun
before Noes Flode : of the whiche Geaunt, is a rib of his Syde, that his 40
Fote longe." In the Ethiopics of Heliodorus, book x., the Ethiopic kings
are said to derive their pedigree from Perseus and Andromeda ; whose
history is by Pliny treated as something more than a fable. But the
mistake of Mandeville, in confounding Andromeda with the monster
that was to have devoured her, is perfectly consistent with other errors
in regard to the Scriptures and classical learning, which occur in his
narrative. — Wcrv. Club.

68 History of Nature. [ BOOK V .

CHAPTER XIV.1
Judaea and Galilcsa.

ABOVE Idumaea and Samaria, Judaea spreadeth out far in
Length and Breadth. That part of it which joineth to Syria,
is called Galilaea : but that which is next to Syria and Egypt
is named Peraea [/. e. beyond Jordan] : full of rough Moun-
tains dispersed here and there : and separated from the other
Parts of Judaea by the River Jordan. The rest of Judaea is
divided into ten Toparchies, which we will speak of in order:
of Hiericho, planted with Date-trees ; Emmaus, well watered
with Fountains; Lydda, Joppica, Accrabatena, Gophnitica,
Thamnitica, Betholen£, Tephene, and Orine, wherein stood
Hierosolyma, by far the most illustrious of the Cities of the
East, and not of Judaea only. In it also is the Toparchy
Herodium, with a famous Town of the same Name.

CHAPTER XV.
The River Jordan*

THE River Jordanis springeth from the Fountain Pane-
ades, which gave the Surname to Caesarea, whereof we will

1 This chapter should properly have been embodied with the pre-
ceding, which treats of Palestine, that name having been applied by the
Greeks to the whole country on account of the number of the Philistines
always within its bounds, both before and after the final conquest of that
people by David and Solomon. " Judaea," in its real signification, implies
the whole of the country inhabited by the Jews, in fact, the whole " Land
of Promise," from Dan to Beersheba in length, and including the region
allotted to the two tribes and a half on the other side Jordan ; the term
was originally synonymous with " the land of Judah," but on the separa-
tion of the ten tribes, the latter term was applied to the territories of
Judah and Benjamin, then formed into a separate kingdom, and hence
" Judaea " also came to be applied to that district in particular. Pliny is
also in error in speaking of Judaea as " spreading out far in length above
Idumaea and Samaria" inasmuch as Samaria occupies the central portion
of Judaea itself, and there is, therefore, an evident contradiction in the
description. — Wern. Club.

2 This river rises at Caesarea Philippi; its length is 100 miles or there-

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 69

speak. It is a pleasant River, and so far as the Situation of
the Country will permit, spacious, offering itself to the
neighbouring Inhabitants ; and reluctantly, as it were, it
passeth to the Lake Asphaltites, cursed by Nature : by which
it is swallowed up ; it loseth its own esteemed Waters, by
their becoming mixed with those of the Pestilential Lake.
And therefore upon the first opportunity of any Valleys, it
poureth itself into a Lake, which many call Genesara, which
is 16 Miles Long and 6 Broad. This is environed with
beautiful Towns : on the East side with Julias and Hippo ;
on the South with Tarichea, by which Name the Lake is by
some called ; and on the West with Tiberias, an healthful
Place on account of the Hot Waters.

CHAPTER XVI.
Asphaltites.

ASPHALTITES1 produceth nothing besides Bitumen ; from
whence the name. No Body of any Creature doth it receive :
Bulls and Camels float upon it. Arid hence ariseth the

abouts, and its embouchure is into the Dead Sea ; its inner banks, to within
a few miles of this place, are covered with willows, oleanders, reeds, &c. &c.
whilst its periodical overflowings have formed a wider channel, denned by
a second or outer bank on either side. — Wem. Club.

1 Asphaltites^ in other words the bituminous lake, from the abund-
ance of asphalt (bitumen) which occurs in it. Dr. Shaw estimated its
length at 72 English miles, and its Breadth 19 miles. Dr. Robinson,
however, estimates its length at only 50, and its average breadth 10 or 12
miles. The constituents of the water of the Dead Sea are as follows :—

Muriate of lime 3-920 grains.

Muriate of magnesia 10-246 "

Muriate of soda 19-360 "

Sulphate of lime 0-054 "

34-580 grains in each 100.

Several analyses have been made by Marat, Gay-Lussac, Gmelin, &c.,
with nearly the same result. The origin of this lake accounts for the
above facts, and the phenomena by which it is surrounded equally evi-
dence its truth — sterility in land, water, and air, are its saddening cha-
racters. It is reputed to be very shallow, which seems to be a mistake.
It also bore the name of the " Sea of the Plain." The history of this
lake is best seen in the Bible.— Wern. Club.

70 History of Nature. [BooK V.

Report that nothing will sink in it. This Lake in Length
exceedeth 100 Miles, in Breadth 25 Miles where broadest,
and 6 where narrowest. On the East, Arabia of the
Nomades confronteth it ; and on the South, Machserus, in
Time past the second Fortress of Judaea, next to Hierosolyma.
On the same side is a Fountain of Hot Waters, useful in
Medicine, named Callirhoe ; a Name that expresseth the
Glory of the Waters.

CHAPTER XVII.
The Race of the Esstni.

ALONG the West Coast retire the Esseni i1 a Nation living-
alone, and beyond all others throughout the World wonder-
ful: without any Women, casting off the whole of Venus :
without Money : keeping company only with Date-trees.
Yet the Country is ever well peopled, because daily numbers
of Strangers resort thither from other Parts : and such as
are weary of Life are by the Waves of Fortune driven thither
to their manner of Living. Thus for thousands of Ages
(beyond belief to say), the Race is eternal in which no one is
Born : so prolific to them is the Repentance of Life of other
Men. Beneath them stood the Town Engadda, for Fertility
(of Soil) and Groves of Date-trees the next City to Hiero-
solyma, now a Place for the Dead. Beyond it is Massada,
a Castle upon a Rock, and not far from Asphaltites. And
thus much concerning Judaea.

1 The Essenes were a Jewish sect, divided into two classes. First, the
practical, who lived in society, and applied themselves to husbandry and
other harmless occupations ; and second, the contemplative, who were also
called therapeutce, or physicians, from their application principally to the
cure of the diseases of the soul ; these last devoted themselves wholly to
meditation, and avoided living in great towns, as unfavourable to a con-
templative life. Both classes were exceedingly abstemious, and highly
exemplary in their moral deportment. Although our Saviour censured
all the other sects of the Jews for their vices, yet He never spoke of the
Essenes ; neither are they mentioned by name in any part of the New
Testament. Pliny's object in the account he has thought fit to give of
them appears to have been to say something that might excite wonder
and ridicule. — Wern. Club,

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 71

CHAPTER XVIII.
Decapolis.

THERE is joined to it on the side of Syria the Region
Decapolis,1 so called from the number of Towns ; in which
all Men observe not the same. Nevertheless most Men
speak of Damascus and Opotos, watered by the River Chry-
sorrhoa, and also of the fruitful Philadelphia arid Raphana,
all lying within Arabia. Moreover, of Scythopolis, so named
from the Scythians there planted : and formerly Mysa, so
named of Father Liber, because his Nurse was buried there.
Gadara, with the River Hieromiax running before it, and
the before-named Hippos Dios. Pella, enriched with
Waters, Galaza and Canatha. The Tetrarchies lie between
and about these Cities ; every one resembling a Region : and
they are reduced into several Kingdoms : Trachonitis, Panias,
wherein standeth Caesarea, with the Fountain abovesaid ;
Abila, Area, Ampeloessa, and Gab&.

CHAPTER XIX.
Tyrus* and Sidon.

WE must return to the Sea-coast of Phcenic£, where a
River runneth called Crocodilon, on which stood a Town
bearing the same Name. Also there are the Memorials of
the Cities, Dorum, Sycaminon, the Promontory Carmelum ;
and a Town on the Mountain so named, but in old Time
called Ecbatana. Near this is Getta and Jebba : the River
Pagida or Belus, mixing on its little Shore the Sands fertile
in Glass. This River floweth out of the stagnant pond Ceu-
devia, from the foot of Carmel. Near it is the City Ptole-

1 Josephus mentions the following cities as contained within this
region :— Pella, Gerasa, Gadara, Hippos Dios, Damascus, Philadelphia,
Otopos, Raphana, and Scythopolis. — Wern. Club.

2 There were two cities of this name ; one on the Syrian coast of the
Continent (vide Bishop Newton), and the other on an adjacent island,
which, in our author, are both spoken of together. Tyre has been called
the daughter of Sidon, because " The merchants of Sidon replenished
it."— (Isaiah, xxiii. 2.)— Wern. Club.

72 History of Nature. [BooK V.

mais, a Colony of Claudius Ccesar, formerly called Ace.
The Town Ecdippa ; the Promontory Album ; Tyrus, in old
Time an Island, lying almost three quarters of a Mile within
the Deep Sea : but now, by the Besieging Works of Alexander,
joined to the firm Land : renowned for having produced
Cities of ancient Name, Leptis, Utica, and that Carthage,
the Rival of the Empire of Rome for the Dominion of the
whole World : yea and Gades, founded beyond the Bounds
of the Earth. But now all the Glory thereof standeth upon
the (Shell-fishes) Chylium and Purpura.1 The Circumference
of it is 19 Miles, comprised within Palaetyrus. The Town
itself taketh up 22 Stadia. Near it are the Towns Lynhydra,
Sarepta, and Ornithon : also Sidon, where Glass is made,
and which is the Parent of Thebes in Boeotia.

CHAPTER XX.
The Mountain Libanus.

BEHIND it beginneth Mount Libanus,2 and for 1500
Stadia it reacheth as far as to Smyrna, where it is named
Coele-Syria. Another Mountain equal to it, and lying oppo-
site to it, is called Antilibanus; with a Valley lying between,
which in old Time was joined (to the other Libanus) by a
Wall. Being past this, there is the Region Decapolis ; and
the above-named Tetrarchies with it, and the whole expanse
of Palestina. But in that Coast still along the Foot of
Libanus, is the River Magoras, and the Colony Berytus,
called also Foelix Julia. The Town Leontos ; the River
Lycos ; Palsebyblos ; the River Adonis ; the Towns Byblos,
Botrys, Gigarta, Trieris, Calamos ; and Tripolis, subject to
the Tyrians, Sidonians, and Aradians. Orthosia and the
River Eleutheros. The Towns Simyra, Marathos ; and over
against Aradus, Antaradus, a Town of seven Stadia ; and an

1 See b. ix. c. 36, &c.

2 Libanus (Lebanon) is a chain of limestone mountains; the cedars
for which they were formerly famed still grow there, though in reduced
numbers, forming a small grove, in a small hollow at the foot of the highest
peak. Anti- Libanus is the more lofty ridge of the two. — Wern. Club.

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 73

Island less than a quarter of a Mile from the Continent.
The Country where the said Mountains end, and in the Plains
lying between, beginneth Mount Bargylis : and thence
Phcenice endeth, and Syria beginneth again. The Towns
Carne, Balanea, Paltos, Gabale, the Promontory wherein is
the Free (City) Laodicea, with Diospolis, Heraclea, Cha-
radrus, Posidium.

CHAPTER XXI.
Syria Antiochena.

THENCEFORWARD is the Promontory of Syria Antiochena ;
within is the Free City itself, Antiochena, surnamed Epi-
daphne ; through the midst runneth the River Orontes.
But in the Promontory is the Free (City) Seleucia, named
also Pieria.

CHAPTER XXII.
The Mountain Casius.

ABOVE (the City) Seleucia, there is another Mountain
named Casius, as well as the other. This is of that Height,
that if a Man be upon the Top of it in the Night, at the
Fourth Watch, he may behold the Sun rising. So that
with a little turning of his Body, he may at one Time see
both Day and Night. The Passage round to the Top is 19
Miles ; but directly up, it is only Four Miles. In the Bor-
ders runneth the River Orontes, which riseth between Li-
banus and Antilibanus, near to Heliopolis. Then, the Town
Rhosos : and behind, the Passages between the Mountains
Rhosii and Taurus, which are called Portse Syriae. In the
Coast, the Town Myriandros, the Mountain Amanus,
where is the Town Bomitae. This separateth Cilicia from
the Syrians.

CHAPTER XXIII.

Cede- Syria.1

Now, to speak of the Midland parts. Ccel& hath Apa-
mia, separated from the Nazerines' Tetrarchy by the River

1 Calo- Syria (or Lower Syria) signifying "Syria in the Hollow."
It may be considered, says Strabo, " either in a proper and restrained

74 History of Nature. [BooK V.

Marsia: Bambyce, otherwise called Hierapolis; but of the
Syrians, Magog. There is worshipped the monstrous Idol
Atargatis,1 called by the Greeks Derceto. Also Chalcis,
surnamed Upon Belus : from which, the Region Chalcidene,
the most fertile of all Syria, taketh its Name. Then the
Region Cyrrhistica, Cirrhus, Gazatse, Gindareni, and Ga-
beni. Two Tetrarchies, called Granucomatse. The Hemi-
seni, Hylatse, the Nation of the Iturse, and those of them

sense, as comprehending only the tract of land between Libanus and Anti-
Libanus ; or in a larger signification, and then it will comprehend all the
country in obedience to the king of Syria, from Seleucia or Arabia and
Egypt-— Wern. Club.

1 The Syrian idol Atargatis is the same as the Astarte or Ashtaroth,
so often mentioned in Holy Scripture ; it is also the Derceto of the
Greeks, who represent her to be the daughter of Venus, or, as some say,
Venus herself. The upper half of this monster had the form of a woman,
while the lower was that of a fish. Atargatis is fabled to have thrown
herself into a lake near Ascalon in Syria, through vexation at the loss of
her chastity, after having given birth to a daughter named Semiramis.
From this circumstance the Syrians abstained from eating the fish of that
lake, deified Atargatis, and built a temple to her memory on the borders
of the lake. Her daughter, Semiramis, was left exposed in a desert ; but
her life was preserved by doves for one whole year, till a shepherd of
N"inus found her and brought her up as his own child. She afterwards
married Menones, the governor of Nineveh, and at length became the
celebrated Queen of Assyria. After her death she was changed into a
dove, and received immortal honours in Assyria. Ovid alludes to both
mother and daughter in the commencement of his 4th Book of the
Metamorphoses.

" But she awhile profoundly seemed to muse,

Perplex'd amid variety to choose ;

And knew not whether she should first relate

The poor Dercetis, and her wondrous fate ;

(The Palestines believe it to a man,

And shew the lake in which her scales began :)

Or, if she rather should the daughter sing,

Who in the hoary verge of life took wing,

Who soar'd from earth, and dwelt in towers on high,

And now a dove, she flits along the sky."

EUSDEN'S Translation.

It may be doubted whether she is not identical with Dagon, the first
goddess of the Phrenicians.— Wern. Club.

HOOK V.] History of Nature. 75

who are named Betarrani, and the Mariammitani. The
Tetrarchy named Mammisea : Paradisus, Pagrse, Pinaritae,
and two Seleucise, besides the abovenamed ; one called Upon
Euphrates, and the other, Upon Belus : the Carditenses.
The rest of Syria hath besides these which shall be spoken
of with the Euphrates, the Arethusi, Berseenses, and Epi-
phanenses. Eastward, the Laodiceni, which are entituled,
Upon Libanus : the Leucadii, and Larisssei : besides 17
Tetrarchies reduced into Kingdoms under Barbaric Names.

CHAPTER XXIV.
Euphrates.1

THIS is the fittest Place to speak of the Euphrates. Its
Source, by the Report of them who have seen it most closely,
is in Caranitis, a Province of Armenia the Greater. These
are Domitius Corbulo, who says, that it riseth in the Moun-
tain Aba; and Licinius Mutianus, who affirmeth, that it
issueth from the Foot of the Mountain which they call
Capotes, 12 Miles higher than Simyra : and that in the
beginning it was called Pyxirates. It runneth first to Der-
xene, and then to Ana also, shutting out the Regions of Ar-
menia from Cappadocia. The Dastusae from Simyra is 75
Miles. From thence it is navigable to Pastona, Fifty Miles :
from it to Melitene in Cappadocia, 74 Miles. To Elegia in
Armenia, Ten Miles: where it receiveth the Rivers, Lycus,
Arsania, and Arsanus. Near Elegia it meeteth the Moun-

1 Euphrates rises in Armenia, near Mount Aba, and after flowing by
Syria, Mesopotamia, and the site of Babylon, empties itself into the Per-
sian Gulf. It overflows its banks at certain seasons, and in consequence
its banks are very fertile.

The Euphrates is universally allowed to take its rise in Armenia
Major ; but in what particular spot, or in what direction it afterwards
shapes its course, is still a matter of the greatest disagreement. Pliny's
account entirely differs from those of Strabo and Mela. The best com-
pendium of the discoveries of modern geographers and travellers on
this subject will be found in the Penny Cyclopaedia articles "Asia" and
" Euphrates." See also Macdonnald Kinneir's large map. — Wern. Glrtb.

76 History of Nature. [BooR V.

tain Taurus : yet stayeth it not, but prevaileth, although it
be in Breadth Twelve Miles. Where it breaketh through
they call it Omiras : and so soon as it hath cut through it is
named Euphrates : full of Rocks and very violent. There
it separateth Arabia on the Left Hand, called the Region of
the Meri, by the Measure of Three Schcenae, and on the
Right, Comagene. Nevertheless, even there where it con-
quereth Taurus, it suffers a Bridge. At Claudiopolis in Cap-
padocia, it taketh its Course westward. And here the
Taurus, although resisted at first, hindereth him of his Course:
and notwithstanding it was overcome and dismembered, it
conquereth in another way, and drives it thus broken into
the South. Thus Nature matcheth these Forces: The one
proceeding whither it chooseth, and the other not suffering
it to run which way it will. From the Cataracts it is Navi-
gable, and Forty Miles from that place standeth Samosata,
the Head of all Comagen£. Arabia aforesaid hath the Towns
Edessa, sometime called Antiochea ; Callirrhoe, taking its
Name from the Fountain ; and Carrse, famous for the
slaughter of Crassus. Here joineth the Prefecture of Meso-
potamia, which taketh its beginning from the Assyrians, in
which stand the Towns Anthemusa and Nicephorium. Pre-
sently the Arabians, called Rhetavi, whose Capital is Sin-
gara. But from Samosatae, on the side of Syria, the River
Marsyas runneth into Euphrates. Gingla limiteth Coma-
gene, and the City of the Meri beginneth it. The Towns
Epiphania and Antiochia have the River running close to
them, and they are called Euphrates. Zeugma likewise,
72 Miles from Samosatse, is ennobled by the Passage over
Euphrates : for it is joined to Apamia, over against it, by a
Bridge, built by Seleucus the Founder of both. The People
that join to Mesopotamia are called Rhoali. But the Towns
of Syria are Europum ; Thapsacum, formerly, now Amphi-
polis; Arabian Scsenitse. Thus it passeth as far as to the
Place Ura, in which turning to the East, it leaveth the
Deserts of Palmyra in Syria, which reach to the City Petra
and the Country of Arabia called the Happy.

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 77

CHAPTER XXV.
Palmyra.1

THE City Palmyra, noble for its situation, the Riches of
its Soil, and its pleasant Streams, encloseth its Fields with a
vast compass of Sand. Arid as if shut out by Nature from
all other Lands, it is by a peculiar lot between two mighty
Empires, the Romans and the Parthians ; wherein Dis-
cord is ever the first object on both Sides. It is distant
from Seleucia of the Parthians, which is called, on the
Tigris, 537 Miles : and from the nearest Coast of Syria, 252 :
and from Damascus, 27 nearer.

CHAPTER XXVI.
Hierapolis.

BENEATH the Solitudes of Palmyra, lieth the Country
Stelendena,2 wherein are the Cities named at this Day
Hierapolis, Beroea, and Chalcis. Beyond Palmyra also,
Heinesa taketh up some part of those Deserts : and likewise
Elutium, nearer to Petra by one-half than is Damascus.
And next to Astura standeth Philiscum, a Town of the Par-
thians, on Euphrates. From which by Water it is a Journey

1 We are at a loss to account for the praise bestowed on the site of
Palmyra, situated as it is on the borders of a vast wilderness ; it can only
be from comparison with the surrounding sterility, and the supply of
water obtained here, which is so rare a blessing in the sandy plains of the
East. The country does not appear to have undergone any change from
the period of the foundation of this ancient city, until now ; Tadmor (its
original name) was built by king Solomon, probably for the purpose of
cutting off all commerce between the Syrians and Mesopotamians, and it
rose into note in consequence. In later times it was also much frequented
by the caravans of Persia and the countries beyond. — Wern. Club.

2 Stelendena does not appear to be mentioned by any other writer than
Pliny. Hierapolis has been just before spoken of under the name of
Bambyce or Magog, as the Syrians call it. It is the Magog of Holy
Scripture (Ezekiel, xxxviii.) concerning the situation of which great
diversity of opinion has been entertained. — Wern. Club.

78 History of Nature. [BooK V.

of Ten Days to Seleucia, and about as many to Babylon.
Euphrates is divided Fourscore and Three Miles from Zeug-
ma, about the Village Massice, and on the Left Side it
passeth into Mesopotamia, through Seleucia, it being poured
into the River Tigris as it runneth by : but on the right
Channel it passeth toward Babylon, formerly the Chief City
of Chaldsea ; and passing through the midst of it, as also of
another which they call Otris, it is drawn off into Marshes.
It riseth at certain Times after the manner of the Nilus,
but with a little difference ; for it overfloweth Mesopotamia
when the Sun is the 20th degree of Cancer, and beginneth
again to diminish when the Sun is past Leo, and is entered
into Virgo: so that in the 29th degree of Virgo, it is reduced
again.

CHAPTER XXVII.

Cilicia, and the Nations adjoining, Isauricce, Homonades,
Pisidia, , Lycaonia, Pamphylia : the Mountain Taurus,
and Lycia.

BUT we will return to the Coasts of Syria, to which
Cilicia is the nearest. The River Diaphanes, the Mountain
Crocodilus, Passages of the Mount Amanus : Rivers, Andri-
con, Pinarus, and Lycus, the Gulf Issicus. The Town Issa,
then the River Chlorns, the Free Town Mge, the River Pyra-
mus, and the Passages of Cilicia. The Towns Mallos and
Magarsos ; and within Tarsos, the Plains, Aleii ; the Towns,
Cassipolis and Mopsum, which is free, and standeth upon the
River Pyramus ; Thynos, Zephyrium, and Anchialae. The
Rivers Saros and Sydnus, which runneth through Tarsus, a
free City, far from the Sea : the Country Celenderitis, with
the Town. The Place called Nyraphaeum, and Soloe Cilicii,
now Pompeiopolis, Adana, Cibira, Pinara, Pedalie, Halix,
Arsinoe, Tabse, and Doron : and near the Sea ye shall find a
Town, an Harbour, and a Cave, all named Corycos. Soon
after, the River Calycadnus. The Promontory Sarpedon,
the Towns Olme and Mylse, the Promontory and Town of
Venus, nearest to which is the Isle of Cyprus. But in the
Mainland are the Towns Myanda, Ariemurium, Corace-

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 79

slum : and the River Melas, the ancient Bound of Cilicia.
Within are to be spoken of, the Anazarbeni, at this Day
named Caesar- Augustani ; Castabla ; Epiphania, formerly
Eniandos; Eleusa, and Iconium. Seleucia upon the River
Calicadmus, surnamed also Trachiotis, removed backward
from the Sea, where it was called Hormia. Furthermore,
within the Country, the Rivers Liparis, Bombos, and Para-
disus. The Mountain Jubarus. All Authors have joined
Pamphylia to Cilicia, and never regarded the Nation Isau-
rica. The Towns within it are, Isaura, Clibanus, Lalassis ;
and it shooteth down to the Sea-side of the Country Anemu-
rium abovesaid. In like sort, as many as have set forth
Descriptions of these Matters, had no Knowledge of the
neighbouring Nation, the Homonades, which have a Town
within their Country called Homona. Other Fortresses, to
the number of 44, lie hidden among the rugged Valleys.
The Pisidae, formerly called Solymis, are placed on the top ;
a Colony of which is Csesarea, the same as Antiochia. The
Towns are Oroanda and Sagalessos. This Nation is enclosed
within Lycaonia, lying within the Jurisdiction of Asia : with
which are joined the Philomelienses, Tymbrians, Leucolithi,
Pelteni, and Hyrienses. There is given a Tetrarchy out of
Lycaonia, on that side that bordereth upon Galatia: to
which belong 14 Cities, whereof the most celebrated is Ico-
nium. In Lycaonia itself, those of celebrity are Tembasa
upon Taurus, Sinda in the Confines of Galatia and Cappa-
docia. But on the Side thereof above Pamphylia, the Myliae,
descended in old Time from Thrace, whose Town is Aricanda.
Pamphylia was in ancient Time called Mopsopia. The Pam-
phylian Sea joineth to the Cilician. Its Towns are Sid£, As-
pendus on the Mountain, Platanistus, and Perga. Also the
Promontory Leucolla, the Mountain Sardemisus, the River
Eurymedon running near Aspendum. Cataractes, near which
stand Lyrnessus and Olbia ; and the furthest of that Coast,
Phaselis. Joined to it is the Lycian Sea, and the Nation of
the Lycians, where is a great Gulf. The Mountain Taurus,
coming from the Eastern Shores, fixeth the limit by the
Promontory Chelidonium. This (Taurus) is a mighty Moun-

80 History of Nature. [BooK V.

tain, and is an overlooker to a very great Number of Nations.
So soon as it is risen from the Indian Sea, it parteth : and the
right Hand passeth Northward, the left Southward, bending
toward the West : dividing Asia through the midst : and
(but that it meeteth the Seas) ready to oppress the whole
Earth. It retireth, therefore, toward the North, fetching a
great Circuit, and so making way, as if the Industry of
Nature continually opposed the Seas against it; on one side
the Phoenician Sea, on another the Sea of Pontus ; here the
Caspian and Hyrcanian Seas, and full against him the Lake
Mceotis. And notwithstanding these Bars, within which it
is pent and entwined, yet at last Conqueror ; it winds away
and passeth on until it encounters its kindred Riphaean
Mountains : and wherever it goeth, it is distinguished by a
Number of new Names. For in the Beginning of its Course
it is called Imaus : a little forward Emodus, Paropamisus,
Circius, Camibades, Parphariades, Choatras, Oreges, Oro-
andes, Niphates, Taurus ; and where it is predominant, Cau-
casus ; where it stretcheth forth its Arms, as if now and then
endeavouring toward the Seas, it taketh the Name Sarpedon,
Coracesius, and Cragus ; and then again Taurus, even where
it gapeth, and opening itself to the People. And yet it
claimeth its Unity still, and (these Passages are called) by
the Names of Gates ; as in one Place Armenise, in another
Caspise, and again Cilicise. And besides being broken into
Parcels, and escaped far from the Sea, it taketh here and
there many Names of Nations ; as, on the right Hand Hyr-
canus and Caspius ; on the left, Pariedrus, Moschicus,
Amazonicus, Coraxicus, and Scythicus. And throughout all
Greece, Ceraunius.

To return to Lycia, beyond its Promontory, is the Town
Simena, the Mountain Chimsera, emitting Flames by Night;
the City Hephsestium, where the Hills likewise oftentimes
are known to burn. Formerly the City Olympus stood there ;
but now the Mountain Towns, Gage, Corydalla, and Rhodio-
polis. Near the Sea, Lymira with a River, into which
Arycandus runneth : also the Mountain Massy rites, the
Cities Andriarca and Myra. These Towns, Apyre and Anti-

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 8 1

phellos, which formerly was called Habessus, and in a cor-
ner, Phellus. Then Pyrrha, and also Xanthus, J5 Miles
from the Sea, and a River of the same Name. Soon after
Patara, formerly named Sataros ; and Sydinia on a Hill ;
the Promontory Ciagus. Beyond which is a Gulf equal to
the former. There is Pinara ; and Telmessus, that boundeth
Lycia. In ancient Time Lycia possessed threescore Towns,
but now 36; of which the most celebrated, besides the above-
named, are Canae, Candyba, where the Wood Oenium is
praised ; Podalia, Choma upon the River Adesa, Cyane,
Ascandalis, Amelas, Noscopium, Tlos, and Telanorus. It
containeth in the midland Parts Chabalia, with three Towns
thereto belonging : Oenonda, Balbura, and Bubon.

Beyond Telmessus is the Asiatic Sea, otherwise called
Carpathium, and the Country which is properly called Asia.
Agrippa hath divided it into two Parts, of which the one by
his Description boundeth Phrygia and Lycaonia, eastward :
but on the West Side it is limited by the JEgean Sea.
Southward it boundeth upon Egypt: and in the North upon
Paphlagonia. The Length thereof by his Computation is
470 Miles, the Breadth 300. The other he hath limited
Eastward from Armenia the Less: Westward by Phrygia,
Lycaonia, and Pamphylia; on the North by the Province of
Pontus ; and on the South by the Pamphylian Sea : it con-
taineth 575 Miles in Length, and 325 in Breadth. The next
Coast bordering upon it is Caria : and near it, Ionia;
beyond that, .ZEolis. For Caria encloseth Doris in the midst,
environing it round on every Side to the Sea. In it is the
Promontory Pedalium, and the River Glaucus, charged
with (the River) Telmessus. The Towns, Daedala and Crya,
peopled with Fugitives ; the River Axon, and the Town
Calydua.

CHAPTER XXVIII.
The River Indus.

THE River Indus, rising in the craggy Mountains of the
Cybiratae, receiveth threescore regularly running Rivers, but
of Torrents above an hundred. The Free Town Caunos, and

VOL. II. G

82 History of 'Nature. [BooK V.

a little off, Pyrnos. The Port Cressa, from which the Island
Rhodus is distant 20 Miles. The Place Loryma ; the Towns
Tysanusa, Taridion, Larymna; the Bay Thymnias, and the
Promontory Aphrodisias ; the Town Hyda, the Bay Schoenus.
The Country Bubassus ; where stood the Town Acanthus,
otherwise called Dulopolis. On the Promontory is the Free
(Town) Gnidos, Triopia, then Pegusa, called likewise Stadia.
Beyond which Doris beginneth. But first it is convenient to
have pointed out the midland Jurisdictions and the Parts
which lie behind : one is named Cibiratica. The Town itself
is in Phrygia, and to it are joined 25 Cities.

CHAPTER XXIX.
Laodicea, Apamia, Ionia, Ephesus.

THE most celebrated City is Laodicea.1 It is seated on
the River Lycus, Asopus and Caper washing its Sides. This
City was first called Diospolis, and afterwards Rhoas. The
other Nations belonging to that Jurisdiction worth the Nam-
ing are the Hydrelitae, Themisones, and Hierapolitse. Another
Jurisdiction taketh its Name from Synnada : and to it repair
the Licaones, Appiani, Eucarpeni, Dorylaei, Midsei, Julienses,
and fifteen other ignoble People. A third (Jurisdiction)
goeth to Apamia, which in old Time was called Celsense, and
afterwards Ciboton. It is situated at the Foot of the Moun-

1 Laodicea, so named in honour of Laodice, wife of Antiochus II., by
whom the city was enlarged. From all accounts it appears to have been
built on a volcanic hill, and boasted, in its prosperity, many public build-
ings of note, of which the remains of an aqueduct and amphitheatre are
still to be seen.

Ephesus was the capital of Proconsular Asia, and was situated in Ionia
(now Natolia), about five miles from the .ZEgean Sea, on the sides and
at the foot of a range of mountains overlooking a fine plain watered and
fertilised by the river Cayster. The city was celebrated for the Temple
of Diana, a most magnificent edifice, erected at the common expense
of the inhabitants of Asia Proper, and described by Pliny, b. xxxvi. c. 14,
but of which the site is now unknown. Ephesus was finally overthrown
in tbe fourteenth century, after continued struggles. There are numerous
traces of its magnificence still extant, though the neighbouring country
bears all the marks of desolation and decay. — Wern. Club.

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 83

tain Signia, environed with the Rivers Marsyas, Obrima,
and Orga, which fall into the Maeander. The River Marsyas,
which a little from his Spring is hidden under Ground,
where Marsyas contended with Apollo in playing on the
flute, sheweth itself again in Aulocrense, for so is the Valley
called, ten Miles from Apamia, as Men travel to Phrygia.
Under this Jurisdiction we should do well to Name the
Metropolitan Dionysopolitae, Euphorbeni, Acmoneses, Pel-
teni, and Silbiani. There are besides 60 ignoble Towns.
Within the Bay of Doris, Leucopolis, Amaxitos, Elaeus, and
Euthene. Then Towns of Caria, Pitaium, Eutaniae, and
Halicarnassus. To this (City) were annexed by Alexander
the Great, six Towns: Theangela, Sibde, Medmossa, Eura-
nium, Pedasium, and Telmessum. It is inhabited be-
tween the two Gulfs, Ceramicus and Jasius. From thence
Myndus, and where formerly stood Palaemyndus, Neapolis,
Nariandus, Carianda, the Free City Termera, Bergyla, and
the Town Jasus, which gave Name to the Gulf Jasius. But
Caria is most renowned for the Places of Name within it,
for therein are these Cities : Mylasa Free, and Antiochia,
where sometime were the Towns Seminethos and Cranaos :
and it is now environed about with the Maeander and Mos-
sinus. In the same Tract also stood Maeandropolis. There
is Eumenia close by the River Cludrus ; the River Glaucus ;
the Town Lysias and Orthasia. The Tract of Berecinthus,
Nysa, Trallis, which also is named Euanthia, and Seleucia,
and Antiochia. It is washed by the River Eudone, and
Thebanis passeth through it. Some report that the Pigmaei1

1 The Pygmaei were a fabulous nation inhabiting Thrace and other
regions, who brought forth young at five years of age, and were old at
eight. Homer has celebrated their memorable defeats by cranes. — Iliad,
3d Book.

" When inclement winters vex the plain

With piercing frosts, or thick descending rain,
To warmer seas the cranes embodied fly,
With noise, and order, through the mid- way sky :
To pigmy nations wounds and death they bring,
And all the war descends upon the wing." — Pope.

Pliny has described these tiny creatures in Lib. vi. c. 22 and 35, and

84 History of Nature. [BooK V.

formerly there dwelt. Besides, there are Thydonos, Pyrrha,
Eurome, Heraclea, Amyzon, and the Free Alabanda, from
which that Jurisdiction took its Name. The Free Stratonicea,
Hynidos, Ceramus, Trcezene, and Phorontis. There are
Nations farther remote that resort to that Court: the
Othronienses, Halydienses or Hyppini, Xystiani, Hydis-
senses, Apolloniates, Trapezopolitse, and the Free Aphro-
disienses. Besides these, there are Cossinus and Harpasa,
close by the River Harpasus, which also ran under Trallicon,
when such a Town existed. Lydia is watered by the wind-
ings of the River Mseander: and it reacheth above Ionia:
being near upon Phrygia in the East, upon Mysia in the
North, and in the South side enclosing Caria; and was for-
merly named Mceonia. It is celebrated chiefly for Sardis,
seated upon the side of the Mountain Trnolus, formerly
called Timolus, planted with Vineyards ; and from it flows
Pactolus, called likewise Chrysorrhoa : as also the Fountain
Tames. This City was commonly by the Mceonise called
Hyde, and was famous for the Lake of Gyges. That Juris-
diction is at this Day called Sardiana. Thither resort besides
the abovenamed, the Macedonian Caduenes, the Loreni,

again in lib. vii. c. 2. See also Aristotle's Hist. Anim. lib. viii., and
Mela, lib. iii. There can be no question but that the ancient fictions of
pygmies, satyrs, cynocephali, cynoprosopi, &c., and other supposed tribes
of human monsters, originated in vague accounts of different species of
simiae, though the Bushmen of South Africa are supposed also to have
been referred to as a nation of pigmies. The earliest unquestionable
reference to any of the true apes is found in the Periplus of Hanno, circ.
500 B.C.

" For three days," says the Carthaginian admiral, " we passed along a
burning coast, and at length reached a bay called the Southern Horn.
In the bottom of this bay we found an island similar to that already men-
tioned ; this island contained a lake, that in its turn contained another
island, which was inhabited by wild men. The greater number of those
we saw were females ; they were covered with hair, and our interpreters
called them Gorilloi. We were unable to secure any of the men, as they
fled to the mountains, and defended themselves with stones. As to the
women, we caught three of them, but they so bit and scratched us that
we found it impossible to bring them along; we therefore killed and
flayed them, and carried their hides to Carthage." — Wern, Club.

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 85

Philadelpheni, and those Moeonians inhabiting on the
River Cogamus, at the Foot of Tmolus ; and the Tripoli-
tani, who, together with the Antoniopolitae, are washed by
the River Maeander ; also, the Apollonos-Hieritae, Myso-
tmolites, and others of mean Reputation.

Ionia beginneth at the Bay of Jasius, and all its Coast is
full of Indentations. The first Bay in it is Basilicus ; the
Promontory Posideum, and the Town called the Oracle of
the Branchidae, but at this Day, of Apollo Didymaeus, 20
Stadia from the Sea-side. And beyond this 180 Stadia,
standeth Milletus, the Head (City) of Ionia, named in Time
past Lelegeis ; Pitylisa, also named Anactoria. From which,
as from a Mother, are descended more than eighty others,
built along the Sea-coast. Neither is this City to be de-
frauded of the Citizen Cadmus, who taught first to declaim
in Prose. The River Maeander issueth out of a Lake in the
Mountain Aulocrene ; and passing by many Towns, and
filled with Abundance of Rivers, it fetcheth such windings
to and fro, that oftentimes it is thought to run backward
again. The first Country it passeth through is Apamia : and
presently Eumenitica, and so through the Plains Bargyl-
letici. Last of all, it cometh gently into Caria, and watering
all that Land with a very fruitful Mud, about ten Stadia
from Miletus it glideth into the Sea. Near (to that River) is
the Mountain Latmus : the Town Heraclea, surnamed
Caryca, from a Hill of that Name; also Myus, which,
as the Report goeth, was first founded by the lones after
their proceeding from Athens ; Naulochum, and Pyrene.
Upon the Sea-coast the (Town) called Trogilia ; the River
Gessus. This Region is sacred to all the lonians, and there-
fore it is named Panionia. Near it was Phygela, built for
Fugitives, as appeareth by the Name : and the Town Mara-
thesium : and above it Magnesia, designated with the sur-
name On-Mseander, sprung from the Thessalian Magnesia.
From Ephesus it is distant 15 Miles ; and from Tralleis it is
three Miles farther. Formerly it was called Thessaloce and
Androlitia : and being situated upon the Shore, it took away
with it from the Sea other Islands called Dera*ides. Within-

86 History of Nature. [BooK V.

land Thyatira (in old Time called Pelopia and Euhippa) is
washed by the Lycus. But upon the Sea-coast is Manteium ;
and Ephesus, a Work of the Amazons. But many Names
it had gone through before ; for in the Time of the Trojan
War it was called Alopes : soon after, Ortygia and Morges :
and it took the Name of Smyrna, with addition of Trachsea
(i. e. Rough), Samornium, and Ptelea. It is mounted on
the Hill Pione, and is washed by the Caystrus, which spring-
eth out of the Cilbian Hills, and bringeth down with it
many other Rivers, and the Lake Pegaseum, which dis-
chargeth itself by the River Phyrites. From these Rivers
proceedeth a large quantity of Mud, which increaseth the
Land : so that it hath thrown good way within the Land the
Island Syrie. There is a Fountain within the City called
Callipia : and two (Rivers) Selinuces, coming from different
Countries, encircle the Temple of Diana. From Ephesus
you come to another Manteium, inhabited by the Colo-
phonii : and within, the Country Colophon itself, with the
(River) Halesus flowing by it. Then the Sacred Place
(Fane) of Apollo Clarius, and Lebedos. And there formerly
was the Town Notium. The Promontory Coryceon : the
Mountain Mimas, which reacheth out 250 Miles, and
endeth at length in the Plains within the Continent. This
is the place where Alexander the Great commanded the
Plain to be cut through for seven Miles and a half in Length,
to join the two Gulfs, and to bring Erythrae and Mimas
together, to be environed around therewith. Near this Ery-
thrae were the Towns, Pteleon, Helos, andiiDorion: now,
there is the River Aleon, and Corineum : upon the Mount
Mimas, Clazomene, Partheniae; and Hippi, called Chyto-
phoria, when they were Islands : the same Alexander united
them to the Continent for the Space of two Stadia. There
have perished within, Daphnus, Hermesia, and Sipylum,
called formerly Tantalis, the chief City of Moeonia, where
now is the Lake Sale. And for that cause Archaeopolis
succeeded to Sipylus, and after it Colpe, and to it Lebade.
Returning thence twelve Miles off is Smyrna, on the Coast,
built by an Amazon, but restored by Alexander the Great ;

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 87

made pleasant by the River Meles, which hath its Source
not far off. The most celebrated Mountains in Asia, for the
most part, spread themselves at large in this Tract, as Mas-
tusia, on the Back of Smyrna ; and Termetis that meeteth
close to the Foot of Olympus. This (Olympus) endeth in
Draco, and Draco in Tmolus ; Tmolus at Cadmus ; and Cad-
mus in Taurus. Beyond Smyrna are Plains, formed by the
River Hermus, and therefore adopting its Name. This
(River) hath its Beginning near Doryleus, a City of Phrygia,
and collecteth into it many Rivers ; among which is Phryg£,
which giveth Name to the whole Nation and divideth Phry-
gia and Caria asunder. Moreover, Lyllus and Crios, which
are well filled by the other Rivers of Phrygia, Mysia, and
Lydia. In the Mouth of this River stood the Town Temnos :
now in the further portion of the Gulf are the Rocks Myr-
meces. Also the Town Leuce upon the Promontory, which
was an Island : and Phocaea, which boundeth Ionia. A large
part of ^Eolia, of which we will speak by and by, repaireth
commonly to the Convention of Smyrna : and likewise the
Macedonians, surnamed Hyrcani ; and the Magnetes from
Sipylum. But to Ephesus, which is another Light of Asia,
resort those that dwell farther off : the Caesarienses, Metro-
politse, Cylbiani, the Myso-Macedones, as well the Higher
as the Lower, the Mastaurenses, Brullitae, Hypprepeni, and
Dios-Hieritae.

CHAPTER XXX.

JEolis, TroaSj and Pergamus.

uEoms, in old Time called Mysia,1 is nearest (to Ionia :)
and so is Troas, which boundeth upon the Hellespontus.

1 The people of Mysia, according to Cicero, " were despicable and base
to a proverb." Their country was bounded on the west by Troas, in
which region was situated the city of that name, of which numerous
vestiges remain, attesting its former splendour. "Indeed," says Mr.
Fellowes, who visited the spot in 1838, " for many miles round the soil is
rendered useless for agriculture, by the multitude of broken marbles,
stones, and arches, which lie under the surface in every direction."

Pergamus was the ancient capital of Mysia, and, as its ruins also attest,
was a magnificent city.— Wern. Club.

88 History of Nature. [BooK V.

Being past Phocaea, there is the Port Ascanius : and then
the Place where Larissa stood : and now Cyme, and Myrina,
which calleth itself Sebastopolis. Within the Land, ^Egae,
Attalia, Posidea, Neon-tichos, and Temnos. Upon the Coast,
the River Titanus, and a City taking its Name from it. There
was also Grynia, now only a Port of the Ground ; the Island
being taken into it. The Town Elsea, and the River Caicus
corning out of Mysia. The Town Pytane, the River Canaius.
There are perished, Cause, Lysimachia, Atarnea, Carenae,
Cisthene, Cilia, Cocillum, Thebae, Astyre, Chrysa, Palce-
stepsis, Gergithos, and Neandros. At this Day, there is the
City Perperene, the Tract Heracleotes ; the Town Coryphas,
the River Chryliosolius, the Country called Aphrodisias,
which formerly was Politiceorgas, the Country Scepsis;
the River Evenus, upon the Bank of which have perished
Lyrmessos and Miletos. In this Tract is the Mountain Ida.
And in the Sea-Coast Adramytteos, formerly called Pedasus,
where the Bay and Convention are named Adramytteos.
Rivers, Astron, Cormalos, Eryannos, Alabastros, and Hieros
out of Ida. Within, Mount Gargara, and a Town of the
same Name. And then again on the Sea-side, Antandros,
formerly called Edonis : then, Cymeris, and Assos, which
also is Apollonia. Also there was a Town called Palaine-
dium. The Promontory Lecton, dividing .ZEolus and Troas.
There also was the City Polymedia, and Cryssa, with another
Larissa. The Temple Smintheum remaineth still. Within,
the Town Colone is destroyed, and the Business removed
to Adramytteum. The Apolloniatae, from the River Rhyn-
dicus : the Eresii, Miletopolites, Poemaneni, Macedones,
Aschilacae, Polychnaei, Pionitae, Cilices, and Mandagandeni.
In Mysia, the Abrettini, and those called Hellespontii ; be-
sides others of base account. The first place in Troas is
Amaxitus : then, Cebrenia, and Troas itself, named Anti-
gonia, now Alexandria, a Roman Colony. The Town Nee :
the navigable River Scamander; and on the Promontory,
formerly, the Town Sigaeum. Then the Port of the Greeks,
(Portus Achaeorum,) into which Xanthus and Simoeis run
together; as also Palae-Scamander, but first it maketh a

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 89

Lake. The remainder celebrated by Homer as Rhaesus,
Heptaporus, Caresus, and Rhodius, have no Vestiges remain-
ing. The Granicus floweth by a different Tract into the
Propontis. Yet there is at this Day a little City called
Scamandria ; and one Mile and a half from the Port, the
Free City Ilium, from which proceedeth all that great Name,
Outside of this Gulf lieth the Coast Rhoetea, inhabited with
the Towns upon it, of Rhoateum, Dardanium, and Arisb£.
There was also Acheleum, a Town near the Tomb of Achilles,
founded by the Mitylenei, and afterwards re-edified by the
Athenians, on the Bay Sigseum, where his Fleet rode. There
also was Acantium, built by the Rhodians, in another Horn,
where Ajax was interred, thirty Stadia distant from Sigaeum,
and the very Station of his Fleet. Above Molis and a part
of Troas, within the Continent, is the (Town) called Teu-
thrania, which the Mysi in old Time held. There springeth
Caicus, the River abovesaid. A large Country this is of it-
self, and especially when it was united to Mysia, and also so
called : containing in it Pionise, Andera, Cale, Stabulum,
Conisium, Tegium, Balcea, Tiare, Teuthrania, Sarnaca, Hali-
serne, Lycide, Parthenium, Thymbre, Oxyopum, Lygda-
num, Apollonia : and Pergamus, the most illustrious City of
Asia by many Degrees ; through it passeth the River Selinus,
and Csetius runneth by it, issuing out of the Mountain Pin-
dasus. Not far from thence is Elea, which, as we have
said, standeth on the Shore. The Jurisdiction of this Tract
is named Pergamena. To it resort the Thyatyreni, Myg-
dones, Mossini, Bregmenteni, Hieracomitae, Perpereni,
Tyareni, Hierapolenses, Harniatapolitae, Attalenses, Pan-
taenses, Apollonidenses, and other Cities of little Honour.
Dardanium, a small Town, is threescore and ten Stadia dis-
tant from Rhosteum. Eighteen Miles from thence is the
Promontory Trapeza, where first the Hellespont rusheth
along roughly. Eratosthenes saith, That the Nations of the
Solymi,' Leleges, Bebrices, Colycantii, and Trepsedores, are
utterly perished from Asia. Isidorus reporteth the same of
the Arymei and Capretae, where Apamia was built by King
Seleucus, between Cilicia, Cappadocia, Cataonia,and Armenia.

90 History of Nature. [Boon V.

And because he had vanquished most Fierce Nations, at the
first he named it Damea.

CHAPTER XXXI.

The Islands before Asia, the Pamphylian Sea ; Rhodus,
Samus, and Chios.

THE first of the Islands before Asia is in the Canopic
Mouth of the Nilus, so called, as they say, from Canopus,
the Pilot of King Menelaus.1 The second is Pharus, which
is joined to Alexandria by a Bridge. In old Time it was a
Day's Sailing from Egypt : and now by Fires from a Watch-
Tower, Sailors are directed in the Night. It is a Colony of
Casar the Dictator. Alexandria is encompassed with de-
ceitful Shallows, and there are but three Channels from the
Sea; Tegamum, Posideurn, and Taurus. Next to that Isle,
in the Phoenician Sea before Joppa, lieth Paria, an Island
not larger than the Town, in which they report that Andro-
meda was exposed to the Beast.2 Also Arados beforenamed,
between which and the Continent, as Mutianus says, there is
a Fountain in the Sea, where it is fifty Cubits deep, out of
which Fresh Water is drawn from the very Bottom of the
Sea, through Pipes made of Leather. The Pamphylian Sea
hath some Islands of little Importance. In the Cilician Sea
is Cyprus, one of the Five greatest, and it lieth east and
west, opposite Cilicia and Syria ; in Times past the Seat of
Nine Kingdoms. Timosthenes saith, that it contained in
Circuit four hundred and nineteen Miles and a half;
but Isidorus is of opinion, that it is but three hundred
and seventy-five Miles in Compass. Its Length between
the two Promontories, Dinaretas and Acamas, which
is westward, Artemidorus reporteth to be 160| Miles: and

1 Jacob Bryant, in his "Analysis of Ancient Mythology," (vol. ii. p. 4,)
says, " that the priests of Egypt laughed at this account of the pilot of
Menelaus, as an idle story ; affirming that the place was much more an-
cient than the people of Greece ; and the name not of Grecian original."
Also Stephanus of Byzantium calls the pilot Pharos, and not Canopus. —
Wem. CM.

3 Seep. 67 of this vol.

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 91

Timosthenes 200, who saith besides, that formerly it was
called Acamantis : according to Philonides, Cerastis : after
Xenagoras, Aspelia, Amathusia, and Macatia : Astynomus
calleth it Cryptos and Colinia. Towns in it, 15 : Paphos,
Palaepaphos, Curias, Citium, Corineum, Salamis, Amathus,
Lapethos, Soloe, Tamaseus, Epidarurn, Chytri, Arsinoe,
Carpasium, and Golgi. There were in it besides, Cinirya,
Marium, and Idalium. And from Anemurium in Cilicia, is
50 Miles. The Sea which is stretched between they call
Aulon Cilicium. In this Tract is the Island Elaeusa: and
four others before the Promontory named Glides, over-against
Syria. Likewise one more, named Stiria, at the other Cape.
Over-against Neampaphos, Hierocepia. Over-against Sala-
mis, Salaminae. But in the Lycian Sea, Illyris, Telendos,
Attelebussa, and three Cypriae, all barren : also Dionysia,
formerly called Caretha. Then over-against the Promon-
tory of Taurus, the Chelidonige, dangerous to Sailors : and
as many more, together with the Town Leucola Pactiae,
Lasia, Nymphais, Maoris, Megista, the City of which is
gone. Then many of no Importance. But over-against Chi-
mera, Dolichist£, Chirogylium, Crambussa, Rhode", Enagora,
eight Miles. Daedaleon, two: Cryeon, three: and Stron-
gyle, over-against Sidynia of Antiochus : and toward the
River Glaucus Lagusa, Macris, Didymge, Helbo, Scope",
Aspis, and Telandria ; in which the Town is gone : and, near
to Caunus, Rhodussa. But the fairest of all is the Free (Isle)
Rhodos ; in Compass 130 Miles ; or if we rather give Credit
to Isidorus, 103. Cities in it well peopled, Lindus, Camirus,
and lalysus, now called Rhodus. By the Account oflsido?-us9
it is from Alexandria in Egypt, 578 Miles : but according to
Eratosthenes, 569 : according to Mutianus, 50Q ; and from
Cyprus, 416. In Times past it was called Ophyusa, Asteria,
jEthraea, Trinacria, Corymbia, Posessa, Atabyria from the
King(Atabyris) : and finally, Macaria, and Oloessa. Islands of
the Rhodians, Carpathus, which gave name to the Sea (Car-
pathium) ; Casos, formerly Achrn£ : and Nisyros, distant
from Gnidos twelve Miles and a half; which heretofore had
been called Porphyris. And in the same Range, Sym£,

92 History of Nature. [BooK V.

between Rhodus and Gnidus ; it is in Circuit six-and-thirty
Miles and a half. It is blessed with eight Harbours. Be-
sides these, there lie about Rhodus, Cyclopis, Teganon, Cor-
dylusa, four under the Name of Diabete : Hymos, Chalcis,
with a Town : Seutlusa, Narthecusa, Dimastos, and Progne.
Beyond Gnidos, Cicerussa, Therionarce, Calydne with three
Towns, Notium, Nisyrus, Mendeterus : and in Arconesus,
the Town Ceramus. Upon the Coast of Caria, the Islands,
twenty in number, called Argiae : and Hyetussa, Lepsia, and
Leros. But the most noble in that Bay is Cos, which is dis-
tant from Halicarnassus 15 Miles ; and in Compass 100, as
many judge; called Merope, as Staphylus saith : but accord-
ing to Dionysius, Cos Meropis : and afterwards Nymphaea.
There is the Mountain Prion : and as they think, Nysiris
broken off; formerly named Porphyris. Beyond this,
Carianda, with a Town : and not far from Halicarnassus,
Pidosus. Moreover, in the Gulf Ceramicus, Priaponnesus,
Hipponesus, Psyra, Mya, Lampsemandus, Passala, Crusa,
Pyrrhe, Sepiussa, Melano ; and within a short Distance of
the Continent, another called Cinedopolis, from the shameful
Persons that King Alexander left there. The Coast of Ionia
hath (the Islands) ./Egeae and Corsese, besides Icaros, spoken
of before. Also Lade, formerly called Latse : and among
some others of no worth, the two Camelides near to Miletus.
Mycalenum, Trogylise, Trepsilion, Argennon, Sardalion :
and the free Samos, which in Circuit is fourscore and seven
Miles; or as Isidorus thinketh, 100. Aristotle writeth,
that at first it was called Parrhania, afterwards Dryusa, and
then Anthemusa. Aristocritus giveth it other Names, as
Melamphyllus, and afterward Cyparissia : others term it
Partheno-arusa, and Stephane. Rivers in it, Imbrasus,
Chesius, arid Ibettes : Fountains, Gigarto and Leucothea :
the Mountain Cercetius. There lie adjoining to it the
Islands Rhypara, Nymphaea, arid Achillea. Fourscore and
thirteen Miles from it, is Chios, free, with a Town ; which
Island is as renowned as Samos. jEphorus by the ancient
Name calleth it ^Ethalia : Metrodorus and Cleobulus, Chia,
from the Nymph Chio. Others suppose it was so called

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 93

from Chion, i.e. Snow : and some would have it to be Ma-
cris and Pityusa. It has a Mountain called Pellenaeus, the
Marble called Chium. Ancient Geographers have written,
that it is 125 Miles in Circuit ; and Isidorus addeth nine
more. It is situated between Samos and Lesbos, for the most
part opposite to Erythrse. Near it lieth Thallusa, which some
write Dapnusa, (Enussa, Elaphites, Euryanassa, Arginussa
with a Town. Now all these are about Ephesus, as also
those called of Pisistratus : and the Anthinae, Myonnesus, and
Diareusa. In both these the Towns are lost. Poroselense
with a Town, Cerciae, Halon£, Commone, Illetia, Lepria,
and Rhespheria, Procusae, Bolbulae, Phanae, Priapos, Syce,
Melane, ^Enare, Sidusa, Pela, Drymusa, Anydros, Scopelos,
Sycussa, Marathussa, Psile, Perirheusa, and many others of
no Importance. But among the illustrious is Teos, in the
deep Sea, with a Town : distant from Chios fourscore and
one Miles, and as much from Erythrae. Near Smyrna are
the Peristerides, Carteria, Alopece, Elseussa, Bachina, Pys-
tira, Crommyonnesus, and Megale. Before Troas, the Asca-
niae, and three Plateae. Then the Lainiae, and two Plitaniae ;
Plate, Scopelos, Getone, Artheidon, Celae, Lagussae, and
Didymae. But the most illustrious is Lesbos, which is from
Chios threescore and five Miles. It was called Hemerte, and
Lasia, Pelasgia, J^gira, Mihyope, and Macaria : famous for
eight Towns ; of which Pyrrha is swallowed up by the Sea :
and Arisb& is overthrown by an Earthquake. Methymna
was peopled from Antissa, which was united to it, and in it
were eight Cities, and it is about seven-and-thirty Miles from
Asia.1 Also Agamede and Hiera have perished. There
remain Eresos, Pyrrha, and the free Mitylenae, which hath
continued powerful for 500 Years. Isidorus saith, that this
Island is in Circuit 173 Miles : but the old Geographers, 195.
In it are these Mountains, Lepethymus, Ordymnus, Macistus,
Creon, and Olympus. It is distant eight Miles and a half from
the Continent, where it lieth nearest. Islands near it, Sauda-
lion, and the five Leucae. Of these, Cydonea hath a Foun-

1 Natolia.

94 History of Nature. [Boon V.

tain of hot Water. The Argenussae are distant from ./Egse
four Miles. Then Phellusa and Pedua. Outside the Helles-
pont, over-against the Sigean Coast, lieth the Isle Tenedus,
called sometimes Leucophrys, Phoenice, and Lyrnessos.
From Lesbos it is six-and-fifty Miles, and from Sigaeum
twelve Miles and a half.

CHAPTER XXXII.

Hellespontus, Mysia, Phrygia, Galatia, Bithynia,
Bosporus.

THE Hellespont then assumeth its Violence and over-
cometh the Sea, digging a Way with its Eddies, until it hath
torn away Asia from Europe. That Promontory we have
named Trapeza, ten Miles beyond which stancleth the Town
Abydum, where the Straits are seven Stadia over. Be-
yond it is the Town Percote, and Lampsacum, called for-
merly Pityusa : the Colony Parium, which Homer called
Adrastia. The Town Priapos, the River JEsepus, Zelia,
Propontus ; as the Place is called where the Sea enlargeth
itself. The River Granicum, the Harbour Artace, where
once stood a Town. Beyond it is an Island, which Alexander
joined to the Continent, in which standeth the Town Cyzi-
cum, founded by the Milesians, called heretofore Arconne-
sos; Dolionis, and Dindymis, near the Top of which is the
Mountain Dindymus. Presently the Towns Placia, Aviacos,
Scylac£ : and behind them, the Mountain Olympus, called
Msesius. The City Olympena. The Rivers Horisius and
Rhyndacus, formerly named Lycus. This River taketh its
Beginning in the Lake Artynia, near to Miletopolis. It
receiveth the Marestos and many others ; and separateth
Asia from Bithynia. This Region was called Cronia : after-
ward Thessalis, then Malianda and Strymonis. These (Na-
tions) Homer named Halizones, because they are environed
with the Sea. There was a very great City named Attusa.
At this Day there are fifteen Cities, among which is Gordiu-
come, now called Juliopolis ; and on the Coasts Dascylos.
Then the River Gebes : and within-land, the Town Helgas,

BooKV.] History of Nature. 95

the same as Germanicopolis, known also Ity another Name
Booscoete, as also Apamea, now called Myrtea of the Colo-
phonians. The River Etheleum, the ancient limit of Troas,
and where Mysia beginneth. Afterwards the Gulf into
which runneth the River Ascanium, the Town Bryllion.
The Rivers Hylas and Cios, with a Town of that Name :
which was a Place of Trade, not far off from the Inhabitants
of Phrygia, and built by the Milesians in a Place called As-
cania of Phrygia. And therefore we cannot do better than
here to speak of that Country. Phrygia spreadeth out above
Troas and the Nations before named, from the Promontory
Lectus unto the River Etheleus. It bordereth on the
North upon part of Galatia, southward it boundeth on Ly-
caonia, Pisidia, and Mygdonia ; and on the east it reacheth
to Cappadocia. The most celebrated Towns besides those
before spoken of, are Ancyra, Andria, Celsense, Colossae, Ca-
rina, Cotiaion, Ceranse, Iconium, and Midaion. Certain
Authors write, that out of Europe have passed over the
Mysi, Bryges, and Thyni, from whom are named the Mysi,
Phryges, and Bithyni.

At the same time I think it good to write also of Galatia,
which lying higher than Phrygia, possesseth a greater part of
its plain Country, and the former Capital of it, called Gordium.
They who inhabited that Quarter were sprung from the Gauls,
and were called Tolistobogi, Voturi, and Ambitui : but they
that occupied the Country of Mseonia and Paphlagonia were
named Trocmi. Cappadocia is spread along from the North
and East ; and the most plenteous Tract thereof the Tecto-
sages and Teutobodiaci kept in their Possession. And thus
much for these Nations. The People and Tetrarchies are in
all a hundred and ninety and five. The Towns: of the
Tectosages, Ancyra : of the Trocmi, Tavium : of the Tolisto-
bogians, Pesinus. Besides these, there are celebrated the
Attalenses, Arasenses, Cotnenses, Dios-Hieronitse, Lystreni,
Neapolitani, Oeandenses, Seleucenses, Sebasteni, Timmonia-
censes, and Tebaseni. Galatia extendeth to Gabalia and
Milyae in Pamphylia; which are situated about Baris : also
Cyllanticum and Oroandicum, a Tract of Pisidia : likewise

96 History of Nature. [BoOK V.

Obigene", a part of Lycaonia. Rivers there are in it, beside
those beforenamed, Sangarium and Gall as, from which the
Priests of the Mother of the Gods were named. Now to
speak of what remains on the Sea-coast : inward from Cios
is Prusa within Bithynia ; founded by Annibal beneath
Olympus. From Prusa to Nicsea, five-and-twenty Miles ;
the Lake Ascanius lying between. Then Nicsea, in the out-
most part of the Gulf Ascanium, which before was called
Olbia: also to another Prusa, und«r the Mountain Hippius.
There were Pythopolis, Parthenopolis, and Choryphanta.
Now there are upon the Sea-side the Rivers, .ZEsius, Bryazon,
Plataneus, Areus, Siros, Gendos, named also Chrysorrhoas.
The Promontory on which stood the Town Megaricum. Then
the Gulf which was called Craspedites ; because that Town
stood as it were in a Fold of it, There was also the Town
Astacum, from which the Bay took the Name of Astacenus.
There was also the Town Libyssa, where now remaineth
nothing but the Tomb of Annibal. In the inmost part of
the Gulf is the very handsome Town of Bithynia, called
Nicomedia. The Promontory Leucatas which encloseth the
Bay of Astarenus, is from Nicomedia forty-two Miles and
a half. Being past this Bay, the opposite Shores approach-
ing together, the Straits reach as far as to the Thracian Bos-
phorus. Upon these Straits standeth the Free (City) Chalce-
don, seventy-two Miles and a half from Nicomedia. Formerly
it was called Procerastis : then, Compusa : afterwards, the
City of the Blind ; because they who founded it were so
ignorant as not to give a preference to a Place seven Stadia
from Byzantium, so much more favourable in every respect.
But within-land, in Bithynia, is the Colony Apamena : also,
the Agrippenses, Juliopolitae, and they of Bithynium. The
Rivers, Syrium, Lapsias, Pharmicas, Alces, Crynis, Lylaeus,
Scopius, Hieras, which parteth Bithynia from Galatia. Be-
yond Chalcedon, stood Chrysopolis: then, Nicopolis, of
which the Gulf still retaineth the Name : wherein is the
Port of Amycus : the Promontory Naulochum : Estia,
wherein is the Temple of Neptune; and the Bosphorus,
half-a-mile over, which now again parteth Asia from Europe.

BOOK V.] History of Nature. 97

From Chalcedon, it is twelve Miles and a half. There begin
thej narrow Straits, where it is eight Miles and a quarter
over: where stood the Town Philopolis. All the Coasts
are inhabited by the Thyni, but the Inland Parts by
the Bithyni. This is the end of Asia, and of 282 Nations,
which are reckoned from the Gulf of Lycia to this place.
The Space of the Hellespont and Propontis to the Thracian
Bosphorus containeth in Length 188 Miles, as we have
before said. From Chalcedon to Sigeum, by the computa-
tion of Isidorus, it is 372 Miles and a half. Islands lying in
Propontis before Cyzicum are these; Elaphonnesus, from
whence cometh the Cyzicen Marble ; and the same Isle was
called Neuris, and Proconnesus. Then follow Ophiiisa,
Acanthus, Phoebe, Scopelos, Porphyrione, and Halone, with
a Town. Delphacia, Polydora : Artaceeon, with the Town.
And over-against Nicomedia, is Demonnesos : likewise, be-
yond Heraclea, over-against Bithynia, is Thynnias, which
the Barbarians call Bithynia. There is also Antiochia : and
opposite to the narrow Straits of llhyndacus, Besbicos,
eighteen Miles in Circuit. Also there is Elsea, two Rho-
dussae, Erebinthus, Magale, Chalcitis, and Pityodes,

VOL. IT.

IN THE SIXTH BOOK

AEE CONTAINED

REGIONS, NATIONS, SEAS, CITIES, PORTS, RIVERS, WITH THEIR
DIMENSIONS; AND PEOPLE THAT ARE OR HAVE BEEN : —

CHAP.

1. Pontus Euxinus, formerly Ax-

enus.

2. The Nations of the Paphla-

gones and Cappadocians.

3. Cappadocia.

4. The Nations of the Country

Themiscyra.

5. The Region Colchica. The

Achsei, and the rest in that
Tract.

6. Bosphorus Cimmerms, and

Mo30tis.

7. The People about Moeotis.

8. The Armenise, both.

9. Armenia the Greater.

10. Albania, Iberia.

1 1 . The Gates Caucasian

12. Islands in Pontus.

13. Nations about the Scythian

Ocean.

14. Media and the Straits Caspise.

15. Nations about the Hircanian

Sea.

16. Also other Nations bordering

upon that Country.

17. People of Scythia.

18. The River Ganges.

CHAP.

19. The Nations of India.

20. The River Indus.

21. The Arii, and the Nations bor-

dering upon them.

22. The Island Taprobane.

23. Capissene, Carmania.

24. The Persian and Arabian Gulfs.

25. The Island Cassandrus, and the

Kingdoms of the Parthians.

26. Media, Mesopotamia, Babylon,

Seleucia.

27. The River Tigris.

28. Arabia, Nomades, Nabathsei,

Omani, Tylos, and Ogyris,
two Islands.

29. The Gulfs of the Red Sea, the

Troglodite and Ethiopian
Seas.

30. Nations of strange and won-

derful Shapes.

31. Islands of the Ethiopian Sea.

32. Of the Fortunate Islands.

33. The Division of the Earth

calculated by Measures.

34. A Division of the Earth by

Climates, Lines Parallel,
and Equal Shadows.

Towns of name, 195. Nations of account, 566. Famous Rivers, 180.
Notable Mountains, 38. Principal Islands, 108. Cities and Nations
perished, 195. In sum, there are rehearsed in this Book, of other Things,
Histories and Observations, 2214.

LATIN AUTHORS ABSTRACTED:

M. Agrippa, Varro Atacinus, Cornelius Nepos, Hyginus, Lu. Vetus, Mela
Pomponius, Domitius Corbulo, Licinius Mutianus, Claudius Coesar, Aruntius
Sebosus, Fabridus Thuscus, T. Livius, Seneca, Nigidius.

FOREIGN WRITERS :

King Juba, Polybius, Hecatceus, Hellanicus, Damastes, Eudoxus, Dicce-
archus, Beto, Timosthenes, Pair odes, Demodamas, Clitarchus, Eratosthenes,
Alexander the Great, Ephorus, Hipparchus, Pancetius, CattimacJius, Artemi-
dorus, Apollodorus, Agathocles, Polybius, Eumachus Siculus, Alexander
Polyhistor, Amometus, Metrodorus, Posidonius, Onesicritus, Nearchus,
Megasthenes, Diognetus, Aristocreon, Bion, Dialdon, Simonides the Younger,
Basiles, and Xenophon Lampsacenus.

THE SIXTH BOOK

HISTORY OF NATURE.

WRITTEN BY

C. PLINIUS SECUNDUS.

CHAPTER I.
Pontus Euxinus.

HE Pontus Euxinus, named in old time Axenos,
from its inhospitable wildness, is spread between
Europe and Asia, by a special Envy of Nature,
and an Eagerness to maintain the Sea in his
greedy and endless Appetite. It was not enough
for the Ocean to have environed the whole
Earth, and to have taken away a great part of it, with
exceeding Rage ; it sufficed not, to have broken through the
shattered Mountains, and also having torn Calpe1 from
Africa, to have swallowed up a much larger space than it
left behind : nor to have poured out Propontis through the
Hellespont,2 so again devouring the Land : from the Bos-
phorus also it is spread abroad into a large Space without

1 Mouth of Gibraltar.

8 The ideas of the ancients appear to have been confounded in the wide

100 History of Nature. [BooK VI.

being satisfied, until they are very wide, and the Lake
Moeotis joiueth its ruin to them. And that this hath
happened in spite of the Earth, appeareth by so many
Straits and such narrow Passages of opposing nature,
considering that at the Hellespont the Breadth is not
above 875 Paces : and at the two Bosphori even Oxen easily
pass over : and hereupon they both took their Name : and in
this disunion appeareth an agreement of relationship. For
Cocks may be heard to crow, and Dogs to bark from one
Side to the other : and by the interchange of Human Speech
Men out of these two Worlds may talk one to another in
continued discourse, if the Winds do not carry away the
Sound.

Some have made the Measure of Pontus from the Bos-
phorus to the Lake Moeotis to be 1438 Miles. But Erato-
sthenes reckoneth it less by one hundred. Agrippa saith,
that from Chalcedon to Phasis is a thousand Miles; and
onward to Bosphorus Cimmerius, 360 Miles. We will set
down in general the Distances of Places collected in our own
Days, when our Armies have carried on WTar even in the
very Mouth of the Cimmerian Strait.

Beyond the Straits of the Bosphorus is the River
Rhebas, which some have called Rhcesus: and beyond it,
Psillis : the Port of Calpas ; and Sangarius, one of the prin-
cipal Rivers : it ariseth in Phrygia, receiveth large Rivers
into it, and amongst the rest Tembrogius and Gallus. The
same Sangarius is by many called Coralius ; from which
begin the Gulfs Mariandirii and the Town Heraclea, situated
upon the River Lycus. It is from the Mouth of Pontus
200 Miles. There is the Port Acone, cursed with the
poisonous Aconitum ; and the Cave Acherusia. The Rivers
Pedopiles, Callichorum, and Sonantes. Towns, Tium, eight-
and-thirty Miles from Heraclea : the River Bilis.

expanse of the ocean: in consequence, probably, of the creeping manner
of their navigation. Homer speaks of —

" All wide Hellespont's unmeasured main." — Iliad, b. 24.

Wern. Club.

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 101

CHAPTER II.

The Nation of the Paphlagonians, and Cappadocians.

BEYOND this River Bilis is the Nation of Paphlagonia,
which some have named Pylsemenia, and it is enclosed with
Galatia behind it. The Town Mastya of the Milesians : and
next to it Cromna. In this quarter the Heneti inhabit, as
Cornelius Nepos saith, from whom the Veneti in Italy, who
bear their Name, are descended, as he would have us believe.
The Town Sesamum, which is now called Amastris. The
Mountain Cytorus, 64 Miles from Tium. The Towns
Cimolus and Stephane ; the River Parthenius ; the Pro-
montory Corambis, which reacheth a mighty way into
the Sea; and it is from the Mouth of the Pontus 315
Miles, or as others think, 350. It is also as far from the
(Strait) Cimmerius, or as some would rather have it, 312
Miles and a half. A Town there was also of that Name :
and another beyond it called Arminum : but now there is the
Colony Sinope, 164 Miles from Citorum. The River Vare-
tum ; the People of the Cappadoces ; the Town Gaziura,
and Gazelum ; the River Halys, which, issuing out of the
foot of Taurus, passeth through Cataonia and Cappadocia.
The Towns, Grangre, Carissa ; the Free City Amisum, distant
from Sinope 130 Miles. A Gulf, bearing the Name of this
Town, runneth so far within the Land that it seemeth to
make Asia almost an Island : for from thence through th^e
Continent to the Gulf Issicus in Cilicia, is not above 200
Miles. In all which Tract there are no more than three
Nations which justly may be called Greeks: which are the
Dorians, lonians, and ^Eolians : for all the rest are Bar-
barians. To Amisum there was joined the Town Eupa-
toria, founded by Mithridates : and when he was vanquished,
both together took the Name of Pompeiopolis.1

1 From Pompey the Great, who conquered him. — Wern. Club.

102 History of Nature. [BooK VI.

CHAPTER III.
Cappadocia.

IN the interior of Cappadocia is a Colony founded by
Claudius Ccesar, called Archelais, situated upon the River
Halys. The Town Comana, by which the (River) Sarus
runneth: Neo-Csesarea, washed by the Lycus : and Amasia,
on the River Iris, in the Country Gazacena. In Colopena,
also, are Sebastia and Sebastopolis : little Towns, but equal
with those abovesaid. In the other part (of Cappadocia) is
the City Melita, built by Queen Semiramis, not far from the
Euphrates : also, Dio-Csesarea, Tyana, Castabala, Magno-
polis, Zela : and under the Mountain Argseus, Mazaca, which
now is named Csesarea. That part of Cappadocia which lieth
before Armenia the Greater, is called Meliten£ : that which
bordereth upon Comagene, Cataonia : upon Phrygia, Gar-
sauritis : upon Sargaurasana, Cammanen£ : and upon Ga-
latia, Morimen£. And there the River Cappadox separateth
the one from the other. From this River the Cappadocians
took their Name, having formerly been called Leucosyri.
The River Lycus divideth the above-named new Armenia
from Neo-Csesarea. Within the Country there runneth also
the famous Ceraunus. But on the Coast beyond Amysum is
the Town Lycastum, and the River Chadisia: and still fur-
ther the Country Themiscyra. The River Iris, bringing
down the Lycus. In the midland Parts the City Ziela,
ennobled by the slaughter of Triarius,* and the Victory of
C. CcBsar. In the Coast the River Thermodon, which
issueth from before a Castle named Phanaroea, and passeth

1 Triarius, a Roman general under Lucullus in the Mithridatic war, was
defeated by the enemy, at the battle of Ziela, with the loss of 7000 of his
men. And at the same place, some years afterwards, Julius Caesar gained
an important victory over Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, deprived
him of the kingdom of Pontus, and entirely ruined his army. It was on
this occasion that Csesar, when describing the rapidity and despatch he
had employed in the victory, made use of the well-known sentence,
" Veni, vidi, vici," I came, I saw, I conquered.— Wern. Club.

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 103

by the foot of the Mountain Amazonius. There was a Town
of the same Name, and five others, namely, Phamizonium,
Themiscyra, Sotira, Amasia, Comana, now called Manteium.

CHAPTER IV.
The Nations of the Region Themlscyrene.

THE Nations of the Genetae and Chalybes ; a Town of the
Cotyi. Nations called Tibareni ; and Mossyni, who mark
their Bodies with Figures.1 The Nation of the Macrocephali,
the Town Cerasus, the Port Cordulse. The Nations Bechires ;
Buzeti ; the River Melas. The Nation Macrones, Sideni,
and the River Syderium, upon which is situated the Town
Polemonium, distant from Amisum 120 Miles: beyond this
the Rivers Jasonius and Melanthius : also 80 Miles from
Amisum, the Town Pharnacea: the Castle and River of
Tripolis. Also, Philocalia, and Liviopolis without a River:
also, the Free City Trapezus, environed with a high Moun-
tain, 100 Miles from Pharnacea. Beyond Trapezus is the
Nation of the Armenochalybes, and Armenia the Greater :
which are 30 Miles asunder. On the Coast is the River
Pyxites that runneth before Trapezus: and beyond it the
Nation of the Sanni Heniochi. The River Absarus, with a
Castle likewise so named in its Mouth ; from Trapezus is
150 Miles. Behind the Mountains of that quarter is Iberia :
but in the Coast of the same are the Heniochi, Ampreutae,
and Lazi. The Rivers Campseonysis, Nogrus, Bathys.
The Nations of the Colchians ; the Town Matium, the
River Heracleum, and a Promontory of the same Name ;
and the most renowned (River) of Pontus, called Phasis.
This River riseth out of the Moschian Mountains, and for
38 Miles and a half is Navigable for great Vessels. And
then for a great way it carrieth smaller Vessels ; having

1 The practice of tattooing is general through the islands of the
Southern Ocean ; the inhabitants of which, however, were not known to
Pliny. But it is also practised, even in our day, by the people of Burma,
and perhaps in other nations of the East. The same practice is again
referred to in b. vii. c. 11. — Wern. Club.

104 History of Nature. [BooK VI.

over it 120 Bridges. It had many Towns upon its Banks;
the most celebrated being Tyritacen, Cygnus, and Phasis,
situated at its very Mouth. But the most illustrious was
j£a, fifteen Miles from the Sea : where Hippos and Cyanos,
two very great Rivers, coming from different Parts, flow into
it. Now it possesseth Surium only, which taketh its Name
from the River Surium, that runneth into it. And thus far
we said that Phasis was capable of being navigated by great
Ships. And it received) other Rivers, remarkable for size
and number, among which is the River Glaucus. In the
Mouth of this River (Phasis) there are Islands without a
Name. It is distant from Bsarus 75 Miles. Being past
Phasis, there is another River called Charien ; the Nation of
the Salae, named in old Time Phthirophagi and Suani ; the
River Cobus, which issueth out of Caucasus, and runneth
through the Country of the Suani. Then Rhoas ; the region
Ecrectic£ : the Rivers Sigania, Tersos, Atelpos, Chrysorrhoas,
and the Nation Absilse: the Castle Sebastopolis, a hundred
Miles from Phasis ; the Nation of the Sanigares, the Town
Cygnus, the River and Town called Pityus. And last of all,
the Nations of the Heniochae, which have many Names.

CHAPTER V.

The Region of Colchis, the Achai, and other Nations in
that Tract.

NEXT followeth the region of Colchis, which is likewise
in Pontus : wherein the craggy Summits of the Caucasus
wind and turn toward the Rhiphsean Mountains, as hath been
hinted ; on the one side bending down toward the Euxinus
and Moeotis ; and on the other inclining to the Caspian and
Hircanian Seas. The remainder of the Coasts are occupied by
savage Nations,as the Melanchlseni, the Choruxi; Dioscurias,
a City of the Colchi, near the River Anthemus, now lying
waste, although it was so renowned in Time past, that by the
report of Timosthenes there were settled therein 300 Nations
which used distinct Languages. And afterwards our Ro-
mans were forced to provide 130 Interpreters for the Traffic

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 105

with this People. Some think that it was first founded by
Amphitus and Telchius, who had the charge of the Chariots
of Castor and Pollux .-1 for certain it is, that the fierce Nation
of the Heniochi are from them descended. Being past
Dioscurias, there is the Town Heraclium, which from Sebas-
topolis is 80 Miles distant. The Achaei, Mardi, and Car-
cetae : after them the Serri, and Cephalotomi. Far within
that Tract stood the very wealthy Town Pitius, which by the
Heniochians was plundered. On the back part thereof
inhabit the Epageritse, a People of the Sarmatae, upon the
tops of the Caucasus : after which the Sauromatae. Hither
had fled King Mithridates in the time of Prince Claudius,
and he made report that the Thali dwell thereby, and border
Eastward upon the very opening of the Caspian Sea: which
becometh Dry when the Sea ebbeth. But on the Coast
near to the Cercetae is the River Icarusa, with a Town and
River called Hierum, 136 Miles from Heracleum. Then
come ye to the Promontory Cronea, in the steep Ridge
of which the Toretae inhabit. The City Sindica, 67 Miles
from Hierum : the River Sceaceriges.

CHAPTER VI.

Mceotis and the Bosphorus Cimmerius.

» -:

FROM the above-said River to the Entrance of the Cim-
merian Bosphorus is 88 Miles and a half. But the Length
of the Peninsula itself, which stretcheth out between the
Lakes Pontus and Moeotis is not above 87 Miles, and the
Breadth in no place less than two Acres of Land. They call
it Eione. The very Coasts of the Bosphorus, both of Asia
and Europe, are curved towards the Moeolis. The Towns in

1 There is frequently occasion to remark, that Pliny speaks of the
deities of his country, as if it was an acknowledged fact that they were
once living men. -ZEolus, Hercules, and even Jupiter, are so regarded ;
and as he speaks of the impiety of this opinion, b. vii. c. 47, when applied
to some particular cases, we are at liberty to believe that his regard for
the established heathenism of his country was exceedingly slight. —
Wern. Club.

106 History of Nature. [BooK VI.

the very first Passage of Bosphorus are Hermonassa and then
Cepi, founded by the Milesians. Close by is Stratilia (or
Stratoclea), Phanagoria, and Apaturos, which is almost un-
peopled: and last of all, in the mouth, Cimmerius, formerly
called Cerberian.

CHAPTER VII.
Nations about Mceotis.

BEYOND Cimmerium is the Lake Moeotis, spoken of be-
fore in Europe. Beyond Cimmerium inhabit the Mceotici,
Vati, Serbi, Archi, Zingi, and Psesii. After this you come
to the River Tanais, which runneth with two Mouths : and
on the sides of it dwell the Sarmatae, descended, as they say,
from the Medi : but themselves divided into many Races.
And first the Sauromatae, surnamed Gynaecocratumeni, from
whence the Amazons are provided with Husbands. Next to
them are the Euazae, Cottae, Cicimeni, Messeniani, Costo-
bocci, Choatrae, Zigae, Dandari, Thussageae, and Turcae, even
as far as the Wilderness, rough with woody Valleys. Be-
yond them are the Arimphaei, who live upon the Riphaaan
Mountains. The Tanais itself the Scythians call Silys ; and
Moeotis they name Temerinda,1 that is to say, the Mother of
the Sea. There stood also a Town at the mouth of Tanais.
The Lares first inhabited the Borders : afterwards the Clazo-
menii and Moeones: and in process of time the Panti-
capenses. Some Authors write, that about Moeotis toward
the higher Mountains Ceraunii, the following Nations inhabit
on the Coast, the Napaeae : and above them the Essedones,
joining on the Colchi, and the tops of the Mountains. After
them the Carmacae, the Orani, Antacse, Mazacae, Ascantici,
Acapeatae, Agagammatae, Phycari, Rhimosoli, and Asco-

1 It is easy to discern that many of the names of nations mentioned
by Pliny are not those which the people themselves would have recog-
nised; but Greek descriptive designations. But the word " Temerinda"
is believed to have been u Scythian," and to be rightly interpreted by the
author. Daleschamp supposes the true expression to be " Themers-end,"
or, in modern terms, " Dess-maers-end." — Wern. Club.

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 107

marci ; and on the Tops of Caucasus, the Icatalae, Imaduchi,
Rani, Anclacae, Tydii, Charastasci, and Asuciandae. Along
the River Lagoiis, issuing out of the Mountains Cathei, and
into which Opharus runneth, are these Nations : the Cau-
cadae and the Opharitae : the River Menotharus, and Imitues
divided from the Mountains Cissii, which passeth among the
Agedi, Carnapae, Gardei, Accisi, Gabri, and Gregari : and
about the source of this River Imitues, the Imitui and Apar-
theni. Others say that the Suitae, Auchetae, Satarnei, and
Asampatse, overflowed this Part; the Tanaitae and Ne-
pheonitae were slain by them to a Man. Some write, that
the River Opharius runneth through the Canteci and the
Sapaei: and that the River Tanais traversed through the
Phatarei, Herticei, Spondolici, Synthietae, Amassi, Issi,
Catazeti, Tagori, Catoni, Neripi, Agandei, Mandarei, Satur-
chei, and Spalei.

CHAPTER VIII.
Cappadocia.

WE have gone through the Nations and Inhabitants of
the Coasts of the Mediterranean Sea. Now are we to speak
of the People inhabiting the Inland Parts : wherein I shall
advance many things different from the ancient Geographers :
because I have made diligent Search into the state of those
Regions, especially by enquiry of Domitius Corbulo, in regard
of the things done by himself, and also of the Kings who
came from thence as Petitioners, and of those King's Sons
that were Hostages. And we will begin with the Nation of
the Cappadocians. This is a Country that of all which bound
upon Pontus, reacheth farthest within the Land : for on the
left Hand it passeth by the Greater and Less Armenia, and
Comagene : and on the right, all those Nations in Asia
before-named : being overflowed with a Multitude of People :
and with great Might climbing up Eastward to the Tops of
Taurus, it passeth Lycaonia, Pisidia, and Cilicia : and with
that quarter which is called Cataonia, it pierceth above the
Tract of Antiochia, and reacheth as far as to its Region Cyr-

108 History of Nature. [Boox VI.

rhestica. And therefore the Length of Asia there may con-
tain 1250 Miles, and the Breadth 640.

CHAPTER IX.
Armenia, the Greater and Less.

THE Greater Armenia, beginning at the Mountains Pa-
riedri, is divided from Cappadocia by the River Euphrates, as
hath been said before : and where the River Euphrates
turneth, from Mesopotamia by the River Tigris, scarcely less
renowned than the other. It poureth forth both these Rivers,
and constitutes the beginning of Mesopotamia, which is situ-
ated between them both. The Land which lieth between is
possessed by the Arabs Orei. In this manner it extendeth its
Border to Adiabene. Beyond this, being hemmed in with
Mountains that stand across it, it spreadeth its Breadth on
the left Hand to the River Cyrus : and then across to the
River Araxes : but it carrieth its Length to the Lesser Ar-
menia, being separated from it by the River Absarus, which
falleth into the Poritus : and by the Mountains Pariedri, from
which the River Absarus issueth. The River Cyrus springeth
in the Mountains Heniochii, which some have called Co-
raxici. The Araxes issueth out of the same Mountain from
whence Euphrates cometh, and there is not above the Space
of six Miles between them. This River Araxes is augmented
with the River Musis ; and then itself loseth its Name, and, as
most have thought, is carried by the River Cyrus into the Cas-
pian Sea. These Towns are famous in the Lesser (Armenia) ;
Csesarea, Aza, and Nicopolis. In the Greater is Arsamote,
near the River Euphrates ; and Carcathiocerta, upon the
Tigris. In the higher Country is Tigranocerta, but in the
Plain, near the Araxes, Artaxata. Aufidius saith, that both
the Armenise contain in all 500 Miles. Claudius Ccesar
reporteth, that in Length from Dascusa to the Confines of
the Caspian Sea is 1300 Miles, and in Breadth half as much,
from Tigranocerta to Iberia. This is well known, that it is
divided into Prefectures, which they call Strategies ; and
some of them in old time were as large as Kingdoms : the

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 109

Number being 120, with barbarous Names. It is enclosed
Eastward with Mountains, but neither the Ceraunii, nor the
Region Adiabene, do immediately border on it. The Country
of the Sopherii lieth between : next are the Mountains Ce-
raunii ; and beyond them dwell the Adiabeni. But through
the flat Valleys the next Neighbours to Armenia are the
Menobardi and Moscheni. The River Tigris and steep
Mountains encompass Adiabene. On the left Hand its
Region is of the Medians, and the Prospect of the Caspian
Sea. This is poured in from the Ocean (as we shall shew in
its place), and is enclosed wholly within the Mountains of
Caucasus. We will now speak of the Inhabitants of these,
through the Confine of Armenia.

CHAPTER X.
Albania and Iberia.

THE Nation of the Albani inhabit all the plain Country
from the River Cyrus. Beyond it is the Region of the Iberes,
who are separated from the Albani by the River Alazon,
which runneth down from the Caucasian Mountains into the
Cyrus. The strong Towns of Albania : Cabalaca ; of Iberia,
Harmastis, near the River Neoris : the Region Thasie, and
Triare, as far as to the Mountains Partedori. Beyond them
are the Deserts of Colchis: and on the side of them which
lieth toward the Ceraunii the Armenochalybes inhabit : and
the Tract of the Moschi to the River Iberus, that floweth into
the Cyrus. Beneath them, inhabit the Sacassani, and beyond
them the Macrones, who reach to the River Absarus. Thus
the Plain and the hanging of the Hills are inhabited. Again,
from the Frontiers of Albania, in all the front of the Moun-
tains are the savage Nations of the Sylvi ; and beneath them,
of the Lubieni, and so forward the Diduri, and Sodii.

CHAPTER XI.
The Gates of the Caucasus.

BEYOND the Sodii are the Gates of Caucasus, which many
have very erroneously called Caspise Portae, or the Caspian

110 History of Nature. [BooK VI.

Gates : a mighty Piece of Nature's Work, by suddenly cleav-
ing asunder those Mountains, where the Gates were barred
up with iron Bars, whilst under the midst thereof, the River
Dyriodorus runneth : and on this Side of it standeth a formi-
dable Castle called Cumania, situated upon a Rock, able to
arrest the Passage of a very numerous Army; so that in this
Place, by means of these Gates, one Part of the World is
excluded from the other : and chiefly over-against Harmastis,
a Town of the Iberi. Beyond the Gates of Caucasus, through
the Mountains Gordyei, the Valli and Suarrii, uncivilised
Nations, are employed only in the Mines of Gold. Beyond
them as far as to the Pontic Sea, are many Races of the
Heniochi ; and soon after, of the Achaei. And thus much
concerning this Tract of the Lands among the most re-
nowned. Some have set down, that between Pontus and the
Caspian Sea, it is not above 375 Miles. Cornelius Nepos
saith it is but 150; into such Straits is Asia driven again.
Claudius Ccesar hath reported, that from the Cimmerian
Bosphorus to the Caspian Sea, is 150 Miles; and that Seleucus
Nicator purposed to cut the Land through, at the Time
when he was slain by Ptolomceus Ceraunus. It is almost
certain, that from the Gates of Caucasus to Pontius is
200 Miles.

CHAPTER XII.

Islands in the Pontus.

IN Pontus lie the Islands Planctse, otherwise Cyaneae or
Symplcgades. Then Apollonia, named also Thynnias, for
Distinction sake from that other so named in Europe : it is
from the Continent one Mile, and in Circuit three. And
over-against Pharnacea is Chalceritis, which the Greeks
called Aria, sacred to Mars ; wherein are Birds which fight
with a Blow of their Wings against others that come

thither.

CHAPTER XIII.

Nations on the Scythian Ocean.

HAVING thus discoursed of all the Countries in the inte-
rior of Asia, let us now determine to pass over the Rhiphsean

BOOK V I .] History of Nature. 1 ] 1

Mountains, and discover the Coasts of the Ocean which lie
on the right hand. Asia is washed by this Ocean on three
Sides : on the North Side is the Scythian : on the East it is
called Eous : and from the South they name it the Indian.
And according to the various Gulfs, and the Inhabitants, it is
divided into many Names. But a great part of Asia toward
the North hath in it extensive Wildernesses, by reason of the
violence of its frozen Star. From the extreme North to the
North-east are the Scythians. Beyond whom, and the very
point of the North Pole, some have placed the Hyperborei ;
of whom we have spoken at large in the Treatise of Europe.
The first Promontory that you meet with in the Country
Celtica is named Lytarmis : and then the River Carambucis,
where, by the forcible influence of the Stars, the Mountains
Rhiphaei are deprived of their ragged Tops. And there we
have heard that there are a People named Arimphaei: a
Nation not much unlike the Hyperborei. They have their
Habitations in Forests ; their Food is Berries ; both Women
and Men count it a shame to have Hair ; mild in their man-
ners; and therefore, by report, they are held to be sacred,
and to be inviolable even by those wild People that dwell
near them ; neither do they respect them only, but also those
who fly to them. At some distance beyond them are the
Scythians,1 as well the Cimmerii, Cicianthi, and Georgi ;
and the Nation of the Amazons. These reach to the Caspian
and Hircanian Sea : for it breaketh forth from the Scythian
Ocean,2 toward the back parts of Asia, and is called many
Names by the neighbouring Inhabitants, but especially by
two of the most celebrated, the Caspian and Hircanian.
Clitarchus is of opinion that this Sea is full as great as the

1 At this day, the Moschovites, white and black Russians, Georgians,
Amazonians, and the less Tartary. — Wern. Club.

a Strabo (lib. xi.) entertains the same erroneous opinions respecting
the Caspian Sea. That both these intelligent writers, as well as other
ancient geographers, should have been so mistaken is the more extraor-
dinary, as Herodotus (lib. i. 203) had given a just description of it long
before. " The Caspian Sea," he says, " is a sea of itself, which does not
mingle with any other." — Wern. Club.

1.12 History of Nature. [BooK VI.

Pontus Euxinus. And Eratosthenes setteth down the mea-
sure of it as being from East to South, along the Coast of
Cadusia and Albania, 5400 Stadia : from thence by the
Aratiatici, Amarbi, and Hircanii, to the mouth of the River
Zonus, 4800 Stadia : from it to the mouth of the Jaxartes,
2400 Stadia: which being put together amount to 1575
Miles. Artemidorus counteth less by 25 Miles. Agrippa, in
limiting the Circuit of the Caspian Sea, and the Nations
around it, and Armenia with them, from the East with the
Ocean of the Seres, Westward with the Mountains of Cau-
casus, on the South side with the Mountain Taurus, and on
the North with the Scythian Ocean, hath written, That the
whole, so far as is known, may contain in Length 590 Miles,
and 290 in Breadth. There want not others who say, That
the whole Circuit of that Sea, from the Strait is 2500 Miles.
This throat is very narrow where it bursts forth, but exceed-
ingly long : but where it beginneth to enlarge it fetcheth a
Compass withlunated Horns, and after the manner of a Scy-
thian Bow, as M. Varro saith, it windeth along from its
Mouth toward the Lake Moeotis. The first Gulf is called
Scythicus ; for the Scythians inhabit on both Sides, and by
means of the narrow Straits between have business one with
another : for on one side are the Nomades and Sauromatae,
with many Names : and on the other, the Abzoae, who have
no fewer denominations. At the entry of this Sea on the
right hand, the Udini, a People of the Scythians, dwell
upon the very point of these Straits : and then along the
Coast, the Albani, descended (as they say) from Jason ;
where the Sea that lieth before them is called Albanum.
This Nation is spread also upon the Mountains of Caucasus
to the River Cyrus, and descendeth, as hath been said, to the
border of Armenia and Iberia. Above the Maritime Coasts
of Albania and the Nation of the Udini, the Sarmatse, called
Utidorsi, and Atoderes, are planted : and behind them the
Sauromatides, Amazons, already pointed out. The Rivers of
Albania, which fall into the Sea, are Cassios and Albanos :
and then Carnbises, which hath its Head in the Caucasian
Mountains : and soon after Cyrus, which ariseth out of the

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 113

Mountains Corax, as is before said. Agrippa writeth that
this whole Coast, from the lofty and inaccessible Mountains
of Caucasus, containeth 425 Miles. Beyond the Cyrus, the
Caspian Sea beginneth to take that Name ; and the Caspii
dwell there. And here the error of many is to be corrected,
even of those who were lately with Corbulo in Armenia with
the Army : for they called those Gates of Caucasus, of which
we spoke before, the Caspian Gates of Iberia : and the Maps
and Descriptions which are painted and sent from thence,
have that Name written on them. Likewise the threatening
of Prince JVero, when he sought to gain those Gates, which
through Iberia lead into Sarmatia, made mention of the
Gates Caspise ; which had scarcely any Passage by reason
of the Mountains so closely approaching each other. There
are other Gates near the Caspian Sea, that join upon the
Caspian Nations, which could not have been distinguished
from the other but by the relation of those that accompanied
Alexander the Great in his Expeditions. For the Kingdoms
of the Persians, which at this day we take to be those of
the Parthians, are elevated between the Persian and Hir-
canian Seas upon the Mountains of Caucasus ; in the Descent
of which on both sides bordering upon Armenia the Greater,
and on that part of the front which vergeth to Comagene, it
joineth (as we have said) with Sephenise : and upon it bor-
dereth Adiabene, the beginning of the Assyrians : Arbelitis,
which is nearest to Syria, is a part of this: where Alexander
vanquished Darius. All this Tract the Macedonians surnamed
Mygdonia,1 from its resemblance. The Towns Alexandria ;
and Antiochia, which they call Nisibis : from Artaxata it is
750 Miles. There was also Ninus,2 seated upon the Tigris,
looking towards the West, and in Times past highly re-
nowned. But on the other Side, where it lieth toward the
Caspian Sea, the Region Atropatenc, separated by the River
Araxes from Oterie in Armenia : its City, Gazse, is 450 Miles

1 From its resemblance to a part of Greece of that name, with which
they were well acquainted.— Wern. Club.
8 The ancient Nineveh. — Wern. Club.
VOL. II. I

114 History of Nature . [BooK VI.

from Artaxata : and as many from Ecbatana of the Medes,
some part of which the Atropateni hold.

CHAPTER XIV.
Media, and the Gates Caspice.

ECBATANA, the head of Media, was founded by King
Seleucus : and it is from Seleucia the Great 750 Miles : and
from the Caspian Gates 20. The other Towns of the Medes
are Phausia, Agamzua, and Apamia, named also Rhaphane.
The Straits there, (called the Caspian Gates,) have the same
reason for being so named as the other (by Caucasus) ; be-
cause the Mountains are broken through with so narrow
a Passage, that hardly a single line of Carts is able to pass
it for the Length of Eight Miles : and all done by the hand
of Man. The Cliffs that hang over on the right Side and on
the left are as if they were scorched : through a silent Tract
of 38 Miles ; for all the Moisture running together out of
those Cliffs, and pouring through the Straits, obstructs the
Passage. Besides, the Multitude of Serpents prevents Tra-
velling except in Winter.

CHAPTER XV.
Nations about the Hircanian Sea.

UNTO Adiabene are joined the Carduchi, so called in
Times past, and now Cordueni ; along which the Tigris
runneth ; and on them the Pratitse border, called also Pare-
doni, who hold the Caspian Gates. On the other side of
whom you meet with the Deserts of Parthia, and the Moun-
tains of Cithenus : and beyond these is the most pleasant
Tract of the same Parthia, called Choara. There stand two
Cities of the Parthians, formerly opposed against the Me-
dians : namely, Calliope ; and Issatis, situated in times past
upon another Rock. The Capital of Parthia itself, lleca-
tompylos, is from the (Caspian) Gates 133 Miles. Thus the
Kingdoms of the Parthians are shut up by Doors. When

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 115

passed out of these Gates, presently we enter on the Cas-
pian Nation, which reacheth as far as the Sea-shore, and
gave the Name to the Gates and the Sea. The left hand is
full of Mountains : and from this Nation backward to the
River Cyrus, is by report 220 Miles. From that River, if
you would go higher up to the Gates, it is 700 Miles. And
from this starting-place began Alexander to reckon his
Journeys : making from those Gates to the Entrance of
India, 15,680 Stadia : from thence to the Town of Bactra,
which they call Zariaspa, 3700, and thence to the River
Jaxartes five Miles.

CHAPTER XVI.
Other Nations also.

FROM the Caspian Country eastward, lieth the Region
called Zapanortene,1 and in it Daricum, a place celebrated
for Fertility. Then come the Nations of the Tapyri, Anariaci,
Stauri, and Hircani, at whose Coasts the same Sea beginneth
to take the Name Hircanum, from the River Syderis. About
it are the Rivers Mazeras and Stratos, all issuing out of
Caucasus. Then follows the Region Margiana, famous for
its warm Sunshine, and the only place in all that quarter
which yieldeth Vines. It is environed with pleasant Moun-
tains, for the compass of 1500 Stadia: difficult of approach
by reason of the Sandy Deserts for the space of 120 Miles;
and it is situated over against the Tract of Parthia, wherein
Alexander had built Alexandria ; which being destroyed by
the Barbarians, Antiochus the Son ofSeleucus rebuilt it in the
same place, upon the River Margus, which runneth through
it, together with another River Zotale, and it was called
Syriana.2 But he desired rather that it should be named
Antiochia. This City containeth in Circuit 70 Stadia:
and into it Orodes, after the Slaughter of Crassus and his
Army, brought his Roman Prisoners. Being past the high
Country (Margiana), you come to the Nation of the Mardi,

1 Some copies read Zapauortene and Apauortene. — Wern. Club.

2 Or rather Seleucia.

] 16 History of Nature. [BooK VI.

a Fierce People, subject to none; they inhabit the Rocky
Summits of Caucasus, which reach as far as to the Bac-
trians. Beyond that Tract are the Nations Ochani, Chomari,
Berdrigei, Hermatotrophi, Bomarci, Commani, Marucsei,
Mandrueni and latii. The Rivers Mandrus and Gridinus.
Beyond, inhabit the Chorasmii, Gandari, Attasini, Paricani,
Sarangae, Parrasini, Maratiani, Nasotiani, Aorsi, Gelse, whom
the Greeks called Cadusii, and the Matiani. The Town
Heraclea, built by Alexander, which afterwards was over-
thrown : but when it was repaired again by Antiochus, he
named it Achais. The Derbices, through the midst of whose
Borders runneth the River Oxus, which hath its Beginning
from the Lake Oxus : the Syrmatae, Oxii, Tagae, Heniochi,
Bateni, Saraparse, and the Bactri, with their Town Zariaspe,
called afterwards Bactrum, from the River (Bactra) ; this
Nation inhabiteth the back parts of the Mountain Paropa-
misus, over against the Source of the River Indus ; and it is
inclosed by the River Ochus. Beyond are the Sogdiani;
the Town Panda ; and in the utmost Borders of their Terri-
tory is Alexandria, built by Alexander the Great. There are
the Altars erected by Hercules and Liber Pater, also by
Cyrus, Semiramis, and Alexander : the very end of all their
Voyages in that part of the World being included within the
River Jaxartes, which the Scythians call Silys: Alexander
and his Soldiers thought it had been the Tanais. Demonax,
a General of the Kings Seleucus and Antiochus, passed over
that River, and set up Altars to Apollo Didymceus. And
this Demonax for the most part we follow.

CHAPTER XVII.
The Scythian Nation.

BEYOND (the Realm Sogdiana) inhabit the People of the
Scythians. The Persians called them in general Sacas, from
a People adjoining, and the Ancients Aramei. The Scythians
for their part called the Persians, Chorsari : and the Moun-
tain Caucasus, they called Graucasus, that is to say, White

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 117

with Snow.1 The People are exceedingly numerous : as
much so as the Parthians. The principal People of Scythia
are the Sacse, Massagetae, Dahse, Essedones, Ariacae, Rhym-
nici, Pesici, Amordi, Histi, Edones, Camee, Camacse, Eu-
chatse, Corieri, Antariani, Pialae, Arirnaspi, formerly called
Cacidiri, Assei, and Oetei. The Napsei and Apellsei who
dwelt there, are said to have perished. The noble Rivers of
those People are Mandagrseus and Caspasius. And surely
there is not a Region wherein Geographers vary as they do
in this : and I believe this to proceed from the very great
number of those Nations, and their wandering to and fro.
Alexander the Great reporteth that the Water of the Scy-
thian Sea is fresh and potable ; and M. Varro saith that
Pompey had such Water brought to him when he carried on
the War in that Neighbourhood against Mithridates: by
reason, no doubt, of the great Rivers that fall into it, which
overcome the Saltness of the Water. Varro saith also, that
during this Expedition of Pompey to the Bactri it was known
that it is but seven Days' Journey from India to the River
Icarus, which runneth into the Oxus : and that the Mer-
chandise of India, transported by the Caspian Sea, and so
to the River Cyrus, may be brought in not more than five
Days by Land as far as to Phasis in Pontus. Many Islands
lie all over that Sea : but one above the rest is Tazata ; for
thither all the Shipping from the Caspian Sea and the Scy-
thian Ocean bend their Course, the Sea-coasts being all
turned to the East. The first part of this is uninhabitable,
from the Scythian Promontory, by reason of the Snow : and
the next Regions to this are left uncultivated because of the
Fierceness of those Nations that border upon it. The An-
thropophagi are in Scythia, who live on Man's flesh.2 This
is the cause why there are nothing there but vast Deserts,

1 The Emodus or Imaus of Pliny (a word which in the language of
the inhabitants signifies snowy,) derived its origin immediately from the
Ilimaleh of the Hindoos ; which really signifies in their language " snowy,"
or more strictly speaking, "the seat of snow." — Quarterly Review^ vol. xxiv.
p. 103. — Wern. Club.

2 We find a further account of this people, whom the ancients regarded
with horror, in the 7th Book, c. 2. The nation referred to was probably

History of Nature. [BoOK VI.

with a multitude of Wild Beasts, lying in wait for Men as
savage as themselves. Then again the Scythians ; and again
a Wilderness full of Wild Beasts, as far as to the craggy
Mountain overlooking the Sea, called Tabis. Almost one-half
of the length of that Coast, which looketh toward the East,
is uninhabited. The first of the People that are known are
the Seres,1 famous for the fine Silk that their Woods yield.
They collect from the Leaves of the Trees their hoary Down,
and when it is steeped in Water they card it; wherein our
Women have a double Labour, both of undoing and again of
weaving this kind of Thread : with so much Labour and so
far away is it sought after, that our Matrons when they go
abroad in the street may shine with Transparency. The
Seres are a mild People, but they resemble Beasts, in that they
fly the Company of other People2 when they desire inter-

the Samoieds, in the north of Russia : their name signifying people who
eat each other ; but the word has long survived the practice it described.
Ovid speaks of such a people seated near the place of his exile on the
Euxine :

" UK quos audis hominum gaudere cruore."

TRIST. 1. 4., explained by AGELL. ix. 4. — Wern. Club.

1 There can be no question that the people here referred to are the
Chinese, who are again mentioned in the 22d chapter. It was a pardon-
able error to suppose that silk was the produce of a tree, instead of being
the production of a creature which fed on it ; but it appears that the
Romans were at great pains in disentangling the woven texture, that
it might again be formed into garments which better suited their taste
or habits. Martial speaks of this material under the name of Bombycina
(Apophoreta, 24), and from his account it was of very fine texture, and
probably expensive. When it was worn, the hair was bound up into a
knot and fastened with a gold pin, in order that it might not soil so
exquisite a dress. It permitted the beauty of form and colour to be seen
through its substance.

" Fo3mineum lucet sic per bombycina corpus :"
So female beauty shines through woven silk.

Epig. B. 8. 68.

See book ii. c. xxii. where Pliny corrects the errors of this chapter. —
Wern. Club.

2 Even at this day they set abroad their wares with the prices, upon
the shore, and go their ways : then the foreign merchants come and lay
down the money, and have away the merchandise ; and so depart with-
out any communication at all.

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 119

course with them. The first River known among them is
Psitaras : the next Carabi : the third Lanos : beyond which
the Promontory, the Gulf Chryse, the River Cymaba, the
Bay Attanos, and the Nation of the Attaci, a kind of People
secluded from all noisome Wind by pleasant Hills, with the
same Temperature that the Hyperboreans live in. Of this
People, Amonetus hath specially written a Book ; as Hera-
taus hath done of the Hyperboreans. Beyond the Attacores
are the Thyri and Tochari, and then the Casiri, who now
belong to the Indians. But they withinland, that lie toward
the Scythians, feed on Man's Flesh. The Nomades of
India likewise wander to and fro. Some write that they
border upon the very Ciconians and Brysanians on the North
Side. But there (as all agree) the Mountains Emodi arise,
and the Nation of the Indians beginneth, lying not only by
that Sea, but also on the Southern, which we have named
the Indian Sea. And this part opposite the East, stretcheth
straightforward to that place where it beginneth to bend
toward the Indian Sea; and it containeth 1875 Miles.
Then that Tract which is bent towards the South taketh
2475 Miles (as Eratosthenes hath set down), even to the
River Indus, which is the utmost limit of India Westward.
But many others have set down the whole Length of India
in this manner ; that it requireth 40 Days and Nights' Sail-
ing ; and also, that from the North to the South is 2750
Miles. Agrippa saith that it is 3003 Miles Long, and
2003 Broad. Posidonius hath measured it from the North-
east to the South-east ; and by this means fixeth it directly
opposite to Gaul, which he likewise measured along the
West Coast, from the North-west point where the Sun goeth
down at Midsummer, to the South-west, where it setteth
in the midst of Winter. He teacheth also, by very good
Reasons, that this West Wind, which from opposite bloweth
upon India, is very healthful for that Country. The Indians
have a different Aspect of the Sky from us. Other Stars rise
in their Hemisphere. They have two Summers in the Year ;
two Harvests : and their Winter between hath the Etesian
Winds blowing instead of the Northern Blasts with us. The

120 History of Nature. [BooK VI.

Winds are mild with them, the Sea navigable, the Nations
and the Cities innumerable, if any one would take in Hand
to reckon them all. For India hath been discovered, not
only by the Arms of Alexander the Great, and of other
Kings his Successors (for Seleucus and Antiochus, and their
Admiral Patrocles, sailed about it, even to the Hircan and
Caspian Seas) : but also other Greek Authors, who abode
with the Kings of India (as Megasthenes, and Dionysius, who
was sent thither for this purpose by Plriladelphus) have
made relation of the Forces of those Nations. And further
Diligence is to be employed, considering they wrote of
Things so various and incredible. They who accompanied
Alexander the Great in his Indian Voyage have written,
that in that Quarter of India which he conquered, there
were 5000 Towns, not one of them less than (the City) Cos :
and -nine Nations. Also that India is a third Part of the
whole Earth r1 that the People in it were innumerable. And
this they delivered with good Appearance of Reason : for the
Indians were almost the only Men of all others that never
went out of their own Country. They collect that from the
Time of Father Liber to Alexander the Great, there reigned
over them 154 Kings, for the Space of 5402 Years and three
Months. The Rivers are of wonderful bigness. It is reported
that Alexander sailed every Day at least 600 Stadia upon the
River Indus, and yet it took him five Months and some few
Days to reach the end of that River, although it is allowed to
be less than the Ganges. Also, Seneca, one of ourselves, who
laboured to write Commentaries on India, hath made Report
of 60 Rivers therein, and of Nations, 118. It would be as
great a Labour to reckon up the Mountains. Imaus, Emo-
dus, Paropamisus, parts of Caucasus, join together ; from
which the whole passes into a very extensive Plain, like to
Egypt. But to shew the Continent, we will follow the Steps
of Alexander the Great. Dwgnetus and J3eton, the Mea-
surers of the Journeys of that Prince, have written, that from

1 "India, a third part of the whole earth;" which is near the truth,
although it contradicts what Pliny says in the 33d chapter of this Book.
— Wern. Club.

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 121

the Caspian Ports to Hecatompylos of the Parthians, there
are as many Miles as we have set down already. From
thence to Alexandria Arion, which City the same King
founded, 562 Miles: from whence to Prophthasia of the
Drangse, 199 Miles : and so forward to the Town of the
Arachosi, 515 Miles. From thence to Orthospanum, 250
Miles : thence to the Town of Alexandria in Opianum, 50
Miles. In some Copies these Numbers are found to differ :
this City is situated at the very Foot of Caucasus. From
which to the River Chepta, and Pencolaitis, a Town of the
Indians, are 227 Miles. From thence to the River Indus
and the Town Taxila, 60 Miles : to the noble River Hy-
daspes, 120 Miles: to Hypasis, a River of no less account,
4900, or 3900 j1 which was the End of Alexanders Voyage :
but he passed over the River, and on the opposite Bank he
dedicated Altars. The Letters also of the King himself
agree to this. The other Parts of the Country were sur-
veyed by Seleucus Nicator: to Hesidrus, 168 Miles : to the
River Joames as much ; and some Copies add five Miles
more : from thence to the Ganges, 112 Miles : to Rhodapha,
119; and some say, that between them it is .325 Miles. From
it to the Town Calinipaxa 167 Miles and a half, others say
265. Thence the Junction of the Rivers Jomanes and
Ganges 625 Miles, and many put thereto 13 Miles more:
from thence to the Town Palibotra 625 Miles. To the Mouth
of the Ganges 638 Miles. The Nations which it is not irk-
some to name, from the Mountains Emodi, of which the
Promontory is called Imaus, which signifieth in the Lan-
guage of the Inhabitants, Snowy :2 there are the Isari, Cosyri,
Izgi, and upon the very Mountains, the Ghisiotosagi : also
the Brachmanse,3 a Name common to many Nations, among
whom are the Maccocalinga?. Rivers, Pumas and Cainas,

1 " Ad Hypasin non ignobiliorcm xxix. mill, cccxc. Hoc est novem et
viginti milliaria cum trecentis et xc. pass." — Note in the Regent Edition.
—Wern. Club.

2 Seep. 117.

3 If these were a sect of the Gymnosophists, they are referred to by
Plutarch in his life of Alexander ; but Pliny seems to be of opinion that

122 History of Nature. [BooK VI.

the latter of which runneth into the Ganges, and both are
navigable. The Nations called Calingse are close upon the
Sea ; but the Mandei and Malli, among whom is the Moun-
tain Mall us, are above them ; and then is the Ganges, the
farthest Bound of all that Tract.

CHAPTER XVIII.
The River Ganges.

SOME have said that the Fountains of the Ganges are
uncertain, like those of the Nilus ; and that it overfloweth the
neighbouring Countries in the same manner. Others have
said that it issueth out of the Mountains ofScythia. There
run into it nineteen Rivers : of which, besides those before-
named, there are navigable, Canucha, Varna, Erranoboa,
Cosaogus, and Sonus. Some report that the Ganges pre-
sently breaketh out to a great Magnitude from its own
Sources with great Violence, falling down over steep and
craggy Rocks : and when it is arrived in the flat arid even
Country, that it taketh Shelter in a certain Lake ; and out of
it carrieth a gentle Stream, 8 Miles broad where it is nar-
rowest: and 100 Stadia over for the most part, but 160
where it largest : but in no Place under 20 Paces deep.

CHAPTER XIX.

The Nations of India.

THE first Nation is that of the Gandaridae; the Region of
the Calingae is called Parthalis. The King hath in readiness
for his Wars 80,000 foot, 1000 Horsemen, and 700 Ele-
phants. The other Nations of the Indians are of different
Conditions and milder Habits. Some apply themselves to
Tillage : others are devoted to War : one Sort export their

several separate people are so denominated. They are probably the same
as those mentioned in the 19th chapter, as being always prepared for a
yoluntary death. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 1 23

own Commodities to other Countries, and bring foreign
Merchandise into their own. Those that are the richest and
most worthy manage the affairs of the State, distribute Jus-
tice, or sit in Council with the Kings. A fifth Kind there is
besides, in great repute, and given wholly to the Study of
Wisdom and Religion ; and these make profession of being
always ready for a voluntary Death : and they end their
Days on a great funeral Fire, which they have prepared
beforehand. Besides all these, one Thing there is amongst
them half Savage, and full of exceeding Toil, and yet by
which all the Estates abovesaid are maintained ; which is the
practice of bunting and taming Elephants. It is with them
they plough their Ground, upon them they ride : these are
the best Cattle they know : with them they go to War, and
contend in defence of their Frontiers. In the choice of them
for War they consider their Strength, their Age, and Bigness
of Body. There is an Island in the Ganges of great size,
containing one Nation, named Modogalica. Beyond it are
seated the Modubse, Molindse, where standeth the fruitful
and stately City Molinda ; the Galmodroesi, Preti, Calissae,
Sasuri, Fassalpe, Colubse, Orxula3, Abali, and Taluctse. The
King of these Countries hath in Arms 50,000 Foot, 3000
Horsemen, arid 400 Elephants. Then comes the stronger
Nation of the Andarae, with many Villages, and with 30
Towns, fortified with Walls and Towers. These maintain
ready to serve the King 100,000 Foot, 2000 Horsemen,
and 1000 Elephants. The Dardae are the richest in Gold;
and the Setae, in Silver. But above all the Nations of India
throughout, and not of this Tract only, the Prasii far exceed
in Power and Reputation ; and the largest and richest City,
Palibotra, from whence some have named this Nation, yea,
and all the Country generally beyond Ganges, Palibotros.
Their King keepeth continually in pay 600,000 Footmen,
30,000 Horsemen, and 9000 Elephants, every Day. Whereby
you may guess the mighty Wealth of this Prince. Beyond,
more within, inhabit the Monedes and Suari, who possess
the Mountain Maleus : in which, for six Months, the Sha-
dows in Winter fall northward ; and in Summer, south-

124 History of Nature. [BooK VI.

ward.1 The Polar Stars in all that Tract are seen but once
in the Year, and that only for 15 Days ; as Beton maketh
report: but Megasthenes writeth, that this is usual in other
Parts of India also. The South Pole is called by the Indians
Dramasa. The River Jomanes runneth into the Ganges
through Palibotros, between the Towns Methora and Cyriso-
borca. Beyond the River Ganges, in that quarter which lieth
southward, the People are coloured by the Sun : but though
tinted, yet not so burnt as the Ethiopians. And the nearer they
approach to the Indus, the deeper coloured they are with the
Sun : for closely beyond the Nation of the Prasii is the In-
dus : among whose Mountains the Pigmrei are reported to
inhabit. Artemidorus writeth, that between these two Rivers
there is a Distance of 21 Miles.

CHAPTER XX.
The River Indus.

THE Indus, which the People of that Country call Sandus,
issueth out of that top of the Mountain Caucasus, which is
called Paropamisus : it taketh its Course against the Sun-
rising, and receiveth 19 Rivers. Among these the principal
are Hydaspes, which bringeth with it four more : and Can-
tabra, conveying three. Moreover, of such as are of them-
selves navigable, Acesines and Hypasis : and yet so modest
is the Course of its Waters, that in no place is it either above
50 Stadia over, or deeper than 15 Paces.2 This River
encloseth a very great Island named Prasiane, and another
that is less, which they call Patale. They that have written
it with the least, say that it is navigable for 1240 Miles ;
and turning with the Course of the Sun, it keepeth him com-
pany westward, until it is discharged into the Ocean. The
Measure of the Coast to it I will set down generally as I find
it written : although there is no Agreement among Writers

1 The reader is referred to the concluding chapter of this Book for a
more particular account of the climates and the direction of the shadows.
—Wern. Club.

3 That is, seventy-five feet.— Wern. Club.

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 125

concerning it. From the Mouth of the Ganges to the Cape
Calingon, and the Town Dandagula, are 725 Miles : from
thence to Tropina, 1225 Miles. Then to the Promontory of
Perimula, where is the chief Town of Merchandise in all
India, 750 Miles: from which to the abovesaid Town Patale,
within the Island, 620 Miles. The Mountain Nations be-
tween it and Jomanes are the Cesi and the savage Catreboni :
next to them the Megallae, whose King hath 500 Elephants ;
and of Foot and Horsemen an uncertain number. The
Chrysei, Parasangze, and Asangae, are full of Tigers: they
arm 30,000 Foot, 800 Horsemen, and 300 Elephants. The
Indus shuts them in, and they are enclosed with a crown of
Mountains and Wildernesses for (525 Miles. Beneath these
Deserts are the Dari and Surge ; and then again Deserts for
188 Miles, compassed about for the most part with Banks of
Sands, like Islands in the Sea. Under these Deserts are the
Maltecorae, Singae, Marobae, Rarungee, Moruntes, Masuae,
and Pagungae. Now for those who inhabit the Mountains,
which in a continual range without interruption stand upon
the Coasts of the Ocean, they are free and subject to no
Kings, and many Cities they hold among these Mountains.
Then come the Naraese, enclosed within the highest Mountain
of all the Indian Hills, Capitalia. On the other side of this
the Inhabitants dig extensively in Gold and Silver Mines.
Then you enter upon Oratura, whose King hath indeed but
10 Elephants, but a great abundance of Footmen; and the
Varetatae, who under their King keep no Elephants, trusting
to their Horsemen and Footmen. The Odomboerae and
Salabastrae ; the beautiful City Horata, fortified with Fosses
and Marshes : through which the Crocodiles, on account of
their greedy Appetite for Men's Bodies, will suffer none to
pass into the Town, but over the Bridge. Another Town
there is among them, of great Name : Automela, standing
on the Sea-side : a noble resort of Merchants, by reason of
five great Rivers which meet all there in one confluence.
Their King possesseth 1600 Elephants, 150,000 Footmen,
and 5000 Horsemen. The King of the Charmse is poor ; he
possesseth 60 Elephants, and his Power is otherwise small.
Beyond them are the Pandse, the only Nation of the Indians

126 History of Nature. [BOOK VI.

which is governed by Women. One of this Sex, they say,
was begotten by Hercules, in which regard she was the better
accepted, and was appointed over the greatest Kingdom.
Those who draw their Origin from her have Dominion
over 300 Towns, and the Command of 150,000 Foot, and
500 Elephants. Beyond this Realm are the Syrieni, con-
taining 300 Cities ; the Derangae, Posingae, Buzse, Gogyarei,
Umbrae, Nereae, Prancosi, Nobundae, Cocondae, Nesei, Peda-
tritse, Solobriasae, and Olostrae, touching on the Island1
Patale : from the utmost Shore of which Island unto the
Gates Caspiae, are reckoned 18,025 Miles. Again, on this
side the River Indus, over against them, as appeareth by
evident Demonstration, there dwell the Amatae, Bolingae,
Gallitalutae, Dimuri, Megari, Ordabse, and Mesae. Beyond
them, the Uri and Sileni ; and then Deserts for 250 Miles ;
which being passed over, there are the Organages, the
Abaortae, Sibarae, and the Suertae : and beyond these a Wil-
derness as great as the former. Again, the Sarophages,
Sorgae, Baraomatae, and the Gumbritae; of whom there are
thirteen Nations, and each one hath two Cities. The Aseni
inhabit three Cities : their capital City is Bucephala, built in
the very Place where King Alexander s horse, called Buce-
phalus, was buried. Above them are the Mountaineers
below the Caucacus, named Soleadae and Sondrae : and hav-
ing passed the Indus, going along its Banks are the Sama-
rabriae, the Sambruceni, the Brisabritae, Osii, Antixeni, and
Taxillae, with a famous City called Amandra : from which all
that Tract now lying plain within the Country is named
Amandra. Four Nations there are : the Peucolaitae, Arsa-
galitae, Geretae, and Asoi : for many set not down the River
Indus as the limit westward ; but add four Provinces
(Satrapae): Gedrosi, Arachotae, Arii, and Paropamisadae.

CHAPTER XXI.
Tlit Arii and the Nations adjoining*

OTHER Writers prefer the opinion, that the utmost limit
is the River Cophetes, all which quarters are within the Ter-

1 Babul.

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 127

ritory of the Arii : and most of them affirm that the City
Nysa, as also the Mountain Merus consecrated to Father
Liber, belong to India. This is that Mountain from which
arose the Fable, that he sprung from the Seed of Jupiter.
Likewise (they assign to India) the Country of the Aspagonse,
so plentiful in Vines, Laurels, and Box, and generally all
sorts of Fruits that grow in Greece. Many wonderful, and
in a manner fabulous things, they report of the Fertility of
that Land, of the sorts of Fruits, of Trees bearing Cotton, of
Wild Beasts, of Birds, and other Creatures : which I will
reserve for their proper places in another part of this Work.
Those four Satrapies, which I mentioned before, I will speak
of presently: for now I hasten to the Island Taprobane.
But there are other Isles first, as Patalse, which we have
noted to lie in the very Mouth of the River Indus, of a
Triangular figure, 220 Miles in Breadth. Without the
Mouth of the Indus, two other Islands, Chryse and Agyre,
abounding, as I suppose, in Gold and Silver Mines ; for I
cannot easily believe, that the Soil there is all Gold and
Silver, as some have reported. Twenty Miles from them is
Crocala: and twelve Miles further Bibaga, abundant in
Oysters and other Shell-fishes. Then, nine Miles beyond
it, Toralliba sheweth itself, and many other petty Islands.

CHAPTER XXII.
The Island Taprobant.1

IT hath been for a long time thought that Taprobane was
another World under the appellation of the Antichthones.
But from the time of Alexander the Great, and the inter-
course in those parts, it was discovered to be an Island.
Oneslcratusj the Admiral of his Fleet, hath written, that the
Elephants bred in this Island are bigger and better fitted for
War than those of India. Megasthenes saith, that there is
a River which divideth it, arid that the Inhabitants are called

1 This is now generally concluded to be the island of Ceylon, in the
East Indies, now subject to British dominion. — Wern. Club.

128 History of Nature. [BooK VI.

Palgeogoni: that it affordeth more Gold and bigger Pearls
than the Indian. Eratosthenes also took the Measure
of it, in length 7000 Stadia, and in breadth 5000 : that
there are no Cities, but Villages to the number of 700. It
beginneth at the Sea Eoos, from which it extendeth
between the East and West of India : and in times
past was believed to lie out into the Sea from the Prasian
Nation twenty Days' Sailing. But afterwards, because the
Vessels and Rigging used upon this Sea in the Passage
thither were made of Paper Reeds, like those of the River
Nile, the Voyage was estimated, by comparison with our
Ships, at about seven Days. All the Sea tying between
is full of Shallows, no more than five Fathoms Deep ; but in
certain Channels it is so deep that no Anchors will reach the
Bottom: and so narrow are these Channels, that a Ship
cannot turn within them ; and therefore, to avoid the neces-
sity of turning, the Ships have Prows at both ends. In
Sailing, there is no Observation of the Stars. The North
Pole is never seen : but they carry with them Birds, which
they send off at intervals and follow their Course, as they
fly to Land : neither used they go to Sea for more than
three Months in the Year ; and for one hundred Days from
the Solstice they take most heed ; for at that time it is Win-
ter with them. And thus much we know by relation of
ancient Writers. But we obtain better Intelligence, and
more accurate Information, by Ambassadors who came out
of that Island, in the reign of Claudius, which happened
after this manner. A Freed-man of Annius Plocamus, who
had Farmed from the Exchequer the Customs of the Red
Sea, as he sailed about the Coasts of Arabia, was driven with
the North Winds beyond the Realm of Carmania, and in the
Space of 15 Days he reached an Harbour of that Country,
called Hippuros. He found the King of that Country so
courteous, as to afford him Entertainment for six Months.
And as he used to discourse with him about the Romans and
Caesar, he recounted to him at large of all things. But
among many other Reports that he heard, he wondered most
at their Justice, because their Denarii of the Money which

BOOK V [ .] History of Nature. ] 29

was taken were always of the same Weight, although the
different Images shewed that they were made by different
Persons. And hereupon especially was he moved to seek
for the Friendship of Rome ; and so despatched four Ambas-
sadors, of whom Rachias was the chief. From them it be-
came known that there were five hundred Towns in it ; and
that there was a Harbour facing the South, lying conve-
niently near the Town Palesimundum, the principal City of
all that Realm, and the King's Seat ; that there were
200,000 common Citizens : that within this Island there was
a Lake called Magisba, 270 Miles in Circuit, containing in
it some Islands fruitful in nothing but Pasturage. Out of
this Lake issued two Rivers ; the one, Palesimundas, pass-
ing near to the City of the same Name, and running into the
Harbour with three Streams ; of which the Narrowest was five
Stadia Broad, and the largest fifteen ; the other Northward
towards India, by Name Cydara : also that the next Cape of
this Country to India is called Colaicum, from which to the
nearest Port (of India) is counted four Days' Sailing : in the
midst of which Passage, there lieth the Island of the Sun.
They said, moreover, that the Water of this Sea was of a
deep green Colour; and, what is still more extraordinary,
full of Trees growing within it :1 so that the Pilots with
their Helms broke off the" Crests of those Trees. They won-
dered to see the Stars about the North Pole (Septentriones)
and Vergiliae, as if it had been a new Heaven. They confessed
also they never saw, with them, the Moon above the Earth
before it was eight Days old,2 nor after the sixteenth Day.
That the Canopus, a great and bright Star, used to shine all
Night with them. But the thing that they were most sur-
prised at was, that they observed the Shadow of their own

1 Branched corals, beyond a doubt. — Wern. Club.

2 It is surprising to find an author so intelligent as Pliny relating
such extraordinary circumstances as these ambassadors from Ceylon
reported without any animadversion ; and particularly that he takes no
notice of what they said concerning the appearance of the moon, as such
a phenomenon could not take place in any region of the earth.— Wern.
Club.

VOL. IT. K

130 History of Nature. [Boox VI.

Bodies to fall toward our Hemisphere, and not to theirs ;
and that the Sun rose on their Left Hand and set on their
Right, rather than contrary wise. Furthermore they related,
that the Front of that Island which looked toward India
contained 10,000 Stadia, and reached from the South-east
beyond the Mountains Emodi. Also, that the Seres were
within their Sight, with whom they had Acquaintance by
Merchandise : and that the Father of Rachias used many
times to travel thither: affirming, moreover, that if any
Strangers came thither, they were assailed by Wild Beasts :
and that the Inhabitants themselves exceeded the ordinary
Stature of Men, having red Hair, blue Eyes, their Voice
harsh, their Speech not fitted for any Commerce. In all
things else their Practice is the same as that of our Mer-
chants. On the farther side of the River, when Commodi-
ties are laid down near the Things for Sale, if the Exchange
please them they take them away, and leave the other Mer-
chandise in lieu thereof: with a juster Hatred of Luxury
than if the mind shall consider what and whence it is sought
for, and to what end. But even this Island Taprobane,
seeming, as it were, to be separated by Nature from all the
World, is not without the Vices with which we are tainted.
For Gold and Silver are even there also highly esteemed :
and Marble, especially if it be fashioned like a Tortoise-shell.
Gems and Pearls also, of the better sort, are in great honour :
and the Abundance of our Luxury. These Ambassadors said
that their Riches were greater, but that we had more use of
them. They affirmed, that no Man with them had any
Slaves ; neither slept they after Day-light, nor in the Day-
time : that the Manner of Building their Houses is low, that
the Price of Victuals did not fluctuate ; and there were no
Courts, or going to Law. Hercules is worshipped. Their
King is chosen by the People, if he is aged, merciful, and
childless; but if he should have Children afterward, then he
is deposed, in order that the Kingdom may not become here-
ditary. He hath thirty Governors assigned to him by the
People : and no Person can be condemned to Death unless
by the Majority of them : and even then he may appeal to

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 131

the People. Seventy Judges are deputed to sit upon his
Cause; and if it happen that they acquit him, then the
thirty who condemned him are ever displaced from their
Dignity, with a very severe Rebuke. The King is adorned
like Liber Pater : hut others in the habit of Arabians. If
the King offend in any thing, Death is his Punishment : but
no Man doeth Execution. All Men turn away from him,
and deny him any Intercourse, of even a Word. They are
destroyed during a solemn Hunting, which, it appears, is
exceedingly agreeable to the Tigers and Elephants. They
cultivate their Ground diligently. They do not use Vines ;
but all sorts of Fruits they have in Abundance. They also
take Pleasure in Fishing, and especially in taking Tortoises :
and so great are they found there, that one of their Shells
serves to cover a House. They count a hundred Years no
long Life. Thus much we have learned concerning Tapro-
bane. It remaineth now to say somewhat of those four
Satrapies, which we put off to this Place.

CHAPTER XXIII.
Capissend, Carmania.

BEYOND those Nations which border nearest on the River
Indus, the Mountain Portions of Capisssene possess the City
Capissa, which Cyrus destroyed. Arachosia, with a City,
and a River also of that Name ; which City some have called
Cophe, founded by Queen Semiramis. The River Her-
mandus, which runneth by Abest£, of the Arachosians. The
next, which confront Arachosia southward, toward part of the
Arachotae, are the Gedrosi ; and on the North side the Paro-
pamisadae. The Town Cartana, named afterwards Tetra-
gonis, is at the foot of Caucasus. This Region lieth over
against the Bactriani : then its principal Town Alexandria,
named from its Founder: Syndraci, Dangulae, Parapiani,
Cantaces, and Maci. At the Hill Caucasus standeth the
Town Cadrusi, built likewise by Alexander. Below all these
Regions lieth the Coast of the Indus. The Region of the
Arians, scorched with parching Heats, and environed with

132 History of Nature. [BooK VI.

Deserts : but many shadowy Places lie between. Cultivators
are assembled especially about the two Rivers, Tonderos and
Arosapes. The Town Artaccana. The River Arms, which
runneth by Alexandria, built by Alexander. The Town con-
taineth in Compass 30 Stadia. Artacabane, as much more
ancient as it is more beautiful, which by Antiochus the King
was walled the second time, and enlarged to 50 Stadia.
The Nation of the Dorisci. The Rivers Pharnacotis and
Ophradus. Prophtasia, a Town of the Zarasparae. The
Drangse, Argetae, Zarangae, and Gedrusi. Towns Peucolais
and Lymphorta ; the Desert of the Methoricori ; the River
Manais ; the Nation of the Augutturi. The River Borru ;
the People Urbi ; the Navigable River Ponamus, in the
Borders of the Pandse. Also, the River Ceberon, in the
Country of the Sorarse; with many Harbours in its Mouth.
The Town of Condigramma ; the River Cophes ; into which
run the Navigable Rivers, Sadarus, Parosphus, and Sodinus.
Some will have the Country Daritus to be a part of Ariana,
and they set down the Measure of them both to be in Length
1950 Miles, and in Breadth less by half than India. Others
have said that the Country of the Gedrusi and Scyri con-
tairieth 183 Miles. Being past which, are the Ichthyophagi,
surnamed Oritse, who speak not the proper Indian Tongue,
for 200 Miles. And beyond it are situated the People of the
Arbians, for 200 Miles. Those Ichthyophagi Alexander for-
bade to feed on Fish.1 Beyond them are the Deserts; and
then comes Carmania, as well as Persis, and Arabia. But
before we treat distinctly of these Countries, I think it meet
to set down what Onesicritus (who having the conduct of the

1 Fish was a favourite diet, among the people bordering on the
Mediterranean Sea \ and therefore- the objection of Alexander could not
be to this, simply as an article of food. It may be supposed that various
tribes living on the sea-coast were accustomed to feed on this diet alone,
on the principle of caste or sect, thereby rendering themselves exclusive
in their communications with others. To remove such barriers to civilis-
ation may be supposed to have been the prevailing motive with Alex-
ander in this edict ; which regulated rather than forbade the use of a
wholesome article of food. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. T33

Fleet of Alexander, sailed out, of India, about the Mediter-
ranean parts of Persis) reporteth, according to the Informa-
tion which came lately from Juba : in like manner this
Navigation in these years ascertained, is even at this day pre-
served. The Reports made by Onesicritus and Nearchus of
their Navigation possess neither the Distance nor the Names
of the several Resting-places. And to begin with Xylene-
polis, built by Alexander, from which they entered first on
their Voyage, it is not satisfactorily put down by them, either
in what Place it is situated, or near what River. Yet these
Particulars are by them reported worthy the Remembrance :
as that in this Voyage Nearchus founded a Town : that
the River Nabrus is able to bear great Vessels : overagainst
which there is an Island, at the Distance of 70 Stadia :
that Leonatus founded Alexandria in the Frontiers of
that Nation, by Commandment of Alexander ; Argenus is a
safe Harbour: that the River Tuberum is navigable, around
which are the Paritse. After them the Ichthyophagi, who
occupy so long a Tract, that they were 20 Days in Sailing
along by their Coasts. The Island of the Sun, named also
the Bed of the Nymphs, is red, and in which almost every
Creature is consumed for no certain cause. The Origens :
Hytanis, a River in Carmania, with many Harbours, and
Plenty of Gold. And here first they observed that they had
a sight of the North-pole Star (Septentriones). The Star
Arcturus they saw not every Night, nor at any Time all
Night long. Furthermore, the Archaemenides reached thus
far : and they found Mines of Copper, Iron, Arsenic, and Ver-
milion : then is the Cape of Carmania : from which to the
Coast overagainst them of the Macae, a Nation of Arabia, is
50 Miles. Three Islands, of which Organa only is inhabited,
having Abundance of Fresh Water, and distant from the Con-
tinent 25 Miles : four Islands in the very Gulf before Persia.
About these Islands Sea Serpents, twenty Cubits long, as they
came swimming toward them, put the Fleet in great Terror.
The Island Acrotadus : likewise the Gauratse, wherein the
Nation of the Chiani inhabit. In the middle of the Persian
is the River Hiperis, able to bear Ships of Burden, The

1 34 History of Nature. [ BOOK V I .

River Sitiogagus, upon which a Man may pass in seven Days
to the Pasargadee. A River that is Navigable called Phir-
stimus, and an Island without a Name. The River Granius.,
which runneth through Susiane, carrieth hut small Vessels.
Along the Right Bank of this River dwell the Deximontani,
who prepare Bitumen. The River Oroatis, with a difficult
Mouth, except to skilful Pilots: two little Islands. Past
which, the Sea is very shallow, like a Marsh, but there are
some Channels wherein they may sail. The Mouth of the
Euphrates. The Lake which the Eulseus and Tigris make,
near to Characis. Then on the Tigris, Susa. There they
found Alexander keeping Feast-days of Festivity in the
seventh Month after he had parted from them at Patalae,
and the third Month of his Voyage. And thus much con-
cerning the Voyage of Alexanders Fleet. Afterwards
from Syagrus, a Promontory in Arabia, it was counted to
Patale 1332 Miles, and that the West Wind, which the
people of that Country call Hypalus, was thought most pro-
per to sail with to the same Place. The Age ensuing dis-
covered a shorter and safer Course ; namely, if from the said
Promontory they set their Course directly to the River Zize-
rus, an Harbour in India. And in truth this Passage was
sailed for a long time, until at length a Merchant found out
a more compendious Course, and India was brought near
for Gain : for every Year they sailed thither, and because
Pirates very much infest them, they embark in their Ships
Companies of Archers. And because all these Seas are now-
first certainly discovered, it is not amiss to shew the whole
Course from Egypt. It is worthy to be observed, that there
is not a Year but it costs our State to furnish into India,
500,000 Sesterces, (fifty millions of Sesterces.) For which
the Indians send back Merchandise, which at Rome is
sold for a hundred times as much as it cost. From Alex-
andria it is two Miles to Juliopolis : from whence on the
Nilus they sail 303 Miles to Coptus, which may be done in
twelve Days, with the Etesian Winds blowing. From Cop-
tus they travel upon Camels ; and for the sake of Water
there are Places appointed for Lodging. The first is called

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 135

Hydreuma, 32 Miles. The second, one Day's Journey, in a
Mountain. The third, at another Hydreuma, 95 Miles from
Coptus. The fourth, again, in a Mountain. Again, at the
Hydreuma of Apollo, from Coptus, 184 Miles. Again, in a
Hill. And then to Hydreuma the New, from Coptus, 234
Miles.1 There is another called Hydreuma the Old, named
also Troglodyticum, where, two Miles out of the direct way, is
a Garrison, four Miles distant from New Hydreuma. From
thence to the Town Berenice, where is an Harbour of the
Red Sea, 258 Miles from Coptus. But as the Journey is for
the most part performed by Night, because of the excessive
Heat, and Travellers rest all the Day, twelve Days are set
down for the whole Journey between Coptus and Berenices
They begin to sail at Midsummer, before or close upon the
rising of the Dog-star ; and in about 30 Days they arrive at
Ocelis in Arabia, or else at Cana, within the Country of In-
cense. A third Port there is besides, called Muza, to which
there is no Resort of the Merchants of India : neither by any
but Merchants that traffic in Incense and Spices of Arabia.
The Indus hath Towns.2 Its Region is called Saphar : and
another called Sabe. But for them that would make a
Journey to the Indians, the most commodious place from
whence to set forward is Ocelis : for from thence, and with
the West Wind called Hypalus, they have a passage of forty
Days' Sailing to the first Town of Merchandise in India,
called Muziris. However, this Port is not to be ventured
in, because of the neighbouring Pirates, which keep ordi-
narily about a place called Hydrae; and it is not richly
stored with Merchandise. And moreover, the Station of the
Ships is far from the Land, so that they must convey their
Wares in little Boats which they use for the purpose. At
the time when this Account was written, the King that
reigned there was named Celebothras. There is another
Harbour that is more commodious, belonging to the Nation

1 So as it appeareth that every day's journey was about thirty-two
miles.

2 This is an unfinished sentence, perhaps from the author's not being
able to obtain the names of these towns. — Wern. Club.

136 History of Nature. [ BOOK, VI.

Necanidon, which they call Becare : the King's Name at
present is Pandion ; far off is another Town of Merchandise
within the Land, called Modusa. The Region from whence
they transport Pepper in small Lighters made of one piece
of Wood to Becare, is named Cotona : of all which Nations,
Ports, and Towns, there is not a Name found in any of the
former Writers. By which it appeareth, that there hath
been great Change in these places. From India, our Mer-
chants return in the Beginning of our Month December,
which the Egyptians call Tybis : or at farthest before the
Sixth Day of the ^Egyptian Month Machiris, which is before
our Ides of January : and by this reckoning they may pass
and return within the compass of One Year. When they
sail from India they have the (North-East) Wind, Vulturnus,
with them : and when they have entered into the Red Sea,
the South or South-west. Now will we return to our pro-
posed Discourse concerning Carmania : the Coast of which,
after the reckoning of Nearchus, may take in Circuit 12,050
Miles. From its Beginning to the River Sabis is 100 Miles;
from whence as far as to the River Andanin, are Vineyards
and Corn-fields, well cultivated. The Region is called Ar-
muzia. The Towns of Carmania are Zetis and Alexandria.
In this part the Sea breaketh into the Land in two Arms ;
which our Countrymen call the Red Sea,1 and the Greeks
Erythrseum, from a King named Erythras: or (as some
think) because the Sea, by reason of the Reflexion of the Sun,
seemeth of a reddish colour. Others suppose that this Redness
is occasioned of the Sand and Ground, which is Red: and others
again, that the very Water is of its own nature so coloured.

CHAPTER XXIV.
The Persian and Arabian Gulfs.

THIS Red Sea is divided into Two Gulfs, That from the
East is named the Persian Gulf, and is in Circuit 2500 Miles,

1 Another reason for the name is to be found in Esau, the son of the
patriarch Isaac, and whose dominion was on its borders. Bruce and others
have advanced opinions with regard to the origin of the name of this cele-
brated sea ; but its most ancient name may be rendered the Weedy Sea.
- Wern. Club,

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 137

by the computation of Eratosthenes. Overagainst this Gulf
is Arabia, which is in Length 1200 Miles. On the other
side there is another called the Arabian Gulf, which runneth
into the Ocean, called Azanius. The Mouth of the Persian
Gulf is Five Miles wide, though some have made it but
Four. From this to its deepest recess, by a straight Course,
is known to be 1125 Miles; and it is fashioned like a Man's
Head. Onesicritus and Nearchus have written, that from
the River Indus to the Persian Gulf, and from thence to
Babylon by the Marshes of the Euphrates, is 2500 Miles.
In an angle of Carmania the Chelonophagi inhabit, who feed
on the Flesh of Tortoises, and cover their Cottages with their
Shells. They inhabit from the River Arbis to the very Cape,
they are Hairy over all their Body except their Heads, and
wear no other Garment but Fish-skins.

CHAPTER XXV.
The Island Cascandrus : and the Kingdoms of the Parthians.

BEYOND this Tract of the Chelonophagi, toward India,
there lieth, Fifty Miles within the Sea, the Island Cascan-
drus, by report all desert ; and near it, with an Ann of the
Sea between, another Island called Stois ; having a lucrative
Trade in Pearls. Beyond the Cape of Carmania, you enter
upon the Armozei. Some say, that the Albii are between
both ; and that their Coasts contain in the whole 402 Miles.
There are the Port of the Macedonians, and the Altars of
Alexander on the very Promontory itself. The Rivers Saga-
nos, and then Daras, and Salsos : beyond which is the Cape
Themistheas, and the Island Aphrodisias, which is inhabited.
Then beginneth Persis, which extendeth to the River Oroatis,
that divideth it from Elymais. Overagainst Persis, these
Islands, Philos, Cassandra, and Aratia, with an exceeding
high Mountain in it : and this Island is consecrated to Nep-
tune. Persis itself, westward, hath the Coasts lying out in
Length 450 Miles. The People are Rich, even to Luxury;
and long since they are become subject to the Parthians, and
have- lost their own Name. We will briefly now speak of

1 38 History of Nature. [BooK VI .

their Empire. The Parthians have in all Eighteen Realms
under them : for so they divide the Provinces about the
Two Seas, as we have said, the Red Sea lying southward,
and the Hircan Sea, toward the north. Of these Eleven,
which are called the Higher Provinces, take their beginning
from the Border of Armenia, and the Coasts of the Caspian ;
and they reach to the Scythians, with whom they have equal
Intercourse on the other side. The other Seven are called
the Lower Provinces. As for the Parthians, their Land
always lay at the Foot of those Mountains of which we have
so often spoken, which enclose all those Nations. It hath
on the East the Arii, and southward Carmania and the
Ariani ; on the west side the Pratitse and Medi ; and on
the North the Hircani ; and is compassed about with Deserts.
The farthest Nations of the Parthians are called Nomades :
beyond the Deserts their Cities toward the West, are Issaris
and Calliope, of which we have written before ; but toward
the North-east, Europum ; and South-east, Mania. In the
Midland the City Hecatompylos, and Arsacia. The noble
Region of Nyssea in Parthyenes, where is Alexandropolis,
(so called) from its Founder.

CHAPTER XXVI.
Media, Mesopotamia, Babylon, and Seleucia.

IT is needful in this place to describe the Situation of the
Medi, and to discover the Face of those Countries, as far as
to the Persian Sea, in order that the Description of other
Regions may be the better understood. For Media on the
West runneth obliquely, confronteth the Parthise, and en-
closeth both these Realms. Therefore on the East side it
hath the Parthians and Caspians : on the South, Sittacene,
Susiane, and Persis ; Westward, Adiabene ; and Northward,
Armenia. The Persians always dwelt about the Red Sea, on
which account it was called the Persian Gulf. The Mari-
time Coast thereabout is called Cyropolis, and that part
which bordereth upon the Medes Elymais. There is a Place
called Megala, in the ascent of a steep Mountain, through a

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 139

narrow Passage by Steps to Persepolis, the Head of the
Kingdom, and destroyed by Alexander. Moreover, in the
Frontiers standeth Laodicea, built by King Antiochus.
From thence towards the East the Magi hold the Castle of
Passagardae, wherein is the Tomb of Cyrus. Also the Town
Ecbatana belonging to the Magi, which Darius the King
caused to be translated to the Mountains.1 Between the
Parthians and the Ariani are extended the Paraeraceni.
These Nations and the River Euphrates serve to limit the
lower Realms. Now are we to discourse of the Parts
remaining of Mesopotamia ; setting aside one point thereof,
and the People of Arabia, whereof we spoke in the former
Book. All Mesopotamia belonged to the Assyrians, dis-
persed in Villages, except Babylon and Ninus. The Mace-
donians collected it into Cities on account of the goodness of
their Soil. Besides the above-named Towns, it hath Seleucia,
Laodicea, and Artemita : likewise within the Nation of the
Arabians named Aroei and Mardani, Antiochia : and that
which, being founded by Nicanor, Governor of Mesopotamia,
is called Arabis. Upon these join the Arabians, but within
the Country are the Eldamarii. Above them is the Town
Bura, situated upon the River Pelloconta ; beyond which are
the Salmani and Masei, Arabians. Then there join to the
Gordisei the Aloni, by whom the River Zerbis passeth, and so
is discharged into the Tigris. The Azones and Silices, Moun-
taineers, together with the Orentes ; on the side of whom the
Town Gaugamela. Also Sue among the Rocks ; above are
the Sylici and Classitae, through whom the Lycus runneth
out of Armenia. Toward the South-east, Absittis, and the
Town Azochis. Presently in the Plains the Towns Diospage,
Polytelia, Stratonicea, and Anthemus. Nicephorion, as we
have already said, is seated near the River Euphrates, where
Alexander caused it to be founded, for the convenient Situ-
ation of the Place. Of the City Apamia we have before

1 Pliny's statement as to the building of the palace, and indeed the
whole city of Shushan, by Darius Hystaspes, is contradicted by all Greek
and Oriental writers, who represent the city as extremely ancient — vide
"Home."— Wem. Club.

•

140 History of Nature. [Boox VI.

spoken in the Description of Zeugma : from which they that
go eastward meet with a strong fortified Town, formerly
in Compass 65 Stadia, and called the Royal Palace of their
Satraps, to which they hrought Tributes ; but now it is
formed into a Castle. But there continue still as they
were, Hebata and Oruros, unto which, by the Conduct of
Pompey the Great, the Bounds of the Roman Empire were
extended ; and it is from Zeugma 250 Miles. Some Writers
say that the Euphrates was divided by a Governor of Meso-
potamia, and one Arm of it brought to Gobaris ; which was
done lest the River should endanger the City of Babylon.
They affirm, moreover, that the Assyrians generally called it
Armalchar,1 which signifieth a Royal River. On the Place
where it is turned there stood Agrani, one of the greatest
Towns of that Region, which the Persians utterly destroyed.
Babylon,2 the Capital of the Chaldean Nations, for a long-
time possessed an illustrious Name through all the World : in
regard of which the other Part of Mesopotamia and Assyria
was named Babylonia : and embracing 60 Miles. The Walls
were 200 Feet in Height, and 50 broad : reckoning to every
Foot three Fingers' Breadth more than our ordinary Mea-
sure. Through the midst passeth the River Euphrates : with
a wonderful Work, on both Sides. To this Day the Temple

1 Or rather, Nahal Nalca, L e. the King's River.

2 Herodotus, in the first book of his history, describes this most
splendid of cities ; the walls of which were classed among the wonders of
the world. But contrary to the report by which Pliny professes to be
guided, this ancient Greek author represents them to have been built in
the form of a square ; and although the lapse of time may have caused a
variety of changes to take place in other particulars regarding this city,
we can scarcely suppose that these changes can have extended to the
dimensions or situation of its stupendous walls ; by which alone its form
would be influenced. It is surprising that among the authors which
Pliny had consulted in drawing up his account of these regions, he makes
no mention of this illustrious Greek writer, though he quotes him in
other places. Philostratus, Solinus, Diodorus, Quintus Curtius, and
more especially the Bible, may be consulted for a variety of curious par-
ticulars regarding this eminent and powerful city, whose walls and
splendour are now buried in a desert. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 141

of Jupiter Belus continueth there entire. He was the first
Discoverer of the Science of the Stars. Nevertheless it is
reduced to a Desert, having been exhausted by Seleucia,
which standeth near it : and which was for that very purpose
built by Nicator within the Fortieth Stone, at the Place of
meeting of the New Channel of Euphrates with the Tigris :
nevertheless it is named Babylonia, a free State at this Day,
of independent Jurisdiction; but they live after the Man-
ners of the Macedonians. And by report there are 600,000
common Citizens. The Position of the Walls, by report, is
in the form of an Eagle spreading out her Wings : and the
Soil is the most Fertile in all the East. The Parthians,
again, to exhaust this City, built Ctesiphon within the Third
Stone from it, in Chalonitis ; which now is the Head
of the Kingdom. But when it advanced nothing, King
Vologesus founded another Town near it, called Vologeso
Certa. There are also in Mesopotamia the Cities Hyp-
parenum, a City likewise of the Chaldaeans, and ennobled
for Learning, and, as well as Babylon, situated near the
River Narraga, which gave the Name to the City. The
Persians destroyed the Walls of this Hypparenum. There are
also in this Tract the Orcheni, toward the south ; and a Third
Sect of the Chaldaeans. Beyond this Region are the Notitae,
Orthophantae, and Graeciochantae. Nearchus and Onesi-
critus report, That from the Persian Sea to Babylon, by the
Voyage up the Euphrates, is 412 Miles. But later Writers
count from Seleucia 490 Miles. Juba writeth, that from
Babylon to Charax is 175 Miles. Some affirm that beyond
Babylon the River Euphrates floweth in one Channel 87
Miles, before it is divided to water the Country : its entire
Course being 1200 Miles. This variety in Authors is the cause
of the Uncertainty of the Measure, considering that even the
very Persians agree not about the Dimensions of their
Schceni and Parasangae, but have different Measures of them.
Where the River Euphrates ceaseth to defend by its own
Channel, at the portion approaching the Border of Charax,
there is great danger of the Robbers called Attalae, a Nation
of the Arabians. Beyond them are the Scenitae. The Arabian

142 History of Nature. [BooK VI.

Nomades occupy the circuit of the Euphrates, as far as to the
Deserts of Syria : from which place we said that it turned
into the South, abandoning the Deserts of Palmyra.1 From
the beginning of Mesopotamia to Seleucia, by sailing on the
Euphrates, is 1125 Miles ; and from the Red Sea, if you go
by the Tigris, 320 Miles ; from Zeugma 527 Miles ; and to
Zeugma from Seleucia in Syria, upon the Coast of our Sea,
is 175 Miles. This is the Breadth there of the Land between
the two Seas. The Kingdoms of Parthia contain 944 Miles.
Finally, there is a Town of Mesopotamia on the Bank of the
Tigris, near where the Rivers meet, which they call Digba.

CHAPTER XXVII.
The River Tigris.

IT is also convenient to say somewhat of the River Tigris
itself. It beginneth in the Region of Armenia the Greater,
issuing out of a great Source in the Plain. The place beareth
the Name of Elongosine. The River itself, so long as it run-
neth slowly, is named Diglito ; but when it beginneth to be
rapid, it is called Tigris, which in the Median language sig-
nifieth a Dart. It runneth into the Lake Arethusa, which
beareth up all that is cast into it; and the Vapours that arise
out of it carry Clouds of Nitre. In this Lake there is but
one kind of Fish, and that entereth not into the Channel of
the Tigris as it passeth through ; as likewise the Fishes of
the Tigris do not swim out into the Water of the Lake. In
its Course and Colour it is unlike the other : and when it is
past the Lake and meeteth the Mountain Taurus, it loseth
itself in a Cave, and so runneth under, until on the other

1 This is Tadmor in the wilderness, built by Solomon, king of Israel,
and further illustrious from being the city where the critic Longinus was
the prime minister of the Queen Zenobia. It is now truly in a wilder-
ness, but is still celebrated for its remains of antiquity : chiefly of Greek
construction. There are many streams coming down from the adjacent
mountains, and there can be no doubt that if a settled tribe fixed
themselves there, the tract would become as fine an oasis as erer. —
Wern. Club.

BOOK VI .] History of Nature. \ 43

Side it breaketh forth again in a Place which is called Zoro-
anda. That it is the same River is evident by this, that it
carrieth through whatever was cast into it. After this second
Spring, it runneth through another Lake, named Thospites,
and again taketh its Way under the Earth through Gutters,
and 25 Miles beyond it is returned about Nymphaeum.
Claudius Caesar reporteth, that in the Country Arrhene, it
runneth so near to the River Arsanias, that when they both
swell they join, but without mingling their Water; for Arsa-
nias, being the lighter, floateth over the other, for almost the
Space of four Miles ; but soon after they part asunder, and it
turneth its Course toward the River Euphrates, into which
it entereth. But Tigris receiving the famous Rivers out of
Armenia : Parthenis, Agnice, and Pharion, so dividing the
Arabians, Aroeans, and the Adiabeni, and by this means
making, as we have said, Mesopotamia to be an Island, after
it hath passed by and viewed the Mountains of the Gordiaei,
near Apamia, a Town of Mesene on this side Seleucia, sur-
named Babylonia, 125 Miles. Dividing itself into two Chan-
nels, with the one it runneth southward to Seleucia, watering
the Country of Mesene ; and with the other it windeth to
the north, on the back of the said Mesene, and cutteth
through the Plains of the Cauchians. When these two
Branches are united again, it is called Pasitigris. After this
it receiveth out of Media the Coaspes ; and so passing be-
tween Seleucia and Ctesiphon, as we have said, it poureth
itself into the Lakes of Chaldsea, which it replenisheth with
Water for the Compass of threescore and ten Miles : which
done, it issueth forth, gushing out with a very great Stream,
and on the right of the Town Charax is discharged into the
Persian Sea, by a Mouth ten Miles over. Between the
Mouths of these two Rivers were 25 Miles, or, as some say,
seven : and both of them were navigable. But the Orcheni
and other neighbouring Inhabitants long since turned the
Course of Euphrates aside to water their Fields, insomuch
that it is conveyed into the Sea, only through the Tigris.
The next Country bordering upon the Tigris is called Para-
potamia : in it is Mesene, of which we have spoken. Its

144 History of Nature. [ BOOK VI.

Town is Dibitach. Chalonitis is joined with Ctesiphon, noble
not only with Date-trees, but also with Olive, Apple, and
Pear-trees, and generally with all sorts of Fruit. Unto this
Country extendeth the Mountain Zagrus, coming out of Ar-
menia, between the Medes and Adiabeni, above Paraetacene
and Persis. Chalonitis is distant from Persis 480 Miles.
Some write, that by the nearest Way it is so much from the
Caspian Sea to Assyria. Between these Nations and Mesene
lieth Sittacene, the same that is called Arbelitis and Pales-
tine. The Towns therein are Sittace of the Graecians, toward
the east, and Sabata ; but on the West, Antiochia, between
two Rivers, Tigris and Tornadotus. Also Apamia, which
Antiochus so called after his Mother's Name. This City
is environed with the River Tigris, and divided by the River
Archous. Somewhat lower is Susiane, wherein (is) Susa,
the ancient Region of the Persians, founded by Darius, the
Son of Hystaspes ; and from Seleucia Babylonia, it is distant
450 Miles ; and as much from Ecbatana of the Medes,
through the Mountain Charbanus. Upon that Channel of
the Tigris which taketh its Course northward, standeth the
Town Babytace : and from Susa it is 135 Miles. The People
of this Country are the only Men in the World that hate
Gold : and they bury it, that it may serve for no use to any
one. To the Susiani eastward are joined the Cossiaei Rob-
bers, and forty Nations of the Mizsei, free and wild. Above
these lie the Parthusi, Mardi, Saitae, and Hyi, who are
spread abroad above Elemais, which joineth to the maritime
Coasts of Persis, as is above said. Susa is from the Persian
Sea 250 Miles. On that Side where the Fleet of Alexander
came up the Pasitigris, there standeth a Village upon the
Lake Chaldais, named Aphle : from which to Susa is 65|
Miles by Water. The next that border upon the Susiani
eastward are the Cossaei ; and above the Cossaei northward
lieth Mesobatene, under the Mountain Cambiladus, which is
a Branch of the Caucasus : and from thence is the most easy
Passage to the Bactri. The River Eulaeus maketh a Parti-
tion between Elimais and Susiane. This River riseth in the
Country of the Medi, and in the midst of its Course loseth

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 145

itself in the Ground ; but rising again, and running through
Mesobatene, it passeth round the Castle of the Susi and the
Temple of Diana, the most august Temple among those
Nations : and the very River itself is ceremoniously re-
garded : so that the Kings drink of no other, and therefore
they carry it to a great distance. It receiveth the River
Hedypnus, which corneth along by the Asylum of the Per-
sians, and one from among the Susiani. A Town there is near
it, called Magoa, 15 Miles from Charax. Some place this Town
in the utmost Borders of Susiana, close to the Deserts. Be-
neath Eulaeus lieth Elymais, joining to Persis on the Sea-
coast ; it is 240 Miles from the River Oroates to Charax. The
Towns in it are Seleucia and Sositare, situated upon the
Mountain Casyrus. The Coast which lieth before it is, as
we have said before, no less dangerous than the Lesser Syrtes,
because of the Mud and Slime which the Rivers Brixia and
Ortacea bring down; and Elimais itself is so moist that
there is no Way to Persis but by taking a Circuit about
it. It is also much infested with Serpents, which those
Rivers bring down : but that part of it is the least passable
which they call Characene, from the Town (Charax), which
limiteth the Kingdoms of Arabia : of which we will speak
by and by, after we have set down the Opinion ofM.Agrippa;
for he hath written, that Media, Parthia, and Persis, are
bounded on the East by the Indus ; on the West, by the
Tigris ; on the North, by the Taurus and Caucasus ; and on
the South, by the Red Sea : also, that they extend in Length
1320 Miles, and in Breadth 840. Moreover, that Mesopo-
tamia by itself is enclosed eastward by the Tigris, westward by
the Euphrates ; on the North by the Taurus, and on the South
by the Persian Sea; being in Length 800 Miles, and in
Breadth 360. Charax is the inmost Town of the Persian
Gulf, from which Arabia, called Eudaemon (happy) runneth
forth in Length; it is situated upon a Mount artificially
raised between the Confluence of Tigris on the right Hand,
and Eulseus on the left : with an Expansion of three Miles.
It was first founded by Alexander the Great ; who, having
drawn Colonists out of the royal City Durine (which then

VOL. II. L

146 History of Nature. [BOOK VI.

was ruined), and leaving there behind him those Soldiers
which were not fit for service, ordained that this Town should
be called Alexandria ; and the District about it, Pellseum,
from his native Country : and he peopled it only with Mace-
donians. This Town was destroyed by the Rivers. After-
wards, Antiochus, the fifth of the Kings, rebuilt it, and
named it from himself. But when it was injured again,
Spasines, Son of Sogdonacus, King of the adjoining Arabians,
and not (as Juba reporteth) a Lord (Satrap) under Antiochus,
restored it by Moles opposite each other, and called it after
his own Name. He thus fortified the Site of it three Miles in
Length and little less in Breadth. At the beginning it stood
upon the Sea-coast, being from the Water-side ten Stadia ;
and even from thence it hath false Galleries : but by the
Report of Juba, in his Time, 50 Miles. At this Day the
Arabian Ambassadors, and also our Merchants that come from
thence, affirm it is from the Sea-shore 125 Miles : so that it
cannot be found in any Place that the Earth hath gained
more, or in so short a Time by means of the Mud brought
down by Rivers. And it is the more wonderful, that the
Tide which riseth far beyond this Town doth not carry it
away again. In this very Town I am not ignorant that
Dionysius, the latest of our modern Geographers, was born :
whom Divus Augustus sent before into the East to write a
Description of whatever he found, for the Information of his
elder Son, who was about to proceed into Armenia, in an
Expedition against the Parthians and Arabians. It has not
escaped me, nor is it forgotten, that in my first Entrance into
this Work, I professed to follow those who had written of
their own Countries, as being the most diligent in that be-
half. Nevertheless, in this Place I choose rather to follow
the Roman Officers that have warred there, and King Juba,
in Books written to C. Ccesar (Caligula) concerning the
aame Arabian Expedition.

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 147

CHAPTER XXVIII.

Arabia, Nomades, Nalatcei, and Omani: the Islands Tylos
and Ogyris.

ARABIA cometh behind none of the Nations for its great
Length and Extent ; for it beginneth at the Descent of the
Mountain Amanus, overagainst Cilicia and Comagen£, as we
have before said ; where it is peopled with many Nations of
them, brought by Tigranes the Great to inhabit that Quarter;
and in old Time it descended naturally as far as to our Sea
and the Egyptian Coast, as we have shewn : yea, and it
extendeth into the midland Parts of Syria to the Mountain
Libanus, where the Hills reach to the very Clouds : to
which are joined the Ramasi ; then the Taranei, and after
them the Patami. The Peninsula itself of Arabia runneth
out between two Seas, the Red and the Persian, by a
certain Workmanship of Nature, resembling Italy in Form
and Magnitude, with its Sea-coasts also in the manner of
Italy. It also regardeth the same Quarter of the Heaven
without any Difference. This Tract, for the rich Seat it
hath, is named Felix (happy). The Nations therein dwell-
ing, from our Sea to the Deserts of Palmyra, we have treated
of already, therefore we pass them by. The Nomades, and
those Robbers that trouble the Chaldseans, the People
called Scenitse, border on it as we have before said ; they also
are Wanderers, but are so called from their Tabernacles,
which they make of Hair-cloths, and they encamp under
them as they please. Being past them you find the Nabatsei,
who inhabit a Town named Petra, in the Valley, little less
than two Miles large ; environed with very steep Mountains,
and having a River running through the midst of it. It
is distant from Gaza (a Town of our Coast) 600 Miles ; and
from the Persian Gulf, 122. And here meet both the High-
ways, that is, the one which Passengers travel to Palmyra in
Syria, and the other wherein they come from Gaza. Beyond
Petra the Omani inhabit as far as to Carax, in the celebrated
Towns built by Semiramis, namely, Abesamis and Soractia.
But now all is a Wilderness, Then come you to a Town

148 History of Nature. [BooK VI.

named Forath, situated upon the Bank of the Pasitigris, and
subject to the King of the Caraceni : to which they resort
from Petra; and from thence to Charax they sail with a
favourable Tide for the Space of twelve Miles. But they
that come by Water out of the Parthian Kingdom, meet with
a Village called Teredon, below the Place where Euphrates
and Tigris meet. The Chaldaeans inhabit the left Bank of
the River, and the Nomades called Scenitse, the right. Some
affirm, that as you sail on the Tigris, you pass by two other
Towns, distant from each other : the one called formerly
Barbatia, and afterwards Thumata, which our Merchants
report to be ten Days' Sail from Petra, and to be subject to
the King of the Characeni : and the other named Apamia,
situated in the Place where the Overflowing of Euphrates
joineth with the Tigris ; and therefore they prevent the In-
vasion of the Parthians, by breaking up the Banks and so
procure an Inundation of the Waters. Now being past Cha-
rax, we will discourse of the Coast first explored by Epi-
phanes. The Place where the Mouth of the Euphrates was.
A River of Salt Water ; the Promontory Chaldone, where the
Sea is more like a Whirlpool than a Sea, for 50 Miles. The
River Achana ; Deserts for 100 Miles, until you come to the
Island Ichara : the Bay Capeus, which the Gaulopes and
Chateni inhabit : the Bay Gerraicus, and the Town Gerra,
five Miles in extent ; and fortified with Towers made of square
Masses of Salt. Fifty Miles from the Sea-side is the Region
Attene : and overagainst it the Island Tylos, as many Miles
from the Shore, with a Town bearing the Name of the Island,
much celebrated for Abundance of Pearls : and not far from
it is another somewhat less, twelve Miles from the Cape of
the aforesaid Tylos. Beyond these there are discovered by
Report some great Islands ; but they have not been visited
by our Merchants. This last Island is 112 Miles and a half
in Circuit, and is far from Persis ; and Access to it is only
by one narrow Channel. The Island Asgilia ; the Nations
Nocheti, Zurachi, Borgodi, Catarsei, and Nomades : the
River Cynos. Beyond that, Juba saith, there is no more
Navigation discovered on that Side, by reason of the Rocks.
He hath made no mention of the Town Batrasabe of the

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 1 49

Omani, nor of Omana, which former Geographers have
held to be a Harbour of great Importance in Carmania.
Also, Omne and Athanae, which our Merchants report to be
at this Day two very famous Towns, frequented from the
Persian Gulf. Beyond the River Canis, as King Juba
writeth, there is a Hill which seemeth all scorched. The
Nations of the Epimaranitae : and soon after the Ichthyo-
phagi : a desert Island ; the Nations Bathymi. The Moun-
tains Eblitaei ; the Island Omcenus ; the Port Machorbae, the
Islands Etaxalos, Onchobrice, the Nation Chadaei. Many
Islands without a Name : but of Importance, Isura, Rhinnea ;
and another very near, wherein are Pillars of Stone inscribed
with unknown Characters. The Port of Goboea; and the
desert Islands Bragae. The Nation of the Thaludsei : the
Region Dabanegoris : the Mountain Orsa, with a Port :
the Bay Duatus, and many Islands. The Mountain Tricory-
phus : the Region Cardalena, the Islands Solanidae, Capina.
Also the Islands of the Ichthyophagi : and after them the
Glari. The Shore called Hamruaeum, where are Gold Mines.
The Region Canauna. The Nations Apitami and Gasani.
The Island Deuadae; the Fountain Goralus; theGarpheti;
the Islands Aleu and Amnamethu. The Nation called
Darrae, the Islands Chelonitis, and many of the Ichthyo-
phagi. The Isle Eodanda, which is Desert, and Basage ;
many others of the Sabaei. The Rivers Thamar and Amnon ;
the Islands Dolicae ; the Fountains Daulotes and Dora ; the
Islands, Pteros, Labanis, Coboris, Sambracate, with a Town
so named on the Continent. On the South side are many
Islands, but the greatest of them is Camari. The River
Mysecros ; the Port Leupas, and the Sabaeans, called Sce-
nitae. Many other Islands ; their Chief Town of Merchandise
is Acila, where the Merchants embark for their Voyage to
India. The Region Amithoscuta, and Damnia. The Mizi,
the Greater and Less : the Drimati and Macae. The Promon-
tory of these People is overagainst Carmania, and distant
from it 50 Miles. A wonderful thing is reported there : that
Numenius, Chief Commander under King Antiochus, over
Mesena, conquered the Navy of the Persians in a Sea-fight,

150 History of Nature. [BOOK VI.

and on the same Day, with the return of the Tide, sub-
dued their Horsemen : in memorial of which he erected in
the same Place two Trophies, one in honour of Jupiter,
and the other of Neptune. Far out at Sea there lieth an
Island called Ogyris, distant from the Continent 125 Miles,
and containing in Circuit 112; much renowned for the
Sepulchre of King Erythra, who was buried there. Another
there is no less famous, called Dioscoridu, in the Sea Aza-
nium ; and it is from Syagrum, the extremest Cape, 280
Miles. There remain yet not spoken of, the Autarides,
toward the South, in the Mountains, which continue for
seven Days' journey : the Nations Larendani, Catabani, and
Gebanitse, who have many Towns, but the greatest are Nagia
and Tarnna, with 65 Temples within it, which is a mark how
great it is. A Promontory, from which to the Continent of
the Trogloditse is 50 Miles. The Toani, Acchitee, Chatra-
motitse, Tomabei, Antidalei, Lexianse, Agrei, Cerbani ; and
Sabaei, of all the Arabians most famous for their Frankin-
cense ; their Nations reaching from Sea to Sea. Their Towns
on the Coast of the Red Sea are Marane, Marma, Corolla,
and Sabatra ; within-land are the Towns Nascus, Cardava,
Carnus, and Tomala, whence they convey their Commodities
of Aromatics. One part of them are the Atramitse, whose
Capital City, Sobotale, had within its Walls Sixty Temples.
But the Royal City of the whole is Nariaba, situated on a
Gulf that reacheth into the Land ninety-four Miles, full of
Islands, having Odoriferous Trees. Upon the Atramitse,
within the Mainland, are joined the Minaei : but the Ela-
mitae inhabit the Sea (Coast), where standeth a City also called
Elamitum. To them are joined the Cagulatae ; and their
Town is Siby, which the Greeks name A pate. Then the
Arsicodani, and Vadei, with a great Town : and the Barasei :
Lichenia, and the Island Sygaros, which Dogs will not enter ;
and if any be put there, they wander about the Shore until
they die. A Deep Bay, in which are the Leanitae, who gave
name to it. Their Royal City is Agra : but Leana, or, as
others have it, ^lana, is in the Bay. And hence our
Writers have called that Bay jElaniticum, which others

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 151

have termed JSlenaticum ; Artemidorus, Aleniticum ; and
Juba, Lseniticum. Arabia is reported to take in Circuit from
Charax to Leana, 4870 Miles ; but Juba thinketh it some-
what less than 4000. It is widest in the North Parts, be-
tween the Towns Herons and Charace. Now it remaineth
that we speak of other Parts within the Midland thereof.
The Ancients joined the Nabataei to the Thimanei ; but at
this Day there are the Tavern, Suelleni, and Sarraceni : the
Town is Arra, wherein all Business is assembled. The He-
rnuatse and Analitae ; the Towns Domada and Erag£ ; the
Thamusians, with their Town Badanatha; the Carrei, and
their Town Chariati ; the Achoali, and their Town Phoda.
Furthermore, the Minaei, descended, as some think, from
Minos, King of Crete ; whose Town Charmaei is 14 Miles (in
Compass) ; Mariaba, Baramalacum, a Town not to be de-
spised; likewise Carnon, and the Rhamei, who are thought
to spring from Rhadamanthus, the Brother of Minos. The
Homeritae, with the Town Massala ; the Hamirci, Gedra-
nitae, Anaprae, Ilisanitae, Bochilitae, Sammei, and Amathei ;
with the Towns, Nessa and Cennesseri. The Zamareni, with
the Towns Saiace, Scantate, and Bacascani ; the Town Rhi-
phearma, which in the Arabian Tongue signifieth Barley ;
also the Autei, Raui, Gyrei, and Marhatsei ; the Helmodones,
with the Town Ebode ; the Agacturi in the Mountains, hav-
ing a Town 20 Miles in Circuit, wherein is a Fountain called
Emischabales, which signifies the Camel's Town ; Ampelone,
a Colony of the Milesii ; the Town Actrida ; the Calingii,
whose Town is named Mariaba, which signifies Lords of all.
Towns Pallon and Murannimal, near a River, by which they
think that the Euphrates springeth forth. The Nations
Agrei and Ammonii ; the Town Athenas ; the Caurarani,
which signifieth very rich in Cattle. The Caranitae, Caesani,
and Choani. There were also Towns in Arabia, held by
Greeks, as Arethusa, Larissa, and Chalcis, which were
destroyed in various Wars. The only Roman until this day
that carried our Arms into those Parts was jElius Gallus, of
the Knightly Order. For Gains Ccesar, the Son of Augustus,
did but look only into Arabia ; but Gallus destroyed Towns,
not named by Authors that wrote before : Egra, Annestum,

152 History of Nature. [BOOK VI.

Esca, Magusum, Tammacum, Labecia, and the above-named
Marieba, in Circuit Six Miles : likewise Caripeta, the furthest
that he went to. The other matters he made report of were,
that the Nomades live on Milk and Wild Animals ; the rest
express Wine, as the Indians do, out of Dates ; and Oil of
Sesama. That the Homerites are the most Populous ; the
Minasi have Fruitful Fields, full of Palm-trees and Vine-
yards, but their Riches is in Cattle. The Cembani and
Arii excel in Arras, but chiefly the Chatramotitse. The
Carseans have the largest Territories and most Fertile
Fields. The Sabsei are Richest in the Fertility of their
Woods, that bring forth Aromatic Gums : also in Mines of
Gold ; having Water to refresh their Lands, and plenty of
Honey and Wax. Of the Spices that come from thence we
will speak in a Book by itself. The Arabians wear Mitres,1
or go with their Hair long ; their Beards they shave, except
on the upper Lip ; and yet some there are that suffer their
Beards to grow long. But one thing is surprising, that out
of such a very great number of People, the one-half live by
Robbery, and the other by Merchandise. On the whole
they are exceedingly rich ; for with them the Romans and
Parthians leave very large Sums, for the Commodities out
of their Woods and Seas which they sell them ; and them-
selves buy nothing of them in return. Now will we speak of
the other Coast opposite to Arabia. Timosthenes hath set
down, that the whole Gulf was from one End to the other
Four Days' Sailing : and from Side to Side, Two Days' ; the
Breadth of the Straits being Seven Miles over. Eratosthenes
saith, that taking the Measure at the very Mouth, it is every
way 1300 Miles.

CHAPTER XXIX.

The Gulf of the Red Sea : likewise of the Trogloditic and
^Ethiopian Seas.

ARTEMIDORUS saith, that the Red Sea toward the side of
Arabia is 1450 Miles : but on the Coast of the Trogloditse 1 1 82,

1 It is a question whether these are not rather turbans, as at present
extensively worn through Asia. — Wern, Club.

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 153

until you come to Ptolemais : but Agrippa 1322, without any
distinction of the Sides. Most Geographers have set down
the Breadth to be 462 Miles : and the Mouth of it against
the Sun-rising in Winter, (i. e. South-west) some say, is 7
Miles Broad ; and others 12. The Situation of it is this :
Beyond the Bay called JElaniticus there is another Bay
which the Arabians call jEant, on which standeth the Town
Heroon. There was also Cambisu, between the Neli and
Marchandae, into which the sick Soldiers were conveyed.
The Nation of Tyra ; the Port Daneon, from which Sesostris,
King of Egypt, was the first that imagined to conduct a
Navigable Channel into the Nile, in that part where it
runneth to the Place called Delta, for the Space of 62
Miles ; which is between the River and the Red Sea. This
Enterprise was followed by Darius, King of the Persians :
and afterwards by Ptolomceus, who also made a Channel
100 Feet in Breadth, and 30 Deep, for Thirty-Seven Miles
and a Half in Length, even to the Bitter Fountains. But
this Design went no farther, through fear of an Inundation :
the Red Sea being found to lie Three Cubits above the Land
of Egypt. Some allege that this was not the true cause,
but that if the Sea were let into the Nile the Water thereof
(of which only they drink) would be corrupted. Never-
theless the Way is well frequented from the Egyptian Sea ;
and there are Three ordinary Ways there : one from Pelu-
sium over the Sands, where, unless Reeds be set up in the
Ground for direction, no Path would be found, because the
Wind bloweth the Sand over the Tracts of the Feet. A
second beginneth Two Miles beyond the Mountain Casius,
which after sixty Miles returneth into the Pelusiac Way.
Here the Arabians called Autei inhabit. The Third begin-
neth at Gereum, which they call Adipson, and passeth
through these same Arabians, being Sixty Miles nearer, but
full of craggy Hills, and altogether destitute of Water. All
these Ways lead to Arsinoe, which was built upon the Gulf
Charandra by Ptolemceus Philadelphus, and bearing his
Sister's Name : and he was the first that searched narrowly
into the Region Trogloditicum ; and the River that passeth

154 History of Nature. [BooK VI.

by Arsinoe he called Ptolemseus. Within a little of this
Place there is a small Town named Aennum, for which
some write Philotera. Beyond them are the Azarei : wild
Arabians from Marriages of the Trogloditee. The Islands
Sapyren£ and Scytala : and within a little, Deserts, unto
Myros-hormos, where is the Fountain called Tadnos ; the
Mountain Eos ; the Island Larnbe, many Harbours ; and
Berenice, a Town bearing the Name of the Mother of Phila-
delphus ; to which there is a Way lying from Coptos, as we
have said : the Arabians called Autei, and Gnebadei. Tro-
gloditice, which the Ancients called Michoe, and others
Midoe : the Mountain Pentedactylos. Certain Islands called
Stenae-de'irse ; and others no fewer in number, named Halon-
nesi : Cardamine, and Topazos, which gave the Name to the
precious Stone. A Bay full of Islands, of which that which
is called Mareu is well supplied with Water : another, called
Eratonos, is altogether Dry. There were Governors there
under the King. Within-land inhabit the Candei, whom
they call Ophiophagi, because they are accustomed to feed
on Serpents; and in truth there is no other Region that
breeds them more than this. Juba, who seemeth to have
very diligently searched into these things, hath omitted in
this Tract (unless there be some fault in his Original), to
speak of a second Berenice, which is denominated Pan-
chrysos ; as also of a third called Epidires, renowned for its
Situation ; for it stands upon a Neck of Land running a long
way, where the Mouth of the Red Sea is not above Four
Miles and a Half from Arabia. There is the Island Cytis,
itself producing Topazes. Beyond this are Woods, where
Ptolemceus, surnamed Philadelphia, built a City for Hunt-
ing the Elephant, near the Lake Monoleus, and named it
Epitheras. This is the Region mentioned by me in the
Second Book; wherein for Forty-five Days before Mid-
Summer, and as many after, at the Sixth Hour of the Day,
no Shadows are to be seen : which being past, all the Day
after they fall into the South ; and on other Days they fall
to the North ; whereas, in Berenice, which we mentioned
first, on the very Day of the Solstice, at the Sixth Hour, the

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 155

Shadows are wholly lost; and otherwise there is nothing
new to be observed for the space of 600 Miles about Ptole-
mais : a thing worthy of observation, and a place of great
Curiosity, that gave great Light to the World ; for Erato-
sthenes, upon this undoubted argument of the Shadows, took
in hand to deduce the Measure of the Earth. Beyond this
is the Sea Azanium, and the Promontory which some have
written by the name of Hispalus ; also the Lake Mandalum ;
the Island Colocasitis, and in the deep Sea many, wherein
are numerous Tortoises. The Town Suchse ; the Island
Daphnis, and the Town Aduliton, built by Egyptian Slaves
who escaped from their Masters. This is the greatest Town
of Traffic of the Trogloditse, as well as of the Egyptians : and
it is (from Ptolemais) Five Days' Sailing. Thither are brought
very much Ivory and Horns of the Rhinoceros, Skins of the
Hippopotamus, Tortoise Shells, Monkeys, and Slaves. Above
are the Ethiopians, called Aroteres : also the Islands named
Aliseu : and Islands named Bacchias, Antibacchias, and
Strathonis; beyond them there is a Gulf in the Coast of
Ethiopia, as yet not known, a thing to be wondered at, con-
sidering that Merchants search into remoter Parts. Also a
Promontory, wherein is a Fountain named Cucios, much
desired by Sailors. Beyond it is the Port of Isis, distant
from the Town of the Adulitse ten Days rowing with Oars :
and thither is Myrrh collected by the Trogloditse. Before
this Harbour are two Islands, named Pseudopylse ; and as
many further within, called Pylse ; in one of them are some
Pillars of Stone, engraved with unknown Characters. Be-
yond this is the Bay Abalites : the Island Diodori, and others
lying Desert. Also along the Continent there is much Wil-
derness ; the Town Gaza ; the Promontory and Port Mossy-
lites, unto which Cinnamon is brought. Thus far marched
Sesostris with his Army. Some Writers place one Town of
Ethiopia beyond this, on the Sea-side, called Baradaza.
Juba would have the Atlantic Sea to begin at the Promon-
tory Mossylites : on which Sea a Man may Sail with a north-
west Wind, by the Coasts of his Kingdoms of Mauritania to
Gades : and the whole of his Opinion cannot be contradicted

156 History of Nature. [BooK VI.

on this point. From a Promontory of the Indians called
Lepteacra, and by others Drepanum, to the Isle of Malchu,
he layeth it down that by a straight Course it is 1500
Miles, beside those Parts that are burnt up. From thence
to a place called Sceneos is 225 Miles : and from it to the
Island Sadanum, 150 Miles : and thus it is made to the open
Sea 1885 Miles. But all other Writers have been of opinion
that there could not be any Sailing on it, for the exceeding
Heat of the Sun. Moreover, the Arabians named Ascitse do
much harm from the Islands to the Trade : for these Ara-
bians join Bottles made of Ox Leather, two and two toge-
ther, as if they were a Bridge, and exercise Piracy by
shooting their Poisoned Arrows. The same Juba writeth,
that there are Nations of the Trogloditae, named Thero-
thoes, from their huntings, of wonderful Swiftness : as
the Ichthyophagi from Swimming, as if they were Water
Creatures. He nameth also the Bargeni, Zagerae, Chalybse,
Saxinse, Syrecae, Daremae, and Domazanes. Also he affirmeth,
that the People inhabiting along the Sides of the Nile, from
Syene to Meroe, are not ^Ethiopians, but Arabians, who for
the sake of Fresh Water approached the Nile, and there
dwelt : as also that the City of the Sun,1 which we said be-
fore in the Description of Egypt, standeth not far from Mem-
phis, was founded by the Arabians. There are some also
who assign the further side of the Nile to Africa and not to
Ethiopia. But leaving every Man to his own Pleasure, we
will set down the Towns on both sides in that order in which
they are declared. And to begin with that side toward
Arabia, after you are past Syene, is the Nation of the Cata-
dupi ; and then the Syenitae. The Towns Tacompson, which
some have called Thatice, Aranium, Sesanium, Sandura,
Nasaudum, Anadoma, Cumara, Beda and Bochiana, Leuphi-

1 " City of the Sun," or Heliopolis. This is the Egyptian city, of
which the father of the patriarch Joseph's wife was priest. It may have
proceeded from the Arabian descent of the people of this place, that the
worship of the sun was more agreeable to the disposition of the minds of
the inhabitants, than that of any of the animal deities, which obtained so
much favour in other cities of Egypt.— Wern. Club.

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 157

thorga, Tantarene, Maechindira, Noa, Gophoa, Gystatae, Me-
geda, Lea, Rhemnia, Nupsia, Direa, Pataga, Bagada, Du-
mana, Rhadata, in which a Golden Cat is worshipped as a
God. Boron in the Midland part, and Mallos, the next
Town to Meroe. Thus hath Bion set them down. But
King Juba hath arranged them otherwise. Megatichos, a
Town on a Mountain between Egypt and Ethiopia, which
the Arabians call Myrson ; next to it Tacompson, Aranium,
Sesanium, Pide, Mamuda, and Corambis ; near it a Fountain
of Bitumen : Hammodara, Prosda, Parenta, Mama, Thes-
sara, Gallae, Zoton, Graucome, Emeum, Pidibotae, Hebdo-
mecontacomertee, and the Nomades, who live in Tents.
Cyste, Pemma, Gadagale, Palois, Primmis, Nupsis, Daselis,
Pads, Gambrenes, Magases, Segasmala, Cranda, Denna,
Cadeuma, Thena, Batha, Alana, Macum, Scammos, and
Gora within a Island. Beyond these Abala, Androcalis,
Seres, Mallos, and Agoce. On the Side of Africa they are
reckoned in this way : another Tacompsos, with the same
Name or perhaps a part of the former : then, Magora, Sea,
Edosa, Pelenaria, Pyndis, Magusa, Bauma, Linitima, Spyn-
tuma, Sydopta, Gensoa, Pindicitora, Eugoa, Orsima, Suasa,
Mauma, Rhuma, Urbubuma, Mulona, which Town the
Greeks call Hypaton ; Pagoargas, Zamnes ; and there begin
the Elephants to come in ; Mamblia, Berresa, Cetuma.
There was formerly a Town named Epis, overagainst Meroe,
but destroyed before Bion wrote. These were recorded until
you come to Meroe ; of which at this Day scarcely anything
is to be found on either side. The remainder is a Wilder-
ness, by report made to the Prince Nero by the Praetorian
Soldiers sent thither from him under the Command of a
Tribune, to make Discoveries : at the time when amongst
his other Wars, he thought of an Expedition against the
Ethiopians. But in the Days of Dwus Augustus, the Roman
Arms penetrated thither under the conduct ofPublius Petro-
nius, a Knight of Rome, and Prefect of Egypt. He con-
quered all those Towns in Ethiopia, which he found in this
order following; Pselcis, Primis, Aboccis, Phthuris, Can-
busis, Attena, Stadissis, where the River Nile casteth itself

158 History of Nature. [BOOK VI.

down with such a Noise that the Inhabitants living close by
lose their Hearing. He won also Napata. He marched
forward a great way into the Country, even 870 Miles be-
yond Syene ; but this Roman Army laid not all Waste in
those parts. It was the Egyptian Wars that wasted Ethiopia ;
sometimes by Ruling, and at others by Servitude ; it was Illus-
trious and Powerful until the Reign of King Memnon, who
ruled in the Time of the Trojan War, so that Syria was sub-
ject to it; as also our own Coast in the Time of King Cepheus,
as appeareth by the Fables of Andromeda. In the same
manner they disagree about the Measure of Ethiopia. And
first, Dalion passing far beyond Meroe ; after him, Arista-
creon, Bion, and Basilis ; also Simonides (the Lesser) who
dwelt in Meroe Five Years, when he wrote of Ethiopia.
Timosthenes, the Admiral of the Fleet of Philadelphus, hath
left in record, that from Syene to Meroe is Sixty Days'
Journey, without particularizing the Measure. But Erato-
sthenes precisely noteth, that it is 625 Miles : Artemidorus,
600. Sebostus affirmeth, that from the Frontiers of Egypt it
is 1675 Miles ; from whence the last rehearsed Writers count
1270. But all this difference is lately determined by the
Report of those Travellers whom Nero sent to Discover those
Countries, who have related that it is 862 Miles from Syene
in this manner : from Syene to Hiera-Sycaminon, Fifty-four
Miles ; from thence to Tama, Seventy-five Miles ; from Tama
to the Euonymites Country, the first of the Ethiopians, 120 ;
toAcina, Fifty-four; to Pitara, Twenty-five; to Tergedum,
106 Miles. That in the midst of this Tract lieth the Island
Gagandus, where they first saw the Birds called Parrots;
and beyond another Island called Attigula they saw Monkeys ;
beyond Tergedum they met with the Creatures Cynocephali.
From thence to Napata Eighty Miles, which is the only
little Town among all the beforenamed ; from which to the
Island Meroe is 360 Miles. They reported, moreover, that
about Meroe, and not before, the Herbs appeared greener ;
and the Woods shewed somewhat in comparison of all the
way besides ; and they espied the Tracts of Elephants and
Rhinoceroses. The Town itself of Meroe was from the

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 159

Entry of the Island Seventy Miles, and just by, there was
another Island called Tatu, which formed a Port for them
that approached by the Channel on the Right. The Buildings
within the Town were few ; the Isle was subject to a Queen
named Candaocc* a name that for many years already hath
passed in succession from one Queen to another. Within
this Town is the Shrine of Hamrnon for Devotion ; and in all
that Tract many Chapels. Finally, so long as the Ethiopians
were powerful this Island was very famous. For by report,
they were accustomed to furnish of Armed Men 250,000, and
to maintain of Artisans 400,000. Also it is at this day reported
that there have beon Forty-five Kings of the Ethiopians.

CHAPTER XXX.
The Manifold and Wonderful Forms of Men?

BUT the Nation in general was in old time called
jEtheria ; 3 afterwards Atlantia ; and finally from Vulcan s
Son jfiEthiops, it took the name of Ethiopia. It is no won-
der, that about the remote Borders of it there are produced
both Men and Beasts of monstrous Shapes, considering the
Agility of the Fiery Heat to frame Bodies and carve them
into strange Shapes. It is reported by some, that far within
the Country eastward there are Nations without Noses, but
having their Visage all Plain and Flat: that others are
without any Upper Lip, and some without Tongues ; also,
there is a kind of them that have the Mouth grown to-
gether, and are without Nostrils ; so that at the same Orifice
only they take in Breath, receive Drink by drawing it in
through an Oaten Straw, and Feed themselves with the
Grains of Oats which grow of their own accord for their
Food. Others there are, who instead of Speech make Signs
by nodding their Heads, and moving their Limbs. There
are also some that before the Time of Ptolemceus Lathyrus

1 See Acts of Apostles, viii. 27.
* See further, Book vii. c. 2.

3 As all Pliny's authors were Greek or Roman, he was ignorant that
a much more ancient name was Gush. — Wern. Club.

160 History of Nature. [BooK VI.

King of Egypt, knew no use of Fire. Some Writers have
reported, that in the Country near the Marshes from whence
the Nile hath its Source there inhabit a Nation of Pygmei.
But where we left off there is a continual range of Moun-
tains, all Red, as if they were Burning. Beyond Meroe
there is a Country lying above the Trogloditue and the Red
Sea ; where Three Days' Journey from Napata toward the
Red Sea, in most places they save Rain Water for their ordi-
nary Use ; all the Country between is very abundant in
Gold. All beyond this Region is Inhabited by the Atabuli,
a People of Ethiopia. The Megabari, whom some have
named Adiabarae, lie overagainst Meroe, and have a Town
bearing the Name of Apollo. Part of them are Nomades,
who live on Elephant's Flesh. Just against them in a part
of Africa are the Macrobii. Again, beyond the Megabari
are the Memnones and Daveli ; and Twenty Days' Journey
from them the Critensi. Beyond them are the Dochi and
the Gymnites, who are always naked. Soon after you find the
Anderae, Mathitae, Mesagebes, Hipporeae, of a Black Colour,
but who paint their Bodies with a kind of Red Chalk called
Rubrica. But upon a part of Africa are the Medimni ; be-
yond then are Nomades, who feed on the Milk of Cynoce-
phali : and the Olabi and Syrbotae, who are reported to be
Eight Cubits high. Aristocreon saith, that on the side of
Libya, Five Days' Journey from Meroe, there is a Town
called Tole ; and Twelve Days' Journey from thence is Esar,
a Town of the Egyptians, who fled from Psammeticus. It is
reported, that they have lived in it for 300 Years ; another
Town of theirs called Daronis, on the opposite side, on the
Coast of Arabia. But that which Aristocreon nameth Esar,
Bion calleth Sapa; and he saith, the very word signifieth
Strangers come from other parts. Their Capital City is
within the Island Sembobitis; and Sai in Arabia is the Third.
Between the Mountains and the Nile are the Symbari and
the Phalanges ; but upon the Mountains themselves live
the Asachae, with many Nations ; and they are by report
Seven Days' Journey from the Sea. They live by Hunting
Elephants. The Island in the Nile, of the Semberritae, is

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 161

subject to a Queen. Eight Days' Journey from thence lieth
the Country of the Ethiopians, named Nubaei. Their Town
Tenupsis is seated upon the Nile. The Sambri, where all
the Four-footed Beasts, and even the very Elephants, are
without Ears. Upon the Border of Africa inhabit the
Ptceambati and Ptoemphanse, who have a Dog for their
King, and they judge of his imperial Commands by his Motion.
Their City is Auruspi, far distant from the Nile. Beyond
them are the Achisarmi, Phaliges, Marigeri, and Casamarri.
Bion says, that beyond Psembobitis, there are other Towns in
the Islands toward Meroc, for Twenty Days' Journey. The
Town of the next Island is Semberritarum, under a Queen ;
another called Asar ; and there is a second Island having in
it the Town Daron ; they call the third Medoe, wherein
stand eth the Town Asel ; and a fourth named Garode, as
the Town is also. Then along the Banks, the Towns, Navos,
Modunda, Andatis, Setundum, Colligat, Secande, Navectabe,
Cuini, Agrospi, ^gipa, Candrogari, Araba, and Summara.
The Region above Sirbitum, where the Mountains end, is
reported by some to have upon the Sea-coast Ethiopians
called Nisicastes and Nisitae, which means Men with Three
and Four Eyes ; not because they are so furnished, but be-
cause they are excellent Archers. Bion affirmeth, moreover,
that from that part of the Nile which stretcheth above the
Greater Syrtes, toward the Southern Ocean, they are called
Dalion, who use Rain-water only; and the Cisori and Lon-
gopori. Beyond Oecalices for Five Days' Journey, the
Usibalci, Isucles, Pharusi, Valii, and Cispii. The rest is
desert. But then he telleth fabulous Tales : as that westward
there are People called Nigro2, whose King hath but one
Eye, and that in the midst of his Forehead : also, there are
the Agriophagi, who live chiefly on the Flesh of Panthers
and Lions; the Pornphagi, who Eat all things; the Anthro-
pophagi, that Feed on Man's Flesh ; the Cynamolgi, who
have Heads like Dogs; the Artabatitae, who wander about
like Four-footed Savage Beasts. Beyond whom are the
Hesperii and Peroesi, who, as we said before, are planted in

VOL. II, M

1C2 History vf Nature. [BOOK VI.

the Confines of Mauritania. In certain parts of Ethiopia
the People live on Locusts only,1 which they preserve with
Salt, and hang up in Smoke to harden, for their yearly Pro-
vision ; and these live not above Forty Years at the most.
Agrippa saith that all the Land of Ethiopia, with the Red
Sea, containeth in Length 2170 Miles: and in Breadth,
together with the higher Egypt, 1291. Some have taken
the Breadth in this manner; from Meroe to Sirbitum,
Twelve Days' Navigation ; from thence to the Davelli, Twelve ;
and from them to the Ethiopian Ocean, a Journey of Six
Days. But on the whole all Writers in a manner agree
that between the Ocean and Meroe it is 725 Miles ; and
from thence to Syene, as much as we have set down before.
The Situation of Ethiopia lieth South-east and South-west.
In the exact South, Woods of Ebony chiefly flourish ; toward
the midst of this Region, there is a lofty Mountain looking
over the Sea, that burneth continually, which the Greeks
call Theon-ochema ; from which it is counted Four Days' Sail
to the Promontory called Hesperion-Ceras,2 on the border of
Africa, near to the Hesperian Ethiopians. Some Writers
hold, that this Tract is beautified with little Hills, pleasantly
clad with shady Groves, wherein are the jEgipanes and
Satyri.

1 That locusts should form a portion of the food of the people who
live where they abound, cannot be regarded as surprising. John
the Baptist fed on them, Matt, iii, 4, and Mark, i. 6. They are still
occasionally used for food in the East. When Khosru Purwis (Chosroes),
the Sassanian king of Persia, was summoned by Mohammed to adopt his
doctrine, he contemptuously dismissed the messengers of a chief of "naked
locust-eaters." The Arabs eat the different species of the migratory
locusts, and are very fond of them, especially of the red locust, which
when fat is called Jerdd rnikken. They eat them either fried or broiled,
or dried in an oven, or boiled with a sprinkle of salt ; the locusts taste
like dried sprats. The female locust when fat and full of eggs, is a great
dainty, and greatly esteemed by the male population on account of its
aphrodisiac qualities. (Niebuhr, Beschreibung von Arabien, p. 170, &c.)
~-Wern. Club.

8 Cap de Bonne Esperance.

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 163

CHAPTER XXXI.
The Islands of the Ethiopian Sea.

EPHORUS, Eudoxus, and Timosthenes agree, that there
are very many Islands in all that Sea. Clitarchus wit-
nesseth, that report was made to Alexander the King, of one
which was so rich, that for Horses the Inhabitants would
give Talents of Gold ; also of another, wherein was a sacred
Mountain adorned with a shady Wood, where the Trees
distilled Odours of wonderful Sweetness. Overagainst the
Persian Gulf lieth the Island named Cerne, opposite to
Ethiopia; but how large it is, or how far off from the Con-
tinent, is not certainly known : but this is reported, that
the Ethiopians only inhabit it. Euphorus writeth, that they
who would Sail thither from the Red Sea, are not able, from
the extreme Heat, to pass beyond certain Columns ; for so
they call the little Islands there. But Polybms affirmeth,
that this Island Cerne, where it lieth in the utmost Coast of
Mauritania, overagainst the Mountain Atlas, is but Eight
Stadia from the Land. On the other hand, Nepos Cornelius
affirmeth, that it is not above a Mile from the Land,
overagainst Carthage ; and that it is not above Two Miles
in Circuit. There is mention made also of another Island
before the Mountain Atlas, and which is named Atlantis.
And Five Days' Sailing from it are the Deserts of the
Ethiopian Hesperians, and a Promontory, which we have
named Hesperion-Ceras ; where the Coasts of the Land begin
first to turn about their front to the westward, and the
Atlantic Sea. Overagainst this Promontory, as Xenophon
Lampsacenus reporteth, lie the Islands called Gorgates,
where formerly the Gorgani kept their Habitation, two
Days' Sailing from the Continent. Hanno, Commander of
the Carthaginians (Pceni), penetrated to them, and reported
that the Women were all over their Bodies hairy ; and that
the Men were so Swift of Foot that they escaped from him ;
but he placed the Skins of two of these Gorgon Women in
the Temple of Juno, for a Testimonial, and as a Wonder, and

164 History of Nature. [BOOK VI.

they were seen there until Carthage was taken. Beyond
these Isles also there are said to be two Islands of Hesperides.
But so uncertain are all things concerning these parts, that
Statins Sebosus affirmeth, it is Forty Days' Sailing from the
Islands of the Gorgones along the Coast of Atlas, to the
Isles of the Hesperides ; and from thence to Hesperion-
Ceras, one. As little certainty there is concerning the
Islands of Mauritania. In this only they all agree, that Juba
discovered some few of them over against the Autololes, in
which he purposed to dye Gsetulian Purple.1

CHAPTER XXXII.
Of the Fortunate Islands.

SOME Authors think, that the Fortunate Islands, and
some others besides them, are beyond the Autololes ; among
whom the same Sebosus spoke of their Distances : and parti-
cularly that the Island Junonia is from Gades 750 Miles ;
and that from it westward the Isles Pluvialia and Capraria
are as much : also that in the Island Pluvialia there is no
Water but what they have by Showers. From them to the
Fortunate Islands is 250 Miles ; they lie eight Miles from the
Coast of Mauritania to the Left Hand, called the Coast of
the Sun, in a Valley, because it is like a Valley or Hollow ;
and it is also called Planaria, as resembling an even Plain.
This Valley containeth in Circuit 300 Miles: wherein are
Trees so luxuriant that they grow to the Height of 144
Feet. Concerning the Islands named Fortunate, Juba
learned by diligent inquiry, that they lie from the South
near to the West 625 Miles from the Islands Purpurariee :
so that to Sail thither a Man must pass 250 Miles above the
West, and then for 75 Miles bend his course Eastward. He
saith, moreover, that the first of these Islands is called Om-
brion, wherein are no Tokens of Houses. Also that among
the Mountains it hath a Marsh ; and Trees resembling the
Plant Ferula, out of which they press WTater : that which

1 On which account in the next chapter these islands are called
Purpurese, — Wern, Club,

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 165

issueth out of the Black Trees being bitter, and that from
the Whiter sort sweet and potable. He saith that a second
Island is named Junonia, in which there is one little House,
or Chapel, made of Stone : beyond it, but near by there is a
third of the same Name, but less in size : and then you come
to one called Capraria, full of great Lizards. Within sight
of these is the Island Nivaria, which took this Name from
the Snow that lieth there continually ; it is also full of Mists.
The next to it is Canaria, so called from the great number of
very large Dogs, of which Juba brought away two : and in
this Island there are some marks remaining of Buildings.
And as all these Islands abound plentifully with fruitful
Trees and Birds of all sorts, so this is replenished with
Palm-trees that bear Abundance of Dates, and likewise with
Trees that yield Pine Nuts. There is also great plenty of
Honey : and the Rivers produce the Papyrus Reed, and are
well stored with the Fish Silurus : and in conclusion he
saith, that these Islands are much infested with great Ani-
mals, that are very often cast out in a Putrid Condition.
Thus having at large gone through the Description of the
Globe of the Earth, as well without as within, it remaineth
now to collect into a small space the measure of the Seas.

CHAPTER XXXIII.

A Summary of the Earth, digested according to its
Dimensions.

POLYBIUS layeth it down, that from the Straits of Gib-
raltar by a straight Course to the Mouth of Moeotis is 3437J
Miles. From the same starting-place by a right Course east-
ward to Sicily, it is 1260J Miles ; to Crete, 375 Miles ; to
Rhodes, 146£ Miles ; to the Chelidonian Islands as much ;
to Cyprus, 325 Miles ; from whence to Seleucia Pieria in
Syria, 115 Miles. Which computation makes the sum of
2340 Miles. Agrippa also counteth 3440 Miles for all this
distance from the Straits of Gibraltar directly forward to the
Gulf of Issa. In which reckoning I scarcely know whether
there be an error in the number, because the same Writer

166 History of Nature. [BOOK VI.

hath set down the passage from the Sicilian Strait to Alex-
andria at 1250 Miles. But the whole . Circuit through the
above-said Gulfs, from the point where we began to the Lake
Moeotis, summed together, is 15,600 Miles. Artemidorus
added thereto 756 Miles. And the same Geographer
writeth, that with Moeotis it cometh to 17,390 Miles. This
is the measure of unarmed Men, and the peaceful boldness
of such as have not feared to provoke Fortune. Now
are we to compare the greatness of each part, in spite of
the Difficulty produced by the Disagreement of Authors.
But most easily will this appear if we join Longitude and
Latitude together. According to this prescribed rule the
Magnitude of Europe is 8148 Miles. Africa (taking the
middle Computation between them all that have set it down)
containeth in Length 3748 Miles. The Breadth of so much
as is inhabited in no Place exceedeth 250 Miles. Agrippa
would have it to contain 910 Miles in Breadth, beginning at
the Bounds of Cyrene, and comprehending in this Measure
the Deserts thereof as far as to the Garamantse, so far as
they are known ; and then the whole Measure collected into
one sum amounted to 4608 Miles. Asia1 is allowed to be in
Length 63,750 Miles ; and its Breadth is truly reckoned
from the Ethiopian Sea to Alexandria, situated near the
Nile, so that the Measurement runs through Meroe and
Syrene, 1875 Miles; whereby it appeareth that Europe is
little wanting of being half as large again as Asia : and the
same Europe is twice as much again as all Africa, and a
sixth part over. Reduce now all these sums together, and it
will be found clear that Europe is a third part of the whole
Earth, and something more than an eighth Portion over;
Asia a fourth part, with a fourteenth; and Africa a fifth,
with an over-plus of a sixtieth portion. To this Calculation
we will add one sentence of Greek invention, which sheweth

1 Pliny's ignorance of the extent of Africa is pardonable, for he knew
no more of it than the small portion which had come under the Roman
dominion ; but in his account of Asia he contradicts what he has already
assigned to India, which is only a part of it, but which he truly repre-
sented to be larger than Europe.— Wern. Club.

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 167

their exquisite subtilty, in order that we may otnit nothing
in this view of the Situation of the Earth ; that when the
Position of every Region is known, a Man may likewise come
to the knowledge of what Society there is between one and
the other, either of the agreement of the Length of Days and
Nights, by the Shadows at Noonday, or by the equal Con-
vexity of the World. To bring this about effectually, I must
arrange the whole Earth into certain Portions of the Heaven ;
for there are very many of those Divisions of the World which
our Astronomers call Circles, and the Greeks, Parallels.

CHAPTER XXXIV.

The Arrangement of the Earth Into Parallels and equal
Shadows.

THE beginning is at that part of India which turns to the
South. It extends as far as Arabia and the Inhabitants of
the Red Sea. Under it are comprised the Gedrosi, Persae,
Carmani, and Elimaei ; Parthyen&, Aria, Susiane, Mesopo-
tamia, Seleucia, surnamed Babylonia ; Arabia, so far as
Petrge, Coele-Syria, and Pelusium in Egypt; the Lower
Coasts, which are called of Alexandria ; the Maritime Parts
of Africa; all the Towns of Cyrenaica, Thapsus, Adrume-
tum, Clupea, Carthago, Utica, both Hippoes, Numidia, both
Realms of Mauritania, the Atlantic Sea, and Hercules' Pil-
lars. In all the Circumference of this Heaven, at Noon-tide
of an Equinoctial Day, the Umbilicus, which they call Gno-
mon, seven Feet Long, castetli a Shadow not above the
Length of four Feet. The Longest Night or Day is fourteen
Hours; and the shortest, ten. The following Circle begin-
neth from India, tending westward, and passeth through
the midst of Parthia, Persepolis, the nearest parts of Persis,
the nearer Arabia, Judaea, and the Borders of the Mountain
Libanus. It embraceth Babylon, Idumsea, Samaria, Hieru-
solyma, Ascalon, Joppe, Caesarea, Phoenice, Ptolemais,
Sydon, Tyrus, Berytrus, Botrys, Tripolis, Byblus, Antiochia,
Laodicea, Seleucia, the Sea-coasts of Cilicia, Cyprus, the
South Part of Creta, Lilybeum in Sinalia, the North Parts

1 68 History of Nature. [BooK VI .

of Africa and Numidia. The Gnomon upon the Equi-
noctial Day, thirty-five Feet in Length, maketh a Shadow
twenty-four Feet Long. The Longest Day or Night is four-
teen Hours Equinoctial, and the fifth part of an Hour. The
third Circle beginneth at the Indians next to the Imaus, and
goeth by the Caspian Gates very near to Media, Cataonia,
Cappadocia, Taurus, Amanus, Issus, the Cilician Gates,
Soli, Tarsus, Cyprus, Pisidia, Syde in Paiuphilia, Lycaonia,
Patara in Lycia, Xanthus, Caunus, Rhodus, Coiis, Halicar-
nassus, Gnidus, Doris, Chius, Delus, the Middle Cyclades,
Gytthium, Malea, Argos, Laconia, Elis, Olympia, Messene,
Peloponnesus, Syracusa, Catina, the Midst of Sicily, the
South Part of Sardinia, Carteia, and Gades. The Gnomon
of one hundred Inches yieldeth a Shadow of seventy-seven
Inches. The Longest Day hath Equinoctial Hours fourteen
and a half, with the thirtieth part of an Hour. Under the
fourth Circle lie those who are on the other Side of Imaus,
the South Parts of Cappadocia, Galatia, Mysia, Sardis,
Smyrna, Sipylus, the Mountain Tmolus in Lydia, Caria,
Ionia, Trallis, Colophon, Ephesus, Miletus, Samos, Chios,
the Icarian Sea, the Northern Cyclades, Athens, Megara,
Corinthus, Sicyon, Achsea, Patrse, Isthmos, Epirus, the
North Parts of Sicily, Narbonensis Gallia toward the East,1
'the Maritime Parts of Spain beyond New Carthage, and so
to the West. To a Gnomon of twenty-one feet the Shadows
answer of seventeen Feet. The Longest Day is fourteen
Equinoctial Hours, and two-third parts of an Hour. The
fifth Division containeth from the Entrance of the Caspian
Sea, Bactra, Iberia, Armenia, Mysia, Phrygia, Hellespontus,
Troas, Tenedus, Abydus, Scepsis, Ilium, the Mountain Ida,
Cyzicum, Lampsacum, Sinope, Amisum, Heraclea in Pontus,
Paphlagonia, Lemnus, Imbrus, Thasus, Cassandria, Thes-
salia, Macedonia, Larissa, Amphipolis, Thessalonice, Pella,
Edessa, Bersea, Pharsalia, Carystum, Eubcea, Boaotia,
Chaicis, Delphi, Acarnania, ^Etolia, Apollonia, Bnmdisium,
Tarentum, Thurii, Locri, Rhegium, Lucani, Neapolis, Pu-

1 Languedoc.

BOOK VI.] History of Nature. 169

teoli, the Tuscan Sea, Corsica, the Baleares, the Middle of
Spain. A Gnomon of seven Feet giveth six of Shadow.
The Longest Day is fifteen Equinoctial Hours. The sixth
Parallel compriseth the City of Rome, and containeth the
Caspian Nations, Caucasus, the North Parts of Armenia,
Apollonia upon Rhindacus, Nicomedia, Nicaea, Chalcedon,
Byzantium, Lysimachia, Cherrhonesus, the Gulf Melane,
Abdera, Samothracia, Maronea, .ZEnus, Bessica, the Mid-
land Parts of Thracia, Poeonia, the Illyrii, Dyrrhachium,
Canusium, the utmost Coasts of Apulia, Campania, Hetruria,
Pisa, Luna, Luca, Genua, Liguria, Antipolis, Massilia, Nar-
bon, Tarracon, the Middle of Spain called Tarraconensis,
and thence through Lusitania. To a Gnomon of nine Feet
the Shadow is eight Feet. The Longest Day hath fifteen
Equinoctial Hours and the ninth part of an Hour, or the
fifth, as Nigidius is of opinion. The seventh Division be-
ginneth at the other Coast of the Caspian Sea, and falleth
upon Callatis, Bosphorus, Borysthenes, Tomos, the Back
Parts of Thracia, the Tribali, the rest of Illyricum, the
Adriatic Sea, Aquileia, Altinum, Venetia, Vicetia, Patavium,
Verona, Cremona, Ravenna, Ancona, Picenum, Marsi,
Peligni, Sabini, Umbria, Ariminum, Bononia, Placentia,
Mediolanum, and all beyond Apenninum : also over the
Alps, Aquitaine in Gaul, Vienna, Pyrenaeum, and Celtiberia.
The Gnomon of thirty-five Feet casteth a Shadow thirty-six
Feet in Length ; yet so, that in some part of Venetia the
Shadow is equal to the Gnomon. The Longest Day is fif-
teen Equinoctial Hours, and three-fifth parts of an hour.
Hitherto we have reported the exact Labours of the Ancients.
But the most diligent Modern Writers have assigned the rest
of the Earth not as yet specified, to three Sections. (The
first) from Tanais through the Lake Moaotis and the Sar-
matae, all the way to Borysthenes, and so by the Daci and a
part of Germany, the Galliae, and the Coasts of the sur-
rounding Ocean, where the Day is sixteen Hours long. A
second, through the Hyperborei and Britannia, where the
Day is seventeen Hours long. Last of all, is the Scythian
Parallel, from the Rhiphean Hills unto Thule : in which (as

170 History of Nature, [BooK VI.

we have said) it is Day and Night continually by turns.
The same Writers have set down two Circles, before those
Points where the others began, and which we set down.
The first through the Island Meroe, and Ptolemais upon the
Red Sea, built for the Hunting of Elephants ; where the
Longest Day is but twelve Hoars and an half: the second
passing through Syene in Egypt, where the Day hath thir-
teen Hours. And the same Authors have put to every
one of the other Circles, even to the very last, half an Hour
more.

THUS MUCH OF THE EARTH.

IN THE SEVENTH BOOK

ABE CONTAINED
THE WONDERFUL SHAPES OF MEN IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES,

CHAP.

1. Strange Forms of many Na-

tions.

2. Of the Scythians, and other

People of different Coun-
tries.

3. Of Monstrosities.

4. The Transmutation of the

Sexes and of Twins.

5. De Hominis Generando.

6. De Conceptibus, et Signa

Sexus in gravidis praeve-
nientia Partum.

7. De Conceptu Hominum et Ge-

neratione.

8. De Agrippis.

9 . Monstruosi Partus excisi Utero.

10. Qui sunt Vopisci.

11. Exempla numerosa} Sobolis.

12. Examples of those that were

like one to another.

13. Quse sit Generandi Ratio.

14. De eodem multiplicius.

15. De Menstruis Mulierum.

16. Item de Katione Partuum.

17. The Proportion of the Parts

of Man's Body, and Things
therein observed.

18. Examples of extraordinary

Shapes.

19. Remarkable Natures of Men.

20. Of bodily Strength and Swift-

ness.

21. Of excellent Sight.

22. Who excelled in Hearing.

CHAP.

23. Examples of Patience.

24. Examples of Memory.

25. The Praise of C. Julius Casar.

26. The Praise of Pompey the

Great.

27. The Praise of Cato the Elder.

28. Of Valour and Fortitude.

29. Of notable Abilities, or the

Praises of some for their
singular Talents.

30. Of Plato, Ennius, Virgil, M.

Varro, and M. Cicero.

31. Of Majesty in Behaviour.

32. Of Authority.

33. Of certain Divine Persons.

34. Of (Scipio) Nasica.

35. Of Chastity.

36. Of Piety (Natural Kind-

ness).

37. Of Excellency in many Sci-

ences ; in Astrology, Gram-
mar, Geometry, &c.

38. Also, Rare Pieces of Work

made by Artificers.

39. Of Servants and Slaves.

40. The Excellency of Nations.

41. Of perfect Contentment.

42. Examples of the Variety of

Fortune.

43. Of those that were twice out-

lawed and banished : of L.
Sylla and Q. Metellus.

44. Of another Metellus.

45. Of the Emperor Augustus.

172

Contents of the Seventh Booh.

CHAP.

46. Of Men deemed most happy

by the Gods.

47. Who was ordered to be wor-

shipped as a God while he
lived.

48. Of those that lived longer

than others.

49. Of different Nativities of

Men.

50. Many Examples of strange

Accidents in Sickness.

51. Of the Signs of Death.

52. Of those that revived when

CHAP.

they were carried forth (to
be buried).

53. Of sudden Death.

54. Of Sepulchres and Burials.

55. Of the Soul : or the Manes.

56. The first Inventors of many

Things.

57. Wherein all Nations first

agreed.

58. Of ancient Letters.

59. The Beginning of Barbers at

Rome.

60. When first Dials.

In sum, there are in this Book, of Histories and Observations, 747.

LATIN AUTHORS ABSTRACTED :

Verrius Flaccus, Cn. Gellius, Licinius Mutianus, Mutius, Massurius,
Agrippina wife of Claudim, M. Cicero, Asinius Pollio, Messala, Rufus,
Cornelius Nepos, Virgil, Livy, Cordus, Melissus, Sebosus, Cornelius Celsus,
MaximusValerius, Trogus, Nigidius Figulus, Pomponius Atticus, Pedianus
Asconius, Salinus, Cato Censorius, Fabius Vestalis.

FOREIGN WRITERS:

Herodotus, Aristeas, Beto, Isigonus, Crates, Agatharddes, Callipnanes,
Aristotle, Nymphodorus, Apollonides, Philarchus, Damon, Megasthenes,
Ctesias, Tauron, Eudoxus, Onesicritus, Clitarchus, Duris, Artemidorus,
Hippocrates the Physician, Asclepiander the Physician, Hesiodus, Anacreon,
Theopompus, Hellanicus, Damasthes, Ephorus, Epigenes, Berosus, Pessiris,
Necepsus, Alexander Polyhistor, Xenophon, Callimachus, Democritus, Duil-
lius, Polyhistor the Historian, Strata who wrote against the Propositions and
Theorems of Ephorus, Heraclides Ponticus, Asclepiades who wrote Trago-
damena, Philostephanus, Hegesias, Archimachus, Thucydides, Mnesigiton,
Xenagoras, Afetrodorus Scepsius, Anticlides, and Critodemus.

THE SEVENTH BOOK

OP THE

HISTORY OF NATURE,

WRITTEN BY

C. PLINIUS SECUNDUS.

THE PREFACE.

BW-5SES8HUS we have in the former Books treated of
the World, and of the Lands, Nations, Seas,
Islands, and remarkable Cities therein con-
tained. It remainetli now to discourse of the
Nature of the Living Creatures comprised within
the same : a point which would require as deep
a Contemplation as any other Part whatsoever, if the Mind
of Man were able to comprehend all the Things. By right
the chief place is assigned to Man, for whose sake it appears
that Nature produced all other Creatures ; though this great
favour of hers is severe as set against all her other Gifts : so
that it is hard to judge whether she is a kinder Parent to
Man, or a cruel Step-mother. For, in preference to all other
Living Creatures, the one she hath clothed with the Riches of
others : to the rest she hath assigned a variety of Coverings :
as Shells, Barks, Hard Hides, Spines, Shag, Bristles, Hair,
Feathers, Quills, Scales, and Fleeces. The Trunks and

174 History of Nature. [BOOK VII.

Stems of Trees she hath defended with Bark, which is some-
times double, against the injuries both of Heat and Cold !
Man alone she hath cast all Naked upon the bare Earth,
even on' his Birth-day, immediately to cry and lament : so
that among so many Living Creatures there is none subject
to shed Tears and Weep like him from the very onset of his
Existence. And verily, however forward and active we may
be, to no one is it given to laugh before he is Forty Days old.
From this glimmering of Light he is bound fast, and hath
no Member at liberty ; a thing which is not practised upon
the Young of any Wild Beast among us. The Child thus
unhappily born, and who is to rule all other, lieth bound1
Hand and Foot, weeping and crying ; and .receiveth the
auspices of Life with Punishments, to make satisfaction. for
this only Fault, that he is born Alive. What madness in
such as think this the proper Beginning of those who are
born to be proud ! The first Hope of our Strength, the first
gift that Time affordeth us, maketh us no better than four-
footed Beasts. How long ere we can go alone ! How long-
before we can speak, feed ourselves ! How long continueth
the Crown of our Heads to palpitate, — the mark of our ex-
ceeding great weakness above all other Creatures ! Then
the Sicknesses, and so many Medicines devised against these
Maladies : besides the new Diseases that spring up to
overcome us. Other Living Creatures understand their
own Nature ; some assume the use of their swift Feet,
others of their Wings ; some are Strong ; others able to
Swim ; but Man knoweth nothing unless he be taught :
not even to speak, or go, or eat : arid, in short, -he is
naturally good at nothing but to weep. And hence some
have insisted on it, that it is best for a man never to have
been born, or else speedily to die. To one only, of living

1 The artificial bandages inflicted on new-born children are the swad-
dling-clothes referred to in St. Luke's Gospel, c. ii. v. 7 ; but they can
scarcely be numbered among the necessary evils of humanity, for they
have long since been abolished in England. In the seventh chapter of
this Book the Author dwells again on the littleness and misery of the
human race. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 175

Creatures is it given to mourn, one only is guilty of excess,
and that in a vast variety of ways, and through every Mem-
ber that he has. Who but we are ambitious ? Who but
we are avaricious ? None but we possess the extravagant
desire of living, are superstitious, anxious for our burial,
and what shall be our fate when we are gone. To none is
Life more frail ; yet to no Creature is there a greater craving
after every thing ; none suffereth under a more terrifying
Fear ; and none more furious in his Rage. To conclude, other
Animals live orderly according to their kind : we see them
flock together, and stand against others of a contrary kind;
the Lions, though savage, fight not one with another ;
Serpents sting not Serpents : and even the very Beasts and
Fishes of the Sea war not upon their own kind : but, by Her-
cules ! the greatest part of the evils that happen to Men are
from the hand of Man himself.

CHAPTER I.
The wonderful Forms of Nations.

IN our reports of Nations we have spoken in general of
the Human Race spread over the Face of the Earth. Neither
is it our purpose at present to describe particularly all their
numberless Customs and Manners of Life, which are as
many as there are Assemblies of Men. However, I think it
good not to omit all, but to make relation of some things
concerning those People especially who live furthest from
the Sea; among whom, I doubt not but I shall find such
matter as to most Men will seem both prodigious and
incredible. For whoever believed that there were Ethio-
pians before he saw them? what is it that seemeth not a
Wonder at the First Sight? how many things are judged
impossible before they are done? arid the Power and Ma-
jesty of Nature in every particular action seemeth incre-
dible, if we consider the same severally, and do not em-
brace the whole at once in the Mind. For, to say nothing
of the Peacocks' Feathers, of the Spots of Tigers and Pan-
thers, of the Colours that ornament so many Creatures

176 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

besides : let us come to one only point, which to speak of
seemeth small, but being deeply weighed, is a matter of
exceeding great regard ; and that is, the Speech of so
many Nations ; so many Tongues ; so much Variety of
Utterance, that a Foreigner seems to be something different
from a Man. Then to view the variety that appeareth in
our Face and Countenance ; although there be not more
than Ten Members or a few more, among so many thousand
of these, not Two Persons are to be found who are not
distinct in Likeness : a thing which no Art can perform, in
a small number out of so many. And yet thus much must
I advertise my Readers, that I will not pawn my credit
for many things that I shall deliver; but I will rather
direct them to the Authors, who will answer them in
all doubtful points : only let them not think much to follow
the Greeks, whose Diligence hath been greater, and their
Attention of longer standing.

CHAPTER II.
Of the Scythians, and the Diversity of other Nations.1

THAT there are Scythians, and even many kinds of
them, who feed ordinarily on Man's Flesh, we have shewn

1 The belief of the ancients in the existence of many anomalous races
of mankind, was a portion of the science of the age ; and not to have
given it credit, and a place in his work, would have subjected the author
to as much reproach for scepticism, as the notice he has taken of them
has done for his alledged credulity. And so far as Greek authority ex-
tended, the degree of credit which Pliny assigned to these strange races,
appears to have heen well founded ; for except in one or two instances,
the errors appear to have sprung from misinterpretation, rather than
from a positive departure from truth. Aristotle is sufficient authority
for the existence of a race of pigmies, who are also mentioned by Hero-
dotus ; and in more modern times that excellent naturalist Belon is satis-
fied concerning them. Nor can we, even now, refuse to admit the possi-
bility of finding their representatives in the Bushmen still existing in
Southern Africa. On the other hand, the existence of men of enormous
stature, of which some stupendous instances are given by Pliny (b. vii.
c. xvi.), is attested by profane as well as by sacred history. Thus Pau-

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 177

already, (Book iv. 1 2 ; vi. 1 .) The thing itself would be thought
incredible, if we did not consider that in the very Middle of
the World, even in Sicily and Italy, there have been Nations of
such Monsters, as the Cyclopae and Lystrigonae : and also very

sanias (in his " Atticks," quoted by Bishop Cumberland in his translation
of Sanchoniatho) says, that he saw in the Upper Lydia bones whose
figure would satisfy any man that they were men's bones, but their big-
ness was above the now known size of men. He also mentions the bones
of Asterius, in the neighbouring country of the Milesians ; giving the
dimensions of his body to be no less than ten cubits long, and that he
was the son of Anax ; a name singularly corresponding with a race men-
tioned by Moses, and the sight of whom terrified and humbled the Is-
raelitish spies. It is not a little strange, as Bishop Cumberland remarks,
quoting from Cicero " de Natura Deorum," that there is reason to believe,
one of the very ancient and gigantic persons known under the name of
Hercules had six fingers on each hand, as is also noticed of the last de-
scendants of this mighty race, in the second book of Samuel, c. xxi. The
tradition that such enormous people existed in the early ages of the
world is often referred to by Homer, and other ancient writers, who
drew from thence the erroneous conclusion, that the whole human race
had, since their day, become gradually weaker and more diminutive ;
whereas, in the only authentic history of these remote ages it is clearly
intimated, that this vast stature was limited to particular families or
nations, who even at that time were thought remarkable by all besides ;
and who were finally exterminated by their neighbours, perhaps as the
only resource against their violence. The Macrocephali, or long heads,
(mentioned b. vi. c. 4) may be supposed to have owed their peculiarity to
the habit of employing pressure to mould their heads in early infancy
into the compressed and elevated form, as is now practised by some tribes
on the continent of America ; and such as are mentioned with exceedingly
short necks may, perhaps, have been marked only with a personal de-
formity ; but the people with intensely black skin, to all of whom, how-
ever otherwise different, the ancients seem to have assigned indiscrimi-
nately the name of Ethiopians, are judged by Pliny to display a more
remarkable phenomenon than all the strange forms he has occasion to
notice ; as we also should probably do, if living instances had not ren-
dered it common. We may include in another section those singular
examples of the human race, which the author supposes to be comprised
in nations, but which are more probably reported as of rare or casual
occurrence, or perhaps nothing beyond an accidental monstrosity. Such
we know to be the case with the Albinoes, with white hair and tender
eyes ; and perhaps also the monoculous king, and the Arimaspians, who
are mentioned also by Herodotus, together with the other Cyclopaean
VOL. n. N

178 History of Nature. [BOOK VII.

lately, on the other side of the Alps,1 there are those that
kill Men for Sacrifice, after the manner of those (Scythian)
people, which differs but little from eating their Flesh.
Moreover, near to those Scythians that inhabit Northward,
not far from the very rising of the North-east Wind, and

people, whose singularities may have referred to some manner in the
habitual use of the organ, rather than to an actual deformity. A third
section of these supposed anomalous people may obviously be referred to
the quadrumanous tribes : a class of creatures so nearly approaching to
the external form of humanity, that we cannot feel surprised if ignorant
travellers, who viewed only at a distance, and with minds prepared to
welcome every wonder — the oran outang and pongo — were not able to
discern a generic difference between them and the truly human race.
Such were the hairy men and women mentioned in the 31st chapter of
this book, the satyrs, Choromandse, and people with no noses, or having
tails, a figure of the latter being found on an alraxis, or amulet, engraved
by Montfau9on ; but through the whole of his narrative we observe that
the author is careful to give his authorities, as being aware that what
appeared so strange must be made to rest upon the credit of those who
had originally reported it. Some of these instances, indeed, admit of no
interpretation that we are able to afford them ; but in regard to one of
the strangest of them, Purchas gives the authority of Fitch, an English-
man : " I went from Bengala into the country of Couche, not far from
Cauchin China. The people have ears which be marvellous great, of a
span long, which they draw out in length by devices when they be
young." In addition to the strange forms of men mentioned by Pliny,
Diodorus Siculus mentions some in an island discovered by Jambulus,
whose bones were as flexible as nerves (tendons) : the holes of their ears
far wider than ours ; and with tongues deeply cloven, so that they imi-
tate the song of birds, and can ordinarily speak to two men at once. —
Wern. Club.

1 The people here referred to are the Gauls. Caesar (de Bell. Gall,
lib. vi.) says, " The whole nation of the Gauls is much addicted to reli-
gious observances, and on that account, those who are attacked by any of
the more serious diseases, and those who are involved in the danger of
warfare, either offer human sacrifices or make a vow that they will offer
them, and they employ the Druids to officiate at their sacrifices ; for they
consider that the favour of the immortal gods cannot be conciliated,
unless the life of one man be offered up for that of another : they have also
sacrifices of the same kind appointed on behalf of the state. Some have
images of enormous size, the limbs of which they make of wicker-work,
and fill with living men, and setting them on fire, the men are destroyed
by the flames." — Wern. Club.

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 179

about that Cave out of which that Wind is said to issue,
which place they call Gesclithron, the Arimaspi are reported
to dwell, who, as we have said,1 are distinguished by having
One Eye in the midst of their Forehead, and who are in
constant War about the Mines with the Griffins,2 a flying
kind of Wild Beasts, which used to fetch Gold out of the
Veins of those Mines ; which savage Beasts (as many Authors
have recorded, and particularly Herodotus and Aristeas the
Proconnesian, two Writers of greatest Name) strive as
eagerly to keep the Gold as the Arimaspi to snatch it from
them. Above those other Scythians called Anthropophagi,
there is a Country named Abarimon, within a certain
extensive Valley of the Mountain Imaus, in which are
Wild Men, wandering about among brute Beasts, and
having their Feet directed backward behind the Calves
of their Legs, but able to run very swiftly. This kind
of Men cannot live in any other Climate than their own,
which is the reason that they cannot be conveyed to the
Kings that border upon them ; nor could they be brought
to Alexander the Great, as Beton hath reported, who was
the Surveyor of the Journeys of that Prince. The former
Anthropophagi whom we have placed in the North, Ten
Days' Journey above the River Borysthenes, are accustomed
to drink out of the Skulls of Men, and to wear the Skins
with the Hair for Mantles before their Breasts, according
to Isigonus the Nicean. The same Writer affirmeth, that
in Albania there are produced certain Individuals who have
the Sight of their Eyes of a bluish-grey Colour, who from
their Childhood are grey-headed, and can see better by
Night than by Day. He reporteth also that Ten Days'
Journey above the Borysthenes, there are the Sauromatae,
who never eat but once in Three Days. Crates of Per-
gamus saith, that in Hellespont about Pariuni there was
a kind of Men, whom he nameth Ophiogenes, who, if one
were stung by a Serpent, with touching only will ease it;
and if they lay their Hand upon the Wound, are able to

1 Lib. iv. 12, and lib. vi. 17.

2 The griffins are again mentioned, book x. chap. 49. — Wern. Club.

180 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

draw forth all the Poison from the Body. Varro also testi-
n'eth, that even at this Day there are a few who cure the
Stinging of Serpents with their Spittle. Agathar tides
writeth, that in Africa the Psylli,1 who are so called from
king Psyllus, whose Sepulchre is in a part of the Greater

1 The earliest existing reference that we have to the Psylli, or serpent-
charmers, is found in the 58th Psalm, the 8th verse ; and the art is yet
practised in the East. These men were, and still are, distinct tribes in
their several countries, professing the power they claim to be an inherent
and natural function. Lucan, in the 5th book of his "Pharsalia," gives a
complete exposition of the ancient belief concerning the charming of ser-
pents. He chiefly describes the measures which were taken to protect
the Roman camp. When the encampment was marked out, the serpent-
charmers marched around it chanting their charms, the mystic sounds of
which chased the serpents far away. But not trusting entirely to this,
fires of different kinds of wood were kept up beyond the furthest tents,
the smell of which prevented the serpents from approaching. Thus the
camp was protected during the night. But if any soldier when abroad in
the day time happened to be bitten, the Psylli exerted their power to
effect a cure. First they rubbed the wounded part around with saliva,
to prevent, as they said, the poison from spreading while they assayed
their arts to extract it : —

" Then sudden he begins the magic song,

And rolls the numbers hasty o'er his tongue ;

Swift he runs on, nor pauses once for breath,

To stop the progress of approaching death ;

He fears the cure might suffer by delay,

And life be lost but for a moment's stay.

Thus oft, though deep within the veins it lies,

By magic numbers chased, the mischief flies :

But if it hear too slow, if still it stay,

And scorn the potent charmer to obey ;

With forceful lips he fastens on the wound,

Drains out and spits the venom to the ground." — ROWE.
Lane ("Modern Egyptian") gives a particular account of the different
methods made use of by the Psylli of the present day when exhibiting
their supposed powers. As to the pretensions of ancient as well as mo-
dern serpent-charmers, of being in their own persons insensible to the
poison of the reptiles, there is no satisfactory proof of it : indeed numerous
instances to the contrary have occurred ; and where they escape unharmed,
it is to be attributed to the poison fangs having been previously extracted,
or to their fearless handling of the deadly creatures. — See the note on
Ps. Iviii. 5, in the "Pictorial Bible," by Dr. Kitto.— Wern. Club.

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 181

Syrtes, could do the like. These Men had naturally in
their Bodies a Poison fatal to Serpents, so that by the
Smell of it they were able to stupify them. And by
this means they used to try the Chastity of their Wives.
For as soon as their Children were born, they exposed
them to the most furious Serpents ; for these would not fly
from them if they were begotten in Adultery. This Nation,
in general, hath been almost entirely extirpated by the
Nasamones, who now inhabit those parts ; but a kind of
these Men remaineth still, descended from those who fled,
or else who were not present when the Battle was fought; but
they exist in small Companies. In like manner, the Nation
of the Marsi continue in Italy, who preserve the Reputa-
tion of being descended from a Son of Circe, and therefore
possess the same natural faculty. Yet so it is that all Men
possess within them that which is Poison to Serpents: for
it is reported they flee from Man's Spittle, as they do from
the touch of Scalding Water; but if it penetrate into their
Mouth, especially if it come from a Man that is fasting, it is
present Death. Beyond the Nasamonse, and their Neigh-
bours the Machlyae, there are Androgyni, of a double Nature,
inter se vicibus coeuntes, as Calliphanes reporteth. Aristotle
adds, that their Right Breast is like that of a Man, and the
Left that of a Woman. In the same Africa Isigonus and Nym-
phodorus avouch that there are certain Families of Charmers:
who, if they praise, destroy the Sheep, cause .the Trees to
wither, and Infants to pine away to death. Isigonus addeth
further, that there are People of the same kind among the Tri-
balli and Illyrii, who charrn with their Eyesight, and kill those
whom they look upon for a long time, especially if their Eyes
look angry : which Evil of theirs is more quickly felt by those
who are above the age of Puberty. It is worthy of remark,
that they have two Pupils in each Eye. Of this kind Apol-
lonides saith, there are also Women in Scythia named Bithyae.
Philarchus witnesseth, that in Pontus also the Race of
the Thibii, and many others, have the same Quality : of
whom he giveth these marks, that in one of their Eyes they
have two Pupils, and in the other the Resemblance of a

182 History of Nature. [BOOK VII.

Horse. He reporteth also, that they cannot sink in the
Water, not even if weighed down with Apparel. Damon
reports that there is a sort of People not unlike these in
Ethiopia, called Pharnaces, whose Sweat, if it chance to
touch a Man's Body, presently causeth him to waste away.
And Cicero,1 a Writer of our own, testifieth, that all Women
everywhere who have double Pupils in their Eyes inflict
Injury with their Sight. In such manner Nature, having
generated in Man this custom of Wild Beasts, to feed upon
the Bowels of Men, hath taken Delight also to generate
Poisons in their whole Body, and even in the very Eyes of
some; that there should be no evil in the whole World, that
might not be likewise found in Man. Not far from the City
of Rome, within the Territory of the Falisci, there are a few
Families called Hirpise, which at their Yearly Sacrifice cele-
brated to Apollo upon the Mount Soracte, walk upon the
pile of Wood as it is on Fire without being burnt.2 On
which account, by a perpetual Act of the Senate, they possess
an Immunity from War and all other Public Services.
Some men have certain Parts of their Bodies naturally
working surprising Effects. As for example, King Pyrrhus,3
whose Great Toe of his Right Foot was a Remedy by its

1 This must have been in some of the lost works of Cicero, as no
such opinion is found in any of his extant writings. — Wern. Club.

2 The art of treading bare-foot on burning embers, red-hot iron, &c.,
which has its professors in the present day, is from this passage shewn to
be of great antiquity ; Virgil also alludes to the same when he speaks of
the annual festival of the Hirpi on Mount Soracte, in Etruria, where
Chlorcus, the priest of Cybele, thus addresses Apollo (yEn. xi. 785) : —

" O patron of Soracte's high abodes !

Phoebus, the ruling power among the gods !

Whom first we serve : whole woods of unctuous pine

Are fell'd for thee, and to thy glory shine ;

By thee protected, with our naked soles,

Through flames unsinged we march, and tread the kindled coals."

DRYDEN. — Wern. Club.

3 According to Plutarch, in his life of Pyrrhus, the person of this king
was very extraordinary : — " Instead of teeth in his upper jaw, he had one
continued bone, marked with small lines resembling the divisions of a row

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 183

Touch for them that had Diseased Spleens. And they say, that
when the rest of his Body was Burned that Great Toe could
not be consumed : so that it was preserved in a little Case in
the Temple. But principally India and the whole Tract of
Ethiopia is full of these wonderful Things. The greatest Ani-
mals are bred in India, as will appear by their Dogs,1 which
are much greater than those of other Parts. And there are
Trees growing in that Country to such a Height, that a
Man cannot shoot an Arrow over them. The reason of this
is the Goodness of the Soil, the Temperature of the Air, and
the Abundance of Water : which is the cause also that under
a single Fig-tree,2 if it can be believed, Squadrons of Horse-
men may stand. There are Reeds also of such Length3 that
between every Joint they will yield sufficient to make Boats
able to receive three Men. There are many Men there who
are above five Cubits in Height : never do they Spit : they
are not troubled with Pain in the Head, Toothache, or any
Disease of the Eyes, and seldom of any other Parts of the
Body; so hardy are they through the Moderate Heat of the
Sun. There are certain Philosophers, whom they call Gym-
nosophistae,4 who from Sunrising to its setting persevere in
standing and looking full against the Sun without once

of teeth. It was believed that he cured the swelling of the spleen, by
sacrificing a white cock, and with his right foot gently pressing the part
affected, the patients lying on their backs for that purpose. There was
no person, however poor or mean, to whom he refused this relief, if
requested. He received no reward, except the cock for sacrifice ; and this
present was very agreeable to him. It is also said that the great toe of
that foot had a divine virtue in it ; for, after his death, when the rest of
his body was consumed, that toe was found entire and untouched by the
flames." — LANGHORNE. The reader will here be reminded of the royal
touch for the cure of scrofulous diseases once exercised by our own kings.
— Wern. Club.

1 Pliny (lib. viii. 40) tells us of one of these Indian dogs that con-
quered a lion. — Wern. Club.

2 The Ficus Religiosa, well known to modern travellers. — Wern. Club.

3 Lib. xvi. 36.

4 It is remarkable to observe how exactly the austerities of these
ancient gymnosophists are still practised by the Fakirs of India.— Wern.
Club.

184 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

moving their Eyes : and from Morning to Night stand some-
times on one Leg, and sometimes on the other, on the Burn-
ing Sand. Meyasthenes writeth, that on a Mountain named
Milo, there are Men whose Feet are turned backward, and
on each Foot they have eight Toes. And in many other
Mountains there is a kind of Men with Heads like Dog's, clad

O '

all over with the Skins of Wild Beasts, and who instead of
Speech used to Bark: they are armed with Nails, and they live
on the Prey which they get by Hunting Beasts, and Fowling.
Ctesias writeth that there were known of them above
120,000 in number ; and that in a certain Country of
India the Women bear but once in their Life, and their
Infants presently become Grey. Likewise, that there is a
kind of People named Monoscelli, which have but one Leg,
but they are exceedingly Swift, and proceed by Hopping.
These same Men are also called Sciopodse, because in the
hottest Season they lie along on their Back on the Ground,
and defend themselves with the Shadow of their Feet : and
these People are not far from the Trogloditae. Again, be-
yond these westward, some there are without a Neck, but
carrying their Eyes in their Shoulders. Among the Western
Mountains of India there are the Satyri (the Country where
they are is called the Region of the Cartaduli), the swiftest
of all Animals : which sometimes run on four Legs, at
others on two Feet like Men : but so light-footed are they,
that unless they are very Old or Sick they cannot be taken.
Tauron writeth, that the Choromandee are a wild People,
without any Voice, but uttering a horrible Noise : their
Bodies Hairy, their Eyes bluish-grey, their Teeth like Dogs.
Eudoxus saith, that in the South Parts of India the Men
have Feet a Cubit long, but those of the Women1 are
so small that they are called Struthopodes. Megasthenes
writeth, that among the Indian Nomadse there is a Nation

1 This character is so applicable to Chinese women, that it seems to
point out the great antiquity to which the strange custom of binding their
feet can be traced. The name of Struthopodes, or ostrich -footed, can only
have been applied to them by foreigners, but is not badly descriptive of
the figure of this artificial deformity. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 185

that instead of Noses have only two small Orifices, and after
the manner of Snakes have wiry Legs, and are named
Syrictae. In the utmost Borders of India, eastward, about
the Source of the Ganges, there is a Nation called the
Asthomes, having no Mouths : hairy over the whole Body,
but clothed with the Down of the Branches of Trees : they
live only by the Vapour and Smell which they draw in at
their Nostrils : no Meat or Drink do they take, but only
various pleasant Odours from Roots, Flowers, and Wild
Fruits ; which they carry with them when they take a Long
Journey, because they would not miss their Smelling; but if
the Scent be a little too strong they are soon deprived of
Life. Higher in the Country, in the Edge of the Mountains,
the Pygmaei Spithamei are reported to be ; which are three
Spans in Length, that is, not exceeding three times nine
Inches. The Climate is healthy, and ever like the Spring,
by reason that the Mountains are on the North side of them.
And these People Homer1 also hath reported to be much
annoyed by Cranes. The report goeth, that in the Time of
Spring they set out all in a great Troop, mounted upon the
Backs of Rams and Goats, armed with Darts, to go down to
the Sea-side, and devour the Eggs and Young of their
Winged prey. For three Months this Expedition continueth,
for otherwise they would not be able to withstand their future
Flocks. Their Cottages are made of Clay, Feathers, and
Egg-shells. Aristotle'2' writeth, that the Pygmsei live in
Caves. For all the other matters he reported the same as
all the rest. Isigonus saith, that the kind of Indians named
Cyrni live a hundred and forty Years. The like he thinketh
of the Ethiopian Macrobii and the Serae, and those who

1 Iliad, lib. iii. 6 :—

" So when inclement winters vex the plain
With piercing frosts, or thick descending rain,
To warmer seas the cranes embodied fly,
With noise, and order, through the mid- way sky :
To pygmy nations wounds and death they bring,
And all the war descends upon the wing." — POPE.

5 Hist. Anim. lib. viii. 15.

186 History of Na tyre. [BooK VIT.

dwell upon Mount Athos : and of these last, because they
Feed on Vipers'1 Flesh, and therefore it is that no offensive
Creatures are found on their Heads, nor on their Clothes.
Onesicritus affirmeth, that in those Parts of India there are
no Shadows, that the Men are five Cubits and two Palms in
Stature, that they live one hundred and thirty Years : and
never bear the Marks of Age, but die as if they were in the
middle of their age. Crates of Pergamus nameth those
Indians, who live above an hundred Years, Gymnetae : but
not a few call them Macrobii. Ctesias saith there is a Race
of Indians, named Pandore, inhabiting certain Valleys, who
live two hundred Years : in their youthful Time their Hair is
White, but as they grow old it becometh Black. On the
other hand, there are some who are Neighbours to the
Macrobii, who exceed not forty Years, and their Women
bear but once in their Lifetime. And this also is avouched
by Agatharcides, who addeth, that they feed on Locusts, and
are swift of Foot. Clitarchus and Megasthenes name them
Mandri, and number up three hundred Villages in their
Country : also, that the Women bear Children when they
are but seven Years old, and are aged at forty. Artemi-
dorus affirmeth, that in the Island Taprobana the People
live exceeding long without any Bodily Infirmity. Duris
maketh report, that certain Indians have fellowship with
Beasts, of which acquaintance are bred a mixed and half
Savage Race ; that among the Calingi, a Nation of India,
the Women conceive at five Years of Age, and live not above
eight. In another Tract of that Country, there are Men with
shaggy Tails and of great Swiftness : and some again that
with their Ears cover their whole Body. The Orites are
divided from the Indians by the River Arbis. They are
acquainted with no other Food but Fish, which they split
in Pieces with their Nails, and Roast against the Sun,
and then make Bread of it, as Clitarchus makes Report.
Crates of Pergamus saith, that the Trogloditse above Ethiopia
are swifter than Horses, and that there are Ethiopians above

1 Lib. xxix. 6.

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 187

eight Cubits High : that this Nation of Ethiopian Nomades
is called Syrbotse, and dwelleth along the River Astapus,
toward the North. The Nation called Menismini dwell
Twenty Days' Journey from the Ocean, and live on the Milk
of certain Animals which we call Cynocephali,1 of which
they keep Flocks of the Females, but they kill the Males,
except only enough to preserve the Race. In the Deserts of
Africa you will meet oftentimes with Appearances in the
shape of Men, but they vanish in an instant. Ingenious
Nature disposes this and such-like things, as a Pastime to
her, but which are Miracles to us. And indeed, who is able
to recount every one of her Sports, which she accomplishes
daily and even hourly ? Let it suffice therefore, in order to
declare her Power, that we have set down those prodigious
Works of hers, as displayed in whole Nations. And now we
proceed to a few Particulars that are well known in regard
to Man.

CHAPTER III.

Of Prodigious Births*

THAT Women may bring forth three at one Birth, ap-
peareth evidently by the example of the Horatii and Curiatii.
But to exceed that number is reputed to be among the Por-
tents ; except in Egypt, where Women are more fruitful by
drinking the Water of the Nile. Of late Years, about the
latter end of the Reign of Divus Augustus, a Woman at Ostia
named Fausta, of ordinary Rank, was delivered of two
Boys and as many Girls ; but this was a Portent beyond

1 The cynocephalus anubis of modern zoologists is without doubt here
intended.— Wern. Club.

2 " Prodigious births :" that is, not simply out of the common course
of nature, but such as were believed to be prophetic of some remarkable
events, and so reported by augurs to the proper authorities. What, at the
end of this chapter, Pliny reports that he had himself seen, is of no uncom-
mon occurrence, and would be regarded among us as nothing beyond a
monstrous birth, an irregular formation of nature ; but the incident he
mentions last can only be regarded as a proof of the great agitation of the
public mind, at a period when the danger was a sufficient motive to raise
and propagate the strangest reports. — Wern. Club.

188 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

doubt of the Famine that ensued. In Peloponnesus also
there is found a Woman, who brought forth at four Births
twenty Children, and the greater Part of them lived.
Trogus is the authority, that in Egypt a Woman hath borne
seven at a Birth. It falleth out, moreover, that there come
into the World Children of both Sexes in one, whom we call
Hermaphrodites. In old Time they were known by the
Name of Androgyni, and reputed for Prodigies ; but now
Men take Pleasure in them. Pompey the Great, in the
Theatre which he adorned with remarkable Ornaments, as
well for the subject as the most exquisite Hand of the great
Artists, among other Images represented Eutichtt, a Woman
of Tralles, who after she had borne thirty Births, was carried
by twenty of her Children to the Funeral Fire for to be
burnt. AlcippZ was delivered of an Elephant, and that
certainly was a monstrous Token. Also in the beginning of
the Marsian War a Bondwoman brought forth a Serpent.1

1 We know how prone vulgar ignorance or superstition is to compare
an ordinary monstrous birth to some fancied animal. Such is within the
knowledge of living observers. But what shall we say to the following ?
" Lemnius tells us of a monster, that a certain woman was delivered of,
and to whom he himself was physician and present at the sight, which at
the appearing of the day filled all the chamber with roaring and crying,
running all about to find some hole to creep into-; but the women at the
length stifled and smothered it with pillows." — Wanleys Wonders of the
Little World. And from the same authority : — " Johannes Naborowsky,
a noble Polonian, and my great friend, (says Bartholini, "Hist. Anat.")
told me at Basil, that he had seen in his country two little fishes without
scales, which were brought forth by a woman, and as soon as they came
out of her womb did swim in the water as other fish." The story given
by Wormius, concerning the birth of an egg from a woman (and of which
he gives a figure in his " Museum Wormianum,") is illustrated, and per-
haps explained, as may all the others on the same principle, by another
given in Wanley's book, of a woman " of good quality, who had made
great preparations for her lying-in, but in the last month her distension
subsided, and it is confessed that she plumped herself up with a stuffing of
garments. However, the time must come at last, and she was delivered
of a creature, very like unto a dormouse of the greater size, which to the
amazement of the women who were present, with marvellous celerity
sought out and found a hole in the chamber, into which it crept and was
never seen after." Instances somewhat similar have occurred in very

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 189

Many misshapen Creatures of various kinds are produced as
Monsters in the World. Claudius Ccesar writeth, that in Thes-
saly an Hippocentaur was born, and that it died on the very
same Day. And when he was Sovereign we ourselves saw the
like sent to him out of Egypt, preserved in Honey. Among
the Instances there is one of a Child in Saguntum, in the Year
in which that Town was destroyed by Annibal, which, as soon
as it was born, presently returned again into the Womb.

CHAPTER IV.
Of the Change of the Sex ;l and of Double Births.

IT is no fable, that Females may be turned to Males ;
for we have found it recorded in the Annals, that in the Year
when Pub. Licinius Crassus and C. Cassius Longinus were
Consuls, there was at Cassinum a Maid who, under her
Parents, became a Boy : and by the order of the Aruspices
he was conveyed to a Desert Island. Lucinius Mutianus re-
porteth, that himself saw at Argos a Person named Arescon,
who had borne the Name of Arescusa, and even had been
Married : but afterwards came to have a Beard, and the
general Properties of a Man, and thereupon married a Wife.
After the same sort he saw at Smyrna a Boy changed. I
myself was an Eye-witness, that in Africa L. Cossicius, a

recent times, to the great disappointment of expecting friends : and the
laugh could only have been rendered the louder if, instead of a simple dis-
appointment, an egg or dormouse, an elephant or serpent had been the
result. By law, " Ut monstrosos partus necare parentibus liceret," — that
" it should be lawful to parents to put to death children that were born
monstrous;" but Dionysius Halicarnasseus adds, that it was necessary
they should call witnesses to prove that they were monstrous : although
the latter stipulation can scarcely be reconciled with another law, which
gave to parents the right of life and death over their children. Accord-
ing to the law of Tullus Hostilius, third king of Rome, when three chil-
dren were born at one birth, they were to be brought up to the age of
maturity at the public charge. — Wern. Club.

1 Instances similar to these are scarcely uncommon, and the causes
are well known to anatomists. The remarks concerning the fate of twins
are so contrary to experience, that Pliny's error can scarcely be accounted
for.— Wern. Club.

190 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

Citizen of Tisdrita, was turned from a Woman to a Man
upon the very Marriage-day. If a Woman bring Twins, it
is rare for them all to live, but either the Mother dieth, or
one of the Babes, if not both. But if the Twins be of both
Sexes, it is rare for both of them to escape. Women grow
old sooner than Men ; and they grow to their Maturity more
speedily than Men. It is certain that a Male Child stirreth
oftener in the Womb, and lieth commonly more to the right
Side ; whereas Females incline to the left.1

CAP. V.

De Hominis Generando, et Pariendi Tempore per illustria
Exempla a Mensibus septem ad undecim.2

C^TERIS animantibus statum, et pariendi, et partus
gerendi tempus est ; homo toto anno, et incerto gignitur
spatio. Alius septimo mense, alius octavo, et usque ad initia
decimi undecimique. Ante septimum mensem baud unquam
vitalis est. Septimo non nisi pridie posterove plenilunii die,
aut interlunio concept! nascuntur. Translatitium in ^Sgypto
est et octavo gigni. Jam quidem et in Italia tales partus
esse vitales, contra priscorum opiniones. Variant hsec plu-
ribus modis. Vestilia C. Herditii ac postea Pomponii atque
Orfiti, clarissimorum civium, conjunx, ex his quatuor partus
enixa, Sempronium septimo mensi genuit, Suilliuni Rufum
undecimo, Corbulonem septimo, utrunque Consulem : postea
Caesoniam Caii3 principis conjugem, octavo. In quo men-
sium numero genitis, intra quadragesimum diem maximus

1 No signs are known by which the sex of the child before birth is in
the least indicated. — Wern Club.

2 The term of pregnancy natural to the human female is 280 days ;
by the Prussian laws, 300 days ; by the French, 301 days are considered
to mark the extreme limit. From physiological reasons it is extremely
improbable if the usual term of nine calendar, or ten lunar months, is
ever exceeded by more than one lunar month. — Wern. Club.

3 The emperor so named is better known by the name of Caligula,
which was imposed upon him on account of the military shoe which,
when a child, he wore in the camp. The wife's father here spoken of
was the Emperor Augustus. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 191

labor. Gravidis autetn quarto et octavo mense, letalesque in
iis abortus. Massurius auctor est, L. Papyrium Prsetorem,
secundo hserede lege agente, bonorum possessionem contra
eum dedisse, cum mater partum se 13 mensibus diceret
tulisse, quoniara nullum certum tempus pariendi statutum
videretur.1

CAP. VI.

De Conceptibus, et Signa Sexus in gravidis prcevenientia
Partum.

A CONCEPTU decimo die, doloris capitis, oculorum verti-
ginis tenebrseque, fastidium in cibis, redundatio stomachi,
indices sunt horninis inchoati. Melior color marem ferenti,
et facilior partus : motus in utero quadragesimo die. Con-
traria omnia in altero sexu : ingestabile onus, crurum et
inguinum levis tumor. Primus autem nonagesimo die
motus. Sed plurimum languoris in utroque sexu, capil-
lum germinante partu, et in plenilunio ; quod tempus editos
quoque infantes prsecipue infestat. Adeoque incessus, atque
omne, quicquid dici potest, in gravida refert : ut salsioribus
cibis usae, carentem unguiculis partum edant, et, si respi-
ravere, difficilius enitantur. Oscitatio quidem in enixu letalis
est: sicut sternuisse a coi'tu abortivum.

CAP. VII.
De Conceptu Hominum et Generatione.

MISERET atque etiam pudet aestimantem quam sit frivola
animalium superbissimi origo, cum plerunque abortus causa
fiat odor a lucernarum extinctu. His principiis nascuntur
tyranni, his carnifex animus. Tu qui corporis viribus fidis,

1 According to the Roman law : " Sei qua molier post virei mortem
in decem proximeis mensebos pariat, quei, quave ex ea nascatur, sonus,
suave, in verei familia heres estod :" — "If a woman is delivered of a
child ten months after the death of her husband, let the child born, either
boy or girl, be heir to his father." Ulpian's opinion is, that a child born
eleven months after the death of his father is not able to inherit. The
Emperor Adrian allowed a legitimate birth in the eleventh month ; but
this is explained by saying, that the eleventh month may be begun, but
not ended.— Wem. Club.

192 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

tu qui fortunes munera amplexaris, et te ne alumnum qui-
dem ejus existimas, sed partum : tu cujus semper in victoria
est mens, tu qui te Deum credis, aliquo successu turaens,
tanti perire potuisti : atque etiam hodie minoris potes, quan-
tulo serpentis ictus dente : aut etiam, ut Anacreon Poeta,
acino uvae passse : ut Fabius Senator Praetor, in lactis haustu
uno pilo strangulatus. Is demum profecto vitam aequa lance
pensitabat, qui semper fragilitatis human® memor fuerit.

CAP. VIII.
De Agrippis.

IN pedes procedere nascentem contra naturam est; quo
argumento eos appellavere agrippas, ut segre partos : qua-
liter M. Agrippam ferunt genitum unico prope felicitatis
exemplo in omnibus ad hunc modum genitis. Quanquam is
quoque adversa pedum valetudine, misera juventa, exercito
aevo inter arma mortesque, ad noxia successu, infelici terris
stirpi omni, sed per utrasque Agrippinas maxirne, quae Caium
et Domitium Neronem Principes genuere, totidem faces
generis humani : praeterea brevitate aevi quinquagesimo uno
raptus anno, in tormentis adulteriorum conjugis, socerique
praegravi servitio, luisse augurium praeposteri natalis existi-
matur. Neronem, quoque paulo ante Principem, et toto Prin-
cipatu suo hostem generis humani, pedibus genitum parens
ejus scribit Agrippina. Ritu naturae capite hominem gigni
mos est, pedibus efferri.

CAP. IX.

Monstruosi Partus excisi Utero.

AUSPICATIUS enecta parente gignuntur, sicut Scipio Afri-
canus prior natus, primusque Csesarum a caeso matris utero
dictus : qua de causa et Caesones appellati.1 Siinili modo
natus et Manlius, qui Carthaginem cum exercitu intravit.

1 The Caesarian operation, as it is now called, has been an unsuccessful
one in modern times ; but this arises from the fact that it is now performed
on the living mother to preserve her life, perhaps at the risk of that of

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 193

CAP. X.

Qui sint Vopisci.

VOPISCOS appellabant e geminis, qui retenti utero nasce-
rentur, altero interempto abortu. Namque maxima et rara
circa hoc miracula existunt.

CAP. XI.
Exempla Numerosa Sobolis.

PRJETER mulierem pauca animalia coitura novere gra-
vida. Unum quidem omnino, aut alterum, superfoetat.1
Extat in monumentis etiam medicorum, et quibus talia con-
sectari curse fuit, uno abortu duodecim puerperia egesta.
Sed ubi paululum teraporis inter duos conceptus intercessit,
uterque perfertur : ut in Hercule et Iphiclo fratre ejus apparuit,
et in ea quae gemino partu, altero marito similem, alterum
adultero genuit ; Item in Proconnesia ancilla, quae ejusdem
diei coitu, alterum domino similem, alterum procurator!
ejus; et in alia, qua? unum justo partu quinque mensium
alterum edidit. Rursus in alia, quae septein mensium edito
puerperio, insecutis mensibus geminos enixa est. Jam ilia
vulgata, varie ex integris truncos gigni, ex truncis integros,
eademque parte truncos: signa quaedam, naevosque et cica-
trices etiam regenerari. Quarto partus Dacorum originis Nota
in brachio redditur.

CHAPTER XII.
Examples of those who have closely resembled one another."

IN the Race of the Lepidi it is said there were three, not
successively one after another, who had when they were

the child ; whereas it appears that anciently it was had recourse to only
after the mother had expired, to save the child which still gave signs of
life. Cornelius Gamma says, that he performed it six times on as many
women, and that the children were preserved ; but he says nothing of the
fate of the mothers.— Wern. Club.

1 Superfcetation is an exceedingly rare occurrence in women; but some
modern instances place the certainty of this fact on certain grounds. —
Wern. Club.

2 This chapter is borrowed from Aristotle's " History of Animals,"
b. xvii. c. 6. — Wern. Club.

VOL. IT. O

194 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

Born, a Membrane growing over the Eye. Some have
resembled their Grandfathers : and of Twins, one hath been
like the Father, the other the Mother : but he that was
Born a year after hath been so like his elder Brother as if he
had been one of the Twins. Some Women bring all their
Children like themselves ; others again resembling their
Husbands, and some like neither the one nor the other.
Some Women bring all their Daughters like their Fathers,
and their Sons like the Mothers. The Example is undoubted,
of NiccBus^ a famous Painter of Byzantium, who having to
his Mother a Woman begotten in Adultery by an Ethiopian,
and nothing different in Colour from other Women, was
himself begotten an Ethiopian. Indeed, the Consideration
of the Likenesses is in the Mind ; in which likewise many
other Accidents are thought to be very strong, whether they
come by Sight, Hearing, and Memory, or Imaginations
drunk in in the very instant of Conception.1 The thought of
either Father or Mother flying to and fro transporting the
Soul in a moment, is supposed to stamp this Likeness, or to
mix it. On this account it is that Men are more unlike one
another than other Creatures: for the Quickness of the
Thoughts, the Agility of the Mind, the very great variety
of our Dispositions, imprint the great Multiplicity of Marks ;
whereas the Minds of other Creatures is immovable, being
alike in all, and in every one according to its own Kind.
Artenon, a Man of the common Rank, was so like in all
points to Antiochus King of Syria, that Laodicl the Queen,
after Antiochus was killed, effected the Succession of the
Kingdom through his acting the part of Recommendation.
Vibius, a certain Commoner of Rome, and Publicius, one
from a Bondslave made a Freeman, were both of them so
like Pompey the Great, that the one could scarcely be
discerned from the other : so closely did they represent that
open Countenance, and the singular Majesty which appeared
in his Forehead. The like cause it was that gave his Father
also the Surname of Menogenes, from his Cook ; although he

1 The reader will scarcely fail to remember Jacob's singular stratagem
with Laban's flock — Genesis, xxx. and xxxi. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 195

was already surnamed Strabo, because of his Squint Eyes :
imitating a defect that existed in his Servant. So was one
of the Scipios surnamed Serapio upon such an occasion,
after the name of one Serapio, who was a base Slave of his,
and the dealer in buying and selling his Swine. Another
Scipio after him, of the same House, was surnamed Salutio,
because of a certain Jester of that Name. After the same
manner one Spinter, a Player of the second Place,1 arid
Pamphilus, a Player of the third Part, resembled Lentulus
and Metellus, who were Consuls together. And this fell
out very untowardly, that such resemblances of the two
Consuls should be seen together on the Stage. On the other
hand, Rubrius the Player was surnamed Plancus, because
he was so like Plancus the Orator. Again, Burbuleius and
Menogenes, both Players, gave name, the one to Curio the
Father, as did the other to Messala Censorius. There
was in Sicily a Fisherman who resembled Sura the Pro-
consul, not in general likeness only, but also in the grin
when he spoke, in drawing his Tongue short, and in his
thick Speech. Cassius Severus, the famous Orator, was
reproached for being like Mirmillo, a Keeper of Cattle.
Toranius sold to Marcus Antonius, at that time Triumvir,
two very beautiful Boys as Twins, so like they were one to
the other : although one was born in Asia, and the other
beyond the Alps. But when Antony afterwards came to
the knowledge of the fraud, which was detected by the Lan-
guage of the Boys, he threatened him in great Anger :
Among other things complaining of the high Price that he
had made him pay, for they cost him two hundred Sesterces.
But the cunning Merchant answered, That this was the very
cause why he bad sold them at so great a rate : for it would
not have been so wonderful if two Brothers of the same
Mother had resembled one another ; but that there should
be any found, who were born in different Countries, so like
in all respects, was above every thing deserving of a high
Price. This answer of his produced a well-timed admiration,

1 That is, he who supported the second or the third rate of characters
on the ancient stage.— Wern. Club.

196 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

so that the Proscriptor, whose mind was enraged and uttered
reproaches, was not only appeased, hut also induced to be
well pleased with his good Fortune.

CAP. XIII.
Qucs sit Generandi Ratio.

EST quaedam privatim dissociatio corporum ; et inter se
steriles, uhi cum aliis junxere, gignunt : sicut Augustus et
Livia. Item alii aliaeque fbeminas tantum generant, aut
mares ; plerunque et alternant : sicut Gracchorum mater duo-
decies, et Agrippina Germanici novies. Aliis sterilis est
juventa, aliis semel in vita datur gignere. Quaedam non
perferunt partus : quales, si quando medicina et cura vicere,
fceminam fere gignunt. Divus Augustus in reliqua exemplo-
rum raritate, neptis suae nepotem vidit genitum quo excessit
anno, M. Syllanum ; qui cum Asiam obtineret post Consu-
latum, Neronis Principis successione, veneno ejus interemptus
est. Q. Metellus Macedonicus, cum sex liberos relinqueret,
undecim nepotes reliquit, nurus vero generosque et omnes
qui se patris appellatione salutarent, viginti septem. In Actis
temporum Divi Augusti invenitur, XII. Consulatu ejus L.
qusB Sylla Collega, ad III. Id us Aprilis, C. Crispinum Hila-
rum ex ingenua plebe Fesulana, cum liberis novem (in quo
numero filiae duae fuerunt) nepotibus XXVII., pronepotibus
XXIX., neptibus IX., praelata pompa, cum omnibus in
Capitolio immolasse.1

1 These instances are more than equalled by some which are men-
tioned in the preface to " Hearne's Edition of Leland," vol. vi. p. 4.
Mary, wife of Richard Honiwood, of Charinge, in Kent, died at the age
of ninety-eight, in the year 1620, leaving by one husband sixteen children,
114 grand-children, 228 great-grand-children, and nine in the fourth de-
gree : in all 367 persons. Thomas Urqhart, laird and sheriff of Cromarty,
had by one wife twenty-five sons and eleven daughters : all of whom he
lived to see of considerable eminence in the world. "In Dunstable
church," says Hakewell (Apol.) " is an epitaph on a woman, testifying
that she bore three children at a birth three several times, and five at a
birth two other times." In the year 1553 the wife of John Gissger, an
Italian, had twins, and before the year was out she produced five children,
three sons and two daughters. Thomas Fazel writes that " Jane Pancica,

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 197

CAP. XIV.
De eodem multiplicius.

MULIER post quinquagesimum annum non gignit, major-
que pars quadragesimo profluvium genitale sistit. Nam in
viris Massinissam Regem, post LXXXVI. annum generasse
filium, quern Methymnatum appellaverit, clarum est: Cato-
nem Censorium octogesimo exacto, a filia Salonii clientis sui.
Qua de causa, aliorum ejus liberorum propago, Liciniani
snnt cognominati, hi Saloniani, ex quibus Uticensis fuit.
Nuper etiam L. Volusio Saturnine in urbis praefectura ex-
tincto, notum est Cornelias Scipionum gentis Volusium Sa-
turninum, qui fuit Consul, genitum post LXII. annum.
Et usque ad LXXXV. apud ignobiles vulgaris reperitur
generatio.

CAP. XV.
.De Menstruis Mulierum.

SOLUM autem animal menstruale mulier est : inde unius
utero, quas appellarunt molas. Ea est caro informis,
inanima, ferri ictum et aciein respuens. Movetur, sistitque
menses; ut et partus, alias lethalis, alias una senescens,
aliquando alvo citatiore excidens. Simile quiddam et viris
in ventre gignitur, quod vocant scirron : sic ut Oppio Capi-
toni praetorio viro. Sed nihil facile reperiatur mulierum
profluvio magis monstrificum. Acescunt superventu inusta,
sterilescunt tactae frtiges, moriuntur insita, exuruntur horto-
rum germina, et fructus arborum, quibus insidere, decidunt ;
speculorum fulgor aspectu ipso hebetatur, acies ferri prae-
stringitur, eborisque nitor ; alvei apum emoriuntur ; aes
etiam ac ferrum rubigo protinus corripit, odorque dirus
aera ; et in rabiem aguntur gustato eo canes, atque insanabili
veneno morsus inficitur. Quin et bituminum sequax alio-

wife of Bernard, a Sicilian, in thirty births produced seventy-three
children." The latter instances are from Wanley's " Wonders of the
Little World," where his authorities are given. — Wern. Club.

198 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

quin ac lenta Natura, in Lacu Judaese (qui vocatur Asphal-
tites), certo tempore anni supernatans, nequit sibi avelli, ad
omnein contactum adhserens, praeterquam filo quod tale
virus infecerit. Etiam formicis animali minimo, inesse sen-
sum ejus ferunt; abjicique gustatas fruges, nee postea repeti.
Et hoc tale tantumque omnibus tricenis diebus malum in
muliere exsistit, et trimestri spatio largius. Quibusdam vero
saepius mense; sicut aliquibus nunquam ; sed tales non gig-
nunt, quando hsec est generando homini rnateria semine e
maribus coaguli modo hoc in sese glomerante, quod deinde
tempore ipso animatur, corporaturque. Ergo cum gravidis
fluxit, invalidi aut non vitales partus eduntur, aut saniosi, ut
autor est Negidius.1

CAP. XVI.
Item de Ratione Partuum.

IDEM, lac fbeminae non corrumpi alenti partum si ex
eodem viro rursus conceperit, arbitratur. Incipiente autem
hoc statu, aut desinente, conceptus facillimi traduntur.
Faecunditatis in fceminis praerogativam accepimus, inunctis
medicamine oculis, salivam infici. Caeterum editis primores
septimo mense gigni dentes priusque in supera fere parte,haud
dubium est. Septimo eosdem decidere anno, aliosque suffici.
Quosdam et cum dentibus nasci,2 sicut M. Curium, quod ob
id Dentatus cognominatus est, et Cn. Papyrium Carbonem,
praeclaros viros. In Women the same thing was counted
inauspicious in the times of the Kings, for when Valeria
was born toothed in this manner, the Augurs (Aruspices)
being consulted about it, answered by way of Prophecy,
that she would be the ruin of that City to which she might
be conveyed ; whereupon she was conveyed to Suessa Pometia,

1 Much that is here stated is erroneous, and mere fable ; the recondite
subject of generation abounding in the marvellous. — Wern. Club.

2 However this might have been regarded in ancient times, on a super-
stitious account, it is not an uncommon circumstance. The editor is
acquainted with the fact, that in an instance of three children being born
at one birth, all of them were furnished with teeth.-— Wern. Club.

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 199

which at that time was very flourishing: and the ruin of the
place certainly followed. Cornelia, the Mother of the Grac-
chi, is sufficient proof that it is an adverse omen, when
Women are born with the Genital Parts grown together.
Some Children are born with a continued edge of Bone
instead of a row of distinct Teeth j1 as a Son of Prusius King
of the Bythinians, who had such a Bone in his Upper Jaw.
But Teeth are the only parts that are not subdued by the
Fires ; so that they are not consumed with the rest of the
Body; but the same parts that are not conquered by the
Flames are hollowed out and wasted by a Waterish Rheum.
They may be made White by some Medicines. They are
worn away by use ; and sometimes they fall first out of the
Head ; they serve not only to grind our Meat for our Nourish-
ment, but they are necessary for the framing of our Speech.
The Fore-teeth hold the Government over our Voice and
Words by a peculiar accord, answering to the Stroke of the
Tongue, and the series of their Formation, with their Size,
catting up, softening, or restraining the Words ; but when
they are fallen out all explanation of Words is lost.
Moreover, it may be believed, that some Augury can be
gathered from the Teeth. Men are in possession of two-and-
thirty in all, except the Nation of the Turduli ; and those
who have above this Number suppose that they may calcu-
late on longer Life. Women have not so many : they that
have on the right Side in the upper Jaw two Eye-teeth,
named Canine, may promise themselves the Favours of For-
tune ; as was the case in Agrippina, the Mother of Domitius
Nero : but it is the contrary in the Left Side. It is not the Cus-
tom in any Country to burn in a Funeral Fire the dead Body
of an Infant before the Teeth are come up : but of this we will
write more, when our History will take in the individual
Members. Zoroastres was the only Man we have heard of,
who laughed the same day he was born : his Brain did so
evidently pulsate, that it would lift up the Hand that was
laid on it: a Presage of his future Learning. It is certain

1 This was also the case with King Pyrrhus. See note, lib. vii. 2. —
Wem. Club.

200 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

that a Man at three years of Age is come to one-half of the
Measure of his Height. This also is observed for a Truth, that
generally all Men fall short of the full Stature in Times past ;
and seldom are they taller than their Fathers : the Exube-
rance of the Seeds being consumed by the burning, in the
Changes of which the World now vergeth toward the latter
End. In Crete, a Mountain being cloven asunder by an
Earthquake, a Body was found standing, forty-six Cubits
high ; which some judged to be the Body of Orion, and
others, of Otus. It is believed from Records that the Body
of Orestes, when taken up by direction of the Oracle, was
seven Cubits long.1 And that great Poet, Homer, who lived
almost a thousand Years ago, did not cease to complain that
Men's Bodies were less of Stature even then, than in old
Time. The Annals do not deliver down the Bulk of Navius
Pollio; but that he was of great size appeareth by this, that
it was taken for a Wonder, that in a great Crowd of People
running together he was almost killed. The tallest Man
that hath been seen in our Age was one named Gabbara,
who in the Days of Prince Claudius was brought out of
Arabia; he was nine Feet high, and as many Inches. There
were in the Time of Divus Augustus two others, named
Pusio and Secundilla, higher than Gabbara by half a Foot,
whose Bodies were preserved for a Wonder in a Vault in the
Gardens of the Salustiani. While the same (Augustus) was
President, his Niece Julia had a very little Man, two Feet
and a Hand- breadth high, called Canopas, whom she made
much of; and also a Woman named Andromeda,* the Freed
Woman of Julia Augusta. M. Varro reporteth that Manius
Maximus, and M. Tullius, Roman Knights, were but two
Cubits hio;h : and we ourselves have seen their Bodies em-

\j

balmed in Presses. It is well known that there are some

1 Ten feet and an half.

2 The instance of the American who exhibited himself through Eu-
rope is of recent occurrence. John Duck, an Englishman, was carried
about for a show in 1610, being two feet and a half high at forty-five years
of age. Cardan says he saw a man in Italy, of full age, not above a cubit
high. He was carried about in a parrot- cage. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VII .] History of Nature. 201

born a Foot and a half high ; others again somewhat longer :
filling up the Course of their Life in three Years. We find
in the Chronicles, that in Salamis the Son of Euthimenes1 in
three Years grew to he three Cubits high ; but he was in
his Pace slow and in his Understanding dull ; but having
attained the State of Puberty, and his Voice having become
strong, at Three Years' end he died suddenly of a Contraction
of all the Parts of his Body. Some while since I saw myself
the like in almost all respects, except the Puberty, in a Son
of Cornelius Tacitus, a Roman Knight, and a Procurator for
the State in Belgic Gaul. Such the Greeks call Ectrapelos ;
in Latin they have no Name.

CHAPTER XVII.
Observations of Bodies.

WE see that the Length of a Man from the Sole of the
Foot to the Crown of the Head is equal to the Extent of his
longest Fingers when his Arms and Hands are stretched out.
As also, that most People are stronger on the right Side ;
others are as strong on one Side as on the other : and there are
some that are altogether Left-handed; but that is never seen
in Women. Men weigh heavier than Women : and in every
kind of Creature, the bodies, when dead, are more heavy than
when alive ; and the same Parties sleeping weigh more than
when awake. The dead Bodies of Men float with the Face

1 In the year 1747, Mr. Dawkes, a surgeon at St. Ives, near Hun-
tingdon, published a small tract called " Prodigium Willinghamense," or
an account of a surprising boy, who was buried at Willingham, near
Cambridge, upon whom he wrote the following epitaph : — " Stop, tra-
veller, and wondering know, here buried lie the remains of Thomas, son
of Thomas and Margaret Hall, who, not one year old, had the signs of
manhood ; not three, was almost four feet high ; endued with uncommon
strength, a just proportion of parts, and a stupendous voice; before six he
died, as it were, of advanced age. He was born at this village, October 31,
1741, and the same departed this life, September 3, 1747." (See also
"Philosophical Transactions," 1744-45.) As Dr. Elliotson has observed
(Blumenbach's " Physiology "), this perfectly authentic case removes all
doubts respecting the boy at Salamis mentioned by Pliny. — Wern. Club.

202 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

upward, and Women with the Face downward, as if Nature
had provided to save their Modesty even when dead.

CHAPTER XVIII.
Examples of a Variety of Forms.

WE have heard that some Men's Bones are solid, and so
live without any Marrow. They are known by the Signs, that
they never feel Thirst, nor put forth any Sweat : and yet we
know that a Man may conquer his Thirst by his Will ; and
Julius Viator, a Roman Knight, descended from the Race of
the Confederate Voconti, in his younger Years being ill with
an Effusion of Water beneath the Skin, and forbidden by
the Physicians to use Fluids in any way, obtained a Nature
by Custom, so that in his old Age he forbore to drink.
Others also have been able to command their Nature in
many Cases.

CHAPTER XIX.
Examples of Diversity of Habits.

IT is said, that Crassus, Grandfather to that Crassus who
was slain in Parthia, never laughed, and on that account
was called Agelastus: and also that many have been found
to have never wept. Socrates, who was illustrious for his
Wisdom, was seen always to carry the same Countenance,
never being more cheerful nor more disturbed at one Time
than another. But this tendency of the Mind turneth now
and then in the End into a certain Rigour and Sternness
of Nature, so hard and inflexible that it cannot be ruled ;
and so despoileth Men of the humane Affections; and such
are called by the Greeks Apathes. who had the Experience
of many such : and, what is surprising, some of them were
very eminent for Wisdom, as Diogenes the Cynic, Pyrrho,
Heraclitus, and Timo ; the latter being carried away so far
as to hate the whole Human Race. But these were Ex-
amples of depraved Nature. Various remarkable Things are
known ; as in Antonia, the Wife of Drusus, who was never

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 203

seen to spit ; and Pomponius the Poet, a Consular Man, who
never belched. Such as naturally have their Bones solid,
who are seldom met with, are called Cornel (hard as Horn).

CHAPTER XX.
Of Strength and Swiftness.1

VARRO, in his Treatise of prodigious Strength, maketh
Report of Tritanus, who was little in Person, but of incom-
parable Strength, much renowned in the Gladiatorial Play,
with the Armature of the Samnites. He maketh mention
also of a Son of his, a Soldier under Pompey the Great ; and
that he had all over his Body, as well as through his Arms
and Hands, Sinews running straight and across like Net-
work : and when an Enemy challenged him to a Combat,
he overcame him with his right Hand unarmed, and in the
End caught hold of him, and brought him into the Camp
with one Finger. Junius Valens, a Centurion in the Praeto-
rium of Divus Augustus, was accustomed to bear up Waggons
laden with Sacks, until they were discharged : with one Hand
he would hold back a Chariot, standing firm against all the
Force of the Horses. He did also other wonderful Things,
which are to be seen engraved on his Tomb : and therefore
Varro saith that being called Hercules Rusticellus, he took
up his Mule and carried him away. Fusius Salvius carried
up over the Stairs two hundred Pounds' weight on his Feet,
as many in his Hands, and twice as much upon his Shoul-
ders. Myself have seen a Man named Athanatus, with a
great deal of Ostentation walk upon the Stage clothed in a

1 It is observable that in this, and chap, xxiii., Pliny's instances apply
only to animal endurance. Martial took a more correct view of the mental
property, when he said : —

" Rebus in angustis facile est contemnere vitam :
Fortiter ille facit, qui miser esse potest." — B. xi. Ep. 35.

When Fortune frowns, 'tis easy life to hate ;
But real courage is not crush'd by fate.

Wem. Club.

204 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

Cuirass of Lead weighing five hundred Pounds, and wearing
high Shoes of the same Weight. When Milo, the great
Wrestler of Croton£, stood firm upon his Feet, no Man was
able to make him stir in the least Degree : if he held an
Apple, no Man was able to stretch out his Finger.1 It was a
great matter, that Philippides ran 1140 Stadia, from Athens
to Lacedsemon, in two Days ; until Anistis, a Runner of
Lacedsemon, and Philonides, belonging to Alexander the
Great, ran from Sicyone to Elis in one Day, 1200 Stadia.
But now, indeed, we know some in the Circus able to endure
the running of 160 Miles. And lately when Fonteius and
Vipsanus were Consuls, a young Boy, only nine Years old,
between Noon and Evening ran 75 Miles. And a Man may
wonder the more at this Matter, if he consider, that it was
counted an exceeding great Journey that Tiberius Nero made
in three Chariots in a Day and a Night, when he hasted to
his Brother Drusus, then lying sick in Germany, which was
but 200 Miles.2

1 Two persons, successively porters to Kings James I. and Charles,
his son, were of great size and strength. The first, particularly, was able
to take two of the tallest yeomen of the guard, one under each arm, and
he ordered them as he pleased. The Emperor Maximinus, who was eight
feet and a half in height, was of enormous strength, even in proportion to
his magnitude. — Wern. Club,

2 We have less examples of swiftness of foot, since more rapid convey-
ance is common. Pliny's instances are the more surprising, as they imply
continuance ; but the English King Henry V. was so swift of foot, that
with two of his lords, without any weapons, he would catch a wild buck
in a large park. In Baker's " Chronicle " we are informed, that John
Lepton, of Kepwick, in the county of York, one of the grooms of the
Privy Chamber to James I., for a wager rode for six days successively
between York and London : which is 150 miles. He accomplished the
work of each day, beginning May 20, 1606, before it was dark ; and hav-
ing finished his wager at York on Saturday, on the following Monday he
rode back to London, and on Tuesday to the court at Greenwich : being
as fresh and well as when he began. In the year 1619, July 17, Bernard
Calvert rode from St. George's church, in Southwark, to Dover : thence
by barge to Calais, and from thence back to St. George's church, on the
same day; beginning at three o'clock in the morning, and ending at eight
in the evening, fresh and lusty, although roads were then less perfect
than now. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 205

CHAPTER XXI.
Examples of good Eyesight.

WE find in Histories almost incredible Examples of
Sharpness of the Eyes. Cicero hath recorded, that the Poem
of Homer called the Iliad, written on Parchment, was en-
closed within a Nutshell. The same Writer maketh mention
of one who could see to the Distance of 135 Miles. And
M.Varro nameth the Man, saying that he was called Strabo;
and that during the Carthaginian War he was accustomed to
stand upon Lilybseum, a Promontory of Sicily, and discover
the Fleet coming out of the Harbour of Carthage ; he was
also able to tell even the Number of the Ships. Collier ates
made Emmets, and other equally small Creatures, out of
Ivory, so that other Men could not discern the Parts of their
Bodies. A certain Myrmecides was excellent in that kind of
Workmanship ; who of the same Material carved a Chariot
with four Wheels, which a Fly might cover with her Wings.
Also he made a Ship that a little Bee might hide with her
Wings.1

CHAPTER XXII.
Of Hearing.

OF Hearing there is one Example which is wonderful :
that the Battle in which Sybaris was destroyed was heard at
Olympia on the very same Day it was fought. For the Cim-

1 Peculiarities of eyesight are also recorded in ancient authors. The
Emperor Tiberius was able to see better than other men by night ; and
contrary to the usual habit, best when he first opened his eyes from sleep.
Such was also the case with the philosopher Cardan. Fabricius ab Aqua-
pendente knew a man who could see well by night, but not by day ; and
the Editor was acquainted with two brothers, whose vision was of this
kind ; and it may be accounted for by the fact, that they were destitute of
eyebrows, and had very little eyelashes. — Wern. Club.

206 History of Nature. [BoOK VII.

brian Victories and the Report of the Victory over the Per-
sians made at Rome by the Castors, on the same Day that it
was achieved, were Visions and the Presages of Divine
Powers.

CHAPTER XXIII.
Examples of Patience.

MANY are the Calamities incident to Mankind, which
have afforded innumerable Trials of Patience, in suffering
Pains of the Body. The most illustrious among Women is
the Example of Leana the Courtesan, who, when she was
tortured, did not betray Harmodius and Aristogiton, who
slew the Tyrant. Among Men is the Example of Anaxar-
chus, who, being tortured for a like Cause, bit off his Tongue
with his Teeth, and spat his only Hope of Discovery into the
Face of the Tyrant.

CHAPTER XXIV.
Examples of Memory.1

MEMORY is the greatest Gift of Nature, and most neces-
sary of all others for Life ; it is hard to say who deserved the

1 The orator Hortensius was famous for an extensive and accurate
memory ; which Cicero speaks of with admiration. It is said of him,
that once sitting at a place where things were exposed to public sale for a
whole day, he recited in order all the things that had been sold, their
price, and the names of the buyers ; and it was afterwards found that he
was minutely correct. Cicero, comparing him with Lucullus, says, that
Hortensius's memory was greater for words, and that of Lucullus for
things, — an important distinction, for it is commonly found that those who
best remember the one, are deficient in the other. Seneca had a remark-
able memory for words ; so that he was able to repeat two thousand names
in the order they were pronounced. The art of memory, to which some
moderns have made great pretensions, is very ancient ; and it was much
in use in the middle ages. But it applies to words rather than things ;
and it requires to be studied as an individual object, and not as means to
an end.— Wern. Club.

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 207

chief honour therein, considering how many have excelled
in its Glory. King Cyrus called every Soldier in his Army
by his own Name. L. Scipio could do the like by all the
Citizens of Rome. Cineas, Ambassador of King Pyrrhus,
the next Day after he came to Rome, saluted by Name the
Senate and Equestrian Order. Mithridates, the King of two-
and-twenty Nations of different Languages, ministered Justice
to them in that Number of Tongues : and when he made a
Speech in the public Assembly respectively to every Nation, he
performed it without an Interpreter. A certain Charmidas^
a Grecian, rehearsed as if he was reading whatever any Man
would call for out of any of the Volumes in the Libraries.
At length the Practice of this was reduced into an Art of
Memory, which was invented by Simonides Melicus, and
afterwards brought to Perfection by Metrodorus Scepsius; by
which a Man might learn to rehearse the same Words of any
Discourse after once hearing. And yet there is nothing in
Man so frail ; for it is injured by Diseases, Accidents, and by
Fear, sometimes in part, and at other Times entirely. One
who was struck with a Stone forgot his Letters only. Ano-
ther, by a Fall from the Roof of a very high House, lost
the Remembrance of his own Mother, his near Relations,
and Neighbours. Another when sick forgot his own Ser-
vants ; and Messala Corvinus, the Orator, forgot even his
own Name.2 So also it often endeavoureth to lose itself, even
while the Body is otherwise quiet and in Health. But let
Sleep creep upon us, and it reckoneth, as an empty Mind
inquireth, what place it is in.

1 Carneades, according to Cicero and Quintilian.

2 A sudden loss of memory on a particular subject is common, though
unaccountable. We are told that Curio, the orator, was much given to
this ; so that, offering to divide a subject into three heads, he would forget
one of them, or perhaps make four. He was to plead on behalf of Sextus
Naevius, opposed to Cicero, who was on the side of Titania Corta ; when
he suddenly forgot the whole cause, and ascribed the fact to the witchcraft
of Titania. — Wern. Club.

208

History of Nature.

[BOOK VII.

Julius Ccesar and Augustus.

CHAPTER XXV.
The Praise of C. Julius Ccesar.

FOR Vigour of Spirit I judge that C. Ccesar, the Dictator,
was the most excellent. I speak not now of his Courage
and Constancy, nor of his lofty Understanding of all Things
under the Expanse of Heaven ; but of that proper Strength
and Quickness of his, as active as the very Fire. We have
heard it reported of him, that he was accustomed to write
and read at one Time, to dictate and hear. He would dic-
tate Letters of the utmost Importance to four Secretaries at
once : and when he was free from other Business, he would
dictate seven Letters at one Time. The same Man fought
fifty Battles with Banners displayed : in which Point he
alone exceeded M. Marcellus, who fought thirty-nine Battles.
For, besides his Victories in the Civil Wars, he slew in Battle
1,192,000 of his Enemies ; but this, for my own Part, I hold
no special Glory of his, considering the great Injury so in-
flicted on Mankind : and this, indeed, he hath himself con-
fessed, by avoiding to set down the Slaughter that occurred
during the Civil Wars. Pompey the Great deserveth honour
more justly for taking from the Pirates 846 Sail of Ships.
But what is proper and peculiar to Ccesar, besides what is
said above, was his remarkable Clemency, in which he so far
surpassed all others, that he himself regretted it. The Example
of his Magnanimity was such, that nothing besides can be com-

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 209

pared to it. For to reckon up the Spectacles exhibited, with
the lavish Expense, with the Magnificence in this Portion of
his Works, is to lend a countenance to Luxury. But herein
appeared the true and incomparable Loftiness of his un-
conquered Mind, that when at the Battle of Pharsalia, the
Writing-case containing the Letters of Pompey was taken,
as also those of Scipio at Thapsus, he burnt them all with
the utmost Fidelity, without having read them.

Pompey.

CHAPTER XXVI.
The Praise of Pompey the Great.

To relate all the Titles, Victories, and Triumphs of Pompey
the Great, wherein he was equal in the splendour of his
Exploits not only to Alexander the Great,1 but even almost
to Hercules and Liber Pater, would redound, not to the
Honour only of that one Man, but also to the Grandeur of
the Roman Empire. In the first place then, after he had
recovered Sicily, from whence his first rising was as a follower
of Sylla in the cause of the Republic, he appeared auspiciously

1 It is clear from various ancient authorities, that it was the ambition
of Pompey to imitate and be compared to Alexander; and it was with this
view that the title of Great was highly acceptable to him. It was per-
haps to humour this foible, and through it to secure him the more effec-
tually to his party, that Sylla was accustomed to pay him extraordinary
personal honours : returning his salutation of Imperator with the same
title, rising from his seat to salute him when Pompey dismounted from
his horse, and uncovering his head at the same time. — Daleschampiiis.
In honour of Pompey 's having restored the sovereignty of the sea, the
reverse of a Roman denarius bears the figure of a Dolphin and Eagle,
separated by a Sceptre, with the inscription, Magn. Procos.— Wern. Club.

VOL. II. P

210 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

fortunate. Having also wholly subdued Africa, and brought
it under obedience, he was brought back in a Triumphal
Chariot, with the name of Great, by reason of the Pillage
there captured, being then only a Roman Knight : a thing
that was never seen before. Immediately passing into the
West, and having brought under obedience 876 Towns,
between the Alps and the borders of Spain, he erected
Trophies on the Pyrenees, with the inscription of his Victory ;
and with more nobleness of Mind, said nothing concerning
Sertorius. And after the Civil War was put an end to
(which drew after it all Foreign matters), this Roman Knight
triumphed the second time : being so many times a General
(Imperator), before he was a Soldier (Miles). Afterward
he was sent out on an Expedition to all the Seas, and then
into the East parts : From whence he returned with more
Titles to his Country, after the manner of those who win
Victories at the Sacred Games.1 Neither, indeed, are those
Crowned, but they Crown their Native Countries; and
so Pompey gave as a Tribute to the City these honours
which he dedicated to Minerva* out of (mojiubiis) his own
share of the Spoils, with an inscription in this manner :
CN. POMPEIUS the Great, Imperator, having finished the
War of Thirty Years: having discomfited, put to flight, slain,
received to submission, 2,183,000 Men : sunk or taken 846
Ships : brought under his authority Towns and Castles to the
number 0/1538 : subdued the Lands from the Lake Mceotis
to the Red Sea, hath dedicated of right this Vow to MINERVA.
This is the Summary of his Services in the East. But of the
Triumph which he led on the Third Day before the Calends
of October, when M. Messala and M. Piso were Consuls,
the Title ran thus : When he had freed the Sea-coast from
Pirates, had restored to the People of Rome the Sovereignty
of the Sea, he hath triumphed for Asia ; Pontus, Armenia,
Paphlagonia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Syria, the Scythians, Jews,
and the Albani ; the Island Iberia, Crete, the Bastarni ;
and above these, over the Kings Mithridates and Tigranes.
But the greatest Glory of all in him was this, (as himself

1 Olympia, Nemsea, Pythia, Isthmia. 2 Or Victory.

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 21 1

said in an Assembly, when he discoursed of his own Ex-
ploits) : that whereas Asia, when he received it, was the
remotest Province of his Country, he left it in the centre.
If a man would set Ccesar on the other side against him,
and review his actions, who of the two seemed greater,
he might indeed reckon up the whole World, which would
amount to an infinite matter.

CHAPTER XXVII.
The praise of the First Cato.

MANY Men have differently excelled in various other
kinds of virtues. But Cato,1 the First of the Porcian House,
was thought to have been the most excellent in three
things which are in the highest degree commendable in
Man. He was the best Orator; the best General ; and the
best Senator. And yet, in my opinion, all these excellencies
shone out more brightly, although he was not first, in Scipio
JEmilianus : To say nothing besides of the absence of the
Hatred of so many Men, which Cato laboured under. But
if you seek for one especial thing in Cato, this is, that he
was judicially called to his answer Forty-four times, and
never was there a Man accused oftener than he ; yet he was
always acquitted.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

Of Valour.
IT is a very extensive inquiry, to discover in whom the

1 This Cato appears to have been more successful in obtaining the
esteem than the love of the people ; and, indeed, from the evidence of his
"Treatise on Agriculture," he appears to have been a niggardly and
shrewd master, whom no one could defraud, and who was ready to
secure every advantage in a bargain. He recommends, with the same
indifference, the sale of an ox that was past labour, his rusty iron, and
sickly or worn-out slave.

Narratur et prisci Catonis,

Saepe mero caluisse Virtus. — Wern. Club.

212 History of Nature. [BOOK VII.

greatest degree of hardy Courage existed ; and more espe-
cially if we admit the fabulous tales of Poets. Q. Ennius
had in greatest admiration T. Ccecilius Teucer, and his
brother; and in regard of those Two he added to the others
the Sixth Book of his Annals. But L. Siccius Dentatus, a
Tribune of the Commons, not long after the Banishment of
the Kings, when Sp. Tarpeius and A. JEternius were Con-
suls, by most Voices surpasseth in this kind, having Fought
120 Battles; having been Conqueror in Eight Combats with
a Challenge ; being marked with 45 Scars on the front
of his Body, and none behind. Also he won the Spoils of
33 Enemies; he had been presented with 18 Spears; 25
trappings for Horses ; 83 Chains ; 160 Bracelets ; 26
Crowns, of which 14 were Civic, eight of Gold : three
Mural ; and one Obsidional ; together with a Pension from
the Treasury ; and ten Captives with twenty Oxen ; and
thus he followed nine Imperators, who chiefly by his means
triumphed. Besides these things, he accused in open court
before the body of the People, which I suppose was the
worthiest act he ever did, T. Romulius, one of the lead-
ing Generals (who had been a Consul) and convicted him for
his ill management of his military command. Scarcely
inferior to these were the exploits of Manlius Capitolinus, if
he had not forfeited them again with such an end of his life.1
Before he was seventeen years of age, he had gained two
spoils of his Enemies. He was the first Roman Knight that
received a Mural Crown; with six Civic Crowns ; 37 Dona-
tions; and he carried the Scars in the forepart of his Body
of 33 Wounds. He rescued P. Servilius, Master of the
Horse, and (in the rescue) was himself wounded in the Arm

1 Marcus Manlius was the means of preserving the Capitol when it was
nearly taken by the Gauls ; from which exploit he obtained the surname
of Capitolinus. Becoming afterwards a warm supporter of the popular
party against the patrician order, he was accused of aiming at the kingly
power, and condemned to death. According to Livy (lib. vi.) "the
tribunes cast him down from the Tarpeian rock ; thus the same spot, in
the case of one man, became a monument of distinguished glory and of
the cruellest punishment." — Wern. Club.

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 213

and Thigh. Above all other actions, he alone saved the
Capitol, and thereby the whole State, from the Gauls: if he
had not saved it for his own Kingdom ! In these examples
there is indeed much of courage, but yet Fortune hath had the
greater share ; and in my judgment no one may justly prefer
any Man before M. Sergius, although Catiline, his Nephew's
Son, discredited his Name. In the second Year of his Service
he lost his Right Hand ; and in two Services he was wounded
three and twenty times : by which means he had little use
of either his Hands or Feet. But although thus disabled
as a Soldier, he went many a Time after to the Wars,
attended only by one Slave. Twice he was taken Prisoner
by Hannibal (for he did not serve against ordinary Enemies),
and twice he escaped from his bonds, although for twenty
Months he was every Day kept Bound with Chains or
Shackles. Four times he fought with his Left Hand only,
until two Horses were killed under him. He made himself
a Right Hand of Iron, and he fought with it fastened to his
Arm. He delivered Cremona from Siege, and saved Pla-
centia. In Gallia, he took twelve Camps of the Enemies:
All which Exploits appear from that Oration of his which he
made in his Praetorship, when his Colleagues repelled him
from the solemn Sacrifices because he was maimed.1 What
heaps of Crowns would he have built up if he had been
matched with any other Enemy ! For it is very important,
in our estimate of Courage, to consider in what Time the
Persons lived. For what Civic Crowns yielded either Trebia
and Ticinus, or Thrasymenus? what Crown could have been
gained at Cannae, where the best service of Courage was to
have made an escape ? Others, truly, have vanquished Men ;
but Sergius conquered Fortune herself.

1 The ancients were cautious not to admit a mutilated person to the
celebration of sacred rites, observing that such a defect was to be regarded
as a thing of ill-omen ; and that, if the victim must be perfect, how much
more does it become the priest to be so ! How careful the Jews were
commanded to be in this respect, appears from the Law of Moses,
Levit. xx. xxi. — Wern. Club.

214 History of Nature. [BooK VII,

CHAPTER XXIX.

Of Ingenuities, or the Commendations of some Men for their

Ingenuity.

WHO is able to make a muster of them that have been
excellent in Ingenuity through so many kinds of Sciences,
and such a variety of Works and Things? Unless perhaps
we agree that Homer, the Greek Prophet, excelled all others,
considering either the subject matter or the happy fortune
of his Work. And therefore Alexander the Great (for in so
proud a decision I shall cite the Judgment of the highest,
and of those that are beyond Envy), having found among
the Spoils of Darius, king of the Persians, his Casket of
sweet Ointments, which was richly embellished with Gold,
Pearls, and precious Stones ; when his friends shewed him
many uses to which the Cabinet might be put, considering
that Alexander, as a Soldier engaged in War, and soiled with
its service, was disgusted with those Unguents : By Hercules,
he said, let it be devoted to the care of Homer's Books, that
the most precious Work of the Human Mind should be pre-
served in the richest of all Caskets. The same Prince, when
he took Thebes, commanded that the Dwelling-house and
Family of the Poet Pindar* should be spared. He refounded
the native place (Patria) of Aristotle the Philosopher; and
so mingled a kind Testimony for one who threw light on
all things in the World. Apollo, at Delphi, revealed the
murderers of Archilochus the Poet. When Sophocles, the
Prince of the Tragic Buskin, was dead, and the Walls of
the City were besieged by the Lacedaemonians, Liber Pater
commanded that he should be buried ; and he admonished
Lysander their King several times as he slept, to suffer his
delight to be interred. The King made diligent inquiry who

1 " The Macedonian conqueror bade spare

The house of Pindarus, when temple and tower
Went to the ground." — MII/TON.

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 215

lately had died in Athens : and by relation of the Citizens
soon found out who the god had signified ; and so gave them
peace for the burial.

CHAPTER XXX.
Of Plato, Ennius, Virgil, M. Varro, and M. Cicero.

DIONYSIUS the Tyrant, born otherwise to pride and
cruelty, sent out to meet Plato, the Chief of the Wise
Men, a Ship adorned with Ribbons; and himself went out
in a Chariot with four white Horses, to receive him on the
Shore. Isocrates sold one Oration for twenty talents of Gold.
JEschines, the famous Orator of Athens, having at Rhodes
rehearsed that accusation which he had made against
Demosthenes, read also his adversary's defence, by occasion
of which he had been driven into Banishment at Rhodes ;
and when the Rhodians wondered at it he said, How much
more would you have wondered, if you had heard him de-
livering it himself! Yielding thus in his Calamity a noble
Testimony to his Adversary. The Athenians exiled Thucy-
dides their General : but after he had written his Chronicle
they called him home again, wondering at the Eloquence of
the Man whose Courage they had condemned. The Kings
of Egypt and Macedonia gave a strong Testimony how much
they honoured Mcenander the Comic Poet, in that they
sent Ambassadors for him with a Fleet ; but he won himself
greater fame by esteeming more his Studies, than the Favours
of Princes. Also the Roman Nobles have afforded Testi-
monies even to Foreigners. Hence Cn. Pompey, when he had
ended the War against Mithridates, being about to enter the
House of Posidonius, the celebrated Professor of Wisdom,
forbad the Lictor to knock at the Door according to custom :
and he to whom both the East and the West parts of the
World had submitted, laid down the lictorial Fasces at the
Gate. Cato, surnamed Censorius, when there came to Rome
that noble embassage from Athens, consisting of three, the
wisest Men among them, having heard Carneades speak,

216 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

gave his opinion presently, that those Ambassadors were to
be sent away with all speed, because, if that Man argued the
case, it would be difficult to find out the Truth.1 What a
change is there now in Men's manners ! His decision was,
that by any means all Greeks should be expelled from Italy ;
but his nephew's Son, (Pronepos,) Cato of Utica, brought one
of their Philosophers over with him from the Tribunes of the
Soldiers, and another from the Cyprian Embassy. And it is
worthy of notice to consider how the same Language was regard-
ed by these two Catoes : for by the one it was rejected. But
let us now discern the glory of our own Countrymen. Scipio
Africanus the elder gave order that the Statue of Q. Ennius*

1 The account of Gate's conduct with the Greek ambassadors, as
given by Pliny, is very different from that by Plutarch, and, from
Cato's acknowledged love of eloquence, we may judge more correct. It
was not, therefore, the fear that eloquence would render the Romans
effeminate ; but because the peculiar eloquence of these men, with per-
haps the general tendency of Greek studies, was calculated to foster
habits of sophistry, and so confound the distinction between truth and
falsehood.— Wern. Club.

2 He was emphatically the poet of the republic, and must have been
a man of sterling worth to have been so highly esteemed by the family
of Scipio, and by the censor Cato. " It was well known from a passage
in Cicero, and another in Livy, that the sepulchre of the Scipios stood
beyond the Porta Capena of Rome ; and Livy describes it as being in his
time surmounted by three statues : two of them of the Scipios, and the
third, as was believed, of the poet Ennius. But it was not until the year
A.D. 1780, that some labourers at work in a vineyard discovered a clue
which led to further excavations; and thus the tombs, after having lain
undisturbed for upwards of 2000 years, were most unexpectedly brought
to light. The original inscriptions have been removed to the Vatican."
The following is from " Roma Antica," but is also contained in Mont-
faucon's "Antiquities," and it must belong to that Scipio who is spoken of
by Pliny in the thirty-fourth chapter of this book, though our author
has erred in the application : —

Hone . oino . ploirume . consentient . R .

Duonoro . optumo . fuise . viro .

Luciom . Scipione . filios . Barbati .

Consol . Censor . Aidilis . Hie . fuit .A ....

Hec . cepit . Corsica . Aleriaque . Urbe .

Dedet . tempestatebus . aide . mereto . j

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 217

the Poet should be set over his Tomb ; 1 to the end that this
illustrious name, or indeed the spoil that he had carried
away from a third part of the World, should be read over his
last ashes, with the title of the Poet. Divus Augustus forbad
that the Poems of Virgil should be burned, contrary to the
truth of his will ; by which means there grew more credit to
the Poet, than if himself had approved his own Verses.
Asinius Pollio was the first that set up a public Library at
Rome, raised from his portion of spoil ; and in it he placed
the image of M. Varro, even while he lived : a thing of as
great honour, in my opinion (considering that among the
multitude of learned Men he only received this Crown from a
Citizen and an excellent Orator), as that other Naval Crown
gained him, which Pompey the Great bestowed upon him

Thus interpreted : —

Hunc umirn plurimi consentiunt Romae,

Bonorum optimum fuisse virum,

Lucium Scipionem, films Barbati,

Consol, Censor, .^Edilis, Hie fuit ; atque (or, apud vos,

or ad eos).

Hie cepit Corsicam, Aleriamque urbem
Dedit Tempestatibus sedem merito.

" The Roman people agree in thinking this man, Lucius Scipio, the
best of all good citizens. He was the son of Barbatus, and consul, censor,
and sedile among you. He took Corsica, and the city Aleria, and
worthily dedicated a temple to the Seasons."

This inscription was dug up in 1616, but was rejected as spurious until
the others were discovered. Africanus, the greatest of the Scipios, was
not buried in the paternal tomb, but on the shore at Liternum ; and the
inscription on his tomb is supposed to have been, " Ingrata Patria, ne
ossa quidem habes." The place is supposed to be marked by a modern
tower, which from the inscription still retains the name of " Patria." —
Wem. Club.

1 " Nor think the great from their high place descend,
Who choose the Muses' favourite for a friend ;
When mighty Scipio, Rome well pleas'd could see,
With Ennius join'd, in kindest amity."

JEPHSON'S Roman Portraits.

" L'intime liaison de Scipion avec le poete Ennius, avec qui il voulut
avoir un tombeau commun, fait juger qu'il ne manquoit pas de gout
pour les belles lettres."— Hist. Rom. par ROLLIN, vol. vii.

218 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

in the Pirates' War. There are innumerable Roman exam-
ples, if a Man would search them out : for this one Nation
hath brought forth more excellent Men in every kind than
all besides. But why should I be silent concerning the sacri-
fice of M. Tullius? or how shall I best declare his high
excellency? how better his praises than from the most
ample testimony of the whole body of the People in general,
and the acts only of this Consulship, chosen out of the
whole course of thy life ? Thine Eloquence was the cause
that the Tribes renounced the Agrarian Law : that is, their
own Sustenance. Through thy Persuasion they pardoned
Roscius, the Author of the Law of the Theatre;1 they were
content to be noted by the Difference of Seat. At thy
Request the Children of the Proscribed felt ashamed to sue
for honourable Dignities ; Catiline fled from thy Ability ; it
was thou that proscribedst M. Antonius. Hail, thou who wast
the first that wast saluted by the Name of Father of thy Coun-
try! the first in the long Robe that deserved a Triumph, and
the Laurel for thy Language ! the Father indeed of Elo-
quence and of the Latin Learning : and (as the Dictator
C&sar, who was at one Time thine Enemy, hath written of
thee) hast obtained a Laurel above all other Triumphs, by how
much more Praiseworthy it is to have enlarged the Bounds
of Roman Learning than of Roman Dominion.

CHAPTER XXXI.
Of Majesty in Manners.

THOSE who, among other Gifts of the Mind, have sur-
passed the rest of Mankind in Wisdom, were on that Account
among the Romans surnamed Cati, and Corculi. Among the
Greeks, Socrates was preferred to all beside by the Oracle of
Apollo Pythius.

1 The Roscian and Julian law, of which L. Roscius Otho, tribune of
the people, was the author, which denned and regulated the order of
sitting in the public theatre ; where, before this, the people mixed indis-
criminately with the knights. The law seems to have been unpopular,
and therefore to have required frequent renewal. Martial (b. v. ep. 8),
has an amusing epigram on its enforcement by Domitian. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 219

CHAPTER XXXII.
Of Authority.

AGAIN, Chilo the Lacedsemonian was of such great Reput-
ation among Men, that his Sayings were held for Oracles ;
and three Precepts of his were consecrated at Delphi, in
these Words : That each one should know himself: Set thy
Mind too much on Nothing: Debt and Law are always accom-
panied with Misery. Moreover, when he died for Joy, on
receiving Tidings that his Son was Conqueror at Olympia,
all Greece solemnised his Funeral.

CHAPTER XXXIII.
Of a divine Spirit.

AMONG Women, in the Sibyl1 there was a divine Spirit,
and a certain very noble Companionship with celestial
Beings. Of Men, among the Greeks, Melampus; and among
the Romans, Martins.

CHAPTER XXXIV.
Of Nasica.

SCIPIO NASICA was judged once hy the sworn Senate to
be the best Man from the Beginning of Time : but the same
Man is remarked to have twice suffered a Repulse by the
People in his white Robe. And to conclude, it was not per-
mitted him to die in his own Country; no more, by Hercules,
than it was that Socrates, pronounced the wisest Man by
Apollo, should die out of Bonds.

CHAPTER XXXV.
Of Modesty*

SULPITIA, Daughter of Paterculus and Wife to Fulvius
Flaccus, by the Sentence in general of the Matrons was pro-

1 The Sibyls will be referred to in the 34th book.— Wern. Club.
a It was an ancient law, " Ut Matronis de via decederetur, nihil obscceni
presentibus iis vel diceretur vel fieret, neve quis nudum se ab iis conspici

220 History of Nature. [ BOOK VII.

nounced the most modest ; and was elected out of a hundred
principal Matrons to dedicate the Image of Venus, according
to the Sybilline Books. Claudia, likewise was, by a religious
Experiment (proved to be such), by bringing the Mother of
the Gods to Rome.

CHAPTER XXXVI.
Of Piety.1

TRULY, in all Parts of the World, there have been found
infinite Examples of Piety ; but one Example of this occurred
at Rome, to which none beside can be compared. There
was a young Woman of humble Condition among the com-
mon People, and therefore of no account, who lately had been
in Childbed, and whose Mother was shut up in Prison for
some great Offence ; and when this Daughter obtained leave
to have Access to her Mother, and constantly by the Jailer
was narrowly searched, that she might not bring to her any
Food, she was at last detected suckling her with the Milk
of her Breasts. On account of this astonishing circum-
stance the Life of the Mother was granted to the Piety of
the Daughter, and both of them had continued Sustenance
allowed them ; and the Place where this happened was con-
secrated to this Deity (Piety} : so that when C. Quintius and
M. Acilius were Consuls, the Temple of Piety was built, in
the very Place where this Prison stood, and where now
standeth the Theatre ofMarcellus. The Father of the Gracchi

pateretur, alioquin criminis capitalis reus haberetur." That they should
give way to matrons, that no obscenity should either be spoken or done in
their presence ; and that no man should suffer himself to be within sight
of them naked : if otherwise, he should be held guilty of a capital crime.
—Wern. Club.

1 In the language of the ancients, piety is not to be understood as
having a reference to God, but only as expressing the law of social kind-
ness among the relations of blood or marriage. It proceeds only from
revelation that the latter is made to be a duty flowing from the former ;
and hence, while among Heathens the most vicious of mankind in his
general character might also be among the most pious, among Christians
no such anomalies can exist. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 221

having taken two Serpents within his House, received an
Answer (from the Soothsayers), that if he would himself live
the female Snake must be killed. Truly then, said he, rather
kill the male ; for Cornelia is young, and may have more
Children. This was in order to spare his Wife's Life, in
consideration of the Good she might do to the Common-
wealth. And so it fell out soon after. M. Lepidas so en-
tirely loved his wife Apuleia, that he died when she was
divorced from him. P. Rutilius was laid by from some
slight Illness, but hearing of his Brother's Repulse in his
Request for the Consulship, died immediately. P. Catienus
Philotimus so loved his Master (Patronus), that though he
was made his Heir to all that he had, yet he cast himself into
his funeral Fire.

CHAPTER XXXVII.

Of the Excellency of many Arts, as Astrology, Grammar,
and Geometry.

IN the Knowledge of various Arts a great Number of
Men have excelled ; but we will only take the Flower of
them, and touch them lightly. In Astrology, Berosus was
eminent ; to whom the Athenians, for his divine Predictions,
caused a Statue with a golden Tongue to be erected in the
public Gymnasium. In Grammar, Apollodorus was distin-
guished; and therefore he was highly honoured by the Am-
phitryons of Greece. In Medicine, Hippocrates1 excelled ;
and having foretold a Pestilence that was approaching from
Illyria, to cure it he sent his Disciples to the surrounding
Cities. In Recompense of which good Desert, Greece de-
creed for him the like Honours as to Hercules. For the same
Science, King Ptolemy gave to Cleombrotus of Cea, at the
sacred Megalensian Rites, a hundred Talents, especially for
curing King Antiochus. Critobulus likewise acquired great
Fame for drawing an Arrow out of King Philip's Eye, and

1 The remarkable observation at the end of the 50th chapter, which
appears to be confirmed by the course of the most formidable epidemics of
modern times, will account for this skill in this most eminent physician

222 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

so curing the Wound that the Sight remained, and only a
Blemish of the Mouth remained. But Asclepiades the Pru-
sian surpassed all others, having founded a new Sect ; he
rejected the Ambassadors and large Promises offered by
King Mithridates; discovered a Method to make Wine medi-
cinable for the Sick ; and recovered a Man to his former
state of Health, who was carried forth to be buried : and
chiefly he attained to the greatest Name for the Engagement
made against Fortune, that he would not be reputed a Phy-
sician if he ever were known to be in any way diseased. And
he was Conqueror ; for when he was very aged he fell down
over the Stairs, and was killed. A high Testimony for Know-
ledge in Geometry and the making of Engines was given by
M. Marcellus to Archimedes, who in the storming of Syra-
cuse gave express Command concerning him alone, that no
Violence should be done to him ; but military Imprudence
disappointed the Order. Ctesiphon of Gnosos is much praised
for having wonderfully erected the Temple of Diana at
Ephesus. Philon, likewise, was highly esteemed for making
the Arsenal at Athens, which was able to receive a thousand
Ships ; and Ctesibius for a Method of forming Wind Instru-
ments, and the Discovery of Engines to draw Water : Dino-

of antiquity, who had the benefit of access to the long series of records of
the family of the Asclepiadae, and whose public spirit was equal to his
abilities and opportunities. — Wern. Club.

Medal of Hippocrates, from an engraving in Dr. Mead's Harveyan Oration, 1723.

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 223

crates, also, for devising the Model of Alexandria in Egypt,
when Alexander founded it. To conclude, this great Com-
mander (Imperator) forbade, by Edict, that any Man should
paint him but Apelles: that any one should carve his Statue
besides Pyrgoteles : and that any one except Lysippus
should cast his Image in Brass. In which Arts many have
excelled.

CHAPTER XXXVIII.

Surprising Works of Artificers.1

KING Attains offered by Competition, for one Picture by
Aristides the Theban Painter, a hundred Talents. Ccesar
the Dictator bought for eight Talents two Pictures, the
Medea and Ajax of Timomachus, which he meant to conse-
crate in the Temple of Venus Genetrix. King Candaulas
bought of Butarchus a Picture of the Destruction of the
Magnetes, of no great Size, and weighed it in an equal Scale
with Gold. King Demetrius, surnarned Expugnator, forbore
to set Rhodes on Fire, because he would not burn a Picture by
Protogenest which was placed in that part of the Wall which
he attacked. Praxiteles was ennobled on account of a marble
Statue, the Gnidian Venus, remarkable particularly for the
mad Love of a certain young Man ; which Statue was so
esteemed by King Nicomedes, that he endeavoured to obtain
it in full Payment of a large Debt they owed him. The
Jupiter Olympius still aifordeth daily Testimony to Phydias.
{Jupiter} Capitolinus, and Diana of Ephesus yield Testimony
to Mentor : and the Instruments of this Art were consecrated
by them in their Temples.

CHAPTER XXXIX.

Of Bondsmen.2
I HAVE never obtained the Knowledge to this Day of a

1 The subject of statues and paintings is more fully treated of in the
34th and 35th books. — Wern. Club.

a The money which Marc Antony paid for a couple of boys is given
in the 12th chapter of this book. — Wern. Club.

224 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

Man born a Slave who was valued so high as Daphnis, the
Grammarian, was : for Cn. Pisauretisis sold him for 300,700
Sesterces to M. Scaurus, Prince of the City. In this our Age
Stage-players have gone beyond this Price, and that not a
little ; but they had bought their Freedom. And no Wonder,
for it is reported that the Actor Roscius in former Time had
yearly earned 500,000 Sesterces. Unless any one may desire
in this Place to hear of the Treasurer of the Armenian War,
a little while before carried on on account of Tyridatest and
who was made free by Nero for 120,000 Sesterces. But, by
Hercules, it was the War that cost so much, and not the Man.
Like as Sutorius Priscus gave to Sejanus 3500 Sesterces for
Pcezon, one of his Eunuchs : but this was more for Lust than
for his Beauty. But he executed this infamous Bargain at a
Time when the City was in Sorrow, and no Man had any
Leisure to utter a Word in reproach.

CHAPTER XL.
The Excellency of Nations.

IT will be scarcely questioned, that of all Nations in the
World, the Romans1 are the most excellent for every Virtue ;
but to determine who was the happiest Man is above the
reach of human Understanding, considering that some fix

1 The Komans were a haughty people; and they had much to be
proud of: for we have no records of a nation that ever understood the
arts of government or war better than they. But of what is properly
denominated science they knew little ; and the Chevalier Bunsen re-
marks, that they did not reverence or recognise human rights in any
nation beside their own. The love of knowledge and truth for their own
sakes was altogether unknown among them, and they never conferred
benefit except for their own advantage. Their calculating self-love made
them, essentially, beneficial rulers ; but they manifested no esteem for their
subjects ; and we may add, that the most probable motive which actuated
Plutarch in writing his " Lives," and especially for arranging them in
parallels, was to shew covertly that men, as great in all respects as any
Romans, had lived in Greece. Germanicus is judged to have been an
exception to this Roman constitution of mind ; and probably there were
others of lower rank ; but they are to be regarded as simply the exceptions

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 225

their highest Advantage in one Thing, others in another;1
and every one rneasureth it according to his several Dispo-
sition : but if we wish to form a correct Judgment, throwing
aside all the Ambition of Fortune, it may be concluded, that
there is not a Man in the World to be accounted happy. Arid,
therefore, Fortune dealeth liberally and indulgently with any
one, if he may justly be called not unhappy ; because if there
be no other Things, yet surely a Man may be ever in Fear
lest Fortune should grow tired of him : but let him admit
this Fear, and there can be no solid Happiness. What
should I say, moreover, to this ? — that no Man is at all Times
wise? I wish that this were false, and not, in the Judgment
of most Men, a Poet's Word only. But such is the Folly of
mortal Men, that they are very ingenious in deceiving them-
selves : so that they reckon after the Custom of the Thra-
cians, who, by Stones marked with different Colours, which
they cast into an Urn, institute the Trial of every Day ; and
at their last Day they separate these Stones one from an-
other and count them : and thus give Judgment concerning

to the general rule. It is in the spirit of Pliny's remark that Martial
begins his Epigram to Trajan, lib. xii. ep. 8 : —

" Terrarum Dea, gentiumque Roma,
Cui par est nihil, et nihil secundum."

Goddess of lands and nations, Rome,

Nothing to which can equal come,

And nothing second. Wern. Club.

1 The reader is referred to the fourth epistle of Pope's " Essay on
Man," for a more extended and poetical developement of this sentiment.

The sentiments in the latter part of this chapter are re-echoed in the
Book of Ecclesiastes by Solomon ; where he employs the advantages
arising from his high situation and consummate wisdom in seeking to
discover whether, on merely human principles, there was any such thing
as human happiness in the world. The result was the same as is expressed
by Pliny, but with the advantage on the side of the Hebrew sage, that
he was able to find in his more elevated principles a security of which
Pliny was altogether ignorant. The value of the Life and Immortality
which have been brought to light by the Gospel, can best be estimated
when we see the gloom which occupied the mind of even such a man as
Pliny without it. The highest happiness detailed in the next chapter
(xli.) is much below the aspiration of every Christian. — Wern. Club.
VOL. II. Q

226 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

each one. But what if the Day, flattered with a white Stone,
have in it the Beginning of some Misfortune ? How many a
Man hath entered upon Empires, which have turned to their
Affliction ? How many have lost their Goods, and at last
have been brought to utter Ruin ? Certainly these are good
Things if a Man could enjoy them fully for one Hour. But
thus stands the Case, that one Day is the Judge of another,
and the last Day judgeth all ; and therefore there is no
trust to be placed in them. To say nothing of this : that our
good Fortunes are not equal to our bad even in Number ;
nor is any one Joy to be weighed against the least of our
Sorrows. Alas for our empty and imprudent Diligence !
We reckon our Days by Number, whereas we should esti-
mate them by Weight.

CHAPTER XLT.
Of the highest Happiness.

LAMPIDO, a Lacedaemonian Lady, is the only Woman that
ever was known to have been the Daughter of a King, a
King's Wife, and the Mother of a King. Also, Pherenice
alone was the Daughter, Sister, and Mother of them that won
the Victory at the Olympian Games. In one Family of the
Curiones there were three Orators, one after another, by
descent from Father to Son. The Family of the Fabii alone
afforded three Presidents of the Senate in succession, who
were M. Fabius Ambustus, Fabius Rullianus the Son, and
Q. Fabius Gurges the Nephew.

CHAPTER XLII.
Examples of Change of Fortune.

WE have innumerable other examples of the variety of
Fortune : for what great Joys did she ever give, but such as
sprung from some Evil ? Or what great Calamities that
have not followed upon the highest Joys?

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 227

CHAPTER XLIII.
Of one twice Proscribed: of Q. Metellus, and L. Sylla.

M. FIDUSTIUS, a Senator, having been Proscribed by
Sylla, was preserved for six-and-thirty Years; but he was
afterwards Proscribed the second time : for he outlived Sylla
and continued to the time of Antony ; and it so happened
that by him he was Proscribed again, for no other reason
but because he had been so before. Fortune was pleased
that P. Ventidius alone should triumph over the Parthians :
but she had led him, while a Boy, in the Asculan triumph of
Cn. Pompeius Strabo ; although Massurius testifieth, that he
was so led in triumph twice. Cicero saith,1 that he was at
first but a Muleteer to serve the Camp with Meal. Many
others affirm that in his Youth he was a poor Soldier, and
served as a Footman in his Caliga (or Military Foot Clothing).
Balbus Cornelius was also the Senior Consul : but he had
been judicially accused, delivered over to the Counsel of the
Judges, so that the right of the Rods2 was on him. But this
Man was the first Roman Consul of Foreigners, arid even of
those born within the Ocean ; having attained to that Dig-
nity, which our Forefathers denied to Latium. Among the dis-
tinguished is L. Fulvius, who was Consul of the rebellious Tus-
culans ; but when he had passed over to the Romans, he was
presently by the whole People advanced to the same Honour
among them : and he was the only Man who triumphed at

1 Epist. x. 18.

2 This "right" was according to a law whose origin is disputed; but
it seems to have been ancient. According to Dalechampius' note on the
passage, no Roman citizen could be sentenced by the magistrate to the
rods, or be put to death, for any other crime than murder; and of
the latter it was necessary that he should be regularly convicted. But it
would appear that he might be condemned to exile with little ceremony.
Before the passing of this law, a Roman citizen, as well as a foreigner, if
sentenced to death, was scourged as a matter of course previous to the
execution of the higher sentence. The tendency of this law to confer
protection is seen in the instance of St. Paul, Acts of the Apostles, xvi. 37,
and xxii. 25.— Wern, Club.

228 History of Nature. [Boox VII.

Rome over them whose Consul he bad been, even in the
same Year in which he was himself an Enemy in the Field.
L. Sylla was the only Man, until our time, that challenged
to himself the surname of Felix? or the Fortunate ; but the
Title was adopted from shedding the Blood of Citizens, and
by waging War against his Country. And by what argu-
ments was grounded this good Fortune of his ? That he was
able to Proscribe, and put to Death, so many thousands of
the Citizens \ O mistaken interpretation, and unhappy even
to future time ! For were not they more blessed, who then
lost their Lives, whose Death at this day we pity, than SyUa,
whom no Man living at this day doth not abhor ? More-
over, was not his end more cruel than the misery of all those
who were Proscribed by him ? for his own wretched Body
consumed itself,2 and bred its own torment. And although
we may believe that he dissembled all this by his last Dream,3
wherein he lay as if he were dead, upon which he gave out
this Speech, that himself alone had overcome Envy by Glory ;
yet in this one thing he confessed, that his Felicity was
defective, inasmuch as he had not Consecrated the Capitol.
Q. MetelluSy in that Funeral Oration which he made in
commendation of L. Metellns, his Father, left it written of

1 There was scarcely a title more coveted by the Romans than this of
Fortunate, for they took it to be a decisive evidence of the ability which
had led to success. Appian says that there existed in front of the Rostra
in Rome, a golden equestrian figure of Sylla, with the inscription,
" Syllse Imperat. fortunate." But from Pliny we learn that his cruelty
had caused his memory to be held in little estimation by posterity. —
Wern. Club.

3 The cause of the death of Sylla is not quite certain. Appian (De
Bell. Civ. i. 105) says he died of an attack of fever ; while others inform
us that the loathsome disease called phthiriasis was the cause of his death.
Of this latter opinion were Plutarch, Pliny, and Pausanias. — Went. Club.

3 Plutarch says, " Sylla tells us," in his Commentaries, " that the
Chaldaeans had predicted, that after a life of glory he would depart in the
height of his prosperity." He further acquaints us, that his son, who
died a little before Metella, appeared to him in a dream, dressed in a
mean garment, and desired him to bid adieu to his cares, and go along
with him to his mother Metella, with whom he should live at ease, and
enjoy the charms of tranquillity.— Wern. Club.

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 229

him, that he had been Pontifex, twice Consul, Dictator,
Master of the Horse, one of the Quindecimvirs deputed for
Division of Lands, and that in the first Punic War he led
many Elephants in triumph : moreover, that he had accom-
plished ten of the greatest and best Things; in seeking which
the Wise spend their whole time: for his desire was to be
among the foremost of Warriors, an excellent Orator, a very
powerful Commander (Imperator); to have the conduct of
the most important Affairs, to be in the highest place of
Honour, to be eminent for Wisdom, to he accounted a prin-
cipal Senator, to attain to great Wealth by good Means, to
leave many Children behind him, and to be the noblest per-
sonage in the City. That these perfections fell to him, and
to none but him since the Foundation of Rome, it were long
and useless now to confute : but it is abundantly answered
by one instance ; for this same Metellus became Blind in his
old Age ; having lost his Eyes in a Fire, when he would have
saved the Palladium1 out of the Temple of Vesta: an act
worthy of being remembered ; but the event was unhappy.
In regard of which it is not proper to term him Unfortunate
(Infelix); and yet he cannot be called Fortunate (Felix).
The People of Rome granted to him a Privilege, which no
Man before him in the World was known to have: that he
should be conveyed in a Chariot to the Senate-house as often
as he went to sit at the Council: a great and elevated Pre-
rogative, but it was allowed him as a Compensation for his
Eyes.

CHAPTER XLIV.

Of anothtr Metellus.

A SON likewise of this Q. Metellus, who <*ave out those
Commendations concerning his Father, is reckoned among

1 It was one of the figments of Roman divinity, that this image of the
tutelary Pallas had existed in ancient Troy; from whence, with 2Eneas,
it had transferred the empire to the imperial city of Rome. A similar
image existed at Ephesus (Acts of the Apostles, xxix. 35), and it has
heen supposed that the fall from the sky, of at least the materials of the
image, may not have been imaginary. The descent of an aerolite was,
probably, as common in ancient times as in modern.-^ Wern. Club.

230 History of Nature. [BooK VII

the most rare examples of human Felicity ; for besides the
most honourable Dignities, and the Surname of Macedonians,
he was borne to the Funeral Pile by four Sons ; one being
the Prsetor, and the other three having been Consuls : of
which two had triumphed, and one had been Censor : which
remarkable things had happened to few. And yet in the
very flower of these Honours, as he was returning from the
Field, about Noon-day, he was seized by Catinius Labeo,
surnamed Macerio, a Tribune of the Commons, whom he by
virtue of his Censorship had expelled out of the Senate ; and
the Forum of the Capitol being empty, he took him away by
force to the Tarpeian Rock, with an intention to cast him
down headlong. A number came running about him of that
company which called him Father; but, as was unavoidable
in so sudden a case, slowly, and as if attending a Funeral ;
with the absence also of a right to make Resistance, and
repel the inviolable Authority : so that he was likely to have
Perished even for his Virtue and faithful Execution of his
Censorship, if there had not been one Tribune found, with
much difficulty, to step between and oppose himself; by
which means he was rescued, even from the utmost point of
Death. He lived afterwards by the liberality of other
Men : for all his Goods from that day forward were devoted,
from his Condemnation : as if he had not suffered Punish-
ment enough to have his Neck so writhed, as that the Blood
was squeezed out at his Ears. And truly I would reckon it
among his Calamities, that he was an Enemy to the later
Africanus, even by the Testimony of Macedonians himself.
These were his words to his Children : Go, my Sons, and
do honour to his Obsequies ; for the Funeral of a greater
Citizen ye will never see. And this he said to them, when
they had conquered Crete and the Balearic Islands, and had
worn the Diadem in triumph : being himself already entitled
Macedonians. But if we consider that only injury offered to
him, who can justly deem him happy, being exposed to the
pleasure of his Enemy, far inferior to Africanus, and so to
come to confusion ? What were all his Victories to this one
Disgrace? What Honours and Chariots did riot Fortune

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 231

cast down by her violence, when a Censor was dragged
through the middle of the City (the only way indeed to bring
him to his Death) ; dragged to the Capitol itself, to which
he had ascended triumphant : but he never so dragged along
those Captives, for whose Spoils he triumphed. And this
Outrage was the greater in regard of the Felicity which
ensued ; considering that this Macedonians was in danger to
have lost so great an Honour as this solemn and stately
Sepulture, in which he was carried forth to his Funeral Fire
by his triumphant Children, as if he had triumphed again at
his very burial. Truly that can be no sound Felicity, which
is interrupted by any Indignity of Life, much less by so great
a one as this. To conclude, £ know not whether there be
more cause to glory for the modest carriage of Men, or to
grieve at the Indignity, that among so many Metelli so auda-
cious a Villany as this of Catinius was never revenged.

CHAPTER XLV.

Of Divus Augustus.1

ALSO, in Divus Augustus, whom all the World declare th
to be in this rank of fortunate Men, if we diligently consider
all things, we perceive great Changes of the Human lot
Driven by his Uncle from the Generalship of the Horse,
and, notwithstanding his Petition, seeing Lepidus preferred
to that place, he laboured under the reproach of the Pro-
scription ; and for being one of the Triumvirate, united with
the most wicked Citizens ; and this with a less than equal
share (of the Roman Empire), for Antony obtained the
greatest Portion. He was Sick at the Battle of Philippi ;
his flight; and while still Sick, for three Days his lying
hidden in a Marsh ; so that (as Agrippa and Meccenas con-
fess), he grew into a kind of Dropsy, and his Sides were
distended with Water under the Skin ; his Shipwreck in

1 It is a proof of the imperfect manner in which history has been gene-
rally treated, that Suetonius has written the life of Augustus Caesar
without the mention of a great part of these particulars, and of none of
them in the point of view here given. — Wern. Club.

232 History of Nature. [ BOOK VII.

Sicily, and there likewise he was glad to remain concealed in
a Cave : then he was put to flight at Sea, and when the whole
power of his Enemies was hard on him, he hesought Pro-
culeius to put him to Death ; how he was perplexed by the
Contentions at Perusium ; the anxiety he was in at the
Battle of Actium, and for the issue of the Pannonian War ;
for the fall of a Bridge ; so many Mutinies among his Sol-
diers ; so many dangerous Diseases of his Body ; the sus-
pected Allegiance of Marcellus ; the shame of Banishing
Agrippa ; his Life so many times attempted by secret Plots ;
the suspected Deaths of his Children ; the sad Afflictions
thereby ; and not altogether for his Childless condition : the
Adultery of his Daughter, and her Contrivances for taking
his Life away made known to the World ; the reproachful
Retreat of Nero, his Wife's Son ; another Adultery com-
mitted by one of his Nieces : above all this, so many united
Evils, as the want of Pay for his Soldiers ; the Rebellion of
lllyricum ; the Mustering of Slaves; the Scarcity of Young
Men ; a Pestilence in the City ; Famine and Drought through
Italy ; a deliberate Resolution of Dying, having to that end
Fasted four Days and Nights, and in that time received into
his Body the greater part of his own Death. Besides these
things, the Slaughter of Variuss Forces, and the foul stain
of his Honour; the putting away of Posthumus Agrippa
after his Adoption, and the desire that he had for him after
his Banishment; then the Suspicion that he conceived of
Fabius, and the disclosing of his Secrets ; and again his
Opinions concerning his Wife and Tiberius, which surpassed
all his other Cares. To conclude, that God, of whom I do
not know whether he rather obtained Heaven than deserved
it, left behind him for his Heir the Son of his Enemy.

CHAPTER XLVI.
Whom the Gods Judge the most Happy.

I CANNOT pass over in this Discourse the Oracles of Del-
phos, delivered from the God to chastise the Folly of Men.
Two of them are these : That Phedius, who but a while

Boo K V 1 1 .] History of Nature. 233

before Died for his Country, was the most Happy. Again,
being consulted by Gyges, the most sumptuous King in all
the Earth, the answer was, that Aylaus Psophidius was the
more Happy. This Aglaus was a Man somewhat advanced
in Years, dwelling in a very narrow corner of Arcadia,
where he had a little Estate, which himself cultivated ; and
it was sufficient with its yearly Produce to Support him
plentifully ; out of it he never went : so that (as appeared by
his course of Life,) as he coveted very little, so he expe-
rienced as little Trouble while he Lived.

CHAPTER XLV1I.

Whom, while Living, they ordered to be Worshipped
as a God.1

BY the appointment of the same Oracle, arid by the
approbation of Jupiter , the Sovereign of the Gods, Euthymus
the Wrestler, who always was Conqueror at Olympia, except
once, was Consecrated a God while he lived, and knew of it ;
he was born at Locri, in Italy, where one Statue of his, as
also another at Olympia, were both on one Day struck with
Lightning : which I see CaUimachus wondered at, as if
nothing else were worthy of Admiration ; and gave order
that he should be Sacrificed to, as to a God : which was per-
formed accordingly, both while he Lived and after he was
Dead. A thing that I wonder at more than at any thing
else : that the Gods should have been pleased with such
a thing.

1 It was scarcely more reasonable to worship a man after he was dead
than during his life ; and yet Pliny must have joined in the worship of
Augustus and Julius Caesar, and have been conscious, as appears from
several places of his writings, that the greatest gods of his country had
formerly been living men. The egregious vanity of desiring to be sup-
posed a god was felt by Alexander the Great, to whose application for
recognition in this character the Lacedaemonians replied by an edict, that
" If Alexander wished to be a god, he might be a god." Pliny lived to
see the brother of his patron Titus, Domitian, exemplify the absurdity of
which he complains ; for it appears that the latter emperor was more than
ordinarily fond of this assumption of divinity.— Wem. Club.

234 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

•

CHAPTER XLVIII.
Of the longest Extent of Life.

THE extent and duration of Man's Life are rendered
uncertain, not only by the Situation of Places, but also from
Examples, and the peculiar lot of his Nativity. Hesiod,
the first Writer who has treated on this Subject, in his Fabu-
lous Discourse (as I regard it), embracing many things about
the Age of Man, saith that a Crow lives nine times as long
as we ; the Stags four times as long as the Crow ; and the
Ravens thrice as long as they. And his other remarks about
the Nymphs and the Phoenix are still more Fabulous. Ana-
creon the Poet, assigneth to Arganthonius, King of the
Tartessi, 150 Years : and to Cyniras, King of the Cypri, ten
Years longer : to JEgimius, 200. Theopompus affirmeth, that
Epimenides, the Gnossian, died when he was 157 Years old.
Hellanicus hath Written, that among the Epii, in ^Etolia,
there are some who continue full 200 Years : and with him
agreeth Damastes ; adding also, that there was one Pic-
tor eus among them, a Man of exceeding Stature, and very
Strong, who lived even to 300 Years. Ephorus saith, that
the Kings of Arcadia usually lived to 300 Years. Alexander
Cornelius writeth of one Dando in Illyrica, who lived 500
Years. Xenophon in his " Periplus," maketh mention of a
King of a People upon the Sea-coasts, who lived 600 Years :
and as if he had not lied enough already, he saith, that his
Son came to 800. All these strange reports proceed from
ignorance of the times past, for some reckoned the Summer
for one Year, and the Winter for another. Others reckoned
every Quarter for a Year, as the Arcadians, whose Year was
but three Months. Some, as the Egyptians, count every
change of the Moon for a Year ; and therefore some of them
are reported to have lived 1000 Years. But to pass to
things acknowledged as true, it is almost certain, that Argan-
thonius, King of Calais, reigned 80 Years ; and it is supposed
that he was 40 Years old when he began to Reign. It is
undoubted, that Masanissa reigned 60 Years ; and also that

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 235

Gorgias the Sicilian lived 108 Years. Q. Fabius Maximus
continued Augur for 63 Years. M. Perpenna, and of late,
L. Volusius Saturninus, out-lived all those Senators who
had sat in Council with them when they were Consuls.
Perpenna left but seven of those Senators alive whom he
had chosen in his Censorship ; and he lived himself 98
Years. Where, by the way, one thing cometh to my Mind
worth the noting : that there was one Space of five Years,
and never but one, in which not one Senator died ; and that
was from the time that Flaccus and Albinus the Censors
finished their Lustrum, to the comma: in of the next Censors ;
which was from the Year after the Foundation of the City,
579. M. Valerius Cor vinus \ived 100 Years complete; and
between his first Consulate and his sixth, were 46 Years.
He took his Seat on the Curule Chair 21 Times ; and no
Man ever besides him so often. Metellus the Pontifex lived
full as long as he.

To come now to Women : Lima the Wife of Rutilius
lived more than 97 Years. Statilia, a noble Lady, in the
Time of Claudius the Prince, was 99 Years of Age : Cicero's
Wife, Terentia, was 103 Years old : Clodia, Wife to Osilius,
saw 115 Years ; and she had 15 Children. Luceia, a Comic
Actress, appeared on the Stage for 100 Years. Galeria
Copiola, a Mimic Actress, was brought again upon the
Stage when C?i. Pompeius and Q. Sulpitius were Consuls, at
the solemn Plays vowed for the Health of Divus Augustus,
when she was in the J04th Year of her Age : the first Time
that she entered on the Stage was 91 Years before, when
she was brought thither by M. Pompotiius, ^Edile of the
Commons, in the Year that C. Marius and Cn. Carbo were
Consuls ; and once again Pornpey the Great, at the dedica-
tion of his great Theatre, returned the old Woman to the
Stage for the wonder of the thing. Also Asconius Pcedi-
anus writeth, that Samula lived 110 Years; and therefore I
wonder the less that Stephanio (who was the first of the
Long Robe who appointed Dancing) danced in both the
Secular Games, as well those that were set out by Divus
Augustus, as those which Claudius Ccesar exhibited in his

236 History of Nature. [Boon VII.

fourth Consulship ; considering that between the one and
the other there were but 63 Years ; and yet Stephanio lived
for a considerable Time after. Mutianus witnesseth, that in
Tempsis, which is the Crest of the Mountain Tmolus, People
lived 150 Years. At that Age, T. Fullonius, of Bononia,
entered his Name in the Census at the Time that Claudius
Ccesar held the Registry ; and that he was so old indeed,
appeared by comparing together several Registries that he
had before made, as also by circumstances that had occurred
in his Lifetime ; for the Emperor took care in that way to
find out the Truth.1

CHAPTER XLIX.
Of Differences in, the Nativities.

THIS Point would require the Advice of the Science of
the Stars ; for Epigenes saith, that it is not possible for a
Man to live a hundred and twenty-two Years ; and Berosus
is of opinion, that one cannot pass an hundred and seven-
teen. That Calculation holdeth good which Petosiris and
Necepsos have delivered, and which they call Tetartemorion,
from a portion of three Signs ; according to which account it

1 The length of life detailed in the Mosaic records was unknown to
the Greeks, who had only retained an obscure traditionary remembrance
of it, and of the great stature and strength with which it was supposed to
be accompanied. But that Pliny's mode of interpreting it, by a peculiar
method of explaining the length of the year, will not apply to the narra-
tive in the Book of Genesis, appears from the fact that the same history
records the reduction of the length of human life, by sudden transitions,
to at last threescore and ten years, which we are compelled to measure
by the same scale as the former.

As a general summary of the duration of life in historical times, the
" History of Life and Death," by Lord Bacon, may be consulted. Fuller
mentions James Sands, of Horborne in Staffordshire, who lived 140
years, and his wife 120. The Countess of Desmond, known to Sir W
Rawleigh, lived to about 140 years, and had new teeth three several
times. Thomas Parr was born in 1483 ; married at the age of eighty,
and in the space of thirty-two years had only two children. At the age
of 120 he had another child, and died aged 150 years.— Wern. Club.

BOOK VI!.] History of Nature. 237

i8 evident, that in the Tract of Italy, Men may reach to a
hundred and twenty-six Years. They denied that a Man
could possibly pass the ascendant Space of 90 Degrees
(which they call Anaphoras) ; and that even these are cut
short, either by the encounter of malevolent Planets, or by
the radiations of them or the Sun. Again, the Sect of Ascle-
piades1 affirm, that the appointed Length of Life proceedeth
from the Stars ; but concerning the utmost term, it is uncer-
tain. But they say, that the longer Ages are Rare, because
the greatest Number by far have their Nativity at the
marked Moments of the Hours of the Moon, or of Days
according to the Number of Seven or Nine (which are
Daily and Nightly observed) : by the gradual declining Law
of the Years, called Climacteric,2 and such as are so Born
scarcely exceed the fifty-fourth Year. But here, first, the
Uncertainty of the Art itself declaret.li how doubtful this
matter is. To this are added the Observations and Instances
of the very recent Census, which within the Space of four
Years, the Imperators, Caesars, Vespasian?, Father and
Son, Censors, have accomplished. And here we need not
search every Cupboard, we will only set down the examples
of the middle part, between the Apennine and the Po. At
Parma, three Men were found of the Age of a hundred and

1 In book xxvi. c. 3, Pliny gives a more precise, and not very com-
plimentary, account of this physician. — Wern. Club.

2 A large portion of the physiological learning of ancient physicians
consisted in the arithmetical calculation of types and periods of vital and
diseased actipns ; in connexion with which they also arranged the motions
of the celestial bodies and their influences. It thus became necessary,
that he who was a physician in the modern meaning of the word should
also be able to interpret the stars, and to apply mathematical reasoning
to the laws of health and disease. The calculation of climacterical
years, and the ultimate duration of human life, were thus decided by a
combination of intricate mathematical probabilities. These climacteric
years were formed on the multiplication of the number seven by the
unit numbers, and at them the most important of the periodic changes
of the body were accomplished. The highest number thus multiplied
formed the grand climacteric, after which the changes produced a retro-
gression towards feebleness and decay ; the danger of which was ever
greatest at the climacterics. See bookii. c. 52. — Wcrn. Club.

238 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

twenty Years: at Brixelus, one that was a hundred and
twenty-five Years; at Parma, two of a hundred and thirty
Years ; at Placentia, one of a hundred and thirty-one ; at
Faventia, there was one Woman a hundred and thirty-two
Years old ; at Bonona, L. Terentius, the Son of Marcus, and
at Ariminum M. Aponius, were a hundred and fifty.
Tertulla was a hundred and thirty-seven. About Placentia
there is a Town on the Hills, named Velleiacium, in which
six Men brought a Certificate that they had lived a hundred
and ten Years ; four likewise brought one of about a hundred
Years ; one of a hundred and forty,1 namely M. Mutius,
son of Marcus surnamed Galerius Felix. But because we
will not dwell long in a matter so commonly allowed, in the
eighth Region of Italy there were found in the Roll fifty-
four Persons of one hundred Years of Age ; fifty-seven of a
hundred and ten ; two, of a hundred and twenty-five ; four,
of a hundred and thirty ; as many that were a hundred and
thirty-five, or a hundred and thirty-seven Years ; and three
Men of a hundred and forty. Another inconstant variety in
mortal Men : Homer reporteth, that Hector and Polydamas
were born in one Night, though Men of such a different
Fortune. While C. Marius was Consul, and Crt. Carbo with
him, who had been twice before Consul, the fifth Day before
the Calends of June, M. C&cilius Ruffus and C. Licinius
Calvus were born on the same Day ; and both of them
indeed were Orators : but their fate was very different.
And this is seen daily to happen throughout the World, that
among those born in one Hour some are Kings, and others
Beggars, some Lords and others Slaves.

CHAPTER L.
Various Examples of Diseases.

PUB. CORNELIUS RUFUS, who was Consul with M.
Curius, dreamed that he had Lost his Sight ; and so it proved
when he awoke. On the other Hand, Phalereus being given

1 Dr. Holland seems to have read " one hundred and fourteen." —
Wern. Club.

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 239

over by the Physicians for the Disease of Vomica, being
stabbed in his Breast, found a Remedy in his Enemy. Q.
•Fabius Maximus, Consul, engaging in a Battle with the Nations
of the Allobroges and Averni, near the River Isara, on the
sixth Day before the Ides of August ; in which double
action he Slew of his Enemies 13,000; he was in the Contest
delivered from his Fever. This gift of Nature, truly, what-
ever is bestowed on us, is frail and uncertain : and in those
in whom it exists in the largest Measure, it is but short and
evil if we consider the whole Course of it from Beginning to
End. Because if we count our repose by Night, a Man
may be truly said to live but one half of his Life ; for that
Half of it which is spent in Sleep may be compared to Death ;
and if he cannot Sleep, it is a Punishment. Nor are the
Years of our Infancy to be reckoned, for this Age is void of
Sense; nor those of old Age, which is the punishment of a
disposition to live. What shall I speak of so many kinds of
Dangers, so many Diseases, so many Fears, so many Cares,
so many Prayers for Death, that we Pray for nothing more
frequently ? and therefore Nature knoweth not what better
thing to give a Man, than short Life. The Senses1 become
dull, the Members grow benumbed, the Eye-sight decayeth
betimes, the Hearing followeth, then the Supporters, the
Teeth also, and the very Instruments that serve for our
Food ; and yet all this Time is counted a Part of our Life.
And therefore it is taken for a wonderful example, and that
to which we cannot find a fellow, that Xenophilus the Musi-
cian lived 105 Years, without any inconveniency in all his
Body. But all other Men, by Hercules! are vexed at certain
Hours, as no other Creatures are besides, with pestiferous
Heat and Cold in every part of their Members ; which go

1 How remarkably does this enumeration of the signs and evils of
age correspond with the more poetical representation of the same condi-
tion by Solomon, in the last chapter of the Book of Ecclesiastes !
Cicero, in his " Cato," laments the ills of age as more weighty than .ZEtna ;
and others of the wisest heathens join in the lamentation ; which ceases
to surprise us when we reflect that they were destitute of a hope in the
future.— Wern. Club.

240 History of Nature. [ BOOK VII.

and come, not for certain Hours only, but by Day and by
Night : one while every Third, and at others every Fourth
Day and Nis;ht, even through the whole Year. And it is
some sort of Disease to die through wisdom, for Nature
hath set down certain Laws, even to Diseases ; as that the
circle of a Quartan Fever never beginneth in the shortest
Days of the Year, neither in the Months of Winter ; that
some Diseases are not incident to those that are above Sixty
Years of Age ; that others again pass away when young
People come to the Age of Puberty ; and especially this is
observed in young Women. Old People are the least liable
to take the Plague. Also there are Sicknesses that follow
particular Regions, affecting the Inhabitants generally
therein. There are some again that take hold of Servants
only ; others touch the highest Persons alone : and so from
degree to degree. But in this Place it is to be observed, that
a Pestilence beginneth in the South parts, and always goeth
toward the West; and it scarcely ever doeth otherwise,
except in Winter, and then it doth not exceed three
Months.1

CHAPTEU LI.

Of the Signs of Death.12

Now let us take a View of the fatal Signs in Sickness.
In the Disease of Fury (Madness), to Laugh is such a Sign :
In the Sickness of Wisdom (Frenzy), to have a care of
the Fringes of their Garments and Bedclothes, to smoothe
them down ; the neglect of such things as would prevent
their Sleep; the apologising letting go of their Water. It

1 This remark has been already referred to c. 37, p. 221 ; and it is the
more worthy of notice, since there is reason to believe that all the epidemics
which have traversed Europe since the time when Pliny wrote have
conformed to the same rule. — Wern. Club.

2 Celsus considers this subject, book ii. c. 6, and the medical nature
and treatment of insanity, book iii. c. 18. Eyfuroris morbus (madness
or mania), and sapientice cegritudine (frenzy), he seems to mean, the
former, insanity of the passions ; and the latter, insanity of the under-
standing.— Wern. Club.

BOOK VI I .] History of Nature. 24 1

may also be certainly seen in the aspect of the Eyes and
Nose, as also in the manner of lying always upon the Back
supine : also by the unequal stroke of the Veins, as if an
Ant crept under it, with other Signs which Hippocrates, the
prince of Medicine, hath observed. And whilst there are
innumerable Signs that presage Death, there is not one that
can assure a Man certainly of Life and Health. For Cato1
the Censor, writing to his Son concerning robust Health,
hath delivered from some Oracle, that Youth resembling
Age is a Sign of untimely Death. Diseases are so innu-
merable, that Pherecydes, of the Island of Syros, died of a
great quantity of Creepers2 bursting out of his Body. Some
are never free of a Fever, as C. Meccenas. The same Man,
for three whole Years before he died, never was asleep for
a single Minute. Antipater Sidonius the Poet, once a year
during his Life was seized with an Ague-fit upon his Birth-
day only, and at last he died in such a Fit in a good
old Age.

CHAPTER LII.

Of such as were carried forth to their Funeral and revived

again.

A. VIOLA, who had been Consul, came to himself when
he was on the Funeral Pile ; but because the Flame was so
Strong that he could not be got away, he was burnt alive.

1 Cato's knowledge of medical subjects may be judged of from the
specimens of miserable quackery contained in his " Treatise on Agricul-
ture." Much of it consisted of charms, in unintelligible jargon. —
Wern. Club.

2 Pliny sometimes employs unusual words to express plain and com-
mon things; or he may have adopted the term to avoid what among
polite people would have excited loathing. For the same reason another
author speaks of the same creatures under the name of animalia tetra, or
foul creatures. It was the disease which afflicted Herod, Acts of the
Apostles, xii. 23 ; and in modern times Dr. Heberden records a case,
" Commentaries," c. Ixxi : but it is not certain that they are of the same
species as that which commonly attacks the human body. The fate of
Sylla, from the same cause, is referred to in the 4Md chapter of this Book.
- Wern. Clnl*.

VOL. II. R

242 History of Nature [BooK VII.

The like accident is reported to have befallen Lu. Lamia,
of Praetorian rank. That C. ^Elius Tubero, who had been
Praetor, was brought Alive again from the Funeral Fire,
Messala Rufus and many others assert. Such is the condi-
tion of Mortal Men ; and to this kind of Fortune, and such
as this, are we born : so that in the case of Man there is
no assurance, no, not even in his Death. We read in
Chronicles, that the Soul of Hermotimus Clazomenius was
accustomed to leave his Body, and wandering to a great
distance, brought him backs News of such things as could
not possibly have been known unless it had been present
there ; and all the while his Body lay half Dead. This
manner he continued, until the Cantharidae, who were his
Enemies, took his Body and burnt it to Ashes ; and by that
means disappointed his Soul when it came back again to
its Sheath. Also it is said, that the Spirit of Aristceas in
Proconnesus was seen to fly out of his Mouth in the form
of a Raven ; and many an empty Tale folio we th thereon :
for surely I take it to be no better than a Fable, which is in
like manner reported of Epimenides the Gnossian, that when
he was a Boy, and wearied with Heat and Travel, he laid
himself down in a Cave, and there slept for 57 Years.1 At
length he awoke, as if on the very next Morning, and won-
dered at the changed face of every thing he saw. Hence in an
equal number of Days after, he grew Old, that at last he lived
to the Age of 175 Years. Women, by reason of their Sex, are
most subject to this danger,2 by the turning of the Womb ;
which, if it be corrected, they soon recover. To this belongs
that noble Volume among the Greeks written by Heraclides,
where he writeth of a Woman that for seven Days lay as
Dead, but who in the end was restored to Life. Also Varro
reporteth, that when the twenty Men were dividing Lands

1 Gibbon refers to a similar story, which was widely believed, in the
fifth century of Christianity (" Decline and Fall," c. xxxiii.) ; but he seems
not to have been aware of this more ancient, and perhaps original, narra-
tive of a similar event. — Wern. Club.

2 That is, of the suspension of animation, one of the symptoms of
Hysteria.— Wern. Club.

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 243

at Capua, there was one carried forth on his Bier who came
home again upon his Feet. Also, that the like happened at
Aquinum. Likewise, that in Rome one Corfidius, who had
married his own Aunt by the Mother's side, after his
Funeral had been set in order, revived again ; and the
Orderer of his Funeral was by him carried out to the
same. Varro also addeth some surprising things, which
are worth the rehearsal at large. There were two Brethren
of the Equestrian order, of whom the elder, named Corfidius,
happened in all appearance to die; and when his last Will
was opened, the younger Brother, who was appointed his
Heir, gave orders for his Funeral. In the meanwhile the
Man that seemed Dead, by clapping one Hand against the
other,1 raised the Servants in the House ; and he recounted
to them that he was come from his younger Brother, who
had recommended his Daughter to him ; and, moreover, that
he had shewed to him in what place he had buried his
Gold, without the knowledge of any Man : requesting him
also to employ that Provision which he had prepared for
him about his own Funeral. As he was relating this matter,
his Brother's domestic Servants came in great haste to the
House, and brought word that their Master was dead ; and
the Gold was found in the place he had pointed out. And
truly life is full of these Divinations ; but they are not to be
compared with these, as for the most part they are mere
lies, as we will prove by one notable example : in the
Sicilian War, Gabienus, one of the bravest Officers of
CcBsars Fleet, was taken prisoner by Sex. Pompey, and by
commandment from him his Head was almost stricken off,
so that it scarcely hung to the Neck by the Skin, and in this
condition he lay all day on the Shore. When it grew
toward the Evening, and a Company were flocked about
him, with a groan and prayers he requested that Pompey
would come to him, or at least send some one of those who

1 Clapping the hands together appears to have been an ordinary
method of summoning the attendants before bells came into use for that
purpose. — Wern. Club.

244 History of Nature. [ BOOK VII.

were dear to him, because he was sent back from the Lower
Regions, and had a Message to deliver to him. Then Pompey
sent several of his friends, to whom Gabienus related that
the Infernal Gods were well pleased with the Cause and
pious Dispositions of Pompey^ and therefore he should have
as good an issue of it as he could wish. Thus much, he said,
he was commanded to deliver ; and as a proof of the truth,
so soon as he had done his errand he would immediately
expire : and so it came to pass. Histories also make men-
tion of them who have appeared after they were committed
to Earth. But our purpose is to write of Nature's works,
arid not to prosecute such Prodigious Matters.

CHAPTER LIII.
Of Sudden Deaths.

BUT among the principal things is sudden Death, which
is the greatest Felicity of Life ; many examples of which we
have, that always seem strange, although they are common,
and as we shall shew, natural. Verrius hath set forth many,
but we will make choice among them all. Besides C/iilon,
of whom we have spoken before, there died suddenly for Joy
Sophocles the Poet, and Dionysius the Tyrant of Sicily :
both of them, on Tidings brought to them that they had won
the best Prize among the Tragic Poets. Presently after the
famous battle of Cannae, a Mother died immediately on the
sight of her Son unhurt, whom by a false Message she had
heard to have been Slain. Diodorus, a Professor of Dialectic
Learning, for shame that he could not readily resolve a fri-
volous Question at the demand of Stilbo, sunk away without
recovery. Without any apparent cause some have died,
particularly two of the Ccesars ; the one a Praetor : the other
who had borne that Dignity, the Father of Ccesar the Dic-
tator : both of them in the Morning when they were putting
on their Shoes, the one at Pisa, the former at Rome.
Q. Fabius Maximus in his verv Consulship, upon the last
Day of December; in whose place Eebilus made suit to be

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 245

Consul for a very few Hours.1 Also, C. Vulcatius Guryes, a
Senator : all of them in such sound and perfect Health, that
they expected to live Long. Q. JEmilius Lepidus, even as he
was going out of his Bed-chamber, hit his great Toe against
the Door-post and died from it. C. Aufidius was going
out of his House, on his way to the Senate, and stumbled
with his Foot in the Comitium. The Ambassador of the
Rhodians also, who had to the great admiration of all that
were present pleaded their cause before the Senate, in the
very entry of the Counsel-house, as he was going out, fell
down Dead. Cn. Bcebius Pamphilus, who had been Praetor,
died suddenly as he was asking a Boy what it was o'clock.
A. Pompeius, so soon as he had worshipped the Gods in the
Capitol ; M. Juventius Talva, the Consul, as he was sacri-
ficing ; Cams Servilius Pansa, as he stood at a Shop in the
Forum, at the second Hour of the Day, leaning on his
Brother, P. Pansa ; Bcebius, the Judge, as he was adjourning
an Appearance in the Court ; M. Terentius Corax, while he
was writing Letters in the Foruin ; no longer since than last
Year a Knight of Rome, as he was talking in the Ear of one
who had been Consul, before the Ivory Statue of Apollo,
which is in the Forum of Augustus : but above all others,
C. Julius, a Physician, as he was dressing an Eye with
Ointment, and drawing the Surgical Instrument along the
Eye ; also L. Manlius Torquatus, a Consular Man, when at
Supper he reached for a Cake ; L. Durius Valla, a Phy-
sician, while he was drinking a Draught of honeyed Drink ;
Appius Savfoius, being come out of the Bath, as he was
drinking honeyed Drink, and supping an Egg ; P. Quin-
tius Scapula, as he was at Supper with Aquiilius Gallus ;
Decimus Saufeim, a Scribe, as he sat at Dinner in his own
House ; Cornelius Gallus, who had been Praetor, and T.
JEtherius a Roman Knight, died in the very act of Venus.
The like befell in our Days to two of the Equestrian order,
with the same pantomimic Jester Mithycus, who was in
those days of surpassing Beauty. But M. OJilius Hilarus,

1 Until the year was accomplished : an honour which otherwise he
was not likely ever to attain.— Wern. Club.

246 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

an Actor in Comedies, as is reported by ancient Writers,
died with the most laboured security of Death : for after he
had afforded much Pleasure to the People on his Birth-day
he held a Feast ; and when the Supper was set forth, he
called for some hot Drink in a Basin : and casting his Eye
on the Mask that he had worn that day, he took off the
Chaplet from his Head, and set it on it ; in this habit he
became cold before any Man perceived it, until he that
reclined next to him put him in mind that his Drink was
growing cold. These are examples of happy Deaths. But,
on the other hand, there is a very great number of those that
are miserable. L. Domitius, descended from a noble Family,
being vanquished by Ccesar near Massilia, and taken pri-
soner at Corsinium by the same Ccesar, for very irksomeness
of Life poisoned himself; but after he had drunk the
Poison he did all he could to save his life. We find in the
Public Acts, that when Felix, one of the Red-coloured
Chariot- drivers, was carried out to be burnt, one of those
who favoured him threw himself into his Funeral Fire. A
frivolous matter it is to speak of; but they of the other side,
that this act should not be ascribed to the honour of the
Artist abovenamed, gave it out, that this Friend of his did it
only because his Head was intoxicated with the strong smell
of the Odours. Not long before this M. Lepidus,1 descended
from a most noble Family, who (as is above said) died
through Grief, was by the violence of the Flame cast off from
the Funeral Pile ; and as, because of the extreme Heat, no
one could come near to lay him again on the place, he was
burnt naked on a pile of dry Vine Cuttings, near the former.

CHAPTER LIV. t .,_
Of Burial.

To burn the Bodies2 of the Dead was not an ancient
Custom among the Romans ; but they Buried them in the

1 The cause of his death is mentioned in the 36th chapter of this
book.— Wern. Club.

3 The practice of burning the dead is of high antiquity, and as such is

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 247

Earth. But after they understood that the Bodies of the
Men slain in the distant Wars were taken up out of the Earth
again, it was appointed to Burn them. And yet many Fami-
lies kept still to the old Customs: as in the House of the
Cornelii no one is reported to have been burnt before L.
Sylla, the Dictator. And he willed it through dread that he
should be so served as he had done by C. Marius, whose
Corpse he had caused to be digged up. (In Latin) he is said
to be Sepultus, who is bestowed in any way ; but Humatus
sigriifieth that he is covered with the Earth.

CHAPTER LV.
Of the Soul, or the Manes.1

AFTER Sepulture there is very great Obscurity regarding
the Manes ; but this is generally held, that in whatever Con-
familiarly spoken of by Homer. That it was more ancient among the
Romans than is represented by Pliny appears from Ovid ; who (" Fasti,"
c. 4) speaks of its having been practised on the body of Remus, the bro-
ther of Romulus. The same is also negatively proved by Numa, who
ordered that his body should not be burned ; and by the laws of the
Twelve Tables, regulations were instituted concerning it : chiefly to pre-
vent extravagant expense in the ceremony. The general fashion of
burning, in preference to interment, succeeded to the example set by
Sylla ; after whose day it was practised even by people of inferior orders :
but neither burning nor burial were allowed by law within the bounds
of the city. An ordinance of Numa forbade that a woman who died in
childbirth should be buried, until the child was taken from her ; and the
usual ceremonies were to be omitted when the person had been killed by
lightning. — Wern. Club.

1 " Manes " was a general term expressive of the souls of men after
they were separated from the body. They were supposed to be arranged
in classes, according to their moral condition : for which see a note,
vol. i. p. 24. But however situated, a kind of deityship was supposed to
attach itself to them : and hence they were addressed as Dii Manes.
Such was the popular opinion, as referred to by Virgil, Ovid, and other
writers who reflected the public mind ; but it was scarcely an article of
faith among philosophers and the higher classes, whose opinions fluctuated
according to circumstances. As a motive to moral obligation and respon-
sibility it was exceedingly feeble.

Pliny's observation, " that in whatever condition they were before

248 History of Nature. [ BOOK VI I .

dition they were before they were born, in the same they
remain when they are dead. For neither Body nor Soul
hath any more Sense after Death than they had before the
Day of Birth. But the Vanity of Men extendeth itself even
into the future, and in the very Time of Death fiattereth
itself with a Life after this. For some attribute Immortality
to the Soul ; others devise a Transfiguration ; some again

they were born, in the same they remain after they are dead," may be
understood as referring to the Pythagorean doctrine of Transmigration ;
which was the most plausible account .of the disposition of the intelligent
principle that the Heathens could reach to, before Light and Immor-
tality were revealed in the Gospel; but by the almost contemptuous
silence with which he passes it over in his argument, it appears that he
did not feel disposed to credit it. With regard to the station of the
manes, Plato supposes that impure spirits wander about among sepulchres
and monuments. Homer represents Elpenor as prevented from rest
until the funeral rites were paid ; and a commonly received doctrine was,
that there were days sacred to Dis and Proserpine, on which the whole of
the secret and deep places of the world were thrown open, and the disem-
bodied spirits were permitted to revisit the light. Varro supposes that
this occurs three times in the year : on the feast of Vulcanalia, tenth of
the Calends of September, or 23d of August ; on the 3d of the Nones of
October, the Fontinalia, October 13 ; and the 6th of the Ides of November,
or 8th of that month.

According to the doctrine of the Jewish Rabbis, derived, no doubt,
from ancient Oriental sources, " during the first twelve months after
death the souls of righteous men descend and ascend again " (Talmud, tr.
Sabbath) : which Rabbi Joseph Albo, in the " Book of Principles," c. xxxi.,
explains by saying, that the soul does not directly and at once become
divested of those corporeal attachments to which it is accustomed, but
lingers about them until by habit it becomes weaned from them, and
assimilated to the new condition on which it has entered.

The gloomy views which even the more virtuous of the ancient Hea-
thens took of an invisible world is shewn by Homer's representations in
the " Odyssey," b. xi. ; and by so much of Etrurian learning as, from
their paintings and other representations, have descended to us. With so
much distaste of a wearisome life on the one hand (in which even Homer
joins, b. xvii.), and on the other the dim prospect of the dreary regions
below, we can scarcely wonder if even the virtuous Pliny should choose
rather to lie down in ashes without the prospect of living again. The
greater portion of his argument, however, is founded on his ignorance :
his questions, then so doubtful, are such as now even a child may answer.
— Wern. Club.

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 249

bestow Sense on those who are in the Lower Regions ; and
they do Honour to the Manes, making a God of him who
hath ceased to be a Man : as if the Manner of Man's Breath-
ing differed from that of other living Creatures ; or as if
there were not to be found many other Things in the World,
that live much longer than Men, and yet no Man foretells
the like Immortality to them. But what is the Body that
followeth the Material of the Soul ? where lieth her
Thought? how is her Seeing, how is her Hearing per-
formed ? what toucheth she ? nay, what doth she at all ?
How is she employed ? or what Good can there be without
these ? I would know where she hath her abiding Place ?
and what Multitudes of Souls, like Shadows, would there be
in so many Ages ? Surely these are but fantastical and
childish Toys, devised by Men that would fain live always.
The like Foolery there is in preserving the Bodies of Men.
And the Vanity of Democritus is no less, who promised a
Restoration to Life, and yet himself hath not come to Life
again. And what an Instance of Madness to think (an Evil
in itself) that Death should be the Way to a life ! What
Repose should ever Men have that are born, if the Sense of
their Souls should remain on high, while their Shadows are
among those below ? Certainly, this sweet Inducement,
and Credulity, destroyeth the Benefit of the best Gift of
Nature, which is Death ; and it doubleth the Pain of a Man
who is to die, if he happen to consider what shall befall him
in the Time to come. For if it be sweet to live, what Plea-
sure can one have, that hath already lived ? But how much
more easy and certain is it for each Man to trust to himself,
and to gather Reasons from the Experience that he had
before he was born?

CHAPTER LVI.
The first Inventors of Things in Life.

BEFORE we depart from this Discourse of Men's Nature,
it seemeth convenient to point out their Inventions, and
what each Man hath discovered. In the first Place, Liber

250 History of Nature. [ BOOK VII.

Pater appointed buying and selling ; he also devised the
Diadem, the Ornament of Kings, and the Triumph. Ceres
shewed the use of Corn, whereas before Men lived on Mast.
She taught also how to grind Corn, to knead Dough, and
make Bread of it, in Attica, Italy, and Sicily ; for which she
was reputed a Goddess. She it was that began to make
Laws ; but others have thought that Rhadamanthns was the
first Lawgiver. I am of opinion, that Letters ever were in
Assyria ; but some think, as particularly Gellius, that they
were invented by Mercury in Egypt, and others will have it
that they came first from Syria. True it is, that Cadmus
brought into Greece from Phcenice to the Number of sixteen;
to which Palamedes, in the Time of the Trojan War, added
four, in these characters, 0, 3, <£, X. And after him Simon-
ides Melicus1 produced the same Numbers, z, H, T, a : the
Force of all which Letters we acknowledge among ourselves.
Aristotle is rather of opinion, that there were eighteen an-
cient Letters : A, B, r, A, E, z, i, K, A, M, N, o, n, p, 2, T, r, $,
and that the other two, 0 and X, were added by Epicharmus,
and not by Palamedes. Anticlides writeth, that one in Egypt
named Menon was the Inventor of Letters, fifteen Years be-
fore the Time of Phoroneus, the most ancient King of Greece :
and he endeavoureth to prove the same by Monuments. On
the other Hand, Epigenes, an Author as renowned as any,
sheweth, that among the Babylonians there were found
Observations of the Stars for 7*20 Years, written on Bricks ;
and they who speak of the least, as Berosus and Critodemus,
report the like for 480 Years. Whereby it appeareth that
the use of Letters was eternal. The Pelasgi brought their
use into Latium. Euryalus and Hyperbius, two Brothers at
Athens, invented the first Manufacture of Bricks and the
Formation of Houses ; for before their Time Caves were used
for Houses. Gellius is of opinion that Doxius, the Son of
Ccelus, devised the first Houses that were made of Clay ;
taking his Pattern from the Nests of Swallows. Cecrops
called a Town after his own Name, Cecropia ; which at this

1 Some copies read Medicus, " a physician." — Wern. Club.

BOOK VI L] History of Nature. 251

Day is the Castle in Athens. Some will have it that Argos
was built before it by King Phoroneus; and others again,
that Sycione was before them. The Egyptians affirm, that
long before that, their City Diospolis was founded. Cinyra,
the Son of Agriopa, invented the Slating of Houses, and
Mines of Brass : both within the Isle of Cyprus. He also
invented Pincers, the little Hammer, the Lever, and the
Anvil. Danaus, who was brought from Egypt to Greece,
which was then called Argos Dipsion, first sunk Wells.
Cadmus at Thebes, or, as Theophrastus saith, in Phoenice,
found out Stone Quarries. Thrason was the first Builder
of Walls : of Towers, the Cyclops, as Aristotle thinketh ;
but the Tyrinthii, according to Theophrastus. Weaving
was the Invention of the Egyptians ; and Dyeing Wool,
of the Lydians in Sardis. Closter, the Son of Arachne,
taught the first making of the Spindle for Woollen Yarn :
and Arachnb herself, the Flax and Nets. Nicias the Megaren-
sian invented the Fuller's Art : Boethius, the Art of Sewing.
The Egyptians will have Medicine to have been discovered
among them ; but others, that Arabus, the Son of Babylo
and Apollo, was its Author. The first Herbarist and Apothe-
cary was Chiron, Son of Saturn and Phyllira. Aristotle
thinketh that Lydus the Scythian displayed the melting and
tempering of Brass ; Theophrastus, that it was Delas the
Phrygian. Some think the Chalybse devised the working
into Vessels of Brass, arid others attribute it to the Cyclopae.
The Discovery of Iron was the Invention of those in
Crete, who were called Dactyli Idaei, according to Hesiod.
Erichthonius the Athenian discovered Silver, or, as others
say, JEacus. The Gold Mines, together with the melting of
the Metal, Cadmus the Phrenician first found out at the
Mountain Pangaeus ; but others say, Thoas and Eaclis in
Panchaia ; or else Sol the Son of Oceanus, to whom Gellius
attributeth the Discovery of Medicine, and of Honey.
Midacritus was the first that brought Lead out of the Island
Cassiteris.1 And the Cyclops invented the working Iron to

1 The Islands of Scilly.— Wern. Club.

252 History of Nature. [BooK VII.

use; Corcebus the Athenian, the Potter's Art; and therein
Anacharsis the Scythian, or according to some, Hyperbios
the Corinthian, invented the forming into a Globe. The
Carpenter's Art was the Invention of Dcedalus, as well as
the Tools : the Saw, the Hatchet, the Perpendicular, the
Auger, Glue, Fish-glue. The Square, the Level, the Lathe,
and the Key, were invented by Theodorus Samius. Phidon
the Argive, or Palamedes, as Gellius rather thinketh, found
out Measures and Weights. Pyrodes, the Son of Cilix, first
obtained Fire from the Flint; and Prometheus, the Means to
preserve it in Ferula (or Fennel). The Phrygians invented
the Waggon with four Wheels : the Poeni (Carthaginians),
Merchandise: Eumolpus the Athenian discovered the culti-
vation of Vines arid Trees. Staphylus, the Son of Silenus,
taught how to mix Wine with Water. Aristceus the Athenian
invented the making of Oil, and also the Press belonging to
it. The same Man taught to draw Honey from the Combs.
Buzyges the Athenian, or as others have it, Triptolemus,
employed Oxen for the Plough. The Egyptians were the
first that had a royal City, and the Athenians a popular
City. After Theseus, the first Tyrant was Phalaris of Agri-
gentum. The Lacedaemonians first invented the Condition
of Slavery. The first Judgment for Death WHS in the Court
of Areopagus. The first Battle was fought between the Afri-
cans and Egyptians ; and the same was done with Clubs,
which they call Phalangae. Shields were contrived by
Prcetus and Acrisius, when they warred against each other ;
or by Calchus, the Son of Athamas. Midias of Messene in-
vented the Cuirass, and the Lacedaemonians the Helmet,
Sword, and Spear. The Carians contrived Greaves, and
Crests (upon Helmets): Scythes, the Son of Jupiter, the Bow
and Arrows; although some say that Perses, the Son of
Perseus, invented Arrows. The ^Etolians invented the
Lance ; the Dart with a Loop was by JEtolus, the Son of
Mars : the light Javelins and the Pilum by Tyrrhenus ; and
Penthesilea the Amazon, the Battle-axe. Piseus found out
the Boar-spear and Chasing-staff. Among Engines to throw
with, the Cretes invented the Scorpion: the Syrians, the

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 253

Catapult : the Phoenicians, the Balista and the Sling. Piseus
the Tyrrhenian first used the hrazen Trumpet; and Arthemon
the Clazomenian, Tortoises. The Engine to batter Walls
(called sometimes the Horse, and now the Ram) was the
Device of Epeus at Troy. Bellerophon shewed first how to
ride on Horseback : Pelethronius invented the Saddle and
Bridle for the Horse. The Thessalians, called Centaurs,
inhabiting near the Mountain Pelius, were the first that
fought on Horseback. The Nation of the Phrygians first
joined two Horses to a Chariot ; and Erichthonius four.
Palamedes, during the Trojan War, invented the manner
of setting an Army in array: also the giving of a Signal,
the Watch-word, and the Outposts (VigiliaB). In the same
War, Sinon devised Watch-towers. Lycanor was the first
Maker of a Truce : Theseus, of Alliances : Car, from whom
Caria took its Name, observed first the Flight of Birds
(Augury) ; to which Orpheus added the Signs from other
Animals. Delphus invented Divination from the Entrails
(Aruspices) : Amphiaraus, that of the Inspection of Fire
(Ignispex) : Tyresias, the Theban, that of the Auspices of
Birds. Amphictyon gave the Interpretation of portentous
Sights, and of Dreams. Atlas, the Son of Libya (or,
as some say, the Egyptians, and as others the Assyrians),
invented Astrology ; and in that Science, Anaximander the
Milesian devised the Sphere. The Explanation of the
Winds was given by JEolus, the Son of Helen. Amphion
invented Music. The Flute and the single Pipe1 were
the Invention of Pan, the Son of Mercury. The oblique
Cornet was by Midas in Phrygia ; and in the same Country
Marsyas invented the Double Flute ; Amphion taught the
Lydian Measures; Thamyras the Thracian, the Dorian; and
Marsyas of Phrygia, the Phrygian. Amphion, likewise (or,
as some say, Orpheus, and according to others, Linus}, played
first on the Lute.2 Ter pander added seven Strings to it;
Simonides added the eighth ; and Timotheus the ninth. Tha-
myras was the first that played on the Lute without Song,

1 Fistula and Monaiilus. — Wern. Club. a Cithara. — Wern. Club.

254 History of Nature. [ BOOK VII.

and Amphion sung with it, or, according to some, Linus.
Terpander adapted Songs to the Lute. Dardanus, the Tro3-
zenian, began first vocal Music to the Flute.1 The Curetes
taught to dance in Armour ; and Pyrrhus the Pyrrhic Dance ;
and both these were first practised in Crete. The Heroic
Verse we owe to the Oracle of Pythius (Apollo}. About the
Original of Poems there is a great Question. They are
proved to have existed before the Trojan War. Pherecydes
of Syros, in the Days of King Cyrus, invented the Writing
in Prose. Cadmus the Milesian founded History. Lycaon
appointed the first public Games of Strength in Arcadia ;
Acastus in lolcum, the first solemn Games at Funerals ; and
after him Theseus, in the Isthmus. Hercules instituted the
Athletic Exercises at Olympia : and Pythus those of Play at
Ball. Gyges the Lydian first practised Painting in Egypt;
but in Greece, Euchir, a Relative of Dcedalus, as Aristotle
supposeth ; and according to Theophrastus, it was Polygnotus
the Athenian. Danaus was the first that sailed with a Ship,
and so he passed the Sea from Egypt to Greece ; for before
that time they used Rafts, which were invented by King
Erythra, to cross from one Island to another in the Red Sea.
But we meet with some Writers who suppose that the Tro-
jans and Mysians were the first that devised Navigation be-
fore them in the Hellespont, when they passed over-against
the Thracians. And even at this Day in the British Ocean,
there are made WTicker Boats covered with Leather, and
stitched round about ; in the Nile, of Papyrus, Cane-reed,
and Rushes. Philostephanus witnesseth, that Jason first used
in Navigation the long Ship ; but Egesias saith, that it was
Paralus. Ctesias attributeth it to Samyras ; Saphanus, to
Semiramis ; and Archimackus, to JEgeon. Damastes testi-
fieth, that the Erythraeans first made the Bireme (or Galley
with two Ranks of Oars) : Thucydides, that Aminocles the
Corinthian built the first Trireme (with three Rows of Oars) :
Aristotle saith, that the Carthaginians were the first that set
to Sea the Quadrireme (with four Ranks of Oars): and

1 Tibia.— Wern. Club.

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 255

Nesichthon the Salaminian, set afloat the first Quinquireme
(with five Ranks of Oars). Zenagoras of Syracusa brought
up those of six Rows ; and from it to those of ten, Mnesigeton
was the Inventor. It is said that Alexander the Great built
Galleys with twelve Banks ; and Philostephanus reporteth,
that Ptolemy Soter rose to fifteen : Demetrius, the Son of
Antiaonus, to thirty : Ptolemy Philadelphus, to forty ; and
Ptolemy Philopater, surnamed Tryphon, to fifty. Hippus
the Tyrian invented Ships of Burden.1 The Cyrenians first
built the Pinnace ; the Phoenicians, the Ferry-boat ; the
Rhodians, the Wherry ; and last, the Cyprians, the Hulk.
The Phoenicians were the first that in sailing observed the
Course of the Stars. The Copeans devised the Oar, and the
Plateans its broad End : Icarus, the Sails : Dcedalus, the
Mast and the Yard. Vessels for transporting Horses were
the Invention of the Samians, or else of Pericles the Athe-
nian. The Thasii formed the long-covered Ships : for before
their Time they fought only from the Stern and the Bow.
Piseus added the Rostra ; the Tyrrhenians, the Anchor ; to
which Eupalamus added the two Claws, and Anac/tarsis the
Grappling-hooks. The Stock was by Pericles the Athenian ;
and finally, the Steering-tackle by Typhis. The Chief that
first fought in a Fleet was Minos. The first that killed a
Beast was HyperHus, the Son of Mars; and Prometheus first
killed an Ox.2

1 The names of these ships in the original are, Oneraria, Cymba,
Celox, Cercuros. — Wern. Club.

8 It has been already remarked, that the Greeks regarded as the
inventor of any art him who had communicated it to them ; and Pliny
seeks no further than to their writings for authority in these particulars,
In the Book of Genesis (chap. iv. &c.) we have more authentic particulars
of the invention of musical instruments, of tents to dwell in, and of
working in metal : the latter by one whose name seems to have been the
origin of that of Vulcan ; and the following catalogue of discoveries in
the most ancient times is derived from Sanchoniatho, the Phoenician : —

"From Genus, the son of Protogonus and (Eon, other mortal issue
were begotten, whose names were Light, Fire, and Flame. These found
out the way of generating fire by the rubbing of pieces of wood against
each other, and taught men the use thereof. These begat sons of vast
bulk and height, whose names were given to mountains on which they

256 History of Nature. [ BOOK VII.

CHAPTER LVII.
Wherein first appeared the general Agreement of Nations.

THE first silent Consent of all Countries hath agreed in
this, That they should use the Ionian Letters.

first seized : so from them were named Mounts Cassius and Libanus,
Antilibanus and Brathys. Perhaps it is to these that allusion is made,
Genesis, vi. 4. The Protogonus and (Eon here spoken of, being the
first generation of mortals, were the discoverers of the way of taking
food from trees; and their children, Genus and Genea, in a time of
scarcity in Phanicia, first worshipped the sun, as Beelsamin, or only
Lord of Heaven.

" Hypsuranius, a Tyrian, first made huts of reeds and rushes, and the
paper-reeds. His brother Usoiis first invented covering for his body, out
of the skins of wild beasts which he could catch ; which may be reconciled
with the narrative in Genesis, iii. 21. He consecrated two rude stone
pillars to the fire and wind, and worshipped them with the sprinkling of
the blood of wild beasts taken in hunting. He first ventured on the sea
in a kind of raft ; and on his death were first instituted anniversary feasts.
Many years after him, Agreus and Halieus were the inventors of the arts,
and it would appear, the fathers of tribes who pursued hunting and fish-
ing. The two brothers who invented the working of iron were their
sons. One of these, named Chrysor, the same as Vulcan, employed
charms and divinations ; he invented the hook, bait, and fishing-line, and
boats slightly made : perhaps those covered with leather, mentioned by
Pliny as used in his day in Britain, and originally derived from this
Eastern source. This Coracle, employed so late as the fourth or fifth cen-
tury of Christianity in crossing the British Channel, is still used in Welsh
rivers, and is figured, in its modern structure, by Mr. Yarrell (" History
of British Fishes," vol. ii. p. 62, 2d edit.) : a copy from an ancient relievo
in Montfaucon is at the end of this volume. It was a subsequent race,
the Cabiri, that formed the first complete ship. From the last generation,
or Chrysor and his brother, sprang two brothers : one called Technites, or
the artist, and the other, Ge'inus Autochthon, the home-born man of the
earth. These first mingled stubble with the brick earth, and dried the
tiling in the sun. This accommodation was further improved by the for-
mation of courts, fences, and cellars about houses. They were husband-
men, and worshipped a statue carried about in a movable temple, drawn
by oxen. This practice is alluded to by the prophet Amos, v. 26, and
perhaps 2 Samuel, vi. 3 and 7. These were the first that employed dogs
in the hunting of wild animals. Amynus and Magus, their sons, first

BOOK VII .]. History of Nature. 257

CHAPTER LVIII.
Of the ancient Letters.1

THAT the old Greek Letters were almost the same as the
present Latin appeareth by an antique Table of Brass, which
came from the Temple at Delphos, and which at this Day is
in the Library of the Palatium, dedicated to Minerva by the
Emperors, with an Inscription like this on it: Nau<r/x.£ar»j£
T/tfa/xit/ou ' Adqvatbg, xooa xa/ ' AQqva aveQqxsv : i.e. Nausicrates (the

Son) of Tisamenus an Athenian, caused this Table to be made
and set up to Minerva.

formed villages and flocks ; and their sons, Misor and Sydyc (Wellfreed
and Just), discovered the use of salt.

" Cronus first made a scimitar and spear : Dagon invented the use of
bread and the plough. Inachus, whom Archbishop Usher makes contem-
porary with the Scriptural Nahor, was the inventor of honorary gold and
silver chains. The purple dye from shell-fish was discovered by the Phre-
nician Hercules, the great navigator Melcartus, who first passed through
the Straits of Gibraltar, and visited Cornwall. It is true, there seems some
doubt whether there be not two individuals referred to under this name,
one of whom lived in the days of Canaan ; but if so, at least they were
natives of the same country, and were both honoured by their country-
men as inventors of the arts by which the nation acquired riches and
eminency. Cronus first taught the use of the bow as a weapon; which
took place in Crete, an island afterwards famous for this kind of skill.
4 Eupolemus says of Enoch, that he was the true Atlas, the inventor of
astronomy.' Finally, the infamy of having first practised persecution for
religion is ascribed to Cronus, who is supposed to be Ham, the son of
Noah, with the concurrence of the Egyptian Thoth ; but the Jews are
inclined to derive its origin from the city of Ur, in Chaldaea, where Terah
was put to death in the fire (Ur) : but in either case the act was devised
in support of false religion, or idolatry." — Wern. Club.

1 In the beginning of the 56th chapter, Pliny has expressed his belief
that the Assyrian letters are the most ancient in the world : but whether
these were the same as in recent times have been discovered among the
antique monuments of Nineveh and Babylon ; the Chaldsean characters
afterwards introduced among the Jews by Ezra ; or the ancient Pho2ni-
cian, now termed the Samaritan; in either case it is only by passing
through great mutations that they can be traced to the Greek and Latin
forms of the days of Pliny. Sanchoniatho says that Taautus, called by

VOL. II. S

258 History of Nature. [BoOK VII.

CHAPTER LIX.
When Barbers were first at Rome.

THE next Consent of all People was to entertain Bar-
bers; but they were later among the Romans. The first that
entered Italy came from Sicily, in the 454th Year after the
Foundation of Rome. They were brought in by P. Ticinius
Mena, as Varro reporteth: for before this they were un-
shorn. The first that took up the practice to Shave every
day was Scipio Africanus : and after him cometh Divus
Augustus, who always used the Rasor.1

CHAPTER LX.
When was the fast Dial.2

THE third Consent of all Nations was in the observation of
the Hours ; and this was grounded upon Reason : but at
what Time, and by whom this was Invented in Greece, we
have declared in the Second Book ; and it was late before
this came up at Rome. In the Twelve Tables the East and
West alone are mentioned ; after some Years the Noon was
added, and the Consul's Officer proclaimed Noon when,
standing at the Hall of the Council, he beheld the Sun in

the Greeks Hermes, found out the first letters ; but these appear, from
his subsequent remarks, to have been what we now term hieroglyphics.
It may be the phonetic characters, of which Pliny ascribes the invention
to Meno the Egyptian ; but it is probable that they are all much more
ancient. — Wern. Club.

1 Slaves and servants were not permitted to be shaved. The Egyp-
tians were the only people who universally used the rasor. — Wern. Club.

2 Lumisden has some observations on the Roman method of measur-
ing time. " I do not conceive," he says, " how a sun-dial or any other
instrument could point out the various hours, as time was computed by
the ancient Romans. The time the earth takes to revolve once round its
axis, or the space between the rising of the sun till its next rising, which
makes a day and a night, divided into twenty-four equal parts, we call
hours. Now, the Romans divided the day and the night into twenty-four
hours. Twelve of these, from the rising of the sun to its setting, con-

BOOK VII.] History of Nature. 259

that Quarter between the Rostra and the Grecostasis. But
when the Sun inclined downward from the Column named
Moenia, to the Prison, he proclaimed the last Quarter (of the
Day). But this observation would serve only on clear Days ;
and yet it was so until the first Punic War. Fabius Vestalis
writeth, that L. Papyrius Cursor, the Prince, twelve Years
before the War with Pyrrhus, to do the Romans a pleasure
set up a Sun-dial on the Temple of Quirinus, when it was
dedicated, his Father having vowed it before him. But
this Author sheweth not either the method of that Dial, or
the Workman ; nor yet from whence it was brought, nor in
what Writer he found it so written. M. Varro reporteth,
that the first Dial was set up in the common Market-place,
upon a Column near the Rostra, in the first Punic War, by
M. Valerius Messala, the Consul, presently after the taking
of Catana, in Sicily ; from whence it was brought, thirty
Years after the report of the aforesaid Dial of Papyrius, in
the Year of the City 477. And although the Lines of this
Dial did not agree with the Hours, yet were the People
governed by it for an hundred Years save one, until
Q. Martius Philippus, who was Censor, with L. Paulus,
set another by it, made more carefully. And this gift,
among other things done by the Censor, was highly
acceptable to the People. But notwithstanding this, if it
were a cloudy Day the Hours were uncertain ; and thus it

stituted their day ; and the other twelve, from the setting of the sun to
its rising, constituted their night. Thus, as the seasons changed, the
length of their hours must have varied. In winter the twelve hours of
the day were short, and those of the night long : in summer they were
the reverse. How then could these hours, of an unequal length, and
which daily varied, be measured by an instrument ? I have not been
able to discover any method by which this could be done. However,
they had two fixed points, namely, mid-day and midnight, which they
called the sixth hour. So that a meridian line would always point out
the sixth hour, or mid- day."

That the dial was a very ancient instrument for measuring time
appears from the 2d Book of Kings, xx. 11, and Isaiah, xxxviii. 8,
where is the first mention of it on record. It probably was invented in
Babylonia.— Wern. Club.

260

History of Nature.

[BOOK VII

continued five Years more. Then Scipio Nasica, the Col-
league of L&nas, first divided the Hours, both of Day and
Night equally, by Water. And this Horologe he dedicated
under a Roof, in the Year of the City 595 from the Build-
ing of Rome. So long it was, that the People of Rome did
not measure out the Light.

Now let us return to the other Living Creatures : and
first, of Animals of the Land.

Coracle referred to in note at p. 256.— Montfaucon, torn. iv. pi. 49.

END OF VOL. II.

London :— George Barclay, Castle Street, Leicester Square.

IN THE EIGHTH BOOK

IS CONTAINED THE
NATURE OF LAND ANIMALS THAT GO ON FOOT.

CHAP.

1. Of Land Creatures: the Com-
mendation of Elephants : their
Understanding.

»/ 2. When Elephants were first
yoked.

3. The Docility of Elephants.

4. The Clemency of Elephants:
that they know their own
Dangers ; also of the Ferocity
of the Tiger.

5. The Understanding and Me-
mory of Elephants.

6. When Elephants were first
seen in Italy.

7. Comhats by Elephants.

8. The Manner of taking Ele-
phants.

9. The Manner how Elephants

are tamed.

10. How long an Elephant goeth
with Young, and of their
Nature.

1 1. The Countries where Elephants
breed : the discord between
Elephants and Dragons.

12. The Industry and Wit of Dra-
gons and Elephants.

13. Of Dragons.

14. Serpents of prodigious Magni-
tude : of Serpents named Boae.

15. Of the Animals of Scythia, and
of the North Countries.

16. Of Lions.

17. Of Panthers.
VOL. in.

CHAP.

18. The Nature of the Tiger : of
Camels, and the Camelopard :
when it was first seen at Rome.

19. Of the Stag- wolf named Chaus:
and the Cephus.

20. Of the Rhinoceros.

21. Of Lynxes, Sphinges, Crocutes,
Marmosets, of Indian Oxen,
of Leucrocutes, of Eale, of the
^Ethiopian Bulls, of the Man-
tichora, the Unicorn, of the
Catoblepa, and the Basilisk.

22. Of Wolves.
3. Of Serpents.

24. Of the Ichneumon.

25. Of the Crocodile and the Hip-
popotamus.

26. Who shewed first at Rome the

Hippopotamus and Crocodiles.
Medicines discovered by Ani-
mals.

27. Of Animals which have shewn
certain Herbs ; the Red Deer,
Lizards, Swallows, Tortoises,
the Weasel, the Stork, the
Boar, the Snake, Panther,
Elephant, Bears, Stock-Doves,
House - Doves, Cranes, and
Ravens.

28. Prognostications taken from
Animals.

What Cities and Nations have
been destroyed by small Crea-
tures.

Contents of the Eighth Booh.

CHAP

30. Of the Hy?ena, the Crocuta,

and Mantichora : of Beavers
and Otters.

31. Of Frogs, Seals, and Stellions.

32. Of Deer, both Eed and Fal-
low.

33 . Of the Tragelaphis : of the Cha-
meleon, and other Creatures
that change Colour.

34. Of the Tarand, the Lycaon,
and the Wolf called Thoes.
Of the Porcupine.

36. Of Bears and their Cubs.

37. The Rats of Pontus and the

Alps : of Hedgehogs.

38. Of the Leontophones, the Lynx,
Badger, and Squirrels.

39. Of Vipers, Snails, and Lizards.

40. Of Dogs.

Against the Bite of a mad Dog.
42. The Nature of Horses.

CHAP.

43. Of Asses. -/

44. Of Mules. ,/

45. Of Kine, Bulls, and Oxen. ^

46. Of the Bull named Apis.

47. The Nature of Flocks and their
Breeding. «/

48. Different kinds of Wool and

Cloths.

49. Of Musmons.

50. Of Goats and their Generation.

51. Of Swine and their Nature. J

52. Of Parks and Warrens for
Beasts.

53. Of Beasts half Tame. J

54. Of Apes and Monkeys. -

55. Of Hares and Rabbits. -

56. Of Beasts half Savage. S

57. Of Rats and Mice : of Dormice.

58. Of Animals that Live not in
some places.

59. Of Animals hurtful to Strangers.

In sum there are in this Book, Histories and Observations 788.

LATIN AUTHORS ABSTRACTED :

Mutianus, Procilius, Verrius Flaccus, L. Piso, Cornelius Valerianus,
Cato the Censor, Fenestella, Trogus, Actius, Columella, Virgil, Varro,
Lu. Metellus Scipio, Cornelius Celsus, Nigidius, Trebius Niger, Pomponius
Mela, Manlius Sura.

FOREIGN WRITERS:

King Juba, Polybius, Onesicritus, Isidoruv, Antipater, Aristotle, Deme-
trius the Natural Philosopher, Democritus, Theophrastus, Euanthes, Agrippa
who wrote of the Olympionicce, Hiero, King Attalus, King Philometer, Cte-
sias, Duris, Philistus, Architas, Philarchus, Amphilochus the Athenian,
Anaxipolis the Thasian, Apollodorus of Lemnos, Aristophanes the Milesian,
Antigonus the Cymcean, Agathocles of Chios, Apollonicus of Pergamus,
Aristander of Athens, Bacchus the Milesian, JBion of Soli, Chcereas the
Athenian, Diodorus ofPryenceum, Dio the Colophonian, Epigenes of Rhodes,
Evagon of Thassus, Euphranius the Athenian, Hegesias of Maronea, Men-
ander of Pryenceum, Menander also of Heraclea, Menecrates the Poet, An-
drocion who wrote of Agriculture, JEschrion who likewise wrote of that
argument, Dionysius ivho translated Mago, Diophanes who collected an Epi-
tome of Dionysius, King Archelaus, and Nicander.

THE EIGHTH BOOK

HISTORY OF NATURE

WRITTEN BY

C. PLINIUS SECUNDUS.

CHAPTER I.

Of Animals of the Land ; the Praise of Elephants,1 and their
Understanding.

0.x....:> ..:x:..x"# £ will now pass on to treat of other living
Creatures, and first of Animals of the Land,
amon£ which the Elephant is the greatest,
an(^ cometh nearest in Capacity to Men;
l f°r tney understand the Language of the
Country, they do whatever they are commanded, re-
member what Duties they are taught, and take a Pleasure
in Love and Glory ; nay, more than this, they possess
Probity, Prudence, and Equity, (rare Qualities even in
Men,) and they have also in religious Reverence the Stars,
and Veneration for the Sun and Moon. Writers report
that when the new Moon beginneth to appear bright >
Herds of them come down to a certain River named
Ainilus, in the Thickets of Mauritania, and there they
solemnly Purify themselves by dashing themselves all over

1 Elephas Indicus.—Cuv. The Indian Elephant.
Elephas Africanus.—Cvv. The African Elephant.— Wcrn.

4 History of Nature. [BOOK VIIL

with the Water; and so having saluted the Planet, they
return again to the Woods, carrying before them their
Young Ones that are fatigued. They are thought also to
have an Understanding of Religion1 in others ; for when they
are to pass the Seas they will not enter the Ships before they
are induced to it by an Oath of their Governors that they
shall return again; and they have been seen enfeebled by
Sickness (for as Large as they are they are subject to Sick-
ness), to lie upon their Backs, throwing up Herbs toward
Heaven, as if they had procured the Earth to pray for them.
Now for their Docility : they adore the King, they kneel and
offer Chaplets of Flowers. The lesser sort, which they call
Bastards, serve the Indians to Plough their Ground.

CHAPTER II.

When Elephants were first put to Draw.

THE first time they were known to Draw at Rome was in
the Chariot of Pompey the Great, in the African Triumph.

1 The author in several places speaks of religion in animals : as of
monkeys, b. viii. c. 54, and of barn-door poultry, b. x. c. 41. The oryx
was judged to be impious, because it had been seen to display signs of dis-
regard or contempt to the moon. To understand the ground of this
opinion, it is necessary to bear in mind that the religion of the heathens
did not include or demand a spiritual attachment, or mental conformity,
to the character or commands of the object worshipped, but was merely
ritual : the latreia being an official service which was employed to allay
the anger of some divinity, which had been raised by some cause equally
remote from any feeling of a moral nature with that instituted to obviate
it. The real cultus was comprised in this ceremony, and religion was the
binding of this cultus, or worship, on those who were subject to it — as
superstition included the employment of a greater amount of ceremony
than the latreia demanded ; and as this was judged to proceed from a
greater degree of fear than the cause required, it was always considered
as degrading him that manifested it. As the proper idea of religion was
supposed to be the binding of the cultus on those only who were the sub-
jects of it, it was no great extension of the same principle to suppose that
animals might be subject to the same laws as men in these respects, and
that they might have recourse to means of a similar kind to obviate
similar offences. That the elephant practised religious rites was not the

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 5

But long before this it is said that Father Liber did the
same in his Triumph for having Conquered India. Prod-
lius denieth that, coupled as they were, two in one Yoke,
they could possibly have entered in at the Gates of Rome in
Pompey's Triumph. In the Show of Gladiators, which Ger-
manicus Ccssar exhibited, the Elephants were seen to show
some disorderly Motions, after a manner of Dancing. It was
a common thing to fling Weapons through the Air, so that
the Winds had no power against them ; to flourish and meet
together in Fight like Gladiators, and to make Sport in a
Pyrrhic Dance ; and afterwards to go on Ropes ; to carry
(four together1) one of them laid at ease in a Litter, re-
sembling the manner of Women newly brought to Bed ; and
some of them would enter a Dining-place where the Tables
were full of Guests, and pass among them with their foot-
opinion of Pliny only, but appears to have been common in ancient times.
^Elian, whose " History of the Peculiar Nature of Animals " is chiefly
valuable for containing everything on the subject that floated on the sur-
face of popular observation, says, " At the first appearance of the new
moon I have heard that elephants leave the woods under the influence of
a certain natural and inexpressible intelligence, bearing with them
branches which they have plucked from the trees, which they bear
aloft and wave to and fro as they cast their looks upward, as if offering
some divine intercession to the goddess to be propitious and gracious to
them." — B. iv. c. x. " They also worship the rising sun by lifting up their
trunks, like hands, to meet his rays, and on this account they are dear to
the god ; and of this fact Ptolemy Philopator is an excellent and un-
doubted witness." — B. vii. c. 14. The reference of the author to this sove-
reign is built on a remarkable dream which he had on the occasion of
having offered the unusual sacrifice of four elephants on occasion of a
victory. The solemn ceremonies of the elephant on occasion of the death
of those of their own kind are referred to in the same work, b. v. c. 49.
Their adoration of the king was the result of discipline, b. xiii. c. 22 ; and
they also formed his night-watch, when perhaps he had learned to dis-
trust the fidelity of his guards. — Wern. Club.

1 If the elephants walked two and two, as they probably did when
thus carrying their companion, there must have been two ropes placed
in parallel lines. JElian, " De Animalibus," gives a most amusing account
of the performances of the elephants of Germanicus in the theatre ; but I
do not remember that he mentions this feat. A like exploit is, however,
mentioned by Seneca, Suetonius, and others. — Wern. Club.

6 . History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

steps so equally ordered that they would not touch any of
the Company as they were Drinking.

CHAPTER III.
The Docility of Elephants.

IT is certain that there was one Elephant who was of a
slower Capacity than the others, so that he was often
beaten with Stripes because he did not Learn that which was
Taught him ; and he was found Studying those Lessons by
Night, which he had not succeeded in Learning by Day.1
But one of the greatest Wonders was, that they could mount
up against a Rope; and, more wonderful, that they should
slide down again with their Faces downward. Mutianus,
who had been thrice Consul, reporteth that one of them had
Learned to make the Greek Letters, and was accustomed to
Write in that Language thus: This have I myself written,
and have dedicated the Celtic spoils. Also himself saw at
Puteoli, when some Elephants that had been brought
thither were forced to go forth out of the Vessel in which
they had come, but being affrighted at the extent of the way
from the Ship to the Land, to deceive themselves so that
the way might not seem too long, they went backward with
their Tails to the Land. They know that the Riches for
which Men lie in wait for them consisteth only in their
Arms, which Juba calleth their Horns ; but which Herodotus,
who wrote long before him, and custom, hath better termed
Teeth. And therefore when they are fallen off, either from
Age, or by some Accident, the Elephants themselves hide
them in the Ground. And this is the only Ivory ; for all the
rest, and the Teeth themselves so far as they are covered
within the Flesh, is no better than common Bone. And yet
of late for scarcity Men have taken up to cut the Bones into
Plates. For it is rare to procure Teeth of any bigness except
from India ; since all the rest in our part of the World hath

1 Plutarch, " De Solert. Anim." tells us of an elephant who practised
bis parts by moonlight of his own accord.— Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 7

been employed in Luxuries. You may know young Ele-
phants by the Whiteness of their Teeth, and these Beasts
have a special care over them. They spare the Point of one
of them, lest it should be blunt when they come to Fight ;
and the other they use ordinarily, either to dig up Roots or
to throw down Banks. When they are compassed round
with Hunters, they set in the foremost rank those which
have the least Teeth, that their price may not be thought
worth the hazard of Battle. But afterwards, when they are
weary, they break them by driving them into the Trees, and
so ransom themselves by the prey.

CHAPTER IV.

The Clemency of Elephants ; their Knowledge of their own
Dangers ; also the Fierceness of the Tiyer.

IT is a wonder in most Animals that they know why they
are Hunted ; and through the whole they understand what
to guard against. If an Elephant chance to meet a Man
wandering simply out of his way in the Wilderness, it is said
that he will mildly and peaceably set him in the right way
again. But if he perceive a Man's footstep before he dis-
covers the Man, he will tremble for fear of being entrapped ;
he will stay from the Scent, look about him every way, and
puff for very anger. Neither will he tread upon the Track, but
dig it out and give it to the next (Elephant), and he again to
him that followeth, in the way of a Message, to the furthest
rank behind. Then the whole Herd wheels round and re-
turns backward, putting themselves in Battle Array : so long
continueth that strong Smell of Men's Feet through them
all, notwithstanding for the most part they have not naked
Feet, So the Tigress also, though fierce to other wild
Beasts, and disregarding the footsteps of the Elephant
itself, if she happen to catch sight of a Man is said im-
mediately to convey away her Whelps. How cometh
she to this knowledge of a Man ? Where did she ever see
him before whom she thus feareth ? For surely such Forests

8 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

are very little frequented by Men. They may indeed well
wonder at the novelty of their Tracks, bat how know they
that they are to be feared ? Nay, what should be the reason
that they dread even to see a Man, being so much superior
in Strength, Size, and Swiftness ? Certainly herein is the
wonderful work of Nature, and her mighty Power ; that the
greatest and fiercest of wild Beasts, which have never seen
that which they ought to fear, yet immediately understand
why the same is to be dreaded.

CHAPTER V.
The Understanding and Memory of Elephants.

ELEPHANTS march always in Troops. The oldest of them
leadeth the Company, and the next to him in age cometh
behind with the conduct of the Rear. When they are to pass
over a River, they put the Smallest foremost, lest if the
Larger should enter first they would dig up the Channel, and
so make the Torrent to become deeper. Anti.pat.er writeth,
that King Antiochus had two Elephants which he used in
his Wars, and were famous for their Surnames, which they
knew well. And truly Cato, when he named in his Annals
the Commanders (Imperators), hath recorded that the (Ele-
phant) which fought most bravely in the Punic Contest was
named Surus, and that one of his Teeth was lost. When
Antiochus would have sounded the passage of a River (by
putting the Elephants before), Ajax refused, although at all
times he was the leader of the Troop. On this it was pro-
nounced that the Elephant which would pass should be the
Chief; and Patroclus having ventured, as a reward there
was presented to him a rich set of Silver Trappings (a thing
in which they take very great Delight) ; and besides this,
he was made the Sovereign of the others. But the other,
which was distinguished (by his Abstaining from Food) pre-
ferred Death to the Shame : for they are wonderfully
Bashful, so that if one of them be overcome he will fly from
the voice of the Conqueror, and put forward Earth arid Ver-

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 9

vain.1 Through Modesty they never associate in Love except
in secret : the Male at five Years of Age, and the Female at
ten Years old. And this they do every third Year,2 and they
continue therein five Days in the Year (as they say) and not
more, for upon the sixth Day they Wash themselves over in
the River ; and before this they do not return to the Herd.
They know no adulterous change ; neither are there any
Battles among them about their Females, as among other
Animals to their great injury. And this is not for want of
strong Affection ; for it is reported of an Elephant that he
was enamoured of a certain Woman in Egypt who sold Gar-
lands of Flowers. And lest any one should think that she
was an ordinary maiden that was beloved, she was greatly
admired by Aristophanes, the excellent Grammarian. There
was another so full of Love to a Youth in the Army of Ptolo-
mceus, that if he did not see him every Day he would abstain
from his Meat. Juba likewise reporteth of an Elephant that
loved a Woman who sold Perfumes. All these shewed their
Love by the tokens of Joy at the sight of the object of their
regard, by their rude Blandishments, and by preserving the
Gifts which the People gave them, and laying them in their
Bosoms. Nor is Love so much to be wondered at where the
Memory is so good. For the same Juba saith, that an Ele-
phant acknowledged a Man in his old Age, and after many
Years, who in his youth had been his Governor. He
affirmeth also that they have a certain Divine Instinct of
Justice : for when King Bacchus had appointed to be re-
venged on thirty Elephants, which he had caused to be
bound to Stakes, and had set the same number to run upon
them, appointing also Men to urge them to rush forward ;
yet they were riot able to cause them to become the Ministers
of another's Cruelty.

1 The greatest sign of victory in old time was for the vanquished to
offer a plant to the conqueror, which signified that he surrendered all the
interests he had in earth, and even the rite of burial. See Lib. viii. c. 5.
-Wern. Club.

3 Some copies read two years.— Wern. Club.

10 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

CHAPTER VI.

When Elephants were first seen in Italy.

THE first Time that Elephants were seen in Italy was
during the War of King Pyrrhus ; and they were called by
the Name of Lucce Boves, or Lucan Oxen, because they were
seen in the Lucan Country ; in the four hundred and seventy-
second Year of the City. But in Rome it was seven Years
after this before they were seen, and then in a Triumph. But
in the Year 502, a Number of them were seen, being taken
from the Carthaginians in the Victory of L. Metellus Pontifex
in Sicily. 142 were conveyed over on Rafts, which were laid
upon Rows of great Tuns placed close one by another. Ver-
rius saith that they fought in the Circus, and were killed with
Darts, for want of better Counsel ; for they were neither
willing to feed them,1 nor to bestow them upon Kings. L. Piso
saith they were only brought out into the Circus ; and to
make them contemptible, they were driven round it by cer-
tain hired Fellows, having for that purpose Spears simply
headed with Iron. But what became of them afterward,
those Authors make no mention ; but they are of opinion,
that they were not killed.

CHAPTER VII.
Their Combats.

MUCH renowned is the Contest of one Roman with an
Elephant, when Annibal forced our Captives to skirmish one
against another. For the only Roman that remained, he
matched with an Elephant, having covenanted with him,

1 The Romans might well shrink from the expense of supporting 142
elephants, when, as we are informed, the quantity of food required for the
daily consumption of a full-grown elephant is not less than 200 pounds of
aliment of all sorts. The elephant of Louis XIV. had daily 80 pounds
of bread, 12 pints of wine, and a large quantity of vegetable soup, with
bread and rice ; this was exclusive of grass, and what he got from visi-
tors. — Wcrn. Club.

BOOK VIIL] History of Nature. 1 1

that if he could kill the Beast, he should be dismissed. So
this Prisoner entered into single Fight with the Elephant,
and to the great Grief of the Carthaginians, slew him. An-
nibal, considering that the Report of this Combat would
cause these Beasts to be little regarded, sent after him some
Light Horsemen to kill him upon the Way. Their Trunk
(Proboscis) may be easily cut off; as appeared by Experience
in the Battles of Pyrrhus. Fenestella writeth, that the first
Fight of them in Rome was in the Circus, when Claudius
Pulcker was Curule jEdile, and M. Antonius and A. Post-
humius were Consuls, in the six hundred and fiftieth Year
of the City. Also 20 Years after, when the Luculli were
Curule .ZEdiles, they fought against Bulls. Also in the
second Consulship of Cn. Pompeius, at the Dedication of the
Temple to Venus Victoress, 20 of them, or as some write, 17,
fought in the Circus. The Gaetulians threw Darts against
them. But one Elephant did Wonders : for when his Feet
were pierced through with Darts, he crept upon his Knees
among the Companies, where he caught from them their
Shields, and flung them aloft, which, as they fell, turned
round as if by Art, and not as if thrown with Violence by
the Beasts in their Anger, to the great Pleasure of the Be-
holders. And as strange a Thing was seen in another of
them, who was killed with one Stroke ; for the Dart was
driven under the Eye, and pierced to the vital Parts of the
Head. Whereupon all the rest endeavoured to burst away,
not without a great disturbance among the People, although
fenced round with Iron Bars. And for this Cause, Ccesar
the Dictator, when afterwards he was about to exhibit the
like Show, cast a Ditch round about the Arena ; which Prince
Nero removed to make room for the Knights. But those
Elephants of Pompey being past all Hope of escaping, in a
Manner that cannot be expressed seemed to supplicate the
Multitude, craving their Mercy, with grievous Lamentations
bewailing their Condition ; so that the People's Hearts
melted, and with Tears in their Eyes, they rose up all at
once, without Regard to the Imperator, or Respect to his
magnificent Display, and imprecated on Pompey these severe

12 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

Misfortunes which soon after ensued accordingly. Again,
Ccesar the Dictator, in his third Consulship, exhibited ano-
ther Fight of them ; 20 against 500 Footmen ; and a second
Time 20 more, having Turrets with 60 Defendants to the
same ; and he opposed against them the same Number as
the former of Footmen, and as many Horse. After this,
Claudius and JVero, the Princes, brought them forth one by
one, by way of finishing the Show of Gladiators. This
Animal is reported to be so gentle to all that are not so
strong as himself, that if he meet a Flock of Cattle, he will
with the Hand remove any that cometh in his Way, for Fear
he should crush them without being aware of it. And they
never do any Hurt unless provoked. They always walk in
Troops, and are less disposed to wandering alone than any
other Animals. If they are environed with Horsemen, they
take into the midst of the Troop the feeble, weary, or wounded ;
and as if they were under the Direction of a General, or with
the Guidance of Reason, they succeed one another in their
Course. When taken, they are soonest brought to be tame
with the Juice of Barley.1

CHAPTER VIII.
The Manner of taking Elephants.

THE Indians take Elephants in this manner : the Go-
vernor employeth one of them that are tame, and when he
meeteth with a wild one alone, or can single him from the
Herd, he beateth him until he hath made him weary, and
then he mounteth on him and ruleth him as well as the former.
In Africa they catch them in Pit-falls; into which, if one of
them wander, all the rest immediately heap together Boughs
of Trees, they roll down Heaps, they raise Banks, and with
all they can do, labour to draw him out. Formerly when
they meant to make them tractable, by the Help of Horse-
men they drove the Flocks along into a Valley made by
Man's Hand, and calculated to deceive them for a consider-

1 That is, gruel, or tissane, as we may suppose. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 13

able Extent ; arid when they were enclosed within the Ditches
and Banks, they subdued them by Hunger; and they knew
they were tame enough if they would quietly take a Branch
from the Man that offered it to them. But now, since they
seek after them for the sake of their Teeth, they throw Darts
at their Legs, which are the softest Part of their Body. The
Trogloditee,1 a People bordering on Ethiopia, who live only
by hunting Elephants, climb the Trees that are near their
Walk, and from thence watching all the Herd as they pass,
they leap down upon the Buttocks of the hindmost; then he,
with his left Hand, layeth hold of the Tail, and setteth his
Feet fast in the Flank of the left Side ; and so hanging, with
his right Hand he cutteth the Hamstrings of one of his Legs
with a very sharp double-edged Knife ; which done, the
Elephant slackening his Pace, the Man then maketh escape,
and divideth the Sinews likewise of the other Ham ; and all
this Execution he doth with wonderful Agility. Others have
a safer Way than this, but it is more deceitful : they fix in
the Ground a great Way off, very great Bows ready bent;
to hold these fast they choose young Men remarkable for
their Strength, and others united together draw with all
Might these Bows against the first, and so they pierce the
Elephants as they pass with Javelins, and then follow them
by their Blood. Of these Creatures, the Females are much
more fearful than the Males.

1 These people are often mentioned by Pliny, and are particularly
described by Heliodorus (2Ethiopics, b. viii.) : " They are a people of
Ethiopia, and live by grazing. These people are extremely swift of foot,
as well by nature as by continued exercise from their childhood : of little
use in close fight, but very serviceable with their slings, which they gall
their enemy with at a distance ; and if they find themselves overpowered,
they fly, secured by their swiftness, and by running into holes and caverns
among the rocks, where no enemy ever found it worth their while to follow
them." The Agagees, as mentioned by Mr. Bruce, in his " Travels into
Abyssinia," appear to be a similar race of men ; although the object of
pursuit is a different animal. — Wern. Club.

] 4 History of Nature. [ BOOK VIII.

CHAPTER IX.
The Manner of Taming Elephants.

As furious as they may be, they are tamed with Hunger
and Stripes, and by the Help of other Elephants that are
brought to them, to restrain the unruly Beast with Chains ;
and at other Times, when they go to rut, they are most out
of Order ; so that they demolish the Stables with their Teeth :
and therefore they restrain them from their Heat, and sepa-
rate the Inclosures of the Females apart from those of the
Males, which Enclosures they have much in the Mariner of
other Beasts. When tamed, they serve in War, and carry
little Castles with armed Soldiers among the Enemies j1 and
for the most Part they decide the Wars of the East. They
bear down the Body of the Army, and stamp them (the
armed Men) under Foot. But these same are affrighted
with the Grunting of Swine ; and if wounded or put into
a Fright, they always go backward, with scarcely less Mis-
chief to their own Side. The African Elephants are afraid
of the Indian, and dare not look upon them ; for the Indian
Elephants are much bigger.2

CHAPTER X.

How they Bring forth their Young; and of other Parts of
their Nature.

IT is the common Opinion that they go with Young ten
Years ; but Aristotle saith, that they go but two Years, and

1 Or on their backs (a various reading), — Wern. Club.

2 Philostratus and Polybius confirm this statement of Pliny, that the
Indian elephant is larger than that of Africa ; and ^Elian says, that it
attains the height of nine cubits. But modern authors generally consider
the African species the larger, — at least larger than the common elephant
of Hindostan. Mr. Corse, formerly superintendent of the East India
Company's elephants at Tiperah, a province of Bengal, never heard of
but one Indian elephant whose height reached ten feet six inches. The
elephants of Hindostan are, however, the smallest of the Asiatic species.
Those of Pegu and Ava are much larger ; and the skeleton of the elephant
at the Museum of Petersburgh, which was sent to the Czar Peter by the
King of Persia, measures sixteen feet and a half in height. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 15

that they breed but once in their Life, and produce not above
one at a Time : also that they live 200 Years, and some of
them 300. Their Condition of Youth beginneth when they
are threescore Years old : they greatly delight in Rivers, and
they wander about Waters ; when otherwise, by reason of the
Magnitude of their Bodies, they cannot swim.1 They are
impatient of Cold. The greatest Evil which befals them is,
Distension and Purging of the Bowels ; nor do they suffer
from any other kinds of Sickness. I find that if they drink Oil,
the Darts which stick in their Bodies will fall off, but if they
sweat the more easily will they hold fast. The eating of
Earth causes wasting in them, unless they chew well and
often : they devour Stones also. The Trunks of Trees is the
best Meat they have. They will overturn the higher Palm-
trees with their Forehead, and eat the Dates as they lie
along. They chew their Meat with their Mouth : but they
breathe, drink, and smell with what is not improperly called
their Hand. Of all living Creatures they most detest a
Mouse;2 and if they perceive that their Provender lying in
the Manger hath been touched by it, they will not touch it.
They are mightily tormented with Pain, if in their drinking
they swallow down a Leech ; which Creature, I observe, they
begin now commonly to call a Bloodsucker, (Sanyuisuga) :
for when the Leech hath fixed itself in the Windpipe, it put-
teth him to intolerable Pain. The Hide of their Back is
most hard;3 but in the Belly it is soft; their Skin has no
covering of Hair ; and even in their Tail there is no Defence
which might serve to drive away the Annoyance of Flies (for
as huge a Beast as he is, he feeleth it) ; but their Skin is full

1 It scarcely needs be observed that the elephant swims as well as
any other quadruped. In this act he will frequently immerse his whole
body, so that the tip of his trunk only is above water, to the no slight
inconvenience of those who chance to be riding on his back. — Wern.
Club.

3 JElian says (B. i. c. 38), that it dreads the grunting of a hog, and a
horned ram ; and it was by employing these that the Romans put to flight
the elephants of King Pyrrhus, by which they obtained a decisive victory.
— Wern. Club.

3 (Various reading.) Anirnce canali, or amne canali. — Wern. Club.

] 6 History of Nature. [ BOOK VIII.

of cross Wrinkles, and its Smell attracts this kind of Crea-
tures. And therefore when they are stretched along, and
perceive the Swarms settled on their Skin, suddenly they
draw those Crevices close together, and crush them to death.
This serves them instead of Tail, Mane, and long Hair.
Their Teeth bear a very high Price, and their Substance is
of greatest request for the Images of the Gods : but Luxury
hath devised another Thing in them to commend ; for they
find a particular Taste (vim) in the hard Substance of (that
which they call) their Hand : for no other reason (I believe)
but because they have a Conceit that they eat the Ivory
itself. In Temples are to be seen Teeth of the greatest Size ;
but in the remote Parts of Africa where it bordereth on
Ethiopia, they stand in the Place of Corner-posts of their
Houses ; and with the Elephants' Teeth they make Hedges
and Pales, as well to enclose their Grounds, as also to keep
their Cattle within Stalls, as PolyHus reporteth, from the
Testimony of the petty King Gulussa.

CHAPTER XI.

Where Elephants are bred ; and of the Disagreement between
them and the Dragons.1

ELEPHANTS are bred in that Part of Africa which lieth
beyond the Deserts of the Syrtes, and also in Mauritania :
they are found also among the Ethiopians and Troglodites,
as hath been said :2 but India produceth the biggest : as also
the Dragons, which are continually at variance and fighting
with them ; and those of such Greatness, that they can easily
clasp round the Elephants,3 and tie them fast with a Knot.

1 For the Dragons, see 1 3th chap. — Wern. Club.

3 Lib. viii. c. 8.— Wem. Club.

3 .ZElian (B. vi. c. 21) says, that these dragons conceal themselves
among the branches of trees, from which they hang dependent, watching
for their prey. When the elephants approach to feed on the branches,
the enemy seizes them about the eyes, twines itself about the neck, and
lashes them with its tail, in which manner they fall down strangled. —
Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 17

In this Conflict they die together ; that which is overcome
falling down, and with his Weight crushing the one that is
twined about him.

CHAPTER XII.
The Subtilty of Animals.*

WONDERFUL is the Subtilty of Animals, each one ac-
cording to its own Kind ; and they have only this one Diff-
culty, that they must climb to so great an Height. The
Dragon, therefore, espying the Elephant going to its Food,
throweth itself on it from a high Tree ; this Creature,
knowing its Inability by struggling to withstand the other's
Windings about it, seeketh to crush its Enemy against the
Trees or Rocks. The Dragons guard against this by en-
tangling its Progress first with their Tail; the Elephants
undo those Knots with their Hand : but the Dragons put
their Heads into their Snout, and so shut out their Breath,
and tear the tenderest Parts. When these two chance to
encounter each other on the Way, the Dragons raise them-
selves against their Enemies, and aim chiefly at the Eyes,
whereby it happeneth that many Times they (the Ele-
phants) are found blind, and worn away with Hunger
and Grief. What other Reason should a Man allege of so
great a Variance between them, if it be not a Sport of Nature,
in matching these two, so equal in every respect ? But some
report this Contest in another Manner ; and that the Occa-
sion of it ariseth from the Elephant's Blood being exceed-
ingly Cold, on which Account chiefly the Dragons search it
out during the parching Season of the Year. And to the
same Purpose they lie under the Water in Rivers, watching
for the Elephants when they are drinking; when they catch
fast hold of their Hand (Trunk), and having clasped it, they

1 This chapter offers a poor developement of a universal principle in
nature, by which the character of every animal is displayed in its re-
sources of pursuit and defence. For its exemplification in the habits of
British animals, the reader is referred to a work entitled " Illustrations
of Instinct, derived from the Habits of British Animals," by Jonathan
Couch, F.L.S.— Wern. Club.

VOL. III. C

]8 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

fix their Bite in the Elephant's Ear, because that is the only
Part which they cannot defend with their Hand. These
Dragons are so large, that they are able to receive all the
Elephant's Blood. Thus are they sucked dry by them until
they fall down dead ; and the Dragons thus drunken, are
crushed under them, and both die together.

CHAPTER XIII.
Of Dragons.*

IN Ethiopia there are produced as great Dragons as in
India, being twenty Cubits long. But I chiefly wonder at
this one Thing: why Juba should think they were Crested.
They are produced most in a Country of Ethiopia, where the
People called Asachsei inhabit. It is reported, that upon
their Coasts they enwrap themselves four or five together,
in the manner of a Bundle of Rods, and thus pass the Seas,
to find better Pasturage in Arabia, bearing up their Heads
aloft as they cross the Waves.

1 Dragons are often mentioned by ancient authors, but without any
marks by which we can distinguish them from other kinds of serpents.
Their bulk did not constitute the distinction, for the bose mentioned in
the following chapter are, at least, equally large. The idea of ferocity
seems more directly to mix itself with this class of reptiles ; and accord-
ingly in the Septuagint version of the Scriptures this is the impression
usually implied in the term. In the 29th chapter of the prophecy of
Ezekiel the crocodile is signified by that name, as it is also by Marco
Polo in his travels ; but in Revel, c. xx. as in the more ancient books of
Scripture, a large serpent is distinctly characterised. Among the remark-
able things at Rome in the days when the strangest things were sought
out to gratify extravagant curiosity, Suetonius says that Tiberius pos-
sessed a tame dragon ; and Martial (Ep. b. vii. c. 70) makes it the play-
thing of a lady :— " Si gelidum collo nectit Glacilla Draconem." The
dragon, as a winged serpent, was in the middle ages often represented by
the skin of a skate, distorted and cut into form, by which the opinion of
?uch a monstrous shape was spread among the public. — Wern. Club.

BooKVIU.] History of Nature. 19

CHAPTER XIV.
Of very great Serpents, and those called Bo<z.L

MEGASTHENES writeth that there are Serpents in India
which grow to such a Size that they are able to swallow
Stags or Bulls whole. Metrodorus saith that about the River
Rhyndacus, in Pontus, there are Serpents which catch and
devour the Fowls of the Air as they fly over them, however
high or rapid their Flight may be. It is well known that
Regulus, Imperator during the Wars against the Cartha-
ginians, near the River Bograda assailed a Serpent with his
Military Engines, the Balistae and Tormentum, as he would
have done to a Town ; and when Subdued, the Length of the
Serpent was found to be 120 Feet. The Skin and Jaws of
this Serpent were preserved in a Temple at Rome until the
War of Numantia. And this is rendered the more credible
from the Serpents that we see in Italy that are called Boae,
which increase to such Size, that in the Days of the Prince
Dlvus Claudius there was one of them killed in the
Vatican, within the Belly of which there was found an In-
fant Child. They are nourished at the first by the Milk of
the Cow, from whence they take their Name. As for other
Animals, which of late are often brought from all Parts into
Italy, it is needless for me to describe their Forms par-
ticularly.

1 The monstrous serpents recorded by ancient authors, as Aristotle,
Virgil, Livy, Pliny, and others, were probably of the family of bose.
Pliny gives here the derivation of the name " boa," and Johnson, " Dei-
parse de Urseolo," and others observe that the name is derived not so
much from the power the animals have of swallowing oxen, as from a
strong opinion in old times of their following the herds, and sucking their
udders. Cuvier says the boae are among the largest of serpents. Some
of the species attain to thirty or forty feet in length, and become capable
of swallowing dogs, deer, and even oxen, after having crushed them in
their folds, and lubricated them with their saliva. The class of bose, as
anciently understood, has been divided by Cuvier into two, boa and
python : to which latter this author supposes that serpent to have belonged
which offered so formidable a resistance to the army of Regulus. Such
enormous serpents have long since ceased to exist in Italy. — Wern. Club.

9Q History of Nature. [ BOOK VIII.

CHAPTER XV.

Of Scythian Animals, and those that are produced in the
North Parts.

VERY few Animals are produced in Scythia, through the
Scarcity of Vegetation. Few likewise are in Germany, bor-
dering on it; but that Country possesseth some remark-
able kinds of Wild Cattle, as the Maned Bisons,1 and the
Urus, of very great Strength and Swiftness, which ignorant

1 Urus Bonasus. Much doubt has existed with regard to the
distinction between these three supposed species of oxen, which Cuvier
resolves into two, the Bos Bonasus of Linneus; Zubr, or European
Bison; and the Urus, mentioned in ancient times by Caesar. The
former animal once roamed over the woodland districts of Central
Europe, and in England was contemporary with the extinct races
of elephant and rhinoceros ; but it is now confined to the forest of
Bialowicza, in the government of Grodno, where it is carefully pro-
tected by the imperial government, whose strict enactments alone have
saved it from extirpation. In Owen's " History of British Fossil Mam-
malia," p. 491, &c. the remains of animals of this species are described
as those of the Bison Priscus; and they are found in " various newer ter-
tiary fresh -water deposits, especially in Kent and Essex, and along the
valley of the Thames." A young male and female were presented to the
Zoological Society of London, by the Emperor of Russia, in the year
1847. Aristotle calls it Bonasos, or Monassos, and describes it as living
in Pa3onia, the modern Bulgaria; but the distance to which, in terror, it
voids its excrements, is more moderately represented by him as four
fathoms ; which Pliny extends to no less than " tria jugera," or a space of
700 feet. The Urus, also a large species of wild ox, ranged the forests of
Germany and Belgium till a late period of the Roman empire, but is now
extinct. Its fossil remains, under the name of Bos Primigemus, are found
by Professor Owen in the same deposits and localities as those of the
Aurochs, or Bison. The Urus was almost equal in size to the Aurochs,
but differed from it precisely, as the Roman poets and historians have
indicated, by the greater length of its horns, and by the absence of a
copious mane. It appears to have had a nearer affinity to the domestic
ox, resembling it probably in the close nature of its hairy covering.
Cuvier, Professor Bell, and other naturalists, are disposed to believe that
our domestic cattle are the degenerate descendants of the Urus, but with
this opinion Professor Owen does not concur ; and they are more probably
to be referred to the wild cattle still preserved in the park at Shering-
ham. — Wern. Club,

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 2 1

People call Bubalus : whereas the Bubalus1 is bred in Africa,
and beareth some Resemblance to a Calf, or rather to a Stag.
The Northern Regions also bring forth Troops of Wild
Horses ;2 as in Asia and Africa there are of Wild Asses.3
Besides these there is the Alee,4 very like a Beast of Burden,
but that the Height of its Ears and Neck distinguishes it.
Also, in the Island Scandinavia, but nowhere else in the
World, though spoken of by many, there is a Beast called
Machlis, not much unlike the Alee abovenamed, but without
any Bending of the Pastern, and therefore he never lieth
down, but Sleepeth leaning against a Tree; and when that is
cut down, they are taken in the Snare, for otherwise they
are too swift to be caught. Their upper Lip is exceeding
Great, and therefore as they Feed they go backward ; for if
they passed forward, it would be folded double. There is
(they say) a Wild Beast in Paeonia, which is called Bonasus,
with a Mane like an Horse, but otherwise resembling a
Bull ; arid his Horns bend so inwardly, with their Tips
toward the Head, that they are of no Service for Fight, and
therefore he hath recourse to Flight for Safety ; and in it
throwing out his Dung at intervals to the Distance of three
Acres, the Contact of which burneth them that follow, like so
much Fire. It is a strange thing that Leopards, Panthers,
Lions and such Animals, as they go, draw the Points of their

1 Antelope bubalus.— PALLAS. The Harte-beest. — Wern. Club.

3 A race of wild horses was common to the northern and other regions
of the earth in Pliny's time, but they appear to have been derived from a
domesticated stock. Like that of most other animals, and even plants,
that have yielded to the sway of man, the original country of the horse
cannot be traced with a certainty ; but as the sacred writings inform us that
the Egyptians were the first to train him for the use of man, it is pro-
bably to the northern parts of Africa that we are to look for its native
locality.— Wern. Club.

3 The ass still exists in a state of nature in Persia, India, and in some
parts of Africa ; it is larger, stronger, and more beautiful than the same
animal in a domestic state. — Wern. Club.

4 Alee, the Elk, Cervus Alee, of Linnaeus. What is to be understood
by the Machlis appears to be doubtful. The description applies only to
the Elk ; but part of it is clearly an error.— Wern. Club.

22 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

Claws within a Sheath, that they may not be Broken, or
rendered Blunt; and that when they run the Hooks are
turned back, and are never stretched forth but when they
seize an Object.1

CHAPTER XVI.
Of Lions .2

THE Lions are then in their high Perfection vhen the
Hair of their Mane covereth the Neck and Shoulders. And
this cometh at a certain Age to them that are the Progeny
of Lions indeed ; for such as have Panthers to their Sires
never have this Ornament ;3 as also has not the Lioness.
Lionesses are very lecherous, which is the cause that there
is so much Anger in the Lions. This Africa seeth most,

1 Sir Charles Bell, " Bridgewater Treatise," p. 102, says, " The last
bone, which supports the claw, is placed laterally to the next to the last,
and is so articulated with it that an elastic ligament draws it back and
raises the sharp extremity of the claw upwards. In the ordinary running
of the animal the nearer extremity of the furthest bone presses the
ground, this and the furthest extremity of the second bone, which is also
bent down, being received on a pad, which acts as a cushion, and also adds
to the elasticity. In this condition the claw itself is received into a sheath
above ; but when the creature strikes an object, the claws are brought for-
ward, and bent under by the action of the flexor tendons acting on the
last bone, assisted by the extensors, which cause to start upward the end
of the second bone as by a spring. It is only the excitement of seizing an
object that can produce this action ; and when this does not exist, the
bones and claw fall into their ordinary almost dislocated condition." —
Wern. Club.

2 Felis Leo.— LINN.— Wern. Club.

3 Aristotle also speaks of a maneless lion, " Hist. Anim." ii. 31 ; and
modern science has confirmed the assertion of these ancient naturalists, but
of course without accrediting its monstrous birth. Olivier, " Voyage dans
1'Kmpire Othomau, 1'Egypt, et la Perse," tom.iv. says that the lion which
inhabits the part of Arabia and Persia near the river of the Arabs, from
ilie Persian Gulf to the environs of Helle and of Bagdad, is probably the
species of lion of which Aristotle and Pliny have spoken, and which they
regarded as a different species from that which is spread over the interior
of Africa. This lion much resembles the African species, excepting that
it is smaller and has no mane. la 1833 Captain Since exhibited to a
meeting of the Zoological Society of London the skins of a lion and lioness

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 23

where for want of Water the Wild Beasts meet in Troops
about the few Rivers that are found. And hence it is that
so many strangely shaped Beasts are there produced, for the
Males, either by Force or through Wantonness, mix with
the Females of various Kinds. From hence also proceeds
the common Greek Proverb, That Africa is continually
bringing forth something new.1 The Lion knoweth by Scent
of the Panther when the Lioness hath suffered his Embrace ;
and with all his might he punisheth her Adultery. And
therefore she either washeth away the Crime in a River,
or else folio weth the Lion at a great Distance. I see it is a
commonly received Opinion that the Lioness bringeth forth
Young but once, because the Whelps in her Parturition

killed by him in Guzerat. He stated that this variety was distinguished
from those previously known by the absence of a mane (that is, it is
maneless compared with other lions), from the sides of the neck and
shoulders, the middle line of the back of the neck being alone furnished
with long hairs, which are erect, like those of the same situation in the
Cheetah (Felis jubatd). The under surface of the neck has long loose
silky hairs, and there is a tuft at the angle of the anterior legs. Besides1
the absence of the extensive mane, the tail is shorter than that of ordinary
lions, and is furnished at its tip with a much larger brush or tuft. Capt.
Smee thus characterises his maneless lion : — " Felis Leo. LINN. var. Gooj-
ratensis. Mane of the male short, erect ; tuft at the apex of the tail very
large, black." See " Zool. Proc." 1833 ; also " Zool. Trans." vol. i. where
an excellent figure is given ; and " Penny Cyclopaedia," art. Lion. — Wern.
Club.

1 Many animals possess a figure so closely resembling more than one
of another kind or family, that we cannot wonder if the ancients, with
their slender knowledge of nature, thought they really were a mixed breed,
and that newly-created species were continually springing up. Thus,
according to Pliny's theory, the Camelopardalis, or Giraffe was the off-
spring of the Camel and Panther ; the Leopard, of the latter animal and
the Lion ; and the Harte-beest (Antelope bubalus) of the Antelope and
Buffalo. But modern experience has shewn the fallacy of this opinion ;
and we now know that if a hybrid be sometimes produced, there the
power of propagation ceases. There is no proof or probability that any
permanent race has risen into existence since first individual creation pro-
ceeded from the hand of its Maker ; and in a wild condition it is ques-
tionable whether even a mongrel individual has been ever produced,
although this has sometimes happened in captivity. — Wern. Club.

24 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

tear her Belly with their Claws for their exit. Aristotle
writeth otherwise: a Man whom I cannot name but with
great Honour, and whom in these matters I mean for the
most part to follow. King Alexander the Great, having an
ardent desire to know the Nature of all living Creatures,
assigned this Charge to Aristotle, a Man accomplished in all
kind of Science and Learning, and to this effect commanded
some Thousands of Men through all the Extent of Asia and
Greece to give their Attendance, including all Hunters,
Fowlers, and Fishers, that lived by those Professions. Also
all Foresters, Park-keepers, and Warreners ; all such as
had the keeping of Herds and Flocks ; of Bee- hives, Fish-
ponds, and Fowls, so that he should not be ignorant of any-
thing in any Nation.1 By his Conference with them he com-
piled almost fifty excellent Books, " De Animalibus," (of
Living Creatures). Which being collected by me in a nar-
row Room, with the addition of some Things which he never
knew, I beseech the Readers to take in good part ; and for
the Knowledge of all Nature's Works, which that most noble
of all Kings desired so earnestly, to make a short Excursion
under my care. That Philosopher reporteth that the Lioness
at her first Litter bringeth forth five Whelps, and every Year
after fewer by one ; and when she bringeth but one she be-
cometh Barren. Her Whelps at the first are without Shape
and very Small, like Lumps of Flesh, no bigger than Weasels.
When they are six Months old they can hardly go, and for
the two first they cannot move. There are also Lions in
Europe,2 but only between the Rivers Achelous and Nestus,

1 Aristotle is by far the most illustrious naturalist of antiquity, and
he will not suffer by comparison with the moderns. His great work,
written under such favourable circumstances, continues to this day, and
is remarkable for that in which other ancient writers are exceedingly
deficient, a philosophical digest of his subject.— Wern. Club.

5 Lions are at present confined to Asia and Africa, but that they were
once found in Europe there can be no doubt. Thus it is recorded by
Herodotus ("Polym." vii. 124) that the baggage camels of the army of
Xerxes were attacked by lions in the territory of Paeonia and Crestonia,
in Thracia. The same authority, as well as that of Aristotle (" Hist.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 25

and these are much Stronger than those of Africa or Syria.
Lions are of two Kinds, the one Short and Compact, with
Manes more Curled ; but these are more numerous than
those which have long and plain Hair, for the latter despise
Wounds. The Males lift up the Leg when they micturate, as
Dogs do; they have a strong Breath, and their Bodies also
Smell rank. They Drink seldom, and Eat but on alternate
Days ; and if they Feed till they are Full they abstain from
Meat for three Days. In their Feeding whatever they can
Swallow without Chewing goes down whole ; and if they find
their Belly not able to receive their Greediness, they thrust
their Claws into their Throats to drag it out again, that if
they are compelled to fly they may not go away in their Ful-
ness. That they Live very long1 is proved by this Argument,
that many of them are found Toothless. Polybius, who
accompanied (Scipio) JEmilianus, reporteth that when they
are grown Aged they will prey upon a Man, because their
Strength will not hold out to pursue Wild Beasts. Then
they lie in wait about the Cities of Africa ; and for that cause
while he was with Scipio he saw some of them Crucified,
that other Lions might be scared from doing the like Mis-
chief by fear of the same Punishment. The Lion alone of
all Wild Beasts is gentle to those that humble themselves to
him ; he spareth those that lie Prostrate ; and when he is
furious he dischargeth his Rage upon Men before he setteth
upon Women, and never preyeth upon Babes unless it be for
extreme Hunger. It is believed in Libya that they have an
Understanding of Prayers addressed to them. I have heard
as a fact of a Captive Woman of Gaetulia, who was brought
back again to her Master, that she had pacified the Violence

Anim." vi. 31 ; and viii. 33), from whom Pliny seems to have copied,
inform us that they abounded in that part of Europe which is between
the Achelous and Nessus. Nor is Europe the only part of the world
from which the lion has disappeared ; for it is no longer to be found in
Egypt, Palestine, or Syria, where it once was evidently far from uncom-
mon, as we know from the frequent allusions to it in the Holy Scriptures.
— Wern.Club.

1 Aristotle, " Hist. Anim." ix. 69.— Went. Club.

26 History of Nature. [ BOOK VIII.

of many Lions in the Woods by her Speech, having ventured
to say that she was a Woman, a banished one, Feeble, a
Suppliant to the noblest of all other living Creatures, the
Commander of all the rest, and unworthy that his Glory
should prey upon her. The Opinions concerning these things
are various, according to the Bias of each Person, or the
Occurrences that have happened to him. Whether Savage
Beasts are appeased by kind Words, the more especially
as also whether Serpents may be fetched out of their Holes1
by Song, and kept under for Punishment, is true or no, Ex-
perience hath not yet determined. The Tail2 is an Index to

1 See the account of the Psylli, book vii. chap. 2.— Wern. Club.

3 It was a common opinion among the ancients that the lion lashes his
sides with his tail to stimulate himself into rage ; hence Pliny calls the
tail the index of the lion's mind. But they do not seem to have adverted
to any peculiarity in that member, to which so extraordinary a function
might, however incorrectly, be attributed. Didymus Alexandrinus ap-
pears to have been the first person who, entertaining this fancy, noticed a
prickle at the end of the tail, in his comment on the twentieth book of the
Iliad, where the lion's rage is mentioned, —

" Such the lion's rage,

*****

Lash'd by his tail his heaving sides resound ;
He calls up all his rage."

" The lion," he says, " has a black prickle on his tail, like a horn ; when
punctured with which he is still more irritated by the pain." This
prickle was by many long looked upon as a mere fiction, till the matter
was put beyond a doubt, some years since, by Professor Blumenbach,
who upon dissection discovered on the very tip of the tail of a lioness a
small dark-coloured spine, as hard as a piece of horn, and surrounded at
its base with an annular fold of skin. It is, however, only occasionally
found ; nor is it confined to the lion, for it has been discovered in the
Asiatic leopard. Mr. Wood (" Zool. Proc." 1832) remarks that it is dif-
ficult to conjecture the use of these prickles, their application as a stimulus
to anger being of course out of the question ; but he observes that it could
not be very important, for, to say nothing of their small size and envelope-
ment in the fur, the majority of individuals, in consequence of the readi-
ness with which the part is detached, are deprived of it for the remainder
of their lives. The writer of this note has had an opportunity of seeing
and feeling the prickle in the tail of a lion's cub, which was whelped in
Womb well's menagerie. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 27

the Mind of Lions, as in Horses their Ears, for these Marks
Nature hath given to the most noble Beast ; and when the
Lion stirreth not his Tail he is quiet and gentle, as if he were
willing to be played with; but he is seldom so, for he is more
frequently angry. In the Beginning of his Anger he beateth
the Ground, when it increaseth he beateth his Sides and
Back as if to whip himself with something that would stir
up his Fury. His main Strength lieth in his Breast ; from
every Wound, whether made by his Claw or Tooth, the
Blood that floweth is Black. When their Belly is full they
become harmless. His Magnanimity is chiefly shewn in
Dangers ; not only in that he despiseth the Darts, but also
that he defendeth himself by his Terror only, and as if bear-
ing witness that he is forced to his own Defence, he riseth up
in Fury, not as at last compelled by the Peril, but as made
angry by their Folly. But this more noble Display of Courage
is shewn in that, however great may be the Strength of
Hounds and Hunters, while in the open Plains and where
he may be seen, he retireth only by degrees and with Scorn ;
but when he hath got among the Thickets and Woods then
he hurrieth away, as if the Place concealed his Shame.
When he followeth he leapeth with a Bound, which he never
useth to do in Flight. If wounded he hath a remarkable
Quickness of Observation to discern the Person who smote
him, and amidst a Multitude he runneth upon him only. As
for the Man who hath thrown a Dart at him without wound-
ing him, he striketh him down, and seizeth and shaketh him,
but doth not wound him. When the Female fighteth for her
Whelps, it is said that she fixeth her Gaze upon the Ground,
that she may not be affrighted at the Sight of the hunting
Weapons. For the rest, they are destitute of Craft and Sus-
picion ; they never look aslant, and they love not to be
looked at in that manner. It is believed that when they are
dying they bite the Earth, and in their Death shed Tears.
This Animal, so fierce as he is, is made afraid with the
running round of Cart-wheels, or empty Chariots; he is ter-
rified with the Cock's Comb, and much more with his Crow-
ing, but most of all with the Sight of Fire. The Lion is

28 History of Nature. [BooK V11I.

never Sick but of Loathing ; and then the way to cure him
is to tie to him She Apes, which with their wanton mocking
drive him to Madness, and then when he hath tasted their
Blood it acts as a Remedy. Q. Sccevola, the Son of Publius,
was the first at Rome that, in his Curule .ZEdileship, exhibited
a Fight of many Lions together; but L. Sylla, who after-
wards was Dictator, was the first of all that in his Praetor-
ship exhibited an hundred maned Lions. After him Pompey
the Great shewed 600 of them in the Circus, and among
them were 315 with Manes. Ccesar> the Dictator, exhibited
400. The taking of them formerly was a hard piece of
Work, and was commonly in Pit-falls ; but in the Reign of
Claudius a Shepherd of Gsetulia taught the manner of catch-
ing them, a thing to be regarded as almost unbeseeming the
Name of such a Beast. This Gaetulian, when a Lion violently
assailed him, threw his Military Cloak over his Eyes. This
remarkable thing was soon after practised in the Arena ; so
that a Man would hardly have believed that so much Fierce-
ness should so easily be rendered inert by this slight covering
thrown on the Head, the Creature making no resistance, but
suffering himself to be bound fast, as if all his Vigour rested
in his Eyes. The less therefore is it to be wondered at that
Lysimachus strangled a Lion,1 when by Command of Alex-
ander he was shut up alone together with him. The first
who subdued them to the Yoke at Rome, and joined them to
his Chariot, was M. Antony. And truly it was in the Civil
War, when the Battle was still in Contest in the Plains of
Pharsalia : not without some foretoken of the times, which
by that Prodigy gave them to understand that Men of a
high Spirit should come under the Yoke of Subjection ; for
that Antony was carried in this manner, with the Comic

1 Plutarch, in the " Life of Demetrius," informs us that " Demetrius
having sent ambassadors to Lysimachus on some occasion or other, that
prince amused himself one day with shewing them the deep wounds he
had received from a lion's claws in his arms and thighs, and gave them an
account of his being shut up with that wild beast by Alexander the
Great, and of the battle he had with it." Pausanias, Seneca, and Justin,
mention this story ; but Q. Curtius doubts the truth of it.—Wern. Clul.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 29

Actress Cytheris, was beyond the monstrous Spectacles of
even those calamitous times. It is reported that Hanno,
one of the noblest of the Carthaginians, was the first Man
that ventured to manage a Lion with his Hand, and to shew
him as being rendered Submissive. But he was condemned
on account of this very Circumstance, for it appeared to them
that a Man of such artful Ingenuity would be able to per-
suade to anything ; and that it was dangerous to trust their
Liberty to him, to whom even Fierceness itself had so re-
markably yielded. But there are also casual Examples of
their Clemency. Mentor, the Syracusan, met with a Lion
in Syria, which after an humble manner rolled himself in
the Way before him ; and being astonished with Fear, when
he sought to escape in every way the Wild Beast placed him-
self across his Path, and licked his Footsteps in a flattering
manner. Mentor then observed that the Lion had a Swelling
and Wound in his Foot, whereupon he gently plucked out
the Splinters of Wood, and so eased the Beast of his Pain.1
This Fact is for a Memorial represented in a Picture at Syra-
cuse. In a similar Manner Elpis, a Samian by Nation, being
conveyed to Africa in a Ship, and having discovered near the
Shore a Lion having a threatening Gape, he fled quickly to a
Tree, and called upon Father Liber; for then is the principal
Time for Prayer, when we see no other Hope. But the Lion
stopped him not in his Flight, although it was in his Power;
and laying himself down close to the Tree, with that open
Mouth with which he had terrified the Man, he sought his
Compassion. Now the Beast having lately fed greedily, had
gotten a Bone stuck fast within his Teeth, which put him to
great Pain ; also, he was almost famished ; and he looked
up pitifully, shewing how he was punished with those very
Weapons of his, and, as if with dumb Prayers, besought his
Help. Eipis, on the other Hand, not being very forward to
commit himself to the Wild Beast, stayed the longer, while
he considered rather this miraculous Accident than other-

1 The reader will here be reminded of the well-known story of An-
drocles, or Androdus, and the lion, told by Aulus Gellius and JElian. —
Wern. Club.

30 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

wise greatly feared. At the last he came down from the
Tree and plucked out the Bone, while the Lion held his
Mouth open, and composed himself to his Conveniency : in
recompense of which Service, it is said, that so long as this
Ship lay on that Coast, the Lion furnished him with a good
Quantity of Food by Hunting. And on this account Elpis
dedicated a Temple in Samos to Liber Pater; which from
this Circumstance the Greeks called jt.s^v6rog A/ovutfou (of
Gaping Dionysius}.'1 Can we feel surprised after this, that
Wild Beasts should know the Footsteps of Men,2 when even
they have recourse to him alone for Hope of Succour? And
why did they not go to other Creatures? or who taught
them that the Hand of Man was ahle to cure them ? unless
this be the Reason, that perhaps the Power of many Evils
forceth even savage Beasts to seek out all means of Help.

CHAPTER XVII.
Of Panthers.

DEMETRIUS the Natural Philosopher also maketh
mention of as memorable a Case as the former, concerning a
Panther; which was desirous to meet with a Man, and
therefore lay in the Middle of an Highway, and suddenly
appeared to the Father of a certain Philinus, a Student of
Philosophy. The Man, through Fear, began to go back
again, but the Wild Beast kept rolling itself about him, very
plainly fawning upon him, and tossing itself so piteously,

1 Holland has chosen to add, " or ^ar^os vuov AIOVVO-OV, the Chapel of
Dionysius the Saviour ;" not because there are such words in the text,
but because Gesner, whose edition of Pliny he appears to have used, not
understanding the purport of Pliny's words, has proposed to substitute
the latter, which he supposed to be a more intelligible reading. But in
no MS. of Pliny is any support afforded to this criticism of Gesner ; and
the conclusion of ch. xlviii. b. 7, of ^Elian, is a sufficient proof of the accu-
racy of the present text, — as the story there given is an explanation of its
meaning. — Wern. Club.

2 Pliny had before remarked (Book viii. chap. 5), that the elephant
could recognise the footstep of a man.— Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 31

that its Grief might be seen even in a Panther. She had but
lately produced Young, and her Whelps were fallen into a
Pit at a Distance off. The first Point of Pity that the Man
shewed was not to be afraid ; and the next, to direct his
Regard to her ; and so following her in the Way whither she
drew him by his Garment, which she gently held with her
Claws, as he understood the Occasion of her Sorrow, and the
Reward of his Courtesy, he drew forth her little ones ; which
done, she and her Whelps, leaping for Joy, accompanied him,
and directed him all the Way to beyond the Wilderness.
So that it easily could be discerned that she was thankful
to him, and that they mutually acknowledged each other:
a rare Example to be found even amongst Men. This Story
gives great Credit to that which Democritus reporteth : That
Thoas, in Arcadia, was preserved by a Dragon. This Thoas,
when a Child, had loved this Dragon exceedingly well, and
nourished him ; but being in some dread of the Serpent's
Nature, and fearing his Magnitude, he had carried him into
the Deserts ; wherein being environed by the Stratagems of
Thieves, when he cried out, the Dragon, knowing his voice,
came forth and rescued him. As for the Things reported
concerning Infants cast forth to perish, and sustained by the
Milk of Wild Beasts, like Romulus and Remus, our Founders,
by a She-Wolf, in my Opinion they are to be attributed more
to the Greatness of their Destinies than to the Nature of those
Wild Beasts. Panthers and Tigers are almost the only Beasts
seen with a Variety of Spots ; for other Beasts have each one
a proper Colour of their own, according to their Kind. A
black Kind of Lion is found in Syria only. The Ground of
the Panther's Skin is White,1 with little black Spots like

1 There seems much uncertainty and confusion in Pliny's description
of the Panther and Leopard, which, probably, he means by the terms
Panthera and Pardvs ; indeed, modern naturalists are not at all agreed as
to the best mode of distinguishing these animals. Cuvier considers the
v vK$K*.ts of the ancients to be the modern Panther (Felis Pardus. — LINN.).
He does not notice the Panther, o vnvfa* of Aristotle, " Hist. Anim." vi. 35 ;
and, indeed, this animal is supposed by many not to be of the leopard
kind. — Wcrn. Club.

32 History of Nature. [Boox VII t.

Eyes. It is said that all Quadrupeds are wonderfully enticed
by the Smell of Panthers ; but their Sternness of Counte-
nance carrieth Terror with it, and therefore they hide their
Heads, and when they have attracted other Beasts within
reach by their sweet Smell, they fly upon and seize them.
Some report that they have a Mark on their Shoulder resem-
bling the Moon, growing to the full and decreasing into
Horns as she doth. In all this Race of Wild Beasts, now they
call the Males Varise and Pardi ; and there is great Abun-
dance of them in Africa and Syria. Some distinguish be-
tween Leopards and Panthers, by the Panthers being white ;
and as yet I know no other Difference between them. There
was an old Act of the Senate, forbidding that any Panthers
of Africa should be brought into Italy. Against this Edict,
Cn. Aufidius, a Tribune of the People, produced a Bill to the
People, which permitted, that for the sake of the Circensian
Games, they might be brought over. Scaurus was the first
who in his ^Edileship exhibited of different Sorts 150(Variae)
in all. After him, Pompey the Great brought out 410 ; Divus
Augustus, 420; who also in the Year that Q. Tubero and
Fabius Maximus were Consuls, on the fourth Day before the
Nones of May, at the Dedication of the Theatre ofMarcellus,
was the first of all those that shewed at Rome a tame Tiger
in a Cage ; but .Divus Claudius shewed four at once.

CHAPTER XVIII.

Of the Nature of the Tiger : of Camels, of the Camelopard,
and when it was first seen at Rome.

TIGERS are produced in Hyrcania1 and India. This
Animal is dreadful for Swiftness, and most of all this is seen
when it is taken : for her Litter, of which there is always a

1 Fells Tigris. — LINN. The Royal Tiger. Some have supposed that
this species was but little known to the ancients ; but we think with no
sufficient grounds. The numerous passages in which the word tigris
occurs in Greek and Latin authors, leave little room for doubting their
knowledge of the animal ; and Hyrcania, with which it is so frequently
associated by the latter, is a locality well suited to what we know of its

BOOK VIII.]

History of Nature.

33

great Number, by one that lieth in wait, is snatched away
upon a very swift Horse ; and they are shifted at Intervals
from one fresh Horse to another. But when the Tigress finds
her Den empty (for the male Tiger hath no Care of the Young),
she runneth headlong after her young Ones, following the
Tracks by their Scent. The Man who hath seized them,
perceiving the Tigress approaching by the Noise she maketh,
throws down one of her Whelps; up she taketh it in her

From the Pavement of the Temple of Fortune at Palestrina. Montf. torn. iv. pi. 60.

Mouth, and back she runneth towards her Den, the swifter
for the Burden that she carryeth ; and presently again she
followeth the Pursuit, and so forward and back until they
are embarked in the Boat, and then she rageth with Fury on
the Shore.

Camels are pastured in the East among other Cattle.
There are two Kinds of them, the Bactrian and the Arabian ;
which differ in that the Bactrian Camels have two Hunches
on their Backs,1 and the other only one ;2 but they have an-

geographical distribution. See the article Tigers, in the " Penny Cyclo-
paedia," where the subject is fully treated, and numerous passages from
the Classics adduced in proof of the acquaiutance of the ancients with this
animal.— Wern. Club.

1 Camelus Bactrianus. — LINN. — Wern. Club.

3 Camelus Dromedarius. — LINN. The Arabian Camel. — Wern. Club.

VOL. III. D

34 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

other on their Breast, whereon they rest when they lie down.
Both sorts are without the upper Row of Teeth, like Oxen.
In those Countries they all serve to carry Burdens like
labouring Horses ; and they are even rode like Horses in
Battles. Their Swiftness is comparable to that of Horses ;
but they differ one from another in this, as they do also in
Strength. The Camel in his Travelling will not go further
than his ordinary Journey, neither will he carry more than
his accustomed Load. Naturally they hate Horses.1 They
can sustain Thirst for four Days together; and when they
find Occasion to drink, they fill themselves full enough to
serve both for the Past and Future ; but before they drink,
they trample with their Feet to trouble the Water, for other-
wise they take no Pleasure in drinking. They live for fifty
Years, and some of them an hundred. These Creatures, also,
as it were, fall to be mad. Also a Method hath been disco-
vered of castrating the very Females, to make them service-
able in War ; for if the sexual Disposition be denied to them,
they become stronger.

There are two other Kinds of Beasts2 which resemble in

1 In a state of nature this appears to be the case ; while at Smyrna,
and other parts of Asia, the horse and camel are constantly seen, each
occupied in its respective labours, in friendly harmony ; this may, indeed,
be only the effect of hereditary habit, the animals having been so long
accustomed to each other; for at Pisa, where the camel has been intro-
duced not much more than two centuries, we are informed by Professor
Santi, that it is necessary to accustom the horses of the neighbourhood to
the sight of the camel, as without such precaution constant accidents
would occur. And Herodotus relates (Clio, 80), that when Cyrus met
the Lydian army, commanded by Croesus, fearing the cavalry of his
enemy, he unloaded the baggage camels, and placed soldiers upon them,
with orders to march against the enemy's cavalry ; this he did, as Hero-
dotus says, because " the horse has a dread of the camel, and cannot bear
either to see the form, or to smell the scent of him." And the stratagem
of Cyrus succeeded, for the horses no sooner saw and smelt the camels,
than they turned back, and the hopes of Croesus were destroyed.— Wern.
Club.

2 Pliny, in the original, implies that there are two other kinds of

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 35

some sort the Camel : one of them is called by the Ethiopians,
the Nabis ; with a Neck like a Horse, and the Leg and Foot
like the Ox ; the Head resembles that of a Camel, and it is
marked with white Spots upon a red Ground, from which it
taketh the Name of Camelopardalis ; 1 and the first Time it
was seen at Rome was in the Games of the Circus given by
Ccesar the Dictator; since which Time it is sometimes seen,
being more remarkable for the Sight than for any wild Nature
that it hath ; on which Account some have given it the Name
of the Wild Sheep.

CHAPTER XIX.
Of the Chaus and Cephus.

THE Chaus,2 which the Gauls called Rhaphius, having
the Shape of a Wolf with Leopard's Spots, was shewed first
in the Plays exhibited by Pompey the Great. He also brought
out of Ethiopia the Animals named Cephi,3 whose fore Feet

animal which resembles the camel in name, that is, the camelopardalis,
and the struthiocamelus, or ostrich. — Wern. Club.

1 The giraffe was certainly well known to the ancients long before
the time of Julius Ca3sar, when, as Pliny says, it first appeared in Italy.
It occurs, though rarely, in the Egyptian hieroglyphics, and is mentioned
by Agatharchidas, a Greek writer, who flourished about 150 B.C. In his
description of the animal, Pliny appears to have taken the darker parts of
the skin as forming the ground colour, which is relieved by the lighter
tints. — Wern. Club.

3 Felts Lynx. — LINN. The European Lynx. — This animal is again
mentioned, Lib. viii. c. 22, where it is called the Lupus Cervarius, or
Stag- Wolf ; and Dr. Fischer supposes it also to be the lynx mentioned,
Lib. xi. ch. 46. It is probable that Pliny has confounded together this
and the Marsh- Lynx, FeUs Chaus, CUVIER. — Wern. Club.

3 Cercopithecus Ruber, of Authors. The Patas, or Nismas. — ^Elian,
" Hist. Anim." xvii. 8, on the authority of Pythagoras, describes the
Cephi as inhabiting the country bordering on the Red Sea. They are
vsaid to have been called xJJwa/, that is, gardens, from the various colours
for which they are distinguished. The Patas being one of the most beau-
tiful of the monkey tribe, the author of the volume on monkeys in the

36 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

were like Men's Hands, and the hind Feet and Legs re-
sembled those of a Man. This Creature was never seen
afterwards at Rome.

CHAPTER XX.
Of the Rhinoceros.1

IN the same Plays of Pompey, and many Times beside
was shewed a Rhinoceros, with a single Horn on his Snout.
This is a second begotten Enemy to the Elephant.2 He fileth
this Horn against hard Stones, and so prepareth himself to
fight ; and in his Conflict he aimeth principally at the Belly,
which he knoweth to be the tenderest Part. He is full as
long as his enemy ; his Legs much shorter ; his Colour a
palish Yellow.

" Library of Entertaining Knowledge," thinks there is no doubt of its
being the Cephus here mentioned. " It is seldom, indeed," he says, " that
we are able to identify an animal so satisfactorily with the ancient descrip-
tion." The Cephus of Pliny must not be confounded with the Cebus of
Aristotle, which is the Papis Gelada. — Wern. Club.

1 Rhinoceros Indicus. — Cuv. The Indian Rhinoceros. It has been
asserted by Bruce and Salt that the Indian or one-horned Rhinoceros
has never been found in Africa ; from whence, since it was led in the
triumph of Pompey, it was implied that this animal was brought. But
in confirmation of the above inference, Dio Cassius states, though indi-
rectly, that Augustus, in the celebration of his triumph over Cleopatra,
gave a one-horned rhinoceros to be slain in the circus. And Strabo de-
scribes another which he saw at Alexandria ; while Burckhardt says ex-
pressly, that it is the one-horned rhinoceros that is found in the country
above Sennaar. — Wern. Club.

9 The first is the Dragon, mentioned Lib. viii. c. 12. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII.]

History of Nature.

CHAPTER XXI.

Of Lynxes and Sphinges; ofCro-
cutce, CercopitheccBj Indian
Oxen, JLeucrocutce, Eale ;
Ethiopian Bulls, the Manti-
chora, Monoceros, Catoblepa,
the Basilisca.

LYNXES are common;1 and
so are Sphinges:2 with brown-
ish Hair, and two Breasts on
their Chests (pectus). Ethiopia
produceth them, and many other
similar monstrous Beasts, as
Horses with Wings, and armed
with Horns, which they call
Pegasi.3 Also Crocutse,4 which appear as if begotten between

T. Q. Couch. From Montf. torn. iii. pi. 17

1 Felis Caracal. — LINN. The Caracal. — Bennet (" Tower Menage-
ries,") thinks that the Caracal is unquestionably identical with the lynx
of the ancients, though the name has been usurped in modern times for
an animal of northern origin, utterly unknown to the Greeks, and known
to the Romans by a totally different appellation. But although it is
generally agreed that the Caracal is the lynx of the ancients, it is to be
observed that they use the term to denote various animals; and particu-
larly in the case of the animal accorded to Bacchus as one of his attri-
butes, they seem to have had no precise idea respecting it. The terms,
Lynx, Panther, and Tiger, seem to be all employed to designate this
animal, or these animals. — Wern. Club.

3 The term " Sphinx," which Dr. Holland translated " Marmozet,"
was undoubtedly used to designate some species of Simia, but what sort
it does not seem possible to determine. — Wern. Club.

3 Pliny has, on more than one occasion, manifested an inclination to
regard as real the fabulous creations of the heathen mythology. But
modern inquiry has failed to discover either the Pegasus, the Syren, or
the Mantichora, — the latter, an imaginary monster, mentioned also by
Aristotle ("Hist. Anim." Book ii. ch. 11); by Pausanias (Lib. ix.); by
vElian (c. iv. 21), and by Ctesias, " Apud Photium."— Wern. Club.

4 Canis Hycena. — LINN. The Striped Hyaena. — The most monstrous
fables were rife among the ancients respecting this animal. It would be a
waste of time and space to enumerate all the wonderful powers that were

38

History of Nature.

[Bdoic VIII,

a Dog arid a Wolf; they crush every Thing with their
Teeth ; and a Thing is no sooner devoured but presently it is
passed through the Body ; and Cercopithecse,1 with black
Heads, and Hair like Asses, differing from other (Apes) in
their Voice : also Indian Oxen with
one Horn,2 arid others with three.
Also the Leucrocutse,3 a very swift
Beast, almost as big as an Ass, with
Legs like a Deer ; with a Neck,
Tail, and Breast of
a Lion, the Head of

a Badger, with a clo-
ven Foot ; the Gape
of his Mouth reach-
ing to his Ears ; and
instead of Teeth, an
entire Bone. They
report that this Beast
They have among them, also,

From the Pavement of the Temple of Fortune at Palestrina.
Montf. torn. iv. pi. 60.

imitateth the human Voice.

attributed to it ; but among other accomplishments it was said to imitate
the language of men, in order to draw to it shepherds, whom it devoured
at leisure, and to have the power of charming dogs, so that they became
dumb ; and the early modern naturalists repeat the fables of the ancients.
See ch. 30, and ^Elian, Book i. ch. 25 ; Book vi. ch. 14; Book vii. ch. 22.
—Wern. Club.

1 Cercopithecus Griseus. — F. Cuv. The Grey Guenon. — It has been
usual to consider the term " Cercopithecus," as employed generically by
the ancients. The Greeks and Romans, however, were acquainted with
only two species of Cercopithecus, viz., that here alluded to, and the Cepus
(Cercopithecus Ruber). It is, therefore, highly improbable that they
should have had a generic term for these two animals, and we therefore
consider it most likely that Pliny here referred to the present species.
See " Natural History of Monkeys," in " Library of Entertaining Know-
ledge."— Wern. Club.

2 The reader is referred to the note on the Oryx, Lib. xi. c. 46 ; and
also to Vol. i. p. 75, note. — Wern. Club.

3 The best editions of Pliny have Leucocrota, and the animal intended
was probably a species of antelope. Leocrocota would imply a fabulous
monster deriving its origin from the Hyaena and the Lioness. See
chap. 30. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII,] History of Nature. 39

another Beast, named Bale,1 of the size of the River-Horse,
with the Tail of the Elephant, the Colour either black
or tawny (fulvus) ; his Jaws resemble those of a Boar ;
he hath Horns above a Cubit long, which he can fix on either
Side in Fight, or alter them in a formidable Manner obliquely,
as he sees occasion. But the most cruel are the Wild Bulls
of the Forest,2 which are greater than the field Bulls ; swifter
than all the others ; of a tawny Colour, the Eyes bluish,
their Hair reversed, the Gape of their Mouth reaching to
their Ears ; their Horns, near them, movable ;3 their Hide as
hard as a Flint, resisting every Wound ; all other Wild Beasts
they hunt, but these cannot be taken except in Pit-falls; and
in this Fierceness they die. Ctesias writeth, that there is a
Beast which he calleth Mantichora,4 having three Rows of
Teeth, which meet together like the Teeth of a Comb ; with
the Face and Ears of a Man ; blue Eyes ; the Colour like
Blood, the Body like a Lion> and having a Tail armed with
a Sting like a Scorpion ; his Voice resembleth the Sound of
a Flute and Trumpet {Fistula et Tuba) sounded together ;
very swift, and before all others he desireth Man's Flesh.
In India there are also Oxen with solid Hoofs and a single

1 Pliny appears to be the only author, with the exception of his
copyist, Solinus, who has described the animal which he here calls Bale ;
it is impossible to conjecture what he meant. — Wern. Club.

1 Bos Bubalus. — LINN. The Buffalo. — According to the accounts of
travellers the Buffalo still exists in a wild condition in many parts of
Africa, more particularly in Abyssinia, — the Ethiopia of the ancients. —
Wern. Club.

3 This seems to be Pliny's representation of the condition of the Eale,
and also the wild bull. Julian says, that the Erythraean oxen have horns
as moveable as their ears. Book iii. ch. 34. — Wern. Club.

4 ^Elian, Book iv. c. 21, under the name of Mantichora, gives a some-
what lengthened description of this animal, from Ctesias, who pretended
to have seen it. The latter author, who is also the only authority for
some other very wonderful accounts of Indian animals, appears to have
been just such a traveller as our own Maundeville; honest, but highly
credulous, and trusting more to the authority of others than to his own
eyesight. What the creature was, to which this name was attached, could
only be recovered by finding the same name still in use in the East. —
Wern. Club.

40 History of Nature. [ BOOK VIII.

Horn ; also a Wild Beast named Axis,1 with its Skin like a
Fawn, but marked with more Spots, and those whiter. This
Creature is sacred to Liber Pater. The Orsians of India
hunt Apes, which are white all over the Body. But the most
furious Beast is the Monoceros:2 his Body resembleth an
Horse, his Head a Stag, his Feet an Elephant, his Tail a
Boar; the Sound he utters is deep ; there is one black Horn
in the Middle of his Forehead, projecting two Cubits in
Length : by Report, this Wild Beast cannot possibly be
caught alive. Among the Hesperian Ethiopians there is a
Fountain named Nigris, the Head (as many have thought)
of the Nilus, and good Reasons there are for it, as we have
alleged before.3 Near this Spring there is found a Wild Beast
called Catoblepas,4 of small Size otherwise, and heavy in all
his other Limbs ; but his Head is so great that his Body is
hardly able to bear it ; it is always carried downwards to-
ward the Earth, for otherwise he would destroy all Man-
kind : for every one that looketh upon his Eyes immediately
dieth. The like Property hath the Serpent called a Basilisk,5

1 Cervus Axis, of Authors. The Spotted Axis Deer. This beautiful
animal is found in India, and the larger islands of the Indian Archipelago.
—Wern. Club.

3 If credit is given to the ancient writers on natural history, nothing
can be more clear than that there once existed a creature which answered
to the modern idea of what is termed the Unicorn, and is represented as
one of the supporters of the royal arms of Britain. JElian, book xvi.
ch. 20, describes it under the name of Cartazonos, as inhabiting a limited
district in the interior of India ; where, however, modern research has
failed to discover it. For a long time the tooth of the Narwahl was sup-
posed to be the horn that projected from between the eyes of the Uni-
corn ; although it did not exactly answer to the description, being white
instead of black. See note on the Oryx, Book xi. ch. 46 ; and Vol. i.
p. 75 ; Book ii. note. — Wern. Club.

3 Lib. v. c. 9. — Wern. Club.

4 Antelope Gnu. — GMELIN. The Gnu. — This animal, which inhabits
the plains of South Africa, is generally supposed to be the Katoblepas of
the ancients. — JEi,iAN, Book vii. ch. 5. — Wern. Club.

5 This fabulous creature is often referred to by ancient authors, and
also by some comparatively modern ; by the latter of whom even its eyes
were supposed to convey poison. Thus, Shakspeare makes the Lady

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 41

which is produced in the Province of Cyrenaica, and is not
above twelve Fingers' Breadth long ; with a white Spot on
the Head, as if distinguished with a Diadem : with his Hiss
he driveth away other Serpents ; he rnoveth not his Body
forward by multiplied Windings like other Serpents, but he
goeth with Half his Body upright and aloft from the Ground;
he killeth all Shrubs not only that he toucheth, but that he
breatheth upon ; he burns up Herbs, and breaketh the Stones;
so great is his Power for Mischief! It is received for a Truth,
that one of them being killed with a Larice by a Man on

Ann say, in answer to Richard's observation on her eyes : " Would they
were basilisk's, to strike thee dead ! " Its touch was also said to cause the
flesh to fall from the bones of the animal with which it came in contact.
The Basilisk was a wingless dragon, and derived its name from bearing on
its head the figure of a crown. The Egyptians believed it was produced
from the egg of the ibis, and some, more modern, from the egg of the
common cock ; and, strange as it may appear, the latter supposition may
explain much of the superstition regarding it. It is now known that,
from some change in the structure and action of the ovary, a hen some-
times assumes the plumage of a cock ; as is the case also with other galli-
naceous fowls, and even the duck. The final result is barrenness ; but
previous to this an egg may be produced, that is unnatural in its size and
contents ; and such a one is figured by Aldrovandus, and copied from
him by Ruysch (Table of Serpents, X.). Such an egg resembles the
produce of some serpents, and the latter might be easily mistaken for the
former. The egg of a snake may be often found on a dung-heap, over
which a fowl may roost ; and an individual who had seen an egg from
such a transformed fowl, might mistake a snake's egg for it, and watch it
to its hatching. Hens also sometimes lay soft eggs (without a shell), and
when they do so, as wanting the firmness natural to it, the egg escapes
from them when on the perch, without the consciousness of laying. The
Editor has known such eggs to fall on the dungheap below ; and when
so, it would not be easy to distinguish them from those laid by snakes in
the same place. An egg so laid produces nothing living ; but the uncer-
tainty attending it, especially if laid by a hen in a condition of trans-
formed plumage, in the same place with those deposited by a snake, would
be a sufficient foundation for all the superstition attending it. The eggs
of the Basilisk, and their liability to be mistaken for those which were
wholesome, are referred to by the prophet Isaiah, lix. 5. Ruysch
thinks that the cobra da capella, or hooded snake, is one of the ser-
pents that have been called the Basilisk, or the royal serpent. — Wern.
Club.

42

History of Nature.

[BOOK VIII.

Horseback, the Poison was so strong that it passed along
the Staff, and destroyed both Horse and Man ; and yet a
Weasel hath a deadly Power to kill even such a Monster as
this (for Kings have been desirous to see the Manner how he

is killed). So Nature hath de-
lighted to match every Thing in
the World with its equal ! They
cast these Weasels into their Holes,
which it is easy to know by the
Poison alone. They destroy them
at the same Time with their strong
Smell, but they die themselves ;
and so the Combat of Nature is

Basilisk. Montfaufon, torn. iii. pi. 60. finish ed .

CHAPTER XXII.
Of Wolves.1

IT is also commonly believed in Italy that the Eye-sight
of Wolves is hurtful ;2 so that if they look on a Man before he
see them, they cause him to lose his Voice for the time.
Those which are produced in Africa and Egypt are small,
and without Spirit; but in colder Climates they are more
Fierce and Cruel. That Men are transformed into Wolves,
and restored again to their former Shapes, we must confi-
dently believe to be False, or else give credit to all those
Tales which we have for so many ages found to be mere
Fables. But whence this Opinion came to be so firmly
settled, that when we would give Men the most opprobrious
Words, we term them Versipelles, or Turn-coats, I will shew.
Euanthes, a not contemptible Writer among the Greeks, re-
porteth having found among the Records of the Arcadians

1 Canis Lupus.— LINN. The Wolf.— Wern. Club.

2 So Virgil, Eel. ix.—

" His very voice the hapless Moeris lost ;
His path some wolf's first darted glance hast crost."— Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 43

that there was a certain Race of the Antaei, out of which one
must be chosen by Lot, to be conveyed to a Pool in the
Country ; and when all his Clothes are taken off and hung
upon an Oak, he swimmeth across the Lake, and goeth
away into the Wilderness to be turned into a Wolf, and so to
keep company with others of that Kind for the space of nine
Years ; during which time, if he forbear to eat Man's Flesh,
he returneth again to the same Pool, and having swam back
over it, he receiveth his former Shape, except that he shall
look nine Years older than before. Fabius addeth one thing
more, that he findeth again the same Garment. It is won-
derful to what extent Grecian Credulity can proceed ; so that
there is not so impudent a Lie but it findeth some one to
bear Witness to it. And therefore Agriopas, who wrote the
Olympionicse, telleth of one Dcemcenetus Parrhasius, who at a
Sacrifice of a Human Being, which the Arcadians celebrated
to Jupiter Lyccens, tasted of the Inwards of a Boy, and was
turned into a Wolf; and the same Man ten Years after was
changed to a Man again, became a Wrestler, contended in
Boxing, and went away home again with Victory from
Olympia. Besides, it is commonly believed that in the
Tail of this Animal there is a little Hair that is effectual to
procure Love ; and that when he is taken he casteth it away,
because it is of no Force unless it is taken from him while
he is Alive. He goeth to rut in the whole Year no more
than twelve Days. When he is very hungry he devoureth
Earth. Among Auguries, if a Wolf, in going about, turn to
their Right Hand, with the Interruption of his Journey, it is
good ; but if his Mouth be full when he doth so, there is
not a better Sign in the World. There are some of this
Kind that are called Stag- Wolves,1 such as we have said
that Pompey shewed in the Circus, brought out of Gallia.
This Animal, they say, however hungry he may be when
he is eating, if he chance to look backward, forgetteth his
Meat, and wandereth away to seek for some other Prey.

1 Lib. viii. c, 19.— Wern. Club.

44 History of Nature. [BOOK VIII.

CHAPTER XXIII.
Of Serpents.

As regards Serpents, it is commonly observed that for
the most part they are of the Colour of the Earth in which
they lie hidden : and a very great number of Sorts there
are of them. The Cerastes1 hath standing out on the
Body some small Horns, which are often four Double ;
by moving which, while the rest of the Body is hidden,
she enticeth the Birds into her Power.

The Amphisbsena hath two Heads,2 that is to say, one at
the Head and another at the Tail, as if it were little to cast
out her Poison at one Mouth only. Some have Scales,
others are painted ; but all have deadly Venom. The
Jaculus darteth itself from the Boughs of Trees : so that
we are not only to guard against Serpents with our Feet,
but also to look to them that fly as a Dart from an Engine.
The Aspides swell about the Neck3 (when they purpose to
sting); and there is no Remedy for the Bite unless the
Parts that are wounded are cut off immediately. This
destructive Creature hath one Point yet of Understanding,

1 Vipera (Cerastes") caudalis. — SMITH. Near the middle of each of
the arched eyebrows of this venomous snake there is a slender, pointed,
slightly recurved spine, about a line, or a line and a quarter in length.
This in part answering the description of Pliny, renders it not improbable
that it is the reptile intended by our author. It inhabits the dry sandy
districts of Africa. A harmless serpent much like this is mentioned by
Herodotus, book ii. as being esteemed sacred by the Egyptians. — Wern.
Club.

3 The modern genus Amphisbsena is perfectly harmless and inoffen-
sive, and confined to Brazil and other parts of South America ; it could
not, therefore, have been known to the ancients. What their Amphis-
baena was, must be left to conjecture. — Wern. Club.

3 Vipera Haje. — DAUBIN. The Asp. — The asp is often mentioned
both by Greek and Roman writers ; and from the discrepancies which are
observable in the accounts given by different authors, it seems probable
that two or three different species of poisonous serpents were known to
the ancients under this common name. From various circumstances,
however, and particularly from the description of Pliny, it is evident that

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 45

or rather of Affection : they for the most part wander abroad
in Pairs ; nor can they live without their Mate : so that if
one be killed, it is incredible how the other seeketh to be
revenged. It pursueth the Murderer; it knoweth him
again amongst a great number of People, and followeth him
closely ; it overcometh all Difficulties, goeth to any Dis-
tance, and nothing will save him unless it is stopped by some
River, or that the Individual betake himself to a hasty
Flight. I am not able to say whether Nature hath been
more free in producing such Evils, or in giving us Remedies.
For, in the first place, she hath afforded to this hurtful
Creature but a dim Pair of Eyes, and those not placed in the
fore Part of the Head, to see directly forward, but in the
Temples. And therefore these Serpents are oftener directed
by their Hearing than Sight.

CHAPTER XXIV.
Of the Ichneumon*

THERE is mortal War between the Asp and the Ichneu-
mon. This Animal is known by this Distinction especially,
that it is bred likewise in
the same Egypt. It wallows
oftentimes within the Mud,
and then dries itself again in
the Sun ; and when he hath
thus armed himself with many

* From the Pavement of the Temple of Fortune
Skins, he gOeth forth tO atPalestrma. Montf. torn. vi. pi. 60.

combat. In Fight he sets up his Tail, and turning it to
the Enemy, receiveth all the Strokes (of the Aspis) without
harm, until he spies a Time to turn his Head on one Side,
that he may catch the Aspis by the Throat. And not

the most common and celebrated is the present species. The animal mea-
sures from three to five feet in length, and is closely allied to the cobra
capello, or spectacled snake of India. It inhabits Egypt and other parts
of Africa.— Wern. Club.

1 Herpestes Pharaonis. — DESMAE. The Ichneumon. — There is no
reason to doubt this being the animal intended by Pliny.— Wern. Club.

46 History of Nature. [BOOK VI II .

contented with this, he addresseth himself to a Conflict
with another, as hurtful as the former.

CHAPTER XXV.
Of the Crocodile, Scink, and Hippopotamus.

THE Nilus is inhabited by the Crocodile,1 an ill-disposed
Creature, four-footed, as dangerous upon Land as on the
Water. This Animal alone, of all other that live on the
Land, hath no use of a Tongue. He only moveth the
upper Jaw, with which he biteth hard ; and the grasp of
his Mouth is otherwise terrible, by means of the row of his
Teeth, which close within one another as if two Combs
penetrated each other. Ordinarily he is above eighteen
Cubits in Length. The Female layeth Eggs as big as those
of a Goose, and sitteth continually upon them out of the
Water. By a certain Fore-knowledge she is aware how far
the Nile will rise that Year when it is at the highest. There
is no other Creature that from a smaller Beginning groweth
to a greater Size. He is armed with Claws, and his Skin
will resist any Injury whatever. By Day it keepeth on the
Land, but passeth the Night in the Water ; being guided by
each according to the Season. When it hath satisfied its
Appetite with Fishes, it lieth asleep on the Shore, and
always with some of the Meat in his Mouth. Then cometh
a little Bird, called there Trochilos,2 and in Italy the King of
Birds, and for the sake of her Food she instigates the Crea-
ture to gape by hopping first about its Mouth, which she
pecks and cleanses, and then the Teeth, after which she
getteth within to the Back of his Mouth, which it openeth
the wider because it taketh such great Delight in this
scouring. When the Crocodile is lulled fast asleep with

1 Crocudilus vulgaris. — CUVIER. The Crocodile. — Wern. Club.

2 This account is taken from Herodotus (Euterpe, Ixviii.) who says,
" The mouth of the crocodile is filled in the inside with leeches. All
birds and animals in general avoid him ; the trochilus is the only animal
at peace with him ; and that on account of the services he receives from
that bird ; for when the crocodile comes out of the water to land, and

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 47

this Pleasure, the Ichneumon, having discovered the Oppor-
tunity, shooteth himself down his Throat like a Dart, and
gnaweth a Hole through his Belly.1

In the Nilus there breeds also the Scincos,2 which is like
the Crocodile, but less than the Ichneumon. It is the chief
Antidote against Poisons, and also provokes the Heat of
Lust in Men.

But the Crocodile produceth so much Mischief, that
Nature is not content to have given him only one Enemy;

opens his mouth, the trochilus goes into his throat and devours the
leeches : the crocodile is pleased at being relieved, and hurts not the
trochilus." Although this statement is confirmed by Aristotle, Pliny,
and other ancient writers, it has been very generally discredited in
modern times. Recent inquiries, however, shew that in this, as in most
of his relations, the father of history is justified by the fact. The term
"bdella" has hitherto been translated " leech." But M. Geoffrey St.
Hilaire has adopted the opinion that it corresponds to "culex," that is,
" a gnat," myriads of which insects swarm on the banks of the Nile, and
attack the crocodile when he comes to repose on the sand. His mouth
is not so hermetically closed but that they can enter, which they do in
such numbers, that the interior of his palate, which is naturally of a
bright yellow, appears covered with a darkish brown crust. The insects
strike their trunks into the orifices of the glands which abound in the
mouth of the crocodile ; and the tongue of the animal being immoveable,
it cannot get rid of them. It is then that the trochilus, a kind of plover,
closely allied to the Charadrius minor of Meyer, or in the opinion of M.
St. Hilaire, C. Egyptiacus, but which Pliny, confounding with another
bird of the same name, calls " the king of birds," in its pursuit of the
gnats, hastens to his relief ; the crocodile always taking care, when he is
about to shut his mouth, to make certain movements which warn the
bird to fly away. Thus the ancient story is not so unreasonable as might
be thought. It is matter of every-day observation, that gnats will attack
bulls and other large terrestrial animals of the fiercest nature ; and that
wagtails and other insectivorous birds will peck the former from their
muzzles. While in India it is common to see the ox approaching its eye
deliberately to the ground, by holding its head on one side, to enable the
mina, a species of starling, to take an insect from the hairs of the eyelid.
There appears, therefore, no reason why the crocodile should not have
recourse to similar aid on similar necessity. — Wern. Club.

1 It can hardly be worth while to refute such a fable as this, but it
was long entertained as worthy of serious belief. — Wern. Club.

a Lib. xxviii. c. 8.— Wern. Club.

48 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

and therefore when the Dolphins pass into the River Nile,
where the Crocodiles assume to be Kings, as if the River
were their peculiar Property, and therefore drive them away
and prevent them from taking Food : seeing themselves to
be otherwise inferior to the Crocodiles in Strength, but
being armed on the Back with a Fin as Sharp as a Knife,
they manage to destroy them by Craft. For all Creatures
are herein very skilful, and know not only their own
Advantages, but also what may hurt their Enemies. They
know what offensive Weapons they have, and the fit Occa-
sions of using them ; as also the weak Parts of those opposed
to them. The Skin of the Crocodile's Belly is thin and
soft; and therefore the Dolphins,1 as if afraid of them, dive
under Water, and getting beneath until they have gotten
under his Vent, rip it up with this sharp Spine. Also,
there is a Kind of People that bear a Hatred to the Croco-
dile, and they are called Tentyrites, from an Island of the
Nile which they inhabit. These Men are of small Stature,
but when opposed against the Crocodiles, and then only, it is
wonderful to see how resolute they are. Indeed this Cro-
codile is a terrible Beast to them who fly from him ; but on
the other Hand he runneth away from such as pursue him.
Now, these People are the only Men that dare to approach
right in front of him. They will even swim into the River
after them, and mount upon their Backs,2 and sit on them

1 Lib. ix. c. 8.— Wern. Club.

2 The exploits of these Tentyrites have not been unmatched in modern
times. A ride on the back of a crocodile does not seem a very tempting
thing ; but that it has long been occasionally performed in the process of
killing these monsters is shewn by Dr. Pocock, in his " Observations on
Egypt," where he says, " They make some animal cry at a distance from
the river, and when the crocodile comes out they thrust a spear into his
body, to which a rope is tied : they then let him go into the water to
spend himself, and afterwards drawing him out, run a pole into his
mouth, and, jumping on his back, tie his jaws together."— (Vol. i. p. 203.)
Mr. Waterton, in his "Wanderings in South America," tells us he per-
formed the same extraordinary feat. His Indian assistants having
secured a monster of the Essequibo, by a baited hook fastened to a long
pole, "they pulled the cayman," as he describes (p. 231,) "within two

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 49

like Horsemen ; and as they turn up their Heads, with their
Mouth wide open to bite, they thrust a Club into it across,
and so holding with the Hands each End of it, the one with
the right and the other with the left as with a Bridle,
they bring them Prisoners to land ; and then, when they
have them there, they so frighten them with their Voice
only, that they compel them to vomit up those Bodies which
they have newly swallowed, and bury them. And therefore
this is the only Island which the Crocodiles will not swim
to ; for the very Smell of these Tentyrites drives them
away, just as the Psylli1 do with Serpents. This Animal
is said to see but badly in the Water ; but out of it they are
very quick-sighted. The four Winter Months they pass in a
Cave, and eat nothing. Some are of Opinion, that this is the
only Creature that groweth as long as he liveth ; and certainly
he liveth a long Time.

The same River Nile produceth another Beast of greater
Height, called Hippopotamus.2 He hath a cloven Foot like
an Ox ; the Back, Mane, and Neighing of an Horse ; his
Snout turning up. The Tail and hooked Teeth are like those
of Boars, but less formidable ; the Skin of his Back impene-

yards of me ; I saw he was in a state of fear and perturbation ; I instantly
dropped the mast, sprang up, and jumped on his back, turning half round
as I vaulted, so that I gained my seat with my face in a right position. I
immediately seized his fore legs, and by main force twisted them on his
back : thus they served me for a bridle." — Wern. Club.

1 Lib. vii. 2.

2 Hippopotamus Senegalensis. — DESMOULIN. The Hippopotamus. —
In this account of the Hippopotamus, Pliny seems to have followed Ari-
stotle (Lib. ii. c. 7), who in like manner copied from Herodotus (Lib. ii.
c. 71). It is probable that the two latter writers never saw the animal,
but trusted to the wild accounts of others ; and Pliny himself, although
he says, in the next chapter, that Marcus Scaurus exhibited the Hippo-

VOL. III. E

50 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

trable if made into Shields and Helmets, unless it be soaked
in some Liquor. He feedeth on the standing Corn ; and they
say that he fixeth beforehand where he will feed by Day ;
and his Footsteps are always backward, in order that against
his Return no Snare shall be laid for him.

CHAPTER XXVI.

Who first showed the Hippopotamus and Crocodiles at Rome.
Also the Medicines discovered by Animals.

MARCUS SCAURUS was the first, who, in the Games
which he displayed at Rome in his Office of Edileship, pro-
duced one Hippopotamus and four Crocodiles, swimming in
a temporary Pool.

The Hippopotamus hath taught a Practice in a certain
Part of the Art of Healing. For finding himelf overfat, by
Reason of his full Feeding so continually, he getteth to the
Shore, having spied where the Reeds have been newly cut ;
and where he seeth the sharpest. Stem he presseth down his
Body on it, and pierceth a certain Vein in his Leg, so that
by a Flow of Blood he relieves his diseased Body, and he
covereth over the Orifice again with Mud.

CHAPTER XXVII.

What Herbs certain Creatures have showed us: Deer, Lizards,
Swallows, Tortoises, the Weasel, Stork, the Boar, the
Snake, Dragon, Panther, Elephant, Bears, Doves, Pigeons,
Cranes, the Raven.

SOMETHING like this was showed us by a Bird which is
called Ibis in the same Country of Egypt. This Bird having

potamus at Rome, can hardly be supposed to have seen it, or he never
could have fallen into so great an error as to give it the mane of an
horse. It need hardly be observed, that in all probability the Romans
derived their Hippopotamus from Northern Africa ; if, therefore, there be
more than one species, the Hippopotamus Senegalensis is, in all likelihood,
the one intended. — Went. Club.
1 Lib. x. 30.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 51

a crooked Bill, useth it to squirt Water through that Part
through which it is most healthy to discharge the Burdens of
Meat. Neither have dumb Creatures directed us to these
Practices only, which might serve for use to Man. For
Deers1 first showed us the Virtue of the Herb Dictarnnus2 to
draw out Arrows. Being shot with that Dart, with feeding
on this Herb it is driven out again. The same Creatures
being also stung by the Phalangium,3 a kind of Spider, or
any of like Nature, cure themselves by eating Cray-fishes.4

There is an Herb called Calaminth,5 of remarkable Effi-
cacy against the biting of Serpents ; with the Application of
which the Lizards, when they have fought with them, cure
their Wounds.

The Swallows taught us the Usefulness «^
of Chelidonia6 for the Eyesight; for with
it they heal ttheir young Ones when their Eyes
are injured.

The Tortoise,7 by eating Cunila, which is
also called Bubula, reneweth his Powers against
Serpents. Mont/, tom. i. pi. 84.

The Weasel useth Rue8 when he purposeth to hunt for
Rats, in case he should fight with any of them.

The Stork goeth to the Herb Origanum for a Remedy;
and the Boar, when he is sick, is his own Physician, by
eating Ivy and Crabs, such especially as the Sea casteth
on Shore.

The Snake,9 by lying still all the Winter, hath a Mem-
brane growing over the Body; but with the Juice of Fennel
she throweth off that Incumbrance, and appeareth fresh and
elegant again. She beginneth to throw it off first at the
Head ; and she is so slow as to occupy a whole Day and a
Night in folding it backward, before the Inside of the Mem-

1 Lib. viii. 32. 2 Lib. xxv. 8. 3 Lib. xi. 24.

4 Lib. ix. 50, 51. 4 That is, the Condrillon. Lib. xxii. 22.

6 Lib. xxv. 8, 12. The juice of Chelidonium majus, diluted with milk,
is said to consume white opaque spots on the eyes. — Wern. Club.

7 Lib. xx. 16. 8 Lib. xx. 13. 9 Lib. xx. 23.

52 History of Nature. [BOOK VIII.

brane can be turned outward. Also, when by keeping close
all the Winter, her Sight is become dim, she rubbeth herself
with the Herb Marathrum, and also anointeth and com-
forteth her Eyes. But if the Scales be hard and insensible,
she scratcheth herself with the Prickles of the Juniper.

The Dragon,1 feeling a Loathing of Meat in the Spring,
removeth it with the Juice of the wild Lettuce.2

The Barbarians, when they hunt Panthers,3 thoroughly
rub the Flesh (which they lay as a Bait for them) with
Aconitum4 (which is Poison). The Beasts have no sooner
touched the Flesh, but immediately they are seized with
great Anguish in their Throat; on which Account some have
called this Poison Pardalianches. But the wild Beast hath a
Remedy against this in the Ordure of a Man; and at other
Times, also, so eager is he for it, that when the Shepherds
have carefully hanged it up aloft in some Vessel, so that
it is above their Power to reach it by leaping, he becomes
ready to faint with straining to get up and seize it, and in the
end thus killeth himself. And yet otherwise he is of such
enduring Vitality, that he continueth to fight when his very
Bowels are cut out.

The Elephant, if he swallow the Chameleon among the
Leaves which this Creature is like in Colour, goeth straight
to the wild Olive for a Remedy against this his Poison.

Bears, when they have tasted Mandrake Apples,5 lick
up Emmets.

The Stag uses as an Antidote against poisonous Weeds in
its Pasture, the Herb Cinara (Artichoke).6

Pigeons,7 Graculus,8 Merulse,9 purge away their yearly
Loss of Appetite with eating Bay-leaves. Partridges,10
Doves,11 Turtle-doves,12 and Poultry,13 do the like with the

I Perhaps some species of Boa. Lib. viii. 14. — Wern. Club.

8 Lib. xix. 8. 3 Lib. viii. 17. 4 Lib. xxvii. 2. 5 Lib. xxix. 6.

6 This word Cinara, here translated Artichoke, is not mentioned any
•where else by Pliny, and it is by no means certain that the artichoke is
the plant intended. — Wern. Club.

7 Lib. x. 35. 8 Lib. xi. 29. 9 Lib. x. 29. 10 Lib. x. 33.

II Lib. x. 34. Ia Lib. x. 24. I3 Lib. x. 21.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 53

Herb called Helxine.1 Ducks,2 Geese,3 and other Water-
Fowls, purge with the Herb Siderite.4 Cranes,5 and Birds
of that kind, with the Marsh-reed.6

The Raven, when he hath killed the Chameleon, and is
hurt by him, extinguished! the Venom that he is infected
with by Aid of the Bay-tree.

CHAPTER XXVIII.
Prognostications from A nimals.

THERE are a thousand Properties besides bestowed on
Beasts ; and particularly many of them are endued by the
same Nature with the Observation of the Air above, to fore-
see what Weather we shall have, what Winds, Rain, Tem-
pests ; which to search out in particular is not possible, no
more than their other Qualities, respective to the Society
with every Man. For they warn us beforehand of Dangers,
not only by their Fibres and Bowels, about which a large
Part of the World fixeth its Attention,7 but also by other
Significations. When a House is ready to tumble, the Mice
are sure to have quitted it; and the Spiders, with their Webs,
are the first to fall. Augury, indeed, hath formed itself into
an Art; and among the Romans there is a College of Priests,
instituted for the most Party early. In Thracia, where Places
are frozen, the Fox, an Animal that is otherwise sharp in his
Hearing, will not pass over any River or Pool that is frozen,
before he hath tried the Ice by his Ear ; and then he does not
venture, except when he goeth to feed, or returneth. It is
observed that he judgeth of the Thickness of the Ice by
applying his Ear to it.

1 Helxine, Lib. xxi. 16. 2 Lib. x. 38. 3 Lib. x. 22.

4 Siderite, Lib. xxv. 5. 5 Lib. x. 23.

6 Juncas Palustris, Lib. xix. 2.

7 Alluding to the art of Divination by these means ; so constantly
practised by the Ancients. — Wern. Club.

54 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

CHAPTER XXIX.

The Cities and Nations which have been utterly destroyed by
small Animals.

NOTHING is more notorious than the Fact, that much
Injury hath come from contemptible Creatures. M. Varro
writeth, That there was a Town in Spain undermined by
Rabbits ; and one in Thessaly, by the Moles. In Gallia, the
Inhabitants of one City were driven out by Frogs. In Africa,
the People were expelled by Locusts. Out of Gyaros,1 an
Island of the Cyclades, the Inhabitants were driven away by
Rats and Mice. In Italy, Amyclae was destroyed by Ser-
pents. In Ethiopia, on this Side the Cynamolgi, there is a
wide Country which lieth desert, from being dispeopled by
Scorpions and Solpugae.2 Theophrastus, also, reporteth, that
the Trerienses were forced away by Scolopendres. But let
us return to other Kinds of wild Beasts.

CHAPTER XXX.

Of the Hycena and Crocuta, and Mantichora, and Beavers,
and Otters.

THE common People believe that Hyasnas3 possess a
double Nature, and that every second Year they change
their Sex, from Males to Females, and that the latter bear
without the Male ; but Aristotle denieth it. Their Neck and
Mane is stretched out in Continuation of the Spine, and he
denies that it has the Power to bend without turning about
the whole Body. Many strange Matters besides this are
reported ; and above the rest, that he will counterfeit
Man's Speech among the Shepherds' Cottages, and will call

1 See more of this, Lib. viii. 57 ; also, Lib. x. 65.

2 Lib. xxii. 25, and Lib. xxix. 4.

3 Canis Hyama.—Lvsy. The Striped Hyama.— This seems to be the
same animal that our author in the 21st chapter has named Crocuta. See
the note there. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 55

one of them forth by Name ; and when he hath obeyed the
Call, he will tear him in Pieces. Also that he will imitate
the Vomiting of a Man, to entice the Dogs to come to him,
and then devour them. This Beast alone will dig up the
Graves in search of Bodies. The Female is seldom taken.
There are a thousand Variations in their Eyes, through the
change of Colour. Moreover, if a Dog come within his
Shadow, he becometh dumb. Again, by certain magical
Arts, if he go round about any other living Creature three
Times, it shall not have the Power to stir a Foot. The
Lioness of Ethiopia, by Copulation with this kind, brings
forth the Leocrocuta j1 which likewise knoweth how to imi-
tate the Voice both of Man and the Sheep. His Sharpness
of Sight is constant ; he hath one continuous Tooth (in
either Jaw), and no Gums. That these Bones may not be-
come blunt by continual rubbing against one another, they
are enclosed as if within a Sheath.

Juba reporteth that the Mantichora2 in Ethiopia imi-
tateth Men's Language. Many Hyaenas are produced in
Africa; which also yieldeth a Multitude of wild Asses.3
And one of the Males ruleth whole Flocks of the female
Asses. These Beasts are so jealous, that they look narrowly
to the Females great with young; and as soon as they have
foaled, they castrate the young Males. On the other Hand,
the she-Asses, when they are with young, seek hiding-
places, from a Desire to bring forth secretly; and they delight
in the Abundance of their Gratification.

The Beavers in Pontus 4 do the same as the male Asses,
by the same Parts, when Danger presses ; as knowing that
they are sought after for this ; and these Parts Physicians
call Castoreum. And otherwise, the Bite of this Creature is

1 Lib. viii. 21. 2 Lib. viii. 21.

3 Lib. viii. 15. Pliny tells us here, and again in the 44th chapter,
that the wild ass was found in Africa ; but no traveller has since met
with it. And as far as we know, the species in a wild state is confined to
Asia. It has even retired from Syria and Asia Minor, where it was
formerly found. — Wern. Club.

4 Lib. xxxii. 3.

56 History of Nature. [BOOK VIII.

terrible ; for he will bite down the Trees by the River-sides,
as if they were cut with an Axe ; and when he catcheth hold
of a Man, he never letteth loose his Bite until he have heard
the broken Bone crack. The Tail of this Creature is like a
Fish, but otherwise he resembleth the Otter.1 Both these
Animals live in the Water, and their Hair is softer than the
Down of Feathers.

CHAPTER XXXI.
Of Frogs, Sea- Calves, and Stelliones.

THE Frogs called Rubetae,2 which live both on Land and
in Moisture, yield many Medicines. It is said that they lay
aside these Medicines, reserving only to themselves the Poi-
son ; and when they have taken their Food, they resume
the same again. The Sea-Calf3 likewise feedeth both in the
Sea and upon the Land ; and hath the same Habits with the
Beaver. He vomiteth up his Gall, which is good for many
Medicines ; and so he doth his Runnet, which is a Remedy
for the Epilepsy : for he is well aware, that Men seek after
him for these two Things. Theophrastus writeth, that the Stel-
liones4 cast off their old Coat as Snakes do ; but they imme-
diately eat it up again, and so prevent Men from obtaining
the Remedies for the Epilepsy. He reporteth that their
biting in Greece is deadly ; but in Sicily harmless.

CHAPTER XXXII.
OfDeers.

To the Deer,5 also, though he is amongst the gentlest of
Animals, belongs a Degree of Malevolence. If he be over-
driven by Hounds, then willingly he hath recourse to Man.
Likewise, the Hinds, when they are about to calve, choose

1 Lib. xxxii. 11. 2 Lib. xxxii. 5. 3 Lib. xi. 40.

4 Lib. xi. 26.

5 Cervus ElepJias. — LTNN. The Red Deer. — Pliny, in this chapter,
describes the Elephas of Aristotle, which is, doubtless, the common stag,
or red deer, and was well known to the ancients. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 57

rather some Place near the Ways that are trodden with
Man's Steps, than secret Corners which lie open to wild
Beasts. They are got with Young after the rising of the Star
Arcturus ; they go eight Months, and sometimes produce
two Calves at once. Finding themselves with Young, they
part Company with the Stags. But the Males, seeing them-
selves left, fall into the Rage of Heat, and dig Pits in the
Ground. Then their Muzzles become black, and so con-
tinue, until such Time as the Rain washeth away the Colour.
The Hinds, before they calve, purge themselves with the
Herb called Seselis,1 whereby they have more easy Deliver-
ance. After Parturition they have two Herbs, which are called
Arus2 and Seselis, after having eaten of which they return
to their Young, being willing, for some unknown Reason,
that their first Milk should taste of these Herbs. They exer-
cise their new-born little ones in the Race, and teach them
to know how to fly away. They lead them to high and
craggy Rocks, and show them how to leap. And now the
Stags being past the Heat of Rut, fall eagerly to their Food.
When they find themselves to be grown very Fat, they seek
Lurking-places, confessing how incommodious their Weight
is to them. At other Times always they delight in flight ; and
stand still to look behind. But when the Hunters are come
near them, then they seek the Shelter of Flight again ; and
this they do for a Pain in their Bowels, which Parts are so
tender, that with a slight Blow they will burst within. When
they hear the barking of the Hounds they fly, but always in
the Course of the Wind, that the Scent of their Tracks may
pass away with them. They take great Delight in the Sound
of the Shepherd's Pipes, and in Song. When they erect
their Ears, they are very quick of Hearing ; when they let
them hang down, they are deaf. In other respects it is a
simple Creature, stupidly wondering at everything; inso-
much that if an Horse or an Heifer approach near, it will

1 Lib. xx. 5.

2 Lib. xxiv. 16. This plant is the Arum of Dioscorides (lib. ii.
c. 142), and must not be confounded with the Egyptian Arum. — Wern.
Club.

58 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

not regard a Man that is hunting it ; or if they discover him,
they will look with Wonder at his Bow and Arrows. They
pass the Seas, swimming by Flocks, in a long Row, each
one resting his Head upon the Haunches of the one before
him ; and the foremost retireth behind by turns. This is
chiefly observed by those that pass from Cilicia to Cyprus.
They do not see the Land, but swim towards it by their
Smell. The Males possess Horns, and are the only Animals
that cast them every Year at a certain Time of the Spring :
and to that Purpose, a little before the very Day, they seek
the most secret Places. When the Horns are shed, they keep
close hidden, as being unarmed ; and this they do as if they
grudged that any one should have any Good from them. It
is denied that the Right Horn can ever be found, as being
endued with some singular Virtue as a Medicine ; and this
must be granted to be a very wonderful Thing, considering
that in Parks1 they change them every Year; so that it is
thought they bury them in the Earth. But burn which of
them you will, the Smell of it driveth Serpents away, and
discovereth them who are subject to the Epilepsy. They
carry the Marks of their Age on their Heads ; for every
Year addeth one Branch to their Horns, until they come to
six (sexcennes), after which Time the same Number is
renewed ; so that their Age cannot be discerned any more
by the Head, but old Age is shown by their Teeth : for in
the latter Case they have few or no Teeth, and are without
Branches at the Root of the Horns ; whereas, when they
were younger they used to have them standing out in front
of the very Forehead. When they have been castrated2 they

1 Vivariis, Lib. viii. 52.— Wern. Club.

3 " The sympathy between that part of the system which regulates
the developement of the horns in the deer tribe, and the organs of gene-
ration, is very remarkable. For instance, if a stag is castrated when his
horns are in a state of perfection, they will, it is affirmed, never be shed ;
if the operation is performed when the head is bare, the horns, it is said,
will never be regenerated ; and if it is done when the secretion is actually
going on, a stunted, ill-formed permanent horn is the result, more or less
developed, according to the period at which the animal is emasculated." —
See Penny Cyclopaedia : Art. " Deer."— Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 59

neither cast the Horns which they had before, nor do any
new ones grow. When they first break out again, they are
like renewed Kernels of dry Skin ; then they grow with
tender Stalks into reed-like round Excrescences, feathered
all over with soft Down. So long as they are destitute of
Horns they go out to seek Food by Night ; the Horns grow
hard by the increasing Heat of the Sun ; and then they
occasionally try them against Trees ; and when they are
satisfied that they are strong, they go abroad boldly. It
has happened that some of them have been taken with green
Ivy on their Horns, inbred there since the Time when they
employed them in their tender State against some Trees.
Sometimes they are of a shining white Colour, such as was
the Hind which Q. Serforius1 was reported to have had,
and which he persuaded the People of Spain to believe to
be his Soothsayer. This kind of Deer maintain a Fight with
Serpents : they will track them to their Holes, and by the
Strength of the Breath of their Nostrils force them out : and
therefore there is nothing so good to drive away Serpents
as the Smell of burnt Hartshorn. But against their Bite
there is an excellent Remedy from the Runnet in the Maw
of a Fawn killed in the Dam's Belly. It is generally ac-
knowledged that Stags live long ; for an hundred Years after
Alexander the Great, some were taken with golden Collars
that had been affixed to them by that Prince, but then over-
grown by the Skin through great Stoutness. This Creature
is not subject to feverish Diseases, but he is effectual to cure
it. I have known great Ladies accustomed to the Use every
Morning of eating this Venison, and thereby to have lived to
a great Age without having Fevers ; but it is thought an
established Remedy in the highest Degree if the Stag be
struck dead with one Wound only.

1 See Plutarch's Life of Sertorius.— Went. Club.

60 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

CHAPTER XXXIII.
Of the Tragelephus, and the Chameleon.

OF the same Kind is one that differs only in the Beard
and long Shag about the Shoulders, and which they call Tra-
gelaphon;1 and this breedeth nowhere but about the River
Phasis. Africa is almost the only Country that breedeth no
Stags, but it produceth Chameleons;2 although India hath
them in greater Number. In Shape and Size it resembleth
a Lizard, but it standeth higher and straighter upon its Legs.
The Sides are joined to the Belly, as in Fishes; and it hath
Spines projecting as they have ; the Snout is prominent,
not unlike a small Swine, with a very long Tail sloping away
so as to become slender at the End, winding round and
entangled like the Viper's ; the Claws are hooked, and the
Motion is slow, as in the Tortoise ; the Body is rough as
the Crocodile's ; the Eyes are in a hollow Cavity, and they
are very large, near each other, of the same Colour with the
rest of the Body : it never openeth its Mouth, and there is
no Motion in the Pupil when it looketh about, but it views
Things by moving the whole Ball of his Eye ; it liveth
aloft, gaping with its Mouth, and is the only Creature that
feedeth neither of Meat nor Drink, but hath its Nourish-
ment of Air only : about wild Fig-trees3 it is a wild Beast,
but elsewhere harmless. But the Nature of its Colour is
more wonderful ; for every now and then it changeth it, as

1 Antelope Picta. — PALLAS. The Nyl-ghau. — According to Ogilby
(" Zool. Proc." 1536), the Tragelaphus, which is the same as the Hippela-
phus of Aristotle, is the Nyl-ghau ; but Cuvier, in the last edition of his
" Regne Animal," seems to consider that the Cervus Aristotelis (Cuv.), a
deer living in the north of India, is the animal alluded to. — Wern. Club.

2 Chamceleo vulgaris. — LINN. Book xxviii. c. 28. — There is a contra-
diction in this description ; the author saying in one place, " Nunquam os
aperit," and presently afterward, " Ipse celsus hiante semper ore." The
first portion of this quotation Holland has rendered, — " He is always
open-eyed, and never closeth hem." — Wern. Club.

3 About the time when they offered sacrifices to Vulcan under the wild
fig-tree; that is, during the dog-days. —Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 61

well in the Eyes as Tail and the whole Body : and what-
ever Colour it only toucheth,1 the same it always assumeth,
unless it be red and white. When it is dead, it becometh
pale ; the Flesh on its Head and Jaws, and at the Junction
of the Tail, is very little; and in all the Body besides, none at
all. All its blood is in its heart, and about its Eyes ; among
the Bowels there is no Spleen. It lieth concealed all the
Winter, like the Lizards.

CHAPTER XXXIV.
Of the Tarandus, the Lycaon, and the Thoes.

IN Scythia there is the Tarandus,2 which also changeth its
Colour ; and no other Creature bearing Hair doth the same,
unless it be the Lycaon3 of India, which, by Report, hath a
maned Neck. For the Thoes4 (which is a Kind of Wolves

1 The most noticed peculiarity of this reptile is its change of colour ;
and the exposition of this feature in its physiology has exercised both the
ingenuity and the imagination of many observers. Whatever the true
cause may be, it has little to do with the colour of objects placed in juxta-
position, as Pliny maintains : but in a series of experiments carried on for
six months by the Editor, on a specimen in his possession, it seemed to
proceed from sensitive, though often unconscious, impressions made upon
the circulating system of the skin. While asleep, the slightest shaking
of the stalk on which it rested produced a change : and while the faint
light of a candle altered the tints, a shade thrown on particular parts
prevented the colour from extending to them. There are several species
of the chameleon, although the ancients seem to have recognised only
one. — Wern. Club.

2 Cervus Tarandus. — LINN. The Kein-deer. — The fact that the
rein-deer is subject to great variety of colour, even in a wild state, pro-
bably gave rise to the fancy of Pliny, that he took " the colour of all
trees, shrubs, plants, flowers, and places wherein he lieth when he retireth
for fear."— Wern. Club.

3 The Lycaon was doubtless a species of Hyaena, but it is not easy to
identify it ; it cannot be the Hyaena-dog, Canis Lycaon of Fischer, as
that species has no mane, and is, besides, indigenous to South Africa. —
Wern. Club.

4 The Theus, or Thos, was in all probability some species nearly
allied to the Jackal, Canis Aureus, LINN. It is mentioned by Oppian,
on lib. x. 74. Hunting, b. iv. — Wern. Club.

62 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

somewhat longer than the others, and differing in being
shorter legged, swift in leaping, living by Chace, without
doing any Harm to Man, change their Habit, not their
Colour ; through the Winter being Shaggy, but in Summer
naked. The Tarandus is as big as an Ox, with a Head not un-
like a Stag's, but greater; the Horns branched, cloven-hoofed,
and the Hair as deep as in the Bear. The Hide of his Back
is so hard, that they make Breast- plates of it. He taketh
the Colour of all Trees, Shrubs, Plants, Flowers, and Places
in which he lieth when he retireth for Fear ; and therefore
he is seldom caught ; but when he likes to be in his own
Colour, he resembleth an Ass. It is strange that the bare
Body should alter into so many Colours ; but more strange
that the Hair also should so change.

CHAPTER XXXV.
Of the Hystrix.

THE Hystrix1 is produced in India and Africa, and is a
kind of Hedgehog. The Spines of the Hystrix are longer
than those of the Hedgehog ; and when he stretcheth his Skin
he shooteth them from him ; when the Hounds press hard
upon him, he fixeth them in their Mouths, and darteth them
at them when farther off. In the Winter Months he lieth
hid, as it is the Nature of many Beasts to do, and the Bears
above the rest.

CHAPTER XXXVI.
Of Bears2 and their Young.

THEY couple in the beginning of Winter, and not after
the common Manner of four-footed Beasts, but lying both

1 Hystrix cristata.— LINN. The Porcupine.— Aristotle merely glances
at the power which this animal was thought to possess of shooting its
quills to a distance at its enemies. But Pliny here dwells upon it with
his usual love of the marvellous : and JSlian, Oppian, and Claudian have
repeated the tale with exaggerations. — Wern. Club.

3 Ursus Arctos. — LINN. The Brown Bear. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 63

along, and embracing one another : then they go apart into
Caves, where thirty Days after they produce their Cubs,
commonly five at a Time. These are a Lump of white un-
formed Flesh,1 little bigger than Rats, without Eyes, and
without Hair; only the Claws are put forth. This Lump,
by licking, they fashion by little and little ; and nothing is
more rare than to see a she-Bear bringing forth her Young :
and this is one Cause why the male Bears lie hid for
forty Days, and the Female for four Months. If they have
no Caves, they build themselves Cabins of Wood, by ga-
thering together Boughs and Bushes, in order to be im-
pervious to Rain ; and they strew soft Leaves upon the
Floor. For the first fourteen Days they sleep so soundly,
that they cannot possibly be awaked, even with Wounds. In
this state of Drowsiness they grow exceedingly Fat. This
their Grease2 is a good Medicine for those that shed their
Hair. These (fourteen) Days being past, they sit up, and
live by sucking their fore Feet. Their young Cubs, when
stiff with Cold, they cherish by pressing to their Bosom,
much as Birds do that sit upon their Eggs. A wonderful
Thing is told, and believed by Theophrastus, that if Bears'
Flesh3 be taken during those Days, and cooked, and then
kept safe, it will grow. At this Time there doth not appear
any Token [of Excrement] of Meat that they have eaten ;
and very little Moisture is found within their Belly. Of
Blood some few small Drops lie about the Heart only,4 and
none at all in the whole Body besides. When Spring is
come, they quit their Den ; and at that Time the Males are
exceedingly fat : but the Reason of this cannot be readily
rendered : for, as we said before, they had no more than

1 In proof of the errors of this account, young bears have been
extracted from the mother after she has been killed ; and they have been
found to have their parts as distinct as other animals. — Wern. Club.

2 Lib. xxviii. 11. It is also a famous prescription for the same pur-
pose in the present day. — Wern. Club.

3 Theophrastus (de Odoribus), from whom Pliny borrows this, does
not speak of bears'^/Zes^, but bears' grease; but this does not diminish the
wonder. — Wern. Club.

4 Lib, xi. 38.

64 History of Nature. [BOOK VIII.

that fortnight's Sleep to fatten them with. Being now
gotten abroad, the first Thing is to devour a certain Herb
named Aron,1 to loosen their Intestines, which otherwise
were grown together ; and they prepare their Mouths and
Teeth with the young Shoots of Brambles. They are subject
many Times to Dimness of Sight, for which Cause especially
they seek after Honeycombs, that the Bees might settle on
them, and with their Stings make them bleed about the
Mouth, and by that means relieve the Heaviness which
troubleth their Eyes. Bears are as weak in the Head as
Lions are strong in that part ; and therefore when they are
chased hard, and ready to cast themselves headlong from a
Rock, they cover their Heads with their Paws, as with
Hands, and so throw themselves down. And often in the
Arena they are deprived of Life with a Blow on the Ear with a
Man's Fist. In Spain it is believed, that in their Brain there
is a poisonous Quality ; and if it be taken in Drink, it driveth
Men into a kind of Madness, as if they were Bears : in proof
of which, when they are killed in the Shows, they burn the
Heads. They also walk erect on their two hind Feet : they
creep down from a Tree backward : when they fight with
Bulls their Manner is to hang with all their Feet about their
Mouth and Horns, and so with the Weight of their Bodies
weary them. There is not a living Creature more crafty, and
at the same time foolish in its Viciousness. It is recorded in
the Annals, that when M. Piso and M. Messala were Con-
suls, Domitius ^E?wbarbus9 Curule .ZEdile, on the fourteenth
Day before the Calends of October, exhibited one hundred
Numidian Bears in the Circus, and as many ^Ethiopian Hun-
ters. And I wonder that the Chronicle nameth Numidian,
since it is known that Bears are not produced in Africa.2

1 Lib. viii. 32, p. 57.

2 Lib. viii. 58. The existence of bears in Africa has been a subject of
dispute in modern times, and even Cuvier seems to have entertained
doubts as to their being found in that vast continent. But Ehrenberg
(Symbolce Physical) says he has hunted the bear in Abyssinia, and adds,
that " Forskal has brought tidings of an indigenous African bear."— Wern.
Club.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 65

CHAPTER XXXVII.

Of the Rats of Pontus, and the Alps ; also of Hedgehogs.

THE Rats of Pontus,1 those at least which are white,
come not abroad in the Winter : they have a most exquisite
Taste in their Feeding; but I wonder how the Authors that
have written this, should be able to know it. Those of the
Alps,2 also, which are as big as Badgers,3 lie concealed during
Winter ; but they are provided with Victuals before-hand,
which they gather together and carry into their Holes. And
some say, that when the Male or Female, by turns, is laden
with a Bundle of Herbs, as much as it can grasp within the
four Legs, it lieth upon the Back, and then the other taketh
hold by the Tail with its Mouth, and draweth it into the
Cave : and hence it is that at that Time their Backs are
bare. The like of these live also in Egypt;4 and in the same
Manner they sit upon their Buttocks,5 and go by Starts on
their two hind Feet, using their Fore Feet instead of Hands.

Hedgehogs6 also prepare their Provisions for Winter.
They roll themselves upon Apples that lie on the Ground,
and which thus become fixed on their Spines ; and one more
besides they take in their Mouth, and so carry them into
hollow Trees. By their stopping one or other of the Holes
of their Shelter, Men know when the Wind will change
from North to South. When they perceive some one hunt-
ing them, they draw their Mouth and Feet close together,
with all their lower Part, where they have a thin and soft
Down, and so roll themselves into the Shape of a Ball

1 Mustela erminea. — LINN. The Ermine Weasel. — The Ponticus
Mus is supposed to be the Ermine, or some nearly allied species. — Wern.
Club.

2 Mus Marmota. — LINN. The Marmot. — The Alpinus Mus is pro-
bably identical with the Marmot. — Wern. Club.

3 Lib. viii. 38.

4 Dipus Sagitta. — SWAIN. The Gerbo.— That the Egyptian Mus of
Pliny is the Gerbo, or Jerboa, there can be no doubt. — Wern. Club.

5 Lib. x. 65.

6 Erinaceus Europaus. — LINN. The Hedgehog. — Wern. Club.

VOL. III. F

66 History of Nature. [BoOK VIII.

that they cannot be laid hold of but by their Spines. In the
last Extremity1 they let their Water go; and this Fluid hath
a poisonous Quality to rot their Skin and Spine, for which
they know that they are chased and taken. And therefore
it is a point of Skill not to hunt them before it is ascertained
that they have let their Urine go, and then their Skin is
very good ; but otherwise it is rotten and weak : all the
Spines falling off as being putrified, even though they should
escape and continue alive. And this is the Cause that they
never drench themselves with this Mischief except in the
last Hope, for they cannot endure the Smell of their own
Poison, and they do what they can to spare themselves,
reserving it for the utmost time of Extremity, so that they are
ready to be taken before they do it. The Ball into which this
Creature forms itself is compelled to open by sprinkling it
with warm Water, and then by hanging it up by one of its hind
Feet ; it then dies with Famine and Suspension ; for otherwise
it is not possible to kill them and save their Skin. Many do
not hesitate to say, that this Animal contributes no good to
human Life, except those Spines ; and that the soft Fleece of
Wool that Sheep bear without them would have been be-
stowed upon Mankind in vain: for with this Skin2 Garments
are polished. Fraud hath gotten great Gain by the Mono-
poly of this Commodity ; although there hath not been any
one Evil against which there have been more frequent Acts
of the Senate ; and almost every Prince hath been troubled
concerning it with grievous Complaints out of the Provinces.

CHAPTER XXXVIII.
Of the Leontophonos, Lynx, Meles, Sciurus.

THERE are two other kinds of Animals whose Urine
worketh remarkable Effects. We have undertaken to call

1 This strange assertion, in which Pliny has been followed by his
numerous plagiarists, and amongst them by Buffon, appears at least to be
unsupported by later observation, and is probably a mere fiction. — Wcrn.
Club.

2 Or, rather, instead of teazels that shearmen use.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 67

the small one Leontophonos ; l and it is bred in no Country
but where the Lion is produced ; and such is its Violence,
that the Lion, before whom all other Creatures tremble,
dieth immediately if he taste of it. And therefore they that
chase wild Beasts burn the Body of this Animal, and sprin-
kle the Powder on the Pieces of other Flesh, as Flour is
dusted over Meat in cooking, by way of Bait ; and thus with
the Ashes of his Enemy they kill him, so adverse to his
Nature is this Pest ! No Wonder, therefore, if the Lion
hate it, and so soon as he spieth it he crusheth it, and so
killeth it without setting Tooth to its Body. The Leon-
tophonos, for its part, is also prepared to sprinkle him with
its Urine, knowing that this is a deadly Poison to the
Lion.

In those Countries where the Lynxes breed,2 their Mois-
ture, after it is made, congealeth and hardeneth into precious
Stones resembling Carbuncles, shining of the Colour of Fire,
and called Lyncurium.3 And on this Account many have
written, that Amber is formed after the same Manner. The
Lynxes know thus much, and for Envy understand to cover
their Urine with Earth ; and so it hardeneth the more
quickly.

1 The Leontophonos is a name invented by Pliny himself, and the
creature meant by it altogether unknown. — Wern. Club.

2 Lib. viii. 19.

3 Lib. xxxvii. 2, 3, 10. TheLyncuria have been thought to be fossil
Belenmites. The ancients had a legend that these substances came from
the Lynx, and they called them Lapides Lyncis, as well as Lyncuria.
Those which were found in Mount Ida were called Idcei dactyli, or Idaean
fingers, from their supposed resemblance to those members. It is, how-
ever, by no means clear, that the ancients intended to describe Belemnites
under these appellations. Ovid, Met. xv. 413, says : —

" India when conquer'd, on the conquering god
For planted vines the sharp-eyed lynx bestow'd,
Whose moisture, shed before it touches earth,
Congeals in air, and gives the gems their birth."

The different accounts of Pliny, indeed, are by no means uniform,
and seem rather to refer to several kinds of gems. Theophrastus also
describes them as gems of a very solid texture, on which seals were
engraved. — Wern. Club.

68 History of Nature. [BOOK VIII.

The Badger1 (Meles) hath another sort of Craft when
under the Influence of Fear; for they will so draw in their
Breath as to distend their Skin, and thus repel the biting of
the Dogs and the Blow of the Hunters.

Squirrels2 also foresee a Change of Weather ; and they
shut up their Holes on that Side from which the Wind is
about to blow, and open the Doors on the other Side. More-
over, they possess a broad bushy Tail with which to cover
their whole Body. Thus some Creatures provide Food
against Winter, and others are fed with Sleep only.

CHAPTER XXXIX.
Of the Viper, Snails, and Lizards.

OF Serpents it is said, that the Viper3 alone lieth hid in
the Ground; whereas the rest keep within Hollows of Trees
or Rocks ; and otherwise they endure Hunger a whole Year,
provided they be kept from extreme Cold. All the Time of
their Retreat they sleep, and are without Poison.4

In like manner do Snails ;5 and not only in the Winter,
but in Summer again, adhering so closely to Rocks, that
although by Force they are plucked off and turned upward,
still they will not come out of their Shell. In the Balearic
Islands there are some called Cavaticae, which never creep
out of the Holes in the Ground ; neither do they live on any
Herb, but they hang together like Clusters of Grapes. Ano-
ther Sort there is of them, but not so common; which hide
themselves within the Cover of their Shell, which sticks fast
to them : these lie always buried in the Ground, and were in

1 Meles vulgaris. — DESMAREST. The Badger. — Wern. Club.

2 Sciurus vulgaris. — LINN. The Squirrel. — Wern. Club.

3 Coluber Berus. — LINN. The Common Viper. — Wern. Club.

4 " The Viper, like the other reptiles, seeks a secret and secure place
in which to hibernate during the cold months of the year. Here several
are found entwined together, and in a very torpid condition ; and if at
this period a viper be made to wound an animal with its poison fang, no
injury is likely to result from it: the poison does not exist at all, or is
inert."— BELL'S British Reptiles. — Wern. Club.

5 Cochlea. Lib. ix. 56.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 69

Times past digged up only about the Sea-coast of the Alps ;
but of late they have been dug up in Veliternum also. But
the very best of them all are in the Island Astypalaea.

Lizards1 are the most deadly Enemies to Snails; and Men
say that they do not live above six Months. In Arabia are
Lizards of a Cubit in Length : and in the Mountain Nisa, in
India, they are four-and-twenty Feet long; some tawny,
some light red, and others sky-blue.

CHAPTER XL.
Of Dogs*

AMONG those Creatures which associate with us there
are many Things worthy of being known ; and the Dog is
beyond all others the most faithful to Man, and the Horse
next. We have heard, beyond doubt, of a Dog, that in
Defence of his Master fought hard against Thieves ; and
although he was wounded through the Body in many Places,
yet would he not abandon him, but drove away the wild
Birds and savage Beasts : also of another in Epirus, who in
a great Assembly of the People, recognising the Man who
had murdered his Master, by barking at and tearing him
furiously, compelled him to confess the Crime. Two hundred
Dogs restored from Exile a King of the Garamantes ; fight-
ing against all that opposed him. The Colophonians, and
also the Castabaleans, possessed Squadrons (Cohorts) of
Dogs for War ; and these were put in the front of the Battle,
and were never known to draw back. These were their
trustiest Auxiliaries, and never in want of Pay. In a Battle
when the Cimbri were slain, the Dogs defended their Houses
placed upon the Waggons. Jason the Lycian had a Dog,
which, after his Master was slain, would never eat Meat, but

1 When Pliny tells us that some Lizards were a cubit in length, while
others were twenty-four feet, it will hardly be necessary to inform the
reader that the Romans included many different species, and even genera,
under the terms Lacerta and Lacertus. —Wern. Club.

2 Camsfamiliaris. — 'Liyx. The Dog. — Wern. Club.

70 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

pined himself to Death. Duris maketh mention of another
Dog, which he named Hircanus, that when the funeral Fire
of King Lysimachus was set a-burning, leapt into the Flame.
And so did another at the Funeral of King Hiero. Also
Phylistus commemorateth the Dog of King Pyrrhus, and
another belonging to the Tyrant Gelo. They report of a Dog
belonging to Nicomedes, King of Numidia, which flew upon
Consingis his Wife for toying overwantonly with her Hus-
band. And even with us, Volcatius, a noble Gentleman,
who taught Geselius the Civil Law, as he returned Home one
Evening, riding upon an Hackney from a Village near the
City, was defended from a Highwayman by his Dog. Ccelius,
likewise, a Senator, lying sick at Placentia, was violently
attacked by armed Men, but they were not able to wound
him, until they had killed the Dog. But that exceedeth all,
which happened in our Time, and standeth upon Record in
the Registers : when Appius Junius and P. Silus were Con-
suls, and T. Sabinus and his Servants were punished on ac-
count of Nero the Son of Germanicus : one of them that was
put to Death had a Dog which could not be kept from the
Prison ; and when his Master was thrown down the Stairs
called Scalse Gemonise, he would not depart from his dead
Body, but kept up a most piteous Howling about it, in the
Sight of a great Multitude of Romans that stood about it;
and when one of the Company threw the Dog a piece of
Meat, he carried it to the Mouth of his dead Master. When
the dead Body was thrown into the Tiber, the Dog swam
after it, and endeavoured to bear it afloat ; and a large Num-
ber of People poured out of the City to behold the Fidelity
of the Animal. They are the only Animals that know their
Master ; and if an unknown Person approach suddenly, they
are aware of his coming. They are the only Animals that
know their own Names, and the People of the House by
the Sound of their Voice. They remember the Way, how-
ever long it is, if they have once gone over it. And there is
no Creature, beside Man, that hath a better Memory. Their
Violence and Fury are appeased by a Man sitting down

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 71

upon the Ground.1 The longer we live the more Things we
observe still in Dogs ; but their Skill and Sagacity are
chiefly displayed in Hunting : they examine and follow up
the Footmarks, leading the Hunter who attends them to the
very Place where the Beast lieth ; and having gotten an Eye
of his Game, how silent and secret, how significant is their
Discovery to the Hunter, first wagging the Tail, and mark-
ing with their Nose ! And even when Dogs are worn out,
weak and blind, Men carry them in their Arms to hunt,
to wind the Beast, and by Scent to show by their pointing
of the Nose where the Beast is at Harbour. The Indians
desire to procure a Cross between the Dog and the Tiger ;
and for this Purpose, at the proper Time, they tie the
Bitches in the Woods. They suppose the first and second
Litter of such as are thus bred to be too fierce ; but the third
they bring up. The Gauls do the same by their Dogs that
are produced from Wolves; and of which they have Flocks,

1 That the fury of a dog is mitigated by a man's sitting down, Homer
also informs us, Odyssey, xiv. 33 : —

" Soon as Ulysses near the inclosure drew,
With open mouths the furious mastiffs flew :
Down sat the sage, and cautious to withstand,
Let fall the offensive truncheon from his hand.
Sudden the master runs ; aloud he calls ;
And from his hasty hand the leather falls ;
With showers of stones he drives them far away ;
The scattering dogs around at distance bay." — POPE.

Mure, in his " Journal of a Tour in Greece and the Ionian Islands,"
tells us, that " at Argos one evening, at the table of General Gordon,
then commanding in chief in the Morea, the conversation happened to
turn, as it frequently does when tourists are in company, on the subject
of the number and fierceness of the Greek dogs ; when one of the com-
pany remarked that he knew a very simple expedient for appeasing their
fury. Happening, on a journey, to miss his road, and being overtaken
by darkness, he sought refuge for the night at a pastoral settlement by
the wayside. As he approached, the dogs rushed out upon him, and the
consequences might have been serious had he not been rescued by an old
shepherd, the Eumseus of the fold, who sallied forth, and finding that the
intruder was but a benighted traveller, after pelting off his assailants,

72 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

that have for their Leader and Captain some one Dog : him
they accompany when they hunt ; him they are directed by:
for they keep an Order among themselves of Mastership. It
is certain that the Dogs which live near the Nile lap of the
River1 as they run, that they may not afford an Opportunity
to the Greediness of the Crocodiles. When Alexander the
Great made his Journey into India, the King of Albania
gave him a Dog of extraordinary Size ; and Alexander taking
great Delight in such an Example of a Dog, commanded
them to let loose on him Bears, and afterwards wild Boars ;
and last of all, fallow Deers ; but he lay still with silent
Contempt. This great Commander, a Man of high Mind,
offended at the Laziness of so great a Body, commanded
that he should be killed. News of this went presently to the
King ; and therefore he sent a second Dog, with this Mes-
sage : That he should not make trial of this too against
small Beasts, but set him against a Lion or an Elephant :
adding, that he had no more than those two ; and if this
were killed likewise, it was not likely he would have more of
that Race. Alexander made no delay, and presently saw a
Lion torn to Pieces. Afterwards he commanded them to
bring out an Elephant, and in no Sight did he take greater
Pleasure than in this. For the Dog's rough, shaggy Hair,

gave him a hospitable reception in his hut. His guest made some remark
on the watchfulness and zeal of his dogs, and on the danger to which he
had been exposed on their attack. The old man replied that it was his
own fault for not taking the customary precaution in such an emergency, —
that he ought to have stopped, and sat down, until some person whom the
animals knew came to protect him. As this expedient was new to the
traveller, he made some further inquiries, and was assured, that if any
person in such a predicament will simply seat himself on the ground, lay-
ing aside his weapons of defence, the dogs will also squat in a circle round
him ; that as long as he remains quiet, they will follow his example ; but
as soon as he rises, and moves forward, they will renew the assault." —
Wern. Club.

1 " I was very well pleased to see here, for the first time, two shepherd
dogs lapping up the water from the stream, then lying down in it with
great seeming leisure and satisfaction. It refuted the old fable that the
dogs living on the banks of the Nile run as they drink, for fear of the
crocodile." — BRUCE'S Travels, vol. ii. p. 7. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 73

stood erect over his whole Body, and his loud barking
sounded like Thunder. Soon after he leapeth and flieth upon
him, rising and mounting against the great Beast, now on
one Side, and then on the other, in skilful Combat, ac-
cording as Opportunity offered, one while assailing and
another while avoiding his Enemy ; so that with continual
turning round, the Elephant grew giddy in the Head, so
that he came tumbling down to the Ground, which shook
with the Fall. Dogs bear Young once in a Year ; and the
due Time for them to be with Whelps is when they are a
Year old. They go with Young threescore Days. Their
Puppies come blind into the World ; and the more Milk
they suck, the later it is before they receive their Sight : but
it is never above twenty Days before they see, and they do
not open their Eyes under seven Days old. Some say that if
but one be born at a Litter, it will see in nine Days ; if two,
it will be in ten Days ; and the more Puppies she hath, the
more Days it will be in that Proportion before they see :
also, that the Bitch-whelp which cometh of the first Litter
discerns Fairies.1 The best of the whole Litter is that Whelp
which is last to begin to see ; or that which the Bitch car-
rieth first into her Kennel. The Madness of Dogs is most
dangerous to a Man, as we have said before, while Syrius is
burning hot ; for they that are so bitten have a deadly Fear
of Water. To prevent this, therefore, it is good for thirty
Days to mingle Hen's Dung with the Meat of the Dogs ; or,
if the Disease be coming on, Hellebore.

CHAPTER XLI.
Against the Bite of a mad Dog.

THE sovereign Remedy against this Bite was revealed
lately by a certain Oracle :2 being the Root of a wild Rose,

1 The Fauni here mentioned, and again Lib. xxv. 4, and which we
have translated by the modern term " Fairies," were a species of Incubi,
supposed to occasion the nightmare and other similar diseases. — Wern.
Club.

3 Lib. xxv. 2.

74 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

called Cynorrhodos. Columella writeth, that when a Whelp
is exactly forty Days old, if his Tail be bitten off at the
nethermost Joint, and the Sinew that cometh after be taken
away, neither will the Tail grow any more, nor the Dog ever
become mad. I have myself observed, that among the
Prodigies it is reported, that a Dog spoke ; as also that a
Serpent barked at the Time when Tarquin was driven from
the Kingdom.

CHAPTER XLII.
Of the Nature of Horses. I

THE same Alexander of whom we have spoken, had a
very uncommon Horse, which they called Bucephalus ; either
from his stern Look, or from the Mark of a Bull's Head im-
printed on his Shoulder. It is reported of Alexander, that
being but a' Boy, he was so much attracted by his handsome
Appearance, that he bought him out of the Flock of Philo-
nicus the Pharsalian, at the Price of sixteen Talents. He
would suffer no Man to sit on his Back but Alexander, when
he had the royal Saddle and Furniture on ; rejecting others
entirely. The same Horse was of memorable service in
Battles, and being wounded at the Assault of Thebes he
would not suffer Alexander to alight and mount upon ano-
ther. Many other Things of the same kind he did ; on Ac-
count of which, when he was dead, the King conducted his
Funeral sumptuously ; erected a Tomb for him, and about it
built a City that bore his Name. C&sar the Dictator like-
wise had a Horse which would not suffer any Man to ride
him but his Master ; and the same Horse had his Forefeet
resembling those of a Man ; and its Statue so formed is
placed before the Temple of Venus Genetrix. Divus Au-
gustus also formed a Tomb for his Horse ; concerning which
there is a Poem by Germanicus Ccesar. At Agrigentum
there are Pyramids on the Tombs of many Horses. Juba
reporteth, that Semiramis loved a Horse usque ad coitum.
The Scythians make a great Noise of the Glory of their

1 Equus caballus. — LINN. The Horse. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 75

Horses and Cavalry. A Chieftain of theirs happening in
Combat on a Challenge to be slain by his Enemy, when the
Conqueror came to take the Spoil, he was killed by the
Kicks and Biting of the Horse of the conquered. There was
another Horse, that when the Covering was removed from
his Eyes, and he knew that he had served as a Stallion to his
own Dam, rushed to a Precipice, and threw himself down
and died. We find, also, that in the Territory of Reate, an
Horsekeeper was torn upon the same Occasion of a Mare.
For surely these Animals understand their Relationship ;
and therefore Colts will in the Flock more willingly keep
Company with their Sisters of the former Year, than with
the Mare their Mother. Horses are so docile, that we
find in the Army of the Sybaritani, the whole Troop of Horse-
men had their Horses accustomed to be moved to a certain
Dance at the Sound of Music. They have an Anticipation
of a Battle, and mourn the Loss of their Masters; some-
times also, they shed tears for Love of them. When King
Nicomedes was slain, his Horse starved itself to Death.
Philarchus reporteth, that King Antiochus having in Battle
slain Centaretus, a Galatian, became possessed of his Horse,
and mounted him in a triumphant manner ; but the Horse,
seized with Indignation, would not be restrained by the
Bridle, but ran furiously to a Precipice, and threw itself
down ; where both Horse and Man perished together. Phi-
listus writeth, that when Dionysius left his Horse stickng
fast in the Mire that he might save himself, the Animal
followed the Tracks of his Master, with a Swarm of Bees
settling in his Mane ; which was the first Presage that in-
duced Dionysius to usurp the Tyranny. The variety of their
Skill cannot be expressed ; and those who throw Darts
have Proof of their entire Obedience, in urging them to the
most difficult Attempts with great Dexterity and striving of
the Body. They even gather up Darts from the Ground,
and reach them to the Horseman ; and when they are fast-
ened to the Chariots in the Circus they display beyond a
doubt their Consciousness of Encouragement and Glory. At
the Secular Circensian Games exhibited bv Claudius Ccesar,

76 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

although the Driver was thrown from the Chariot within the
Bars, the Horses with the white Livery won the Palm, and
obtained the first Honour; throwing down whatever stood in
the Way, and doing all that needed to be done against their
Rivals, as well as if the most skilful Driver had been in the
Chariot ; so that Men were ashamed to see their Skill over-
matched by Horses ; and when they had performed their
Race according to Law, they stood still at the Goal. A
greater Augury happened in old Time, when in the Plebeian
Circensian Games, the Driver was thrown out of the Cha-
riot, and yet the Horses ran directly into the Capitol, as if
he had stood still in his Place ; and there they ran three times
round the Temple. But the greatest of all was, that the
Horses of Ratumenas came thither from Veij, with the
Palm and Crown which they had won there, after they had
thrown out their Master, who had conquered in the Games
at that City; from whom the Gate (Ratumena)1 took its
Name. The Sarmatians, when they intend to take a great
Journey, prepare their Horses two Days before, by giving
them no Meat, and only allow them a little Drink ; and thus
they will ride them an hundred and fifty Miles at one Stretch.
Some Horses live fifty Years, but Mares not so long. In five
Years the latter come to their full Growth, but Horses grow
one Year longer. The Beauty of Horses, such as a Man
would choose for the best, hath been very elegantly and com-
pletely described by the Poet Virgil.'1 And we also have
spoken of the same Thing in a Book lately put forth, con-
cerning Dart-throwing on Horseback ; and about what is

1 Plutarch's account of this circumstance, which he gives in the Life of
Publicola, is as follows : — - " It happened that there was a chariot race at
Veii, which was observed as usual ; except that, as the charioteer, who had
won the prize and received the crown was gently driving out of the ring, the
horses took fright from no visible cause ; but, either by some direction of
the gods, or turn of fortune, ran away with their driver, at full speed to-
wards Rome. It was in vain that he pulled the reins, or soothed them
with words ; he was obliged to give way to the career, and was whirled
along till they came to the Capitol, where they flung him, at the gate now
called Ratumena." — LANGHORNE'S Translation. — Wern. Club.

3 Georg. Lib.iii. 72, etseq. — Wern. CM.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 77

there set down, I see almost all agree. But for Horses
trained to the Circus, a different mode of Proceeding is to be
sought for. For whereas they may be broke into other Em-
ployments when they are two Years old, they must not be
brought to enter into that Contest before they are five Years
of Age. The Females in this kind go eleven Months with
Young, and in the twelfth they Foal. The Sexes are put
together at the Spring Equinox, when both of them are two
Years old ; but if they be kept until they are three Years of
Age, they produce stronger Colts. The Male is fertile to
three-and-thirty Years old ; so that when they are dismissed
from the Circus, after their twentieth Year, they are sent to
produce Offspring. And it is said that they will continue to
forty Years with a little Help put to the Forepart of the
Body, to lift him up. Few Beasts besides are less capable
of Fertility than the Male ; for which Cause they are allowed
some Space between, and in one Year the most that can be
allowed is fifteen. The Way to quench the Heat of a Mare is
to shear her Mane. Arid yet Mares can bear every Year until
they come to forty Years. It is reported that an Horse hath
lived three-score and fifteen Years. Mares only among all
Races produce their Foals standing on their Feet; and they
love them more than any other Creatures do their Young.
Foals truly have on their Forehead a black Thing of the
Bigness of a Fig, called Hippomanes,1 which is a powerful
Charm to procure Love ; and this the Dam devours as soon
as the Colt is born ; and if it chance that any Person hath
managed to secure it before her, she will not permit the Foal
to suck her. Horses are driven into Madness by the Smell.
If a young Foal lose her Dam, the other Mares of the com-

1 Lib. xxviii. 11. The Hippomanes was a sort of poison famous
among the ancients as an ingredient in amorous philters, or love-charms.
At the end of Bayle's Dictionary is a very learned dissertation on the
Hippomanes, and all its virtues, both real and imaginary. ^Elian (B. xiv.
c. 18) says that this caruncle was either affixed to the forehead, loins, or
KU.TOC. TOV otiSoiov. But the virtues ascribed to it were so singular, that,
credulous as this author commonly is, he is compelled to express some
doubts of their truth. — Wern. Club.

78 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

mon Herd rear up the Orphan in common. It is said, that
for three Days after they are newly foaled, the young Colts
cannot lay their Mouth to the Ground. The hotter sto-
mached an Horse is, the deeper he thrusteth his Nose into
the Water as he drinketh. The Scythians chose rather to use
their Mares in War, because their staling is no Hindrance to
their Running. It is an admitted Fact that in Lusitania, along
the River Tagus, and about the City Olyssipo (Lisbon) when
the West Wind bloweth,1 the Mares set themselves full against
it, and so conceive that genital Air from which they become
pregnant, and bring forth Foals of exceeding Swiftness ; but
they live not above three Years. In the same Spain, from
the Parts called Gallaica (Gallicia) and Asturica (Asturia)
there is produced a Race of Horses which we call Thieldones;
and others of less Stature, named Asturcones. These Horses
have a pleasant Pace peculiar to themselves ; with one Foot
set down before another softly and roundly in order by
turns ; from which our Horse-breakers have obtained the Art
by Cords to bring an Horse to the like Amble. A Horse is
subject to almost the same Diseases as a Man : and also to
the turning of the Bladder : as likewise all other Beasts that
labour.

CHAPTER XLIII.
Of Asses*

M. VARRO writeth, that Q. Axius, a Senator, bought an
Ass at the Price of four hundred thousand Sesterces: a Price,
in my Opinion, above the Worth of any Beast whatever: and
yet (no Doubt) he was able to do wondrous good Service in
carrying Burdens, ploughing the Ground, and principally in
getting Mules. In the Purchase there is special Regard to
the Country from whence they come ; as from Arcadia in
Achaia, and Reate in Italy. This Animal is exceedingly im-

1 Virgil has the same monstrous tale (Georg. iii. 273) ; and such
absurdities may be pardoned in a poet, but are inexcusable in a natural
philosopher. — Wern, Club.

2 Asinus vulgaris. — GRAY. The Ass. — Wern. Club'

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 79

patient of Cold ; which is the Cause that none are bred in
Pontus. Neither do they go with Young, like other Cattle,
in the Spring Equinox, but at the Solstice. He-Asses are
the worse for being spared in their Work. The Females
have bred early, at the Age of thirty Months ; but three
Years is the due Time : as often as Mares, and just so
many Months, and after the same Manner. But after
Reception they must be forced to run by beating them, or
else they will let go their Seed. They seldom produce two
at once. The Ass, when about to Foal, avoideth the Light,
but seeketh some dark Place, that she may not be seen by
Man. She breeds all her Life-time, which is to her thirty
Years. They love their young Foals exceedingly well: but they
cannot abide Water. To their little ones they will go through
Fire ; but if there be the least Brook between, they are so
afraid, that they dare not dip their Feet therein. They will
not drink, except of their accustomed Fountains, within their
Feeding-ground ; and in such a Manner that they may go
along a dry Path to their Drink : neither will they go over any
Bridges where the Planks are not so close together as that
they see the Water through. Strange to say, they are thirsty;
but if their Water be changed, they must be forced to drink,
or else unloaded of their Burdens. They love to lie at large,
and have Room enough. For in their Sleep they dream of
various Fancies appearing to them ; and so they fling about
them with their Heels in every Direction ; by which, if they
should beat against some hard Thing, they would soon be
lame. They are more profitable to their Masters than the
Revenues of good Farms. It is well known, that in Celti-
beria she-Asses, by breeding, have produced the Value of
400,000 Sesterces. For the foaling of Mules, they affirm that
the principal Thing to be regarded in the Ass is the Hair
of the Ears and the Eyelids. For however the whole Body
besides be of one Colour, yet shall the Mules foaled have
as many Colours as were in those Parts. Meccenas was the
first that introduced at Feasts a Dish of young Ass-flesh ; l and

1 See the note on the Lalisiones in the next chapter. —Wern. Club.

80 History of Nature. [BOOK VIII.

he preferred their Flesh at that time before that of wild Asses.
But after him the Reputation of their Delicacy decayed. If
an Ass be seen to die, the whole Race will very soon follow
to the very last.

CHAPTER XLIV.
Of Mules.

BETWEEN the He-Ass and a Mare a Mule is produced in
the twelfth Month : a Creature of exceeding Strength for
Labour. For breeding such Mules they choose Mares that
are not under four Years old, nor above ten. They relate
that they will drive away one another in both kinds, unless
they sucked the Milk of the Dam, when they were young, of
that kind by which they would produce. And for this Pur-
pose they remove away either the young Ass-Foals, and set
them in the dark to the Teats of the Mare, or else the young
Colts to suck of the she- Ass. For there is a Mule also that
cometh of a Horse and a female Ass : but they are unruly,
and of unconquerable Slowness : and much more if they be
far in Age. If, when a she- Ass hath conceived by an Horse,
she admit an Ass, an Abortion follows ; but it is not so if
an Horse follow an Ass. It is observed, that seven Days
after an Ass hath foaled is the best Time for another Con-
ception; and, also, that the he- Asses succeed best when
weary with Travel. That Ass is understood to be barren
which hath not conceived before she hath cast her Foal's-
teeth ; and also she which doth not conceive at the first. In
old Time they used to call those Hinuli, which were begotten
between an Horse and an Ass : and, on the other Hand,
Mules, such as were between an Ass and a Mare. Also
it is observed, that a Creature born from Beasts of two
different kinds, formeth a third Sort, resembling neither of
the Parents ; and that such as are produced in this Manner,
whatever kind of Creatures they are, are themselves barren ;
and therefore she -Mules never breed. We find in our
Chronicles, that oftentimes Mules have brought forth, but
it was always taken for a Prodigy. Theophrastus saith,

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 81

that in Cappadocia ordinarily they produce Foals ; but there
they are a distinct kind of Animal. Mules are broken of their
Kicking if they are often made to drink wine. It is found
written in what remains of many Greeks, that there has
been produced between an he-Mule and a Mare, a Creature
which the Latins call Hinnus, that is, a little Mule. Between
Mares and wild Asses that have been made tame are pro-
duced a kind of Mules, very swift in running and exceed-
ingly hard-hoofed, slender of body, of unconquered but
generous spirit. But the Mule that cometh of a wild Ass
and a female tame Ass exceeds all the rest. Wild Asses
(Onagri) are the best in Phrygia and Lycaonia. Africa
boasts of the Flesh of their Foals, which is excellent Meat ;x
and such they call Lalisiones. It appeareth in the Chronicles
of Athens, that a Mule lived eighty Years; and that when
they built the Temple in the Citadel at that Place, this old
Mule being set aside for Age, would yet accompany the
other labouring Beasts, and if any of them were ready to fall
under their Load, would relieve and encourage them accord-
ing to his power: by which the people were so much pleased,
that they made a Decree that the Corn-Merchants should
take good Care that this Mule should not be driven away
from their Cleansing-Sieves.

CHAPTER XLV.

Of Oxen*
IT is said that the Oxen of India are as high as Camels,

o *

and four Feet broad between the Horns. In our Part of the

1 ^Elian, Hunting, book iii. The Persians and Tartars hold the flesh
of the wild ass in high esteem, and hunt it in preference to all other
descriptions of game. Olearius assures us that he saw no fewer than
thirty-two wild asses slain in one day by the Schah of Persia and his
court, and their bodies were sent to the royal kitchens at Ispahan. We
know from Martial that the epicures of Rome held the flesh of the
Onager in the same estimation as we do venison :—

"Cum tener est Onager, solaque lalisio matre
Pascitur : hoc infans, sed breve nomen habet."

Lib. xiii. 97. — Wcrn. Club.

2 Bos Taurus. — LINN. The Ox. — Wern. Club.
VOL. III. G

82 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

World, those that come out of Epirus are most commended;
and they report that they were much attended to by King
Pyrrhus, who would not suffer them to breed before they
were four Years old. Therefore they were of great Size;
and so they continue in their Posterity to this Day. In the
present Day, however, they are permitted to breed when
/hey are one Year old, or at most two; which is more tole-
rable. Bulls are generative when they are four Years old ;
and one is a sufficient Companion for ten Cows through the
Year. If a Bull, after Copulation, go away toward the right
Hand, he hath gotten a male Calf; hut if to the left, a Cow
Calf. Cows are fertile at the first ; but if it chance that
they fail, the twentieth Day after they again seek their Fel-
low. In the tenth Month they calve ; and whatever cometh
before that Term is worth nothing. Some write that they
calve just upon the last Day of the tenth Month complete.
They seldom bring forth two Calves at a Time. Their Time
of Propagation continueth thirty Days from the rising of the
Dolphin to the Day before the Nones of January ; but some
propagate in Autumn. Indeed, in those Countries where the
People live on Milk, they order the Matter so, that they are
not without this Food all the Year long. Bulls do not serve
above two Cows in one Day. Oxen alone of all Animals go
backward as they feed ; and among the Garamantsb they
•scarcely ever feed otherwise. Cows live riot above fifteen
Years at the most ; but the Males come to twenty. They are
in their full Strength when five Years old. It is said they will
grow fat if they are bathed with hot Water ; or if a Man slit
their Hide, and with a Reed blow Wind into their Entrails.
Oxen are not to be despised as defective, although they may
look but ill-fa vouredly ; for in the Alps those that, are least
of Body are the best for Milk. And the best labouring
Oxen are they which are yoked by the Head, and not the
Neck. In Syria they have no Dewlaps, but a Bunch stand-
ing on the Back. They of Caria also, a Country in Asia,
are ill-favoured to be seen, having between their Necks and
Shoulders a projecting Tumour ; and their Horns are loose,
as if out of Joint; and yet by Report, tbev are excellent for

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 83

Labour: but the black or white in this kind are condemned
for Work. Bulls have less and slenderer Horns than Cows
or Oxen. The Time to bring the Ox or Bull to the Yoke is
at three Years of Age ; after this it is too late, and before it
is too soon. A young Steer is soonest trained to draw, if he
be coupled with another that hath been taught already ; for
this Animal is our Companion in Labour and the Cultivation
of the Ground : and so highly regarded was the Ox by our
Forefathers, that we find it on Record that a Man was judi-
cially condemned on a given Day by the People of Rome,
because, to gratify a wanton Concubine of his, who said he
had not eaten any Tripe all the while he was in the Country,
he had killed an Ox,1 although it was his own ; and for this
Fact he was banished, as if he had slain his own Manager of
Husbandry. There is a Majesty in the Aspect of a Bull ;
their Countenance stern, their Ears covered with stiff Hairs,
and their Horns standing as if they were ever demanding to
fight. But all his threatening appears in his Fore-feet ; be-
stirring himself now with one Foot, and then with another,
as his Anger bursts forth, flinging the Sand aloft into the Air:
and of all other Beasts he alone with such an Incitement
stirs up his Anger. We have seen them fight one another
for the Mastery ; and thus viewed to be swung round, in
their Fall to be caught up by the Horns, and to rise again :
when only lying along, to be raised from the Ground ;
and when they have run with a rapid Pace, in two-wheeled
Chariots, they have stood still suddenly, as if the Cha-
rioteers had caused them to stop. It was an Invention of
the Thessalians, with a Horse to gallop close to the Bull's
Horns, and kill it by twisting its Neck. The first that exhi-
bited this Show to the People of Rome, was Cce.sar the
Dictator. The Bull forms the most worthy and sumptuous
Offering of Reconciliation to the Gods. This Animal alone,
of all those that are long-tailed, when newly-born, hath not
the Tail of the full Measure, as others ; but it continueth to

1 According to ^Elian, B. xii. c. 34, among the Phrygians death was
the regular punishment of any one who killed his plough ox. — Wern.
Club.

84 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

grow until it reacheth down to the very Heels. And hereupon
it is, that in approving Calves for Sacrifice, those are allowed
whose Tail cometh down to the Joint of the Gambril : but if
shorter, they will not be an effectual Sacrifice. This also is
noted, that Calves brought on Men's Shoulders to the Altars
are not for the most Part accepted for Sacrifice ; nor one
that is lame ; nor can the Gods be appeased with those
Sacrifices which are foreign to them, nor with such as draw
themselves back from the Altar. Among the Prodigies that
we read of in ancient Times, we find that an Ox hath spoke ; l
and when this was announced, the Senate was accustomed to
be held in an open Place.

CHAPTER XLVI.
Of the Ox Apis.

IN Egypt, also, an Ox2 is worshipped as a God, and they
call it Apis.3 It was marked with a white Spot on the right
Side, like the Horns of the new Moon ; a Knob under the
Tongue, which they call Cantharus:4 it was not lawful to

1 When a report was brought that an ox had spoken, the senate was
held in the open air. (Adams' " Rom. Antiq." p. 9.) This was against the
custom, because under ordinary circumstances the senate could only meet
in stated places — at first limited to two within the city, and the temple of
Bellona without it ; afterwards the right was extended to several temples
and curiae — the latter being consecrated by the augurs, but not to any
particular deity. The places and circumstances of meeting are recited
more at length in Livy, xxvi. 10 ; iii. 63 ; xxxi. 47 ; xxxiii. 22, 24 ; xxxiv.
43; xxxvi. 39; xlii. 36.— Wern. Club.

2 See Herodotus, Lib. iii. 28. — Wern. Club.

3 The Scarabaeus. — Wern. Club.

4 ^Elian, B. xi. c. 10, gives a different account of the Egyptian ox-god
Apis ; derived, as he strongly intimates, from the best Egyptian authority,
and differing from that afforded by Herodotus and Aristagoras. According
to him it was designated by twenty-nine marks in different parts of its
body, and each one conveying some important figurative meaning : as one,
the increase of the Nile, and another, that darkness existed previously to
light. As Apis was held sacred at Memphis, so another ox was reve-
renced there under the name of Mnevis : the latter dedicated to the sun
as the former to the moon. — JElian, B. xi. c. 11. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 85

suffer him to live above a certain Number of Years ; at the
end of which they drown him in a Fountain of the Priests,
and then, with Mourning, seek another, which they substi-
tute in his Place. Until they find him they mourn and
shave their Heads. But they never are long before they
meet with another : and when they have found him, he is by
the Priests brought to Memphis, where he hath two Shrines
(Delubra), which they call Thalami (Bed-chambers), which
are the Auguries of the People. For if this Ox enter into
one of them, it is a good Sign ; but if into the other, it por-
tendeth Misfortune. He gives Answers to private Persons by
taking Meat from the Hand of such as consult him. He
turned away from the Hand of Germanicus Ccesar, and not
long afterwards he died. He is kept secret for the most Part :
but when he hath got forth to the Multitude, he proceeds
with a Guard of Lictors, and a Flock of Boys accompany
him, singing a Hymn to his Honour : for he seemeth to
understand, and is pleased to be worshipped. These Com-
panies presently become beside themselves, and foretell
future Things. Once a Year there is presented to him a
Cow, which hath Marks as he hath, but differing from his ;
and it is said that always upon what Day this Cow is found,
on the same it dieth. At Memphis, there is a Place in the
Nile which, from its Figure, the Inhabitants name Phiala;
and there every Year the Egyptians drown a silver and
gold Cup on the Days in which they celebrate the Nativity
of Apis. These Days are seven in Number; and it is won-
derful, that while they last no one is hurt by Crocodiles :
but on the eighth Day, after the sixth Hour of the Day, they
return to their former Ferocity.

CHAPTER XLVII.
The Nature of Flocks of Sheep,1 and their breeding.

GREAT is the Advantage from the Flock, both as regards
Sacrifices to pacify the Gods, and the use of their Fleece :

1 Ovis arics. — LINN. The Sheep. — Wern. Club.

86 History of Nature. [Booic VIII,

for as Men are indebted to the Ox's Labour for their Food,
so they owe the clothing of their Bodies to the Sheep. They
are fertile from two Years of Age upward to nine, and some
until they are ten Years old. The first Lambs are smaller
than the others. They go with Young about the Setting of
Arcturus, that is, from the third Day before the Ides of May
to the Setting of the Eagle, on the tenth Day before the
Calends of August. They are with Young 150 Days. If
any are conceived after that Time they prove weak. Lambs
born after that Season they called in old Time Cordos (later
Lambs). Many prefer these Winter Lambs before those that
come in Spring ; because it is much better they should be
strong before the Solstice than before the shortest Days : and
they think that this Creature only is useful by being born in
the midst of Winter. It is natural for Rams to loathe young
Lambs, and to follow after old Ewes. Himself also is better
when old, and more effective for them. To make them more
gentle, they bore his Horn through near his Ear. If his right
Testicle be tied up, he getteth Ewe Lambs : if the left, Males.
If Ewes be by themselves when it thundereth, they cast their
Lambs. The Remedy is to gather them together, that by
Company they may have help. They say that if the North
Wind blow they will conceive Males ; but if the Wind be
South, Females. Moreover, great Regard is had in this
Kind to the Mouths of the Rams : for of what Colour the
Veins be under their Tongue,1 of the same will the Fleece be
of the Lambs; and they will be of a Variety of Colours if the
Veins were so. Also the Change of Water arid Drink maketh
them to alter their Colour. There are two principal Kinds
of Sheep; one reared within House, and the other abroad in
the Field : the first is the tenderer, but the other more deli-

1 Virgil, Georg. iii. 387, in giving directions to choose a ram, says, —

"But if dark hues his tongue and palate stain,
Drive him far distant from thy spotless train,
Lest the dim blemish that the sire denied
Infect the fleece, and taint the motley child."

— Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 87

cate in Taste ; for those within the House feed upon Bram-
bles. The Coverings made of the Arabian Wool are the
most valuable.

CHAPTER XLVIII.
Of the Kinds of Wool and Cloths.

THE Wool of Apulia is held in the highest Estimation ;
then, that which in Italy is named the Greek Sheep's Wool,
but in other Countries is called Italian. In the third Rank
stands the Milesian Sheep. The Wool of Apulia is of a short
Staple, and is of Reputation for nothing beside Mantles.
About Tarentum and Canusium the richest of this Kind are
found : as also at Laodicea in Asia. For Whiteness there is
none better than that which groweth along the Po ; and yet
to this Day a Pound of it hath not exceeded the Price of an
hundred Sesterces. They do not shear Sheep everywhere ;
for the Custom of plucking their Fleece cont'mueth still in
some Places. There are several Sorts of Colours in Wool, so
that we are not able to give distinct Names to all that we
call Native. Black Fleeces1 are chiefly in Spain; Pollentia,
near the Alps, has grey ; Asia is distinguished for red, and
these Wools are called Erythraese : in Boeotia the same. In
Canusia the Colour is yellow : and at Tarentum they are
brown. All Wool, in its native Grease, is used in Medicine.2
About Istria and Liburuia the Fleece resembleth Hair rather
than Wool, and is not good to make Clothes with a high Nap ;
but serveth only for the Workman in Portugal, whose Weav-
ing in Net- work with Squares commendeth this Wool. The like
Wool is common about Piscenae, in the Province Narbonensis
(Languedoc) ; and such is found in Egypt : the Cloth made
of it, after it is worn bare, is dyed, and again will wear
during a Man's Life. The coarse, rough Wool, was in old

1 JElian says that all the sheep are black in Abydena, B. iii. c. 32 ;
and Budiana, B. xvi. c. 33. In some soils of our country the fleece has a
strong red tinge, and on the granite in the middle of Cornwall they are
more than usually white. — Wern. Club.

3 B. xxix. c. 22.

88 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

Time highly commended for Tapestry ; for even Homer wit-
nesseth,1 that the Ancients used it. But this Tapestry is
adorned with Colours in Gallia (France), after one Manner,
and among the Parthians after another. Wool of itself,
driven together into a Felt, serveth to make Garments with :
and if Vinegar is added to it, such Cloth is proof against
Steel ; and more than that, it will check the Force of Fire.
And the last cleansing of it, when it is taken out of the Cal-
drons of those that dress it, serveth to stuff Mattresses :2 an
Invention, as I suppose, which came first out of Gaul ; for
certainly it is at this Day distinguished by Gallic Names. But
I am not able easily to say at what Time this Workmanship
began : for in old Time Men made their Beds of Straw, as
now in the Camp they use hairy Rugs (Gausape). Our
Mantles (Amphimalia), shagged without and within, were
invented within my Father's Memory; and also these downy
Aprons (Ventralia) : for the Tunic of the Latus Clavus,
woven in the Manner of the Gausape or hairy Rug, is now
first begun. Black Fleeces will take no other Colour. We
will speak of the dyeing of other Wools in their proper
Places ;3 where we shall treat of Shell-fishes, and the Nature
of Herbs. M. Varro writeth, that in the Temple of Sangus
there continued to the Time when he wrote the Wool that
Tanaquil, who is also called Caia Ccec'ilia, spun ; together
with her Distaff and Spindle; and, also, in the Chapel of
Fortune, the royal Robe made by her in Wave-work, which
Servius Tullius used to wear. And hence came the Custom,
that when Maidens were married there attended upon them
a Distaff dressed, and also a Spindle with Flax. She was

1 Odyss. iv. 427 : —

" Beneath an ample portico they spread
The downy fleece to form the slumberous bed ;
And o'er soft palls of purple grain, unfold
Rich tapestry, stiff with interwoven gold."

— Wern. Club.

- "Tomente," or "tormente," to stuff mattresses, or for ropes of
engines. — Wern. Club.

3 Lib. ix. 36, ct seq., and Lib. xxi. 8.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 89

the first that made the Tunic that is woven right through,1
such as young Persons (Tyrones) and newly-married Ladies
put on with the pure Toga. The waved Garment was, from
the Beginning, among the most esteemed ; and from thence
came the branched Works. Fenestella writeth, that in the
later Time of Augustus C&sar they began to use shorn
Gowns, as also with a curled Nap. The Robes called
Crebrse Papaveratse2 (wrought thick with Flower -work,
resembling Poppies, or pressed smooth) are of greater Anti-
quity ; for even in the Time of Lucilius the Poet, Torquatus
was noted for wearing them. The Praetextse had their Origin
among the Etruscans. The Trabese I find worn by Kings.
In Homer s Time3 they used painted Garments : and from
thence came the triumphant Robes. The Phrygians invented
that which is wrought with a Needle : and so they are called
Phrygiones. And in Asia, King Attains invented the work-
ing of Gold into the same ; and from him such Cloths are
called Attalica. Babylon was much celebrated for the weav-
ing of Cloth of various Colours into a Picture, and Cloths so
wrought were called Babylonica. To weave with many
twisted Threads was the Invention of Alexandria, and these
were named Polymita ; but Gallia invented the Method of
dividing the Work into Shields or Escutcheons. Metellus

1 The reader will be reminded of the garment of our Lord, woven
without a seam. (Gospel by St. John, c. xix. v. 23.) The Babylonish gar-
ments of beautiful interwoven colours were of high antiquity, since they
proved too great a temptation to the virtue of Achan at the time of
Joshua's invasion of Palestine. (Joshua, c. vii.) The painted garments
referred to were as the name imports ; for among the Chinese the arts
are preserved without change from times of remote antiquity, and in
their own representations of them, the liquid colours are laid on the tex-
ture in the manner of drawing, with a brush. — Wern. Club.

2 Lib. xix. 1, and Lib. xx. 9.

3 Iliad, iii. 125, where Iris finds Helen weaving at the loom: —

" Here in the palace, at her loom she found ;
The golden web her own sad story crown'd.
The Trojan wars she weav'd (herself the prize),
And the dire triumphs of her fatal eyes."

— Wern. Club.

90 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

Scipio, among the Crimes alleged against Capita, accused
him that the Babylonian Hangings of his Dining-room cost
800,000 Sesterces ; and such-like of late stood Prince Nero
in 400,000,000 Sesterces.1 The Praetextse of Servim Tullius,
with which he covered the Image of Fortune which he had
dedicated, remained sound to the death of Seianus. And it
was a Wonder that they neither fell from the Image nor
were Moth-eaten in 560 Years. We have in our Day seen
the Sheep's Fleeces while they are alive, dyed with Purple,
with Scarlet in Grain, and from the Shell- fish, by the
means of certain Barks, a Foot and a half long, dipped
in those Colours ; as if Luxury should make Wool to grow
of those Colours. For the Sheep itself, she is known to be
of the best Breed if she be short-legged, and well wooled
under the Belly ; for such as are naked there, they called
Apicae, and condemned. In Syria, Sheep have Tails a Cubit
long, and they bear most Wool there. It is thought to be
too early to castrate Lambs before they are five Months old.

CHAPTER XLIX.
Of the Musmon*

THERE is in Spain, but especially in Corsica, a Kind of
Musmones, not altogether unlike Sheep, having a Shag
more like the Hair of Goats than the Fleece of Sheep. That
Kind which is produced between them and the Sheep they
called in old Time Umbri. This Creature hath a very tender
Head, and therefore in feeding it is to be forced to stand
with its Tail to the Sun. Of all living Creatures, those that
bear Wool are the most foolish ; for if one of them be drawn
by the Horn, all the rest will follow, though otherwise they

1 Quadragies, vel quadrengenties sestertio. — Wern. Club.

3 Most naturalists look to the Mouflon, or Musmon, of Corsica (Ovis
musimon), as the wild type of the sheep, and some regard this to be the
origin of the European breeds ; but the reasons upon which this is as-
sumed appear very problematical. The domestic breeds of sheep are
most probably the descendants of a race subjected from the beginning to
man, and no longer in an independent state. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 91

were afraid to go that Way. The Length of their Life is ten
Years ; but in Ethiopia, thirteen. In the same Country, Goats
also live eleven Years ; whereas in the rest of the World, for
the most Part, they live only eight. Both Sorts become
fertile in four Opportunities.

CHAPTER L.
Of Goats1 and their Breeding.

GOATS bring forth four Kids, but not often. They go
with Young five Months, like Ewes. She-Goats become
barren with Fatness. When three Years old they are not so
good to breed ; and when they are older, not beyond four
Years of Age. They begin at the seventh Month, even while
they snck their Dams. Both Sexes are more useful if they
have no Horns. The first Time in the Day that the she-
Goats go with the Male is void : the second is more fertile,
and so forward. They conceive in the Month of November,
so that they may bring Kids in March, when Shrubs begin
to bud ; and this is sometimes when they are a Year old, but
always at two Years; and when three, they are not utterly
decayed : for they are fertile for eight Years. In cold Wea-
ther they are liable to Abortion. The she-Goat, when her
Eyes are overspread with Opacity, pricketh them with the
Point of a Rush, and so letteth them bleed : but the Buck
useth the Brier for the same Purpose. Mutianus reporteth the
Shrewdness of this Creature as seen by himself, when, upon a
very narrow Bridge, one Goat met another coming opposite
to him from a different Direction; now because the Place was
so narrow that they could not pass each other, nor turn about,
nor yet retire backwards without seeing, considering how
long and slender the Plank was, and also because the Tor-
rent that ran beneath was rapid and dangerous, one of them
lay flat down, and so the other walked over his Back. Male
Goats are held for the best which are the most flat-nosed,
•vith long Ears that are crumpled in, and with very long,

1 Capra hirtus. — LINN. The Goat . — Wern. Club.

92 History of Nature. [BOOK VIII.

shaggy Hair about their Shoulders. But the Mark to know
the noblest Females is, that they have two Folds hanging down
along their Body on either Side from the Neck. All have
not Horns ; but in those which are horned, a Man may know
their Age by the Increase of the Prominences : and the un-
horned she-Goats are more abundant in Milk. Arclielaus
writeth, that they breathe through the Ears,1 and not at the
Nostrils ; and also that they are never without a Fever. And
this, perhaps, is the Cause that they have hotter Breath
than Sheep, and more eager in their Love. They say, also,
that they see by Night as well as by Day ; and therefore
they who in the Evening are able to see nothing, which
Disease we call Nyctalipia, recover their perfect Sight again
by eating the Liver of Goats.2 In Cilicia and about the
Syrtes, People clothe themselves with the Goat's Hair, for
there they shear them. It is said that Goats, toward the
Sun-setting, cannot in their Pasture see directly one ano-
ther, but by turning Tail to Tail ; but at other Hours of the
Day they keep towards each other, among their Fellows.
They have all of them a Tuft of Hair under their Chin,
which they call Aruncus. If any one take one of them by
this Beard and draw it out of the Flock, all the rest will
stand gazing at it, as if they were astonished ; and so they
will do if any one of them chance to eat a certain Herb.3
Their Bite is destructive to Trees. They make the Olive-
Tree barren by licking it, for which Cause they are not
sacrificed to Minerva.

1 The ancient Greeks and Romans were of opinion that goats breathed
through their ears; and even some modern naturalists entertain the
idea that the tear-pits found in the stag and fallow-deer are furnished to
enable them to breathe more freely during their long and rapid flights.
These opinions may be accounted for in some measure by the fact that
certain species of antelope have a pit or fold of skin nearly half an inch in
depth, opening externally by a small aperture immediately behind each
ear, the use of which is not clearly understood. — Wern. Club.

2 Lib. xxviii. 11.

3 This herb is said to be Eryngium. See Theoph. in Fragmento de
Animalibus. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 93

CHAPTER LI.
Of Swine1 and their Natures.

THE Sexes of the Herd of Swine
are united from the Time of the
western Wind (Favonius) to the
Spring* Equinox ; and when they are
eight Months old ; and in some
Places even at the fourth Month of Mtmtf.tom.rn.

their Age up to the seventh Year. They farrow twice a Year;
they go with Young four Months. One Sow may bring at
a Farrow to the Number of twenty Pigs ; but she cannot rear
so many. Nugidius saith, that those Pigs which are farrowed
on the ten Days about the shortest Day of the Year, are
born with Teeth. They are fertile at one coupling, but be-
cause they are subject to Abortion it requires to be repeated.
The Way to prevent Abortion is to keep them asunder at
their first seeking, and before their Ears hang down. The
Males are not fertile after three Years old. Sows, when they
are feeble for Age, are rendered fertile as they lie along.
That a Sow should eat her own Pigs is not a Prodigy. A
young Pig is pure for Sacrifice five Days after it is farrowed ;
a Lamb at eight Days; and a Calf at thirty Days. But
Coruncanus denieth that Beasts which chew the Cud are
pure for Sacrifice until they have two Teeth. Swine that
have lost one Eye are not thought to live long after ; other-
wise they may continue until they are fifteen Years old, and
some to twenty. But they grow outrageous, and subject to
many other Kinds of Diseases, especially the Quinsy and
Scrofula. A Mark to show that Swine are sick is to pluck
a Bristle from the Back, and it will be found bloody at the
Root : also he will carry his Head with a Twist as he goeth.
An overfat Sow soon wanteth Milk ; and at her first Farrow
bringeth fewest Pigs. All the Kind of them love to wallow
in the Mire. They twist their Tails ; wherein this also is

1 Sus scrofa. — LINN. The Uog. — Wern. Club.

94 History of Nature. [BOOK VIII.

observed, that they more easily appease the Gods in Sacri-
fice, when they turn their Tails to the right rather than the
left. Swine will be fat in sixty Days ; and the rather if, be-
fore you set them up for feeding, they be kept fasting for
three Days. Of all other Animals they are the most brutish;
so that there goeth a witty saying of them, That their Life is
given them instead of Salt.1 It is known that when Thieves
had driven away a Company of them, on hearing the Voice
'of the Swineherd they leaned all to one Side of the Vessel,
and sunk it, and then returned to their Keeper. Moreover,
the Hogs that lead the Herd are so well trained, that they
will of themselves go to the Swine Market-place, and from
thence Home again ; and the Wild ones have the Wit to
confound the Prints of their Feet, in the marshy Ground,
and to render their Flight more easy by first voiding their
Urine.2 Sows also are spayed as Camels are ; but two Days
before, they are kept from Meat : then they hang them by
the Forelegs to make Incision into the Part; and by this
means they grow to Fat sooner. There is an Art also to
prepare the Liver of a Sow, as also of a Goose,3 which was
the Invention of M. Apicius* by feeding them with dry
Figs, and when they have eaten till they are full, presently
to kill them with a Drink of Water, Wine, and Honey
(Mulsus).5 There is not the Flesh of any other living Crea-
ture that affordeth more Matter for Gluttony : for there are
nearly fifty Sorts of Tastes, whereas others have but one
each. From hence came so many Books of Laws by the

1 Cicero (" De Nat. Deorum," lib. ii.) tells us that this was the saying
of Chrysippus the philosopher ; intimating that the hog lived only to be
eaten, and that his life preserved his flesh from corruption, as salt would
do.— Wern. Club.

2 Lib. xxviii. 15. 3 Lib. x. 22.

4 Lib. xix. 8. He is referred to again (B. x. c. 48), and at a time when
luxury in food was carried to a higher pitch than it had ever been in the
world before, he attracted attention by his enormous excess. Athenaeus
says, that Appion the grammarian wrote a treatise on the luxury of Api-
cius (B. vii. c. 12), quoted in the Notes to Bowyer's " Lilian," p. 1010. —
Wern. Club.

5 Lib. xxii. 24.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 95

Censors, prohibiting to serve up at Suppers the Belly and
Paps of a Sow; the Glands, Testicles,1 Womb, and the Fore-
part of the Boar's Head : and yet Publius* the comic Poet,
after he obtained his Freedom, is remarked to have been
never without an Hog's Belly ; who also gave the Name of
Sumen to it. The Flesh of wild Hogs also came into great
Request; so that Cato the Censor, in his Orations, reproached
them for making Brawn.3 And yet when they made three
Portions of the wild Boar, the Loin was served up in the
midst, under the Name of Brawn (Aprugnus). The first
Roman that brought to the Table, in Feasts, a whole Boar,
was P. Servilius Rullus, Father of that Rullus who, when
Cicero was Consul, published the Agrarian Law. So little
while ago it is since the Beginning of what is now an every-
day Occurrence. And the Thing was recorded in the Annals;
no doubt, to correct such Customs. In them one Supper
had a Mark set on it at the Beginning ; but now, two and
three Boars are eaten at one Time.

CHAPTER LII.
Of Parks for Beasts.

THE first Man of the long Robe that formed Parks for
these and other wild Animals was Fulvius Lippinus, who, in
the Territory of Tarquiny, set up an establishment to feed wild
Beasts. And it was not long before others followed his Steps,
as L. Lucullus and Q. Hortensius. Wild Sows bring forth
once a Year ; and the Boars in rutting-time are exceeding
fierce : then they fight one with another : they harden their
Sides by rubbing them against Trees, and coat their Backs
with Mud. The Sows at their farrowing are still more fierce,
as is the Case with almost every kind of Beast. Wild Boars
are not fertile before they are a Year old. The wild Boars of
India4 have two curved Tusks of a Cubit in Length, growing

1 Lib. xxxvi. 2. ' Lib. xxxv. 17. 3 Lib. xi. 37.

4 Sus babirussa. — Cuv. The Babiroussa. — This animal, a species
of wild hog, is found in some of the Indian isles. Its long upper tusks,

96 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

out of their Snout ; and as many from their Forehead, like
Calves' Horns. The Hair of the wild sort is like Brass ; but
in others, black. In Arabia, Swine will not live.

CHAPTER LIII.
Of Beasts half wild.

THERE is no Creature that mixeth so easily with the wild
kind as the Swine ; and such Hogs in old Time they called
Hybrides (half wild) ; and this Term hath been transferred to
Mankind, as in the Instance of C. Antonius, the Colleague
of Cicero in the Consulship. And not in Swine only, but
also in all other Creatures, of whatever Kind there is any
one tame, you may find also the wild of the same Kind ; and
even of Men there may be said to be so many wild Kinds.
As for the Goats, they are changed into a variety of Forms.1
There are (Caproe) Roes,2 (Rupicaprse) the Shamois,3 the
wild Goat (Ibex),4 of wonderful Swiftness, although his Head
is loaded with very large Horns like Scabbards for Swords ;
by these they poise themselves when they swing round as by
a Rope from one Rock to another ; and chiefly when they
endeavour to skip along from one Mountain to another, and
fetch a Leap to what Place they please with a rapid Spring.
Of this kind are the Oryges,5 the only Beasts, as some say,
that have their Hair growing reversed, and turning toward
the Head. To these belong the (Damae) Does,6 and Py-
gargi;7 as also Strepsicerotes,8 and many others much like.

passing through the skin of the snout, and curving round over the
forehead, so as to protect the head and eyes, render it applicable to
Pliny's description of the wild boar of India. — Wern. Club.

1 Lib. vii. 2. " No animal," says Pennant, " seems so subject to
varieties (the dog excepted) as the goat." — Wern. Club.

2 Caprece, Lib. xi. 37. 3 Rupicapra;, Lib. xi. 37.

4 Ibices: Capra ibex. — LINN. The Ibex. — Wern. Club.

5 Oryges, Lib. xi. 46, and vol. i. p. 75, note. In the 30th chapter,
the wild bulls of India are said to have their hair set backwards as well
as the oryx. — Wern. Club.

6 Damce, Lib. x. 37. The African species. — Wern. Club.

7 Pygargus, Lib. x. 3. 8 Strepsicerotes, Lib. xi. 37.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 97

The former sort come out of the Alps : these last are sent
from other Parts beyond the Sea.

CHAPTER LIV.
Of Monkeys.

ALL the Kinds of Monkeys1 approach very near to the
human Figure ; but they differ one from another in the Tail.
They possess wonderful Shrewdness ; and are said to do as
they see Hunters do before them : even to besmear them-
selves with Birdlime, and to entangle their Feet in Snares,
as if they were putting on Shoes. Mutianus saith, that they
have played at Chess; and that at first Sight they knew Nuts
made of Wax from others ; that when the Moon is in the
wane those Kinds which have Tails are sad, but the new
Moon they adore with Skipping for Joy : for the Eclipse of
Sun or Moon these and all other four-footed Creatures
greatly dread. Monkeys of all Sorts are very fond of their
Young Ones ; and those which are kept tame in Houses will
display them to every one as soon as they are born, carrying
them about : they also take Pleasure to have them dandled, as
if they understood it to imply Congratulation, and in this Way
they generally end in killing them by their Embraces. The
Nature of the Cynocephali2 is the most savage ; as that of the
Sphinges and Satyri is the most gentle. The Callitriches3
differ almost entirely in their Appearance : they have a
Beard on their Face, and the Forepart of their Tail is widely

1 Lib. xi. 44.

2 Cynocepnalus anubis. — F. Cuv. This is the baboon, which, according
to the author of the work on Monkeys, in the " Library of Entertaining
Knowledge," was, " without a shadow of doubt," the Cynocephalus of the
ancients ; but other authorities attribute the Cynocephalus to the Derrias
or CynocepTialus hamadryis of modern zoologists. — Wern. Club.

3 Colobus guereza. — RUP. The Guereza. — " The conjecture as to
the identity of the Guereza with the Callithrix of the ancients, is by no
means void of probability : at all events it appears to be much nearer the
truth than any other we have met with on the subject." — See Natural
History of Monkeys in "Library of Entertaining Knowledge" p. 278. —
Wern. Club.

VOL. III. H

98 History of Nature. [BOOK VIII.

spread. This Creature is said to live in no other Climate
but in Ethiopia, where it is produced.

CHAPTER LV.
Of Hares and Rabbits.

OF Hares there are many sorts.1 On the Alps they are
white ; and it is thought that in the Winter Months they
feed on Snow ; and certainly when it is thawed, all the Year
after they are brownish red ; and this Creature is otherwise
bred up in extreme Cold. Of the Hare kind are they also
which in Spain they call (Cuniculi2) Rabbits, which are ex-
ceedingly fruitful ; so that having devoured all the Corn in
the Field before Harvest in the Balearic Islands, they
brought thereby a Famine on the People. There is a very
dainty Dish at Table made of the young, either cut out of
the Dam's Belly, or taken from them when they are suck-
ing, without cleansing their Entrails : and they call it Lau-
rices. It is certain that the Inhabitants of the Balearic
Islands made a Petition to Divus Augustus Ccesar for mili-
tary Aid to destroy the great Increase of these Creatures
among them. Ferrets3 are a favourite Resource for hunt-
ing them. They put them into their Holes, which within
the Ground have many Passages (from whence these Crea-
tures are called Cuniculi} : and when they are driven out
of their Earth they are soon taken. Archelaus writeth,
that so many Passages as the Hare hath for his Dung, so

1 Lepus timidus. — LINN. The Hare. — Baron Cuvier says that during
the second Punic War, Fulvius Hirpinus devised the mode of retaining
quadrupeds in parks. And that these parks were named Leporaria,
because three sorts of hares were reared in them ; the common hare, the
original Spanish rabbit, and the variegated or alpine hare, a species now
almost entirely destroyed.

The flesh of the hare was highly valued : Martial says (Xenia, 87) : —

" Inter aves turdus, siquis me Judice certet,
Inter Quadrupedes gloria prima Lepus." — Wern. Club.

2 Lepus cuniculus. — LINN. The Rabbit. — Wern. Club.

3 Musielafuro.— Li-HN. The Ferret. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 99

many Years old he is ; and certainly some have more than
others. The same Writer says, that every Hare is in posses-
sion of a double Faculty, and can breed without the Buck.
Herein Nature hath showed her Bounty, that so harmless an
Animal, and so good to eat, should produce so abundantly.
The Hare is naturally exposed to be a Prey to all ; it is the
only Creature, except the Dasypus,1 which superfoetates ; so
that she hath one sucking her ; another within her, covered
with Hair ; another is naked ; and another scarcely well-
shaped : all in the Womb together. An Attempt has been
made to make Cloth of Hare's Fur ; but to the Touch they
are not so soft as upon the Skin ; and the Hair is soon shed,
because of its shortness.

CHAPTER LVI.
Of Beasts half tame.

HARES are seldom rendered tame ; and yet they cannot
rightly be called wild. For many other Creatures there are
that are neither wild nor gentle, but of a middle Nature be-
tween both. Such is among Birds, Swallows, Bees; and in
the Sea, Dolphins.

CHAPTER LVII.
Of Mice* and Dormice.

IN the Class of those which are neither tame nor wild,
many have arranged the Mice that haunt our Houses : a
Creature not to be despised in considering public Prodigies.
By gnawing the silver Shields3 at Lavinium, they portended
the Marsian War. To Carlo the Imperator, by eating the
Bandages which he used in fastening his Shoes, at Clusium,

1 It is not possible to determine what animal Pliny intended by the
term Dasypus: some have supposed the word to be no more than an
epithet for a species of Lepus, all of which are soft-footed. See B. x. c. 62.
-Wern. Club.

8 Mm musculus. — LINN. The common Mouse. — Wern. Club.

3 Cicero mentions this circumstance, "De Divin." Lib. i. and Lib. ii.
— Wern. Club.

100 History of Nature. [BooK VIII.

they prognosticated his Death. There are many kinds of
them in the Country of Cyrerie : some with a broad Fore-
head, others with a sharp-pointed ; and some with sharp
Bristles, like Hedgehogs. Theophrastus reporteth, that they
drove away the Inhabitants of the Island Gyaros, and
gnawed even the Iron : a Thing which it seems their
Nature to do ; for among the Chalybes they eat the Iron in
the Smiths' Workshops ; and, indeed, in Gold Mines1 on
this Account they cut open their Bowels, and so they always
find their stolen Goods again : such Delight this Creature
taketh in thieving. We read in the Chronicles, that when
Annibal besieged Casilinum, a Mouse (Murem) was sold
for two hundred Sesterces ; and the Man who bought it
lived, but he that sold it died for Hunger. If white ones
abound, it presageth Prosperity. Our Annals are full of
Instances, that when Rats (Sorices) are heard to squeak
the Auspices are broken off. Nigidius saith, that Rats also
lie hid in Winter, like Dormice2 (Glires). By the Laws of
the Censors, and principally by an Act of M. Scaurus, in his
Consulship, it was provided that these should be kept away
from Suppers in no other Manner than were Shell-fish, or
Birds brought from foreign Countries. The Dormouse is a
half- wild Creature ; and he who first contrived to keep
Boars in Parks, also fed these Animals in Tubs. In which
Practice it hath been observed, that these little Creatures
will not associate unless they were Inhabitants of the same
Wood ; and if there be mingled among them any Strangers,
such as had some River or Mountain between the Places
where they were bred, they kill one another with fighting.

1 Livy tells us, Lib. xxviii. 23, that at Cumse mice gnawed some gold
in the temple of Jupiter ; and again, Lib. xxx. 2, that at Antium some
mice gnawed a golden crown. — Wern. Club.

2 Myoxus glis. — Cuv. An animal as big as a rat, and not to be con-
founded with the little English creature of the same name : the M. Avel-
lanarius of Cuvier. The Romans regarded dormice as a great delicacy,
rearing them in enclosures, and lodging them in earthen jars of a peculiar
form ; and fattening them with worms and chestnuts. — B. xxxvi. c. 2.
The writers on agriculture speak of the rearing of these creatures as they
do of any other country work. — Wern. Club.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 101

They feed with distinguished Piety their Parents, when
they are feeble with Age. They renew their Age by sleeping
all the Winter; for they lie close and snug all the while.
But when the Summer is come, they grow young again.
The Fieldmice (Nitelae) likewise take similar Rest.

CHAPTER LVIII.
What Creatures are not to be found in certain Places.

IT is wonderful that Nature hath not only assigned diffe-
rent Creatures to different Countries, but also in one Region
hath denied some to certain Situations. In the Forest of
Moesia in Italy, these Dormice are found only in one Part.
In Lycia, Roebucks1 never pass the Mountains that border
on the Syrians ; nor do the wild Asses that Mountain which
divideth Cappadocia from Cilicia. Within Hellespont the
Stags never wander away into the Borders of other Coun-
tries ; and those which are about Arginussa do not pass be-
yond the Mountain Elatus; which may be known by the
Fact, that all upon that Mountain have their Ears divided.
In the Island Poroselenum, the Weazels do not cross over
the Highway. And about Lebadia in Bceotia, those Moles
which are brought thither from other Parts fly from the
very Soil ; although near by, in Orchomenus, they under-
mine all the Corn-fields ; and I have seen all the Bed-
clothing made of their Skins. In this Manner, even Religion
will not prevent our seeking Pleasures out of the Portents
themselves. The strange Hares that are brought to Ithaca
are found dead about the very Banks of the Sea. In the
Island Ebusus there are no Rabbits ; but in Spain and in the
Balearic Islands they abound. Frogs were mute in Cyrenae ;
but those which were brought thither from the Continent

1 Antelope dorcas. — PALLAS. The Gazelle. — This animal is generally
supposed to be the Dorcas of the ancients ; but there are those who
would rather identify it with either the Antelope Arabica, Hemp, et
Ehren.; or the Antelope subgutturosa, Guldenst. — Wern. Club.

102 History of Nature. [BoOK VIII.

were vocal ; and this kind still continueth there. Even now
in the Island Seriphos they are silent ; but if the same are
carried to other Places, they sing. And they say that the
like happeneth in a Lake of Thessaly named Sicendus. In
Italy the Bite of the Shrew-mouse1 (Mus araneus) is venom-
ous ; but beyond the Apennines there are no more such to
be found. In whatever Country they are, if they cross over
the Track of a Cart-wheel, they die. In Olympus, a Moun-
tain of Macedonia, there are no Wolves ; nor in the Island
of Crete. And there also are no Foxes nor Bears; and in
one Word, no hurtful Creature, except the Phalangiurn,2 a
kind of Spider, of which we will speak more in its proper
Place. It is more surprising that in the same Island there are
no Deer, except only in the Region of the Cydoniates : no
wild Boars likewise, nor the Attagen, or Hedgehogs. To
conclude, in Africa there are no wild Boars, no Stags, no
Roes, nor Bears.

CHAPTER LIX.

What Creatures are hurtful to Strangers. •

SOME Creatures there are which do no Harm to the Na-
tives of the Country, but kill all Strangers : such as some
small Serpents in Tirinthe, which are supposed to be pro-
duced out of the Earth. So, in Syria, there are Snakes,
especially along the Banks of the Euphrates, that do not
touch the Syrians while l}ing asleep; and even if a Native
treads upon them and receives a Bite, he does not receive
any Hurt ; but to the People of any other Nation they are

1 Sorex araneus. — LINN. The Shrew. — Among the ancients the
Shrew-mouse had a very bad reputation. Thus Aristotle declares that
its bite is dangerous to horses and other beasts of burden ; and that it is
more dangerous if the Shrew-mouse be with young. The bite, he says,
causes boils, and these burst, if the Shrew-mouse be pregnant when she
inflicts the wound ; but if she be not, they do not burst. — " Hist. Anim."
Lib. viii. 24.— Wern. Club.

2 Lib. xi. 24 ; and Lib. xxix. 4.

BOOK VIII.] History of Nature. 103

very dangerous : so that they will eagerly assail and kill
them with extreme Pain. And therefore it is that the
Syrians do not destroy them. On the other Hand, Aristotle
reporteth,1 that in Latmos, a Mountain of Caria, the Scor-
pions will do no Harm to Strangers, but they will sting to
Death the Inhabitants of the Country.

Now let us proceed to speak of the Kinds of other living
Creatures, besides those of the Land.

1 "Hist. Anim." Lib. viii. 39. — Wern. Club.

IN THE NINTH BOOK

ARE CONTAINED THE
HISTORY AND NATURE OF CREATURES OF THE WATER.

CHAP.

1. The Nature of Creatures of the

Water.

2. The Reason why Creatures of

the Sea are of all others the
biggest.

3. The monstrous Beasts of the

Indian Sea.

4. The greatest Fishes in every

Part of the Ocean.

5. Of Tritons, Nereids, and Sea-

Elephants : their Forms.

6. Of Whales (called Balaenae) and

Orcse.

7. Whether Fishes breathe or

sleep.

8. Of Dolphins and their won-

derful Properties.

9. Of the Tursions.

10. Of Tortoises, and how they are

taken.

1 1 . Who first devised to separate the

Tortoise-shells into Leaves.

12. The Coverings of Sea Animals :

the Division of them into their
several Kinds.

13. Of the Seal.

14. Of Fishes without Hair : how

they breed : and how many
Sorts there are.

15. The Names and Natures of

many Fishes.

16. Augury by Fishes, and their

Variety.

17. Of the Mullet and other Fishes.

That the same Fishes are not
in request in all Places.

CHAP.

18. Of the Barbel, the Coracinus :

of Stockfish and Salmon.

19. Of the Exoecetus, Calamaries,

the Muraena.

20. The Division of Fishes by the

Shape of their Bodies.

21. Of Eels.

22. The Manner of taking them in

the Lake Benacus.

23. The Nature of the Muraena.

24. Of flat Fishes.

25. Of the Echeneis, and its won-

derful Nature.

26. The Variety of Fishes.

27. Of the Fish called the Lantern,

and the Sea Dragon.

28. Of Fishes wanting Blood.

29. Of the Loligo, the Sepia, the

Calamary, and Nautilus.

30. The Fish Ozsena, and Nau-

plius : also of the Lobster
kind.

31. Of Crabs, Echini: and of the

greater Sort named Echino-
metrae.

32. Of wreathed Shells.

33. Of Scallops, Murex, and other

such.

34. The Treasures of the Sea.

35. Of Pearls, how they are pro-

duced, and where : also how
they are found.

36. Of the purple Shell-fish and

the Murices.

37. How many Kinds there are of

purple Shell-fishes.

Contents of the Ninth Book.

105

CHAP.

38. How the purple Shell - fishes

are taken.

39. When Purple was first worn

in Rome.

40. The Price of purple Cloth at

Rome.

41. The dyeing of the Amethyst

Colour, of the Scarlet in
Grain, and the light Scarlet
Hysginus.

42. Of the Pinna and Pinnoteres:

also the Intelligence of Crea-
tures of the Water.

43. Of Scolopendres, Sea Foxes,

and the Fishes Glani.

44. Of the Fish called the Sea

Ram.

45. Of those Things which have a

third Nature, being neither
living Creatures, nor yet
Plants; of Sea Nettles and
Sponges.

46. Of Hound-fishes.

47. Of such as have stony Shells :

of those that have no Sense :
of other sordid Creatures.

CHAP.

48. Of venomous Fishes.

49. The Diseases incident to Fishes.

50. The surprising Generation of

Fishes.

51. Another Discourse of their

Generation : and what Fishes
lay Eggs.

52. The Wombs of Fishes.

53. What Fishes live longest.

54. Of Oyster Pits, and who first

devised them.

55. Who first invented Ponds to

feed the Mursena in.

56. The Ponds for other Shell-

fishes, and who first used
them.

57. Of Fishes that haunt the Land.

58. The Rats of the Nile.

59. Of the Fish called Anthias, and

how it is taken.

60. Of Sea Stars.

61. Of the Fishes Dactyli, and their

admirable Properties.

62. What Fishes entertain Amity

one with another, and which
are ever at War.

In sum, this Book containeth Histories and Observations to the Number
of 650, collected

OUT or LATIN AUTHORS :

Turanius Graccula, Trogus, Mecanas, Alfius Flavus, Cornelius Nepos,
Laberius the Writer of merry Epigrams, Fubianus, Fenestella, Mutianus,
JElius Stilo, Statins Sebosus, Melissus, Seneca, Cicero, Macer, JEmylius,
Messala Corvinus, Trebius Niger, and Nigidius.

OUT OF FOREIGN WRITERS:

Aristotle, King Archelaus, Callimachus, Democritus, Theophrastus,
rasyllus, Hegesidemus of Cythnos, and Alexander Polyhistor.

THE NINTH BOOK

HISTORY OF NATURE

C. PLINIUS SECUNDUS.

CHAPTER I.
Of the Nature of the Inhabitants of the Water.

have pointed out the Nature of those Ani-
ma^s which are caHed Terrestrial, and which
have some Society with Men. And consi-
dering that among the others they that fly
K2OOOO* are the least, we will first treat of the Inha-
bitants of the Sea ; and of those also that live in Rivers or
Ponds.

CHAPTER II.

Why the Sea should breed the greatest living Creatures.

THE Waters bring forth greater Abundance of living
Creatures, and these also of larger size, than the Land.
The Cause is evident, in the excessive Abundance of Mois-
ture. For the Birds, which live suspended in the Air, their
Case is otherwise. But in the Sea, which is so widely
spread abroad, so soft and proper to yield Nourishment
and increase, and receiveth the Causes of Propagation from

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 107

on high, Nature is always framing some new Creatures,
many of which are found to be monstrous Things. For
the Seeds and universal Elements are so interlaced and
iningled one with another, partly by the blowing (of the
Winds), and at other Times by the Agitation (of the Waves),
that it may truly be said, according to the vulgar Opinion,
that whatever is bred in any Part of Nature is to be found
also in the Sea ; and many more Things besides, which no-
where else are to be seen. For there truly not only exist the
Forms of Land Animals, but also of many other Things; and
there may one see also what appear like Bunches of Grapes,
Swords, and Saws; yea, and also Cucumbers, which for
Colour, Smell, and Taste, resemble those that grow on
the Land. And therefore we need the less to wonder, if in
such little Snails there are some Things standing out like
the Heads of Horses.

CHAPTER III.
Of Beasts in the Indian Sea.

THE Indian Sea breedeth the most and biggest Animals ;
among which Whales (Balaenae)1 are as large as four Acres of
Land ; and Pristes two hundred Cubits: and no Wonder, for

1 To avoid a confusion of references, the species of whales mentioned
by Pliny are here arranged at one view ; and, so far as the subject admits,
identified with those recognised by modern naturalists.

The term " Balaenae " appears, in its widest extension, to have been a
general name for the whole tribe ; in which also were comprised some
inhabitants of the ocean, of large size, which had nothing in common
with the proper whales but their magnitude. The Pristis, perhaps the
Basking Shark (Selachus maximus, Cuv.), and some other species, and
certainly the Tunny, when, as sometimes happens, it has attained enor-
mous growth, were anciently arranged among cetaceous fishes. But be-
sides this, the word " Balaena," or " Phalsena," was the proper name of
the animal known as the Balcenoptera musculus, or the Rorqual of
Cuvier; which they did not distinguish from B. Boops.

The creatures referred to at the end of Ch. 3, and compared to horses,
asses, and bulls, were probably Dugongs, or Sea-cows ; the Manatus and
Halichore of Cuvier, and comprised in the genus Trichecus of Linncus.
Physeter, a modern as well as ancient genus of whales, is still known on

1 08 History of Nature. [BoOK 1 X .

Locusts are there to be found of full four Cubits : and Eels
in the River Ganges of thirty Feet. But these Beasts in the
Sea are chiefly to be seen about the Solstice. For then by
the Whirlwinds, Rains, and Tempests, which rush with Vio-
lence down from the rugged Mountains, the Seas are turned
up from the very Bottom ; and thus the Billows roll and
raise these Beasts out of the deep Parts of the Ocean. For
in that Manner so great a Multitude of Tunnies were on one
occasion driven up, that the Fleet of Alexander the Great was
able to make head against them in no other Manner than by
advancing as if to contend with an Host of Enemies ; for
otherwise if they had sailed singly and asunder, there had
been no Way to escape. By no Voice, no Noise, no Blows,
but by the Crash only were they terrified ; nor are they
disturbed but by Destruction.

In the Red Sea there is a great Peninsula named Cadara,
projecting so far as to form an extensive Bay, which it took
King Ptolemceus twelve Days and Nights to row through ;
for there was not any Wind to help him. Through the
Stillness of this Place, the Beasts grow to such bigness,
that their Weight renders them not able to stir. The Com-
manders of the Fleets of Alexander the Great reported,
that the Gedrosi, a People dwelling on the River Arbis,

the west coasts of Britain, by the corresponding term " Blower." The
enormous creature cast on shore at Gades, as mentioned at the end of
Chap. 5, must have been of this genus ; and as the number of teeth
assigned to it was probably counted collectively, after the jaws were
denuded of flesh, when some also are seen in the upper jaw, it may be
supposed probable that it was Ph. macrocephalus.

The other species mentioned by Pliny belong to the genus Delphinus : —
D. Orca. The Grampus. — It is also the Aries or Ram of Pliny ;
from a white crescent over the eye, marked on the skin, fancifully
supposed to resemble a ram's horn.
D. DelpMs. The real Dolphin.
D. Tursio.

The Platanista of Pliny is the D. gangeticus, Cuv.
The Forcus marinus, c. 15, is probably the D. Phocana, or common

Porpus.

Whale oil is mentioned, B. xxxii. c. 1.
The Pristis is probably the P, antiquorum, or Sawfish. — Wvrn. Club.

BOOK IX .] History of Nature. 109

used to make the Jaws of such Beasts the Doors of their
Houses ; that they form the Rafters of their Roofs with the
Bones ; and that many of them were found to be forty Cubits
long.

In those Parts the Beasts go forth to the Land like a
Flock of Cattle, and feed upon the Roots of Plants, and
then return. There are others also which have Heads like
Horses, Asses, and Bulls ; and these eat the standing Corn.

CHAPTER IV.
Which are the greatest Creatures in any Ocean.

THE largest Creature in the Indian Sea is the Pristis and
Balsena (Whale). In the Ocean of Gaul the largest is the
Physeter, which lifteth itself up in the Manner of an immense
Pillar, higher than the Sails of Ships ; and spouteth forth
almost a Flood. In the Ocean of Gades there is a Tree1
spreading abroad with mighty Arms, to such an extent that it
is believed to be the Cause why that Arm of the Sea is never
entered. There are to be seen also what from their Shape
are called Wheels, distinguished by four Rays ; with their
two Eyes closing over the Naves on each Side.

CHAPTER V.

Of the Forms of Tritons, Nereids, and Sea- Elephants *
WHEN Tiberius was Sovereign, an Embassy of the Inha-

1 This and the wheel may be referred to some large species of coral,
and asterias, or sea-star ; which report had magnified enormously. But
the former is thought by Dr. Hamilton to be the Kraken of Pontop-
pidan : perhaps a species of Medusa, or Cuttle-fish, of which a wonderful
figure is given by Denys Montford, where one of these creatures is seen
capturing a Chinese junk. — Wern. Club-

2 Of the existence of these beings, as they are represented by the
poets, the people of that day had as little doubt as of the god whose
attendants they were supposed to be. The stories told in this chapter
were probably due to some deception practised on the credulity or fear of
the neighbourhood by some skilful swimmers. That some species of Seal

1 10 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

bitants of Ulyssipon1 was sent to inform him, that there was
seen and heard within a certain Cave a Triton, sounding a
Shell; and that he was known by his Form. And it is not
false that there is such a Creature as a Nereid; only their
Body is rough with Scales, even in those Parts where they
possess the human Form. For such a Female Being was
beheld on the same Shore ; and the neighbouring Inha-
bitants heard its Moaning from a Distance when it was
dying. Also, a Governor of Gaul, under .Divus Augustus,
wrote, that many of these Nereids were seen dead upon the
Shore. I possess Authors, illustrious in the Equestrian
Order, who testify that in the Ocean near Gades they saw a
Sea-man, in the whole Body perfectly resembling a Man :
that in the Night Season he would come aboard their Boats;
and on whatever Part he sat, he weighed it down ; so that if
he continued there any long Time he would even sink it.
When Tiberius was Sovereign, in an Island opposite the
Coast of the Province of Lugdunensis, the Sea, when it
ebbed, left upon the Sands, at one Time, above three hun-
dred Beasts, of a wonderful Variety and Bigness. And
there were no fewer found upon the Coast of the Santones.
And among the Rest there were Elephants and Rams, with
Horns like those (of the Land), except that they were
white: and many Nereids also. Turanius hath reported,
that a Beast was cast upon the Shore at Gades, of which the
Breadth of the two Fins forming the Ends of the Tail was
sixteen Cubits ; it had 120 Teeth, of which the biggest
were nine Inches in Measure, and the least half a Foot.
M. Scaurus, among other wonderful Things in his

(Phoca) has been seen, so closely resembling the human figure as to ob-
tain the name of Merman, has, even in modern times, been confidently
asserted. But the evidence has failed in proportion to the progress of
inquiry ; and the opinion of naturalists of the present age appears to be,
that the casual and hasty appearance of the young of the Walrus, before
it has obtained its tusks, has been the cause of this mistaken idea. The
same creature, in its adult growth, was, beyond doubt, the sea-elephant of
the ancients. — Wern. Club.

1 The modern Lisbon. —Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 1 1 1

ship, showed the Bones of that Beast to which Andromeda1 is
said to have been exposed ; and which were brought to Rome
from Joppe, a Town in Judaea : in Length they were forty
Feet, and in Height they exceeded the Ribs of the Indian
Elephant ; the Bone of the Spine was a Foot-and-half thick.

CHAPTER VI.
Of Balance and Orcce.

BALJEN^E come even into our Seas also. They say that
in the Ocean about Gades, they are not seen before Mid-
winter ; for at their set Times they lie close in a certain calm
and large Bay, where they wonderfully delight to show
themselves. The Orcae know this ; they are a Beast that
are a deadly Enemy to the others ; and their Likeness can-
not be represented by any other Figure than that of a
mighty Lump of Flesh, armed with terrible Teeth. These
break into those secret Retreats, and bite and tear the young
Calves, or those newly born, with the old ones that are
great with Young; they also pierce into them, like Ships of
War attacking with their Prows. The Balaenge (Whales)
that cannot turn aside, and are helpless to resist, being
unwieldy by reason of their own Weight, being then heavy
with Young, or weak with the Pains of Parturition, know
no other Means of Safety but to escape into the Deep, and
so defend themselves by the Aid of the whole Ocean. On
the other Side, the Orcae endeavour to lie between them and
the Way of Escape, and kill them among the Straits and
ragged Rocks, to drive them upon the Shallows, or force
them upon the Stones. When these Combats are seen, the

1 See B. v. c. 13, vol. ii. p. 67. When it became an object of political
importance to occupy and amuse the public attention by subjects alien to
the affairs of government, every thing which could minister to the curio-
sity of the people was sought for in the wide range of the Roman empire,
and brought to the city ; where the credulity of the populace was equal
to its ignorance. The supposed relics of this monster may have been the
fossil bones of some gigantic animal : or perhaps nothing more than the
bones of a whale. — Wern. Clnb.

1 12 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

Sea appeareth as if it were angry with itself; for although
there are no Winds in the Bay, yet the Waves are so great
from their panting, and the Blows, as no Whirlwinds are able
to raise. In the Harbour of Ostia, also, one of these Orcae was
seen, and was assailed by Claudius the Prince. It had come
when he was making the Harbour, enticed by the Shipwreck
of Beasts' Hides that were brought from Gaul, on which for
several Days the Creature had been glutting itself; and so
it had made a Channel in the Bottom of the Shallows, which
was so narrowed in by the Action of the Waves, that it be-
came too narrow for the Creature to turn round ; but while
it still goeth after this Gluttony, being thrown by the Bil-
lows upon the Shore, its back appeared high above the
Water, like the Bottom of a Ship turned upside down.
Ccesar commanded Nets and Cords with many Folds to be
spread along the Mouth of the Harbour, and himself, accom-
panied with the Prsetorian Cohorts, exhibited it for a Show to
the People of Rome; the Soldiers being brought together,
darted their Spears from the Ships, one of which I myself
saw sunk, as it became filled with the Waves that this Beast
spouted up. Balsenae have Openings in their Forehead ; and
so as they swim on the Surface of the Water, they blow up
aloft Showers of Rain.

CHAPTER VII.
Whether or no Fish breathe or sleep.

ALL Writers allow that a very few other Fishes in the
Sea, which among other inward Bowels have a Lung,
breathe ; for without the latter Organ no Animal is thought
to draw breath* And they who are of this Opinion suppose,
likewise, that no Fishes having Gills draw in and return
their Breath by turns ; nor many other Kinds besides, al-
though they are without Gills : of which Opinion, I see, was
Aristotle; and he supported the Doctrine by many profound
Researches. But I must not conceal that 1 do not entirely agree
with this Opinion ; for, if Nature be so disposed, other internal
Organs are able to carry on the Function of Breathing in

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 1 13

the Place of Lungs, just as in many Creatures another Kind
of Humour is in the Place of Blood. And who would wonder
that this vital Breath should penetrate within the Waters,
considering that he seeth how it is returned from them ; and
that it penetrateth even into the Earth, which is the grossest
Part of Nature, we perceive by the Example of the Crea-
tures, as the Moles, which live, although always buried in
the Ground. I have effectual Reasons to lead me to believe,
that all Things in the Waters breathe, each one after its
Nature. First, I have often observed in Fishes an evident
Action of breathing in the Heat of Summer; and also that
they gape when the Weather is calm ; and they also who
believe the contrary, confess that Fishes sleep.1 For what
Place is there for Sleep without Breathing ? Moreover,
whence those Bubbles which are breathed from under
Water? and the increase of the Bodies of Shell-fishes by the
Influence the Moon ? But above all, Fishes possess the
power of Hearing and Smelling,2 and no doubt both these
Senses are from the Matter of Air : for it can be understood
that Smell is nothing but the Air infected. However, let
every one think as he pleases on these Points. Neither
Whales, called Balaense, nor Dolphins, have any Gills. Both
these Kinds breathe through Passages which reach down to
the Lungs: from the Forehead in the Balsens, and in the
Dolphins, from the Back. Also the Sea-calves, which they
call Phoca:, breathe and sleep on the Land. So do Tortoises,
of which more by and by.

CHAPTER VII f.
Of Dolphins.

THE swiftest of all living Creatures, not of the Sea only,
is the Dolphin ; more rapid than a Bird, swifter than an
Arrow ; and but that its Mouth is far beneath its Snout,
(being almost in the middle of its Belly), not a Fish could
escape from its rapid Pursuit. But Nature in its Providence

1 See B. x. c. 75. 2 13. x. c. 70.

VOL. in. i

1 14 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

hath afforded an Hinderance ; for unless they turn upright
upon their Back, they cannot lay hold ; from whence chiefly
appeareth their Swiftness. For when the Dolphins are
urged by Hunger to pursue a Fish that flies before them
down to the very Bottom, and hold their Breath for a long
Time, to take Breath again they dart aloft as if they were
shot out of a Bow; and with such Force do they spring up,
that many Times they pass over the Sails of Ships. They
act almost as if they were united in Marriage. They pro-
duce their young ones in the tenth Month, in the Summer-
time ; and sometimes they have two at once. They suckle
them at their Teats, as the (Whales) Balaens do ; and so
long as their little ones are feeble from Youth, they carry them
about ; so that even when they are become of full size they bear
them Company through their great Affection to their Young.
Young Dolphins come very speedily to their Growth; for in
ten Years they are thought to have come to their full Big-
ness ; but they live thirty Years, as hath been known by the
Trial of cutting a Mark in their Tail. They lie close for the
Space of thirty Days, about the Rising of the Dog-star; con-
cealing themselves in some unknown Manner, which is the
more wonderful if they cannot breathe under Water. They
are accustomed to spring forth to the Land from some un-
certain Cause ; and as soon as they touch the dry Ground
they die : and so much the sooner because their Pipe is
closed. Their Tongue is movable, contrary to the Nature of
other Creatures living in the Waters ; it is also short and
broad, not much unlike that of a Swine. Their Voice resem-
bleth the Moaning of a Man ; they are Saddle-backed, and
the Snout is flat. And this is the Cause that all of them, in
a wonderful Manner, acknowledge the Name Simo, and like
to be so called. The Dolphin is not only a friendly Creature
to Man, but also to the Art of Music: it is delighted with
Harmony in Song, but especially with the Sound of the
Water Instrument. Of Man it is not afraid as of a Stranger;
but meeteth their Ships, playeth as if in Joy, enters into
Competition, and out-goeth them, although they carry full
Sails.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. \ 15

When Divus Augustus was Sovereign, a Dolphin in the
Lake Lucrinus loved with wonderful Affection a Boy who
was the Son of a poor Man ; and who, using to go every Day
to a Grammar-School from Baianum to Puteoli, was accus-
tomed about Noon to loiter and call the Dolphin by the
Name of Simo ; and many Times he would give him Frag-
ments of Bread, which for that Purpose he brought with him.
I should be reluctant to relate this, but that Meccenas, Fabi-
anus, Flavins Alfius, and many others, have committed the
Matter to Record. At whatever Time of the Day this Boy
called him, however hidden and concealed, he would hasten
from his Retreat ; and being fed from his Hand, he gently
offered him his Back to mount upon, lowering down the
Spines of his Fins, as into a Sheath. And when on his Back
he carried him over the broad Sea as far as Puteoli to
School ; in the same Manner conveying him back again for
many Years. But when the Boy fell sick and died, the
Dolphin frequented at Intervals the accustomed Place, as
one that was sadly distressed ; at last (in a Manner that no
one could doubt) he also died from Regret.1

1 The works of ancient naturalists abound in stories concerning the
Dolphin and its friendliness to the human race ; and from circumstances
which the Editor has been made acquainted with, it would appear that on
some occasions slight signs of recognition have been occasionally mani-
fested between at least some species of cetaceous animals and voyagers.
There is reason to believe, however, that these approaches to intimacy
have been directed rather to the ship than the sailors, and that the crea-
ture has mistaken the vessel for one of its own kind. It must be allowed
that nothing similar to the circumstances ascribed to this creature by
Pliny, JElian, and the Greek writers quoted by Aulus Gellius, has been
seen in modern times; but the multitude of witnesses, and the alleged
publicity of some of these occurrences, may be regarded as warrants that
something at least unusual had occurred at the time referred to. It may
serve in eliciting the truth, if we compare the narratives of these ancient
authors with one another, and with the well-known habits and appear-
ance of the Dolphin (Delphinus Delphis). .ZElian's account of a circum-
stance exceedingly similar to this of Pliny, is, with a slight abridgment,
thus (B. vi. c. 15) : — "The celebrated instance of affection which a Dol-
phin at Jasos (in Caria) expressed for a beautiful boy must not be passed
over in silence. The gymnasium of the people of Jasos overlooks the

1 16 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

Another Dolphin, not many Years since, upon the Coast
of Africa, near to Hippo Diarrhytus, in like Manner would

sea ; and after the races were over, it was the custom of the young men
to go to the shore and bathe. On one occasion when they were indulging
themselves in swimming, a dolphin was attracted with the most vehement
love to one of these youths, who was remarkably beautiful. When first
the creature approached him he was not a little afraid ; but as the fami-
liarity increased the young man became so conciliated, that he learned to
regard him with kindness and friendship. They played together, and
contended in swimming ; and the boy would sit on his back, and be car-
ried about as on a horse. The sight soon attracted the attention of the
people of the place, and also of strangers. The dolphin continued to
manifest his love for this young man, and would carry him out to sea, as
far as was agreeable to his friend ; and then he would return and deposit
him on the shore. This dolphin was accustomed to make his appearance
at the time when the young man was dismissed from the gymnasium;
and their joy on meeting appeared to be mutual. This, however, at last,
met with a fatal termination ; for the boy, being tired with exercise, on
one occasion threw himself, naked as he was, on the back of the dolphin,
not observing the sharp spine on the back of the animal, as it stood erect;
and thus he pierced himself at the navel with its point : a vein being
wounded, by which he bled to death. The dolphin was not slow in dis-
covering that his friend was seriously injured — partly by the difference
of weight, for he did not sit on his back in the light and active manner
he had been accustomed to, and partly by seeing the water stained
with blood ; he therefore resolved not to survive him whom he had so
affectionately loved. He ran himself, with all his might, upon the shore,
and both of them died together. A monument was raised by the people
of the city to commemorate this love between the young man and the
dolphin." And the author concludes by saying, that he had heard of other
instances of similar affection : one of which had occurred at Puteoli, in
Italy ; and which, doubtless, was the same as is mentioned by Pliny.

Aulus Gellius adds to this an instance which he had derived from
Apion, whom, as an author on the subject of wonders, we have mentioned
before (Vol. i. p. 21), and who authenticates the story by affirming that
he saw it himself: — "I saw," says he, "near Dicsearchia (Puteoli), a
dolphin that had great affection for a boy, and manifested this feeling at
the sound of his voice. The fish would then swim near, and take the lad
on his back ; he would fold back the spines of his fins that he might not
hurt him, and then would carry him to the distance of two hundred
stadia, astride on his back. Rome, therefore, and all Italy, were poured
out to see this affectionate fish." It is to be regretted that the works of
Apion have perished ; but the little that remains is sufficient to show that

BOOK 1 X .] History of Nature. 1 1 7

take Meat from a Man's Hand, suffer himself to be handled,
play with them that swam in the Sea, and carry on his Back

his authority must not carry great weight, even when he professes to
have himself witnessed the occurrence. This Egyptian is also the autho-
rity for the story of Androclus and the Lion ; which he also asserts to
have occurred under his own notice. Yet, setting aside the negative
evidence derived from the silence of Pliny, who, if he had believed it,
would have found it an excellent illustration of his history of that beast,
there is one portion of it which is altogether incredible : and the doubt
arising from which must render suspicious whatever of a surprising
nature the same author anywhere reports. He says, that with the gift
of freedom, Androclus also was presented with the lion ; which he led
quietly about the city, with a slight string, collecting money at the
taverns. To enhance the wonder, the beast is represented to have been
of unusual size and ferocity ; but however well disposed such an animal
might be to recognize one from whom it had received an obligation, it is
contrary to its nature for a fierce and hitherto untamed lion to have
changed its character so far as to have been reconciled suddenly to the
noisy crowd of a city, and to have been led, only by a slight string,
crowned with flowers, without fearing or doing harm.

The narratives of the dolphin are equally contrary to nature, and
that in several particulars, in which an intelligent observer could not be
mistaken : whether that observer was Apion, whom A. Gellius charac-
terizes as being " vitio studioque ostentationis loquacior," and " sane quam
praedicandis doctrinis suis venditator : " or Mecaenas himself. Of these
errors one concerns the form of the animal, which is described as having
the mouth beneath the head, and a dorsal fin armed with sharp-pointed
spines, capable of voluntary motion : the latter, especially, not only un-
like what belongs to the dolphin, but to anything that could have been
mistaken for it. The mode of progress in the water of the real dolphin,
is also known to be such as does not admit these stories to be applied to
it. The dolphin rises to the surface for the purpose of breathing ; and
then is compelled to roll itself forward in a manner which does not
admit of its continuing to pass along the surface, even to the extent of
a few yards. But what thus appears inapplicable to the structure and
habits of the real dolphin is not exceedingly foreign to another inha-
bitant of the ocean. The common Seal (Phoca Vitulina) has on some
occasions manifested all the affectionate attachment to man which the
ancients ascribed to the dolphin. A little instruction will secure this ;
and however it might have been concealed for interested purposes, there
can be little doubt that the creatures of which these stories were related
in ancient times, had been previously trained to the actions they
[, — Wern. Club.

1 18 History of Nature. [BOOK IX.

those who placed themselves on it. But being anointed
with Unguent by Flavianus the Proconsul of Africa, the
Creature (as it should seem) being rendered sleepy by this
new Smell, and floating about as if had been half dead,
avoided Intercourse with Man for several Months, as if it
had been driven away by some Injury. But after a Time he
returned to the same surprising Practice. But the Wrongs
that some great Persons were the cause of, in their Enter-
tainment, as they came to see this Sight, caused the Men of
Hippo to kill the Dolphin.

Long before this the like is reported concerning a Boy in
the City of Jassus, where a Dolphin was observed for a long
Time to express Love to a Boy ; but while he eagerly fol-
lowed the Lad to the Shore as he was going away, he threw
himself upon the Sand, and died. Alexander the Great
appointed this Boy to be the Priest of Neptune at Babylon :
interpreting the Love of this Dolphin as a Sign of the special
Favour of that god to him.

Egesidemus writeth, that in the same City of Jassus there
was another Boy named Hermias, who having used in the same
Manner to ride upon a Dolphin over the Sea, was in a sud-
den Storm drowned in the Waves, and was brought back by
the Dolphin ; who, confessing that he was the Cause of his
Death, did not return into the Sea, but died on the dry Land.

The like happened at Naupactum, by the Report of Theo-
phrastus. But there is no End of such Examples ; for the
Amphilochi and Tarentini relate the same concerning Boys
and Dolphins ; which Instances induce us also to believe
that Arioti, who was a skilful Player on the Harp, when the
Sailors were preparing to kill him, by throwing him into the
Sea, and so intercept all his Gains, by conciliating them,
obtained the Favour that he might first be permitted to sing-
to his Harp ; and a number of Dolphins having flocked
about him in consequence of his Music, when they threw
him into the Sea, he was received by one of them, and
carried to the Shore of Tsenarus.

In the Province of Narbonensis, and in the Territory of
Nsemausium, there is a Pond called Laterra, where Men and

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 119

Dolphins fish in company : for at one certain Time a very
great Abundance of Mullets,1 taking the Advantage of a
Change of the Tide at the narrow Passages of the Pond,
break forth into the Sea ; and because of that Violence no
Nets can be spread out against them by any Means strong
enough to bear their huge Weight with that of the Stream of
Water, if Skill were not employed at the proper Time. In
like Manner the Mullets immediately urge on to the Deep,
which they do very soon, as the Channel is near ; and they
make all Haste to pass the only Place that is convenient for
spreading the Nets. The Fishermen being aware of this,
and all the neighbouring People (for a Multitude of People
come thither, knowing when the fishing Time is come ; and
the rather as they are eager to see the pleasant Sport), shout
as loud as they can from the Shore, and so call Simo to
partake of the Sight. The Dolphins soon hear what they
would have ; and the better if the North Winds blow and
carry the Sound : for a South Wind more slowly bears it in
the opposite Direction. But before one would be aware of
it, the Dolphins fly thither to assist in the Fishing. The
Squadrons of those Dolphins quickly take their Station, and
are presently arranged in the Place where the Battle is dis-
posed, to oppose themselves, and keep them from the Deep;
and so urge them, terrified as they are, into the Shallows.
Then the Fishermen enclose them with Nets, which they prop
up with forked Sticks ; yet notwithstanding this, the Mullets
are so active that they will leap over them. But these are
caught by the Dolphins, who, contenting themselves for
the present to kill only, put off the Time of feeding until
they have achieved the Victory. And now the Work of the
Battle is hot, for the Dolphins are very eager, and take Plea-
sure to be enclosed within the Nets; but lest this should
drive the Enemies to flight, they pass so gently between
the Boats and Nets, or the Men there swimming, that it
cannot be seen where they get out. And although at other

1 See chapter xvii. The habits here ascribed to this fish, and the
necessity of staking up the nets when it is enclosed in it, are well known
at the present time. — See YABRELL'S British Fishes. — Wern. Club.

120 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

Times they take great Delight in leaping, yet none endea-
vour to get forth by that Means, except where the Nets
lie under them ; but no sooner are they out, than a Contest
begins before the Bulwark ; and so the Capture being
accomplished, the Dolphins tear to Pieces those they have
killed. But conscious to themselves that their Labour hath
earned a richer Reward than what belongs to one Day, they
conceal themselves until the next; and are not contented
with Fish only, but wait to receive Crumbs of Bread soaked
in Wine. Mutianus maketh mention of some Things of a
similar Kind of Fishing in the Bay of Jassus ; but they differ
in this, that the Dolphins come of their own accord, without
calling, take their Part of the Prize from the Fishermen's
Hands; and every Boat hath a Dolphin attending upon it as
a Companion, although it is by Night, and with Torchlight.
Also Dolphins have a public Society among themselves;
for a King of Caria having taken a Dolphin, and kept him con-
fined in the Harbour, a great Multitude of the others resorted
thither, and by Signs of Mourning, evident to be understood,
craved Mercy for the Prisoner : until the King had given
Command to set him at Liberty. Also the little ones are
always accompanied with some larger one, as a Keeper.
And they have been seen to carry one of their Companions
when he is dead, that he might not be torn by Beasts.

CHAPTER IX.
Of Tursiones.

The Creatures which are called Tursiones, are much like
the Dolphins; but they differ in having a more gloomy As-
pect : for they are not so playful ; but especially in having
Snouts like little Dogs when they snarl.

CHAPTER X.
Of Sea- Tortoises, and how they are taken.

THERE are Tortoises in the Indian Sea so great that the
Natives cover the Cottages in which they dwell with the Shell

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 1 2 1

of a single one of them. And among the Islands, principally
in the Red Sea, they use them for Boats.

Many Ways the Fishermen have to catch them ; but
especially as in the Mornings, when the Weather is still,
they float on the open Sea with their Backs high above the
calm Surface; and then the Pleasure of breathing freely so
entirely deceives them into Forgetful ness, that their Crust
becomes dried with the Sun's Heat, and they cannot dive,
but are forced againt their Wills to float, and so are exposed
as a Prize to those that hunt them. Some say that they go
out in the oNight to feed; arid with eating greedily, grow
weary ; so that in the Morning, when they are returning
again, they fall asleep on the Surface of the Water ; and then
they utter such a Snoring as to be easily taken. But three
Men must swim to every one of them : two of them to turn
him upon his Back, and the third to throw a Cord about
him as he lieth with his Belly upward ; and then is he
hauled by many to the Land. In the Phoenician Sea they
are taken with very little Difficulty; for at a certain Time
of the Year they resort of themselves, in great Multitudes, to
the River Eleutherus.

The Tortoise hath no Teeth, but the Borders of his Snout
are sharp ; the upper part shutting close upon the under,
like a Box. In the Sea they live on Shellfish, for their
Mouths are so hard that they crush Stones. They go to
Land, where, among the Herbage, they lay Eggs resembling
the Eggs of Birds, to the number of a hundred. They hide
them in the Ground at some Distance from the Water, cover
them with Earth, beat it hard down and smooth it with their
Breast, and by Night sit upon them : the Young are pro-
duced in the Course of a Year. Some suppose that the look-
ing upon their Eggs with their Eyes serveth also to hatch
them. The Female flieth from the Male until he places some
Stick upon her as she turns away.

The Trogloditse possess some that carry Horns, like the
broad Horns fastened to the Lyre, but movable, with which
in swimming they help themselves as with an Oar. And
this Kind of Tortoise is called Celtium : of remarkable Big-

122 History of Nature. [BOOK IX.

ness, but rare ; for the exceeding sharp Rocks terrify the
Chelonophagi. But the Trogloditae, to whom these Tortoises
swim, worship them as sacred.

There are also Land-Tortoises, which, on Account of the
Works that are made of them, are called Cheisinae; they are
found in the Deserts of Africa, and principally in that part
which is gloomy from the dry Sands ; and they are believed to
live upon the moist Dew. And, in Truth, no other living
Creature is found there.

CHAPTER XL
Who first set on Foot the cleaving of Tortoise- Shells.

THE first Man that invented the cutting of the Shells of
Tortoises into thin Plates, and with them to cover Beds, and
Cupboards, was Carbilius Pollio? who was very ingenious
and inventive in the Instruments of Luxury.

CHAPTER XII.
The Arrangement of Water Animals into their several Kinds.

THE Coverings of Creatures that live in the Water are of
many Sorts ; for some are clothed with a Skin and Hair, as
Seals and Hippopotami. Others have only a bare Skin,

1 On this passage Mr. Bruce remarks, that the Romans seem to have
been ignorant of the art, as practised by the Arabians and Egyptians, of
separating the laminae by fire placed inside the empty shell. Martial
says, " Beds were inlaid with it ; " and the immense use made of it by the
Romans is shown by what Velleius Paterculus says, — " that when Alex-
andria was taken by Julius Caesar, the warehouses were so full of it, that
he proposed making it a principal ornament of his triumph." — See
B. xxxii. c. 4. The comparison which Pliny makes (c. 10) of the size of
the shell of a tortoise to a cymba or boat, ^Elian refers to a scapha, the
origin of the English word "skiff"; and he represents it as capable of
holding ten medimni, or sixty bushels : in another place (B. xii. c. 41) he
compares it to a barrel that would hold twenty amphorae, or one hundred
and eighty gallons. Each shell (B. x. c, 17) is said to be fifteen cubits
in size ; which, not to exceed the bounds of probability, must be under-
stood as square cubits. He says that the Land-Tortoises of India were
fat and sweet, and those of the sea, bitter. — Wern. Club.

BOOK I X .] History of Nature. 1 23

as the Dolphins ; a Bark, as Tortoises ; the Hardness of
Flint, as Oysters and Cockles ; Crusts, as Crayfishes
(Locustae) ; Crusts and Spines, as Sea-eggs (Echini) ; Scales,
as Fishes ; or a rough Skin, as the Skate (Squatina) ; which
is used to polish Wood and Ivory. Some have a soft Skin,
as Muraenae ; others none, as the Polypus.

CHAPTER XIII.
Of the Sea- Calf. *

THOSE which are clothed with Hair, as the Pristis,
Balaena, and Sea-Calf, bring forth their Young alive. The
latter calveth on dry Land, in the Manner of Cattle; and
returneth Secundines. The Female adheres to the Male, in
the Manner of Dogs : she never produceth more than two at
a Birth ; and she suckles her Young at her Paps. She doth
not bring them to the Sea before the twelfth Day, and then
she accustometh them to it frequently. It is difficult to kill
them unless the Head is crushed. They utter a Lowing in
their Sleep, from whence they are called Calves. Never-
theless they learn what is taught them ; and they salute the
People at the same Time with the Voice and Look ; the
Sound being a rude Murmuring. If called by their Name,
they answer. No living Creature sleepeth more soundly
than they. The Fins they use to swim with in the Sea serve
them to creep along with instead of Feet when on Land. It
is said that their Skins, after they are stripped from their
Bodies, retain a Sensibility of the Seas; for as the Water
ebbeth they become rugged. Moreover, their right Fins are
thought to have a soporific Power, and to produce Sleep, if
laid under one's Head.

1 Sea-Calf. Phoca VituUna.—Lm^.—Wern. Club.

124 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

CHAPTER XIV.

Of Fishes1 that are without Hair, how they breed; and how
many Sorts of them.

OF the Creatures that want Hair, two only bring forth
their Young alive : the Dolphin and the Viper. Of Fishes
there are seventy-four Kinds ; besides those that are covered
with Crusts, of which there are thirty Sorts. Of every one in
particular we will speak elsewhere : but now we are to treat
of the Nature of the principal.

CHAPTER XV.
Of the Names and Natures of many Fishes.

THE Tunnies'' are exceeding large Fishes: we have found
some to have weighed fifteen Talents, and the breadth of the
Tail to be two Cubits and a Span. In some Rivers, also, there
are Fish scarcely of less size : as the Silurus3 in the Nile ; the
Esox4 in the Rhine; the Attilus5 in the Po; which groweth so

1 The reader may consult a note in the Wernerian edition of Kay's
" Wisdom of God in Creation," p. 9 ; where, however, there is only an
approximation to the real number : to which should be added, that the
fossil species of animals and vegetables, already classified, amounted, in
1846, to about 10,000.— Wern. Club.

2 Scomber ihynnus. — LINN. Thynnus vulgaris. — Cuv. See, con-
cerning this fish, B. xxxii. c. 1 1. The Ancients were not at all particular
in the discrimination of species ; and, therefore, what were formerly sup-
posed to be the different stages of growth of the Tunny, are now known
as different species. In confirmation of the enormous size to which the
Tunny sometimes attains, Ruysch records an instance of one taken near
Cadiz that was thirty-two feet in length. The preparation of Tunny
(Athenseus says, of the larger sort) is referred to by Martial (B. iii.
Ep. 60) as high and rank food : " Teque juvant gerres, et pelle melandrya
cana." — Wern. Club.

3 Silurus glanis. — Cuv. and LINN. Silurus and Glanis are sometimes
regarded by the Ancients as synonymous, sometimes as distinct. The
Shilbe is also a fish of the Nile, of the same family. The voracity of the
Silurus Glanis gave rise to a proverb : — " Piscem pisci prcedam csse^ at
Siluro omnes : " Every fish preys on some other one, but the Silurus on
all. — Wormius. — Wern. Club.

4 Esox lucius. — LJNN. Pike. — Wern. Club.

4 Accipemeo huso.— Liny. Erroneously supposed to be peculiar to
the Po. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 125

fat by its Sluggishness, as sometimes to reach the weight of
a thousand Pounds ; and being taken with a Hook fastened
to a Chain, cannot be drawn out of the River but with Yokes
of Oxen. And yet there is a very little Fish called Clupea,1
that killeth him ; for through a great Desire after a certain
Vein within his Throat, he biteth it, and so despatched! him.

The Silurus is a great Robber, and devoureth every
Animal ; often dragging under the Water the Horses as they
swim; especially in the Mrenus,2 a River of Germany, near
Lisbous.

Also, in the Danube is taken the Mario,3 a Fish much
like the Sea-Pig (Porpoise) ; and in the Borysthenes, men-
tion is made of a Fish of large size, with no Bones or Spines
interspersed, and the Flesh very sweet.

In the Ganges of India there are Fishes with a Snout
and Tail like a Dolphin, fifteen Cubits long, and which they
call Platanistae. And Statins Sebosus reporteth as strange a
Thing besides : that in the same River there are Worms or
Serpents with double Gills,4 sixty Cubits long, of Colour blue,
and from that Colour they take their Name (Cyonoeides).
He saith, moreover, that they are so strong, as when the
Elephants come to drink, to catch hold with their Teeth by
their Trunks, and drag them under Water.

The male Tunnies have no Fins under the Belly. In the

1 Ray supposes this to be the Shad, Clupea alosa, LINN. ; but it is not
capable of the action here ascribed to it. — Wern. Club.

2 A river of Germany. Daleschampius notes on this passage, that in
Pliny's time no river in Germany was called Moenus : it is a modern
appellation, though now generally acknowledged. An alteration must,
therefore, have been made in the text, and Rondeletius proposes to read,
" in Rheno :" in the Rhine. — Wern. Club.

3 No fish has been found of this name ; and it has been supposed that
the word ought to be read " major : " that is, a greater fish than the
last-named, and much like the Porcus marinus, a kind of Shark. — Wern.
Club.

4 Daleschampius observes that Solinus quotes Sebosus in a different
manner from Pliny : " that their colour is blue, from whence they take
their name : their length six cubits, and they have two arms so strong
that when elephants come to drink they seize them with their bite, and
with their hand draff them under water." — Wern. Club.

1 26 History of Nature. [Boon I X .

Spring-time they enter into the Pontus from the great Sea,
in Troops ; for in no other Sea do they bring forth their
Young. Their Young, which accompany their Dams back
into the Sea in the Autumn, are called Cordylae. Afterwards
they begin to call them Pelamydes,1 and Limosce, from the
Mud : and when they are above one Year old, they are called
Tunnies. These Tunnies are cut into Portions ; the Neck,
Belly, and the Throat being commended for Meat : but
only when they are fresh, and even then they will rise on a
Man's Stomach. The other Parts being full of good Meat,
are laid in Salt. They are called Melandrya, and when cut
in Slices, are exceedingly like to Oak Boards. The worst
Pieces of these are those nearest the Tail, because they are
not fat : the best is that which is toward the Throat: but in
other Fishes the Tail-piece (is in greatest request), as being
the most exercised. Pelamides are divided into Parcels,
which are named Apolecti; but when they are separated
into Sorts, named Cybii.

All Kinds of Fishes grow with remarkable Rapidity to
their full Size, and especially in the Pontus : the Reason is,
because a number of Rivers bring fresh Water into it. There
is one called Amia,2 which groweth so fast, that a Man may
perceive it from Day to Day. These Fishes, together with
the Tunnies and the Pelamides, enter in great Schuls into
the Pontus, for the sweeter Food they find there ; each
Company with its own Leader: and before them all, the
Mackerels lead the Way ; which, while they are in the
Water, have a Colour of Brimstone ; but out of it they are
like the rest. The Mackerels3 fill the Fish-markets in Spain,
when the Tunnies do not find their Way into their Seas.
But into the Pontus there enter no Beasts that injure
Fishes, unless it be Seals and little Dolphins. The Tunnies
enter along the right Bank, and pass out by the left. And

1 Pelamys vulgaris, CTJVIER; who says, that Cordyla is the young state
of the Pelarays; and Limosa only another name for it. A further
account of these fishes of the Tunny kind, B. xxxii. c. 1 1 . — Wern. Club.

3 Sarda vulgaris. — Cuv. — Wern. Club.

3 Scomber scombrus. — LINN, and Cuv. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IX-] History of Nature. ] 27

this is thought to happen because they see better with their
right eye ; and yet neither of them by Nature is dull. Within
the Channel of the Thracian Bosphorus, by which the Pro-
pontis is joined to the Euxine, in the very Straits of the
Firth that clivideth Asia from Europe, near to Chalcedon on
the Side of Asia, there is a Rock, exceedingly bright, and
shining in such a manner from the Bottom of the Sea
to the Top, that the Tunnies are instantly affrighted at the
Sight ; and to avoid it, they rush with Violence in whole
Flocks towards the Cape overagainst Byzantium : which
Cape on this Account beareth the Name of Auricornu
(Golden Horn). And therefore it is, that all the Fishery is
at Byzantium ; and there is great Scarcity at Chalcedon,
although the Breadth of the Passage between them is not
more than half a Mile. They wait for the North Wind, that
by the aid of the Waves they may pass out of the Pontus ;
but the only taking of them at Byzantium is when they enter
into the Pontus. In Winter they do not wander ; but wher-
ever they are then found, there they remain for the Winter,
and until the Spring Equinox. Many a Time they accompany
the Ships that proceed under Sail, and it is a wonderful
pleasant Sight to see them from the Stern, for Hours together,
and for the Space of several Miles, and not terrified even
though the Sailors strike at them with the Trident.1 Some
People make a Distinction between those that follow the
Ships under Sail and Tunnies, and call them Pompili.2
Many of them pass the Summer in the Propontis, and
never enter into the Pontus. Solse3 likewise do the same,

1 Familiarly termed Grayns by sailors of our day ; who still use the
instrument, skilfully fitted with a line which causes it to become reversed
when the blow is struck, by which means the struggles of the prey only
cause it to become the more securely fixed. — Wern. Club.

2 This has been mistaken for the Pilot-fish, Naucrates Ductor ; but
the true Pompilus is the Centrolophus Pompilus, Cuv. — YARRELL'S British
Fishes, vol. i. The Black-fish. — Wern. Club.

3 Pleuronectes solea. — LINN. Solea vulgaris. — Cuv. Rhombus is the
Turbot. Pleuronectes Rhombus. — LINN. Phombus maximus. — Cuv. —
Wern. Club.

128 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

while Rhombi (Turbots) enter. Neither is the Sepia1 there,
although the Loligo is found. Of such as live among Rocks,
theTurdus and Merula2 are wanting, as also Shell-fish ; but
Oysters (Ostrese) are in Abundance : for all such Things
pass the Winter in the JSgean Sea. Of them that enter into
the Pontus, none stay there except the Trichise:3 for I think
it good, in such Diversity of Fishes' Names, because the
same Fish is in many Countries called by different Denomi-
nations, to use the Greek Name for most of them. These
Fish alone go up the River Ister; and out of it they pass
again by Communications under the Ground into the
Adriatic Sea, and therefore they are seen coming down
thither, but never ascending out of that Sea. The Fishery
for Tunnies is from the Rising of the (Stars) Vergilise,4 to the
Setting of Arcturus. All the Winter-time besides they lie
hid in the Gulfs at the Bottom, unless they are enticed
forth by some warm Season, or at the full Moon. They grow
so fat, that their Skins burst. The longest of their Life does
not exceed two Years. There is a little Creature in Shape
like a Scorpion, and as big as a Spider, which will pierce
with its sharp Sting under the Fin of the Tunny, and also
of the Sword-fish (Gladius),5 (which many Times exceeds the
Size of the Dolphin), and put them to such Pain, that they
often are driven to spring into the Ships. Which they do
also at other Times, for fear of the Violence of other Fishes ;
and most of all, the Mullets6 do so with such exceeding

1 Sepia. —Wern. Club.

2 The various species of Wrass : the Labri of modern naturalists, who
have applied the first of these names to designate a genus of birds : both
the birds and fishes being characterised by spots on their scales or plumage.
— Wern. Club.

3 A species of Clupea. — Wern. Club.

4 In the beginning of May. — Wern. Club.

5 Xiphius Gladius. — LINN. — Wern. Club.

6 Two kinds of fishes are termed Mullets in England : the Grey
Mullet (MugiT), and the Surmullet (Mullus). The former is the fish
here meant ; but although the Mugil is much in the habit of throwing
itself out of water, to escape from an obstruction, they rarely do it
through fear of other fishes ; and few fishes are less liable to the attacks
of parasites. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 129

Swiftness, that they will fling themselves sometimes over
the Ships from one Side to the other.

CHAPTER XVI.
Of Presages by Fishes, and of their Diversity.

THERE are also in this Portion of Nature, Auguries:
there is Prescience even among Fishes. During the Sicilian
War, as Augustus walked along the Shore, a Fish leapt out
of the Sea and fell at his Feet; the Prophet (Vates) con-
cluding from this Circumstance, that although Sextus Pom-
peius was at that Time the adopted of Father Neptune (so
great was his naval Glory), yet those who had to this Time
held the Power of the Sea were about to fall below the
Feet of CcBsar.

Female Fishes are larger than the Males. And there are
some Sorts of them of which there are altogether no Males;
as the Erythini,1 and the Chani : for they are taken always
heavy with Spawn.

Scaly Fishes for the most part swim in Schuls, each ac-
cording to its Kind. The Fishing is before the Sun is up;
for then Fishes are most liable to be deceived in their Sight.
If the Nights are bright, they see as well then as by Day.
They affirm it is good fishing twice in the same Gulf; for so
more are caught in the second Cast than by the first. Fishes
greatly delight in the Taste of Oil ; and next to this, in
gentle Showers ; and with these they become fat. For Reeds,

1 Erythini: more properly, Erythrini. Chani. Cuvier supposes
the former to be probably the Serranus scriba: the latter certainly is
Serranus cabrilla. The following quotation from the second edition of
Mr. Yarrell's "History of British Fishes" (vol. i. p. 13) will illustrate
the question, hitherto generally received in the affirmative, of the herma-
phroditism of these fishes : — " Since the publication of the first edition of
this work, Mr. Couch has been kind enough to send me the roes of two
specimens of this Serranus (Cabrilla). These, on examination, contained
true ova only ; and Mr. Owen, of the College of Surgeons, whose micro-
scope was used on this occasion, agreed with me, that although these
organs were of small size, there was nothing equivocal either in the
structure or appearance." — Wern. Club.

VOL. III. K

130 History of Nature. [BoOK IX.

also, although naturally belonging to marshy Grounds, yet
do not attain their perfect Growth without Rain; and so
wherever Fish are kept continually in the same Water, un-
less Rain fall, they will die. All Fishes feel the Cold of a sharp
Winter ; but those especially which are thought to have a
Stone in their Head ; as the Lupus,1 the Chromis,2 Scienae,3
and Pagri.4 When there have been sharp Winters, many
are taken blind. And, therefore, during those Months they
lie hid in Caverns, as we have said some Land Creatures
do. For the most Part the Hippurus5 and Coracinus6 are
never caught in Winter ; except a few on particular Days :
and always of the same Sort. Also the Mursena, the Or-
phus,7 Conger,8 Perca,9 and all Fishes that keep near Rocks.
It is said that the Torpedo,10 Psitta,11 and Solea,12 conceal

1 Labrax lupus. —Cuv. The Bass. See B. xxxii. c. 2. — Wern. Club.

2 Cuvier says it is an unascertained fish with a Greek name ; but, on
the contrary, Ray (" Synopsis," p. 141) says that it is common in the
Mediterranean Sea. — Wern. Club.

3 Scicena umbra. — Cuv. — Wern. Club.

4 Sparus pagrus. — LINN. Pagrus vulgaris. — Cuv. The Becker. —
Wern. Club.

6 Coryphcena hippurus. — LINN. But it is probable that the Hippuris
of Oppian is our Stone Bass, Polyprium cernium. — Cuv. — Wern. Club.

6 Cuvier says, it is his Chromis vulgaris^ the Sparus chromis of Linn.
— Wern. Club.

7 This name has been referred to several very different fishes ; and
especially to the Rudd, Cyprinus Erythrophthalmus of Linn., Leuciscus E.
of Cuvier.

But the ancient authors represent it as a sea-fish ; though even then
their accounts apply to a variety of species. The true Orphus veterum of
Rondeletius is not the Pagrus Or/us of Cuvier ; and the only represent-
ation to which reference can be made occurs in a paper on the subject by
the Editor of this work in the first volume of the " Zoologist," p. 81. The
great rarity of this fish appears to have led to the errors of naturalists
concerning it. — Wern. Club.

8 Murcena Conger. — LINN. Conger vulgaris. — Cuv. — Wern. Club.

9 Perca marina of Linn., and Ray, who says it is common at Venice.
—•Wern. Club.

10 See also B. xxxii. c. 1. Raia Torpedo, Linn.; which is now divided
into two or three distinct species. — Wern. Club.

11 Probably the Dab, Platessa limanda; but confounded with the
Plaice and Flounder. — Wern. Club.

12 Solea vulgaris. — Cuv. The Sole, — Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 131

themselves through the Winter in the Ground ; that is to say,
in Depressions which they make in the bottom of the Sea.
Some again are impatient of Heat ; and therefore about the
hot Season of the Year, for sixty Days, they lie hid : as the
Glaucus,1 Aselli,2 and Auratae.3 Of River Fishes, the Silurus
at the rising of the Dog-star is blasted ; and at other Times
is struck insensible by Lightning. And some think the like
happeneth in the Sea to the Cyprinus.4 And beyond Doubt
the Sea is affected by the rising of this Star ; but most of all
this Influence appears in the Bosphorus. For then Sea-
weeds and Fishes float on the Surface, and every Thing is
cast up from the Bottom.

CHAPTER XVII.

Of the Mugil and other Fishes ; and that the same do not in
all Places please.

THE Habit of the Mugil5 is ridiculous ; for when afraid,
they will hide their Head, and then believe that they are
entirely concealed. These Mugils nevertheless are so libidi-
nous, that in the Season of Increase, in Phoanice and the
Province of Narbonensis (Languedoc), if they take a Male
out of their Ponds, and draw a long Line through the Mouth
and Gills, and so tie it fast, and then put him into the Sea,
holding the other end of the Line, if they draw him back
again, the Females follow him to the Shore. And again in
Spawning Time, the Males thus follow a Female.

Among our Ancestors the Accipenser6 was esteemed the
most noble of Fishes. He is the only Fish that hath the
Scales turned toward the Head ; he makes his Way against

1 Lichia glaucus. — Cuv. — Wern. Club.

2 The Haddock : Gadus ceglefinus. — LINN. Morrhua JE. — Cuv.
— Wern. Club.

3 Gilt-head : Sparus auratus. — LINN. Chrysophrys aurata. — Cuv.
— Wern. Club.

4 Naturalists agree in applying this name to a class of river or pond
fishes : the Bream and Carp. — Wern. Club.

5 The Grey Mullet : Mugil cephalus. — Cuv. — Wern. Club.

6 The Sturgeon : Accipenser sturio. — LINN. — Wern. Club.

132 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

the Stream. Now he is in no Honour; which I wonder at,
considering he is so seldom to be found. Some call him
Elops. Afterwards, Cornelius JVepos and Laberias the comic
Poet have written, that the Lupus and Asellus obtained the
chief Credit. Of the Lupus, those that are the most com-
mended are those which are called Lanati, from the White-
ness and Tenderness of their Flesh. Of Aselli, there are two
Sorts : Callarige,1 which are the less ; and Bacchi, which are
never taken but in deep Water, and therefore they are pre-
ferred to the former. But the Lupi that are caught in the
River are preferred to the others. The Scarus2 hath now
assigned to it the chief Place ; and it is said to be the only
Fish that cheweth the Cud, and to live on Herbs and not
on other Fishes. It is chiefly found in the Carpathian Sea ;
and of its own accord never passeth the Promontory Lectos
in Troas. When Tiberius Claudius was Sovereign, Optatus^
his Freedman and Admiral of the Fleet, brought them out of
that Sea, and dispersed them between Ostia and the Coast
of Campania. Care was taken by strict Command, for
almost five Years, that if any were taken they should be
returned into the Sea. After this they were frequently found
along the Coast of Italy, whereas before they had not been
taken. And thus Gluttony hath supplied its Taste by sowing
Fish, and given a new Inhabitant to the Sea, to take away
our Wonder that foreign Birds are prepared at Rome. Next
to these Fishes, at least, the Table is served with a Kind of
Mustela,3 which, wonderful to say, are bred in a Lake of

' It may be, that the name Callarias is synonymous with Asellus,
and therefore the Haddock ; but Linneus has given it to the Dorse : the
Bacchus is believed to be the Cod-fish, Gadm morrhua of Linneus ;
Morrhua vulgaris, Cuv. Baccata is still the name for this fish in Italy.- —
-Wern. Club.

2 Scarus creticus. — Cuv. See B. xxxii. c. 2. It became the fashion
to carry this fish alive to table, as the Surmullet also was, and for the
same reason — that the guests might observe their changes of colour in the
act of dying. Those of the Surmullet are never restored as they existed
during life. — Wern. Club.

3 Gadm fo/a.-— LINN. Lota viilgans.—Cuv. The Eelpont. — Wern.
Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 1 33

Rboetia among the Alps, called Brigantius ; and yet they are
equal to those of the Sea. Of the other Fishes the Mullus1
is the best, as well in Excellency and Favour as in Plenty ;
but they are only of moderate Size, for it is uncommon to
find them weigh above two Pounds : nor will they grow in
Store-Ponds. They are bred only in the North Sea; and
never in the nearest Coast of the West Ocean. Moreover, of
this Fish there are several Sorts. And they live on Sea-
weeds, Oysters, Mud, and the Flesh of other Fishes. They

1 Mullus surmuletus, and M. barbatus. — LINN. Surmullet. Among
the Romans this fish was indispensable at tables which made any preten-
sions to fashion ; and at the same time it was the most costly of all their
dishes : so that it is referred to by the poets as a glaring example of the
extravagance that pervaded the city. When this first reached the weight
of two pounds, the ordinary price was its own weight in silver. Horace
mentions as enormous one which weighed three pounds; though this
does not exceed what the Editor has seen on the coast of Cornwall. Two,
which were caught nearly together, weighed two and two-and-a-quarter
pounds avoirdupois : the latter being precisely the weight of Horace's
fish of thirty -six ounces. Martial speaks of a Surmullet of four pounds ;
and Seneca relates a story of the avarice of Tiberius, who sent a mullet
weighing four-and-a-half pounds to market, where, perhaps to flatter the
emperor, two noblemen contended who should purchase it ; by which it
reached the price of 5000 sesterces. Juvenal, perhaps with exaggeration,
speaks of one that weighed six pounds. Suetonius states, that for three
of these fishes was paid at one time 30,000 sesterces; and Martial wrote
an epigram on one who sold a servant to raise the means of making
a sumptuous supper, at which the principal dish, and the one that swal-
lowed up the chief expense, was the enormous Surmullet above-men-
tioned. — (B. x. Ep. 30.) Those who wished to ape the great, without
sufficient means, were obliged to be satisfied with half a mullet. " Mul-
lum dimidium, lapumque totum, mursenaeque latus " — (Martial) : the
" side " of murasna being on the same scale of stinted luxury. When an
epicure was asked whether these prices were not absurd, he replied that
two morsels of the fish were worth the expense : the head and the liver.
The latter formed a delicious sauce ; but the head must have been valued
only because there was so little in it. Attempts were made to breed these
fishes in ponds ; but tiiey could not bear the confinement ; so that not
Only did they cease to grow in size, but not more than one or two in a
thousand continued alive.

The fish mentioned at the beginning of the next chapter, as a mullet
of the Red Sea, must have been of another species, and even genus. —
— Wern. Club.

134 History of Nature. [BOOK IX.

are distinguished by two Beards on the lower Lip. The worst
of all this kind is called Lutarius.1 And this Fish hath an-
other, named Sargus, which always beareth him Company ;
and while he is digging into the Mud, the Sargus devoureth
the Food that is raised up. Neither are those which keep
near the Shore in Favour. But these that are in highest
Regard taste like the (Shell-fish) Conchy Hum. Fenestella
thinks, that the Name Mullus was given them because their
Colour resembles that of the purplish-red Shoes. They
spawn three Times in the Year ; for so often their Young
are certainly seen. The principal Epicures say, that a Mul-
lus, when dying, changeth his Colour, which may be seen to
take a great Variety of Tints ; passing from pale by a Variety
of Mutations to glowing red all over his Scales, particularly
if it be looked at as he is held in a Glass. M. Apicius, who
was wonderful for every Ingenuity that belonged to Luxury,
thought it a most excellent Improvement to stifle them in
the Sauce of the Allies, for this Thing also hath found a Sur-
name. And he also incited them to contrive a Pickle made
from their Livers. For surely it is more easy to say this than
to set down who excelled in it. Asturius Celer, a Man of
consular Rank, showed his Prodigality in this Fish, for
when C. Caligula was Sovereign, he gave for one Mullet
eight thousand Sesterces : the Consideration of which car-
rieth far away my Mind to the Contemplation of those who,
in their Reproof of Luxury, complained that a Cook was
purchased at a greater Price than a Horse. For now a Cook
will cost as much as the Expense of a Triumph ; and Fishes
are as dear as Cooks. And no mortal Man is esteemed more
than he who hath the most Skill to waste the Goods and
consume the Property of his Lord.

1 Probably Trigla lineata : a fish which has much the habits of the
Mullus, and is often taken in the same net ; on which account, and some
resemblance of form, it was called by the older naturalists, Mullus imberbis.
— Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 135

CHAPTER XVIII.
Of the Mullus, and Coracinus, Salpa, and Salmon.

LICINIUS MUTIANUS reporteth, that in the Red Sea a
Mullet was taken that weighed fourscore Pounds. What a
Price would he have brought in our Luxury if he had been
taken upon our Coasts near the City! Also this is the
Nature of Fish, that some obtain the Pre-eminency in one
Place, and some in another : as the Coracinus in Egypt :
at Gades, the Zeus,1 which is also called Faber : about
Ebusus the Salpa,2 which in other Places is counted base,
and which nowhere else are they able to cook unless it is
first well beaten with a Cudgel. In Aquitania the River
Salmon s is preferred to all Sea-fishes.

Of Fish, some have many Gills : some have them simple,
others double. At these Gills they discharge the Water
they take in at the Mouth. Hardness of the Scales is a
Mark that the Fish is old ; and yet all Fishes have not
Scales alike. There are two Lakes in Italy, at the Foot of
the Alps, named Larius and Verbanus,* in which there are
Fishes that every Year at the rising of the Stars Virgiliae,
have their Scales remarkable for the Thickness and the
Sharpness of their Points ; much like the Nails (or Tongues)
of the military Boots ; and never longer than about that
Month do they appear.

1 Zeus faber. — LINN. — Wern. Club.

5 Sparus salpa. — LINN. Boops salpa. — Cuv. — Wern. Club.

3 Salmosalar. — LINN.— Wern. Club.

* Larius and Verbanus: now known as Lakes Major and Como. The
fish mentioned is the Cyprianus of Rondeletius : Cyprinus clavatus, sive
Pigus, of Ray's " Syn. Pis.," p. 115, a local variety of the common Carp :
Cyprinus carpio.— Wern. Club.

136 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

CHAPTER XIX.
Of the Exoccstus.1

ARCADIA makes a Wonder of its Exocoetus; so called
because it leaveth the Water to sleep on dry Land. This
Fish is reported about the Clitorius to have a Voice, and
is without Gills. By some it is named Adonis. Also those
Creatures which are called Mures Marini2 and Polypes and
Muraense leave the Water for the Land. Moreover, in the
Rivers of India there is a certain kind of Fish that doth so,
but it presently leapeth back again. For there is an evident
Reason why many Fishes pass into Rivers and Lakes ; it is
that they may with more Safety produce their Young where
the Water is not so rough, and there are no Enemies to
devour them. That these Creatures should have the Under-
standing thus to know the Causes, and observe the Changes
of Times, is the more wonderful, if we would only consider
how few Men there are aware that the best Season for fishing
is while the Sun passeth through the Sign Pisces.

CHAPTER XX.

An Arrangement of Fishes according to the Shape of their

Bodies.

OF Sea- Fishes some are flat, as Rhoinbi, Soleae, and
Passeres ;3 and the latter differ from the Rhombi only in the
Position of their Bodies. In the Rhombus the right Side
turneth upward, and in the Passer the left. Others are long,
as the Muraena and Conger. On this Account they have
Distinctions formed by their Fins, which Nature hath given

1 Blennius cristatus, LINN.: but the same habit is common to the
B. pholis, or Shanny. — Wern. Club.

2 Mures marini, or Sea-Mice ; some copies read MyrL The Mus of
Aristotle is a freshwater Turtle ; and probably these Mures marini are
some small sea Turtles. — Wern. Club.

3 Platessa flesus, Cuv. Pleuronectes F. of Linn., but including also
the Plaice.— Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 137

to Fish instead of Feet. None have above four; some have
two, some three, and others none. Only in the Lake Fucinus
there is a Fish, which in swimming useth eight Fins. All
Fishes that are long and slippery, as Eels and Congers, have
ordinarily two. Muraenae1 have none, nor any Gills: all of
these Kinds act upon the Sea by bending their Bodies, as
Serpents on the Land. They creep also on dry Land ; and
therefore such are more retentive of Life. Also among flat
Fishes some have no Fins, as the Pastinaca ;2 for their
Breadth serveth them sufficiently to swim with. And among
those which are denominated Soft, the Polypi have no Fins,
because their Feet stand them instead of Fins,

CHAPTER XXI.
Of Eels*

EELS live eight Years. And if the North Wind blows,
they continue without Water six Days ; but not so long in a
South Wind. Yet in Winter-time they cannot endure the
same Exposure in a small Quantity of Water ; nor if it be
muddy ; and therefore about the rising of the Star Virgilise
they are most abundantly taken, because the Rivers about
that Time are the most muddy. Their Feeding is by Night.
Of all Fish they alone do not float when dead.

CHAPTER XXII.
Of taking them in the Lake JBenacus.

THERE is a Lake in Italy called Benacus, in the Territory
of Verona, through which the River Mincius runneth : at
the Outlet of which every Year, about the Month of October,

1 The Mursena has a fin passing along the back to the extremity of
the body, where it is united to the anal, and forms a caudal fin, as in the
Eel. It has gills, also, with a perfect organization concealed within the
integument ; but the aperture is obscure. — Wern. Club.

2 Raia pastinaca. — LINN. Trygon P. — Cuv. The Sting Ray or
Fireflair. — Wern. Club.

* Murcena anguilla. — LINN. Anguilla vulgaris. — Cuv. — Wern. Club.

138 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

when the Autumn Star (Arcturus) ariseth, whereby (as is
evident) the Lake is troubled with a Winter Storm, there are
found rolling among the Waves a wonderful Number of
Eels, entwined one with another into a Heap, so that in
the Receiving-places or Traps on this River, sometimes a
thousand of them may be found wrapped together in a single
Ball.

CHAPTER XXIII.
Of the Murcena.

THE Muraena spawneth at all Times of the Year, whereas
other Fishes shed their Spawn at one certain Season. The
Eggs grow very rapidly. The common People believe that
they creep out of the Water to the dry Land, and become
impregnated by Serpents. Aristotle calleth the Male or
Milter, Myrus. The Difference, that the Mursena is of a
Variety of Colours, and weak ; but the Myrus1 is of a uniform
Colour, and strong, with Teeth projecting beyond his Mouth.
In the North Parts of Gallia all the Mursenee have on their
right Jaw seven Spots, distributed like the seven Stars about
the North Pole (Septentrio). These are of a golden Colour
so long as the Muraena is alive : but they are not seen after
it is dead. Vedius Pollio, a Roman Knight, and one of the
Friends of Divus Augustus, contrived Experiments of Cruelty
by Means of this Creature. For he caused his Slaves that
were condemned to die, to be thrown into the Ponds where
his Mursense were kept : not because the Wild Beasts of the
Land were not sufficient to do this, but because in any other
Way of Proceeding he would not have been able to view a
Man plucked in Pieces all at once, and at his Leisure. It is
said, that if they taste Vinegar they are driven to Madness.
They have a very thin Skin ; and, on the contrary, Eels have
it thick : so that Verrius writeth, that Children under seven

1 The Myrus is a distinct species, Mur. myrus, LINN, and Cuv. The
Muraena was one of the petted objects of luxury of the Romans, and
therefore sedulously propagated in ponds. — Went. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 139

Years of Age (Prcetextati} usually were whipped with Eels'
Skins, and on that Account were freed from all other
Punishment.

CHAPTER XXIV.
Of Flat Fishes.

OF Flat Fishes there is another Sort, which instead of a
Back-bone have a Cartilage : as the Raia, Pastinaca, Squa-
tina, and Torpedo : and also, those which the Greeks have
termed by the Names of the Bos Lamia, Acquila, and Rana.
In this Number are to be ranked the Squali (Sharks) also ;
although they are not flat. All this kind in general Aristotle
was the first to call in Greek Selache : we cannot distinguish
them by this Name, unless we are permitted to call them
Cartilaginous Fishes. But all the Sort of them that devour
Flesh are such ; and they feed as they lie supine, like as we
observed in the Dolphins. And whereas other Fishes cast
Spawn, this Class only, in the same manner as those
which we call Cete,1 bring forth their Young alive ; with the
Exception, however, of that one which they call Rana.

1 The name of Cete is here mentioned as equivalent to Balaena for
the Whales, ch. 6 : but the mode in which they bear their young is very
different from that of the cartilaginous fishes, though both, or at least the
Sharks among the latter, are viviparous. The Whales are placental
animals, but all true fishes produce eggs, although in some instances they
are hatched within the body of the parent.

The fishes here mentioned are : Eaia, — several species of Rays and
Skates ; Pastinaca, mentioned before, ch. 20 ; Squatina, Squalus squatina,
Linn., and Squatina vulgaris^ Cuv. ; the Monk, or Angel-fish ; and Tor-
pedo, ch. 16. The Bos is a gigantic species of Ray, Raia cephaloptera :
forming the genus Cephaloptera of Cuvier ; and Oppian (B. ii.) gives an
account of the great injury it does to the divers for coral, by clasping
them and preventing their ascent to the surface. Lamia is the White
Shark : Squalus carcharias of Linn., and Carcharias vulgaris, Cuv.
Acquila, Myliolatis aquila. Eagle Ray. Rana, Lophius piscatorius, Linn. :
Fishing Frog, or Angler.— Wern. Club.

140 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

CHAPTER XXV.
Of the Echeneis.

THERE is a very little Fish called Echeneis,1 that keeps
ordinarily about Rocks. It is believed that if it adhere to
the Keel of a Ship it goeth the more slowly ; and from this
it took its Name : for the same Cause also it hath a bad
Reputation for its use in amatory Medicines, and in causing
Delay of Actions at Law and judicial Decisions. But both
these Offences are counterbalanced by one commendation : for
it restraineth Haemorrhage threatening Abortion in pregnant
Women, and holdeth the Child to the full Time of Birth.
Notwithstanding, it is not allowed to be eaten. Aristotle
thinketh that it hath Feet, as the Fins stand thick cne by
another.

The Murex, Mutianus saith, is broader than the Purpura,
having a Mouth neither rough nor round, and with a Beak
not protruding in an Angle, but simple, the Shell on both
Sides turning itself inward. These Shells adhered to a Ship
conveying Messengers from Periander with Commission to
emasculate the Noblemen's Sons, and caused it to remain
still, although it was under Sail with a strong Gale. And
the Shells which accomplished this are Objects of Worship
in the Temple of Venus of the Gnidians.

Trebius Niger saith that the Echeneis is a Foot long, and
five Fingers thick ; that it hinders the Progress of a Ship ;

1 The proper Echeneis is the E. remora. Linn.; but from its pos-
sessing similar, or even firmer powers of adhesion, though by a different
organ, it was confounded with the larger Lamprey, Petrornyzon marinus.
From allusion to the feet, Aristotle, as well as Gesner, who follows him,
appears to include in the same class a species of Cyclopterus ; of which
there is one that adheres with more facility, although with less firmness.
We cannot avoid believing that the popular impression concerning this
fish was often laid hold of as an excuse, in some of the instances where an
unpleasant task had been slowly performed or entirely counteracted. The
narrative of Antony's delay at the battle of Actium (see B. xxxii. c. 1 .)
will only excite a smile in those who consider the much more formidable
attraction that existed at the time. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 141

and, moreover, that it hath the Virtue, if preserved in Salt, of
drawing up Gold that is fallen into even a very deep Well,
if let down so as to touch it.

CHAPTER XXVI.
Of the Variety in the Nature of Fishes.

THE Maense1 change their Colour; for these Fishes being
white in Winter, become black in Summer. Also the Phycis2
is subject to Alteration ; being all the Year besides white,
but in the Spring speckled. This is the only Fish that
buildeth a Nest3 with Sea-weed, and spawneth in this Nest.
The Hirundo4 flieth: truly almost in the same manner as the
Bird so called. The Milvus doeth the same.

CHAPTER XXVII.

Of the Fish called the Lucerna, and the Draco Marinus
(Sea Dragon).

THERE is a Fish that cometh above the Water, called
Lucerna,5 for the Resemblance it hath to a Light; for it
thrusteth forth its fiery Tongue out of the Mouth, and in
calm Nights giveth Light. There is Fish that raiseth Horns
above the Sea, almost a Foot and a half long ; which there-
fore took the Name Cornuta.6 Again, the Draco Marinus

1 Sparus mcena. — LINN. Mana vulgaris. — Cuv. — Wern. Club.

2 Cuvier says it was a Goby; perhaps Gobius niger, or G. capita.
Martial says, —

" In Venice, where the joy of feasts is priz'd,

The Goby is the supper's chief." — Wern. Club.

3 The particulars of British fishes which construct nests may be seen
in the Editor's "Illustrations of Instinct," c. 15. — Wern. Club.

4 Exocoetus exiliens. — Cuv. The Flying Fish. Milvus, trigla volitans.
— LINN. Dactylopterus volitans. — Cuv. The Flying Gurnard.— Wern.
Club.

5 Trigla hirundo. — LINN. The Tub-fish. — Wern. Club.

6 Peristf.dion malarmat. — Cuv. Mailed Gurnard. Draco marinus,
Trachinm draco. — LINN. Wiever. — Wern. Club.

142 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

(Sea Dragon) if caught and let loose upon the Sand, digs
for himself an Excavation with his Snout, with wonderful
Celerity.

CHAPTER XXVIII.
Of Fishes destitute of Blood.

SOME Fishes are without Blood : 1 of which we will now
speak. Of them there are three Sorts. First, those which
are called Soft : secondly, such as are covered with thin
Crusts : and in the last Place, they that are enclosed within
hard Shells. The soft are reckoned the Loligo, Sepia, Poly-
pus, and the rest of that Sort. These have their Head between
their Feet and the Belly, and every one of them has eight
Feet. The Sepia and Loligo have each two Feet, very long
and rough ; by which they convey Meat to their Mouths :
and also stay themselves as with an Anchor against the
Waves. The rest of their Feet are Tendrils, with which they
catch their Prey.

CHAPTER XXIX.2
Of the Loligo,3 Sepia,4* Polypus,5 and Nautilus?

ALSO the Loligo flies, springing out of the Water as if
he were an Arrow ; and even Pectunculi do the same. The

1 Not without a circulating fluid, but destitute of red blood. — Wern.
Club.

2 The Mollusks mentioned in this chapter are :— Loligo : Sepia Loligo.
—LiNN.— Wern. Club.

3 Loligo vulgaris. — Cuv., and perhaps, also, L. media. Common
Cuttle. —Wern. Club.

4 Sepia officinalis. — LINN, and Cuv. Bone Cuttle. — Wern. Club.

5 Septa octopodia. — LINN. Eledone vulgaris. — Cuv. See B. xxxii.
c. 2.— Wern. Club.

6 Argonauta Argo. — LINN. The story of hoisting its membranous
sails to the wind is found to be an error : the use of these parts being to
clasp the sides of the shell as it swims. It was the Polypus chiefly that
was so highly prized as food by the Greeks, but it was necessary to bruise
it well before it was cooked. The Loligo was also employed in the same
manner ; as it is at this day. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 143

Males of the Sepia kind are mottled, and blacker, as well as
more firm, than the Female. If the Female be smitten with
a Trident, they will help her ; but if the Male be struck, she
flies. But both of them, when they perceive that they are
laid hold of, throw out a Quantity of Ink, which is in the
Place of Blood to them ; and when the Water is obscured
with it they hide themselves by means of it.

Of Polypi there are many Kinds. They that keep near
the Shore are bigger than those that haunt the Deep. All
of them employ their Arms in the manner of Feet and
Hands ; but the Tail, which is sharp and two-forked, serveth
them in their Coupling. The Polypi have a Pipe in their
Back, by which they throw out the Sea : and it they can
shift, one while to the right Side, and another to the left.
They swim obliquely on their Head, which is very hard by
being blown up while they are alive. Moreover, by hollow
Concavities, arranged along their Arms, they will adhere, as
it were by sucking, to any Thing ; which they hold so fast
(lying upward with their Bellies) that they cannot be
plucked from it. They never fasten on the Bottom; and
the greater they are, the less strong they are to hold any
Thing. Of all soft (Fishes) they alone go out of the Water to
dry Land, at least into some rough Place; for they cannot
abide those that are smooth. They devour the Flesh of Shell-
fishes, the Shells of which they break by the Compression of
their Tendrils ; and therefore the Place where they lie may
be detected by the Number of Shells that lie before their
Place. And though in other Respects it may be regarded as
a very senseless Creature, so that it will swim to a Man's
Hand, yet in what concerns its Family Affairs it possesses
Understanding: for all they can take they carry to their
Home ; and when they have eaten the Meat of the Tishes
they throw away the empty Shells, and watch to catch the
little Fishes that approach them. They change their Colour
to that of the Place where they are, and especially when
under the Influence of Fear. That they gnaw their own
Arms is a great Error; for they owe this Injury to the Con-
gers : but it is scarcely false that they will grow again, like

144 History of Nature. [BoOK IX.

the Tail of Adders and Lizards. But among the greatest
Wonders of Nature, is that Creature which by some is called
Nautilos, by others Pompilos. It comes to the Surface of
the Water upon its Back, so that it raiseth or heaveth itself
up by little and little ; and that it may swim with Ease, it
dischargeth all the Water through a Pipe, as if it were
unloaded by a Pump, After this, turning back the two fore-
most Arms, it stretcheth out between them a Membrane of
wonderful thinness ; which serve th it for a Sail in the Air,
whilst with the rest of its Arms it roweth under Water ; and
with the Tail in the midst it directeth its Course, as with an
Helm. Thus does it make its Way in the Deep with the
Imitation of a little Boat, and if any Thing alarm it with a
Draught of Water it sinks itself to the Bottom.

CHAPTER XXX.

Of the Ozcena, the Nauplius, and Locustce.

THE Ozsena1 is a kind of Polypus, and it derives its Name
from the strong Smell of its Head ; from which Cause espe-
cially the Mursenae pursue it. The Polypi lie hid for two
Months, and do not live above two Years. They always die
of a Consumption : the Female sooner than the Males, and
ordinarily after they have brought forth their Young. I
cannot pass over the Reports of Trebius Niger, one of the
Retinue of L. Lucullus, Proconsul in Boetica, which he deli-
vered as collected by the latter concerning these Polypi :
that they are exceedingly greedy after Conchaj (Cockles,
Mussels, and such-like Shell-fishes) : and that they, as soon
as they feel themselves touched, shut their Shells, and so cut
off their Arms, and thus feed upon those which sought to
make a Prey of them. These Shell-fishes are without Sight,
and every other Sense, but those of tasting their Meat
and Sensibility to Danger. These Polypi lie in wait for
Cockles as they gape wide open, and put in a little Stone

1 Eledone moschatus. — Cuv. Professor Edward Forbes says, it was
probably Eledone macrnpodia. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 145

between the Shells ; but not close to the Body of the Fish,
lest if it felt it, it might be thrown out again ; and thus they
carry on their Attacks in Security, so as to get out the
Flesh ; for although the Cockles close their Shells, it is in
vain, because of the Wedge between them : so great is the
Subtilty of Creatures which otherwise are very dull in their
Faculties ! Moreover, Trebius Niger affirmeth that there
is no other Creature so dangerous to destroy a Man in the
Water ; for it catcheth him fast in its Embrace, and sucks
him with the Cups, so that it exhausts him with the Num-
ber of its drawing Instruments, at such a Time as it has
obtained an Advantage over those which are shipwrecked,
or are engaged in diving. But if it be turned upside down,
its Strength is soon gone ; for then they stretch themselves
out on their Back. And truly also, all Creatures in the
Sea are attracted by their Smell, which is the Cause that
Fishermen besmear their Traps with them.

Other Things which this Author hath related may seem
rather like something monstrous ; for he affirmeth, that at
Carteia there was one which used to go from the Sea into
their open Cisterns, among their Ponds, and there rob them
of their salt Fish ; and this Thievery was so enormous and
long continued, that it gat itself the great Displeasure of
the Keepers. Fences were erected to stop the Passage, but
these it passed over by means of a Tree ; nor could it have
been taken but by the Sagacity of the Dogs : for as it was
returning one Night, they set upon it on all Sides, and so
raised the Keepers, who were affrighted at the strange
Sight. For, first of all, it was of unheard-of bigness; then
its Colour was covered over with the Pickle, and the Stink
was horrible. Who would have looked for a Polypus there,
or have known it in such a condition ? They thought they
had to encounter with some Monster : for with its terrible
Vapour it drove away the Dogs; and with the Ends of its
long Tendrils it would lash them ; sometimes with its
stronger Arms it knocked them, as with Clubs ; so that it
was with Difficulty they were able to kill it with several
three-pronged Spears. Its Head was shown to Lucullus, and

VOL. III. L

1-46 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

was as big as a Barrel that would contain fifteen Amphorae ;
and its Beards (for I quote the exact Words of Trebius^) a
Man could scarcely encompass with both his Arms; they were
full of Protuberances like Clubs, and thirty feet long. The
Cavities or Cups, and hollow Vessels, were like great
Basins ; and the Teeth were conspicuous for their size. The
Remains were preserved for a Wonder, and weighed seven
hundred Pounds. The same Author affirmeth that Sepiae
also, and the Loligo, have been cast upon that Shore, full as
big. Indeed, in our Sea, Loligines are taken of five Cubits
long, and Sepiae of two : and these do not live above two
Years.1

Mutianus reporteth, that himself saw in Propontis ano-
ther kind, having the Likeness of one carrying a Ship : that
it was a Shell-fish, with a Keel like that of a Barge, with a
Poop turned inward ; the Prow with a Beak. Within this
lay hid the Nauplius, an Animal resembling a Sepia, only to
play with it for Company. And this was done in two Ways :
for when it is calm, the Passenger would put down its Feet,
and row as with Oars ; but if the Breeze invited, it would
stretch out the same to serve for a Rudder ; and then the
Cavity of the Shell would be spread to the Wind. So one of
them takes, a Pleasure to carry, and the other to direct; and
they unite to sink the Shell : though both are destitute of
Sense ; unless, indeed, Misfortune be intended to Man : a
sad Presage, as is well known to Sailors.

Locustae2 (being of that Kind which wanteth Blood) are
defended with a brittle Crust. For five Months they lie hid.

1 -/Elian relates some accounts of enormous Polypi : B. xii. c. 6. One
dragged into the sea an eagle that had attempted to seize it ; B. vii. c. 1 1 .
— Wern. Club.

3 This seems a general name for long-tailed Crustaceans, including
the Lobsters and Crawfishes. But when applied to a distinct species, the
Carabos of the Greeks and Locusta of the Latins is the genus Palinurus,
Cuv., of which P. quadricomis was, probably, that which Tiberius em-
ployed to lacerate the face of the fisherman at Capri : its shell being
covered with prominent spines. Astacus (A. marinus) is the common
Lobster. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 147

The Crabs (Cancri1) likewise, which at the same Time keep
close ; and both of them in the beginning of Spring cast
their old Coats in the manner of Snakes, and renew them
fresh. The others swim within the Water; but the Locustae
float aloft, in the manner of creeping Things. So long as
they feel no Fear they go straight forward, their Horns,
which naturally have a round Arming, being stretched out
towards the Sides ; but if they be in any Fear, these Horns
are erected, and they advance by passing from Side to Side.
With these Horns they contend with one another. Of all
Creatures this only hath no Solidity in its liquid Flesh,
unless it is boiled alive in scalding Water.

CHAPTER XXXI.
Of the Cancer, Echinus, and Echinometra.

LOCUSTS live in rocky Places; Crabs in those which
are soft. In Winter they seek after Shores exposed to
the Sunshine : but in Summer they retire into shady
Places in Gullies. All of this Family decline in the Win-
ter; but in Autumn and Spring they grow fat; and espe-
cially when the Moon is full, because by Night that Star is

1 A general name for the short-tailed crustaceans, which comprise the
crabs ; but individually Cancer pagurus, LINN. : The edible crab. The
other species are: Maja: Cancer squinado, LINN.; Maia Sq., Cuv.; some-
times seen on Greek coins, and supposed to be endowed with more wis-
dom than other crustaceans. It was sensible to the charms of music, and
jJElian says of the Pagurus (which, as expressing this crab, may include
this species), that fishermen employed the music of the Photingium to
allure them out of the water. Heracleoticus : Cancer granulatus, LINN. ;
Calappa granulata, Cuv.; Leones : Galafhcea rugosa, Cuv.; Hippce :
Cancer cursor, LINN. ; Ocypodb, Cuv. ; a species which comes on land by
day, and returns to the water at night. Belonius says, that its motions
are so swift, that a man cannot overtake it : it seems rather to fly than
run. Pinnotheres, Cuv., of two or three species : sometimes seen on Greek
coins, and apparently confounded by Pliny with Hermit Crabs : the
Paguri of Cuvier ; solely because both these sorts seek refuge in the
shells of Mollusks. Errors like this, which are common in ancient writers,
are proofs that they possessed very slight practical knowledge of Natural
History. — Wern. Club.

148 History of Nature. [Boon IX.

mitigated by the warm Light. Of Crabs there are many
kinds : as Carabi, Astaci, Majae, Paguri, Heracleotici,
Leones, and others that are less esteemed. The Carabi
differ from other Crabs in the Tail. In Phoenicia there is a
kind called Hippoe, which are so swifr, that it is impossible
to overtake them. Crabs live long : they have eight Feet,
all turned obliquely : the Female hath the Fore-foot double,
the Male single. Moreover, two of their Arms have toothed
Pincers. The upper Part of these Fore-claws is moveable ;
the lower Part doth not move. The right Ann in all is the
larger. When they come in Sculls together, sometimes
they are not able to pass the Mouth of the Pontus ; for
which Reason they return and fetch a Compass, so that the
beaten Way may be seen. The least of all these kind of
Crabs is called Pinnotheres1 ; and on this Account it is the
most exposed to Injury. But it possesses the Wisdom to
hide itself within the Shells of empty Oysters ; and as it
groweth bigger, it changes its Quarters to larger ones.
Crabs, when they are afraid, will run backward as fast as
they went forward. They fight with one another, and then
butt with their Horns like Rams. They are a Remedy
against the Stings of Serpents. It is reported, that while the
Sun is passing the Sign Cancer, the Bodies of dead Crabs
that lie on the dry Land are turned into Scorpions. Of the
same Class are the Echini ;2 which have Spines instead of
Feet. Their Manner of going is to roll themselves round;
and, therefore, many Times they are found with their Spines
rubbed off. Of the same Sort are those which are called
Echinometrse, which have the longest Spines and the
smallest Cases. Neither are they alt of the same glassy
Colour; for those produced about Torone are white, and have

1 Or Pinnoteres.

a Professor Edward Forbes believes the species intended by Pliny to
be E. limdusj and Echinometra, Echinus esculentus. But in regard to
the latter there is some doubt. Ruysch represents it as having a small
cup and long spines. One that is elongated, with soft, weak spines, is
Amphidelus Mediterraneus ; and a little species with long spines, Cidaris
histrix. What Pliny calls eggs are the ovaries, the only eatable parts. —
Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 149

small Spines. They have all of them five Eggs, which are
bitter. Their Mouths stand in the Middle of their Bodies,
directed towards the Earth. It is said that they foretell the
raging of the Sea : for they labour to gather Stones, by the
Weight of which to fix themselves from being rolled over:
for they dread to have their Spines worn off by being
tossed about ; and when the Sailors have seen this, they
immediately moor their Ships with many Anchors.

CHAPTER XXXII.
Of Cochlea.1

IN the same Rank are the Cochleae, both of the Land
and Water ; which stretch themselves out of their Habi-
tation, and extend or withdraw two Horns. They have no
Eyes ; and therefore they feel the Way before them with
the little Horns.

CHAPTER XXXIII.

Of the Pecten* the Murex, and other Kinds of Shell-fishes
(Conches}.

THE Pectens in the Sea are considered of the same
Race. They also lie hid in the Times of great Heats, and
also in great Cold. They have Nails, which shine as if with
Fire in the Dark: even in the Mouth of those that are
eating, them. Murices have a stronger Shell; as also the
Kinds of Conches, in which is a great Variety of Nature's

1 Turbinated shells, as snails and periwinkles. It is strange that
Pliny should deny them eyes, when these organs are so plainly situated
at the ends of the peduncles on the land species, and at their base in those
of the sea. — Wern. Club.

2 Pecten : then as now the genus of Scallops, but not precisely limited
to the modern sorts. Conchas are supposed to be the beautiful family of
Cowries, Cypraea?, and Olivse. It is not improbable, also, that other shells,
having no other natural connexion with these than beauty of form or
colouring, were comprised in the same name ; and the habits ascribed to
the Veneriae are much like those of a turbinated shell, the Janthina
fragilis : although it may be a Cowry, the Concha venerea of the old
naturalists. — Wern. Club.

150 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

Play : so many different Colours, such diversity of Forms :
flat, hollow, long, moon-shaped, rounded into a Globe, cut
into half a Globe, rising up on the Back, smooth, rough,
toothed, ridged, the Top bent into a Wreath, the Border
projecting into a Point, spread out externally, rolled back
within : then, again, with distinct Bands, hairy, curled,
channelled, formed like a Comb, waved with Plaits like
Tiles, having Cells like Network, spread out straight, or
oblique ; some are thickly compact, others stretched forth,
or crooked; bound round into a short Knot, all their Sides
united together : some open, adapted to give a Clap; others
curved on themselves, like a Cornet. Of all these Sorts, the
Venerise swim on the Water, and expose their hollow Part
to gather the Wind : by which they sail upon the Surface of
the Ocean. The Pectens skip, and fly out of the Water ;
they also make a Boat of themselves.

CHAPTER XXXIV.
Of the Riches of the Sea.

BUT why do I recount these small Matters, when the
Degeneracy of Manners and Luxury proceedeth not from
any other Thing so much as from these Shell-fishes? For
now, of all the Things in Nature, nothing is so destructive as
the Sea, in so many Fashions, such Variety of Tables, such
different Tastes in Fishes ; which bear a Price according to
the Danger of obtaining them.

CHAPTER XXXV.
Of Pearls ; how and where they are found.

BUT what is this to those who consider the Purpurse,1
Conchylise, and Pearls ? It was, therefore, but a little Matter
to bring the Seas into the Throat, unless Men and Women
might carry them about on their Hands, and Ears, Head,
and all over the Body. What hath the Sea to do with

1 See Chap, xxxvi.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 151

Apparel? What the Waves and Billows with the Fleece?
For this Element naturally doth not receive us unless we are
naked. And be it that there is so great a Fellowship with
it and our Bellies ; what Fellowship with the Back ? But
we are not contented to be fed with so many Perils, we must
be clad with them also. So throughout the whole Body,
that which is obtained with the utmost Hazard is most
regarded by the Mind of Man. The principal and summit
of all these Things, as regards the Price,1 are Pearls. The
Indian Ocean sends the chief Supply : and they are searched
for amongst those many and terrible Beasts which we have
spoken of before ;2 we must pass over so many Seas, through
so great an Extent of Countries, where the Heat of the Sun
is excessive : even the Indians themselves go to seek them
among the Islands, and even then meet with very few. The
greatest Plenty is found in Taprobane and Toidis, as hath
been said in our Review of the World : and likewise about
Perimula, a Promontory of India. But they are praised as
the most perfect, which are obtained about Arabia, within
the Persian Gulf of the Red Sea. The Origin and Mode of
breeding of this Shell differ not much from that of the
Shells of Oysters : for when the Season of the Year urgeth
them, they spread themselves with a Kind of Gaping, and
then are said to be filled with a prolific Dew, with which
they grow pregnant : and the Fruit of which these Shell-
fishes are delivered are these Pearls, according to the Qua-
lity of the Dew which they received. For if the Dew were
pure which went into them, the Pearls are white and bril-
liant ; if muddy, the Product likewise is foul : it is pale,
also, if the Weather were threatening at the Time of Con-
ception. Whereby, no doubt, it is plain that they have more
Affinity with the Sky than with the Sea : for, according as
the Morning is fair, they are clear ; or foul, if that was
cloudy. If they have Time to feed sufficiently, the Pearls,
also, will grow large ; but if there be Lightning, they close

1 At the opening of the 4th chapter of the 37th Book, our author tells
us that diamonds bear the highest price. — Wern. Club.
3 Vide Chap. iii. — Wern. Club.

152 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

their Shells, and, for want of Nourishment, diminish in size.
But if it Thunder, suddenly they shut their Shells through
Fear, and produce those which are called Physeinata, a
Kind resembling an empty Bladder blowed up with Wind,
without any Body ; and these are the Abortions of Shells.
Those which are sound are formed of many Skins, which
may not improperly be thought the solid Substance of the
Body; which they that are skilful cleanse them from. I
wonder that they so greatly rejoice in the Air; for with the
Sun they become red, and lose their Whiteness, just like the
Body of a Man. Therefore those Shells that keep in the
main Sea, and lie deeper than the Sunbeams can pierce to
them, have the finest Pearls. And even these become yellow
with Age, and dull with Wrinkles; so that the Lustre which
is so much sought for, only continued! during their Youth.
When they are old, they grow thick, and stick fast to the
Shells, so that they cannot be separated but with a File.
These have only one Face, and from that Side are round ;
for the back Part is flat ; for which Reason such are called
Tympania. We may see them growing together in these
Shells which serve to carry Ointments.1 There is a Pearl
that, is soft when in the Water, but when taken out it pre-
sently hardeneth. When this Shell perceiveth the Hand,
it shutteth itself, and so covereth over her Riches, being
aware that it is for these she is sought after. But if the
Hand come in the Way of the Shell, it will be cut off by its
sharp Edge ; and the Punishment cannot be more just,
although she is armed with other Means of Revenge. For
they keep for the most Part about Rocks ; and if they are
in deep Water they are accompanied with Sea-dogs. And
yet all this will not keep them away from the Ears of the
Ladies. Some say that, like Bees, every Company of these
Shells has one Chief, distinguished for his Size and Age,

1 These boxes, made of beautifully -coloured shells, and ornamented
with rare pearls, for holding precious unguents, will remind the reader of
the alabaster box for the same purpose spoken of in the Gospels. From
what Pliny says of these alabaster boxes, they must have been turned
with a lathe. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 153

like a Leader, and endued with wonderful Shrewdness, to
guard his Flock from Danger. These the Divers use their
Efforts to obtain ; for if they are caught the rest are scat-
tered, and are easily taken in the Nets. When thus obtained,
they are put into earthen Pots, and covered with Salt; and
when all the Flesh is consumed, certain Kernels within their
Bodies, that is, the Pearls themselves, fall down to the Bot-
tom. There is no Doubt but they will become worn, and
change their Colour, if they be not well looked to. Their
Reputation jconsisteth in their brilliant Whiteness, Size,
Roundness, Smoothness, and Weight : Qualities not readily
found, insomuch that it is impossible to find two perfectly
fitted together. And hence it is that our very elegant People
at Rome have given them this Name of Uniones. For the
Greeks have no such Terms for them : nor among the Bar-
barians, who discovered them, is there any other Name than
Margaritas. In the very Whiteness itself there is a great
Difference among them. That which is found in the Red
Sea is the clearer The Indian Pearl resembleth the Plates
of the Stone called Specularis ; but otherwise it excels all
others in Magnitude. The greatest Commendation of their
Colour is to be called Exalumiuatrse. They that are more
lengthened are commendable in their Degree. For those
that are elongated and pointed at the Top, and grow into a
full Globe at the Bottom, in the Shape of Alabaster Boxes,
are favoured with the Name of Elenchi. The Ladies take
great Pride to have these dangling from their Fingers,
and two or three pendent at their Ears. There is Luxury
conveyed in the Names they have devised for these, and
wanton Excess in what they carry about; for when they
knock one against another they call them Crotalia (Cym-
bals), as if they delighted to hear the Sound of their Pearls
rattling together. Now, also, poor People affect to wear
them ; and it is a Saying among them, that a fair Pearl is to
a Woman instead of a Lictor.1 Nay, upon the Feet, also,

1 That is, they are a warrant of her rank, and so make way for her in
a crowd. — Wern. Club.

154 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

they place them, not on the upper Portion of their Slippers,
but also over all their Sandals. For it is not enough to carry
Pearls about with them, but they must tread upon them, and
even walk among Pearls.

Pearls were accustomed to be found in our Seas, and
more abundantly about the Thracian Bosphorus ; but they
were small and ruddy in the Shells, which they call Myse :l
In Acarnania the Shell called Pinna1 produceth them.
Whereby it appeareth that they are bred in more than one
Sort of Concha. King Juba, also, hath recorded, that on
the Arabian Coasts there is a Kind of Shell like a notched
Pecten, but rough, something like the Echinus ; and this
beareth Pearls in the Flesh like a Hailstone. But no such
Shells are brought to us. Neither in Acarnania are any
found of much Reputation, being of irregular Form, and of
a Marble Colour. There are better about Actium, but they
are small ; and so are they which are taken on the Sea
Coasts of Mauritania. Alexander Polyhistor and Sudines
are of Opinion that they will show Signs of Age, and lose
their Colour. That they are solid in their Substance, is
evident by this, that with no Fall will they break. But they
are not always found in the Middle of the Flesh, but some-
times in one Place, and sometimes in another. I have seen
them at the very Edges, as if they were going out of the
Shell ; and in some four, in others five together. Unto this
Day few have been known to weigh above half an Ounce
and a Scruple. In Britain it is certain that some are pro-
duced, but they are small and dim, of Colour : for Divus
Julius wished it to be understood that the Breastplate which
he dedicated to Venus Genetrix in her Temple, was made of
British Pearls.

I myself have seen Lollia Paulina, who was the Wife of
the Prince Caius, not when she was dressed in State, or for

1 Myse : Pinna : — gaping Bivalves, still known to science by the same
names. The shell here compared to an Echinus may be Pecten echinatus;
but there are several Bivalves with spines projecting from their surface.
The Editor has obtained a jet black and perfectly round pearl from an
English Pinna: P. ingens. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 155

some great Solemnity, but only to go to a betrothing Supper
of People of ordinary Rank ; at which Time she was covered
all over with Emeralds and Pearls, shining as they were
arranged in alternate Rows; over all her Head, the Wreaths
of her Hair, her Ears, Neck, Hands, and Fingers. The
Value of these Ornaments she rated at 400 hundred thousand
Sestertii ;l and offered to prove it immediately by her Books
of Accounts. Yet these Jewels were not the Gifts of the
prodigal Prince, but the Riches of her own Ancestors, that
is, the Product of the Spoiling of the Provinces. This is
the Issue of those Depredations ; this it was for which
M. Lollius was reproached through all the East for receiving
Presents from the Kings ; and being forbidden the Friend-
ship of C. Ccesar, Son of Augustus, he drank Poison, that
his Niece should be gazed at by Lamp-light as she was
covered with the Value of Jewels of 400 hundred thousand
Sestertii.

On the other Hand, let any Man reckon how much
Curius or Fabricius bore in their Triumphs ; let him imagine
what their Shows were: and on the other Side, make an
Estimate of Lollia, one only Woman, allied to the Emperor,
reclining ; would not he wish rather that they had been
pulled out of their Chariots than to have conquered only for
this ? And yet this is not the greatest Example of excessive
Prodigality.

There were two Pearls, the very largest that ever were
known in any Age, and they were possessed by Cleopatra,
the last Queen of Egypt ; having descended to her by means
of the Kings of the East. When Antony had feasted her
Day by Day very sumptuously, and under the Influence,
at one Time, of Pride and petulant Disdain, as a Royal
Harlot, after undervaluing his Expense and Provision, he
demanded how it was possible to go beyond this Magni-
ficence : she replied, that she would consume, in one Supper,
100 hundred thousand Sestertii.2 Antony desired to learn
how that could be possible, but he thought it was not.

1 Forty, millions. 3 Ten millions.

1 56 History of Nature. [BooK IX .

Wagers were, therefore, laid ; and on the following Day,
when the Decision was to be made (for that a Day might
not be lost, Antony appointed the next succeeding one), she
provided a Supper, which was, on the whole, sumptuous ;
but Antony laughed at it, and required to see an Account of
the Particulars. But she said, that what had been served up
already was but the Over-measure, and affirmed still, that
she would in that Supper make up the full Sum ; and her-
self alone consume in this Supper 600 huudred thousand
Sestertii.1 She then commanded the second Table to be
brought in. As soon as the Order was given, the Attendants
placed before her one only Vessel of Vinegar,2 the Strength
and Sharpness of which wasted and dissolved the Pearls.
Now she wore at her Ears that most remarkable and truly
singular Work of Nature. Therefore, as Antony waited to
see what she was going to do, she took one of them from
her Ear, steeped it in the Vinegar, and when it was liquefied,
drank it. As she was about to do the like by the other,
L. Plancius, the Judge of that Wager, laid hold upon it
with his Hand, and pronounced that Antony had lost the
Wager : whereat the Man became very angry. The Fame
of this Pearl may go with its Fellow ; for after this Queen,
the Winner of so great a Wager, was taken Prisoner, the
other Pearl was cut in two, that the half of their Supper
might hang at the Ears of Venus, in the Pantheon, at
Rome. Still, however, these shall not bear away the Palm in

1 Sixty millions.

2 Cleopatra must have employed a stronger vinegar than that which
we now use for our tables, as the pearls, on account of their hardness and
their natural enamel, cannot be easily dissolved by a weak acid. Nature has
secured the teeth of animals against the effect of acids, by an enamel
covering of the like kind ; but if this enamel happen to be injured only
in one small place, the teeth soon spoil and rot. Cleopatra, perhaps,
broke and pounded the pearls ; and it is probable that she afterwards
diluted the vinegar with water, that she might be able to drink it ;
though it is the nature of the basis or calx to neutralise the acid, and so
render it imperceptible to the tongue. — See BECKMAN'S Hist, of Inventions,
vol. ii. p. 1.

The pearl which Cleopatra swallowed is said to have been worth
80,729*. 3s. 4d. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 157

this, but shall be deprived of the Glory of Luxury. For
before this, Ctodius, the Son of JEsop? the Tragedian, being
left by him Heir to very great Wealth, practised the same
with Pearls of great Price ; so that Antony needed not to be
over-proud of his Triumvirate, being almost equalled by a
Stage-player ; and that, too, when he was not urged to it by
a Wager, which was much more like a King. His Experi-
ment was the Glory of the Palate, for he wanted to try
what Taste Pearls had ; and as they pleased him wonder-
fully, because he would not be the only one who knew the
Taste, he gave to every Guest at his Table a Pearl to sup up
in like Mariner.

Fenestdla writeth, that after Alexandria was reduced to
Subjection, Pearls came into frequent and indiscriminate use
at Rome ; but that about the Time of Sylla they began first;
and those were but small ones, and mean. But this is a great
Error. For JElius Stilo reporteth, that in the Time of the
War with Jugurtha, the great Pearls, for the most Part, had
the Name of Uniones imposed on them.

And this is almost a perpetual Possession : it fulloweth
the Heir. When sold, they pass with Warranty, as any
Estate would do.*

Purpurae and Conchylia are found thrown about on every
Coast ; and yet to them the same Mother Luxury hath
assigned almost an equal Value with Pearls.

1 Horace, Lib. iii. Sat. 3 :—

" An actor's son dissolved a wealthy pearl
(The precious ear-ring of his favourite girl),
In vinegar, and thus luxurious quaffed
A thousand solid talents at a draught.
Had he not equally his wisdom shown,
Into the sink or river were it thrown ? " — FRANCIS.
— Wern. Club.

158 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

CHAPTER XXXVI.
The Nature of the Purpura* and the Murex.

PURPURJE, for the most Part, live seven Years. They
lie hid for thirty Days about the rising of the Dog Star, like
the Murices. They collect together in the Spring, and with
rubbing one against another they spit a clammy Substance,
in the Manner of Wax. The Murices do the like. But that
Bloom which is so much in request for dyeing Garments the
Purpurse have in the midst of their Throat. Here is placed
a white Vein, containing a very little Fluid ; from whence
is derived that precious and bright Colour of deep red
(Nigrantis) Roses. The Rest of the Body yieldeth Nothing.
Fishermen endeavour to take them alive, for when they die
they cast up that Juice with their Life. Now the Tyrians,
when they obtain any great Purpurse, remove the Shell from
the Flesh ; but the lesser, they break in a Mill, and so at
last collect that Humour. This is the best in Asia ; but in
Africa, that in the (Island) Meninx, and the Coast of the
Ocean by Getulia ; and in Europe, that o^f Laconica. It is
for this the Roman Fasces and Axes make Way ; this is it
that stands for the Majesty of the Childhood; this maketh
the Distinction between the Senate and a Knight ; this is
summoned when they offer Sacrifice to pacify the Gods : this
giveth a Lustre to every Garment ; and in their triumphal
Procession it is interlaced with the Gold. It is thus that the
Madness after the Purpurse is to be excused. But how
should the Conchylia be so highly prized? What strong
Smell in the rank Colour, so harsh a Colour in the blue,
and resembling rather the angry Sea? But to come to the
particular Description. The Purpura hath a Tongue the
length of a Finger, so sharp and hard at the End that it
pierces into other Shell-fishes, and feeds on them. In fresh

1 This name included more than one species ; but more particularly it
is the Murex trunculus, Guv. Conchylia : a name for Bivalve shells in
general. The Buccinum may be our common Whelk. — Wern. Clul.

BOOK I X .] History of Nature. 1 59

Water they die, and so also if they are plunged into a River;
otherwise, after they are taken, they will continue alive fifty
Days in their own slimy Humour. All Shell-fish grow very
rapidly, but Purpurse remarkably so ; for in one Year they
come to their full Size. Now if I should proceed no further,
Luxury would think itself defrauded, and condemn me for
Negligence. Therefore we will follow the Subject into the
Shops, that as every Man for the Necessity of this Life
knoweth the Price of Victuals, all who take Pleasure in
these Things may be well versed in the Costs of this their
Existence. These Shell-fishes that serve for purple Colours,
and the Conchylia, all consist of one Material : the Differ-
ence is only in the mixing. They are of two principal Sorts.
The Buccinum is a smaller Shell, resembling that Horn with
which Sound is uttered ; and from this it took its Name.
The round Orifice is cut in at the Edges. The other is
named Purpura, protrudes a long Snout like a Channel, and
within the Side of this Channel it is tubulated, to allow a
Passage for the Tongue. Besides this the Shell is studded as
far as to the Wreathe with sharp Spines, in about seven
Rows, placed in a Circle; which the Buccinum doth not
possess. But so many Circles as each of them has, so
many Years old they are. The Buccinum fastens to Nothing
besides Rocks, and therefore is gathered about rough
Places.

CHAPTER XXXVII.
How many Sorts there are.

PuRPUR2E have another Name, and are called Pelagiae.
There are many Sorts of them, which differ either in their
Situation or Food. The first is the Lutense, nourished by
rotten Mud : the Algense, the worst of all, feeding upon Sea-
weeds close to the Shore ; and the Taeniens^, which is better
than either of the former, and is gathered about the Borders
of the Sea called Tenci. And yet this Kind yieideth only a
light and diluted Colour. There are also some termed Cal-
culosae, from the Sea-gravel, which is wonderfully good for

160 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

Conchylia. And by far the best, the Purpurae dialutense,
that is, a Kind which is fed by various Kinds of Soil. Now
these Purpurae are taken with very small Snares, like Nets,
thrown into deep Water. Within these, for a Bait, are some
Shells, that will shut, and are ready to snap, as we may
see the Mituli. These, when half dead, are put back into
the Sea, when reviving and gaping for Water, the Purpurae
eagerly seek for them with their pointed Tongues, which
they thrust out and so annoy them : but the others, feeling
themselves pricked, presently shut their Shells together, and
compress those that bite them. Thus the Purpurae, through
their Greediness, are taken, hanging by their Tongues.

CHAPTER XXXVIII.
The Fishing -time for Pur puree.

THE best Time to take Purpurae is after the Dog-Star is
risen, or before the Spring. For, when they have borne
Young their Juice is waterish. But the Shops of the
Dyers do not know this, although their highest Skill turns
on this Point. When they are caught they extract the
Vein before-mentioned ; and they lay it in the necessary
Salt, in the Proportion of a Pint and half (of Salt) to every
Hundred-weight. It is right to soak it for about three Days,
for the newer the Colour is, so much is it stronger. They
heat it in Lead, and to every Amphora of Water1 they put
one hundred and fifty Pounds of the Colour so prepared.
They boil it with a gentle Fire, and therefore the Pipe must
lead a good WTay off from the Furnace. During this Time, the
Flesh being now and then skimmed off (for some of this can-
not be prevented from sticking to the Veins), for the most
Part about the tenth Day the Kettle is sufficiently pre-
pared ; and to make Trial of it, they dip into it a Fleece of
Wool that has been washed out of one Water into another :
and until their Wish is satisfied, they persist in trying the
Liquor. The red Colour is worse than that which is dark.

1 See Chap, xxxix. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 161

The Wool absorbs the Colour in five Hours : then they card
it, and put it in again, until it hath drunk up all the colour-
ing Matter. The Buccinum maketh no good Colour of itself;
for it loses the Dye again. And, therefore, usually they join
to it the Pelagium ; which, to its too great Blackness, giveth
that Depth and Brightness which is sought for in Cloth dyed
in Grain. Thus by mixing the Force of both they raise one
another, or bind each other more closely. The amount of
the Preparation to each Pound of Wool is two hundred of
the Buccinum to a hundred and eleven Pelagian Purpurse.
In this Manner is made that rich Amethyst Colour. But the
Tyrians thoroughly dye the Wool in the Furnace of the
Pelagian Purpurae only, while not yet thoroughly prepared,
but still green ; and afterwards they change it into another,
where the Buccinum has been boiled. It is most highly
commended when it is as deep a red as congealed Blood ;
blackish at the first Sight, but when viewed between you
and the Light, it shows a shining Lustre. And hereupon it
is that Homer calleth Blood Purple.

CHAPTER XXXIX.
When they began at Rome to wear Purple.

I SEE that Purple hath been always used in Rome ; but
Romulus wore it in his royal Robe (only). It is well known
that Tullus Hostilius was the first of the Kings who, after he
had subdued the Hetruscans, put on the Toga Pretexta and
the Latus Clavus. JVepos Cornelius, who died under the
Reign of Divus Augustus, says: When I was a young Man,
the Violet Purple was in great Request, and a Pound of it
was sold for a hundred Denarii i1 and not long after the
Tarentine red Purple. After this came the double-dyed
Tyrian Purple, which could not be bought for a thousand
Pounds of Denarii.2 P. Lentulus Spinter, in his Curile
^Edileship, is reproached for having first worn it in his Robe.
But now (says Nepos}, who does not form the Hangings of

1 3 lib. 2 shil. 6d. sterl. * 31 lib. 5 shil.

VOL. III. M

162 History of Nature. [BoOK IX.

his Parlour with Purple ? Spinier was ^Edile in the seven
hundredth Year after the Foundation of the City, when Cicero
was Consul. This Purple was then called Dibapha, which
was twice dyed ; as being of magnificent Expense ; whereas
now almost all the genteel Purple Cloths are thus dyed. In
the Cloths dyed with the Conchylia the other Things are
the same, except that there is no Buccinum. Moreover, the
Broth is tempered with Water instead of the Excrement of
a Man's Drink; and only a half of the Preparations is
added. And thus is made that pale Tint so highly com-
mended, as being deprived of the full Colour ; and it is so
much the more diluted, as the Wool has been suffered to
drink it up.

CHAPTER XL.
The Prices of these Cloths.

THE Prices are lower, according to the Abundance of the
dyeing Material found on the Coast. But it was never known
in any Place that a Pound of the Pelagian (Colour) has ex-
ceeded five hundred Sesterces : t nor a Pound of the Buc-
cinum (Purple) cost above one hundred : which they who
sell these Things raise to an extravagant Price. But this is
far from being the End ; and Men have a Delight to trifle
with the Expense : to deceive by mixing over again, and so
double the Produce, adulterating even the Adulterations of
Nature; as to stain the Tortoise, to mix Silver with the Gold,
and so form Electrum : and by adding Brass to these, to
make the Corinthian Metal.

CHAPTER XLI.

The Manner of Dyeing the Amethystine Colour, Scarlet, and
colour Hysginum.

IT is not enough to have robbed the precious Stone Ame-
thyst of its Name, but when they had it perfect, they must

1 3 lib. 18 shil. Id. ob.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 163

have it drunk1 again with the Tyrian Dye, that they might
have* it degraded with a Name compounded of both (Tyri-
amethystus), correspondent to their two-fold Luxury. Also,
after they have accomplished the (Colour) Conchylium, they
think it better prepared to pass into the Tyrian. It should
seem that these double Dyes came first from the after-
thought of the Workman, when he employed his Skill to
change what he had done and disliked. And from this is
come a Consideration, and a Desire is derived from a Fault
by those portentous Contrivances ; and the twofold Way of
Luxury is displayed, by laying one Colour upon another,
with great Labour, so as to render it what is called more
pleasant and delicate. Nay, they also mix the Dye of Land-
colours ; for what is already dyed with the Coccus, they dye
again in the Tyrian Purple, to make the Hysginum.

The Coccus is a red Grain that cometh from Galatia, as
we shall show in our Account of (Plants) of the Land ; or
else about Emerita, in Lusitania (Portugal), and that, of all
other, is most esteemed. But to sum up in one Word these
noble Colours, note this, that when this Grain is one Year
old, it maketh but a weak Tincture ; but after four Years,
the Strength of it is gone. So that, neither young nor old, is
it of any great Strength. Thus I have sufficiently treated of
those Means which both Men and Women think best fitted
to set themselves out in the best Manner.

CHAPTER XLII.

Of the Pinna, and the Pinnoter : and the Perception of
Fishes.

THE Pinna2 is also of the Class of Shell-fishes. It is pro-
duced in muddy Places, always standing nearly upright; but
never without a Companion, which they call Pinnoteres, or,
according to some, Pinnophylax.3 This is a little Shrimp, or

' Alluding to the word " Amethyst," which resisteth drunkenness. —
Holland.

3 Pinna ingens and P. rotundata, LINN. — Wern. Club.
3 Pinnotheres veterum and P. pisum. — Wern. Club.

164 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

in some Places a Crab, an Attendant upon him for his Vic-
tuals. The Pinna gapes abroad, and showeth to the rittle
Fishes her Body within, which has no power of seeing. They
make a close Attack on it; and as their Boldness increases
with their Impunity, they enter and fill the Shell. The Sen-
tinel discerns this Opportunity, and giveth Token of it by a
gentle Pinch. She shuts her Mouth, and crusheth whatever
is within ; and then she delivers its proper Share to her
Companion.1 This Fact causes me to be so much the more
surprised, that there are some who are of Opinion that
Creatures of the Water have no Understanding. The Tor-
pedo knoweth her own Power, while she herself is not be-
numbed. She lieth covered over and hidden in the Mud,
ready to catch those Fishes which, as they unsuspiciously
swim over her, she strikes with Numbness. There is no
Meat that in Tenderness is to be preferred to the Liver of
this Fish. Nor is the Craftiness of the Rana less than this ;
which is the same that is called the Fisher in the Sea. She
lifts up the Horns which stand erect a little before the Eyes,
so as to project above the Mud which she hath stirred up ;
and so attracts the little Fishes which gather about her,
until they come so near as to enable her to seize them. In a
similar Manner the Squatina and Rhombus lie concealed,
and stretch out their Fins, which they move about, as if they
were some little Worms; and the Fish called Raia does the
same. For the Pastinaca lieth in wait like a Thief in a
Corner, ready to pierce the Fishes that pass by with a sharp
Spine, which is his Dart. It is a Proof of the Craftiness of
this Fish, that whilst they are the most sluggish of Fishes,
they are found to have in their Belly the Mugil, which is
the swiftest of all Fishes.

1 " The pinna and the crab together dwell,
For mutual succour, in one common shell.
They both to gain a livelihood combine ;
That takes the prey, when this has given the sign.
From hence this crab, above his comrade fam'd,
By ancient Greeks was pinnatores nam'd."

OPPIAN : Halicut, lib.ii. 1. 186, et seq.— Wern. Chib.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 165

CHAPTER XLIII.
Of the Scolopendrce, Vulpes, and the Glanis.

THE Scolopendrae1 are like those of the Land which they
call Centipedes. Wlien this Creature hath swallowed an
Hook, it vomits up its Entrails, until it hath delivered itself
of the Hook, and then it suppeth them in again. But the
Vulpes marinse,2 in the like Danger, swallow down more
and more of the Line, until it conies to the weakest Part,
which it can easily gnaw asunder. The Fish called Glanis
is more cautious ; it bites the Back of the Hook, and does
not devour the Bait, but nibbles it away.

CHAPTER XLIV.
Of the Fish called Aries.

THE Ram3 attacks like a Robber ; for sometimes it hides
itself under the Shade of large Ships in the salt Sea,
where it waiteth for any Man whom the Pleasure of Swim-
ming may invite within its Reach ; at other Times it
lifteth its Head above Water, to spy any small Fishing-
boats, arid then it slily swimmeth close to them, and
sinketh them.

CHAPTER XLV.

Of those that have a third Nature, and are neither Animals
nor Plants : also of Urticce and Sponges.

I TRULY am of Opinion, that those which are neither
Animals nor Plants, but possess a third Nature, or are com-

1 The creatures referred to appear to be Holothuriae, and chiefly of
the class Cucumariae ; which, when near death, eject their entrails, but
without the power of re -absorbing them. But the name Scolopendras
more properly applies to marine worms : Nereides. — Wern. Club.

3 Squalus vulpes, Lnw.—Carcharias vulpus, Cuv. The Sea Fox, or
Thrasher. — Wern. Club.

3 See Chap. v. p. 108. — Wern. Club.

166 History of Nature. [Boox IX.

pounded of both (I mean Urticae1 and Sponges2), have yet a
Kind of Sense in them. Urticae wander about by Night, and
likewise by Night change their (Colour). Their Nature is
formed of fleshy Leafage, and on Flesh they feed. Their
Quality is to raise an itching Smart, like the Land Nettle.
Its Manner is to gather in its Body exceedingly close and
stiff; and when a little Fish swimmeth before it, it
spreadeth abroad its Branches, and thus claspeth and de-
voureth it. At other Times, as if it were withered, suffering
itself to be tossed to and fro among the Weeds, with the
Waves of the Sea, if any Fishes come in contact with it,
it seizes them, as they scratch the Itching they feel by rub-
bing themselves against the Rocks. By Night it seeks for
Pectens and Echini. When it feeleth one's Hand to touch
it, it changeth Colour, and contracteth itself. When touched,
it discharges something that causes an Itching ; and if a
little Interval is permitted after it is touched, it becomes
concealed. It is thought that its Mouth lieth in the Root,
and that it voideth its Excrements through a small Pipe
above.

Of Sponges we find three Sorts: the first thick, exceeding
hard, and rough ; and this is called Tragos : a second, not so
thick, arid somewhat softer; and that is named Manon : the
third is fine and compact, wherewith they make Rubbers (to
cleanse with), and this is termed Achilleum. They grow all
upon Rocks, and are fed with Shell-fish, Fish, and Mud.
That they possess Understanding appeareth from this, that
when they feel that one would pluck them away, they draw
in, so as with the greater Difficulty to be pulled from the
Rock. They do the like when they are beaten with the

1 Actineae, a class of naked Zoophytes. Macrobius, in his account of
the supper given by Lentulus, on the occasion of his being inaugurated
Flamen martialis, enumerates Urtica? among the dishes. — Wern. Club.

2 Pliny's opinion, that Sponges are living animals, is still held by
some eminent naturalists. Others contend that they are vegetable ; and
their natural station seems to be on that debateable line where each of
these great kingdoms verges on the other : some really animal structures
appearing disguised in vegetable forms, — and vegetables with animal
appearances. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 167

Waves. That they live upon some Food is manifest by the
little Shell-fishes which are found within them. And some
say, that about Torone they take Food after they have been
plucked from the Rocks ; and that from the Roots which
are left behind, they grow again. Also, upon those Rocks
(from whence they are pulled), there is to be seen some
Appearance of Blood sticking ; and especially in those of
Africa, which breed among the Syrtes. The Manse become
very large, and also the softest, about Lycia. But they are
more soft when they grow in the very deep Water, out of the
Influence of Wind. They are rough in the Hellespont; and
dense about (the Cape) Malea. In Places exposed to the
Sun they will putrify ; and therefore the best are in deep
Gullies. They are of the same blackish Colour when they
live, as when full of Moisture. They adhere to Rocks nei-
ther by any one Part, nor yet all over ; for there are dispersed
certain hollow Pipes, four or five commonly, by which they
are supposed to receive their Food. There are more (of these
Pipes), but above they are grown together. A certain thin
Skin may be perceived to be at their Roots. It is known
that they live long. The worst Kind of them all are those
called Aplysiae, because they cannot be made clean ; in them
the Pipes are large ; and they are throughout thick and
massy.

CHAPTER XLVI.
Of the Caniculus marinus.1

THE Divers are annoyed very much with a great Number
of Caniculi marini that come about them, and put them in
great Danger. And they say, that these Fishes have a cer-
tain Cloud growing thick over their Heads, like that of the
flat Fishes, which presseth them, and hindereth them from
retiring backward ; on which Account the Divers have with
them sharp-pointed Weapons fastened to long Poles ; for
unless they be pricked with them, they will not turn away :

1 The smaller kind of Sharks, and, perhaps, particularly the Ground-
sharks, Scymnium. — Wern. Club.

168 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

by Reason (as I suppose) of the Mist before their Eyes, and
their Fear. For I never heard of any Man that found the
like Cloud or Mist (for this Term they give to this Mischief)
in the Range of living Creatures. But the Contest with
Caniculi is furious, for they snap at their Groins, their Heels,
and every Part of their Bodies that is white. The only safe
Way is to oppose them in front, and so to terrify them ; for
they are as much afraid of a Man as he is of them. Thus
within the Deep the Chance is equal ; but when the Divers
mount to the Surface of the Water, there the Danger is
double, because while he laboureth to get out of the
Water, he faileth of Means to encounter the Creature pro-
ceeding in an opposite Direction ; therefore his only recourse
is to his Comrades : for, having a Cord bound about his
Shoulders, by which they draw him up, he shaketh it with
his left Hand to give a Sign of his Danger, whilst he main-
taineth a Fight with the right, by holding with it the sharp-
pointed Spear; but otherwise they haul him up softly. When
he is come near the Ship, unless they snatch him up very
quickly, they may be sure to see him devoured before their
Face : and when they are at the point of being plucked up,
they are caught away out of their Hands, if they do not
themselves help them who are drawing them up, by gather-
ing up their Bodies together, into the form of a Ball. Some,
indeed, thrust at these Fishes with Tridents ; but it is the
Craft of this Monster to get under the Bottom of the Ship,
and so maintain the Combat in safety. And therefore all
their Care is employed to guard against this Evil.

CHAPTER XL VI I.

Of those Fishes that are shut within a flinty Shell; also of
those that have no Sense : and of other sordid Creatures.

THE greatest Security that Fishermen have, is to discover
the flat Fishes ; for they are never in any Place where hurt-
ful Beasts are ; which is the Cause that Divers call those
Fishes sacred.

We must confess, that Fishes enclosed in flinty Shells, as

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 169

Oysters, have no Sense. Many are of the same Nature as
Plants, as the Holothuria,1 Pulmones,2 and Stellae (Star-
fishes) ; and thus there is nothing that is not bred within the
Sea ; as the Creatures which in Summer Time abound within
our Inns, and vex us with their active Leap ; as also that
which lies close under the Hair of our Heads : for often the
Fishermen find a Number of these Skippers3 settled thick
about their Baits as they draw them up. And these are
thought to infest the Fishes in their Sleep by Night in the
Sea. But some Fishes produce these Creatures within
themselves ; among which is reckoned the Chalcis.4

CHAPTER XLVIII.
Of venomous Sea-fishes.

NOR is the Sea without deadly Poisons, as in the Lepus,5
which in the Indian Sea is so venomous when touched, that
vomiting and breaking down of the Stomach is the Conse-
quence. They which are found in our Sea are a shapeless
Lump of Flesh, in Colour only resembling the Hare. But in
the Indian Seas they are as big as the Pilum, only it is

1 A molluscous form of the Asteriadae : the Stellae, or Star-fishes,
constitute another section of the same family of Asteriadae. — Wern. Club.

2 A species of Botryllus. — Wern. Club.

3 This distant allusion to the parasites of the human body is still
maintained in the language of modern fishermen ; who speak of sea-lice
and sea-fleas as pestering them in their avocations, by devouring their
baits, and sometimes even devouring the flesh of the fish that has swal-
lowed the hook, if not immediately drawn up. These voracious creatures,
which are different species of the Linnean genus Oniscus, obtain an
entrance at the mouth, and devour the internal substance, leaving the
skin and scales an empty bag, or filled only by bones. — Wern. Club.

4 A species of Clupea, and probably C. Sardina, Cuv. — Wern. Club.

s Aplysia : a genus of Mollusks, possessing the power of exuding
from the skin a fluid of an acrid quality. The A. depilans is found on
the British shores. The head and antennae, when stretched out, bear a
resemblance in miniature to the same parts in the hare. It is only when
alarmed that they contract and become " a shapeless lump of flesh." —
Wern. Club.

170 History of Nature. [BoOK IX.

harder; and they cannot be taken there alive. The Ara-
neus1 is equally as dangerous a Creature; and inflicts Injury
with the Point of a Spine on its Back. But in no Place is
there any one more detestable than is the Dart or Ray that
projecteth upon the Tail of the Trygon, which we call Pasti-
naca;2 which ray is five Inches long. If it be struck into
the Root of a Tree, it killeth it ; it pierces Armour like a
Dart, with the Force of Iron and the Injury of Poison.

CHAPTER XLIX.
Of the Diseases of Fishes.

WE do not hear that all Sorts of Fishes are subject to Dis-
eases, as other Beasts, and even those that are wild. But
that this or that Fish may be sick appeareth evidently from
the wasting we see in them ; whereas others of the same Sort
are taken exceedingly fat.

CHAPTER L.
The wonderful Manner of their Breeding.

IN what Manner they breed, the Inquiry and Wonder of
Mankind will not suffer me to put off to another Oppor-
tunity. Fishes couple by the rubbing of their Bellies one
against another ; which they perform with such Celerity as
to deceive the Sight. Dolphins and other Whales have no
other Way, but they are somewhat slower. The Female
Fish, in the Time of coupling, followeth the Male, striking
his Belly with her Snout. In the like Manner, about
Spawning Time, the Males follow the Female, devouring
their Spawn. But this coupling of theirs is not sufficient of

1 Trachinus viper a, Cuv. — Wern. Club.

2 Ch. xxiv. JElian makes the destructive property of the spine of the
Fire-flair the subject of several chapters ; but if he or our author had
had recourse to experiment, they might have soon ascertained the error
of the popular opinion. It is capable, however, of inflicting serious lace-
ration, when the tail is twisted about an object ; and the creature is well
aware of the way to render it a formidable weapon. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 171

itself to accomplish Fecundity, unless when the Eggs are
cast; both Male and Female between them, by turning it
over, sprinkle it with a vital Power. But in such a Multi-
tude of Eggs this living Power doth not fall on all of
them ; for if it did, all Seas and Lakes would be full of
Fishes : for there is not one of these Females but conceiveth
an inconceivable Number.

CHAPTER LI.

More concerning the Generation of Fishes, and which of them
produce Eggs.

THE Eggs of Fishes grow in the Sea, some of them ex-
ceedingly soon, as those of the Muraenee : others are some-
what later. Flat Fishes,1 which have no Tails and sharp
Prickles, when they couple, come over one another, like
Tortoises. The Polypi fasten one of their Strings to the Nose
of the Female. The Sepiae and Loligo with their Tongues,
clasp one another with their Arms, and swim one contrary
to the other: they also produce their Eggs from the Mouth.
But the Polypi couple with their Heads downwards to the
Ground. The other soft Animals couple, Back to Back, as
Dogs. This is the Case with Locustae, Squillee, Cancri, at the
Mouth. Frogs lie on one another : the Male with the Fore-
feet clasping the Arms of the Female, and with the Hind-
feet the Haunches. They bring forth very small Bits of
black Flesh, which they call Tadpoles, only distinguished
by having Eyes and a Tail. Soon after their Feet are
framed, and their Tail is divided into hinder Parts. It is
wonderful that, after they have lived six Months, they are
dissolved into Slime, no Man seeth how; and afterward with
the Rains in the Spring, they are restored to their former
State, as they were first shaped, by an unknown Way of
Proceeding, although it happeneth in this Way every Year,.
Mussels and Pectens also, are produced of themselves by
Nature in the Sands : those which are of a harder Crust, as

1 Pleuronectidae. — Wern. Club.

172 History of Nature. [BoOK IX.

the Murex and Purpura, from a viscous Mucillage : so also
Gnats proceed from a Sourness of the Water; as the Apuae1
from the Froth of the Sea, when it grows warm, and is
mixed with a Shower. They that are covered with a stony
Shell, as Oysters, are bred from the putrified Mud, or out of
the Froth that hath stood long about Ships, or Posts fixed in
the Water, and especially if they are formed of Holly- wood.
It hath been lately discovered in Oyster Banks, that there
passeth from them a fertile Liquid resembling Milk. Eels2
rub themselves against Stones, and those Scrapings come to
Life ; and they have no other Generation. Fishes of different
Kinds do not mix their Breed with another, except the
Squatina and the Raia ; from them there is produced a Fish
which in the Forepart resembleth a Raia, and in Greek hath
a Name compounded of both.3 Some Fishes breed both on
Land and in the Sea, according to the Warmth of the
Year. In the Spring, Pectens, Limaces (Slugs), Hirundines
(Leeches), are produced ; but in the corresponding Time of
Autumn they turn to nothing. Among Fishes the Lupus and
Trichias breed twice a Year, and also all that keep among
Rocks. The Mulius thrice, as also the Chalcis ; the Cypri-
nus six Times; the Scorpense4 and Sargi twice, namely, in
Spring and Autumn. Of flat Fishes, the Squatina only
twice ; in the Autumn, and at the Setting of the Stars Ver-
giliae. The greatest Number of Fishes spawn in the three

1 Minute fishes seen swimming at the surface of the sea, and therefore
sapiently supposed to have sprung, by spontaneous generation, from the
froth. If any particular species is intended, it is probably Motella glauca.
— YARRELL'S "British Fishes"— Wern. Club.

2 The manner in which this fish is propagated was long a matter of
doubt, from the very obscure developement of the ova in the ovaries ; but
it has been rendered certain that in their mode of increase they do not
differ from other fishes. The author makes several references to the
opinion, which was prevalent in his day, that creatures might spring into
existence by the spontaneous influences of heat and moisture ; but from
the days of the illustrious Harvey, every claim of this sort for particular
instances has been successfully controverted. — Wern. Club.

3 Bhinobatis. — Wern. Club.

4 Scorpena scropha and Sc. porcus, Cuv. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 1 73

Months, April, May, and June : Salpae in Autumn : the
Sargi, Torpedo, and Squali, about the Equinox : soft Fishes
in the Spring : and the Sepia in every Month. The Spawn
of this Fish, which hangeth together like a Cluster of
Grapes, by Means of the Glue of the Ink, the Male follows
with its Breath, for otherwise it is barren. The Polypi
couple in Winter, and produce the Eggs in Spring ; being
curled like the Tendrils of a Vine ; and that in such Plenty,
that when they are killed they are not able to receive the
Multitude of Eggs in the Concavities of their Head which
they bare when they 'were pregnant. They hatch them in
fifty Days, but many of them perish from their great Num-
ber. The Locustae and the rest with thinner Shells, lay Egg
over Egg, and so brood upon them. The female Polypus
one while sitteth on her Eggs, at other Times shuts up the
Cavity (where she hath laid them), with her Arms enfolded
across, one over another. The Sepia layeth also on the
Land among the Reeds, or else where she can find Seaweeds
growing, and by the fifteenth Day it is hatched. The Loligo
layeth Eggs in the deep Water, which hang close together
as those of the Sepiae. The Purpurse, the Murex, and such
like, lay in the Spring. The Echini are with Egg at the Full-
Moons in the Winter : and the Cochleae are bred in the
Winter also. The Torpedo is found to have fourscore Young
at once, and she hatcheth her soft Eggs within her Body,
shifting them from one Place of the Womb to another, and
then excludes them. In a similar Manner do all they which
are called Cartilaginous. By which it cometh to pass, that
Fish alone both conceive Eggs, and bring forth a living-
Creature. The Male Silurus, of all others, keepeth the Eggs
after they are deposited, many Times for fifty Days, that
they may not be devoured by others. Other Females hatch
in three Days, if the Male touch them. The Acus or Be-
lone1 is the only Fish which has such an Abundance of
Eggs that their Womb gapeth when they lay them : but

1 Syngnathus acus, LINN. For the marsupial habits of this fish, see
Yarrell's " British Fishes." Pliny could not have imagined that it is the
male which hatches the eggs in his caudal pouches. — Wern. Club.

174 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

after they are produced the Womb uniteth again : a Thing
usual (as they say) in Blind Serpents. The Mus marinus1
diggeth a Furrow within the Ground, and there layeth her
Eggs, which she covereth with Earth ; and so lets them
alone for thirty Days, when she openeth the Place again,
and leadeth her Young to the Water.

CHAPTER LII.
Of Fishes' Wombs.

THE Erythrini and Change have Wombs. The Fish
which in Greek is called Trochos2 is thought to get itself with
Young. The Young of all Creatures of the Water, at first,
are without Sight.

CHAPTER LIII.
Of the exceeding long Life of Fishes.

IT is not long since that we heard of one memorable
Example, which proved the long Life of Fishes. Pausi-
lippum is a Country-seat in Campania, not far from Naples ;
where (as Anneus Seneca writeth) there died a Fish in the
Fish-ponds of C&sar, threescore Years3 after it had been put

1 Aristotle gives the name of Mus, or the Mouse, to a freshwater
turtle ; some of which, of small size, are as active in the water as a mouse
on land. It is probable, therefore, that the Mus marinus is a small Sea-
turtle ; and the mice of the Nile (Ch. Iviii.), of the same natural family.
Seep. 136. — Wern. Club.

2 Turbinated Shell-fish are hermaphrodite ; but it is believed that in
these, as in the others, self- impregnation is not possible. — Wern. Club.

3 But what is this in comparison with a tike, of which Gesner gives
the following account ? " In the year of our Lord 1497, a Pike was caught
in a pond near Haylprun, an imperial city of Suevia, and fixed to the
skin of its gillcovers was a brass ring, of which we give the figure and
inscription : with the interpretation, as it was deciphered by John Dal-
burgus, bishop of Uvormaciensis : ' I am the first fish which, before all
others, was placed in this pond by the hand of the Governor of the World,
Frederic the Second, on the 5th day of October, (A.D.) 1230:' from
whence it was concluded that the fish had already lived 267 years ; and if
not caught, it appeared likely to have survived much longer." — GESNER'S
"Nomenclator," &c. p. 316. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 175

in by Pollio Vedius : and there remained living still two
more of that Age, and of the same Kind. And since we
mention Fish-ponds, we should do well to write a little more
of them before we give over this Discourse of Creatures of
the Water.

CHAPTER LIV.
Of Oyster-beds, and who first invented them.

THE first who invented Oyster-beds was Sergius Grata,
who made them at Bajanum, in the Time of L. Crassus the
Orator, before the Marsian War. And this he did, not for
his Appetite, but for Profit ; and by this Invention, and
others, he gathered great Revenues : for he it was that in-
vented the Hanging-baths, and so sold his Villa to better
Advantage. He was the first Man who pronounced the
Lucrine Oysters to be of the most excellent Taste : for the
same Kinds of Creatures of the Water in one Place are better
than in another : as the Lupus-fish in the River Tiber, be-
tween the two Bridges : the Rhomnus (Turbot) at Ravenna :
the Mursena in Sicily : the Elops at Rhodes, and in like
Manner of other Sorts of Fishes ; for I do not intend to give
a long Criticism on Cookery. At this Time the British
Shores were not employed to prepare them when Grata
ennobled those of the Lucrine Lake ; but afterwards it was
thought profitable to seek Oysters from Brundusium, in the
furthest Part of Italy. And to prevent Controversy between
opposite Tastes, it was of late devised that the Oysters,
which in the long Carriage from Brundusium were almost
famished, should be fed in the Lucrine Lake. A little before
this same Time, Licinius Murena invented Ponds for keeping
other Fishes ; and his Example was followed by Noblemen,
as Philippus and Hortensius. Lucullus cut through a Moun-
tain near Naples (for this Purpose), and let in an Arm of the
Sea into his Fish-ponds ; the Cost of which was greater than
that of the House which he had built. For this Reason
Pompey the Great gave him the Name of Xerxes Togatus.
The Fishes of that Pond, after his death, were sold for thirty
hundred thousand Sesterces (three millions of Sesterces).

176 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

CHAPTER LV.
Who invented Store-ponds for Murcence.

CAIUS HIRTIUS was the Man who, of himself, before
all others, thought of a Pond to keep Muraenae in. He it was
that lent Ccesar the Dictator, for his triumphal Suppers, six
hundred Muraenae in Numher, to be paid again ; for he
would not sell them for Money, nor exchange them for other
Merchandise. Although his Villa was of moderate size, yet
the Fish-ponds about it sold the House for four millions of
Sesterces. After this the Love of some one particular Fish
became general. The Orator Hortensius had a Pond at
Bauli, upon the Side that lieth toward Baeiae, in which was a
Muraena for which he felt such regard, that when it was
dead it is believed that he wept for it.1 At the same Villa,
Antonia the wife of Drusus affixed Ear-rings to a Muraena
in which she delighted ; the Report of which caused some
People to wish to visit Bauli.

CHAPTER LVI.
The Preserves for Snails ,2 and who first invented them.

FULVIUS HIRPINUS was the first Inventor of Store-
preserves for Snails within the Territory of Tarquinii, a little
before the Civil War with Pompey the Great. And those
had their distinct Partitions for their several Sorts : so that

1 JElian (B. viii. ch. iv.), perhaps from hearsay, has jumbled these two
incidents into one ; but he has added a piece of wit, which renders it
worth transcribing. " The Romans celebrate the Muraena of Crassus,
which he adorned with ear-rings and precious stones, as if it had been a
beautiful girl. He also taught the fish to know his voice, and to swim to
him and take food from his hand. I have been informed that when this
fish died he wept for it, and gave it an honourable funeral. When on
some occasion Domitius said to him : * What a fool, Crassus, to weep for
the death of a Mura?na 1 ' To which he answered : * True, I wept the
death of an animal ; but that is more than any one saw you do at the
funerals of your three wives.'" — Wern. Club.

2 See B. viii. ch. xxxix. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 177

the white, which came from the Parts about Reat£, should
be kept by themselves : as also the Illyrian, which are
remarkable for size: and the African, which are the most
fruitful; and the Solitanae, which are the renowned. Nay,
he had a Contrivance to feed them with boiled Wine and
Wheat Meal, and other similar Things ; to the End that
Riot might be served plentifully with home-fed Snails. And
the Glory of this Art produced them at last of such Bigness,
that one of their Shells would contain fourscore (Measures
called) Quadrants,1 according to M. Varro.

CHAPTER LVII.
Of Land-fishes.

THEOPHRASTUS also telleth strange Wonders of some
kinds of Fishes : that about Babylon there are Places subject
to the Inundations of the Rivers, and in which the Water
standeth in Pits, and the Fish remain after the Waters
are returned within their Banks ; and that some of these
Fishes quit those Retreats to seek for Food, walking with
their Fins, and wagging their Tails as they go. And if any
pursue them they retreat into their Pits, and when in them,
stand opposed to them : that their Heads are like those of
the Rana marina, but the other Parts like the Gobius ; and
the Gills as in other Fishes. Also that about Heraclea and
Cromna, and the River Lycus, and in many Parts of Pontus,
there is one Kind that haunteth the utmost edges of the
Rivers, and maketh itself Holes in the Land, and liveth in
them, even when the Shore is dry, and the Rivers are
gathered into narrow Channels. Therefore they are digged
out; and that they are alive appears finally by the Motion of
their Bodies. Near the abovesaid Heraclea and the River
Lycus, when the Water is ebbed, there are Fishes bred from
the Eggs left in the Mud ; and these, in seeking their Food,

1 Three wine gallons and three quarts : for a Quadrans is three Cyathi,
i. e. the fourth part of a Sextarius, and a Sextarius is a wine pint and a half,
or eighteen ounces.

By quoting an author, Pliny sufficiently testifies that he had never
seen a shell of a snail (Calix) of such size. — Wern. Club.

VOL. III. N

1 78 History of Nature. [BooK IX .

pant with their little Gills : which they do when they do not
want Water: and that is the Reason also why Eels live a long
Time after they are taken out of the Water. He affirmeth,
also, that the Eggs (of Fishes) lying upon the dry Land,
will come to their Maturity, as those of the Tortoises. Also,
that in the same Country of Pontus, there are taken Fishes
in the Ice, and Gobiones1 especially, which do not show a
vital Motion, but by the Heat of the Cooking- Vessels. In
this some Reason may be given, although the Thing is won-
derful. The same Author reporteth, that in Paphlagonia
there are digged out of the Ground Land-fishes that are very
excellent as Food : but they are found in deep Furrows, in
such Places where no Waters settle. Himself wondereth
how they are produced without the help of Moisture. He
supposeth that there is in them a certain Force of Liquid in
Wells, as Fishes are found in some of them. Whatever it is,
surely it is less wonderful, considering how Moles live (a
Creature naturally keeping under Ground), unless, perhaps,
that these Fishes are of the same Nature with Earth-worms.

CHAPTER LVIII.
Of the Mice of the Nile.

BUT the Inundation of the Nile brings Credibility to
all these Matters ; for it exceedeth all other Wonders. For
when the Ground becometh again uncovered, little Mice are
found imperfectly formed from the generative Virtue of
Water and Earth : having one Part of their Body living,
but the rest of the Form no better than the Earth.

CHAPTER LIX.
Of the Fish Anthias* and how it is taken.

I DO riot think it proper to omit that which I perceive
many have believed concerning the Fish Anthias. We have

1 Perhaps some fish resembling the Gudgeon. — Wern. Club.

2 It appears from Oppian, B. i., that four different sorts of fish were
called by this name. The fish referred to by Pliny may be the Labrus
anthias, LINN., and Serranus anthias, Cuv. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 179

made mention of the Islands Chelidoniae in Asia, situated in
a Sea full of Rocks under the Promontory ; and here this
Fish is in Abundance; and they are rapidly taken in one
Manner. For the Fisherman goes in a small Boat for cer-
tain Days together, to a certain Distance in the Sea, with
his Garments of one Colour, at one Hour, and there he
casteth his Bait. But whatever is thrown from the Boat
becomes an Object of Suspicion to the intended Prey; and
what it feareth it, guards against ; until at length, after this
has been often practised, one Anthias, enticed by the Repe-
tition, seizeth the Bait. The Fisherman carefully notes this
one Fish as the Foundation of his Hope, and the Enticer of
others that will be caught. And that is no hard Matter for
him to do, because for some Days that Fish alone dares to
come to the Bait. At length he meets with some others,
and by little and little he is better accompanied, until in the
End he brings with him large Sculls, so that now the oldest
of them being so well accustomed to know the Fisherman,
they will snatch Meat out of his Hand. Then he thrusteth
forth an Hook with the Bait, somewhat beyond his Fin-
gers, and flieth upon them more truly than catcheth them,
with a short Snatch ; seizing them from the Shadow of the
Ship, in such a Manner as not to scare the others away.
It is important to Success that he should know the first
Enticer, that he may not take him. The Fisherman spareth
him, that he may fly to some other Flock. It is reported
that one contentious Fisherman, out of Ill-will, captured this
Captain-fish which led the rest into the Snare, for he was
well known : but when the Fisherman recognised him in the
Market in the Possession of a fellow-Fisherman, regarding
himself as wronged, he brought his Action for the Damage, so
that the other was condemned. Mutianus adds, that the Fine
was ten Pounds. The same Anthiae, if they see one of their
Fellows caught with a Hook, are reported to cut the Line with
the serrated sharp Spines which they have upon their Back ;
and that one which hangeth at it, stretcheth it out straight,
that it may be cut asunder more easily. But the Sargus, if
he find himself taken, rubs the Line against a Rock.

180 History of Nature. [BooK IX.

CHAPTER LX.
Of the Sea- Stars (Stella marines}.

BESIDES these, I see that some Authors, celebrated for
Wisdom, have made a Wonder at the Star in the Sea.1 It is
of small size, fleshy within ; but without of a harder Sub-
stance. They say it is so fiery hot, that whatever it toucheth
in the Sea it burneth : and whatever Food it receiveth, it
immediately digesteth. What Proof there is of this I cannot
readily say. I would think that more worthy to be recorded
which hath daily Experience.

CHAPTER LXI.
Of the Dactyli- and their wonderful Properties.

THE Dactyli are a kind of Shellfish ; and they derive
their Name from their Likeness to Men's Nails. The Nature
of this Fish is to shine in the Dark, when all other Light
is taken away. The more Moisture they have, the more
Light they give ; they shine in Men's Mouths as they chew
them: they shine in their Hands: on the Floor, and on their
Garments, if any Drops fall on them : so that it appeareth
to proceed from the very Nature of that Juice, which we so
wonder at in the Body.

CHAPTER LXII.
Of the Enmity and Amity of Fishes between themselves.

THERE are wonderful Instances of Enmities and Agree-
ment. The Mugii and Lupus burn with mutual Hatred ;
likewise the Conger and Mursena: so that they gnaw off one
another's Tails. The Locusta is so afraid of the Polypus,

1 The various species of Star-fishes : Asteriadce. The ancients in-
dulged the idea that the sea contained a counterpart of every thing that
was to be found on the land or in the sky ; but to support this opinion,
they were contented with very loose analogies, or mere quibbles. — Wern.
Club.

3 Pholades, and especially Ph. dactylus, LINN. — Wern. Club.

BOOK IX.] History of Nature. 181

that if he spy him near, he immediately dieth. Locustae
tear the Conger :l the Congers again do the same to the
Polypus. Nigidius writeth, that the Lupus biteth off the
Mullet's Tail : and yet these Fishes in certain Months are
good Friends. But he saith that those Fishes live, although
their Tails are so gnawed off. On the other side, there are
Examples of Friendship among Fishes, besides those of
whose Society I have already written : as between the
Balsena, and the Musculus.2 For whereas the (Balaena) hath
no use of his Eyes, by reason of the heavy Weight of his
Eyebrows that cover them, the other swimmeth before him,
and serveth him instead of Eyes, to show the Shallows, on
which his vast Bulk might be grounded.

From this we will proceed to speak of the Nature of
Birds.

1 Locustae congrum, ex Arist. lib. vii. cap. ii. Histor. Animal.
8 However small their eyes, Whales are, in general, sharp of sight.
What the Musculus is, seems uncertain. — Went. Club.

IN THE TENTH BOOK

ARE CONTAINED THE

NATURE AND HISTORY OF FLYING CREATURES.

CHA
1.

a.

3.

4.

6.
7.

8.
9.

10.
11.

12.

13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

20.
21.

The Nature of Birds.

Of the Phoenix.

Of Eagles.

When the Roman Legions

began the Standard of the

Eagle, and other Ensigns.

Also with what Creatures

Eagles maintain fight.
A wonderful Case of an

Eagle.

Of Vultures.
Of the Bird Sangualis.
Of Falcons and Hawks.
Of the Cuckoo, which is killed

by Birds of its own Kind.
Of Kites.
A Division of Birds into their

Kinds.
Of unlucky or ominous Birds,

the Crow, the Raven, and the

Owl (Bubo).

Of the Bird that carrieth Fire.
Of the Bird Clivina.
Of many Birds unknown.
Of Birds that fly by Night.
Of Owlets.
Of the Woodpecker.
Of Birds which have Claws

and crooked Talons.
Of Peacocks : and who first

killed them for the Table.
Of Cocks : how they are cas-
trated : of a Dunghill Cock

that spoke.

CHAP.

22. Of Geese : who first devised a

Dish of the Goose-liver : the
Fat of Geese, called Coma-
genum.

23. Of Cranes, Storks, Swans,

strange Birds of foreign
Countries; of Quails, and
the Bird Glottis.

24. Of Swallows and Martins,

of Blackbirds, Thrushes, of
Starlings, Turtle-doves and
Ring-doves.

25. Of Birds that tarry with us all

the Year ; of Birds that con-
tinue half a Year only, and
others that remain but three
Months.

26. Strange Stories of Birds.

27. Of the Birds called Seleucides.

28. Of the Ibis.

29. What Birds will not abide in

some Places : which they are
that change Colour and
Voice: also of Nightingales.

30. Of Merls.

31. The Time wherein Birds breed.

32. Of the Birds Halcyons, the

navigable Days they show :
of the Gaviae and Mergi.

33. The Subtlety of Birds in

building their Nests : of the
common Swallow, the River
Martin, Argatilis : the Birds
Cinnamologi, and Partridges.

Contents of the Tenth Booh.

183

CHAP.

34. Of House-doves.

35. Of Stock-doves.

36. Of Sparrows.

37. Of the Kestrel.

38. Of the Flight and Walk of

Birds.

39. Of certain footless Martinets,
called Apodes.

40. Of Caprimulgi : also of Spoon-

bills, or Plateae.

41. The Ingenuity of Birds.

42. Of the Goldfinch, Parrot, and

Birds that will learn to speak.

43. The Understanding that Ra-

vens have.

44. Of the Birds of Diomedes.

45. Of Birds that will learn no-

thing.

46. The Manner how Birds drink.

47. Of Birds called Himantipodes,

and Onacrotali, and of other
strange Birds.

48. The Names of many Birds and

their Natures.

49. Of new Birds and such as are

supposed to be fabulous.

50. Who devised first to cram

Hens and Capons ; of Coops
to keep and feed Fowls, and
the first Inventor thereof.

51. Of ^sop's Dish.

52. The Generation of Birds, and

what four-footed Beasts lay
Eggs as well as Birds.

53. The Generation of Eggs, the

laying and sitting of them,
the Manner and Time of
Birds coupling.

54. The Accidents that befall

Breeding Birds, and the Re-
medies.

55. Auguries by Eggs.

56. What Hens are of the best

Kind.

CHAP.

57. The Diseases incident to Hens,

and the Cure.

58. The Manner how Birds con-

ceive : what Number of Eggs
they lay, and how many they
hatch.

59. Of Peacocks and Geese.

60. Of Herons and Bitterns. The

Way to preserve Eggs.

61. The only Bird that bringeth

forth her Young alive, and
feedeth the same with Milk.

62. The Conception of the Viper,

and how she is delivered of
her Young ; also what Land
Creatures lay Eggs.

63. The Generation of Land Crea-

tures.

64. The Variety of Propagation of

Land Animals,

65. The Young of Mice and Rats.

66. Whether the Marrow of a

Man's Back- bone will pro-
duce a Serpent.

67. Of the Salamander.

68. What Things are engendered

of those that were never
engendered ; and what Crea-
tures which, being engen-
dered themselves, breed not.

69. The Senses of Animals.

70. That Fishes both hear and

smell.

71. That the Sense of Feeling is

common to all living Crea-
tures.

72. What Creatures live on Poi-

sons, and eat Earth.

73. Of the Meat and Drink of some

Creatures.

74. What Creatures evermore dis-

agree : and which they are
that agree well together.

75. Of the Sleep of Animals.

184 Contents of thz Tenth Book.

This Book hath in it of Histories and Observations 904, gathered out of

LATIN AUTHORS AND RECORDS :

Manilius, Cornelius Valerianus, the Public Records and Registers,
Umbricius surnamed Melior, Massurius Sabinus, Antistius Labeo, Trogus
Cremutius, M. Varro, Macer JEmylius, Melissus, Mutianus, Nepos, Fabius
Pictor, T. Lucretius, Cornelius Celsus, Horatius Desulo, Hysginus, Sar-
sennce, both Father and Son, Nigidius, and Manlius Sura.

FOREIGN WRITERS:

Homer, Phcemonoes, Philemon, Boethius, who wrote a Treatise called
Ornithagonia, Hylas, who made a Discourse of Auguries, Aristotle, Theo-
phrastus, Callimachus, JEschylus, Hiero, Philometer, Archytas, Amphilo-
chus the Athenian, Anaxipolis the Thasian, Apollodorus of Lemnos,
Aristophanes the Milesian, Antigonus the Cymcean, Agathocles of Chios,
Apollonius of Pergamus, Aristander the Athenian, Bacchius the Milesian,
Bion of Soli, Chcereas the Athenian, Diodorus of Prycene, Dion the Colo-
phonian, Democritus, Diophanes of Niccea, Epigenes of Rhodes, Evagoras
of Thasos, Euphonius of Athens, King Juba, Androcion, who wrote of
Husbandry, and JEschrion, likewise who wrote thereof, Dionysius who
translated Mago, and Diophanes who reduced his Work into an Epitome,
Nicander, Onesicritus, Philarchus, and Hesiodus.

THE TENTH BOOK

OP THE

HISTORY OF NATURE.

WRITTEN BY

C. PLINIUS SECUNDUS.

CHAPTER I.
The Nature of Birds.

followeth that we should speak of the Nature of
Birds, of which the greatest are the Ostriches.1
They almost approach to the Nature of Beasts,
and inhabit Africa or Ethiopia. They are higher
than a Man sitting on Horseback ; and they are
also swifter than a Horse : their Wings being
only given them to help them in running ; for otherwise
they do not fly, nor do they even rise from the Ground.
They have Hoofs like Deer, and with them they fight ; for
as they are cloven, they serve to catch up Stones, which
with their Legs they hurl back in their Flight against those
that chase them. It is a Wonder in their Nature, that
whatever they eat, although it is without choice, they digest.
But their Stupidity is not less remarkable ; for, high as the
rest of their Body is, if they hide their Head and Neck in a
Bush, they think themselves altogether concealed. The

1 Struihio camelus. — Wern. Club.

1 86 History of Nature. [BooK X.

Advantages obtained from them are their Eggs, which are
so big, that some use them for Vessels ; and their Feathers
adorn the Crests and Helmets of Soldiers.

CHAPTER II.
Of the Phoenix.1

THE Birds of Ethiopia and India are for the most part
of a variety of Colours, and such as can hardly be described :
but the Phoenix of Arabia is more noble than all others. I

1 The Phoenix is one of the most renowned of the fabulous creatures
of antiquity. The first detailed description and history of this bird that
we meet with is in Herodotus (Lib. ii. cap. Ixxiii.), whose story is sub-
stantially the same as what was afterwards, though with various embel-
lishments, repeated and believed for more than a thousand years.

The passage in which Tacitus notices the Phoenix is very remarkable,
and deserves to be quoted at length, as being the most authentic account
of it that has been preserved, and also as showing that so cautious and
accurate a man as he is always considered to be, entertained no kind of
doubt as to its real existence, and its periodical appearance in Egypt.

" A.U c. 787, A.B. 34. Paulus Fabius and Lucius Vitellius succeeded
to the consulship. In the course of the year the miraculous bird, known
to the world by the name of the Phoenix, after disappearing for a series
of ages, revisited Egypt. A phenomenon so very extraordinary could
not fail to produce abundance of speculation. The learning of Egypt was
displayed, and Greece exhausted her ingenuity. The facts, about which
there seems to be a concurrence of opinions, with other circumstances, in
their nature doubtful yet worthy of notice, will not be unwelcome to the
reader. That the Phoenix is sacred to the sun, and differs from the rest
of the feathered species in the form of its head, and the tincture of its
plumage, are points settled by the naturalists. Of its longevity the
accounts are various. The common persuasion is, that it lives five
hundred years, though by some writers the date is extended to four-
teen hundred and sixty- one. The several eras when the Phoenix has
been seen are fixed by tradition. The first, we are told, was in the reign
of Sesostris ; the second in that of Amasis ; and in the period when
Ptolemy, the third of the Macedonian race, was seated on the throne of
Egypt, another Phoenix directed his flight towards Heliopolis, attended
by a group of various birds, all attracted by the novelty, and gazing with
wonder at so beautiful an appearance. For the truth of this account we
do not presume to answer. The facts lie too remote ; and, covered as
they are with the mists of antiquity, all further argument is suspended.

ROOK X.] History of Nature. 1 87

can scarcely tell whether it be false or no, that there is never
more than one of them in the whole World, and that it is
very rarely seen, ft is said to be of the size of an Eagle :
as bright as Gold about the Neck; the rest of the Body
purple : the Tail azure blue, with Feathers distinguished by
being of a Rose-colour ; and the Head and Face adorned
with a Crest of Feathers on the top. Manilius, the noble
Senator, excellently well versed in most kinds of Learning,
by his own unassisted Efforts was the first and most diligent

From the reign of Ptolemy to Tiberius, the intermediate space is not
quite two hundred and fifty years. From that circumstance it has been
inferred by many that the last Phoenix was neither of the genuine kind,
nor came from the woods of Arabia. The instinctive qualities of the
species were not observed to direct its motions. It is the genius, we are
told, of the true Phoenix, when its course of years is finished, and the
approach of death is felt, to build a nest in its native clime, and there
deposit the principles of life, from which a new progeny arises. The
first care of the young bird, as soon as fledged, and able to trust to its
wings, is to perform the obsequies of its father. But this duty is not
undertaken rashly. He collects a great quantity of myrrh, and to try his
strength, makes frequent excursions with a load on his back. When he
has made his experiment through a long tract of air, and gains sufficient
confidence in his own vigour, he takes up the body of his father, and flies
with it to the altar of the sun, where he leaves it to be consumed in flames
of fragrance. Such is the account of this extraordinary bird. It has, no
doubt, a mixture of fable ; but that the Phoenix, from time to time,
appears in Egypt, seems to be a fact satisfactorily ascertained." — MURPHY'S
"Tacitus" Annals^ Book vi. sect. 28. The concluding paragraph of this
second chapter of Pliny is the best comment on this passage of Tacitus.

The fable of the Phoenix, however, is not only found in heathen au-
thors, but is mentioned and believed by many of the Jewish Rabbinical
writers also, and even by some of the early Fathers of the Christian
Church. Nor are accounts of it wanting in modern authors, even down
to so late a period as the middle of the seventeenth century ; for Sir
Thomas Brown, in the 12th chap, of the 3d book of his "Vulgar
Errors," thinks it necessary to state, at some length, his reasons for disbe-
lieving the existence of the Phoenix. Cuvier is of opinion that the
original description of the Phoenix might have been taken from the
Phasianus pictus, a native of China; which, if it ever once flew into
Egypt, would be a sufficient foundation for the portent. See Art.
" Phoenix," in the " Penny Cyclopaedia;" also, " Habits of Birds," in the
" Library of Entertaining Knowledge." — Wern. Club.

188 History of. Nature. [BooK X.

of the long Robe (Toga), who wrote of this Bird ; and he
reporteth, that no Man was ever known to see him feeding :
that in Arabia he is sacred to the Sun : that he liveth 660
Years: and when he groweth old, he builds a Nest with the
Twigs of Cassia (Cinnamon) and Frankincense Trees : and
when he hath filled it with Spices, he dieth upon it. He
saith, also, that out of his Bones and Marrow there breedeth
at first, as it were, a little Worm, from which proceeds a
young Bird ; and the first Thing this young one does, is to
perform the Funeral Rites of the former Phoenix, and then
to carry away the whole Nest to the City of the Sun, near
Panchaea, and to lay it down upon the Altar. The same
Manilius affirmeth, that the Revolution of the great Year
agreeth with the Life of this Bird ; in which Year the same
Signification of the Times and Stars return again to their
first Points : and that this should begin at Noon, that very
Day when the Sun entereth the Sign Aries. And by his
saying, the Year of that Revolution was by him showed
when P. Licinius and M . Cornelius were Consuls. Cornelius
Valerianus writeth, that while Q. Plautius and Sex. Papinius
were Consuls, the Phcenix flew into Egypt. He was con-
veyed to the City (Rome) in the Time that Claudius the
Prince was Censor, in the eight hundredth Year of the City,
and was showed openly in the Assembly of the People, as
appeareth in the Public Records ; but no Man ever made
any doubt that this was a counterfeit Phoenix.

CHAPTER III.
Of Eagles.*

OF all the Birds we know, the Eagles excel both in
Honour and Strength. There are six Kinds of them. The

1 In his account of the Eagles, when Pliny does not follow Aristotle,
he may have been chiefly led by the authority of the books of the
Augurs; to whom the appearance of all strange birds was officially
reported, and whose office led them to study minutely their habits. The
absence of description in their writings is explained by the fact, that their
books contained coloured figures of all the species that came within their

BOOK X.] History of Nature. 1 89

first named by the Greeks Melanaetos, which is the same as
Valeria : the least in size, but the strongest, and in Colour
black : in the whole Race of Eagles, she alone feedeth her
young : for the rest (as we shall say hereafter) beat them
away : she only crieth not, nor keepeth a-grumbling ; and
she keepeth commonly on the Mountains. Of the second
Sort is Pygargus. It keepeth about Towns and Plains, and
hath a whitish Tail. The third is Morphnos, which Homer
calleth also Percnos. Some name it Plancns and Anataria:1
the second in Bigness and Strength, loving to live about
Lakes. Phcemonne, who was said to be the Daughter of
Apollo, hath reported, that this Eagle has Teeth ; otherwise
mute, and without Tongue : also, of all others she is the
blackest, and hath the longest Tail. With this agrees
Botthius. She is subtle ; for when she hath seized on Tor-
toises, she throweth them down from aloft to break their
Shells. It was the Fortune of the Poet ^Eschylus to die by
such Means. For it is said to have been foretold by the
Fates that he should be killed on a given Day by something
falling from the Sky ; which he guarded against by trusting
to the Safety of the open Sky. Of the fourth Kind is Perc-
nopterus, the same as Oripelargus , a kind of Vulture with
very small Wings, a Body bigger than the rest ; but a very

notice. It is also probable, from Ch. xv., that the works of the ancient
naturalists were illustrated with representations of the objects referred to,
although no such copies have come down to our times.

Eagles: Malanaetos, Valeria; Falco fulims, Cuv. The common Eagle.

Gnesios: F.fufous,\n perfect plumage. The Golden Eagle.
Besides which, there is F. imperialis, Cuv., or Eagle of the Sun ; a more
powerful bird than the former, and to which Cuvier assigns the stories
concerning the Eagle to be found in the books of the ancients.

Pygargus: perhaps Falco albicilla, LINN.

Haliatos: Halicetus ossifragus^ Cuv. Fishing Eagle, or Osprey. The
Falco H. of Linneus is the Pandion H. of Cuvier.

Barbata: ossifraga: Falco barbatus, GMELIN; Gypaetos barbatus, Cuv.

Morphnos, &c., is said by Cuvier to bean undetermined species.

Percnopterus : the large and small Vultures may be Vultus cinereus,
and V. percnopterus, LINN. — Wern. Club.

1 For killing of ducks and mallards.

190 History of Nature. [BooK X.

Coward, and of an inferior Race, for a Raven will buffet her.
She hath a greedy Appetite, and a continued whining Mur-
mur. Of all the Eagles she only carrieth away the dead Prey ;
whereas when the others have killed it, they settled upon
it. This Kind causeth the fifth to be called Gnesws, as being
the true, and the only one of pure descent. This Eagle is of
a middle size, of a reddish Colour, and rare to be seen.
There remaineth the Haliaetos ; which hath the sharpest
Sight of all others, poising herself on high ; and when she
spieth a Fish in the Sea, down she comes upon it with a
Rush, and dashes the Waves aside with her Breast as she
snatcheth it up. That Eagle which we have made the third,
haunteth standing Waters to prey upon Water-fowl, which
now and then dive under the Water ; but she seizeth them
as they become wearied and confounded. The Contest is
worth looking at ; while the Bird endeavours to gain the
Shore for Refuge, especially if it be well covered with thick
Reeds, and the Eagle for her Part drives her from thence
with a Blow of the Wing ; and whilst the Eagle striketh,
and in so doing falleth into the Lake, the Fowl that swim-
meth beneath the Water, seeing the Shadow of the Eagle
hovering about the Shore, riseth up again in another Place,
where her Pursuer could least have looked for her. This is
the Cause why these Wild-fowl commonly swim in Flocks ;
for when they are many together, they are not troubled,
because with dashing the Water with their Wings, they
dazzle the Sight of their Enemy. Often, also, the very
Eagles, not able to bear up the Weight they have seized, are
drawn under the Water with it. The Haliceetos only, before
her young ones are yet feathered, beats them, and thereby
forces them to look full against the Sunbeams; and if she
notices any one of them to wink, or their Eyes to water, she
throws it out of the Nest, as a bastard and inferior Sort ;
but she educates that one whose Eye-sight is strong enough
to sustain the Gaze. Haliceeti are not a separate Kind of
Eagles, but proceed from the coupling of different Sorts.
And that Kind which is produced by them is regarded as a
Sort of Ossifragus ; from which are propagated the lesser

BooKX.] History of Nature. 191

Vultures ; and they again the greater, which propagate
none whatever. Some add a Kind of Eagle which they call
Barbatae, and the Tuscans Ossifragae.

But the three first and the fifth Kind of Eagles have in
their Nest a Stone named JEetites,1 which some call Gagates ;
of extensive use as a Medicine, and suffering no Injury from
Fire. Now this Stone is also pregnant ; for if it is shaken,
another is heard to rattle within, as if it were in its Womb.
But that medical Virtue is not in these Stones if they are not
taken away out of the very Nest. They make their Nests in
Rocks and upon Trees : they lay three Eggs, but two only
are hatched : but sometimes they have been seen to have
three young ones. But one of them they turn out of the
Nest, because they will not be troubled with feeding it. And
truly Nature hath well provided that at such a Time they
shall not be able to provide Meat ; for otherwise they were
enough to destroy'all the Young of the wild Beasts. Also at
this Time their Talons are bent inward; and through Hunger
their Feathers grow white, so that they have good Cause to
hate their Young. But when they have cast them off, the
Ossifrages, which are near of Kin to them, receive them and
bring them up with their own Birds. But the parent Eagles
persecute them still when they are full grown, and drive
them a great Way off, as being their Rivals in the Prey.
And were it not so, one pair of Eagles needeth a large Ex-
tent of Country to furnish them with sufficient Food. They
have, therefore, their several Coasts for Prey, and do not
trespass on those of a neighbouring pair. When they have
seized a Prey, they do not carry it away presently, but first
lay it down, and try the Weight before they fly off with it.
They do not die for Age or Sickness, but of Famine, by rea-
son that the upper Beak of their Bill so far overgrows in-
ward, that the Crookedness does not permit them to open it.2

1 B. xxx. ch. xiv. ; B. xxxvi. ch. xxi. ; B. xxxvii. ch. xi. — Wern. Club.

2 But this remarkable growth of the hook of the beak in time exfo-
liates ; when the bird becomes capable of feeding, and again gathers
health and strength. To this reference is made, Psalm ciii. 5. — Wern.
Club.

192 History of Nature. [BooK X.

Their Manner is to go to their Business and to fly after
Noon-day. For all the former Hours of the Day they sit
idle, waiting until Men are got together about their Markets
in the Towns. The Feathers of Eagles laid among those of
other Fowls will consume them. It is said that the Eagle
only is never smitten with Lightning ; and therefore it is
judged that she serveth Jupiter as his Armour-bearer.

CHAPTER IV.

When Eagles began to be the Standards of the Legions ; and
what Fowls they are that have War with Eagles.

CAIUS MARIUS,

in his second

Consulship,

ordained

that the

Roman

Legions should only have the Eagle for their

Standard. For before that Time the Eagle marched

foremost, with four others : Wolves, Minotaurs, Horses

and Boars; each one in its proper Order. Not many

Years past the Eagle alone began to be advanced in the

Battle; and the Rest were left behind in the Camp. But

Marius rejected them altogether. And since this it is

observed that scarcely is there a Camp of a Legion wintered

at any Time, without having a pair of Eagles.

Of Eagles, the first and second Kind do not prey only
upon the lesser Quadrupeds, but also maintain Battle with
Deer. She walloweth in the Dust and gathereth a great
deal of it among her Feathers, and then settling upon the
Horns she shakes it off into his Eyes, flapping it about his
Face with her Wings, until she drive him down over the
Rocks. Nor is one Enemy enough for the Eagle ; but her
Fight with the Dragon is more sharp and much more dan-
gerous, although it is in the Air. The Dragon, out of a
greedy Desire to do Mischief, watcheth to destroy the Eggs
of the Eagle ; but the Eagle again for this, wherever she

Insignia Draconarius. Montfaucon, pi. iii. torn. iv.

BOOK X.] History of Nature. 193

can see him, catcheth him up. The Dragon, with many
Folds windeth about his Wings, and so entangleth them
that they fall down both together.

CHAPTER V.
A wonderful Thing of an Eagle.

THE Glory of an Eagle is much celebrated at the City of
Sestos ; for a young Maiden having brought up a young
Eagle, the Bird requited her Kindness by first catching
Birds for her, and in process of Time brought to her the
Produce of its Hunting. At length the young Girl died ;
and when her Funeral-fire was set a-burning, the Eagle
threw itself on it, and was consumed to Ashes with her. For
which Cause the Inhabitants erected in that Place a Monu-
ment, such as they call Herou'm, denominated (the Tomb) of
Jupiter and the Virgin, because that Bird is consecrated to
the God.

CHAPTER VI.

Of Vultures.

THE black Vultures are the best of that kind of Birds.
No man ever could meet with their Nests; and therefore
some have thought (but untruly) that they fly to us out of
an opposite World. But they build in the very highest
Rocks ; and their young ones have many Times been seen,
two generally together. Umbricius, who was the most skilful
Aruspex of our Age, saith, that usually they lay three Eggs ;
of which they take one of them to purify the other Eggs and
the Nest, and soon after they cast it away : also that they
fly two or three days before to the place where there will be
dead Carcasses.

CHAPTER VII.
Of the Sangualis and Tmmussulus.

THE Roman Augurs entertain much Doubt concerning
the Sangualis and the Immussulus. Some are of opinion
that the Immussulus is the Young of the Vulture : and the
Sangualis, the Young of the Ossifraga. Massurius saith,

VOL. III. O

1 94 History of Nature. [ BOOK X .

that the Sangualis and Ossifraga are the same, and that the
Iramussulas is the Yonng of the Eagle, before it comes to
have a white Tail. Some have affirmed confidently, that
after (the Death of) Mutius the Augur, there was never any
of them seen at Rome : but I am rather of Opinion (as being-
nearest the Truth) that, through the supine Negligence of
Men in all Things, they do not know them.

CHAPTER VIII.
Of the Accipiter) or Hawk kind.

WE find sixteen Kinds of Hawks:1 of which the Circos,
which is lame of one Leg, is held for the most prosperous
Augury in Treaties of Weddings and of Cattle. Also the
Triorches, so called from the Number of its Testicles, to
which Phemonoe hath given the principal Place in Au-
gury. The Romans called it Buteo ; and there is still a
Family surnamed from it, because it had settled upon the
Admiral's Ship, with favourable Auspices. The Greeks
name that Kind YEsalo, which alone is seen at all Times ;
whereas the rest are gone when Winter cometh. Hawks are
divided into distinct Kinds, by their Greediness : for some
never seize a Fowl but upon the Ground : others, again,
never attempt a Bird except it is flying about Trees : and
others when it is sitting on high : and some when they fly in
the open Air. Therefore the Pigeons, knowing the Danger
of these Things, so soon as they espy them, either alight
upon the Ground, or else fly low ; and thus help themselves
in a contrary Course to them. There is in the Ocean an

1 Accipiter is a general name for Hawks ; but when, as at Ch. xvii., it
is used for a certain species, it is Fulco nisus, Sparrow Hawk.

Triorches: JFalco butco, LINN. Buteo vulgaris, the Buzzard.

Circus: Falco cervginosus^ Moor Buzzard.

Buteo: Fulco, SubbuteOj Hobby; with the moderns is a different
species from the Triorches: and which Belon found to be used as food
in Crete.

JEsalo: Falco asalon, the Merlin.

Cymindis : Cuvier says, a species not determined. — Wern. Club.

BOOK X.] History of Nature. '195

Island of Africa called Cerne, in which all the Hawks of
Massesylige build their Nests on the Ground : and being
accustomed to those Nations, they do not breed elsewhere.
In a Part of Thracia beyond Ainphipolis, Men and Hawks1
catch Birds together, in a sort of Fellowship ; for the Men
drive the Birds from the Woods and Reeds, and the Hawks,
flying over their Heads, bear them to the Ground. On the
other Side the Hawkers divide the Prey with the Hawks :
and by Report they let some Birds fly again aloft into the
Air, for the Hawks to catch for themselves. When the Time
of Hawking arrives, they will by their Cry and Manner of
Flying together invite them to take the Opportunity. It is
said that Lupi (Bass) do the like, about the Lake Mceotis :
for unless they have their Part with the Fishermen, they
tear their Nets when they are stretched forth. Hawks do
not eat the Heart of any Bird. The Night-Hawk is called
Cymindis : it is seldom seen in the Woods, and by Daylight
seeth little. There is deadly War between it and the Eagle ;
and often they are both taken, by holding fast one with the
other.

CHAPTER IX.

Of the Coccyx, which usually is killed by Birds of its own

Kind.

THE Cuckoo2 appeareth to be formed of an Hawk,
changed in its Shape at one certain Time of the Year : for
then the other Hawks are not to be seen, unless for some
very few Days. It showeth itself also only for a small Sea-

1 Falconry was little known to the Romans, but it was held as
honourable in some parts of Greece. Hence the Greeks denominated the
falconry hawks Hierax, and the falconer Hieracaros; although, perhaps,
this idea of their sacred character may have been derived from Egypt,
where the Accipiter JEgyptius was so deemed, because it preyed on serpents.
- Wem. Club.

2 The history of the Cuckoo may be seen in Mr. Yarrell's " British
Birds." The ancient opinion that this bird became changed into a Hawk,
was derived from the fact that one of the migratory Hawks appeared
about the time when the Cuckoo departed. — Went. Club.

196 History of Nature. [BooK X.

son in Summer, and afterwards appeareth no more. It is
the only one of the Hawks that hath no hooked Talons, nor
is its Head like theirs, nor is it like them in anything but
Colour ; and the Gape of the Mouth more resembleth that of
the Dove. Nay, the Hawk will devour it if they appear
together ; and it is the only Bird of all others that is killed
by those of its own kind. It altereth its Voice also. In the
Spring it cometh abroad, and at the rising of the Dog-star it
hideth itself. It lays always in other Birds' Nests, and most
of all in the Stock-doves', commonly one Egg only, which
no other Bird doth besides ; and seldom two. The Reason
why they place their Young under other Birds is because
they know that all Birds hate them, for even little Birds
annoy them ; therefore, that the whole Race of them should
not be utterly destroyed, they make no Nest of their own,
being otherwise timorous in their Nature. The Nurse, there-
fore, bringeth up the substituted Chick in the adulterated
Nest. And this young Cuckoo, being Greedy by Nature,
intercepteth the Meat from the other young Birds, and so
groweth fat ; whereby it cometh into favour with the Nurse.
She rejoiceth in its Appearance, and wonders at herself that
she hath hatched such a Chick. The rest, which are her
own, she condemns in comparison with this one, as being
Strangers, and suffereth them to be devoured before her
Face; and at last the young Cuckoo, being able to fly,
seizeth also her Nurse. And by that Time no other Bird
is to be compared to the young Cuckoo for Sweetness of
Flesh.

CHAPTER X.
Of the Milvus.1

THE Milvus is of the same Kind of Hawks, but it differs
in size. This hath been observed in them : that being a
most ravenous Bird, and ever hungry, yet they are never
known to snatch any Food from the Dishes of the Funeral
Feasts; nor from the Altar of Olympia; nor will they pluck it

1 Falco mihus, LINN.; Milvus vulgaris, YARKELL. The Kite, or
lead. — Wern. Club.

BOOK X.] History of Nature. 197

out of the Hands of those that served, unless as a mournful
Portent of the Town's-people that sacrificed. These Birds
seem, by the turning of their Tails to and fro, to have taught
the Art of Steering ; Nature showing that in the Air which
is necessary in the Deep beneath ! The Milvus also, is not
seen in the Winter Months ; but they do not go away before
the Swallows. Moreover, it is said that after the Solstices
they are troubled with the Gout.

CHAPTER XI.
Arrangement of Birds into Genera.

THE first Distinction in Birds is chiefly taken from their
Feet, for they have either hooked Talons or Toes ; or else
they are in some sort broad arid flat, as Geese, and almost
all the Water-birds. Those which have hooked Talons for
the most part feed only upon Flesh.

CHAPTER XII.
Of unlucky Birds : the Comix, Corvus, and Bubo.

THE Comix1 liveth also on other Food : for when they
meet with a hard Nut which resists their Bill, they will fly
aloft and fling it against the Rocks or Tiles many Times
together, until it is so bruised that they can easily break it.
This Bird's Chattering is inauspicious, although by some it
is praised. It is observed, that from the (going down) of the
Star Arcturus to the coining of the Swallow, it is not seen
elsewhere but in the Groves and Temples of Minerva, and
that but seldom, as at Athens. Moreover, this Bird only
feedeth her Young for a good while after they are able to
fly. She is most unlucky at the Time of Young, that is,
after the Solstice. All other Birds of the same Race drive
their young ones out of the Nest, and force them to fly; as
the Corvus also, which likewise feed not on Flesh only ; and
they likewise, when they perceive their young ones to be

1 Comix : Corvus corone, the Crow. Corvus, C. corax, the Kaven. —
Wern. Club.

198 History of Nature. [BooK X.

strong, drive them away far off. Therefore about little Vil-
lages there are commonly not above two Pair of them. And
about Cranon in Thessaly, there is not above one Pair of
them : for the Parents yield the Place to the Offspring.
There are some different Properties in this Bird, and that
before-mentioned. The Corvi breed before the Solstice, and
for sixty Days they are sick, chiefly with Thirst, until the Figs
are ripe in Autumn : and from that Time the Cornix is dis-
eased. The Corvus for the most part layeth five Eggs, and
the Vulgar are of opinion that they conceive and lay Eggs at
the Bill ; and therefore if Women with Child eat a Raven's
Egg, they shall be delivered of their Children at the Mouth:
and generally they have difficult Labour if such an Egg be
brought into the House. Aristotle denieth this : no more, by
Hercules, than the Egyptian Ibis : but that the kissing which
we see them do often, is like what Pigeons also do. The
Corvi alone seem to have a Knowledge of their own
Significations in Presages; for when the Guests of Media
were all slain, they all flew away out of Peloponnesus
and the Region of Attica. The worst Signification they
afford is when they swallow their Voice as if they were
choked.

The Night-birds have also crooked Talons ; as the Noctua
Bubo and Ulula.1 All these see but badly in the Day-time.
The Bubo betokeneth Mourning, and is most execrable,
especially in the Presages of public Affairs : it keepeth in
solitary Places ; and not desolate only, but also such as are
horrible, and hard of access. It is the Monster of the Night,
not uttering a clear Sound, but muttering a Groan; and
therefore, if seen in Cities, or otherwise abroad in the Light,
it is a dreadful Portent. I myself know, however, that it
hath perched upon many Houses of private Men, and yet
no deadly Accident followed. It never flieth directly whi-
ther it would itself go, but is carried away across. One of
them entered the very Sanctuary of the Capitol, in the Year

1 Noctua, Strix otus, LINN.; Otus vulgaris, YARRELL— Eared Owl.
Bubo, strix bubo, LINN. ; see Ch. xvi. Noctua, strix flammea, LIKN. —
Barn Owl.— Wern. Club.

BOOK X.] History of Nature. 199

when Sext. Papellio Ister and L. Pcdanius were Consuls ; on
which Account, at the Nones of March, the City that Year
passed through a Lustration.

CHAPTER XIII.
Of the Bird Incendiaria.

THE Bird Incendiaria is likewise inauspicious; and we
find in our Annals, that on account of it the City many a
Time hath been lustrated ; as when L. Cassias and C. Marius
were Consuls : in that very Year when, by Occasion of a Bubo
being seen, the Lustration also was performed. But what Bird
this is, neither do I know nor yet find in any Writer. Some
give this Interpretation of Incendiaria, that it is any Bird
which hath been seen carrying a Coal from any kind of
Altar. Others called this Bird Spinturnix ; but hitherto I
have not met with the Man who would say, that he knew
what Bird this should be.

CHAPTER XIV.

Of the Clivina.

LIKEWISE the Bird named in old Time Clivina, which
some call Clarnatoria, and Labeo by the Name of Prohi-
bitoria, I perceive is as little known as the other. Nigidius
also maketh mention of a Bird called Subis, which breaks
the Eggs of Eagles.

CHAPTER XV.
Of unknown Birds.

IN the Tuscan Learning1 there are many Birds drawn
which have not been seen for Ages. And it is surprising

1 Augury appears to have particularly flourished among the Tuscans,
and it was that portion of ancient religious practice which mixed itself
most with the habits of ordinary life ; so that no important step in life
could be taken without its authority, and no strange circumstance, more
particularly regarding birds, be noted without the professors of this art
being called upon to supply an interpretation and provide a ceremony for

200 History of Nature. [BooK X .

that they are now extinct, when those still continue in
Abundance which human Appetite consumes.

CHAPTER XVI.
Of Nocturnal Birds.

OF Foreigners, one who is called Hylas is thought to
have written learnedly concerning Auguries. He reporteth

averting the omen. The science was divided into two portions : one of
which referred to the auspices, or the view of birds ; and the other, which
more especially bore the name of augury — abavium garritu — consisted
in attending to the sounds uttered by birds. The birds themselves that
afforded these prognostications were supposed to be moved ab anima
sua, by an inward action proceeding from the influence of Deity : those
which by their singing attracted the attention of the augurs, were termed
Oscines (Ch. xxix.) : a name which thus became a denomination for all
singing-birds : such as were supposed to signify that an action ought not
to be persevered in were called Prohibltorice (Ch. xiv.), and the word
obscene was simply descriptive of birds of ill omen, although the term
has been subsequently applied with another meaning. A journal of the
transactions of this college of religious naturalists was kept of the occur-
rence of every rare event, and the appearance of every strange bird,
coloured representations of which were drawn, for reference on any future
emergency. For the conveniency of official observation, a measured
space, termed Pomarium, round the walls of the city, and separating it
from the country, was kept free from buildings or enclosures ; and the
Palatine hill of Rome was in old time excluded from the city and the
Pornserium, because it was the resort of birds of ill omen. Spaces in the
sky were measured out by the official staff; and the birds themselves
were arranged in classes, to render the rules of prognostication more pre-
cise. An augur who entered into the spirit of his profession was neces-
sarily skilful in ornithology ; but those who were more speculative would
make additions to species or classes, whic'h the experience of others would
fail to confirm. The public terror was thus entirely in the power of the
augurs, for even a slight change of structure, discovered when the bird
was cut asunder for sacrifice, was deemed a portent : and there are proofs
that some among them might be induced to shape their reports in
a manner to suit private purposes. The opinion of Accius on augurs is
thus given : —

" Nihil credo auguribus, qui aures verbis divitant

Alienas, suas ut auro locupletent domos."
— Went. Club.

BOOK X .] History of Nature. 20 1

that the Noctua Bubo, the Pious l that pecketh Holes in
Trees, the Trogon2 and the Comix come out of their Shells
with their Tails first; because through the Weight of their
Heads the Eggs are turned (with the wrong End down-
ward), and so the hinder part of their Bodies lieth next
under the Hen to cherish with her Heat.

CHAPTER XVII.
Of the Noctua.

THE Contest of the Noctua with other Birds is with much
Skill; for when they are beset with a Multitude of them,
they lie upon their Backs, and resist with their Feet ; gather-
ing themselves into a narrow Compass, so as to cover their
whole Body with their Bill and Talons. The Accipiter, by a
peculiar Society of Nature, renders Assistance, and shareth
the War. Nigidius writeth, that the Noctua for sixty Days
in Winter keepeth close, and hath nine different Notes.

CHAPTER XVIII.
Of the Picus Martins.

THERE are also some small Birds which have hooked
Claws, as the Picus ; which is distinguished by the Name of
Martius, and are of great Account in Auspices. They that
peck Holes in Trees, and climb in a pilfering Way like
Cats, are of this Race. They lie supine, and when they
strike with their Bills against the Bark, they know by the
Sound that there is Food within. These Birds alone bring
up their young ones in Excavations of Trees. And if a Shep-
herd wedge up their Holes, the Vulgar believe that they will
unstop it by the means of an Herb which they apply. Tre-
bius writeth, that if a Man drive a Spike or Wedge with all
his Might into the Tree in which this Bird hath its Nest,
when she settleth upon the Tree, it will instantly fly out
(with such a Force) that the Tree will give a Crack. In

1 P. Martius, the greater Woodpecker. — Wcrn. Club.

2 Perhaps Trygon ; Columba tvj-tur, the Turtle-dove. — Wern. Club.

202 History of Nature. [BooK X .

Latium these are the principal Birds in Auguries, from that
King1 who gave them their Name. And one Presage of
theirs I cannot pass over : one of them alighted upon the
Head of L. Tubero, Praetor of the City, as he was distri-
buting Justice on the Judgment-seat in the Forum, and
there rested so gently, that it suffered him to take it with his
Hand. The Prophet answered, that if the Bird were let go
it would portend the Ruin of the Empire ; but if it were
killed, it denounced Death to the Praetor ; and he immediately
tore the Bird in pieces : nor was it long before the Prodigy
was fulfilled. There are also some of this Kind that feed
upon Mast, and many on Apples; but they do not live on
Flesh only, except the Milvus, which causes that Bird to be
mournful in Auguries.

CHAPTER XIX.
Of Birds that have hooked Talons and Fingers.

THOSE which have crooked Claws do not assemble in
Flocks, but prey each one for itself. And almost all these
fly aloft except the Night-birds ; and the greater Sort espe-
cially. They are all of them great winged, little bodied, and
walk with Difficulty. They seldom perch upon Rocks, being
hindered by the bending inward of their Talons, it re-
maineth that we speak of the second Order of Birds, which
is divided into two Sorts : Oscines and Alites. For the
singing of the one Kind, and the Bigness of the other,
maketh the Distinction. Therefore they are treated of first
in Order.

CHAPTER XX.

Of the Pavo;2 and who was the first that hilled them for

Food.

THE Class of the Pavo excels all the others, as well in
Form as in his Understanding and Glory. For when he is

1 Picus.

8 Meleagrix pano, LINN. ; Pavo criatatm, Peacock. Martial expresses
his regret that so beautiful a bird shouid be delivered over to the cruelty

BOOK X.] History of Nature. 203

praised lie spreadeth his Colours, which shine like precious
Stones, and which he most commonly turneth towards the Sun;
for so they shine with the most glittering Lustre. And at the
same Time also his Tail takes the Shape of a Shell, and Shades
are formed by the Reflexions of other Colours, which shine
the brighter when contrasted with the dark ; and he draws
the whole of his Feathers together into an Accumulation,
which it rejoiceth the Eyes to look at. When he hath lost
this Tail, which is at the turn of the Year, when Trees shed
their Leaves, until it grows again with the Flowers, as if
ashamed and lamenting, he seeketh retired Places. The
(Peacock) liveth twenty-five Years. At three Years of Age
he beginneth to pour forth his Colours. Authors say that
he is not only a vain-glorious Creature, but also as mali-
cious as the Goose is unassuming; for so have some of them
recorded their Remarks on these Birds : but they are not
satisfactory to me.

The first that killed a Peacock for the sake of Food was
the Orator Hortensius, in his solemn Supper when he was
consecrated Priest. And M. Aufidius Lurco was the first
that contrived to fatten them ; which was about the Time of
the last Pirates' War; by which Invention of his he obtained
a yearly Profit of 60,000 Sesterces.1

CHAPTER XXI.

Of Cocks ; and how they are emasculated. Also of a
Dunghill Cock that spoke.

NEXT, these our Sentinels by Night, and whom Nature hath
created to break Men of their Sleep, to arouse them to their
Work, have also a Sense of Glory. They know the Stars ;
and they distinguish the third Hour portions by their crowing.

of a cook (Xenia, 65); and Tiberius put a man to death for stealing a pea-
cock e viridariO) from a green-house. Long before this they were so
rare, and so much admired, as to be among the importations of Solomon
(1 Kings, ch. x). They appear to have been kept tame, even so early as
the time of Job (ch. xxxix). — Wern. Club.
1 468 lib. 15 shil.

204 History of Nature. [BOOK X.

They go to roost with the Sim ; and at the fourth watch in
the Camp they call Men up to their Cares and Labour :
they will not suffer the Sun to steal upon us unwarned ; but
by their crowing they proclaim the corning Day, and they
foretel their crowing likewise, by clapping their Sides. They
are Rulers of their own Kind ; and in whatever House they
are, they exercise Sovereignty. This is gotten by fighting
one with another, as if they knew that naturally they had
Weapons given them on their Legs for this Purpose ; and
many Times there is no end until they kill one another. But
if one of them obtains the Palm, immediately he croweth for
his Victory, and makes it known that he is truly the Chief.
He that is beaten hideth himself in Silence ; but beareth his
Bondage with Reluctance. And the very common Sort, also,
are as proud ; marching with their Neck stretched upright,
and the Comb lifted aloft. And there is not a Bird besides
that so often looketh at the Sky, at the same Time erecting
his arched Tail ; and therefore it is, that they are a terror to
Lions, which of all wild Beasts are the most courageous.

Now of these Cocks, some are bred for nothing but Wars
and constant Battles ; and these Cocks have rendered illus-
trious the Countries from whence they come, as Ilhodus and
Tenagra ; in a second Place of Honour are esteemed those of
Melos and Chalcis ; so that to those Birds, for their Worth,
the Roman Purple affords much Honour. These are they
from which- the Tripudium solistimum1 is observed. These rule
our Magistracy every Day ; and they open or shut their
Houses to them ; they urge forward or hold back the
Roman Rods ; they order or forbid the Battle, and were the
Auspices of all our Victories throughout the World ; and,

1 A kind of omen derived from the manner of their eating. It was
the business of the proper officers to watch this : of others, their mode of
walking ; of others, their voice and crowing; of others, their air and coun-
tenance ; and the principal of all attended to the appearance of their
entrails in sacrifice. As the cock was peculiarly an emblem of watchful-
ness, the augury derived from him was of particular importance in the
army; and cocks continued to be carried with armies in comparatively
modern times, professedly to proclaim the hours by their crowing, but
certainly through the lingering remains of ancient custom. — Wer?i. Club.

BOOK X.] History of Nature. 205

more than all, these Birds govern the Government of all
Nations upon the Earth : acceptable to the Gods in Sacrifice
with the small Fibres of their inwards, as the best Victims.
Their crowing out of Order, and in the Evening, possesseth
a Portent; for by their crowing all Night long, they pre-
saged to the Boeotians that noble Victory over the Lacedas-
monians ; this Interpretation being offered, because that
Bird never croweth if he is overcome. If they are castrated
they cease to crow. And this Operation is practised upon
them in two Ways : either by burning their Loins with a hot
Iron, or by cauterising their Thighs beneath, and then pre-
sently applying to the Ulcer Potter's Chalk ; and thus they
will sooner grow fat. At Pergamus every Year there is an
Exhibition publicly afforded to the People, of Cocks, as of
Gladiators. We find in our Annals, that in the Territory of
Ariminum, when Marcus Lepidus and Quintus Catnlus were
Consuls, a Dung-hill Cock spoke ; and it was at the Villa of
Galerius. But this* only happened once, so far as I can
learn.

CHAPTER XXII.

Of Geese: and who first ate the Liver of the Goose. Also of
the Fat of the Goose of Comagene.

THE Goose1 likewise is very vigilant, as witness the
Capitol defended at that Time when, through the Silence of
the Dogs, all was betrayed. And therefore the first Thing
the Censors do, is to place Food for the Geese. Moreover,
they are said to be much given to Love ; for at Argos there
was a Goose that was enamoured of a fair Boy named
Olenus : as also of Glauce, who used to play on the Lute
(Cithara) before King Ptolemy: and it is reported that at
the same Time a Ram was in love with her. It may be
thought also that there is visible in this Creature some

1 Anas anser, LINN. The narrative of the preservation of the Capitol
from the attack of the Gauls, is found in all the Roman histories. But
Geese were held sacred long before this : perhaps as an emblem of watch-
fulness.— Wern. Club.

206 History of Nature. [BooK X.

Sparks of Wisdom. For Lacydts the Philosopher is said to
have had one of them attached to him as a constant Com-
panion, which would never leave him Night or Day, neither
in the open Street, nor at the Baths. But our Countrymen
are wiser, who know how to make a Dainty of their Liver.1
In those Geese that are crammed (the Liver) groweth ex-
ceedingly great; and when it is taken out it plumps up if it
is steeped in Milk and Mead. With good Cause, therefore, it
is in Controversy who first invented so great a Good : whe-
ther it was Scipio Metellus, a consular Man, or M. Sestius,
who in the same Age was a Roman Knight. Buc it is certain
that Messalinus Cotta, Son of Messala the Orator, found out
to broil the broad Feet of Geese, and with Cocks' Combs to
compose a Dish of Meat : for I will truly give every Man
his Due for the Praise of his Cookery. It is a wonderful
Thing of these Birds, that they should walk all the Way
from Morini to Rome. Those that were weary were brought
forward to the Forewent ; and so the rest, by crowding toge-
ther as they naturally do, drive these tired ones before them.
A second Revenue of such Geese as are white is their Down.
In some Places they are plucked twice a Year : and they are
clothed with Feathers again, and the nearer to the Flesh so
much the softer. But that which is brought out of Germany
is most esteemed. The Geese there are white, but of less
size ; and they are called Ganzse.2 The Cost of these Fea-
thers is at five Denarii3 a Pound ; and hence it is that so
many Charges are made against the Prefects of the auxiliary
Soldiers, that they send whole Cohorts from the Guard

1 Martial says, they caused the liver to grow to be as large as the
goose : —

" Adspice quara turneat magno jecur ansere majus ! "

Palladius says, that for this purpose they were fed on pounded figs soaked
in water, and rolled into pellets : and that this treatment began when
they were thirty days old. They were also exposed to intense heat. —
Wern. Club.

2 Some copies read Gantse ; a word this, perhaps, the origin of our
word Gander. — Wern. Club.

3 3 shil. Id. ob.

BOOK X.] History of Nature. '207

Station to hunt Geese. And to this extent is Delicacy grown,
that without this Material even our Men are not able to bear
their Pillows.

To that part of Syria called Comagene,1 we are beholden
for another Invention. The Grease of Geese with Cinnamon
is put into a brazen Pot, and covered over with abundance of
Snow, and they let it steep well infused in this cold Matter,
to use in that noble Medecine which from that Country is
called Conuiirenum.

Of the Geese kind are the Chenalopeces ;2 and (than
which there is not a daintier Dish known in Britain) the
Chenerotes,3 which are less than the wild Geese.

The Tetrao* have a shining Appearance, that looks be-
coming in their absolute Blackness ; and their Eyebrows are
red like Scarlet.

Another Kind there is of them, bigger than Vultures,5
and in Colour much resembling them. And there is not a
Fowl, except the Ostrich, that weigheth more heavy than
they. For they grow to that size, that a Man can hardly
lift them from the Ground. These breed in the Alps and
the North Countries. If they are confined in an Aviarium,
they loose their Flavour : they die through Sullenness, by
holding in their Breath. Next to these are such as in
Spain are called the Avis Tarda,6 and in Greece Otides :
but they are not approved as Food, for the Marrow in
their Bones, if let out, instantly produceth an insufferable
Smell.

1 See B. xxix. ch. iii. — Wern. Club.

2 Anas j?Egyptiaca, Cuv. Egyptian Goose. — Wern. Club.

3 A word equivalent to Anser amiabiliti, and supposed to describe the
Anas Bernicla, LINN. Bernacle Goose. — Wern. Club.

4 Tetrao Tetrix, LINN. Black Cock.— Wern. Club.

5 Tetrao Urogallus, LINN. Caper Cailzie. — Wern. Club.

6 Otis tarda, Great Bustard.— Wern Club.

208 History of Nat are. [BooK X.

CHAPTER XXIII.

Of the Grus,1 Ciconiaf Olorf some foreign Birds, and the
Coturnix and Glottis.

THE Nation of the Pigmies enjoys a Truce when (as we
have said before) the Cranes, who wage War with them, de-
part into other Countries. And if a Man consider from how
far they come, from the Levant Sea, it is an immense Extent.
When they set forward it is by general Consent. They fly high,
to have a good look out ; and they choose a Leader, whom
they follow. In the extremity of their Host there are some
disposed which utter Cries, and keep the Flock in orderly
Arrangement with their Voice ; and this they do by turns.
They maintain a Watch all the Night long, and the Sentinels
hold a little Stone* in their Foot, which by falling from it, if
they sleep, reproves them for their Negligence. All the rest
sleep, couching their Heads under their Wings; and they
stand sometimes upon one Foot, and sometimes on the other.
The Leader beareth his Neck aloft in the Air as he looks
forward, and giveth his Word what is to be done. These

1 Ardea grus, LINN. The Crane. For their hostility to the Pigmies,
see B. iv. Ch. xi. — Wern. Club.

2 Ardea ciconia, LINN. The Stork. — Wern. Club.

3 Anas olor, and A. cygnus, LINN. The wild and tame Swan.

The lamentable singing referred to by the author is often alluded to
by ancient writers ; but nothing of the sort has been witnessed by modern
observers. — Wern. Club.

4 " The old grammarian, Johannes Tzetzer. has rendered this story
into Greek verse; and the historian Ammianus Marcellinus tells us,
that in imitation of the ingenuity of the Crane to insure vigilance, Alex-
ander the Great was accustomed to rest with a silver ball in his hand,
suspended over a b'rass basin, which, if he began to sleep, might fall and
awake him." — " Habits of Birds," in Library of Entertaining Knowledge.
— Wern. Club.

BOOK X.] History of Nature. 209

Cranes, when tamed, are very playful ; and they will, one by
one, dance round with an odd sort of Walk. It is certain
that when they are about to take flight over the Pontus,
they will fly first of all to the Straits between the two
Capes, Criu-Metophon and Caranibis, and then presently
they steady themselves with Ballast. When they have
passed the middle they fling away the Stones from their
Feet; and when they are come to the Continent they dis-
gorge the Sand from their Throat.

Cornelius Nepos, who died when Divus Augustus was
Sovereign, where he wrote, That a little before his Time
Men began to fatten the captured Thrushes, adds, That
Storks were held for a better Dish than Cranes. But now,
no Man will touch (a Stork) ; while the Crane is sought after
among the principal Delicacies. From whence these Storks
should come, or whither they return, is not yet known. No
doubt they come from remote Countries, and in the same
manner as the Cranes ; only that the Cranes are our Guests
in Winter, and the Storks in Summer. When they are
about to depart they assemble in a Place appointed, and
they form such a Company that not one of the Kind is left,
unless it be some one that is not at Liberty. They take their
Departure on the given Day, as if by an established Law.
Although it appeared that they were about to remove, yet
no Man hath seen the Flock as it went ; neither do we see
them come, but we know that they are come, and they do
the one and the other always by Night. And although they
fly away and return, yet they are supposed never to have
arrived anywhere but in the Night. There is a Place in the
open Plains of Asia, called Pithonos-Come, where they
assemble, and make a murmuring Noise among themselves,
and tear in Pieces that one which was the last to arrive; and
then they depart. It hath been noted, that after the Ides of
August they are not easily seen there.

Some affirm that Storks have no Tongues. So highly
are they respected for destroying Serpents, that in Thessaly
it was a capital Crime to kill a Stork, and by Law he is
punished the same as for slaying a Man.

VOL. in. p

210 History of Nature. [BooK X .

After the same manner Geese and Swans associate toge-
ther ; but they are seen in their Flight. They make Way
forcibly after the Manner of the Beaks of Ships, for by this
Means they more easily divide the Air than if they drove it
before them with a straight Front. The Flock is spread out
by Degrees, expanding itself like a Wedge behind, and so
affords a great Space to the Wind, which impels them. They
rest their Necks upon those that are before them, and as the
Leaders become weary they retire behind. Storks seek the
same Nest, and they support their aged Parents in return for
their Kindness.

Some say there is lamentable singing at the Death of
Swans, but untruly, as I suppose ; for, from some Experience,
these Birds devour one another's Flesh among themselves.

But this Discourse of those Fowls that make Voyages in
Flocks over Seas and Lands will not allow me to put off
speaking of lesser Birds also, which are of the same Nature;
for those before-named may seem to be induced to do so by
the size and strength of their Bodies. Quails,1 therefore,
always come before the Cranes. It is a little Bird, and when
it comes to us, it belongs to the Ground rather than the Air.
The Manner of their flying is like the former ; not without
some Danger of the Sailors when they approach near to
Land. Because they often settle upon their Sails, which they
do always in the Night, and sink Vessels. Their Journey is
through established Resting-places. In the Southwind they
do not fly; because it is wet and heavy. And yet they
choose to be conveyed by the Wind, on Account of the
Weight of their Bodies arid their feeble Strength. Hence as
they fly their complaining expresses their Effort. Com-
monly, therefore, they fly with a North Wind, the Ortygo-
metra being the Leader. The first of them, as it approacheth

1 Tetrao coturnix, LINN. Some have supposed the Ortygometra (Mo-
ther of Quails) to be only a larger individual of this species ; others sup-
pose it the Rail, Eallus crcx. It is judged with some probability that not
this species, but the Katta (Tetrao alchala, LINN.) is the bird referred to,
under the name of Quail, in the Books of Moses, and by David, Ps. Ixxviii.
— Wern, Club.

BOOK X.] History of Nature. 21 1

the Land, is seized by the Hawk. Whenever they are upon
their Departure hence they solicit other Birds to accompany
them, and by their Inducements there go with them the
Glottis,1 Otis,2 and Cychramus.3 The Glottis putteth forth a
long Tongue ; from which it hath its Name. This Bird is
very forward at the first setting out on the pleasant Journey;
but it findeth Repentance in the Pain of the Flight. To go
back again without Company it is ashamed ; and so to lag
behind ; neither does it ever persevere for more than one
Day; for at the next Resting-place it deserteth the Com-
pany ; but it meeteth with others which the Year before were
left behind : and thus they do from Time to Time. The
Cychramus is of a more persevering Nature, and maketh
Haste to reach those Parts which it so much desireth : and
therefore in the Night it rouses them, and puts them in
mind of the Journey. The Otis is less than the Bubo, and
larger than the Noctua, having two Ears, formed of Fea-
thers standing aloft ; from which it took its Name. But in
Latin some have called it Asio. This Bird, besides, is skilful
in Imitation, like a Parasite; and, in a particular Way, a
Dancer. It is easily taken as the Noctua, while it looks
intently on any one, by another that goes round it. But if a
contrary Wind should begin to hinder the Flight of the
Troop, they render their Progress steady by grasping small
weighty Stones, or stuffing their Throat with Sand. The
Seed of the Veratrum is a grateful Food to Quails; for
which Reason they are banished from Table. At the same
Time they are accustomed to slaver at the Mouth, by Reason
of the comitial Disease;4 which they only are the Creatures,
except Man, that are subject to.

1 Totanus glottis, Cuv. Greenshank. — Wern. Club.

2 Otus brachyotus, Cuv. Small-ear'd Owl. —Wern. Club.

3 Cychramis, or Cynchramus. Belon supposes it the Emberiza mili-
aria, Common Bunting; but according to Aldrovandus, E. horlulana,
the Ortolan. — Wern. Club.

4 Comitial disease, or Epilepsy. The author forgets what he had said
of the Elk being subject to it— Wern. Club.

212 History of Nature. [BooK X.

CHAPTER XXIV.

Of the Hirundo, Merula, Turdus, Sturnus, Turtur, and
Palumbus.

THE Hirundo1 also (the only Birds among those that have
not crooked Claws, which feed upon Flesh) are gone from
us all the Winter. But they go no further than to neigh-
bouring Places, where they follow the sunny Recesses of the
Mountains, and where many Times they are found naked,
and without Feathers. It is said they never build under any
Roof in Thebes, because that City had often been taken ;
nor at Bizia in Thrace, on Account of the Wickedness of
Tereus. Ccecina of Volaterrae, of the Equestrian Order, and
Master of the Chariots, was accustomed to bring with him
into the City a Number of these Swallows, which he sent off
to his Friends as Messengers of Victory; and they would
return to the same Nest from which they were taken,
smeared over with the Colour of Victory. Also Fabius Pictor
reporteth in his Annals, that when a Roman Garrison was
besieged by the Ligustini, a Swallow was taken from her
little ones and brought to him, that by the Number of Knots
in a Thread tied to her Foot he should signify to them on
what Day they ought to make a Sally to meet the coming
Help.

Merulae,2 Turdi, and Sturni, after the same manner, quit
us for the neighbouring Places. But these do not cast their
Feathers, nor lie hid ; but are seen often in Places where
they seek Meat to serve them in Winter. And therefore
Turdi are chiefly seen in Germany in Winter.

The Turtle more truly hides herself, and sheds her
Plumage.

Palumbes also leave us, but where they go is uncertain.

1 The Swallow tribe. See Chap, xxxiii.— Wern. Club.

2 Turdus merula, LINN. ; the Blackbird. Turdi : Turdus musicus, the
Thrush; and perhaps, also, T. Iliacus, LINN.; the Redwing. Sturni:
Sturnus vulgaris, LINN.; the Starling. — Wern. Club.

BOOK X .] History of Nature. 213

The Race of Starlings have the Property to fly m Troops,1
and in their Flight to gather round into a kind of Ball,
where every one hath a tendency to be in the midst.

Of all Birds, the Swallow alone flieth in a bending
Course, which is swift and easy ; and therefore it is not so
liable to be seized by other Birds. To conclude, it is the
only Bird that never feedeth but while flying.

CHAPTER XXV.

What Birds continue with us all the Year; which are half-year
Birds, and which only for three Months.

THERE is great Difference in the Seasons of Birds. Some
remain the whole Year, as Columbae ; others half the Year,
as Hirundines ; and some but a quarter, as Turdi and Tur-
tures. Some go away as soon as they have brought out their
Young, as the Galgulus2 and Upupa.3

CHAPTER XXVI.
Strange Stories of Birds.

THERE are Writers who affirm, that every Year there are
Birds which fly out of Ethiopia to Ilium ; and there, about
the Sepulchre of JHfemnon, fight each other: for which Cause
they call them Meinnonides.4 And Cremutius delivers it as

1 Mr. Knapp, in his " Journal of a Naturalist," observes, " there is
something singularly curious and mysterious in the conduct of these birds
previous to their nightly retirement, by the variety and intricacy of the
evolutions they execute at that time. They will form themselves, per-
haps, into a triangle, then shoot into a long pear-shaped figure, expand
like a sheet, wheel in a ball, as Pliny observes, eachjndividual striving to
get into the centre, with a promptitude more like parade movements than
the actions of Birds."— Wern. Club.

2 Sometimes written Galbulus. Oriolus galbula, LINN.; Golden
Oriole. — Wern. Club.

3 Upupa epops, LINN. Hoopoe. — Wern. Club.

4 JElian (B. v. ch. i.) describes these birds as being black, and bear-
ing a general resemblance to the Hawk tribe ; but feeding on seeds, and
not on flesh. Their visits to the Tumulus were in the autumn ; and they

214 History of Nature. [BooK X.

upon his own Knowledge, that every fifth Year the same
Birds do the like in Ethiopia about the royal Palace of
Memnon.

In a similar manner, the Meleagrides 1 fight in Bcaotia.
These Meleagrides are a kind of gallinaceous Birds of Africa,
hunch-backed, the Bunch scattered with Feathers of different
Colours. Of all foreign Birds these are the last admitted at
Table, by reason of their strong, harsh Taste. But it is the
Sepulchre of Meleager which hath given them Credit.

CHAPTER XXVII.
Of Birds named Seleucides.*

THE Birds are called Seleucides, which come in conse-
quence of the Prayers offered to Jupiter by the Inhabitants
of Mount Casius, against the Locusts, when they devastate
their Crops. But from whence they come, or whither they
go, no Man knovveth ; for they are never seen but when
there is need of their Help.

CHAPTER XXVIII.
Of the Ibis.3

THE Egyptians also invoke their Ibis against the coming
of Serpents ; and the Eleans the God Myiagrosf to be deli-
flew about it, divided into two troops, with the appearance of a combat,
such as were common to the Greeks around the tombs of their heroes :
and it was probably this habit which chiefly attracted their attention.
Dalechampius supposes them to have been a kind of crows. Ovid gives
the popular legend of these birds, as deriving their origin from the
funeral pile of Memnon. (B. xiii. ch. iii.) — Wern. Club.

1 Numida meleagris, Cuv. Guinea Fowl. At Rome they were known
by the name of African Hens. — Wern. Club.

2 It seems impossible to trace what these Birds are. — Wern. Club.

3 Ibis religiosa^ Cuv. The Ibis. Mummies of this bird are now
found in abundance in Egypt. — Wern. Club.

4 Many of the gods of the Heathens obtained names or epithets from
from such exploits as this. Beelzeloul, or Beelzeloub, mentioned in the
New Testament, was so denominated for the same reason.— Wern, Club.

BOOK X .] History of Nature. 2 1 5

vered from the Pestilence of a Multitude of Flies, which
Flies died all at once on the very Day on which he was
appeased.

CHAPTER XXIX.

What Birds do not exist in some Places ; and which change
their Colour and Voice : and of the Nightingale.

BUT, concerning the Departure of Birds, Noctuae1 also are
reported to lie hid for a few Days ; and of this kind there
are none in the Island of Crete. Even if any one is brought
there it dies. For this also is among the wonderful Differ-
ences of Nature ; she denies some Things to certain Places,
as the Kinds of Seeds and Fruits ; and so also that living
Creatures do not breed is commonly noted : but that those
Things should die as soon as they are brought thither is
wonderful.2 What is that which is so contrary to the Health
of one Kind, or what is this Envy of Nature? or why should
Birds be restrained within any Limits in the whole Earth?
Rhodes doth not possess an Eagle. In the Tract of Italy
beyond the Po, near the Alps, there is a Lake which the
Inhabitants call Larius; and it is pleasant for Groves and
Fields ; and yet the Stork never travels thither ; nor within
the eighth Milestone from it. In the extensive Country of
the Insubres,3 near adjoining, there are Swarms of Gracculi4
and Monedulse;5 which are the only Birds whose Thievishness
for Silver and Gold is wonderful. It is said, that in the
Territory of Tarentum there are no Woodpeckers. It is but

1 A very small species of Owl: probably Noctua passerina, Cuv.
JElian, who confirms what Pliny says of this bird in Crete (B. v. ch. ii.),
distinguishes it from the Scops Owl, ch. xlix. — Wern. Club.

2 The instance of a similar nature in Ireland is a strong corroboration
of this ; and in explanation modern philosophy is as much at a loss as the
ancient. — Wern. Club.

3 A Gallic people, mentioned B. iii. ch. xvii. — Wern. Club.

4 The word " Graculus " is sometimes employed by the older writers
as a generic name : but when otherwise, it is commonly understood as the
Fregilus Graculus, Cuv.; Cornish Chough. The same with the Pyrrho-
corax, Ch. xlviii. — Wern. Club.

5 Corvus Monedula, LINN. Jackdaw. — Wern. Club.

2 1 6 History of Nature. [ BOOK X .

of lute (and it is now rare) that from the Apennine toward
the City, a kind of Pica1 began to be seen ; they are distin-
guished by their long Tails, and are called Varise. It is their
Property to become bald every Year, at the Time when Rape
is sowed. The Partridges2 in Attica do not fly over the Bor-
ders of Breotia : and not a Bird in the Pontus, in the Island
where Achilles was buried, will pass beyond the Temple con-
secrated to him. In the Territory of Fidenge, near the City,
Storks build no Nests, and have no Young. But into the
Country about Volaterrse every Year a Quantity of Stock-
doves fly from beyond Sea. At Rome no Flies or Dogs enter
the Chapel of Hercules in the Beast-market. I could alledge
many such Examples in other kinds, which I purposely
pass over, because I would not be tedious : for Theophrastus
reporteth, that the Doves, Peacocks, and Ravens in Asia
have been brought thither from other Countries ; and in
Cyrenaica the vocal Frogs.

There is another admirable Thing concerning the Singing-
Birds (Oscines)3: for usually at a certain Time of the Year
they change their Colour and Voice, so as of a sudden to
become other Birds : a Thing that doth not happen to the
larger kinds of Fowls, except only to Cranes : for they
become black with Age. The Merula from black turneth
reddish ; in Summer it singeth, in Winter it babbles ; and
about the Solstice it is mute. When a Year old, in the Cock
at least, their Bill turns to be like Ivory. The Turd us, in
Summer, is mottled about the Neck ; but in Winter it is all
of one Colour.

The Nightingale,4 for fifteen Days and Nights together,
never giveth over its chaunt, rattling away incessantly at
the Time when the Trees begin to put out their Leaves
thickly. And this Bird is not to be set among the last

1 Pzca, varue. Cor vus pica, LINN. Magpie. Ch. xlii. — Wern. Club.

2 Perdix cinerea, LINN. Ch. xxxiii. — Wern. Club.

3 This word was originally applied to singing-birds, only as their
music was observed in augury ; but it would appear that subsequently it
was understood of singing- birds in general. — Wern. Club.

4 Syhia luscinia, Cuv. — Wern. Club.

BOOK X.] History of Nature. 217

Things that deserve Admiration : it is, indeed, among the
first, that such a Voice should come from so very little a
Body, as well as such a persevering Breath. Then the Tone is
given out, modulated according to the one perfect Science of
Music; for a while in one entire Breath she draweth out her
Tune at length; now it is varied in Inflections; sometimes it
is distinguished by Stops ; it is united by entwining, it is
extended in being drawn back ; on a sudden it is drowned :
now and then she records to herself full, grave, sharp, short,
drawn out where she sees fit; vibrating, high, middle, low.
In short, there is not any manufacture of a Pipe so exqui-
sitely contrived by the Art of Man that can accomplish such
a Variety of Things as proceed out of that little Throat of
hers. So that no doubt this Sweetness was foreshown by a
powerful Presage, when it sang in the Mouth of the Infant
Stesichorus.1 And that no Man may doubt that it is the
Effect of Art, there is not one Nightingale but hath many
Tunes, and each one his own peculiar one. They strive who
can do best ; and it is evident that they contend with all
their Heart ; for often she that is conquered ends her Life in
the Contest, and yieldeth up her Breath sooner than her
Song. The young Nightingales study the others, and under-
stand the Lessons which they imitate. The Scholar listens
with close Attention, and rehearseth what she hath heard ;
and both of them repeat it over by turns. The Correction of
what is amended is understood ; and also something of Re-
proof in the Teacher. Therefore one of these Nightingales
obtains the Price of a Slave; yea, indeed, more than might
in old Time have bought an Armour-bearer. I myself have
known one of them, which also was white, a Circumstance
not commonly seen, to have been sold for 6000 Sesterces, to
to be given as a Present to Agrippina, Wife of the Prince
Claudius. And now of late we have seen many of them
begin to sing at command ; and to take their turn in Sym-
phony. Also Men have been found, who, by placing Reeds
across, and adding some Water, blowing into an Hole with

1 An ancient Greek poet, whose works are lost. — Wern. Club.

218 History of Nature. [BooK X.

a very little Stop of the Tongue interposed could imitate the
Note so perfectly, that the Difference could not be distin-
guished. But these Mistresses of Song, so great and clever
as they are, after fifteen Days, by Degrees abate their
Music ; yet so, as a Man cannot say they are either weary,
or satisfied with Singing. Soon after, when the Weather
groweth hotter, their Voice is entirely altered ; being neither
musical nor various. Their Colour, also, is changed : and
finally, in Winter she is not seen. Their Tongues are not
like other Birds', with a thin Tip before. They breed in the
prime of the Spring, and commonly lay six Eggs.

The Ficedula1 observes another Course, for it changeth
both Colour and Form at the same Time. They have not
that Name except in the Autumn ; for afterwards they are
called Melancoryphi.

So also the Bird named Erithacus in Winter, is the same
as the Phoenicurus in Summer.

The Upupa,2 as JEschylus the Poet saith, also changeth.
This is an unclean Bird otherwise in the manner of feeding ;
with a handsome Crest, that can be folded up : for some-
times she will draw it in, and at others erect it along the
length of the Head.

The (Enanthe3 also has certain Days in which to lie close,
being hidden when the Dog-star ariseth: but after its set-
ting she cometh abroad : a strange Thing, that in those
Days it should do both. Also the Chlorion,4 which is all
over yellow, and not seen in the Winter, but appeareth
about the Solstices.

1 Sylvia hortensts, Great Pettychaps. It is not improbable that the
author confounded this Bird with S. atricapilla, or Blackcap. A
similar error has led him to regard the Erithacus : Sylvia rubecula, or
Redbreast, with the Phoenicurus (S. P.), or Redstart."— Wern. Club.

2 Upupa epops, LINN. Hoopoe. — Wern. Club.

3 Saxicola, O. Wheatear. — Wern. Club.

4 Supposed to be Picus viridis, or common Woodpecker. — Wern.
Club.

BOOK X.] History of Nature. 219

CHAPTER XXX.
Of the Merula.

ABOUT Cyllen£ in Arcadia, and nowhere else, white
Merulae1 are produced. The Ibis, about Pelusium only, is
black ; in all other Places it is white.

CHAPTER XXXI.
The Time of Birds' Breeding.

ALL Singing-birds, besides those that are excepted before,
do not unwarily breed before the Spring Equinox, nor after
the Autumn. And those they hatch before the Solstice are
doubtful ; but after the Solstice they are lively.

CHAPTER XXXII.

Of the Haley ones; and the .Days good for Navigation which
they show. Of the Gavia and Mergus.

AND in this especially the Haley ones2 are remarkable.
The Seas, and they that sail on them, know the Days when
they breed. This Bird is little bigger than a Sparrow ; for

1 Albinoes are not uncommon in most sorts of birds ; but the black
Ibis is a separate species : Ibis falcinellus, Cuv. — Wern. Club.

2 Alcedo ispidcij LINN., Common Kingfisher; and A. halcyon, the
smaller Kingfisher. The former is commonly silent; but the latter
is highly musical, Belon praises highly its varied notes; which were
uttered so incessantly through the day and night, as to cause him to
wonder at its powers of song ; and to pity it, as if condemned to such
persevering labour. In addition to Pliny, who probably copies Aristotle,
uiElian (B. ix. ch. xvii.) also so minutely describes the nest of the King-
fisher, as to prove that he had closely examined something which had
been represented as such. But it was very different from what has been
since known when this bird builds a nest ; for it will not always under-
take the labour, but sometimes contents itself with leaving the eggs on
the bare earth, at the end of a hole in the ground. The only natural
object resembling that which Pliny and JSlian describe as the nest of the
Kingfisher, is the crust of a spatangus. For the Halcyon days, see
Vol. i. p. 85. — Wern, Club.

220 History of Nature. [BooK X.

the greater Part of a Sky-blue Colour, yet with white and
purple Feathers intermingled, and having a long and slender
Neck. There is another Kind of them that differs in size
and Song. The lesser sing among the Reeds. It is very
rare to see an Halcyon, and never except at the setting of
Virgilise, or about the Solstices or Mid-winter; for some-
times they fly about a Ship, but immediately they go into
Concealment. They breed in Mid-winter, and the Days
when this is are called the Halcyon Days : for while they
last, the^Sea is calm and navigable, especially in Sicily. In
other Parts, also, the Ocean is not so boisterous ; but surely
the Sicilian Sea is navigable, both in the Straits and the
open Ocean. Now, seven Days before Mid-winter they build
their Nests; and within as many after, they have hatched.
Their Nests are wonderfully made, in the shape of a Ball :
the Entrance narrow, and standing somewhat out, much
like that of great Sponges. They cannot be cut asunder with
an iron Instrument ; but they will break with a strong Blow,
like the dry Foam of the Sea : and no Man could ever find
of what they are made. Some think they are formed of the
sharp pointed Prickles of Fishes; for these Birds live on
Fish. They come up also into Rivers. They lay five Eggs.
The Gaviae1 build in Rocks: and the Mergus2 also in
Trees. They usually lay four Eggs : but the Gavite in
Summer, the Mergi in the beginning of Spring.

CHAPTER XXXIII.

Of the Skill of Birds in building their Nests. Of the
Hirundo,3 the Argatilis, Cinnamologus, and Perdix.

THE Form of the Halcyon's Nest puts me in mind of the
Skill of other Birds : and in no other Thing is the Ingenuity

1 A general name for all the Gulls. — Wern. Club.

2 Mergus merganser, LINN. Goosander. — Wern. Club.

3 The first, H. rustica, LINN.; Chimney Swallow. Second: H. wlica,
LINN. ; House Martin. The third : H. riparia, Bank Martin. The story
of an embankment of the Nile formed by Martins' nests, must be set down
among the Wonders of Egypt. —Wern. Club.

BOOK X.] History of Nature. 221

of Birds more admirable than in this. The Hirundines
frame their Nests of Clay, but they strengthen them with
Straw. If at any Time there is a scarcity of Clay, they wet
their Feathers with a quantity of Water, and sprinkle the
Dust with it. They line the Nest itself with soft Feathers
or fine Flox, to keep the Eggs warm, and also that it may
not be hard to the young Birds. They distribute the Food
by turns to the Young with strict Equality. They remove
the Excrement of the young ones with remarkable Attention
to Cleanness ; but when they are grown something more,
they teach them to turn about, and discharge their Fulness
beyond it.

There is another kind of Hirundo, that keeps in the
country Villages and Fields, which seldom build their Nests
in Houses ; but their Nests are formed of the same Material
as the former, although of a different Shape, supine, with the
Entrance thrust forward straight and narrow ; but "the Capa-
city within is large ; so that it is wonderful how skilful and
capable they are in concealing their young ones, and in
lining it with soft Materials. In the Heracleotic Mouth of
Egypt, there is a mighty Bank raised by a continual Course
of Nests for the length almost of one Stadium (half-a-quarter
of a Mile) ; which is impregnable against the spreading
abroad of the Nile : a piece of Work which could not have
been accomplished by human Labour. In the same Egypt,
near the Town Coptos, there is an Island sacred to Isis,
which, that the same River may not tear to Pieces, these
Swallows fortify by their Labour : in the beginning of the
Spring, for three Days and Nights, employing their Bill to
make it strong with Straw and Chaff; and they continue
their Work by Night with so much Labour, that it is
known many of them have died with the Labour. This
public Work always recurs to them with the return of the
Year.

There is a third sort of these Swallows, which dig Hol-
lows in the Banks, and so form Nests within. The young
Birds of these, if burnt to Ashes, are a Remedy for the
deadly Quinsey, and many other Diseases of the human

222 History of Nature. [BooK X.

Body. These do not build Nests ; but if they perceive that
the River is going to increase, and will rise as high as their
Holes, they go away many Days before.

There are Birds of the kind of Parrse,1 which with dry
Moss make a Nest, resembling so perfectly a round Bali
that the Entrance cannot be discovered. Another, called
Argatilis,2 makes her Nest of the same form, but it is woven
of Flax.

A kind of Picus3 maketh a Nest in the manner of a Gob-
let, and hangeth it at a Twig, on the uppermost Branches,
that no Quadruped may be able to reach it. It is established
that Galguli (Orioles) take their Sleep hanging by their
Legs, hoping by that means to be in more Safety. It is, in-
deed, commonly known, that all these Birds, with good
Providence, choose some cross Boughs for Rafters, to sup-
port their Nests ; and then cover them from the Rain with
an arched Roof, or else enclose them among the thick
Leaves.

In Arabia there is a Bird called Cinnamologos,4 which
builds her Nest with Twigs of the Cinnamon-tree. The
Inhabitants of that Country shake them down with Arrows
headed with Lead, for the sake of Profit. In Scythia, there
is a Bird of the bigness of an Otis, which layeth two Eggs;
and she always wraps them in a Hare's Skin ; and hangeth
them upon the top Branches of Trees. The Picae, when
they perceive with their watching Eye that a Man hath dis-
covered their Nest, presently remove their Eggs to another.

1 In this place Gaza reads, Ripariarum ; that is, of bank birds ; and
Gesner, Parorum, or Tomtits ; Gelenius reads Perrarum. Dalechampius'
reading is "In genere paratum est, cui Nidus;" which leaves the species
still more uncertain. — Wern. Club.

2 An uncertain species. — Wern. Club.

3 It is certain that no species of Woodpecker suspends its nest in this
way. Aldrovandus, therefore, supposed it to be the Galbula, or Oriole ;
which he, on that account, denominated Picus nidum suspendcns. It is
just as probable that it is the Parus caudatus, or Long-tailed Tit. —

Wern. Club.

4 An unrecognised species. Dalechampius remarks, that the cinna-
mon does not grow in Arabia. — Wern. Club.

BOOK X.] History of Nature. 223

In those Birds whose Toes are not fitted to clasp and convey
the Eggs, this is reported to be done after a strange Manner :
for they lay a Twig over two Eggs, and glue them fast with a
Cement from their own Bowels; they then put their Necks
under the middle, which, hanging equally poised on each
Side, they carry away to another Place.

No less skilful are they that make their Nestling-cradles
in the Ground, as being forbidden by the Weight of their
Body to mount aloft. One is called Merops,1 that useth to
feed her Parents as they lie hid. The inside of her Feathers
in the Wing is pale, the outside blue ; and those above about
the Neck, reddish. She maketh her Nest in a Hole six Feet
deep within the Ground. Partridges so fortify their Place of
deposit with Thorns and Twigs, that they are sufficiently
fenced against wild Beasts. They heap up over their Eggs a
covering of fine Dust; neither do they sit in the Place where
they laid them first, but lest their more frequent resort to it
should lead to Suspicion, they convey them to some other
Place. And, indeed, the Hens deceive also the Males ; for so
lecherous are they, that they break their Eggs, because they
may not be occupied about sitting. Then through desire
after the Hens, the Males fight among themselves ; and they
say that the one which is overcome, suffereth Venus. Trogus
reporteth the same of Quails, and sometimes of Dunghill
Cocks. He saith, also, that tame Partridges use to tread
the wild ; and those which are new taken or conquered by
others promiscuously. This libidinous Heat maketh them
so quarrelsome, that oftentimes it leads to their being taken.
For when the Fowler cometh with his Call, out goeth the
Leader of the whole Flock to fight him ; and when he is
caught, another followeth after, and so the rest one after
another. Again, they take the Females at the Time of the
Copulation ; for then forth they go against the female

1 Merops apiaster, LINN. — Bee-eater. ^Elian says, that the young of
this bird exceeds in piety the young of the Stork in the care with which
they feed their parents when worn out with age ; which Cuvier explains
from their remaining a long time in the same retreats with them. —
Wern. Club. %

224 History of Nature. [ BOOK X ,

Fowl that with their scolding they may drive her away.
There is not to be found in any other living Creature the
like amount of Lust. If the Hens stand over-against the
Cocks, the Air that passeth from them causes them to con-
ceive. For so hot are they in that Season, that they gape
and hang out the Tongue. And if the Males fly over them,
with the Breath that cometh from them they conceive : and
many Times if they do but hear their call. And so effec-
tually does their Lechery overcome their Affection to their
Young, that while they are incubating in some secret Place,
if they hear the Fowler's (Decoy) Female coming towards
the Male, she returns the Song, and calls back the Males,
and offers herself to his Pleasure. Indeed they are borne
away with such Rage, that, as if blind with the Trepidation,
they will settle upon the Head of the Fowler. If he begins
to approach the Nest of the breeding Hen, she will run forth
to his Feet, counterfeiting that she is very heavy and feeble;
and either in her running, or some short flight, she will sud-
denly fall, as if she had broken a Wing or her Leg : then
will she run again, and when he is just ready to take her up,
yet will she shift away, and so disappoint his Hope, until she
hath led him a contrary Way from the Young. When she is
free from Fear, and void of motherly Care, then will she get
into a Furrow of the Ground, lie on her Back, catch a Clot
of Earth with her Feet, and with it hide herself. Partridges
are supposed to live sixteen Years.

CHAPTER XXXIV.
Of the Columba.1

AFTER Partridges, the Nature of Doves is to be consi-
dered, since they have in a manner the same Habits ; but
they are highly chaste, and neither Male nor Female are

1 Pliny and Varro believe the existence of no more than two species
of Pigeons : Columba livia, or Rock-dove ; and C. palumbus, Ring-dove
(c. 35) ; and the latter author mentions a third sort, which he supposes to
be a hybrid between them, and which we may judge to be the C. CEnas, or
Stockdove. — Wern. Club.

BOOK X.] History of Nature. 225

charged with Adultery. They do not violate the Bond of
Marriage, but keep at home together. They abandon not
their own Nests, unless they are in state of single Life, or a
Widow. The Females endure their imperious Males, and
even those which are churlish ; because they are jealous,
though their Nature is not that Way. Then the Throat is
full of Complaint, and they peck them cruelly with their
Beaks; and yet soon after, by way of Satisfaction, they kiss
them, and will make court to them, by turning round about
many Times with their Feet, and utter the Prayers of Venus.
The Male and the Female love their Young alike : and
often there is Correction, because the Hen does not more
frequently visit her Young. When they are about to lay,
they comfort and minister to them. So soon as the Eggs
are hatched they discharge into the Mouths of the Young a
salt kind of Earth, which they have gathered in their Throat,
to prepare their Stomachs in Time for Food. Doves and
Turtle-doves have this Property, that when they drink they
do not draw their Necks back, but take a large Draught in
the manner of Cattle.

CHAPTER XXXV.
Of the Palumbus.

WE have some Authors who affirm that the Palumbus
lives thirty Years, and some to forty Years, with no Incon-
venience but this : that their Claws become overgrown,
which is a Sign of old Age ; but they may be pared without
Danger. They have all one and the same manner of Tune;
they make three Rests in their Song, besides the close, which
is a Moan. In Winter they are silent; in Spring they are
loud. Nigidius is of opinion, that if a Palumbus is called by
Name in a House as she is sitting upon her Eggs, she will
leave her Nest. They lay after Midsummer. Calumbae and
Turturs live eight Years.

VOL. III.

226 History of Nature. [BooK X.

CHAPTER XXXVI.
Of Sparrows.

ON the other Hand, the Sparrow1 is very short-lived, and
his Leachery is equal to it. The Cock Sparrow is reported
to live but one Year ; the Proof is, because in the Beginning
of Spring not one of them is found with a black Bill, which
begins from the Summer. The Hens live somewhat longer.
But to come again to Doves, it is true that they have a cer-
tain Understanding of Glory ; and you would think that
they have a Knowledge of their Colours, and their change-
able Disposition. Moreover, they seem to take a Pride in
flying in the Air, and cutting the Air every way. In which
Display, while they flap with their Wings with much Noise
(which cannot be without the dashing of the Feathers
of their Wings against their Shoulders), they are exposed to
the Hawks as if they were bound ; for otherwise, if the
Flight were free, they were much more swift of Wing. But
the Thief lieth hid among the Branches, and seizeth him as
he rejoices in his Glory.

CHAPTER XXXVII.
Of the Tinnunculus.*

To prevent this (Danger), the Doves need to have with
them the Bird which is called the Tinnunculus, for she de-
fendeth them, and (by a natural Power) terrifieth the Acci-
piters, insomuch that they fly from her Sight or Voice. It is
on this Account that there is such remarkable Love among
the Doves to these Birds. And it is said that Pigeons will
not leave their own Dovecote if in the four Corners of it
there are buried four of the Tinnunculi in four new earthen
Pots well smeared over. But others have used Means to
keep Pigeons in their Dove-house (for otherwise they are

1 Fringilla domestic^ LINN. House-sparrow. — Wern. Club.
a Supposed to be the Cenchris (B.xxix. ch. vi.)- Falco cenchris, Cuv.
—Wern. Club.

BOOK X.] History of Nature. 227

Birds that wander abroad) by slitting up the Joints of their
Wings with Gold ; for without this Precaution their Wounds
will be dangerous. And in Truth, these Birds have the Art
to flatter and entice one another ; and thus they return to
their Homes the better accompanied on Account of their
Roguery. Doves also have served for Messengers in great
Affairs : as at the Siege of Mutina, Decimus Brutus sent out
of the Town Letters tied to their Feet, to the Camp of the
Consuls. What good, then, did the Rampart and Watch in
the Siege, and the Nets stretched across the River, to
Antony, when the Messenger was able to pass through the
Air? Many Men are gone mad in their Love to these Birds:
they build Towers above the tops of their Houses for them ;
and they reckon up their Origin and Nobility, as in one old
Example. L. Axius, a Roman Knight, before the Civil War
with Pompey, sold every pair (of Pigeons) for four hundred
Denarii,1 as M. Varro* reports. Besides this, they have
rendered their Country noble ; for Campania is supposed
to produce by far the greatest. Their manner of flying leads
me to the Consideration of the Flight of other Fowls.

CHAPTER XXXVIII.
Of the Pace and Flight of Birds.

ALL other living Creatures have one certain and uniform
manner of going, each according to its kind. Birds only
vary their Course, whether they go upon the Ground or fly
in the Air. Some walk as Crows (Cornices) ; others hop, .as
Sparrows and Thrushes (Passeres, merulse) ; some run, as

1 12 lib. 10 sh.

2 The care of Pigeons for profit entered more into the rural economy
of the ancients than with us of the present day. They were fattened for
the market under the parent ; their food being made easy of access, while
a few quill-feathers were drawn from the wing, and the thighs broken.
It was found that fastening the legs made them more uneasy, and thus
proved a greater hindrance to their fattening than the fracture. The
Romans had their favourite varieties, for which they paid enormous
prices : varying from one or two to twelve or fourteen pounds a couple.
— Wern. Club.

228 History of Nature. [BooK X.

Partridges, Woodcocks (Perdices, Rusticulae); others, again,
throw out their Feet before them, as Storks and Cranes
(Ciconiae, Grues); some spread their Wings broad, and hang
on them, shaking them but now and then ; others more
rapidly ; but the utmost Feathers only. Some Birds stretch
out their whole Wings, and others in their Flight keep them
in, for the most part close. Some of them give one or two
Claps with their Wings, and are borne away with the Air;
or they press the Air as if enclosed within their Wings,
and shoot themselves up aloft, straight forward, or fall flat
down. Ye would think some were hurled with Violence,
and others to fall down plump from on high, or to leap.
Ducks, and such only as are of that kind, lift themselves
up aloft presently from the Ground, and instantly mount
into the Sky, even out of the very Water : which is the
Cause, that if they fall into those Pits in which we take wild
Beasts, they alone will make their Escape. The Vulture,
and for the most part all heavy Birds, cannot take flight,
unless they fetch a Run, or else rise from some high Heap.
And such are directed in the Air by their Tails. Some look
about, others bend their Necks ; some feed on the Prey
which they have snatched away in their Talons. Most Birds
utter their Voice as they fly ; yet some, on the contrary, in
their Flight are always silent. Some fly half upright ; others
tending downward : some fly obliquely ; to the Sides, to the
Bills : and some are bent backward, so that if many Sorts
could be seen together, they would appear to pass along as
if they were of a very different Nature.

CHAPTER XXXIX.
OftheApu*.1

THE Birds which they call Apodes (because they are
without the use of the Feet), and others, Cypseli, are very
strong on the Wing. They are a kind of Swallows. They

J Cypselus apus, Cuv. The Swift. — Strong on the wing: plurimum
volant; probably referring to a supposition repeated in most books on
natural history, that the Swift spends more time on the wing than other

BOOK X.] History of Nature. 229

build their Nests in Rocks. These are the same that are
seen over all the Sea : for however distant the Ships may be
from Land, and their Course ever so continued, these Apodes
will always be flying about them. All other kinds alight
and perch : these never rest, but when they are in their
Nest. Either they hang or lie along. Their Shifts are
equally various, and chiefly when they feed.

CHAPTER XL.
Of the Caprimulgus1 and Platea.

THE Birds called Caprimulgi have the Appearance of the
bigger Merula ; and they are Night-Thieves ; for by Day

kinds of Swallows; which is not the fact. Their efforts in flight are

for a time more strenuous ; but they spend more hours in rest than the

kindred species — Wern. Club.

1 Caprimulgus Europceus, LINN. Goat-Sucker, or Night Jar. The

ancient superstition attached to this bird, bears much resemblance to that

of the more modern Vampire : —

" There is a class of birds, of greedy kind —
Not Harpeys they, and yet of kindred mind ;
The head is large, and fierce with staring eye,
The beak well formed for rapine, wings that fly
With hoary feathers ; feet that grasp the prey
With claws like fish-hooks ; from the light of day
They shrink affrighted ; but when darkness shrouds
The face of Nature with its veil of clouds,
Their flight begins ; where infants sink in sleep
Uncared for by the nurse, they glide, and deep
Within their tender entrails fix their claw,
And tear them with their beak ; they fill their maw
With milk but newly drawn, and reeking blood ;
And ravenously obscene they swill the flood.
From horrid sounds that fill the air by night,
And strike the listening mortals with affright,
They take the name of Strix ; but whence they came —
If, with the muttered charm of some old dame,
By melancholy verse transform'd ; or fowl
From the first hand of Nature (like the owl)."

Ovii>'s Fasti, vi.

The effect of such an awful visit could only be obviated by a magical

sacrifice. — Wern. Club.

230 History of Nature. [BooK X.

they cannot see. They enter the Sheep-folds, and fly to the
Goats' Udders, to suck the Milk from their Teats ; and from
the Injury so done to it, the Udder wasteth away, and the
Goats which have been so milked are rendered blind.

There is a Bird named Platea.1 Their Manner is to fly at
those which use to dive in the Sea, and so bite them by the
Heads that they compel them to let go their hold of the
Fish they have caught. This Bird, when his Belly is full of
Shell-fish that he hath devoured, and hath by the Heat of
his Crop concocted them, vomits them up again, and then
picketh out the Meat, leaving the Shells behind.

CHAPTER XLI.
The Ingenuity of Birds.

THE Hens of Country-houses possess some Religion.2
When they have laid an Egg they fall a trembling, and
shake themselves. They turn about, also, to be purified, and
with some Sprigs of a Bush they purify by Lustration them-
selves and their Eggs.

CHAPTER XLII.
Of Carduelis,3 Psittacus, of Birds that speak.

THE Carduelis is the smallest of Birds ; and they execute
Commands, not only with their Voice, but also with their
Feet and Mouth, as if they were Hands. In the Territory of
Arelate, there is a Bird called Taurus,4 because it loweth like
a Bull, although otherwise a small Bird. There is another
also named Anthus,5 which imitates the neighing of Horses ;
and if by the Approach of Horses it is driven from their
Grass on which it feeds, it will neigh, and so be revenged of
them. But above all other Things they repeat human Lan-

1 Platalealeucorodia,Ijiyw. Spoonbill. — Wern. Club.

2 See B. viii. ch. i. — Wern. Club.

3 FHngilla carduelis, LINN. Goldfinch. — Wern. Club.

4 Ardea stellaris, LINN. Bittern. — Wern. Club.

5 Some have supposed this to be Emberiga citrinella, LINN. ; the Yel-
low Amraer: but it is more probably Anthus pratensis, Cuv. Titlark. —
Wern. Club.

BOOK X.] History of Nature. 231

guage, and the Psittaci1 even hold a Conversation. This Bird
cometh from India, where they call it Sittace. It is green all
over the Body, only it hath a distinct Collar about the Neck
of vermilion red. The Parrot salutes Emperors, and pro-
nounces what Words she heareth ; she is also very wanton
under the Influence of Wine. Her Head is as hard as her
Beak. When she learns to speak, she must be beaten about
the Head with a Rod of Iron : for otherwise she careth for
no Blows. When she taketh her Flight downward, she
alighteth upon her Bill, and leans upon it, and by that
means favoureth her Feet, which are but feeble.

There is a kind of Pica (Magpie) of less excellency, be-
cause she does not come from so far ; but she pronounceth
what is taught her more freely and distinctly. These take a
Love to the Words they speak ; for they not only learn
them, but they delight in them : insomuch that they study
them inwardly, and by their careful thinking upon what
they learn, they show how attentive they are. It is known
that they have died for Grief that they could not conquer
the Difficulty of some Words ; as also, that unless they hear
the same Words repeated often, their Memory fails to retain
them. If they are in search of a Word, and chance te hear
it pronounced, they will show wonderful Signs of Joy. Their
Beauty is not ordinary, although not very lovely. But they
are handsome enough in the Power to imitate human Speech.
It is said, that none of their kind are able to learn, except
such only as feed upon Mast; and among them, those acquire
the more easily that have five toes to their Feet: but not
even these unless in the two first Years of their Age. Their
Tongue is broader than ordinary : as they are all in every
separate kind that counterfeit Man's Voice : although this
happens to almost all Birds. Agrippina, the Wife of Clau-
dius Caesar , had a Turdus (Thrush) at the Time I compiled
this Book, which imitated Man's Speech ; a Thing never
known before. The young Ccesars, also, had a Sturnus
(Starling) and Nightingales taught to speak Greek and

1 Psittacus Alexandra LINN. Parrot. — Wern. Club.

232 History of Nature. [BooK X.

Latin. Moreover, they would study their Lessons all Day,
and continually come out with new Words formed into a long
Speech. To teach them, these Birds must be in a Place
apart, where they can hear no other Voice to mingle with
what they learn ; and one is to sit by them, who must repeat
often what he would have them fix in their Memory, and
please them also with giving them Meat.

CHAPTER XLIII.
The Understanding of Ravens (Conn).

LET us not defraud the Ravens also of their due Praise,
as witnessed not only by the Knowledge but the Indignation
of the People of Rome. When Tiberius was Prince, there
was a young Raven hatched in a Nest upon the Temple of
Castor (and Pollux), which took his Flight into a Shoe-
maker's Shop overagaiiist the Temple, and thus was com-
mended to the Master of the Shop by the Obligation of
Religion. This Raven in Time became accustomed to Man's
Speech, and every Morning would fly to the Rostra, and
turning to the Forum, he would salute Tiberius, and after
him Germanicus and Drusus, the Ccesars, by their Names ;
and presently the People of Rome that passed by. And
when he had so done, he would fly again to the Warehouse.
This Practice he continued for several Years together, to the
Wonder of all. The Master of the nearest Shoemaker's
Shop, either through Envy of his Neighbour, or some sudden
fit of Anger (as he wished it to appear) because the Raven
had made a Spot upon a Pair of his Shoes with his Dung,
killed the Bird ; at which the People took such Indignation,
that they first drove him out of that Neighbourhood, and
not long after murdered him ; and the Funeral of the Raven
was solemnly performed with all the ceremonial Obsequies.
For the Bier was formed and bedecked, and so carried upon
the Shoulders of two Ethiopians, with a Piper going before,
with Crowns of all kinds, as far as to the funeral Fire ;
which was piled at the right Hand of the Appian Way, at
the secoHd Stone, in a Field called Rediculi, Thus the

BOOK X.] History of Nature. 233

People of Rome regarded the ready Wit of this Bird a suffi-
cient Cause to justify a sumptuous Funeral, and also to
excuse the Murder of a Citizen of Rome in that City,
wherein many Princes have died, and no IV3an solemnized
their Funerals : one Instance of which is, that no one
avenged the Death of Scipio JEmiUanus, after he had de-
stroyed both Carthage and Numantia. This happened the
fifth Day before the Calends of April, in the Year when
M. Svrvilius and C. Cestius were Consuls. Even at this
Time, when I am writing, there is in the City of Rome a
Crow (Comix) belonging to a Roman Knight, who brought
it from Bsetica, which was an admirable Bird for the
exceeding black Colour of its Feathers, and also for pro-
nouncing many Words formed into a Sentence ; and it learns
more and more every Day. It is not long since that there
arose a Report of a Man in Erizena, a Country of Asia,
whose Name was Craterus Motioceros : who used to hunt by
the Help of Ravens, which he carried with him into the
Woods, perching upon his Shoulders and his Hunting-
horns : and these would seek out and put up others, and
bring them to him in their Company ; so that when he
returned homeward out of the Forest, the wild ones 'also
would accompany him. Some have thought it worth the
setting upon Record, that a Raven was seen, when she was
thirsty, to cast Stones into the Bucket belonging to a
Sepulchre, in which there was some Rain-water remaining,*
but which he was not able to reach: and being afraid to go
down into it, he thrust in so many Stories that he was enabled
to drink as much as he pleased.

CHAPTER XLIV.
Of the Birds of Diomedes.

NEITHER will I pass over the Birds (called) Diomedeae,1
which Juba nameth Cataractae ; and he says they have

1 This appears to be Lestris cataractes, Cuv. ; Skua, or a kindred
species. ^Elian speaks of it as a kind of Heron : B. i. ch. i. — Wern.
Club.

234 History of Nature. [Boon X .

Teeth ; with Eyes of the Colour of Fire ; but otherwise they are
white. They have always two Leaders, one to lead the Host,
and the other to guard the rear. With their Bills they dig
Furrows, over which they strew Bundles of Sticks, and cover
them with the Earth that they have before thrown out ; and
in these Recesses they breed. Every one of these Trenches
hath two Doors : one looking toward the East, through
which they go out to feed ; and the other looking west-
ward, by which they return. When these Birds discharge
themselves, they always fly against the Wind. They are
found only in one Place of all the World, which is an
Island, ennobled, as we have written before, for the Tomb
and Shrine of Diomedes, opposite the Coast of Apulia. These
Birds are like the Fulicae. They annoy Strangers that come
thither with their Cries ; but they fawn upon Greeks only, as
if they give such friendly Welcome to the Race of Diomedes.
Every Day they fill their Throat and Wings with Water, arid
so wash and purify the Temple; and hence arose the Fable,
that the Companions of Diomedes were turned into the
Shapes of these Birds.

CHAPTER XLV.
What Animals cannot learn anything.

AND now that we are in this Discourse on Ingenuity, I
must not omit to note, that among Birds, the Swallows
(Hirundines), and of land Animals the Mouse (Mures),
are very untoward in being brought to learn. Whereas
Elephants do what they are commanded. Lions draw under
the Yoke : Seals (Vituli) in the Sea, and very many sorts
of Fishes grow to be tame.

CHAPTER XLVI.
The manner of Birds in their drinking.

BIRDS drink by sucking ; and those which have long-
Necks make Pauses between, with the Head thrown back-
ward, as if they would pour the Water into themselves. The

BOOK X.] History of Nature. 235

(Bird) Porphyrio1 alone seemeth to bite the Water as he
drinketh. And this Bird hath the Property hy himself to dip
all his Meat at Times in Water, and then with his Foot in
the Place of a Hand, to reach it to his Bill. The best of his
kind are in Comagene. Their Bills and very long Thighs
are red.

CHAPTER XLVII.

Of the Himantopos^ the Onocrotalis, and other
foreign Birds.

LIKE in that respect to the Porphyrio, is the Himan-
topos ; which is far less, but full as long-legged. They are
bred in Egypt, and stand upon three Toes. Their chief
feeding is upon Flies. In Italy they will not live many
Days. All the heavier Fowls live on Fruits. They that fly
high prey only upon Flesh. Among Water-fowls the Mergi
are accustomed to devour what other Birds disgorge. The
Onocrotali3 much resemble Swans, and they might be
thought to be not altogether different, but that they have
within their Throat another kind of Receptacle, into which
these insatiable Fowls gather all they can get, so wonderful
is its Capacity. Now when they have accomplished their
Ravening, they return it from thence by little and little into
their Mouth, from whence it is conveyed to the true Belly,
after the manner of a ruminating Creature. These Fowls are
sent from the parts of Gallia lying nearest the North Ocean.
In Hercinia, a thick Forest of Germany, we have heard that
there are unaccustomed kinds of Birds, with Feathers shin-
ing like Fire4 by Night. In other respects, I have nothing to
say of them worth the Writing, except that they are of some
Excellency for being brought from far.

1 Fulica porphyrio, LINN. A species of Coot. — Wern. Club.

2 Himantopus melanopterw, Cuv. Stilt Plover. — Wern. Club.

3 Pelicanus onocrotolus, Cuv. Pelican. — Wern. Club.

4 Gesner makes a supposition that these birds may be Garrulus
Bohemicus, LINN. The Bohemian Chatterer. — Wern. Club.

236 History of Nature. [BOOK X.

CHAPTER XLVIII.
The Names and Nature of many Birds.

OF Water- fowl, the Phalerides1 in Seleucia of the Par-
thians, and also in Asia, are the most praised. Again, the
Phasianse2 of Colchis, which have two Ears, consisting of
Feathers, which they set up and lay down : the Numidian
Fowls, in a part of Africa called Numiclia, as also throughout
Italy. Apicius, the deepest of all Gluttons, taught that the
Tongue of the Phoenicopterus,3 was a most delicate piece of
Meat. The Attagen4 of Ionia is very much commended.
When this Bird is taken, she becomes mute; but otherwise
she is vocal : and in old Time she was reputed a rare Bird.
But now they are caught in Gallia and Hispania, and also
among the Alps : where also are the Phalacracoraces,5 which
were peculiar to the Balearic Islands : as the Pyrrhocorax6
with the yellow Bill, was (supposed to breed only) among
the Alps; and the Lagopus,7 a dainty Bird for the /Table.
This Name it took, because its Feet are covered with Hair
like the Hare's-foot : otherwise it is all over white, and of
the size of a Pigeon. Beyond the Ground you will hardly get
her to feed : neither will she be made tame while she lives :
and if killed, the Body presently putrifies. There is also
another of the same Name, which differs from Quails only in

1 Gallinula chloropus, Cuv. Water-hen ; but Belon supposes it one of
the larger Divers. — Wern. Club.

2 Phasianus colchicus. Pheasant. — Wern. Club.

3 P. ruber, LINN. Flamingo. — Wern. Club.

4 There appears to be some doubt which species of Tetrao this was.
Cuvier supposes the Attagen of Aldrovandus to be the female of Tetrao
bonasza, LINN. ; but the true Attagen to be probably T. alchata, LINN., the
bird which Dr. Kitto has thought the Quail of the Israelites. Martial
speaks highly of its excellency at table :

" Inter sapores fertur alitum primus
lonicarum gustus Attagenarum." — Xenia, lix.

5 P. carbo, Cuv. Cormorant. — Wern. Club..

6 Fregilus graculw, Cuv. Cornish Chough. — Wern. Club.

7 Tetrao lagopus, LINN. Ptarmigan. — Wern. Club.

BOOK X.] History of Nature. 237

bigness; and with a Dipping of Saffron it is a very delicate
Food. M. Egnatius Calvinus, Prefect of the parts about the
Alps, reporteth, that he hath seen there the Ibis, a Bird
proper to the Land of Egypt.

CHAPTER XLIX.
Of new Birds, and such as are fabulous.

DURING the Civil Wars at Bebriacum, beyond the Po,
there came these new Birds (for so they are still called) into
Italy. They are a kind of Turdi, somewhat less than House-
pigeons (Columbse), pleasant to eat. The Balearic Islands
send us another Porphyrio, better than that before-named.1
There also the Buzzard (Buteo), a kind of Hawk, is held as
excellent for the Table. Likewise the Vipio, for so they call
the lesser Crane. As for the Fowls called Pegasi, with
Heads like Horses'; and the Gryphae (Griffins), with long
Ears and a hooked Beak, I take them to be Fables : and yet
they say that the Pegasi are in Scythia, and the Gryphae
(Griffins) in Ethiopia. Moreover, I think the same of the
Tragopanades, which many affirm to be greater than the
Eagle, having crooked Horns on each side of the Head, of
the colour of Iron, and the Head only purple. Neither do
the Syrens obtain Faith, although Dino, the Father of
Clitarthus the celebrated Writer, affirms that they exist in
India: and that with their Singing they will lull People into
deep Sleep, and then tear them in Pieces. He that will
give Credit to these Things will not deny that Dragons, in
Truth, taught Melampus, by licking his Ears, to understand
the Language of Birds; or the Things that Democritas
telleth, who nameth the Birds, of whose Blood mingled
together there is engendered a Serpent ; which whoever
eateth shall know what Birds say one to another: and the
Things he telleth particularly of that one Bird, the Galerita : 2
although without these there is an immense Collection to

O

occupy Life about Auguries. Homer maketh mention of a
1 Chap. xlvi. a Alauda arvensis; Field Lark. — Wern. Club.

238 History of Nature. [BooK X.

kind of Birds called Scopes : l but I cannot readily conceive
in my Mind those satyrical Gesticulations of theirs when
they are perched, which so many talk of: neither are these
Birds known at the present Time. And therefore it is better
to write of those we certainly know.

CHAPTER L.

Who first invented to cram Hens. Of Aviaries, and who first
invented them.

THE Inhabitants of Delos began the cramming of Hens.
And from thence arose that Plague of eating the Birds so
fat, as to be larded with their own Body. Among the old
Statutes ordained to repress inordinate Suppers, I find in
one Law made by C. Fannius, the Consul, eleven Years be-
fore the third Punic War, That no Man should place (on his
Table) more than one Hen, which should not be fattened ;
which Head or Injunction was afterwards taken from this
and inserted in all the other Laws. But a Bye-path was
found out to deceive the Meaning, by feeding the Barn-door
Fowls also with a Paste soaked in Milk, by which their
Flesh was rendered much more tender. It is not always
that Hens only are selected for fattening ; but they are only
thought well crammed when they are fat in the Skin about
the Neck. Afterwards the Skill of the Cooks began to look
to their Haunches ; and that they may be divided along the
Chine, and be extended from one Leg, so as to take up the
whole Sideboard. The Parthians also have taught our
Cooks their Fashions. And yet for all this fine dressing
out of Meat, there is nothing that wholly pleaseth ; for one
praises nothing but the Haunch, and in another Place the
Breast only is commended. The first that invented an
Aviary in which to shut up all kinds of Fowls, was M. Lenius

1 The Scops is described by ^Elian (B. xv. ch. xxviii.) as a very small-
eared owl, of a lead colour, with white spots. The ridiculous gesticu-
lations which were doubted by Pliny, are affirmed by ^Elian ; who says
that fowlers imitated them, and by so doing attracted its attention, and
succeeded in catching it.— -Wern. Club.

BOOK X.] History of Nature. 239

Strabo, of the Equestrian order, at Brundusium. And by
his Example we began to confine Animals within Prisons ;^
to which Creatures Nature had assigned the wide Air.

CHAPTER LI.
Of jEsop's Platter.

BUT in this Relation the most distinguished is the
Platter of Clodius JEsopus, the Actor of Tragedies ; which
was valued at six hundred Sestertia.1 In this he served up
all kind of Birds remarkable for Song or capable of human
Speech ; and they cost him six hundred Sesterces a-piece.
And it was no Pleasure that guided him in this, beyond the
Fact that he would eat the Imitators of Man : without any
Consideration that, in Truth, all his own rich Revenues had
been procured by his Tongue : a Father verily worthy of a
Son who, as we said before, devoured those Pearls.2 And,
to speak the Truth, it is hard to judge which of the two
committed the greatest Baseness ; unless that it is less to
sup on the greatest Riches of Nature than on Men's
Tongues.

CHAPTER LII.

The Generation of Birds ; and besides Birds, what four-
footed Beasts lay Eggs.

THE Generation of Birds seemeth to be simple ; and yet
therein are to be found some wonderful Things. For four-
footed Animals also produce Eggs ; as Chamaeleons, Lizards,
and such as we named among Serpents. Of Fowls, those
that have hooked Claws are less fertile, and among these,
only the Cenchris layeth above four. Nature hath assigned
this to the Class of Fowls, that the Powerful should be less
fruitful than those which fly from the others. Struthio
Cameli (Ostriches), Gallinae (Hens), Perdices (Partridges),

1 600,000 sestertii, 150,000 denarii.
» See B. ix. ch. xxxv. — Wern. CM.

240 History of Nature. [BooK X .

and Sali,1 are great layers. Their Embrace is performed two
Ways: for either the Female croucheth to the Ground, as do
the Hens ; or they stand up, as the Cranes. Of Eggs, some
are white, as those of Doves and Partridges; others are pale,
as those of Water-fowl : some spotted, as in the Turkey-
hens (Meleager), others, again, reddish ; as those of Phea-
sants (Phasiani), and Cenchrides.

All Birds' Eggs within the Shell are of two Colours. In
Water-fowls, the Yolk is more than the White, and the same
is more duskish than in others. The Eggs of Fishes are of
one Colour, and in them there is no White. Birds' Eggs are
brittle, by reason of the Heat : Serpents' Eggs are more
tough, because of the Cold : but those of Fishes are soft,
from the Liquid. Those of such Creatures as live in Water
are round : others are, for the most part, pointed at the top.
Birds lay their Eggs with the roundest End foremost : the
Shell being soft; but presently they harden according as the
Portions protrude. Horatius Flaccus is of opinion, that the
longer the Egg is, the better they taste. The rounder Eggs
produce Hens, the others yield Cocks. The Navel of the Egg
is beneath the top ; or it is a prominent Drop in the Shell.

CHAPTER LIII.

The Propagation of Eggs : the Sitting of Birds, and their
manner of Embrace.

SOME Birds associate in breeding at all Times of the

O

Year, as the Barn-door Fowls ; and they lay with only the
Intermission of two Months in Mid-winter. Of those, Pul-
lets lay more than old Hens, but the Eggs are less, espe-
cially the first and last. So fruitful are they, that some of
them will lay threescore Eggs: some lay every Day; others,
twice a Day : and some will so over-lay, that they become
worn out, and die. The Hens called Hadrianae are ac-
counted best. Doves (Columbse) lay ten Times in the Year,
and sometimes eleven : and in Egypt they continue even in

1 What these are seems uncertain. Holland supposed them Linnets.
— Wern. Club.

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