Presented to the UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY by the ONTARIO LEGISLATIVE LIBRARY 1980 PLOETZ' MANUAL OF UNIVERSAL 3 FROM THE DAWN OF CIVILIZATION TO THE OUTBREAK OF THEWARjg ^ GREAT WAR OF 1914 TRANSLATED AND ENLARGED BY WILLIAM H. T1LLINGHAST 54016 WITH ADDITIONS COVERING RECENT EVENTS BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY prc?? Cambrib0e COPYRIGHT, 1883, IC)05, AND 19! I, BY WILLIAM HOPKINS TILLINGHAST COPYRIGHT, 1914 AND 1915, BY HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY ALL RIGHTS RESERVED • PREFACE TO THE NEW REVISED EDITION THE present edition of Ploetz's Epitome brings the record of events down to the outbreak and early days of the European war of 1914. The revision owes its completeness in great measure to several his- torical workers, notably Mr. David M. Matteson, who supplied most of the material for the years 1883-1903. The recent death of the trans- lator, Mr. William H. Tillinghast, has thrown the responsibility of the latest revision entirely into the hands of the Publishers, who, besides having the record brought down to August 15, 1914, in text and in- dex, have added a Supplement covering in detail the events of the great war from its beginning to the time of going to press. BOITON, January, 1915. TABLE OF CONTENTS. a t have been considerably enlarged or changed by the translator. PAGl INTRODUCTION. ix t Divisions of universal history 1 I. ANCIENT HISTORY. A. EASTERN PEOPLES. HAMITIC. 1. Egyptians .9 SEMITIC. 2. Jews (Hebrews, Israelites) .... . 7 3. Babylonians and Assyrians ....... 12 4. Phoenicians and Carthaginians 16 5. Lydians. * Phrygians 20 ARYAN. t 6. Indians 22 7. Baotrians, Modes, Persians 24 TURANIAN. * 8. Parthians 29 * 9. Chinese 30 * 10. Japanese 32 B. WESTERN PEOPLES. ARYANS. * 1. Celts 34 a. Continental Celts. Gauls 34 b. Celts of the British Isles 36 Britain 36 Ireland 38 2. Grecian history 39 Geographical survey of ancient Greece 39 * Religion of the Greeks 41 First Period (x— 1104). Mythical Period .... 43 Second Period (1104-500). To the beginning of the Persian Wars 47 Third Period (500-338). To the battle of Chseronea . . 56 Fourth Period (338-146). Graeco - Macedonian or Hellenistic Period 73 Table of Contents. PAOX 3. Roman history 81 Geographical survey of ancient Italy 81 * Religion of the ancient Romans 84 Ethnographical sketch of Italy 85 First Period (x— 510). Mythical epoch of the kings . . 87 Second Period (510-264). To the beginning of the Punic Wars . 93 Third Period (264-146). Epoch of the Punic Wars . . 109 Fourth Period (146-31). Epoch of the Civil Wars . . .123 Fifth Period (31 B. C.-476 A. D.). The Roman emperors to the fall of the Western Empire . . . . . . . 147 * 4. Teutons 162 * 5. Slavs and Lithuanians 168 II. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. FIRST PERIOD. (375-843.) 1. Migrations of the Northern Tribes 170 » 2. Teutonic kingdoms in Britain (449-828) . . . .176 3. The Franks under the Merovingians 181 4. Mohammad and the Caliphate 182 5. The Franks under the Carolingians 183 * 6. .New Persian empire of the Sassanidse 187 SECOND PERIOD. (843-1096.) 1. Italy and Germany (Carolingian, Saxon, Franconian or Salian em- perors) 193 f 2. France (Carolingians and early Capetians) 2<>1 t 3. England (West Saxon kings) 20? * 4. The North. Denmark 207 Sweden, Norway 208 5. Spanish Peninsula 209 6. The East. Eastern Empire 210 * India ... . 210 * China .211 * Japan 212 THIRD PERIOD. (1096-1270.) 1. Crusades 213 2. Germany and Italy 218 •f 3 France 226 t 4. England 229 * 5. The North. Denmark 235 Sweden 237 Norway 238 6. Spanish Peninsula 240 7. The East. Eastern Empire. The Mongols 240 * India. * China 241 *Jaoan ...» 242 Table of Contents. v MM FOURTH PERIOD. (1270-1492.) 1. Germany to Maximilian 1 244 Origin of the Swiss Confederacy 245 Leagues of the cities 249 t 2. France to Charles VIH. . . 254 3. Italy 262 t 4. England to Henry VII 263 5. Spanish Peninsula 275 6. The North and East. Scandinavia. Russia . . . .276 Poland, Prussia, Hungary . . . 277 Turks, Mongols, Eastern Empire ) * China. * Japan 1 ' HI. MODERN HISTORY. FIRST PERIOD. (1492-1648.) 1. Inventions, discoveries, and colonies 279 * 2. America. Discovery 280 a. English colonies : South Virginia 291 Plymouth Company .... 293 b. Dutch colonies 298 c. Swedish colonies 298 d. New France and the Arctic region 299 3. Germany to the Thirty Years' War. Reformation . . 300 4. Thirty Years' War 308 1. Bohemian Period, 1618-1623 308 2. Danish " 1625-1629 310 3. Swedish " 1630-1635 ....... 311 4. French " 1635-1648 314 t 5. France 318 6. Italy 326 7. Spanish Peninsula and the Netherlands . . ' . . 328 t The Netherlands .328 * 8. England and Scotland 333 9. The North and East 351 Sweden, Denmark and Norway, Poland, Russia . • . 352 Turks. * India 353 * China 354 * Japan 355 SECOND PERIOD. (1648-1789.) A. THE SECOND HALF OP THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. * 1. America. British, Dutch, and Swedish colonies . . . 357 French settlements and discoveries .... 363 t 2. France under Louis XIV 365 3. Germany under Leopold 1 371 4. The North and East. Sweden 373 Denmark, Poland, Russia .... 374 Vi Table of Contents. PAGl * 5. England 375 * 6. India 389 * 7. China • . 390 B. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1. The War of the Spanish Succession 390 2. The Northern War 394 3. Germany to the JRevolution of 1789 397 4. The North. Denmark (Norway), Sweden 409 Russia, Poland . . 410 5. Spain and Portugal 414 6. Italy. Savoy, Genoa, Venice 415 (Tuscany, Papal States) Two Sicilies .... 416 * 7. America. British colonies 417 War of Independence 426 * 8. Great Britain 433 * 9. The East. India .442 The British in India 443 China 444 Japan 445 f 10. France to the Be volution of 1789 • 445 THIRD PERIOD. (1789-1815.) First French Revolution and Napoleonic "Wars ... 447 Causes of the Revolution . 448 Constituent assembly - 449 Legislative assembly 451 War of the First Coalition. National Convention ... 452 Directory 457 War of the Second Coalition 460 The Consulate 461 First French Empire 465 War of the Third Coalition 467 (Fourth) War with Prussia and Russia 468 Peninsula War 471 (Fifth) War with Austria 471 (Sixth) War with Russia 474 The War of Liberation 475 Congress of Vienna 482 The Hundred Days (War of 1815) 483 FOURTH PERIOD. (1815— x.) : 1. Inventions. Steam Engines. Steam Navigation. Railroads. Tele- graph 485 | 2. Continental Europe 48? War of Grecian Independence ..*.... 488 Revolution in Belgium 489 Revolution in Poland 490 Revolt of Mehemet All 491 Table of Contents. vii PAOB Civil war in Switzerland 492 Confusion in Germany; attempts at union .... 492 Revolt of the Hungarians 494 Crimean War 499 Kingdom of Italy 503 War of Austria and Prussia with Denmark .... 505 Austro-Prussian War 507 Austro-Italian War 510 North German Confederation . . . . . , . 511 Franco-German War 513 German Empire 519 Turco-Russian War 522 Congress of Berlin 524 t 3. France (1815-1882) 526 July Revolution of 1830 . . . ... . . .529 February Revolution of 1848. Second Republic ... 530 Second Empire 531 Third Republic 532 * 4. Great Britain 1 (1783-1882) 535 The British in India (1785-1836) . . . . . . 541 Great Britain (1837-1882) 542 The British in India (1836-1882) 546 * 5. The United States of America 1(1789-1883) . . . .547 War of 1812 551 War with Mexico 554 The Civil War 557 * 6. China (1796-1882) 560 * 7. Japan (1787-1882) 562 Restoration of the Mikado 563 APPENDIX. (1883— x.) * 8. Great Britain 2 (1883-1903) 565 South African War 570 » 9. Continental Europe 2 (1883-1903) 573 Armenian Massacres . . .579 Cretan Revolt and Turco-Greek War 581 Drevfus Affair 582 * 10. United States 2 (1883-1903) 58fi Spanish War 590 Philippine Insurrection ; 592 * 11 Asia2 (1883-1903) . . .594 Chinese-Japanese War 595 Boxer Rising 597 Russo-Japanese Crisis 599 Leading Events (1904-1914) 599 Supplement 615 * Index 1 i Contributed by Edward Channing, Ph. D. « Contributed in part by D. M. Matteson. INTRODUCTION. PROF. DR. CARL PLOETZ, well known in Germany as a veteran teacher, is the author of a number of educational works having a high reputation, among which none has better approved its usefulness than the " Epitome of Universal History." * The admitted excellence of the book renders an apology for its translation unnecessary, but an extract from the author's preface respecting the nature and purpose of the work may not be out of place. "The present 'Epitome,' which now appears in a seventh edition, enlarged and improved, is intended, in the first place, for use by the upper classes in higher educational institutions, as a guide or handbook in the historical class- room. The handy arrangement of the book and the elaborate index are in- tended to adapt it for private use, and to facilitate rapid acquisition of informa- tion concerning historical matters which have, for the moment, escaped the memory. " I h'ave endeavored to give everywhere the assured results of recent histor- ical investigation, adding, as far as possible, references to my authorities. " The exposition of ancient history is based upon the works of Duncker, Curtius, Mommsen, and Peter. "Mediaeval history, which was treated somewhat too briefly in the earlier editions, has been made proportionately full since the fourth, and has been, moreover, enlarged, as has modern history, by the addition of a number of genealogical tables. "In modern history the treaties of peace have been brought into especial prominence, and the principal conditions of the great treaties, through which alone one can get an insight into the historical formation of the present system of European states, have been stated with all possible accuracy. "Recent history has been brought down to the present day. The purpose and the compass of the book alike permitted nothing more than a compressed narrative of facts, as far as possible, free from the expression of personal opin- ion. This limitation of itself excludes the possibility of offending, whether in a religious or a political sense. " All are probably now agreed that it is unadvisable for scholars to write out the lecture of the instructor in full, which, however, should not prevent them from taking notes here and there. No one denies the necessity of a guide as a basis for instruction ; but widely differing ideas prevail concerning the arrange- ment and extent of such a work. " The author of this 'Epitome,' who was for a number of years historical in- structor of the first and second classes in the French Gymnasium at Berlin, holds the opinion that even the best handbook can in no way take the place of an animated lecture, and that any guide which gives a connected narrative in 1 Auszug aus der alien, mittleren und neueren Gesckichte von Karl Ploetz. Siebente verbesserte und stark vermehrte Auflage, Berlin. A. G. Ploetz, 1880. The preparation of this edition was confided to Prof. Dr. O. Melteer, author of Geschichte der Karthager, i. 1880. x Introduction. gome detail necessarily detracts from the value of the teacher's lecture, if in the hands of the pupils in the class-room. " 1 am persuaded that such a work should place before the pupil facts only, in the wider sense of the word, and these grouped in the most comprehensive man- ner. The task of animating these facts by oral exposition ought to be left to the instructor." The translator has enlarged the book in no small degree, with the hope of increasing its general usefulness, and of giving it especial value in this country. Under ancient history an attempt has been made to bring the ethnographical relations of the early peoples into prominence ; but believing that the uncertainty of our knowledge in this respect can hardly be dwelt upon too strongly, the translator has tried to speak guardedly. Even the Indo-European family is far from being satis- factorily understood; the details of the relationship of its constituent groups are not clear ; the theory of a primitive Asiatic home and a wave-like series of westward migrations is but one, though perhaps the best, among many speculations. Recent text-books have delighted us with minutely ramified tables of Indo-European relationships, show- ing, with close approximation, when each group left the parent stock, each tribe the common group ; this, though harmless as speculation, is dangerous if taken for knowledge.1 The speculations in regard to the early inhabitants of the British Isles should be received with like caution. Their provisional accept- ance, however, is so useful as to justify their insertion. The mythical history of England, Ireland, and Scandinavia has been deemed worthy to stand beside that of Greece and Rome. The undoubted historical value of many of these traditions and the part which they play in general literature will explain the presence of even the distinctly fabulous tales. The distinction between myth, a theoretical explanation of myths, and tolerably trustworthy history has been kept constantly in view. The history of certain countries, as China, Japan, Parthia and Per- sia under the Sassanidae, which the stricter limits of the German work had caused the author to omit, has been added ; in the cases of India, the Scandinavian monarchies before 1387, and France, the meagre account in the original has undergone considerable amplifica- tion. The greatest changes, however, will be found in the history of Eng- 1 " We must content ourselves, for the present, with the recognition of a fundamental primitive community of Indo-European languages, and refrain from dividing these languages into groups (except in the case of the Indo-Ira- nian tongues). Especially is this true of the unity of the Greeks and Italians, so often taken for granted. It cannot be said that this unity did not once exist, but neither can it be asserted that its existence is demonstrable. Whether or not the future will succeed in reaching more certain results remains to be seen ; until such results are reached historians will do well to refrain from making use of such groups of languages and of tribes as the Graeco-Italian and the Slavo-Ger- man." (B. Delbruck, Einleitung in das Sprachstudium^ Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel, 1880.) Not all philologists will agree upon this point, — upon what point do all philologists agree ? — and the archaeologists have something to say upon the matter; the words just quoted are, nevertheless, worthy of consid- aration. Introduction. xi land and in that of America, which have been rewritten from the beginning with a fullness of detail proportional to that observed by the original in the history of Germany. In the additions nothing more than a compilation from reliable, but easily accessible, sources has been attempted. A few notes havp been inserted and a few dates and facts interpolated in the text of th original, but these changes have been duly attributed to the transla tor, either directly or by the use of brackets, where they seemed of sufficient importance. Absolute accuracy cannot be looked for in a work dealing with so vast a number of dates and covering so wide a range in time ; the translator, however, in the sections for which he is responsible, has endeavored to verify each date by reference to independent authori- ties. He will be grateful to all who will take the trouble to inform him of errors that have escaped his notice. That the proportion ob- served in the space allotted to different countries and epochs is open to criticism, the translator is well aware ; the fault is due in part to the plan adopted by him of sending the earlier portions of the book to press before the later were finished, in the vain hope of hastening its completion. Except in the case of the Austro-Prussian and Franco-Prussian wars, where much of the minute descriptive detail has been omitted, no attempt has been made to condense the original. Various circumstances have, delayed the appearance of the book much beyond the time for which it was announced ; that it is at last ready is due to the kindness of Dr. Edward Channing, of Harvard College, who took upon himself the preparation of those sections which contain the history of Great Britain and her colonies from 1784 to 1883, and that of the United States from 1789 to 1883. The thanks of the translator are also due to Professor H. W. Torrey, of Harvard College, for the loan of material of which free use has been made for English history in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and for French history in the nineteenth century ; and to Mr. Justin Winsor, Librarian of the University, for the free use of books. To Dr. R. H. Labberton and to Messrs. E. Claxton & Co. of Phila- delphia, the translator is indebted for courteous permission to use certain genealogical tables in Dr. Labberton's exceedingly useful « Outlines of History." * The distinguishing feature of the " Epitome " is the arrangement whereby a brief connected narrative is accompanied by a clear, well- graduated chronology which emphasizes the sequence of events with- out breaking up the story or fatiguing the mind. An attempt has been made, by the use of italics and two sizes of black type, to mark and distinguish events according to their relative importance, and also to relieve the page ; while, with the latter object in view, the use of capitals has been as far as possible dispensed with, although the manner of printing the book has prevented consistency in this 1 Labberton, B. H., Outlines of History, with original tables, chronological, genealogical, and literarv. Thirteenth edition. Philadelphia, E. Claxton & Co., 1883. Text and Historical Atlas. The tables used are II., III., XVL, Which appear on pages 2G5, 256, 332, of the present work. xii Introduction. respect. Especial care has been devoted to the index, which has been made very full, in order that the book might serve as a historical dictionary, as well as a chronology. UNIVERSAL HISTORY. A GENERAL VIEW OF ITS PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS. 21 B. c. — 375 A. D. I. Ancient history, from the begin ning of historical information to the commence- ment of the migrations of the Teutonic tribes. 375 — 1492. IL Mediaeval history, from the commence- ment of the migrations of the Teutonic tribes to the discovery of America. 1492 — X. III. Modern history, from the discovery of America to the present time. Ancient history, treated ethnographically, falls into two great divi- sions : A. Eastern peoples : Egyptians (Hamitic) ; Jews,, Babylonians, As- syrians, Phoenicians, Lydians (Semitic) ; Hindus, Bac- trians, Medes, Persians (Aryan); Parthians, Chinese, Japanese {Turanian1?}. B. Western Peoples: Celts, Britons, Greeks, Romans, Teutons (Aryan). Mediaeval history can be divided into four chronological periods: 375-843. 1. From the commencement of the migrations of the Teutonic Tribes to the Treaty of Verdun. 843-1096. 2. From the Treaty of Verdun to the beginning of the Crusades. 1096-1270. 3. The epoch of the Crusades. 1270-1492. 4. From the end of the Crusades to the discovery of America. Modern history can also be divided into four periods: 1492-1648. 1. From the discovery of America to the Peace of Westphalia. 1648-1789. 2. From the Peace of Westphalia to the outbreak of the first French Revolution. 1789-1815. 3. From the outbreak of the first French Revolution to ihe Congress of Vienna. 1815-x. 4. From the Congress of Vienna to the present time. Ancient History. B, C, I. ANCIENT HISTORY. A, EASTERN PEOPLES, § 1. EGYPTIANS. Hamites. Geography : Egypt * (Kem, i. e. " black earth " in old Egyptian) is the valley of the Nile, which extends between two chains of low hills for 550 miles, with a breadth, above the Delta, of but a few miles. It is divided into Upper Egypt (Philce, Elephantine, Thebes or Dion- polls, called by Homer fKar6^v\os, the " hundred gated," a designa- tion which must refer to the entrances of temples and palaces, since the city had neither walls nor gates) and Lower Egypt (Memphis; in the Delta, Tanis, Bubastis, Naucrdtis, Sals; west of the Delta, Canopus, now Aboukir; on the east, Pelusium; the latter cities stand- ing on what were, in ancient times, the largest mouths of the Nile). These divisions were originally, in all probability, independent coun- tries. They are not to be confounded with the separate principali- ties which became numerous at a later time. This division was com- memorated in the royal title of the kings of the united countries, " lords of the upper and lower country," " lords of the two crowns." Religion : Worship of personified forces of Nature and symbolical animal worship. In Memphis especial reverence paid to Ptah, the highest of the gods, the first creator ; in his temple stood the sacred bull Apis (Egypt. Api), also closely connected with Osiris. Ra,* wor- shipped particularly in On or Heliopolis, represented the transmitting and preserving power of the godhead embodied in the sun. Khem, was the god of generation and growth. Reverence was also paid to the goddess Nelth, whose worship at Sais was considered by the Greeks to be identical with that of Athena, to the goddess Bast or Pacht (at Bubastis), and to the goddess of Buto, on one of the mouths of the Nile. At Thebes, cult of Ammon (Amun), the god of heaven, later united with Ra to form a single divinity. In Upper Egypt worship was paid to Mentu, the rising sun; Turn or Atmu, the setting sun; Chnum or Kneph, god of the overflow, always represented with a ram's head and double horns, and later becoming united with Ammon to form one divinity; and to the goddess Mut (i. e. "mother"). The educated classes recognized the various gods as personified attributes of the one Divinity. 1 See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. III. 2 According t<> Rosellini and Lopsius the title of Pharaoh is derived from this name, aiid means Son of the Sun. Ebers and Brugsch derive it from Pe-ra(o), the " ^reat house." (Compare kt Sublime Porte.") B. C. Egyptians. 3 Myth of Osiris, the creative force in Nature, who was killed and thrown into the sea by Set (Typhon), the destructive force in Nature (especially drought) ; sought after by his sorrowing consort Isis (the earth), he was avenged by their son Horos, who slew Set; restored to life, Osiris thenceforward ruled in the lower world (decay and resur- rection of the creative force in nature; immortality of the soul). Con- joined with Horos, the goddess Halhor, considered by the Greeks to be the same as Aphrodite. Highly developed moral code. Civilization : Fertility of the valley of the Nile maintained by the regular overflow of the Nile, beginning at the end of July and last- ing four months. Hieroglyphics, very early in conjunction with the hieratic, and after- wards the demotic, characters (syllabic and phonetic signs), which represented the language of daily life, the dialect of the common people. Embalming of the dead. (Mummies.) Avoidance of intercourse with foreign peoples and adoption of foreign customs. Strict regulation of the entire life by religious prescriptions. Castes : Priests, warriors, agricultural laborers, artisans, shepherds. These castes, however, were in no wise absolutely separated from one another. Form of Government : ' Despotic monarchy, with divine attributes, also in possession of the highest spiritual power. Strong influence of the priests, especially after the fourteenth century, but they never controlled the supreme power.1 The Pyramids are gigantic sepulchres of the kings. Over thirty still exist.2 The largest, at Gizeh, was originally 480 feet high, and still measures 450 feet. The Obelisks — of which one is now at Paris, several in Rome, one in London, and one in New York — are cut from single blocks of stone (monoliths), and were offerings to the sun-god Ra; the Sphinxes were symbols of the sun-god. Chronology : The Egyptians filled the space before Mena, the first of the historic line of kings, by the assumption of three dynas- ties of gods, demi-gods, and "the mysterious manes." The list of kings after Mena was given at length by the priest Manetho (about 250 B. c.), in his history of Egypt. He arranged them in thirty dy- nasties, a division which is still used. To reconcile the names and dates given by Manetho with the records upon the monuments is a difficult matter, owing in part to the fact that several of the dynasties of Manetho probably reigned contemporaneously in different parts of Egypt, that it was the custom for a king to associate his son with himself during the latter part of his reign, and that the son after- wards reckoned his reign from the date of such association. Hence the systems of chronology, drawn up by Egyptologists, vary greatly. There are, in general, two schools: (1.) The long chronology, advo- cated on the continent, wherein the dates assigned to Mena vary from 1 See Duncker, History of Antiquity, I. 180. 2 Ijepsins saw traces and remains of sixty-seven pyramids; Brugsch of more than seventy. 4 Ancient History. B. c. 5702 (Boeckh) to 3623 (Bunsen). (2.) The short chronology, advo- cated in England, wherein the dates assigned to Mena vary between 2700 and 2440. In the following pages the chronology of Lepsius is followed, with the exception of the date assigned to Mena, which Lepsius gives as 3892 B. c. These dates should be compared with the lists given by Brugsch x and by Rawlinson.2 Before 3000. The old empire of the Egyptians, in the lower val- ley of the Nile, founded according to Egyptian tradition by Mena 8 (Menes) . Capital : Memphis. 2800-2700 (?). The kings Khufu, Khafra, Menkaura (according to Herodotus, Cheops, Chephren, Mykerinos), the builders of the largest pyramids. IVth dynasty (Memphis) called the " Pyramid dynasty." About 2400. Removal of the centre of government of the empire to Thebes. Of the princes of this line the following deserve mention: Amenem- hat I. (2380-2371), who seems to have extended the power of Egypt up the Nile and over a part of Nubia ; Usurtasen I. (2371-2325) who continued the conquests of his predecessor, and erected obelisks; Ame- nemhat II. ; Usurtasen II.; Usurtasen III.; Amenemhat III. (2221- 2179) constructed lake Meri- (i. e. " lake of inundations "), a large reservoir for regulating the water supply of the Nile, and built S. of this lake the so-called Labyrinth, a large palace for ceremonial acts and sacrifices. These six monarchs belong to the Xllth dynasty (of Thebes). About 2100. Egypt conquered by the Hy ksos, or Shepherd Kings. The Hyksos (derived from Hyk, king, and Schasu, shepherds, contracted into Sos) were wandering tribes of Semitic descent. About 1800. Thebes revolted against the rule of the Hyksos. Native rulers maintained themselves in Upper Egypt. After a long contest the Shepherd kings were driven out of Egypt com- pletely under King Aahmes (Amosis), of Thebes (1684-1659).5 Their epoch covers the Xlllth to XVIIth dynasties. 1670 — 525. The new empire (capital at first Thebes), under Thutmes III. (Thutmosis, 1591-1565 ; XVIIIth dynasty) increased rapidly in power and extent. 1524-1488. Under Thutmes and his successors, especially Amen- hotep III. (Amenophis^), successful expeditions against the Syrians (Ruthen) and against the Ethiopians in the south. 1 History of Egypt. Appendix. See also I. 37, and xxxii. note 1. 2 History of Egypt, or Manual of History, p. 61, and foil. 8 The royal nomenclature of the Egyptians is as picturesquely varied as their chronology. I have given first some form of the true Egyptian name, as found on the monuments, generally that adopted by Brugsch, and have followed it by the more common name, as given by Manetho, Herodotus, or the Jewish Scrip- tures, in parentheses. [TRANS.] 4 Called by the Greeks Mo&ris (Moipo?, Herod. I. 101), and erroneously inter- preted as a royal name. * Duncker, History of Antiquity, I. 130, and foil. B. C. Egyptians. 5 Erection of magnificent palaces and temples at Thebes. (Ruins near the present villages of Carnac, Luxor, and Medi- net-Abu; near the latter two sitting colossi, statues of Amen- hotep, one of which the Greeks called the musical Statue of Memnon.} 1438-1388. Similar success in war fell to the lot of Seti I. (Seihos). Expeditions to Ethiopia, Arabia, and to the Euphrates. • Tem- ple of Ammon on the left bank of the Nile, opposite Thebes. His son, 1388-1322. Ramessu II., the Great (Sestu-Ra, Ramses), was victorious in the early part of his reign, but could not long maintain his supremacy over Syria (XlXth dy- nasty). In spite of this a peculiar tradition transformed him into that mili- tary hero whom the Greeks knew as Sesostris (Herodotus, II. 102- 110), or Sesoosis (Diod. Sic. I. 53-58), and to whom they ascribed fabulous expeditions to Thrace and India. This tradition seems to have had its origin in the bombastic expressions common to the royal inscriptions of the Egyptians, and in poetic exaltations of his earlier victories. In the Greek account we have besides a confusion of recol- lections of the glorious deeds of Thutmes and Amenhotep, of Seti and Ramessu III. During his long reign he covered Egypt with magnificent buildings. Splendid palace known as " the House of Ramses," south of Carnac; temple of Ammon, 400 miles above Syene. Commencement of a canal between the Red Sea and the Nile. Ramessu II. was probably the oppressor of the Hebrews. Under his successor, 1322-1302. Mineptah, i. e. " beloved of Ptah," occurred the exo- dus of the Hebrews from Egypt (see page 8).1 1269-1244. Ramessu III. (Rhampsinitus, XXth dynasty). Successful resistance offered to the Libyan and Semitic tribes; expeditions as far as Phoenicia and Syria. (Story of the theft from the treasury, Herodotus, II. 121.) 1244^1091. Decay of the empire under the later kings of the name of Ramses. 1091. A new dynasty (XXI.) came to the throne with King Hirhor (Smendes). The seat of their power was Tanis, in the Delta, whence they are called Tanites. Loss of supremacy over Ethiopia, where the kingdom of Na- pata or Meroe was founded. 961-940. Shashang I. (Sesonchis, Shisak), from Bubastis, founded a new dynasty (XXII.).2 He undertook (949) a successful ex- pedition against Judcea. Jerusalem conquered and plundered. 1 It may have occurred under his successor of the same name; the date of whose reign, as well as the reigns of the kings immediately preceding, would have to be placed several decades earlier, in agreement w'ith Duncker and Masmero. 2 The opinion of BruRSch, History of Egypt, II. 198, that an Assyrian con- quest of Egypt occurred at this time, and that Shashany 1. was the son of the conqueror, Nimrod, king of Assyria, has not found favor among Egyptologists. LTKAN8.] 6 Ancient History. B. c. 730. The Ethiopians, under Shabak (Sabako), conquered Egypt, which they governed for fifty-eight years under three succes- sive kings. (XXVth dynasty.) 672. An expedition of the Assyrians, under Esarhaddon (p. 15) against Egypt. The king of the Assyrians and his son, Asshar- banipal (Sardanapalus), put an end to the rule of the Ethi- opians (under Taharak or Tirhakah, the second successor of Shabak), and entrusted the government of Egypt to twenty governors, most of whom were natives. 653. One of these governors, Psamethik, in alliance with Gyges, king of Lydia, with the help of Carians, Phoeni- cians, and lonians, made himself independent of Assyria, and sole ruler of Egypt (XXVIth dynasty, of Sa'is). The tale of the twelve native princes (the Dodecarchy of Herod- otus and Diodorus), according to which Psammeticus defeated his eleven co-regents at Momemphis, is not historical. The number, 12, is derived from the twelve courts of columns hi the Labyrinth, which, according to Herodotus and Diodorus, was built by the twelve princes, whereas this gigantic building had already been standing 1500 years (p. 4). 653-610. Psamethik L, king of Egypt, from the mouths of the Nile to Elephantine, above which place the Ethio- pians held the supremacy. (XXVIth dynasty.) New capital, Sals, in the Delta, where Psamethik built a magnifi- cent palace. Egypt opened to foreigners, who were favored in the army and settled at various points. Caste of Interpreters. Greek factory at Naucrdtis. Dissatisfaction among the military caste ; emi- grations upward along the Nile to Ethiopia. Psamethik carried on wars in Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine; they were probably undertaken in the first instance to strengthen his frontier against a new attack by the Assyrians, which he dreaded. These wars led to no lasting conquests. The son of Psamethik, 610-595. Neku (Necho), revived the plan of Ramses to unite the Nile and the Red Sea by a canal, but did not succeed in carrying it out. By his orders Africa was circumnavigated by Phoenician seamen. He undertook expeditions to Syria where he was at first successful, and defeated the king of Judah in the battle of Megiddo (609), but was afterwards defeated by the Babylonians in the 605. Battle of Carchemish. Loss of all his conquests in Asia. Neku's son, 595-589. Psamethik II. Expedition against Ethiopia without suc- cess. His son, 589-570. Hophra (Apries), fought without lasting success against Nebuchadnezzar, and sent help to the tribes of Libya against Cyrene. His defeated army revolted, and he was defeated at the head of Ionian and Carian mercenaries, captured and strangled. B. c. Jews. 7 570-526. Aahmes (Amasis), an Egyptian of low origin, ascended the throne. Encouragement of foreigners, especially of the Greeks, carried still farther; numerous Grecian temples erected in Naucrdtis. Friendship with Cyrene and Polycrates of Samos. Magnificent buildings, especially in Sals. The son of Amasis, 525. Psamethik III., defeated in the battle of Pelusium by Cambyses. Egypt a Persian province. § 2. JEWS (HEBREWS, ISRAELITES). Semitic. Geography. The land of the Jews is bounded N. by Ccdo-Syria; W. by Phoenicia, the Mediterranean, and the land of the Philistines; S. by Arabia Petrcea; E. by the Arabian Desert. The name Canaan,1 i. e. " low laud," was originally applied to the region along the coast, but was at an early date extended to the inland country. The names Canaanite and Phoenician have properly the same mean- ing; the first was the Semitic, the second the Grecian name for the inhabitants of the whole land before the Jewish conquest. Palestine was originally the name of the southern coast-land, which was so called after the Semitic tribe of the Philistines (Pelishtim) which had possession of it, but was transferred by Egyptians and Greeks to the land occupied by the Jews. In the Bible the country is called " the promised land," i. e. the land promised by Jehovah to the children of Israel. The river Jordan, which rises in the mountain range of Antilebanon and empties into the Dead Sea (Sodom, Gomorrah), runs through the middle of the country. After the Jewish conquest the country was divided into the twelve provinces of the twelve tribes; after the death of Solomon into the kingdoms of Judah and Israel; at the time of Christ into four districts: 1. Judaea (Jerusalem, Hebr. Jerushalaim; Greek 'lepoo^Avyuo, with the fortress of Zion and the Temple on Mt. Moriah; Bethlehem, Jericho, Joppa, now Jaffa, on the coast) ; 2. Sama- ria (Samaria, Sichem); 3. Galilaea (Nazareth, Capernaum on the sea of Tiberias or Genezareth, Cana) ; east from Jordan 4. Feraea. In the country of the Philistines, the coast region between Pales- tine and Egypt: Ashdod, Ascalon, Gaza, Ekron, Gath. Chronology.2 As is the case with the earliest history of all na- tions, the chronology of Jewish history i& uncertain. There is a long and a short system, but here the short system found favor on the con- tinent, while the long system prevails in England. 2000 (?). Abraham (Abram), Patriarch of the Hebrews (i. e. "those from the other side," because they immi- grated from Ur in Babylonia), Israelites, or Jews. According to the traditions of the Hebrews, Abraham had two sons: Ishmael by Hagar, the ancestor of the Ishmaelites (Arabians) ; and Isaac, by his lawful wife Sarah. The son of Isaac by Rebekah, Jacot 1 Cf. Kiepert, Atlas oMiqum, Tab ITT. 2 Cf. Duncker, History of Antiquity, II. 112, note. 8 Ancient History. B. c. or Israel, the true tribal ancestor of the Hebrews. Jacob's twelve eons : by Leah — Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulon- by Kachel — Joseph, Benjamin- by Bilhah — Dan, Naphtalij by Zilpah — • Gad, Asher. 1550 (?)• Joseph. The tribe of the Hebrews migrated to Egypt. They settled in the land of Goshen, on the right bank of the Pelusian mouth of the Nile. It is claimed that the master of Joseph was Apepi, the last of the Shepherd kings of Egypt (see p. 4, where the chronology does not agree with the theory, which, however, is no objection, as it «ould be easily made to conform.) 1320 C?)-1 Moses conducted the Hebrews out of Egypt. Ten commandments at Mt. Sinai. The laws of Moses. About 1250. The Israelites (Joshua) after a long nomadic life in the peninsula of Sinai and on the east of Jordan conquered the Promised Land, but without entirely subjugating the former inhabitants. Theocracy, i. e. the nation was under the immediate guidance of Jehovah. The office of the high priest was hereditary in the family of Aaron, the brother of Moses. The Tabernacle, a portable temple or holy tent. The Ark of the Covenant. To the family of Levi (son of Jacob- Israel) was given the exclusive care and service of the taber- nacle and all things used in the religious ceremonial. The other twelve tribes (named from ten sons of Jacob (see above) and two sons of Joseph, Ephraim and Manasseh} settled in separate districts, which were more or less cut off from one another by remnants of the former inhabitants, and formed an exceedingly loose union of twelve small states under tribal chiefs, which was at tunes hard pressed by neighboring tribes. Judges (Shofetim) : men raised up by Jehovah in times of need, especially military leaders in the wars against the Canaanite tribes: Amorites (of whom the Jebusites were a part), Amalekites, Hittites, Hivites, and against the Philistines, Midianites, Ammonites, Moabites. Judges : Ehud • the heroine Deborah ; Gideon, conqueror of the Mid- ianites; Jephthah, conqueror of the Ammonites; Samson, the terror of the Philistines. 1070. The Philistines subjugated the whole country this side Jor- dan. At the demand of the people, Samuel, the last "Judge in Israel/1 anointed a brave man of the tribe of Benjamin, 1055 (?)- Saul, as king of the Jews. Victory of Saul over the Moabites, Philistines, Edomites, and Amalek- ites. Samuel, being at variance with Saul, anointed David, from the tribe of Judah, as king, at the command of Jehovah. David fled to the Philistines from the persecution of Saul. Saul defeated by the Philistines, put an end to his life (1033 ?). For seven years David 1 English scholars place the Exodus at 1652 or 1491. B. C. Jews. 9 was recognized as king by the tribe of Judah only, the other tribes under the influence of the captain, Abner, adhering to Saul's son, Jsh- bosheth. After the murder of Abner and Ish-bosheth, all the tribes acknowledged David as king in the assembly at Hebron. 1025 (?)• David. Kingdom of the Jews at the highest point of its power. David wrested Jerusalem from the Jebusites, and made it his residence. He restrained the Philistines within their own borders. His sway extended from the N.E. end of the Red Sea to Damascus. Erection of a royal palace at Zion. Ark of the Covenant placed in Jerusalem. Organization of the army. Religious poetry of the Hebrews at the height of its development. The Psalms. Revolt and death of Absalom (Ahithophel). David passed over his son Adonijah, by Hag- gith, and other sons, and appointed his son by Bathsheba his successor. 993 (?)• Solomon. Erection of the Temple of Jehovah and a new palace in Jerusalem, with the aid of workmen from Tyre. Magnificent court. Standing army. Extensive com- merce. Defection of Damascus. Foundation of Tadmor in an oasis of the Syrian desert. At the close of Solomon's reign, toleration of foreign idolatry in Jerusalem. After the death of Solomon, 953 (?), Division of the kingdom of the Jews.1 The tribe of Judah, the tribe of Simeon, which had become united with Judah, and a part of Benjamin with the Levites, remained true to Rehoboam the son of Solomon, and formed the Kingdom cf Judah (capital, Jerusalem)', the other tribes, under Jeroboam, formed the Kingdom of Israel farther north (capital at first Sichem, still later Samaria and Jezreel}. These two kingdoms were frequently at war with one another. Kingdom of Israel. After the death of the energetic Jeroboam (953-927), his son Na- dab was murdered by the captain Baasha, who ascended the throne (925). His son and successor Elah was slain by Zimri; Tibni and Omri disputed the throne, but Omri prevailed in the end (899). The son of Omri, Ahab, married Jezebel, princess of Tyre, whereby the practice of Phoenician idolatry (Baal and Astarte) was extended in Israel. Contest of the Prophets (Elijah, Elisha, etc.) with the idola- trous monarchy. Israel and Judah united for a short time. Ahab's Bon Ahaziah (853-851). The captain Jehu, anointed king by Elisha, slew the brother of Ahaziah, Joram (851-843), and put to death Jezebel and seventy sons and grandsons of Ahab. Jehu (843-815) destroyed the temple of Baal and put to death the priests of that god. Decline of Israel's power, which was only temporarily revived by the 1 About the chronology, cf. Duncker, II. 234, not*. The long system gives 975 B. c. 10 Ancient History. B. O, fourth king of the line of Jehu, Jeroboam II. (790-749). After the fall of the house of Jehu, the kingdom of Israel became tributary to the Assyrians. Tiglath-Pileser conquered the northeastern part of the kingdom. Hashed, the last king of Israel (734), tried to free his country from the Assyrian yoke, but was defeated and captured by Shalmaneser IV. After a three years' siege, 722. l Samaria was captured by Sargon, king of the Assyr- ians, the Kingdom of Israel was destroyed, and a part of the people carried away and settled in Assyria and Media. Kingdom of Judah. In the reign of Rehoboam the country was overrun by the Egyptians under the Pharaoh Shashang (Shishak). Sack of Jerusalem (949). Rehoboam1* grandson Asa (929-873) abolished idolatry, which was prohibited by the law. He was compelled to buy assistance from the king of Damascus against Baasha of Israel. Energetic reign of his son Jehoshaphat (873-848). In the hope of put- ting an end to the war with the Kingdom of Israel, Jehoshaphat mar- ried his son Jehoram (848-844) to Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab of Israel and Jezebel. After the son of Athaliah, Ahaziah, was murdered while on a visit to the king of Israel, together with the whole royal family of the Kingdom of Israel as above described (p. 9), Athaliah (843-837) seized the supreme power in Jerusalem, put to death her own grandchildren in order to destroy the tribe of David, Joash alone being miraculously rescued and brought up in the Temple of Jehovah, and introduced the worship of Baal in Jerusalem. Athaliah was over- thrown and put to death by the high priest Jehoiada, and the young Joash raised to the throne. The worship of Baal was abolished. Joash (837-797) was obliged to purchase the retreat of the army from Damascus which was besieging Jerusalem. Murder of Joash. Under his son Amaziah (797-792) Jerusalem was captured by the Israelites; the Temple and palace plundered. Amaziah was murdered; but his son Uzziah (Azariah, 792-740) successfully resisted the mur- derers and raised the kingdom again to a position of power and au- thority. The Prophet Isaiah. Under the successors of Amaziah, the Kingdom of Judah, hard pressed by the Kingdom of Israel and by Damascus, became tributary to the Assyrians. King Hezekiah (728-697) again abolished idolatry, refused to pay tribute to the Assyrians, and allied himself with the Egyptians. The Assyrians under Sennacherib besieged Jerusalem in vain, but carried off many of the inhabitants of the open country into captivity. Hezekiah's son Manasseh (697-642) transformed the Tem- ple of Jehovah into a temple of Astarte, and sacrificed to Baal and Moloch in spite of the opposition of the prophets ; he submitted again to the Assyrians, was carried captive to Babylon, but hi the end re- 1 In the date 722, the Hebrew chronology agrees with that of the Assyrian monuments. Cf. Schrader, Die Keilinschriften u. das alte Testament, 187 2 1882, and Mena.at, Annales a'ts Rois d'Assyrie. 1874. R. c.-A. D. Jews. 11 stored to his throne. Under his grandson Josiah (640-609), the coun- try was ravaged by Scythians. Religious reaction against idolatry (Jeremiah). Reformation of the worship of Jehovah, according to the book of the law of Moses which was rediscovered in the Temple (6*22). King Josiah fell in the battle of Megiddo (609) against the Egyptian king Necho (Neku). The Kingdom of Judah subject to the Egyptians, and, after the de- feat of Necho at Carchemish (605), to the Babylonians. Jehoiakim en- deavored to revolt, but was put to death. His son, Jehoiachin,, was carried into captivity with many of his subjects by the Babylonians (597). An attempt on the part of the last king, Zedekiah, to regain independence was unsuccessful in spite of Egyptian assistance. Jeru- salem was besieged (588-586) ; an Egyptian army advancing to its relief was defeated and compelled to retreat. 586. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, captured Jerusa- lem. Destruction of the city and burning of the Temple. Many of the Jews were slain ; those who were left were carried into the Babylonian captivity. (The prophet Ezekiel.) 637. The Jews sent back to Palestine by Cyrus. Rebuilding of the Temple (Zerubbabel), which was not completed, however, un- til the time of Darius I. (516). The Jews subject at first to the Persians (538-332). then to Alexander the Great (332-323), afterwards to the Ptolemies (323-198), finally to the Seleu- cid kings of Syria (198-167). 167-130. Emancipation of the Jews by the Maccabees, or Asmonseans, after a struggle lasting nearly fourteen years. Leaders : the priest Mattathias, and his five sons, especially Judas Maccabaeus. A great-grandson of Mattathias, Aristobulus, assumed the title of .king (105). Under his successors, strife between the Pharisees and Sadducees. 63. Pompeius, called in to help the Pharisees, made the Jews tribu- tary to the Romans. 40. Herod (the Great), son of the Idumsean Antipater, recognized by the Roman Senate as dependent king of Judcea. Birth of Christ (four years before the beginning of our era?). 6 A. D. After a short reign of the three sons of Herod, Judsea be- came a part of the Roman Province of Syria. (Two Te- trarchies, however, remained independent: Galilcea, until 32 A. D. ; Pereea, until 33 A. D.) 41-44. Judaea again a dependent kingdom under Herod Agrippa /., a grandson of Herod the Great; then a Roman province again. Agrippa II. was made king over a small portion in dependence on Rome. 66. Kevolt of the Jews against the Roman supremacy, ending in the 12 Ancient History. B. GL 70. Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. A large part of the Jews assembled in Jerusalem for the observance of the passover perished by starvation and the Roman sword ; many thousands were taken captive to Rome. (The historian Josephus.) 132-135. Another uprisal of the Jews, under Hadrian, on account of the foundation of the colony, jElia Capitolina, on the site of Jerusalem, wherein more than half a million perished. Dis- persal of a great part of the survivors ; nevertheless a consid- erable number remained in Palestine. § 3. BABYLONIANS AND ASSYRIANS. Semitic. Geography : Babylonia,1 called by the Hebrews Shinar, is the country lying between the Euphrates and Tigris, and stretching from the point where these rivers approach one another, about 350 miles from their mouth, to where they empty into the Persian Gulf by sev- eral arms, as Pasitigris (now Shatt-el-Arab). In the neighborhood of the present village of Hillah stood Babylon (in the Babylonian form, Babilu, called by the Hebrews Babel, i. e. gates or dwelling of the god Bel), a huge rectangular city, situated, since the time of Nebu- chadnezzar, on both banks of the Euphrates, about thirty-four miles in circumference (Clitarchus; Herodotus gives about forty-five miles), and surrounded by two brick walls of unusual thickness and height. The city was large enough to afford a refuge to a great number of the inhabitants of the country during incursions of nomadic tribes, and contained fields of considerable extent, woods, and gardens. In Baby- lon: (a.) The temple of Bel (Tower of Babel), a huge square build- ing of brick, consisting of eight diminishing stories rising in pyramidal form. It is said to have been originally 600 feet high.2 (&.) Two Palaces, the one on the east side of the Euphrates having the Hanging Gardens, the construction of which is wrongly ascribed to Semiramisf and which were terraced pleasure grounds. Assyria (Asshur) is bounded on the N. by the highlands of Armc nia, on the E. by the plateau of Iran, on the S. by the Didla, a branch of the Tigris, and on the W. by the Tigris itself/ The smaller region called Assyria by the Greeks lay within this territory, between the Tigris and its branch, the Great Zab, which flows into the Tigris below the present Mosul. On the Tigris stood Nineveh (Ninua, "the Palace," ^ Nti/os) surrounded with huge walls. The ruins lie opposite the present Mosul. Oldest residence of the kings, Asshur; afterwards founded, Calah; founded by Sargon, Dur-Sarrukin (Khorsabad). Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians. The religion of the Semitic peoples, with the exception of the Hebrews, was a worship of nature, wherein divinity was conceived as the personified force of na- 1 See Kiepert, Atlas Anttquus, Tab. II. 2 According to Oppert (Kxped. Sclent, en Mesopotamie) the temple of Bel is to be sought in the ruins of Burs-Nimrud (on the site of old Borsippa). Raw- linaon ( The Five Great Monarchies of the East) disputes this, because Borsippa was a separate village lying outside the walls of the capital until the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, and rinds the Tower of Babel in a great quadrangular ruin called Babil, by the Arabs, on the east bank of the Euphrates in Babylon. B. C. Babylonians and Assyrians. 18 ture in human form, male and female. Among the gods of the Baby- lonians the oldest was El, among those of the Assyrians, A sshur. The third, Bel (Baal), the " Lord of all," appeared as the creative, but also the destructive force hi Nature. The goddess Belit or Baaltis (in Herodotus Mylitta), the queen and mother of the gods, is the fruitful and reproductive principle, the goddess of love, fertility, and birth. Her opposite is Istar, the goddess of war and destruction. Confused with Belit is the goddess who brings alternately life and blessing, death and destruction (like the Ashera-Astarte of the Phoe- nicians and Carthaginians). In Babylon there was a complicated sys- tem of star-worship. The Chaldeans, or caste of priests, in Babylon, possessed some astronomical and astrological skill. This name was properly that of the Semitic population of Babylonia, but western writers applied it chiefly to the priests. Civilization. An exact system of weights and measures, which was used far outside the borders of Babylonia. Cuneiform writing, a system of characters formed by the gradual abbreviation of hiero- glyphics. Magnificent structures of brick. System of canals for the irrigation of the country, and for the regulation of the yearly overflow of the Tigris and Euphrates. Important manufacturing industries and extensive commerce. Chronology. An astronomical system and a mythical history closely resembling the Biblical account of the creation and deluge (epic of Izdhuber). The inscriptions give many names ; but few dates are satisfactorily established before 900 B. c. 4000-731. Old Babylonian (so-called Ckaldceari) Em- pire. 4000-3000. Civilization, originating, perhaps, in a non-Semitic people (Sumir and Accadf), was adopted, with the cuneiform writing, by a Semitic people, who came, probably, from the S. Independent, hostile cities : Ur, Erech, Larsam; Agade (Accad ?), Babylon. Sar- gon, 3800, reached the Mediterranean, Hammurabi united Babylonia.1 2300-2076. Supremacy of Elam (Elymais, Susiana), a non-Semitic kingdom E. of Babylonia (the second dynasty of Berosus 2). Kudurnanchundi • Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiv.). About 2000. Babylonia, after 300 years, again independent. About 1900. Assyria settled by emigrants from Babylonia (Nim- rodf). 1525-1257. Cassite kings of Babylonia (the Arabians of Berosus). 1500-710. Constant -wars with Assyria. Final subjugation of Babylonia after the revolts of Merodach-Baladan. 1 Hammurabi's code of laws (about 2200 B. c.) was lately discovered. 2 Berosus, at the time of Alexander, compiled from Babylonian records a history in which he mentioned the following dynasties (dates from Delitzsch). Ante-diluvian, ten kings, 432,000 vears Post-diluvian: I. EightA^-six kings, 33,091 years. II. Eight Median tyrants, 224 years (2300-2076). III. Eleven kings. IV. Forty-nine Chaldcean kings, 458 years (1983-1525). V, "*"" ' fo'a» kings, 245 years (1535-1257). VI. Forty-five kings, 526 ye 14 Ancient History. B. c. 1900-608 (605). Assyrian Empire (p. 12). Colonized, probably, from Babylonia (Gen. x.), Assyria grad- ually grew into a powerful rival of the mother-state. The chronol- ogy falls into five periods.1 I. 1900-1500. II. 1500-1300. Wars with Babylonia, ending in Babylonian overlordship. III. 1220-930. Assyria again independent. IV. 930-626 (?). Brilliant epoch. V. 626 (?)-608 (605). Fall of the empire. 1900-930. Of the first three periods little is known. Tiglath-Adar L, about 1310, conquered Babylonia, but Assyria was soon subju- gated. Tiglath-Pileser I., 1115-1105, conquered from Bagdad and Babylon to the Mediterranean. 93Q-626 (?). Brilliant epoch of Assyrian history. The inscrip- tions become frequent, full, and exact. It was a time of ex- pansion, conquest, and great activity in architecture, sculpture, and literature. Among the kings may be mentioned : 886-858. Asshur-natzir-pal.2 (Sardanapalus). Military expedi- tions to Zagros, Armenia, Babylonia, Syria. Erection of a palace at Calah. His son, 858-823. Shalmaneser II., fought with Ahab in Syria and subju- gated Jehu. 810-781. Ramaanirari captured Damascus and made Samaria and Philistia tributary. His wife Sammuramit (Semiramis). A tradition of later growth reported by the Greeks (Diodorus on the authority of Ctesias) connects the establishment of the Assyrian supremacy over almost the whole of western Asia, the building of Nineveh and Babylon, with the names of the king Niiius and his con- sort Semiramis. Both Ninus (son of the god Bel) and Semiramis (daughter of the goddess Mylitta) are mythical creations, into whose reigns tradition has condensed the deeds of a long series of warlike rulers, so that no achievements were left for their successors, and .these from Ninyas down appear as effeminate weaklings. Ninus is unknown to the Assyrian monuments, and Semiramis first appears in the ninth century. On the other hand we know that a goddess answering to Isto.r-Belit was worshipped in Syria under the name of Semiramis. Medo-Persian bards seem to have changed the divinities Bel and Istar-Belit into heroes, and have formed the names Ninus and Ninyas from the name of the city Ninua (Nineveh).* 745-727. Tiglath-Pileser II. (identical with the king Pul men- tioned in the Bible) (see p. 13) made Babylonia, which was at that time divided into several states, western Iran, Armenia, Syria, Phoenicia, Judah and Israel, subject to Assyria. 727-722. Shalmaneser IV. suppressed the revolt of the Phoenician cities and the Kingdom of Israel. 722-705. S argon (Sarrukiri) conquered Samaria and destroyed the Kingdom of Israel (see p. 10) He received tribute from Arabia, Egypt, and Cyprus, suppressed revolts in Armenia, Media, and Babylonia, and united the latter with Assyria (710) 1 Delitzsoh. 2 Formerly called Asshur-idanni-pal. Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies, II. 246, note* 10. *> Duncker, IF. 17. Scbrader, Die Keilinschriften, etc. Menant, Annaiet, Itc Lenormaut, Lttirea Assyrioloyiquts. Smitii, Assyrian Discoveries. B, C. Babylonians and Assyrians. 15 Residence: Dur-Sarrukin, now Khorsdbad, not far from Nine- veh. His son, 705-681. Sennacherib (Sin-akhi-irib) retained his hold upon Baby- lonia in spite of repeated insurrections, but was unsuccessful in his wars with Egypt and Judah, and lost the supremacy over Syria. Fleet in the Persian Gulf. Foundation of Tarsus. His son, 681-668. Esarhaddon (Asshur-akh-iddin) suppressed a new revolt of the Babylonians, reconquered Syria, Pho3nicia, Cyprus, Ju- dah, and a part of Arabia, and in 672 conquered Egypt from the Ethiopians, entrusting the government to 20 governors, most of whom were natives (see p. 6). Assyria at the height of her power. One of his sons was made •viceroy of Babylonia, the other, 668-626. Asshur-bani-pal (Sardanapalus), defended Egypt, at first with success, against the kings of Ethiopia and native in- surrections, but lost it in 653 by the revolt of Psammeticus (see p. 6). On the other hand he strengthened the Assyrian power in Syria, Arabia, Cilicia, as well as in Babylonia, where his brother had revolted, conquered the Kingdom of Elam, and received tribute from Lydia. Erection of magnificent palaces. Foundation of a library at Nineveh. Highest development of Assyrian art. About 640 (650). Revolt of the Medes. Of the Medes little is known until they were attacked by the Assyrians about 830 B. c. About 710 their resistance was broken and their country was soon subjected to Assyria, and so continued until about 640. Phraortes (Fravartis), son of Dejoces (Dahyavka), a petty chief among the Medes, revolted but fell in battle. 633. His son Cyaxares (Uvakhshatara) continued the struggle, which was, however, soon interrupted by the 632. Irruption of Scythian tribes which had wandered about western Asia, plundering as they went, as far as the bor- ders of Egypt, for 28 years it is said, though 8 is the more prob- able number. After Cyaxares had rid the country of them, he made another attack on Assyria, which had been much weakened by the Scythians. For the purpose of destroying the Assyr- ian kingttom, Cyaxares allied himself with the Chaldean Nabo- polassar (Nabu-habal-usur), Assyrian governor of Babylon since 625, who had made himself independent. Desperate struggle with the Assyrian king Sarakos (Asshur-ebil-ili). 626-608 (625 ?), son of Sardanapalus V. After a long siege, 608 (605 ? *) Nineveh was taken and destroyed; as the enemy broke into the city, Sarakos set fire to the royal palace and perished in the flames with his wives and treasurer. End of the Kingdom of Assyria. Nabopolassar united with Baby- 1 The date is doubtful. Herodotus implies a date as late as 608-605. Be- rosus (as reported by Abydenus and Polyhistor) gives 625. The former dMte is advocated by Clinton and Duncker (History of Antiq., III. 266-292), the latter by Q-. Kawlinson (Five Great Monarchies, II. 391, note 5), and Lenormant (Lettres Assgrioloyioues, I § 12, esp. pp. 84, 85). Delitasch 608 18 Ancient History. B. c. Ionia the whole of northern Mesopotamia on the right bank of the Tigris, the rest falling to the share of Cyaxdres,1 who had already subjugated Armenia and the Iranian portions of the kingdom of Assyria. The Grecian story of the effeminate Sardanapalus (Ctesias in Dio- dorus, II.) is the counterpart of their tales.about the masculine Semi- ramis. According to this story, Sardanapalus, on the fall of the city, burns himself upon a magnificent bier, 400 feet high, which burns for 15 days. This story seems to be an application of the myth of the god wko burned himself and rose from the flames, whom the Semitic peoples associated with Istar (Astarte), and whose nature they con- founded with hers.2 608 (605)-538. (New) Empire of Babylon. After the Assyrian conquest of Babylonia, about 710 (see p. 14), the latter country continued subject to Assyria, with intervals of rebellion, until the successful combination of Nabopolas- sar and Cyaxares destroyed the power of Assyria. Babylon then took the lead among the nations of the East, rivalled by Media alone. 604-561. Nebuchadnezzar (Naburkudur-ussur), son of Na- bopolassar, during the reign of his father defeated Necho, king of Egypt, at Carchemisch on the Euphrates (605), conquered Syria, destroyed Jerusalem (586), and subdued Tyre (585). Enlargement and adornment of Ba.bylon (on the east bank of the Euphrates). Construction of a bridge over the Euphrates, and of a new palace, with the " hanging gardens " which tradi- tion assigns to Semiramis. Erection of the Median wall from the Euphrates to the Tigris. Magnificent water works. The reservoir at Sippara (Sepharvaim). After Nebuchadnezzar , rapid decline of the dynasty, which became extinct in 555. 638. Babylon (last king Nabonetus, or Nabunahid, reigning in conjunction with his son Bel-shar-ussur, the Biblical Belshazzar) taken by Cyrus. Babylon a Persian prov- ince. § 4. PHOENICIANS AND CARTHAGINIANS.^ Semitic. (Down to the war of the latter with the Romans.) Geography.8 Phoenicia (^otpforj, Phoenice) is the Grecian name of Canaan (see p. 7), and was derived from the tribal name *OH>(£. In the narrower sense the name denotes the strip of coast, 5-14 miles wide and 150 miles long, which lies N. of the country of the Philistines and the Hebrews and W. of Mt. Leb- anon. This strip was inhabited by three tribes : 1. Sidonians, 1. e. " fishers " (cities: Sidon, Zor, called by the Greeks Tyros); 2. Arvadites (city : Arvad, in Greek Arados); 3. Giblitea (cities : Byblus or Gebal, and Berytos). Religion of the Phoenicians. The god Baal (Bel, of the Babylo* 1 For the Median Empire, see p. 25. 2 Duncker, II. chapter i. ; also III. 265. 8 Kiepert, Atlas Antiyuus. Tab. III. B. c. Phoenicians and Carthaginians. 17 nians) and the goddess Ashera (Baaltis, Belit of the Babylo- nians), the divinities of life, birth, and the genial forces of na- ture, were opposed to the god Moloch (i. e. "king," the Babylonian Adar), the devouring and destroying, and yet cleans- ing fire, also god of war, and the maiden goddess Astarte. Human sacrifices: to Moloch, boys and youths ; to Astarte, youths and maidens. Afterwards Baal and Moloch were con- fused into one divinity, who, under the name of Melkart (i. e. " king of the city " ), became the guardian divinity of Tyre. In the same way Ashera and Astarte were united into one divinity, who when represented as a grim wandering goddess vanishing with the changing light of the moon bears the name Dido, but when represented as a kind and gentle divinity newly restored to the knowledge of mankind that of Anna (i. e. " pleasant "). The Political Constitution of the Phcenician cities was an he- reditary monarchy, but the royal power was checked by the existence of two senates. 1300. Period of Sidon's greatest power. Favored by the sit- uation of their country, and urged by an energetic industry which led to the invention or development of many arts and manufactures, such as purple dye, weaving, glass-making, min- ing, work in metals, and architecture, the Phoenicians estab- lished at an early period, certainly not later than 1500, a car- rying trade by land (to Babylonia, Arabia, Assyria, Armenia) as well as by sea, which time only made more extensive. In close connection with the commerce by sea was the foundation of numerous colonies. Thus in Cyprus were founded Citium, Ama- thus, Paphos, the centre of the worship of Ashera, whence originated the Grecian worship of Aphrodite, that goddess " born of the foam of the sea " (i. e. whose cult came to Greece by sea). Other colonies were founded in Cicilia, Rhodes, -Crete, Cy-thera, as well as on many of the islands of the jiEgsean sea, and at points along the coast of Greece; further west, again, colonies were planted in Melite or Malta, in Sicily (on the southern coast Minoa, Gr. Heraklea, on the northern coast. Solozis (sela = " cliff "), Panormus (Machanaih ?), at the western end of the island Motye\, on Sardinia (Cardlis), on the north coast of Af- rica (two cities of Leptis, Hadrumetum, Utlca, the two towns of Hip po), in the country called Tarsls or Tarshlsh, i. e. southern Spain, beyond the columns of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar), Gadir or Gades, i. e. " walls," " fortress," now Cadiz, founded about 1100. From this point the Phoenicians extended their commercial deal- ings still further to the western coasts of Africa, and to the Islands of Tin (the Cassiterides), Britain,1 and the coasts of the German Ocean, where they bought amber which the native tribes obtained by barter from the Baltic. Mythical representations of these voyages and settlements of the Phoenicians are contained in a series of well-known Grecian tales. 1 English antiquarians of the present day consider it probable that the Phoe- nicians never set foot e:ther in the Scilly Isles or in Britain, but received what British tin they did obtain, at second or third hand, from the Celts of GauJ (Veneti?). Tin was found in the river beds of western Gaul. [TRANS.J 2 18 Ancient History. B. c. Story of the rape of Europa (i. e. " the grim "), daughter of nix (i. e. " the Phoenician ") from Sidon by Zeus in the form of a bull (whereby is denoted the moon-goddess Dido-Astarte, who flees to- wards the west). Story of Minos, the son of Zeus and Europa, the powerful ruler of Crete; his wife is Pasiphae (i. e. " she who shines upon all "). Story of the Minotaur (i. e. Bull of Minos, another con- ception of Baal-Moloch), shut up in the Labyrinth, to whom Athens had to send human offerings. Dcedalus, builder of the Labyrinth in Crete, is the personification of that technical dexterity which the Hel- lenes acquired from the Phoenicians. Cadmus, too, who in search of his sister Europa landed in Thera and Thasos, built the Cadmea in Bcaotia, and invented the alphabet, is the mythical representative of Phoenician settlements from which the written alphabet and other elements of eastern civilization were carried to the Greeks. 1100. Tyre, though younger than Sidon, attained the first rank among the Phoenician sea-board towns. 1001-967. Tyre, at the height of its prosperity, under king Hiram, the contemporary of David and Solomon, and the lat- ter's friend. Exploring expedition of the Tyrians, accompanied by the servants of Solomon, through the Red Sea to the coast of India (Ophir). Hiram filled in the space between the island upon which stood the temple of Melkart, and New Tyre (which was also situated on an island), and erected buildings on the new land. He also narrowed the strait between New Tyre and Old Tyre on the main land. 917 (?). Ethbaal (Ithabalus), high priest of Astarte, murdered Phales, the last descendant of Hiram, and made himself king. About seventy (?) years later, according to a Grecian authority, a grandson of this Ethbaal decreed in his will that his minor son Pyg- malion and his daughter Elissa should govern Tyre in common under the guardianship of their uncle, the high priest Sicharbaal, who was to marry Elissa. The democratic party deprived Elissa of her share in the government, and Pygmalion, coming of age, murdered Sichar- baal. In consequence of this internal strife, and influenced probably by the unfavorable state of the foreign relations (advance of the Assyrian power towards the Mediterranean, see p. 15), a large part of the older families left Tyre with Elissa. On an excellent site, on the north coast of Africa, they founded about 850.1 Carthage 2 (in Punic, Kathada, i. e. " the new city "), between Utica in the W. and the present cape Bon in the E., not far from the present Tunis. Double harbor. Citadel Byrsa. Later the foundress, Elissa, became confused with the goddess, Dido-Astarte, the protectress of the colony.8 1 According to Timseus, 814. Concerning the chronology, see Duncker, II. 270. 2 See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. VIII. * The credibility of this narrative and the interpretations put upon it, both a& tegards the chronology and the facts, are contested by O. Meltzer, Gesch. d. B. c. Phoenicians and Carthaginians. 19 Carthage, so far as it comes within the realm of history, appears to have been an aristocratic republic, with two Sufetes, or judges, fre- quently called "kings," and compared with the Spartan kings, and two senates, a large and small. Only upon occasion of a disagree- ment between these branches of the government were the people called upon to give their opinion. The government tended constantly toward the oligarchical form. 850. Decline of the power of the Phoanician cities, especially of Tyre, which was distracted by civil dissension. The Phoenicians fell repeatedly under the rule of the Assyrians, and, for a time, under that of the Egyptians. After the fall of the Assyr- ian empire (625, 606), they became dependent upon the Babylonians, Tyre alone maintaining its freedom until 573. Favored by the political situation, the Greeks, who had already (about 1000) driven the Phoenicians out of the ^Egean Sea, began to extend their influence in the eastern Mediterranean, and, especially after the second half of the eighth century, along the coasts and islands of the western Mediterranean, and in Lower Italy and Sicily (p. 51). Foundation of Cyrene (p. 49) and Massalia (about 600), attempted settlements upon Corsica, Sardinia, and the shores of Spain. In short, the Phoenician power was threatened with destruction throughout the entire West. Brought face to face with this danger, Carthage, which had mean- time grown considerably stronger, began about 600 to gather the other Phoenician cities under its control, to subjugate the country around its own commercial stations, and to secure its possession by the establishment of new colonies. The Carthaginians annexed to their territory the African coast from Hippo in the W. to beyond Leptis hi the E., and opposed armed resistance to the advancing power of Cyrene. In the peace which was concluded, the altars of the Phi- Iceni, E. of Leptis, were made the boundary. The Carthaginians subjugated Southern Spain and Sardinia, and, with Etruscan aid, drove the Phocceans from Corsica (537 ?). 586-573. Tyre successfully endured a thirteen years' siege, from the land side, by Nebuchadnezzar, but was finally forced to acknowledge the supremacy of the king of Babylon. 538. After the destruction of the Babylonian monarchy, by Cyrus, Phoenicia became subject to Persia. The Phoenician cities, however, retained their independence and their native kings. The Phoenicians henceforth furnished the principal part of the Persian fleet. An expedition for the conquest of Carthage, proposed by Cambyses, king of Persia, after the con- quest of Egypt, was rendered impossible of execution by the refusal of the Phoenicians to fight against their colony. During the Persian supremacy, Sidon was again the first city of Phoenicia. The Carthaginians, favored by the civil dissensions of the Karthager, Bd. I., 1879, who admits the truth of these statements only: that Carthage was a Tyrian colony, and was certainly founded before the eighth century. 20 Ancient History. B. c. Greeks in Sicily, and by the Persian war with Greece, attacked the Greek colonies in Sicily (being secretly in alliance with Xerxes ?) 480. War of the Carthaginians, in alliance with Selinus^ against the other Greek cities in Sicily. The Carthaginian army under Hamilcar was utterly defeated and scattered at Himera by the tyrants Gelon of Syracuse (Supa/couo-cu) and Theron of Agrigentum ('A/cpcryas). The Carthaginians purchased peace for 2000 talents, thereby sav- ing their Sicilian cities, Panormus, Soloeis, Motye. 409-339. Repeated wars between the Carthaginians and Greeks in Sicily. The Carthaginians, called in to assist Segesta ("E-yevra) against Seli- nus, after conquering Selinus, Himera, Agrigentum, and Gela, secured the supremacy over the western half of Sicily, a position which they maintained against all attempts of the tyrant Dionysius I. and Timo- leon, who restored republican liberty to the Grecian cities, to dislodge them. 332. Capture of the island city, New Tyre, by Alexander the' Great after a seven months' siege. Phoenicia became a part of the great Grseco-Macedonian monarchy, and later a part of the kingdom of the Seleucidae, and for a time of that of the Ptolemies. 317-275. New wars between the Carthaginians and Greeks in Sicily. Agathocles, tyrant of Syracuse, sought to bring all Sicily under his rule. The Carthaginians despoiled him of his conquests and besieged Syracuse. Agathocles effected a landing in Africa (310), and overran a large part of the Carthaginian territory, while the Syracusans re- pulsed and annihilated the Carthaginian army under the walls of Syra- cuse. Agathocles returned to Sicily; his army, which he left before Carthage, was destroyed. In the peace with Syracuse the Cartha- ginians regained their former possessions in Sicily (306). After the death of Agathocles, party broils in Syracuse favored the advance of the Carthaginian power. Pyrrhus of Epirus, then in Tarentum, was called to the aid of the Syracusans (278). He was at first successful, but offending most of the Grecian cities by his sever- ity, they took sides with the Carthaginians, and Pyrrhus was forced to leave Sicily. On the voyage back to Italy he was defeated by a Carthaginian fleet (276). § 5. LYDIANS AND PHRYGIANS. Lydians. /Semitic. Geography : Lydia, in the strict sense, or Maeonia, was the middle one of the three divisions of Asia Minor lying on the jEgsean Sea, the northern being Mysiay the southern Caria. Rivers: Hermus, Caystrus, B. C. Lydians and Phrygians. 21 Pactolus (golden-sand) in Lydia; M (zander in Caria. Capital of Lydia: Sardes at the base of the Tmolus range. The Lydians belonged to the Semitic race, like the Cilicians, and probably the Carians, whereas the other peoples of Asia Minor were in all likelihood Aryans. The kingdom of Lydia at the period of its greatest extent reached to the Halys river (now the Kisil IrmaTc), and included, beside the countries mentioned above, Bithynia and Paphlagonia on the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea), and the inland country of Phrygia. Religion: Worship of the sun-god Sandon, and the goddesses Bla (Mylitta-Ashera) and Ma (Astarte). The last two became united in one goddess, under the name " the great mother " (Cybele), who was worshipped in Ephesus as Artemis (Diana). Chronology : Lydia was ruled by two successive mythical dynas- ties, the Attyadce, from Attys, son of the god Manes (prior to 1229), and the Sandonidce, who traced their origin to the god Sandon (1229- 724). The Greeks saw in this latter divinity their Heracles, and called this dynasty, therefore, the Heradidce. The last king of this line, Candaules, was murdered (689 * ) by his favorite Gyges in collu- sion with the king's consort. With Gyges the 689 2-549 (?). Dynasty of the Mermnadae came to the throne. Under these sovereigns the Lydian kingdom, after suffering severely from the Cimmerians, and being at times subject to Assyria, grew in power and extent. Gyges himself extended his sway over Mysia and to the Hellespont. His two succes- sors conquered Phrygia, and carried on an unsuccessful war with the Grecian cities on the sea coast. Alyattes, the fourth of the Mermnadce, warred with Cyaxares, king of Media, with success. 610 (?). Indecisive battle between Alyattes and Cyaxares. Eclipse of the sun predicted by Thales of Miletus. In the treaty of peace the Halys was made the boundary between the Lydian and Median kingdoms. The daughter of Alyattes was given in marriage to Astyages, son of Cyaxares. Alyattes sub- dued Bithynia and Paphlagonia in the north, Caria in the south, took Smyrna and Colophon, but failed to subdue the re- maining coast towns. A vast treasure collected in the royal palace at Sardes. Magnificent buildings. Ruins of royal tombs north of Sardes. 563-549 (?). Croesus, Son of Alyattes, captured Ephesus, and afterwards subdued all the Grecian cities of the coast, Ionian, ^Eolian, and Dorian, with the exception of Miletus, with which he formed a league. Active intercourse with European Greece. Solon, of Athens, visited Sardes. After the deposition of his brother-in-law Astyages, of Media, by Cyrus the Persian, Croesus attacked the Persian empire. Following the am- biguous advice of the Delphic oracle he crossed the Halys. Inde- cisive battle between Croesus and Cyrus at Pteria. Croesus returned 1 Eusebius, 699 ; Herodotus, 719. 2 Duncker, Hist, of Antiq., III. 414, note 2. 22 Ancient History. B. c. irresolutely to Sardes, whither he was followed by Cyrus, who de- feated him in a second battle, captured Sardes, and took Croesus prisoner (see p. 26). 549 (?). Fall of the kingdom of Lydia, which was united with the Persian empire. Phrygians. 750, or earlier, an independent monarchy was formed in 1ST. W. Phrygia, having its capital at Gordiceum. Its monarchs, thfi dates of whose reigns are uncertain, bore the names of Gordia. and Midas alternately. A Midas contemporary with Alyat' tes (about 600-570), and a Gordias with Croesus (570-560). Phrygia conquered by Lydia about 560. (Rawlinson.) § 6. INDIANS. Aryan. Geography : India, the central peninsula of the three which pro- ject from the southern coast of Asia into the Indian Ocean, is a vast triangle, having a base and a height of about 1900 miles, bounded on the N. by the Himalaya Mountains, on the E. by the Bay of Bengal, on the W. by the Gulf of Arabia. It falls into three geo- graphical divisions : I. The region of the Himalayas. The central range forms an almost impassable barrier between India and the Mongol tribes of central Asia (Mt. Everest, 29,000 ft.). On the E. this region is separated from Burmali by the lower ranges of the Ndgd, Patkoi, and Yomas (Aeng Pass), which are pierced by the Brahmaputra. On the W. the Sufed Koh, Suldimdn, and the Hdlas separate India from Afghanistan and Baluchistan, but are pierced by the Indus River, the Khaibar Pass (3373 ft.), and the Boldn Pass (5800 ft.). This region includes Nepal and Kashmir. II. The fertile valley of the great rivers, which receives the drainage of the northern as well as of the southern slopes of the Hima- layas. River systems: Indus, Sutlej (provinces of Punjab, i. e. the five streams,1 Sind); Ganges (provinces of Bengal, Oudh, Rdjpu- tdna j cities : Calcutta, Benares, Delhi, Allahabad) ; Bramaputra (province of Assam). Deltas of the Ganges and Brahmaputra. III. The Deccan, or ^southern plateau, separated from the Ganges valley by the Vindhya mountains (5000 ft.), and bordered by the East Ghats (1500 ft.) and West Ghats (3000 ft.). Rivers: Goddvari, Krishna, Kdveri, all flowing through the East Ghats into the Bay of Bengal. Provinces : Madras, Bombay, Mysore, etc. Religion : The religion of the early Indians, as portrayed in the Vedic hymns, was a worship of Nature : Dyaush-pitar, Father of Heaven; Varuna, the sky; Indra, the rain- vapor; Agni, fire; Maruts, gods of the storm. After the settlement in the Ganges valley, this primitive faith underwent a change. History : The Indians (Hindus) migrating from the northwest, came at first to the valley of the Indus and the Punjab, and thence slowly pushed their settlements down the valley of the Ganges, 1 Indus, Itielum, Chenaub, Ravi, Sutlej (modern names). B. c. Indians. 23 where they were probably established as early as 1500 B. c. The native tribes whom they found in the country they either enslaved or pushed into the Himalayas on the N., and on to the Deccan in the S. (Dravidians). At a later date the Hindus spread along the coasts of the Deccan and reached Ceylon. Foundation of numerous despotic kingdoms. In the conquered district strict separation of the Aryan conquerors from the subjugated aborigines. Development of the royal power and of the priestly in- fluence. Four principal castes: Brahmans, priests; Kshattriyas, warriors; Vaisyas, agricultural settlers. These three were of pure Aryan descent. The Sudras, or servile caste, were of aboriginal descent, the Dasas, "slaves." Transformation of the ancient faith into the religion of Brahma: Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the pre- server; Siva, the destroyer and restorer. Spiritual tyranny of the Brahmans, accompanied by a high development of philosophy, gram- mar, etc., by the Brahmans, in connection with the explanation of the Veclas (" revelations "), or services for the various religious cere- monials : Rig- Veda, the simplest form ; Sama- Veda ; Yayur- Veda (black and white), Atharva-Veda. To these were in time attached prose treatises composed by the priests and called the Brahmanas, one being attached to each Veda. A second series of additions were the Sutras ("sacred traditions"). Poetry, the epics: Maha-bharata, Ramdyana. Regulation of the entire thought and life in accord- ance with strict prescriptions, which were afterwards (about 600 ?) gathered together into the book of the laws of Manu, being, as it was claimed, a divine revelation to him, the tribal ancestor of the whole race. Complicated system of rites and ceremonies. Pre- scriptions concerning cleanliness. Terrors of the doctrine of the second birth. Magnificent monuments of Indian architecture, especially the Cliff Temples, which were excavated in the rock, both upon and be- low the surface of the earth. Later, Pagodas. In the sixth century, appearance of the reformer Buddha, i. e. "the enlightened" (623 to 543), properly Gautama, afterwards Sid- dhartha (i. e. " he who has fulfilled his end "), son of prince Sud- dhodana. Buddhism, called after its founder, was originally a philosophical system, without creed or rites, having for its object the attainment of moral perfection. Through its doctrine of the essen- tial equality of all men, it was directly opposed to Brahmanism. The progress of Buddhism produced, along with certain changes i the old system, a strong Brahmanistic reaction. The war of the r( ligions ended with the expulsion of Buddhism from India. It main tained itself in Kashmir and Ceylon only, but the loss was offset by great gains in central and eastern Asia, where it has to-day over 300,000,000 devotees in Thibet, China, Japan, etc. 327. Invasion of the Punjab by Alexander the Great (p. 75). 317-291. Formation of great empires of short duration (empire of Magadha, under Chandra-gupta (Greek, Sandra-kottos), and his grandson, 263-226 (?). Acoka, the friend of Buddhism. After the reign of Aco- ka the Punjab fell under the supremacy of the Grseco-Bactriau 24 Ancient History. B. C. empire in central Asia, and thus some tincture of Greek civ- ilization was imparted to this part of India. The Bactrian rulers were finally expelled by Scythian invaders, several dy- nasties of whom appear to have reigned in the Punjab and along the Ganges. Wars of the native prince Vikramaditya against the Scythians (57 B.C. ?). Kanishka, Gr. Kanerke, was the founder of the last dynasty of Scythian kings, who were succeeded by an unknown people, the Guptas. Another branch of the Indo-Scythians making their way down the Indus came into conflict with the Guptas, and with a general league of the Hindus of the south. In the 78 A. D. (?) Battle of Kahror the invaders were utterly defeated and are henceforward not mentioned. The Guptas reigned in Oudh and northern India until they were overthrown by foreign invaders (Tatars ?) in the latter half of the fifth century A. D. § 7. BACTRIANS, MEDES, PERSIANS. Aryan. Geography: The Bactrians, Medes, and Persians inhabited the plateau of Iran,1 between the Suldimdn range on the E. and the val- ley of the Euphrates and Tigris on the W., between the Caspian Sea 011 the N., and the Erythraean Sea (Indian Ocean) on the S. On the western border of this highland: Media (Ecbatana, Med. Hangma- tana, i. e. " place of assemblies ") ; on the southern border along the Persian Gulf, Persis (Pasargddce, Persepolis), Carmania; on the Ery- thraean sea, Gedrosia; on the eastern border, Arachosia, the land of the Paropanisddce, at the foot of the Paropanisus (Hindu Koosh} ; 2 on the northern border, Bactria or Bactriana (Bdktrd), Parthia and Hyr- cania on the Caspian Sea; in the centre, A ria and Drangiana- between the Oxus and the Jaxartes, Sogdiana (Maracandd). East of the lower course of the Tigris, in the lowlands: Susiana (the ancient Elam) with Susa, the principal residence of the Persian Kings. Within this broad plateau, a widely accepted theory locates the primeval home of the Aryan or Indo-European or Japhetic race, from which in prehistoric times successive colonies wandered away to the south and west. About 1000 (?)• Zoroaster (Zarathustra) whose doc- trine, a spiritual reform of the old Iraiiic superstitions, was contained in the 21 (?) books of the Avesta, of which one only has come down to us: the Vendidad, i. e. "delivered against the Daeva," the bad spirits. The pith of the doctrine as set forth in the Avesta8 is the conception of a continuous war- fare of the good spirits, whose leader was the good god Ahura- mazda or Auramazda (in modern Persian Ormuzd), and the evil spirits, or Daeva, whose leader was Angromainyu, in mod- ern Persian Ahriman), over the life and death, welfare or in- 1 Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. II. 2 Kiepert, Manual of Ancient Geography, p. 39. 8 Avesta is the law itself, Zend the later commentary on the law; hence Zend- tvesta, and the expressions Zend-language, Zend-people. B. c. Hadrians, Medes, Persians. 25 jury, of man and his soul after death. In this new doctrine Mithra the sun-god, originally the highest of the Iranian gods, appeared as a creature of the creator Ahuramazda, but never- theless the equal of the latter in dignity and divinity. Worship of fire, whose blaze scared away the evil spirits of the night ; reverence paid to water, and the fertile earth, the daughter of Ahuramazda. The priests, called Athrava (from athao, fire), by the Bactrians, and Magians (Maghush) by the Medes, formed a distinct hereditary class ; an institution which was copied by the ancient priestly families of Persia, after the general acceptance in that country of the reformed faith, which came to them from Bactria, through Media. About 1100. Formation of a powerful Empire in Bac- tria, mythical reminiscences of the deeds of whose kings are perhaps contained in the Shahnameh of the poet Firdusi (about 1000 A. D.). As early as the ninth century, the Assyrians undertook expedi- tions against the plateau of Iran, and in the middle of the eighth century, the western portion of this plateau, Media, and Persia, be- came permanently subject to Assyria. 640. Revolt of the Medes from the Assyrians. 640-558. Median Empire. The first prince of a Median dynasty mentioned was 708-655. Dejoces (Arji'o/crjs, old Pers. Dahyaukd), to whom is as- cribed the foundation of the capital Ecbatdna. He does not appear, however, to have reigned over the whole of Media, or to have been independent, but rather to have continued to pay tribute to the Assyrians. His son, 655-633. Phraortes (^paoprr/s, Pers. Fravartis), was the first who united the whole country under one ruler and established the independence of Media. He made the Persians tributary, although their native ruler Achcemenes (Hakhamanis), who was raised to the throne after the revolt of the Persians from As- syria, retained his crown under Median supremacy, and be- queathed it to his descendants. After Phraortes had fallen fighting against the Assyrians (p. 15) his son, 633-593. Cyaxares (K.va£dpr]s, Pers. Uvahksathra) succeeded him and continued the war with Assyria successfully. Inroad of the Scythians. After their departure (about 626 ? see p. 15), Cyaxares subjugated Armenia. War with Alyattes king of Lydia (p. 21). 606 (625?). Cyaxares, in alliance with Ndbopolassar of Babylonia, captured Nineveh and destroyed the Empire of Assyria (p. 15), whose territory on the left shore of the Tigris fell to the Medians. He also conquered eastern Iran. Media at the death of Cyaxares was the most powerful monarchy of Asia. His son, 693-558. Astyages ('Aarvcfy^s), last king of the Medes. Cyrus, of 26 Ancient History. B. c. the family of the Achcemenidce in the Persian tribe of the Pa- sargadce, which reigned in Persia under Median supremacy, deposed A sty ages. The supremacy passed (558) from the Medes to the Persians. Herodotus (I. 107, etc.) reports a tradition of the Median descent of Cyrus through his mother Manddne, daughter of Astyages, which is adorned after the Oriental manner, with the dream of Astydges, the interpretation of the Magi, the exposure, miraculous rescue and rec- ognition of the boy Cyrus, the cruel punishment of Harpagus, his treachery, etc. This story is evidently an invention of the Medes, who would not admit that they were conquered by a stranger. According to Ctesias, the daughter of Astydges was named Amy- tis, and was the wife of a Mede, Spitamas. After the deposition of Astydges and execution of Spitamas, Cyrus made her his consort. 558-330. Persian Empire founded by 558-529. Cyrus (Kupos, Pers. Kurus). Cyrus strengthened the Persian power over those peoples of Iran which were formerly subject to the Medes, and over the Armenians and Cappadocians. War against Croesus of Lydia (p. 21). After the indecisive battle of Pteria (554?), Cyrus advanced on Sardes, defeated Croesus in a second battle on the Hermus, stormed Sardes, captured Croesus, and deprived him of his kingdom, but otherwise treated him as a friend and ad- viser (554). * The Grecian story told by Herodotus (I. 86) of Cyrus' intention to burn Cro3sus, who, on the pyre, calls to mind his interview with Solon, of his consequent pardon by Cyrus, and the miraculous quenching of the flames by the Delphic Apollo, who had formerly re- ceived vakiable presents from Croesus, betrays a purpose of bringing Grecian wisdom into strong relief (proverb of Solon, that no mortal is to be called fortunate before death), and of vindicating the Grecian god. It is inconsistent with the, command of the Persian faith, not to contaminate the sacred fire. Probably Croesus wished to appease the anger of the gods against his people and country, according to Semitic usage, by burning himself; according to the Lydian story, the sun-god Sandon does not accept the offering, but puts out the flames with rain. Cyrus returned to Ecbatana. A revolt of the Lydians was quickly repressed. Mazares and Harpagus made the Grecian coast cities tributary to the Persians. A portion of the Phocceans migrated to Corsica; driven thence (see p. 19) they went to Elea (Velio) in southern Italy. Harpagus conquered Caria and Lycia. 539-538. War of Cyrus against the Babylonians. After a siege of nearly two years (diversion of the Euphrates) Babylon was captured. The Babylonian Empire was in- corporated with the Persian; the Phoenicians and Cilicians 1 The date of the fall of Sardes is disputed. Duncker (Book viii., chap. 6), gives 549. B. c. Bactrians, Medes, Persians. 27 retained their native rulers under Persian supremacy ; the Jews were sent from Babylon back to Palestine (p. 11). 529. Cyrus, who was occupied during the last nine years of his reign with wars against the eastern peoples, fell in one of these expeditions. The story of his death, like that of his birth, has been poetically adorned and variously related. According to one tradition, probably of Median origin (Herodotus, I. 202-214), Cyrus fell in battle against Tomi/ris, the queen of the Massagetce, whose son he had overcome by deceit. She thrust the dissevered head of the Persian monarch into a skin- bag of blood that he might " drink his fill of blood." Ac- cording to Ctesias, Cyrus died, on the fourth day, of a wound which he received in a victory over the Derbices, The son and successor of Cyrus, 529-522. Cambyses (Ka/u/ftxn??, Pers. Kambujiya), con- quered Egypt by his victory at Pelusium (p. 7). 525.1 Capture of Memphis. Expedition up the Nile toward ^Ethiopia; failure of provisions in the desert compelled him to turn back. The tyrant ot Cyrene acknowledged the supremacy of Cam- byses, but a projected attack upon Carthage by sea was pre- vented by the refusal of the Phoenicians to lend their ships (p. 19). Destruction of the army corps dispatched against the temple of Jupiter Ammon (Oasis Sivah). Cambyses slaughtered the bull Apis in Memphis 2 (?), and mani- fested in all ways a choleric and bloodthirsty disposition. On the way back from Egypt, he died in Syria, either from an accidental wound, or by his own hand. A Magus seized the sceptre and pro- claimed himself the brother of Cambyses, 522. Bardija (Gr. SyuepSts), who had been murdered at Cambyses' command. After a short reign the usurper was put to death by the princes of the seven Persian tribes, the most influential of whom, 521-485. Darius (AapeToq, Pers. Darayavus), son of Hys- taspes (Vista f pa), was made king. The father of Darius, Hystaspes, was the head of the younger line of the Achcemenidce (the elder became extinct with Cambyses and Bardija) and the rightful heir to the Persian throne. The son, Darius, however, was recognized by the other princes as king. Later his accession was ratified by the production of auguries. (Anecdote of the neighing horse in Herodotus, III. 85;) Revolt of the Babylonians. The city of Babylon recaptured only after a siege of more than 20 months. (Self-mutilation of Zopyrus. in order to deceive the Babylonians.) 518 (?), Afterwards Darius suppressed revolts which had broken out in other parts of the empire (in Media, Persia, Parthia, etc.), and conquered the right bank of the Indus. 1 According to Brugsch, 527. 2 See on this point Brugsch, Hist, of Egypt, II. 289 ff., who, by the genealogy of the Api, showed the improbabilit3r of the story. 28 Ancient History. B. c. 513 (?). Unsuccessful expedition of Darius against the Scythians with a land force of 700,000 men. The fleet of the Greeks of Asia Minor was conducted by the tyrants of the Ionian cities. Bridge of boats across the Bosphorus. Bridge over the Ister (Danube). After an aimless advance, lack of provisions in- duced a retreat (Herodotus, IV. 130 seq.). Darius rescued by the faithfulness of Histiceus of Miletus (against the advice of Miltiades of Athens, tyrant in the Chersonese). Thracia made subject to Persia. Cyrene conquered by a force sent from Egypt. Susa, in Susiana, since the time of Darius the principal residence of the " Great King " (jScunAet/r T&V /Jao-tAeW, pfyas fiao-i\e6s, Pers. Khshayathiya-Khshayathiyandm, whence the modern Persian Shahin- shah). Ecbatdna in Media was the summer residence. Erection of a new royal palace at Persepolis in Persis, where ruins with inscrip- tions and sculptures have been discovered, as well as at Susa. At Persepolis, too, the tombs of the kings. Divine worship paid to the king, the satisfaction of whose wants was the final purpose of the state. Maintenance of a costly court, with an elaborate ceremonial. Construction of great military roads. Completion of the canal from the Nile to the Red Sea, which Ramessu II. had begun and Neku had continued (p. 5). Establishment of postal stations, of course only for the carriage of royal messages. Division of the empire into 20 (?) satrapies, each under a satrap (Persian Khshatra-pati, L e. " lord of the province "), with regal accommodation in palaces surrounded by extensive gardens (Para- disice). Subject cities or tribes, and indeed whole nations, enjoyed their own laws and separate administration, under native though de- pendent princes. 500-494. Revolt of the Ionian Greeks, incited by His- ticeus of Miletus, who had been accused to Darius and sum- moned to Susa, and his son-in-law Aristagoras. With the assistance of Athens and Eretria, Sardes was captured and burned. The lonians, defeated by the Persian army, were abandoned by their allies from Athens and Eretria; their fleet was defeated at Lade, opposite Miletus. The lonians were again reduced to subjection, and the Milesians, by command of Darius, were settled about the mouth of the Tigris. 493-490. War of Darius against the European Greeks (p. 56). Great preparations for a new expedition against Greece. Re- volt among the Egyptians. 485. Death of Darius. He was succeeded by his son, 485-465. Xerxes I. (Sep^s, Pers. Khshayarsha). 480. War against Greece (p. 58). Xerxes and his eldest son mur- dered by Artabanus, captain of the body-guard. The second son of Xerxes, 465-424. Artaxerxes I. (Pers. Artachshatra), called MaKp6Xetp, Lon* gimanus, succeeded to the throne. 462—455. Second revolt of the Egyptians under Inaros, assisted by B. c. Bactrians, Medes, Persians. 29 the Athenians, suppressed by the satrap Megdbyzus tceus alone maintained himself about the mouths of the Nile). Wars with the Greeks (p. 63). Beginning of the internal de- cay of the Persian empire. Revolts of the satraps. Merce- nary troops. The son of Artaxerxes, 424. Xerxes II., after ruling one month and a half, was murdered, by his brother, Sogdianus, who after six and a half months, was murdered by his brother Ochus, who reigned under the name 424-405. Darius II., Npthus. He was under the influence of his wife Parysdtis. Third revolt of the Egyptians, who maintained their independence for sixty years (414-354). 405-362. Artaxerxes II., Mnemon. Revolt of his brother, the younger Cyrus, who, assisted by Grecian mercenaries, attacked the king in the neighborhood of Babylon. 401. Cyrus fell in the battle of Cunaxa' in personal combat with his brother. 400. Retreat of the 10,000 Greeks, Xenophon (Anabasis). 362-338. Artaxerxes III. Revolt of the Phoenicians and Egyptians suppressed. Artaxerxes poisoned by his favorite, the Egyp- tian Bagoas, who placed on the throne the king's youngest son, 338-336. Arses, whom he likewise murdered, in order to put a great- grandson of Darius Nothus in his place. 336-330. Darius III., Codomannus. Bagoas executed by poison. War with Alexander of Macedonia ; Darius murdered by the satrap Bessus while fleeing, after the battle of Gaugamela (331). 330. Destruction of the Persian Empire. See Grecian history, 4th period, p. 74. § 8. PARTHIANS.i Turanian?* Geography: The Parthian empire extended from the Euphrates to the Indus, from the Caspian Sea and the Araxes to the Indian Ocean, covering nearly the same ground, and having in the main the same divisions, as the Persian empire, of which it was, indeed, in many ways an avowed imitation. Parthia proper, the region between the Jaxartes, and the desert of Iran, the Caspian Sea and the province of Aria, was a satrapy of the Persian empire. About 250. The Parthians revolted under the lead of Arsaces, the chief of a tribe of the Dance (Scythians). The revolt succeeding, 250(?)-247. Arsaces I. was raised to the throne. He was suc- ceeded by his brother Tiridates as 247-214. Arsaces II., who firmly established the independence of Parthia. His son, 214-196. Arsaces III., successfully resisted Antiochus the Great. Arsaces IV. (Priapatius) and Arsaces V. (Phraates /.) accom- plished but little of importance. The son of the latter, 1 Bawlinson. 2 The use of this name must not be understood as implying belief in the racial unity of all the peoples to whom it is applied. It denotes merely the mass of Asiatics who belonged neither to the Semitic nor to the Aryan family. 80 Ancient History. B. c.-A. D, 174-136. Mithridates L, founded the Empire of the Par- thians, extending his sway over Media, Susiana, Per- sia, Babylonia, Baetria. Subject nations were permitted to retain their native kings in subjection to Parthia. The Parthian civilization was rude and of a low order. 136-127. Phraates II. (Arsaces VII.} repressed a revolt of Baby- lonia, but fell lighting against the Turanians. The incursions of these nomadic tribes became more frequent under Artabanus (Arsaces VIII.) , 127-124, who likewise feU in battle against them. They were, however, effectually checked by Mith- ridates II. (Arsaces IX.), 124-S7, who also extended the power of Parthia in other directions, until towards the close of his reign he was defeated by Tigranes of Armenia. Under Phraates HI. (Arsaces XII.}, 69-60, the Parthians first be- came embroiled with Borne, war with this power breaking out in 54. Under Orodes I. (Arsaces XIV.), 54-37, Expedition of Crassus (p. 140). Expedition of Antonius, 36, against Phraates IV. (Arsaces XV.). From 37 B. c. to 107 A. D. Parthia was ruled by a series of ten monarchs, whose reigns were mostly occupied with struggles for the succession. Volo* geses /., 50-90 ; Armenia lost. An attempt made by 107-121 A. D. Chosroes (Arsaces XXV.) to recover Armenia brought about the successful Parthian expedition of Trajan, whose conquests were, however, abandoned as soon as made. Vologeses III. (Arsaces XXVII.), 149-192 A. D., became in- volv^ed in a war with M. Aurelius, which terminated in the complete submission of the Parthian. His successor, Vologsses IV., 192-213 A. D., lost northern Assyria to Rome. £15-226 A. D. Artabanus IH. (Arsaces XXX.), last king of Par- thia. In his reign Parthia suffered severely at the hands of Caracalla, but, after his death and the defeat of Macrinus, had regained its former power, when the empire was brought to an end by the success of an insurrection of the Persians under Artaxerxes, son of Sassan, who defeated and slew the Parthian monarch. The Tatar empire was replaced by the Aryan king- dom of the Sassanidae, or the New Persian Empire (226- 652 A. D. (p. 187). § 9. CHINESE. Turanian. Geography: China in the broad sense, or the Chinese Empire, embracing Manchuria, Mongolia, and Tibet, as well as China proper, is bounded N. by Asiatic Russia, E. by the Sea of Japan, the Yellow Sea, and the Sea of China, S. and S. W. by the Sea of China, Cochin China, Burmah, W. by Kashmir and East Turkestan. China (land of the Seres among the ancients, Cathay in the Middle Age), comprises less than half of the Chinese empire, being about 1474 miles long by 1355 wide. Vast alluvial plain and delta in the N. E. Mountainous and hilly in south. Rivers: Hwang-ho (Yellow River)', Yang-tsze- Keang; Se-keang. Provinces: 1. Chih-li (or Pe-chih-li), with Peking, B. c. Chinese. 31 the capital of the empire ; 2, Keang-soo, the most populous and best watered of the provinces, with the cities, Nan-king, Shang-hai- 3, Gan- hwuy; 4, Keang-se; 5, Che-keang, with the city Ning-po; 6, Fuh-keen, comprising the island of Formosa (Taiwan); 1, Hoo-pih; 8, Hoo-nan- 9, Ho-nan; 10, Shan-tung with the Tai-shan mountain; 11, Shan-se; 12, Shen-se; 13, Kan-suh; 14, Sze-chuen; 15, Kwang-tung, with the cities, Canton, Macao, Hong-Kong (properly Hiang-kiang) ; 16, Kivang- se; 17, Fwn-nan; 18, Kwei-chow; 19, Shing-king. Religion: Uncertainty concerning the oldest religion of the Chi- nese. By some writers it is considered little higher than fetichism, while others see a monotheistic belief in the worship af Ti. Their religion embraced a worship of ancestors, of deified rulers, and of spirits generally, classed in antitheses of opposing qualities (yang and yin), heaven and earth, male and female, from whose interaction all created beings sprang. Ideas of future life indistinct, no system of rewards and punishments. System of offerings ; never human sac- rifices. In the fifth century B. c. appeared the philosopher Con- fucius (K'ung-foo-tsze, 551-478), who taught no new theology, and did not remodel the old religion, but whose ethical code and personal influence secured for him an enthusiastic following. It was a revi- val, rather than a reformation, of the ancient faith. Enunciation of the Golden Rule.1 Contemporary with Confucius was Lao-tsze, the author of a system of ethical philosophy, Taoism, the " way or method of living which men should cultivate as the highest and purest devel- opment of their nature" (Legge). At a later time there grew up a system of gross and mystical superstition, which took the name of Taoism, deified Lao-tsze, and became one of the recognized religions of the empire. Buddhism introduced into China about A. D. 65, where it has degenerated into a low superstition, but still numbers many dev- otees and has deeply affected the older religions. Begging priests. Mohammedanism has also its adherents. The common religion of the lower classes is the old ancestor and spirit worship, complicated by the introduction of elements from all the sects above mentioned. No state religion; toleration of all faiths. Chronology. The Chinese regard themselves as aborigines. For- eign scholars derive them from wandering bands of Tatars, or from the peoples of Tibet and Farther India. It is probable that the first settlements were made in the valley of the Hwang-ho. The Chinese possess an intricate system of chronology which ear- lier writers trusted almost implicitly, but which modern scholars have severely criticised. The dates assigned before 800 B. c. are probably wholly untrustworthy. Chinese annalists place the creation between two and three millions of years before Confucius, and divide the inter- vening space into ten epochs. In the eighth of these are placed the fa- mous emperors Yeiv-chaou She (" nest builder "), Suy-jin She, the dis- coverer of fire, Fuhi, Chin-nung, inventor of the plough, and Yaou, who first drained the valley of Hwang-ho. These sovereigns are to be regarded as largely mythical, as are the dynasties of Hia (2205-1766) »nd Shang (1766-1123). 1 Legge, Religions of China, 137-139. 82 Ancient History. B. c.-A. D, 1123-255. Chow Dynasty. During the time of this dynasty we reach historic ground. Development of a feudal system. The imperial domain lay in the middle of the empire, whence the name applied to the empire, " Middle Kingdom." Un- der Sing-wang, hirth of Confucius, 551 B. c. 255-206- Dynasty of Tsin, famous for the energetic monarch Che-ivang-te (246-210), who extended the empire to the sea, defeated the Mongols, built the Chinese Wall (1400 miles long, 15-30 feet high, 15-25 feet broad); 213, CU- wang-te ordered the destruction of many thousand historical and philosophical books. 206 B. C.-221 A. D. Dynasties of Bast and "West Han. Brilliant period of Chinese history. The power of the feudal lords limited, the empire consolidated and strength- ened, and extended westward to Russian Turkestan. Conquest of northern Cored (109 A. D.). Annexation of Hainan. This period was succeeded by one of great confusion. 221-265 A. D. Epoch of the Three Kingdoms: Wei, in the north; Wu, in the east; and Shuh, in the west. Wuti, 265 A. D., re- united a large part of the empire and founded the dynasty of Tsin, but the country soon relapsed into a divided state, which continued until 590 A. D. "Yang-Elian, prince of Suy, in the northern king- dom of Wei, extending his conquests southward, united the whole empire under his sceptre and founded the dynasty of Suy. § 10. JAPANESE. Turanian. Geography: The Japanese1 empire, Dai Nippon, is a chain of isl- ands which skirts the eastern coast of Asia opposite Corea, Man- churia, and Amur. It comprises four large islands: Kiushiu" Shiko- ku; Hondo,2 or Honshiu, the principal island; Yezo; and some three thousand small islands.8 Nature of the country, rocky, mountainous, volcanic. Highest mountain, Fusiyama (12,000 ft.), in the centre of the east coast of Hondo. Rivers numerous but small; among the largest: Tone-gawa, Shinano-gawa, Kiva-gawa, Ti-gawa. Lake Biica in Hondo. Principal cities: Kioto, Yedo, or Tokio, Yokohama, Osaka. Religion: The most ancient religion of Japan bears the native name of Kami-no-michi, " the way of the gods," but is better known abroad by the Chinese term Shinto. It consisted of a theology which comprised the gods of heaven, the mikados, many deified mortals, ani- 1 Japan (Zipnnrju in the Middle Age) is a name given to the empire by foreigners. It is probably of Chinese origin. 2 This is the name recently applied to the main island by the Japanese gov- ernment; previously the Japanese had no name for this island. Nippon] the name frequently given it by foreigners, is the name of the whole empire. 8 Saghalin was given to Russia in 1875 iu exchange for the Kurile islands. B. c.-A. D. Japanese. 33 mals, plants, and natural objects, and of a ritual for the worship of these deities. The chief command of the religion was implicit obedi- ence to the gods, especially to the mikado. It had no moral code. It was emphatically a state religion, and was often used as a political engine. In 552 A. D. Buddhism was introduced into Japan, where it spread rapidly. Development of a score or more of sects. (Among others Shin-shu, which teaches salvation by faith in Buddha.) Bud- dhism for a time overshadowed ihe older religion, but the present government has fully reinstated the Shinto faith. Chronology : The origin of the Japanese is uncertain. They in- vaded the islands from Asia, and conquered them from the savage Ainos, whom they found there. The present Japanese are certainly a mixed race, containing Turanian and Malay elements. While the mythical history of Japan comprises a dynasty of gods, followed by a dynasty of rulers descended from the sun-goddess, and who are sometimes assigned reigns of hundreds of thousands of years each, the earliest date of what is believed in Japan to be authentic history is 660 B. c. ; the dates are probably untrustworthy until much later. 660-585 B. c. Jimmu Tenno,1 the first Mikado,2 being the 5th in descent from the sun-goddess. He was leader of the invasion, and conquered Kiushiu, Shihoku, and a part of the main island. Jimmu is regarded by many foreign scholars as a mythical character. He was the founder of an unbroken dynasty, of which the reigning mikado, Mutsu-Hito, is the 122d (123d counting Jingu) sovereign. The 10th mikado, Sujin (97-30 B. c.) introduced reforms, reorganized the administra- tion of the empire and generally advanced the civilization of the people. Intercourse opened with Corea. Succeeding em- perors continued the war with the native Ainos, who were pushed further and further to the north. Especially famous is the reign of the 12th mikado, 71-130 A. D. Keiko, whose more famous son, Yamato-Dake, " the warlike," conquered the great eastern plain, the Koanto. The 14th mikado, Chinai, dying suddenly, was succeeded by his wife the renowned 201-269 A. D. Jingu-Kogo, sometimes called the 15th mikado, al- though never formally crowned. She suppressed a rebellion in Kiushiu, and herself led an army to Corea, which she re- duced to submission. Diplomatic relations with China. Her son and successor, 270-310 A. D. Ojin, was a great warrior, and is still worshipped as 1 His true name was Kan-yamato-iware-liilco-no-milcoto. After the introduc- tion of Chinese characters, the long native names of gods and emperors were transcribed into the shorter Chinese equivalents. It also became customary for the mikados to receive after death a different name from that which they had borne while living. The first mikado received the name Jimmu, " spirit of war," to which was joined one of the official titles of the mikado, Tenno, " lord of heaven." 2 Mikado, the most general title of the emperors, is derived either from Mi, "honorable," and Karto, "gate" (compare " Sublime Porte," and "Pharaoh " p. 1, note 3), or from Mika, "great," and to, " place." 34 Ancient History. B. c. the god of war. Introduction of Chinese literature and civil- ization, which at this date was far in advance of the Japanese. From this time to the sixth century the annals of Japan are marked by no great events. B. WESTERN PEOPLES, § 1. CELTS. Aryan. Celts, or Kelts, is the name given to that race which, at the dawn of authentic history, occupied the extreme west of Europe. They be- longed to the Indo-European family, and, if the Asiatic origin of that family be accepted,1 were the first branch to enter upon the Westward migration. a. Continental Celts. Gauls. Geography: At the time of the Roman conquest (59-51), Gaul, or that part of Europe occupied by the Celts (KsArof) or Gauls (rciAAoi), was divided among three great groups of tribes: Belgians, dwelling between the lower Rhine, the forest of Ardennes, the Mame, and Seine. This people have been claimed as Teutons, but the weight of evidence assigns them to the Celts.2 Tribes : Remi, Suessiones, Nervii? Menapii. Gauls,4 dwelling between the Seine, Marne, middle Rhine, Rhone, and Garonne. Tribes : In the valley of the Seine (Sequand): Parisii (with the city Lutetia Parisi- orum, now Paris), Senones ; in the valley of the Loire (Liger) : Namnetes, Turones, Carnutes, Boil, JEdui, Averni; W. of the Seine : Treviri; in the valley of the Saone and Rhone : Sequani, Allobroges. The Aquitanians, between the Garonne and the Pyrenees, were not Celts, but Iberians. In Switzerland: Helvetii, Vindelici. Religion : Soon after the conquest the theology of the Gauls was largely superseded and corrupted by the introduction of the Roman gods. Little is therefore known of the pure Celtic religion, whose nature has consequently become a favorite subject for dispute. It was a pantheism, which had its cycle of great gods, its local divin- ities, its deifications of forests, rivers, and fountains. Among the great gods are the following, with their Roman equivalents : Bormo, Grannus (Apollo}, with his companion the goddess Damona ; Segomo, Cannulus (Mars), with the goddess Nemetonia; Belisama (Minerva ?); Taramicus (Jupiter). Complicated and imposing ceremonial, con- ducted by the Druids, or priests, who were accorded at least equal honors with the nobles. They did not form an hereditary class, but were recruited from the people. Exemption from military service 1 See Introduction. 2 The Belgians are also claimed as non-Aryans, of the same race as the Aquitanians. * Dahn, Urgesch. d. Germ. III. 26, note 9. 4 In spite of Caesar's statement that the Gauls were called Celts in their own language, the two names are not considered synonymous. It is probable that the Gallic tribes formed a division distinct from' the Celtic tribes (using Celt in the narrow sense of inhabitant of Gaul). The attempt has even been made to draw the geographical boundary between them. B. c. Celts. 35 and taxes. Use of writing, with Greek alphabet. Exercise of juris- diction. Human sacrifices. Civilization : That the Celts of Gaul had reached quite an ad* vanced stage of civilization J is clear from the readiness with which they accepted the higher civilization of Rome, and from the fact that their social state as depicted by Caesar exhibits a degeneracy which was not seen again in northern Europe until the decay of the Neus- trian state under the Merowingians, in the fifth and sixth centuries A. D. Chronology: Before the conquest the history of the Celts of Gaul is the history of their collisions with the southern nations. The Celtic migration was slow, and large bodies were left behind at various points, as in Bohemia and throughout Germany, where many traces of Celtic occupation survived the Teutonic conquest. According to some writers the Celts immigrated in two bands, the Goidelic or Gadhelic Celts being the more northerly, and the Bry- thonic or Cymric Celts the more southerly ; this is but a surmise. Not earlier than 2000. The Celts reached the western shores of Europe. Their principal settlements were made in central France. They here attained their highest culture, and from this point detachments went forth to conquer new lands. There were four principal emigrations. 1. To the British Isles. Date unknown. See p. 36. 2. To Spain, where they mingled with the Iberian inhabitants and formed the Celtiberians. Celts in Spain were known to Herodo- tus in the fifth century B. c. 3. To Northern Italy. The legendary history of Rome places this event in the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, or about 600 B. c. Tribe followed tribe until the whole of northern Italy was occupied (Gall'm Cisalpina). Tribes : Bituriges (Milan), Cenomani (Brescia and Verona), Boii (Bologna), Senones (coast between Rimini and Ancona). 390. Conquest of Rome by the Senones under their Brennus, i. e. military leader. 283. Extermination of the Senones by the Romans ; defeat of the Boii 011 the Vadimonian lake. 238. General league of Cisalpine Gauls against Rome. Defeat of the league at Telamon, 225. Capture of Milan by Scipio. Formation of Roman colonies at Placentia, Cremona, Mutina. In the second Punic War, Hannibal induced the Gauls to take up arms, but in the 193. Battle of Mutina, the last resistance of the Boii was broken and northern Italy was rapidly Romanized. 4. To Greece and Asia Minor. In 278 a band of Gauls under a Brennus ravaged Macedonia and Greece. After a futile attack upon Delphi, the survivors made their way by land to Asia Minor, where they settled in the interior, and gave their name to Galatia. 1 The stage of development in civilization attained by ancient peoples must be largely determined by the degree of complexity found in their social and political systems. In our day, when material comforts and conveniences form a so much larger part of the popular idea of civilization than they ever did before, it is well to remember this in judging the civilizations that are gone. 36 Ancient History. B. c. Of the Celts of Gaul little is known until the Roman conquest. Some time before this, it is probable, the pressure of the Teutonic migration had made itself felt in the west, but the details of the conflicts are unknown. Celts and Teutons became here and there interspersed, but in general the Rhine was the boundary. About 125-121, the Romans conquered Southern Gaul and made it a province (Gallia Narbonensis). While the Celtic origin of the Cimbri may not be admitted without question, it is certain that Gallic tribes played a considerable part in that great invasion of Italy (113-101). 58-51. Conquest of Gaul by Caesar (p. 138), after which the history of Gaul belongs to that of Rome. b. Celts of the British Isles. BRITAIN. Geography : The island of Britain forms an irregular triangle, and is bounded E. by the German Ocean, S. by the Straits of Dover and the English Channel, W. by St. George's Channel, the Irish Sea, North Channel, and the Atlantic Ocean. It falls into three geographical divisions, corresponding somewhat to the later political divisions. I. The extreme north, beyond the deep indentations of the Frith oj Clyde and the Frith of Forth, is mountainous and barren, with numer- ous small lakes (Loch Ness, Loch Tay, Loch Lomond}, and sharply cut coasts on the west. II. The southern and eastern portion : hilly in the N. and W. ; on the E. a broad plain, well watered and fertile. Eastern rivers : Number (Ouse, Trent), Witham, Welland, Nen, Ouse, running through a broad fen-land into the Wash, Thames. Western rivers : Severn, Mersey. Island of Wight. In early times the greater part of this plain, the modern England, was covered with forests, of which scanty traces remain. The Andredsweald covered a large part of the counties of Surrey and Sussex ; north of the Thames a huge forest extended nearly to the Wash, of which Epping and Hain- ault forests formed a part. The fens about the Wash were much more extensive than now. III. The broad western promontory of Wales, mountainous with small rivers. Island of Anglesea. Religion and Civilization : The Celts of Britain were ruder than their brethren of Gaul, and never reached the same stage of civiliza- tion, but they seem to have resembled the continental Celts in cus- toms and religion. Druids. Bards. History, a. Mythical: Inordinate pride of ancestry, a fertile im- agination, and an acquaintance with Biblical and classical history en- abled the British bards and priestly historians to compose for their race a mythical past, unique in its extent, its detail, and its disregard of time and space. Gaul was colonized by Meschish, son of Japhet, son of Noah, about 1799 (Anno Mundi) under the name of Samothes. Meschish ruled Gaul 109 years, when he conquered Britain in 1908 (A. M.) and reigned over both countries 47 years. He was followed by six sovereigns of his race, but on the accession of the seventh, Lucius, 2211 A. M., Britain was wrested from his rule by Albion, a descendant of Ham. He and his successors reigned over Britain B. C.-A. D. Celts. 37 until 2896 A. M. or 1108 B. c., when the line of Japhet recovered the island in the person of Brute, great-grandson of ^Eneas of Troy. Brute built Troynouant, afterwards Lud's Town, London. He was followed by his descendants, among whom we may mention Bladud, founder of Bath, Leir (841-791), Ferrex and.Porrex (496-491), with whom his line expired. Britain for a time divided into five king- doms, was finally reunited under Malmucius Dunwall, the son of Cloten king of Cornwall (441-401), whose son Brennus left his island home to sack Rome, assault Delphi, and found the kingdom of Galatia.1 Among the successors of Malmucius were Coill (160-140). Pyrrhus (66-64), and Lud (who in some mysterious manner began to reign in 69) Cassivelaunus (expedition of Csesar), Cymbeline (19 B. C.-16 A. D.), Caractacus, Vortigern (445-455 (485) A. D.). Arthur (508-542). Finally the list merges in the historical line of the kings and princes of Wales. b. Probable. The Britons of historic times were Celts who came to the island from Gaul at two periods. The first invasion was very early, and the invaders were Celts of the Goidelic (Gadhelic) or northern branch. From the testimony of sepulchral monuments it is conjectured that the Celts found two races in Britain : a small, dark-haired race, perhaps of Iberian stock, and a large light-haired race of Scandinavian origin. The Goidelic Celts conquered without exterminating the previous inhabitants, and held the land many cen- turies, until a new invasion of continental Celts occurred. This time it was the Brythonic or Cymric Celts of the southern stock, who crossed the channel, probably not very long before the expedition of Csesar, and dispossessed their kinsmen of the southern and eastern portion of the island. Tribes : Cantii, the most civilized, Attrebatii, Belgce, Damnonii, Silures, Trinobantes, Iceni, Brigantes, etc. The ancients received their first direct knowledge of Britain from Pytheas of Massilia, who landed on the island in the third century B. c. That the Phoenicians ever visited Britain is doubted by English scholars, who contend that they obtained their tin either from the rivers of Gaul, or from the Gallic tribes who imported it from Britain. With 55-54 B. c. The two expeditions of Csesar, the actual history of Britain begins. The effect of the invasions was transitory. 43 A. D. Claudius began the conquest of Britain in earnest, and hi generals reduced the country south of the Avon and Severn. 58. Revolt of Boadicea, leader of the Iceni ; her defeat. 78-85. Agricola, under Vespasian and Domitian, carried the Roman arms far into Scotland and built a wall from the Frith of Forth to the Frith of Clyde as a defense against the wild tribes of the north. Henceforward Britannia formed a tolerably quiet part of the Roman empire. Roman fortresses, towns and villas covered its soil in profusion. 121. Hadrian built a wall from the Tyne to the Solway. In i Brennus killed himself after the repulse from Delphi ; his army settled in Gaiatia. 88 Ancient History. R. c. 139. Antoninus strengthened the wall of Agricola. In 210 Severus added new defenses to that of Hadrian. 180. Legendary conversion of Lucius, king of the Trinobantes, to Christianity, after which the new religion spread through- out the country, a church was organized and bishoprics founded at Canterbury and York (?). With the decay of the empire its power in Britain declined. Troops were withdrawn to assist in defending the continental borders, or in supporting the claims of rival aspirants for the crown. During the third century the attacks of the Picts and Scots in the north grew more and more severe, while the southern and eastern coasts suffered from the ravages of the Frank and Saxon pirates. Count of the Saxon Shore,1 the officer in charge of the coast between the Wash and Southampton water, which was most exposed to these ravages. From 286-294 Britain was independent under Cerausius, who proclaimed himself emperor of Britain. 360. Scots from Ireland ravaged the western shores. 410. Honorius renounced the sovereignty of Britain. The with- drawal of the legions left Britain to her own resources. A period of civil dissension and exposure to foreign inroads fol- lowed, broken by the 411. " Alleluia Victory " of the Britons accompanied by St. Ger- manus, over the Picts. Finally the king of the Damnonii, Vortigern (Guorthigeri), either by usurpation or election, ob- tained the sovereignty over a large part of the island, and, as the story goes, invited the invasion of the Teutonic conquer- ors (p. 176). IRELAND. Geography : Lying W. of Britain, Ireland is bounded on the E. by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and St. George's Channel ; on all other sides by the Atlantic Ocean. It is a low plain, fringed with hilly tracks upon the coast ; abounding in lakes (Lough Corrib, L. Mask, L. Erne, L. Neagh, Lakes of Killarney, L. Dearg, L. Ree), and rivers (Boyne, Liffey, Barrow, Blackwater, Shannon). Religion and Civilization: In Ireland as in Britain we find Celtic inhabitants, Celtic religion, and Celtic culture, but both in a still more primitive form than in England ; so much so, indeed, that it may be, the Celts of Ireland were the best representatives of primitive Aryan civilization. Druids. Bards. History : Again the historian is confronted with a vast mass of very valuable tradition mingled with a great amount of priestly in- vention. The Irish historical books speak of five invasions of Ire- land. I. Partholan led a force from central Greece, which ruled i Comes Litoris Saxonid per Britanniam. An attempt has been made (Lap- penberg, Kemble) to show that this name indicates the settlement of Saxons upon this shore long before the Teutonic conquest. What people, it has been asked, would name a portion of their country after its worst enemies ? A ref- erence to our "Indian Frontier," by which *is meant land held by the whites but molested by Indians, might dfspel this objection. The argument from coinage is stronger, but on the whole the assumption does not seem to be proved. B. c. Greeks. 35 Ireland 300 years, and *,hen died of the plague, and were succeeded by II. Nemed, from Scythia, who also died of the plague. III. Fir- bolgs, who came under five chiefs and settled in various parts of the island. IV. The Tuatha De Danann, of the race of Nemed, who defeated and nearly exterminated the Firbolgs. V. Milesians or Scots, who under Galam, son of Breogan, came from Spain, and conquering the Tuatha De Danann, divided Ireland among the sons and other relatives of Galam. The ancestry of Galam goes back to Noah. The historical interpretation of these legends seems at present to be that Ireland at the commencement of the Christian era was occupied in the north by Goidelic Celts (Cruithni, Picts) • in the east and centre by British and Belgic tribes (Cymric), and in the southwest (Munster) by a people of southern extraction (Ibe- rians^. Between the numerous petty kingdoms thus established incessant war prevailed, with the details of which the legendary his- tory is filled. Tuathal (died 160 A. D.), a powerful king who reigned over Leinster and Meath, and warred with the rival kingdom or kingdoms in Munster, is probably historic. Irish Invasions of Brit- ain : Settlements in Wales, Devon, and Cornwall, and especially in the north. Ireland was never conquered, or even invaded, by the Romans, though Agricola had planned an Irish expedition. The Irish were converted to Christianity in the fifth century. Palladius, sent to Ireland, 431 A. D., died soon after. St. Patrick (Succath or Maun), took up the work and brought it to a successful conclusion. Establishment of numerous monasteries, which in the next cen- tury attained wide renown for the learning of their members. § 2. GRECIAN HISTORY. Aryan. GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF ANCIENT GREECE. See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. V and VI. The peninsula of Greece (Hellas, ^ 'EAArfs) bounded N. by Mace- donia and lllyria, and on all other sides by the sea (E. mare jEgceum, S. mare Myrtoum and mare Creticum, W. mare Ionium), is divided into four principal regions : Peloponnesus, Central Greece, Thessaly, Epirus. A. Peloponnesus (^ UeXoir&vvt}oO, with the oracle of the Pythian Apollo, Crissa, with its harbor, Cirrha; Elatea. 5. Eastern Locris : (Ao/cpol ^yot), for a time di- vided by a part of Phocis into the southern region of the Opuntian Locrians with the town Opus? and the northern of the Epicne- midian Locrians (i. e. they who dwell on the mountain of Cnemis) with the town Thronium. 6. Western Locris (Ao/cpol eo-Tre'ptoj, called by the other Grecians Ao/cpoi 6£6\at, "the stinking"). Amphissa, Naupactus. 7. Doris (Ao>p/s), between the mountains (Eta and Par- nassus, the country of a small body of Dorians, who at the time of the Dorian invasion remained in the north, called from its four unim- portant villages, the Tetrapolis. 8. -SJtolia, Calydvn, Pleuron, and Thermum (afterwards the place where the assembly met at the time of the JStolian league). 9. Acarnaiiia, with the promontory Actium; Stratus, near the river Achelous, ('AXeAa?os) which separates Acarna- nia from jEtolia. C. Thessaly, watered by the Peneus (valley of Tempe), with the mountain range of Pindus in the W. on the border of Epirus; in the S. Othrys; in the E. Pelion, Ossa; in the N. Olympus and the Cambu- nian mountains.2 Five divisions from S. to N. : 1. Phthiotis, in the most southern part, Malis, on the Sinus Maliacus was the Pass of Thermopylae, i. e. " gate of the warm springs ; " Lamia. 2. Thessa- liotis, Pharsalus. 3. Pelasgiotis, Pherce, Crannon, Larissa on the J The expression Hellas propria first appears in the Roman period ; the Greeks never used Hellas for the name of this particular part of the country 2 But see Kiepert, Lehrb. d. a. Geoc/r., § 210, note 1. B. C. Greeks. 41 Peneus. 4. Hestiaeotis. 5. The eastern coast land, Magnesia, lolcos, on the Sinus Pagasceus, Demetrias. D. Epirus. In historic times inhabited by Illyrian tribes not of pure Grecian blood. Principal tribes: Molossians, in whose terri- tory was Ambracia, not far from the Ambraciaii gulf, and Doduna (oracle of Zeus); Thesprotians, Pandosia on the Acheron,, Ckao- nians. In Macedonia, which lay north from Thessaly, the following places are to be noted: Pydna, Pella, the royal residence since the reign of Archelaus (formerly ^Egae or Edessa enjoyed this distinc- tion). On the peninsula Chalcidice: Olynthus, Potidcea, Staglrus. In Thrace: Amphipolis near the mouth of the Strymon, Philippce, Abdera, Perinthus (Heraclea), Byzantium. In the Thracian Chersonese: Sestos, opposite Abydos in Asia Minor. Most important islands : In the ^Egean sea : 1, Crete (KpTjTT?, eKaT^tnroAis) : Cnosus (Gnossus), and Gortyn (a) ; 2, Them, a colony of Sparta, itself mother city of Cyrene in Africa (p. 49), Melos; 3, the 12 Cyclades: Paras, Naxos, to the north the small De- los (Mt. Cynthus, sanctuary of Apollo), Cythnos, Ceos, Andros, Tenos, etc. In the Saronic gulf: 4, JEglna (Afyj/a); 5, Salamis. In the sea of Eubcea; 6, Euboea with the promontory of Artemisium in the north, Chalets, Eretria. In the Thracian sea: 7, Lemnos; 8, Samo- thrace; 9, Thasos. On the coast of Asia Minor from N. to S. : 10, Tenedos, not far from Ilium or Troy, in the district of Troas', 11, Lesbos : Mitylene, Methymna; 12, Chios; 13, Samos opposite the prom- ontory of Mycale; 14, Cos; 15, Rhodes. In the eastern part of the Mediterranean the island of Cyprus, (Kt$7rpos), cities (originally Phoenician, afterwards Greek): Salamis (Schalem), Paphos and Amathus, centre of the worship of Aphrodite (Venus Amathusia). In the Ionian sea from S. to N. : 1, Cythera, south of Laconia, with temple of Aphrodite; 2, Zacynthos- 3, Cephallenia, called by Homer Samos; 4, Ithaca; 5, Leucas; 6, Corey ra (KfpKvpa), perhaps the Scheria of Homer. KEUGION OF THE GREEKS.1 The religion of the early Greeks was a pantheistic nature-worship, distinguished among others by the multiplicity of its deities, and their intricate gradation, as well as by the wealth of biographical detail which the imagination of the poets provided for them. The great gods, Olympic deities, were 12 in number. Male divinities: Zeus "the God," lord of the sky, and ruler of all other gods as well as of men; Poseidon, god of the sea; Apollo, probably originally the highest god of some local district, the divinity of wisdom, of healing, of music and poetry, but not until later the sun-god; Ares, god of war; Hephcestus, god of fire, and of work accomplished by the application of fire, set apart from the other gods by his lameness; Hermes, god of invention, sommercial skill, cunning, bravery. Female divinities: Hera, con- 1 Rawlinson. Religions of the Ancient World. Also Grote, Hist, of Greece, vol. I.; Curtius, Griech. Gesch. I. 543-60; 456-549 passim. 42 Ancient History. B. c sort of Zeus; Athena, the maiden goddess sprung from the head of Zeus, the embodiment of wisdom and of housewifery; Artemis, god- dess of hunting, afterwards connected with the moon, as her brother Phoebus Apollo, with the sun ; Aphrodite, goddess of sensual love, prob- ably introduced from the East; Hestia, goddess of fire, especially of the hearth-fire ; Demeter, " earth-mother," presiding over agriculture. In the lower rank of gods may be mentioned: Dionysius, god of wine and drunkenness; Hades, god of the lower world, the Graces, the Muses, the Fates, the Furies, etc. The fields and forests, the ocean and the rivers were crowded with Nymphs and Hamadryads, Naiads and Nereids, while creatures of a lower order, Satyrs (among whom Pan rose to the level of a god of the second rank) and monsters {Cyclopes, Gorgons, Centaurs, etc.) abounded. Reverence was also paid to the heroes, ideal representations of fa- mous men, real or imaginary. Such were Cadmus (Thebes), Theseus (Athens), and Heracles, the mostly widely known of all (see p. 45). The gods were worshipped by invocation, and by sacrifices offered in accordance with a rigid ritual at altars which could be im- provised anywhere. There were, however, permanent altars for all divinities, in temples where the statue of the divinity was also en- shrined. These temples were frequently erected on lofty and com- manding sites, and upon their construction and decoration was lav- ished the highest skill in architecture and sculpture. Brilliant coloring was also employed upon the temples. Each family, tribe and race, each city, district and country had its recurring fes- tivals of special honor to the gods (Panathencea at Athens). Re- ligious festivals of all Greece: Olympian (Zeus) every fifth year, in July or August, at Olympia in Elis; Pythian (Apollo), every fifth (9th) year, at Delphi; Isthmian (Neptune), every five years on the Isthmus of Corinth; Nemean, every third year, at Nemea in Argolis. These festivals were the centre of Grecian national life. Amphyctio- nic Council, the most important of the Amphyctionies (p. 51), a reli- gious conference which met at Delphi, and represented the political side of the Pan-Hellenic religion. Consultation of oracles, for obtain- ing the counsel of the gods, especially at Delphi. Mysteries, or rites of secret religious societies, the most renowned at Eleusis. No hierarchy of priests; yet those who had charge of the sacrifices, and more espe- cially of the oracles, often attained great influence. Ideas of future life vague and unsatisfactory. The more advanced minds among the Greeks undoubtedly attained to the idea of the es- sential oneness of divinity. GRECIAN HISTORY CAN BE DIVIDED INTO FOUR EPOCHS. x-1104 (?). I. Mythical period down to the Thessalian and Dorian migration. 1104 (?)-500. II. Formation of the Hellenic states. Period of con- stitutional struggles down to the Persian wars. 500-338. III. Persian wars and internecine strife for the hegemony down to the loss of independence at the battle of Charonea. 338-146. IV. Greece-Macedonian or Hellenistic period down to thei subjugation of Greece by the Romans., Destruction of Corinth. B. C. Greeks. 43 FIRST PERIOD. Mythical time, down to the Thessalian and Dorian migration (x-1104?).1 The Greeks,2 or as they called themselves the Hellenes belong to the Indo-European or Aryan family. The Greeks state that the original inhabitants of their country were the Pelasgians. The meaning of this name is much disputed. According to some scholars it denotes the band which afterwards divided into the Italians and Hellenes. Another view regards the Pelasgians and Hellenes as the same people, but holds that the latter name is applied to those tribes which, " endowed with peculiar abil- ities and inspired with peculiar energy, distinguished themselves above the mass of a great people, while they extended their power within the same by force of arms," 3 so that their name became in historic times the one generally accepted. Others, again, regard the name Pelasgian as Semitic, and so applied originally to the Phoenician in- habitants of the coast, especially to the Minyce. of Orchomenos, and afterwards erroneously transferred to the Illyrian aborigines of Epirus, Acadia, etc. Dodona, in Epirus, with the oracle of Zeus, the god of the sky, was the oldest centre of the Pelasgian life and religion. Remains of Pelasgian buildings, called by the Greeks Cyclopean, are found in Tiryns in Argolis, and in Orchomenos in Bceotia. Our earliest historical information shows the Hellenes divided into various tribes. Of these the Achaeans were most prominent during the heroic times, and their name was therefore used by Homer to denote the entire race. In historic times, on the contrary, the Dorians and lonians occupy the foreground; the other tribes are then classed together under the name JEolian, and the dialects which were neither Dorian nor Ionian are known as ^Eolian. The following mythical genealogy seems to have been invented at a very late period, and to have originated at Delphi. Hellen (son of Deucalion) JEolus (i. e. the many-colored) Dorus Xuthus (i. e. the exile) Ion Achaeus. We have no authentic information about the manner of the Hel- lenic migration into Greece. According to one well-founded theory, a part of the immigrants, and among them the ancestors of the Do- rians, forced their way over the Hellespont into the mountainous region of northern Greece, where they established themselves as shepherds and tillers of the land. Other bands, among whom were the ancestors of the lonians, having descended from the highlands of Phry- 1 According to Duncker, Hist, of Antiq., TOO years later. 2 Griiken (Graeci, rpaucoi) was the name given to the Greeks by the people of Italy; it was the name of a tribe in Epirus, or the Illyrian name for the Hellenes n general. 8 Curtius, Griechtsche Geschicfite, I. 29; Hist, of Greece, N. Y. 1876, 1. 41 44 Ancient History. B. c gia, by way of the valleys, to the coast of Asia Minor, were there transformed into a race of seamen, and gradually spread themselves over the islands of the Archipelago to the mainland of Greece.1 (The former formed the western, the latter, the eastern Greeks). Remembrance of the fact that western Greece received its civiliza- tion from the East gave rise, at a later period, to stories about un- authentic immigrations.2 Cecrops (Ke*poi//), according to the original story autochthonus king of Attica, and builder of the Cecropla (Acropolis of Athens), was afterwards, in consequence of that identification of Grecian and Egyptian mythology which is illustrated by the conception of Neith, goddess of Sais, as Pallas Athena (p. 2), falsely represented as an Egyptian immigrant from Sais. The truth seems to be that the cliffs by the Ilissus, which were called the Cecropla, formed the first fortress of the inhabitants of the region, upon which their altars and sanctuaries found protec- tion, and around which the first beginnings of political life in Attica grouped themselves. Afterwards the Cecropla was per- sonified under the name Cecrops. According to the legend Cecrops was succeeded by Erichthonios, the latter by Erechtheus, the two becoming soon united into one person, in whom the Erechtheion, the temple of Poseidon Erechtheus, on the Acropolis, is personified. The legend makes Erechtheus the founder of the festival of Pan- aihencea and conqueror of Eumolpus (i. e. sweet singer) of Eleusis, the centre of the worship of Demeter (story of her daughter Core, in the lower world Proserpina; the Eleusinian mysteries). Eleusis was united with Athens into one community. Erechtheus, according to the legend, was succeeded by (Eneus, the latter by ^Egeus, the father of Theseus, the national hero of the lomans (p. 45). A later legend tells how Danaus, brother of ^Egyptus, came from Upper Egypt to Argos. He, too, with his fifty daughters, the Dan- aides, who, with the exception of Hypermnestra, murdered their hus- bands, the sons of ^Egyptus, and were for this crime condemned to fill the bottomless tub, belongs to the native mythology. The Dan- aides are the springs of Argos, which, in the summer time, exert themselves in vain to satisfy the soil ; the water which gushes from them being dried up in the chalky earth. According to the legend the descendants of Lynceus and Hypermnestra ruled in Argos. On the other hand the legend of the migration of the Felopidae from Lydia to Greece seems to have a historical foundation. Pelops, son of king Tantalus, who ruled the country about the Sipylus, came to Elis in Peloponnesus. His sons Atreus and Thyestes, with the help of Achceans from Phthiotis, made themselves masters of Tiryns and Mycence, which had been founded by Perseus. Of the sons of Atreus, Agamemnon reigned over the whole of Argolis, while Menelaus became king of Sparta and Messina. The buildings and sculptures in Mycenae, which are ascribed to the A tridce, resemble Assyrian art, and Assyrian art could have come to Greece earliest by way of Lydia. 1 Curtius, I., Griech. Gesch., I. 29 sqq. ; Hist, of Greece, I. 41. 2 Cf. Duncker, Gesch. des Alth., III. (2 Auflage), 1 Kap. 4-6. Curtius, Griech. Gesch., I. 58; Hist, of Greece, I. 73. B. C. Greeks. 45 Cadmus, the mythical founder of the Theban state, is the per- sonification of Phoenician colonization, or at least of that civilization which Hellas had received from Phoenicia (p. 18). The national heroes of Grecian legend. The myth of Heracles ('Hpa/cArjs, Hercules}, son of Zeus and Alc- mena, grew up out of the union of various religious, historical, and ethical elements. Heracles was in the beginning an actual divinity whom tradition, in the course of time, degraded to a demi-god. In him are united the Phoenician Melkart (p. 17) and Sandon, the sun- god of Asia Minor, and his heroic deeds are for the most part adapta- tions of the deeds ascribed to these two divinities. Heracles is at the same time the popular symbol brought by the Phoenicians to the eastern Greeks, and from them to the western Greeks, of the pioneer activity of the ancient settlements. A portion of the mass of legends connected with Heracles after his transformation into a Greek is ex- plained by later historical relations. The Dorians adopted him as their tribal hero. Their kings called themselves his descendants, Heraclidse ; from him they derived their rights to the Peloponnesus. Hence his rights, in the legends, not only over Mycence, in opposition to Eurystheus, but also over other parts of the peninsula (Auglas in Elis, Tyndareos in Sparta). The poetry of a later time, regarding Heracles as an ethical conception, presented him as the model of heroism, moral force, and renunciation, especially of willing obedi- ence (the 12 labors at the behest of Eurystheus; the choice of Her- cules). Theseus (©TJO-CUS), son of ^Egeus, the descendant of Cecrops, is the family hero of the lonians, and of the Athenians in particular. He cleared the road from Troezen, where, according to the legend, he was born, to Athens (especially the isthmus), of robbers (Periphetes, Sinnis, Sciron, Damastes or Procrustes}, so that the lonians of the Peloponnesus and of Attica thenceforward could assemble on the isthmus at the sacrifices to Poseidon. Theseus put to death the Minotaur in Crete, and rescued the Athenian youths and maidens Bent as a sacrifice to him. He conquered at Marathon the wild bull which is said to have likewise come from Crete. He repulsed the Amazons who made an attack upon Athens for the purpose of avenging the rape of Antiope. These three myths express the historical fact of the liberation of Attica from the tribute which it owed to the Phoenicians of Crete and the smaller islands, who offered human sacrifices to their god Moloch. The origin of the story of the Amazons is to be found in the virgin servants of the Phoenician goddess Astarte, who, at the religious ceremonies, executed dances in armor. The legend, moreover, ascribes to Theseus the union of the inhabitants of Attica into one state, and the separation of the people into the three orders: Eupatridce (nobles), Geomori (peasants), and Demiurgi (artizans), whereas the arrangement of the four ancient classes (Phylce) : Geleontes (nobles), HoplUes (warriors), Argadeis (artizans), jEgicoreis (shepherds) was referred by the Athenians to the mythical tribal ancestor of the Ionian tribe, Ion .(p. 43). 46 Ancient History. B. C The Grecian legends adopted Minos (M^WS), also originally of Phoenician origin, and transformed him into a Hero of the Dorians who dwelt in Crete since 1000, and a wise legislator and suppressor of piracy. Advanced civilization existed in Crete before 1500. Concerted enterprises of the heroic time. Expedition of the Argonauts. The golden fleece. Phrixos, son of the king of the Minyse, Aihamas of lolcos, in Thessaly, whom his father was about to sacrifice to Zeus in order to obtain rain, fled with his sister Helle, on the ram with the golden fleece, who was given them by their mother Nephele. Helle during the journey fell into the sea, which is now called Hellespont (" sea of Helle "), near Abydos. Phrixos reached Colchis, on the Pontus Euxlnus, and king jEetes. The ram was sacrificed, the golden fleece preserved in a grove of the god Ares, guarded by a dragon. Jason, from lolcos, in- cited by his uncle Pelias, sailed in the ship Argo to Colchis at the head of a band of heroes consisting, according to the original myth, of Minya) alone, but according to the later legends accompanied by Heracles, Theseus, Castor, Pollux, Orpheus, etc. They gained pos- session of the fleece by the aid of the enchantress Medea, daughter of dEetes. Return to lolcos. Pelias murdered at the instigation of Medea. According to a later continuation of the legend, flight of Jason and Medea to Corinth, where Jason fell in love with Glaucat the daughter of the king. Medea poisoned Glauca, and killed her own children. Medea went to Athens and became the consort of jEgeus. This myth seems to have been originally purely symbolical. The golden ram, which Nephele, that is, the " cloud," sends, is a repre- sentation of the fertilizing power of rain-clouds. The cloud-ram de- parts to his home, the land of the sun-god. His fleece, a pledge of blessing, is brought back by Jason (the " healer," the " bringer of blessings "), with the help of the daughter of the son of the sun, ./Eetes, who is learned in magic. This myth was afterwards expanded and localized in, a manner which hints at the early voyages of the Pelasgic (p. 43) Minyge. The principal site of the wealth and power of the Minya3 was Orchomenos in Bceotia; but the gulf of Pagasce, on which lolcos is situated, is the scene of their early inter, course by sea. War of the Seven against Thebes. The story of (Edipus appears in its simplest form in Homer, and was expanded by the Attic tragic poets. CEdipus (oftfaoi/s), son of Jocasta, and Ldios king of Thebes, a great-grandson of Cadmus, is exposed, in infancy, in consequence of an oracle which prophesied injury to his parents. He was rescued and brought up by Polybos in Corinth. At Delphi he kills his father, without recognizing him, solves the riddle of the Sphinx (What creature is there which goes on 4, 2, and 3 feet ? Man, in childhood, in manhood, in old age), becomes king of Thebes, and marries his own mother. When his crime is made known to him, he puts out his eyes. His daughters Antigone and Ismene. Quarrels of his sons Eteocles ('ETCOKATJS) and B. C. Greeks. 47 Potynlces (noAuj/efarjs). Polymces attacks Thebes with his allies : Adrastus, Tydeus, Amphiaraus, Capaneus, Hippomedon, Parthenopceus. The hostile brothers fall in personal contest; of the other princes all perish but Creon, the uncle of the brothers, who becomes king of Thebes. "War of the Bpigoni. Ten years later, expedition of the Epigoni (sons of the Seven). Thebes captured and plundered. Thersander, son of Polynices, made king of Thebes. 1193-1184. Trojan War. Priam was king of Troy, or Ilium, in Asia Minor; his consort was Hecuba (Hecabe). Of his fifty sons the following appear in the legend : Hector (wE«Ta>p), whose wife is Andromache, and Paris (Alexandras). The latter abducts Helena ('EAeV??), wife of Menelaus, of Sparta. The noblest princes of Greece unite to bring her back. Agamemnon of Mycenae, brother of Menelaus, and leader of the Greeks; Sthenelus of Tiryns ; Nestor of Pylos ; Achilles ('Ax*AAetk), king of the Myrmidons from Phthia in Thessaly, son of Peleus and the Nereid Thetis; Patroclus; Ajax (Afas), and Teucer, sons of Tela- mon of Salamis; the younger Ajax, son of Oileus, leader of the Locriaus; Diomedes of Argos, son of Tydeus; Odysseus of Ithaca, son of Laertes; Idomeneus, of Crete, grandson of Minos, etc. Among the allies of the Trojans from Asia Minor are : Sarpedon and Glaucus, leaders of the Lycians, troops from Mysia, Mosonia (in Lydia), Paphlagonia, and Phrygia, also Thracians and Posones from the other side of the strait. The historical kernel of this great Grecian legend is, perhaps, the fact of a military expedition of Grecian tribes against the Trojans and the conquest of Troy; everything else in the story is mythical. Perchance the -ZEolian colonization of historic times (p. 49) and the ensuing contests with the native population gave rise to the romance of the Trojan war, which tradition then removed to the time before the Dorian migration. The prehistoric existence of a powerful city in the neighborhood of Troy, and its name 'Tpolrj and "lAtoj/, is certain. Connected with the tale of the Trojan war, are the stories of the return of the Grecian princes. The murder of Agamemnon by his wife Clytemnestra and her paramour, and the vengeance of his children Orestes and Electra. The ten years wandering of Odysseus and his many adventures (Polyphemus, Lastrygones, Circe, Calypso, the Phseacians, etc.). SECOND PERIOD. From the Thessalian and Dorian Migration to the beginning of the Persian Wares, (1104 (?)-500.) Migration of the Thessalians from Epirus to the valley of the Peneus, thenceforward called Thessaly. Of the former inhabitants, dEolians, part became serfs (irevcWcu), part fled the country. A por 48 Ancient History. B. G tion of the latter conquered Bceotia. The previous inhabitants of Bosotia, probably Pelasgians, as for instance the Minyse in Orchome nos, and the Cadmeo.ns in Thebes, were partly subdued, partly scat- tered in various settlements. Their name is henceforward un- known to history. The Dorians were likewise driven away by the Thessalians. They had inhabited the country about the Othrys and (Eta, and the small mountainous region where they maintained themselves after the in- vasion, and which was known as Doris. That portion of them which emigrated also took the southern way. Strengthened by JEtolian bands, they crossed to the Peloponnesus between Naupactus, where they constructed vessels, and the promontory of Rhion. This is the so-called 1104 (P).1 Dorian migration, or the conquest of Pelo- ponnesus by the Dorians and ^Etolians, according to the story, under the leadership of the Heraclidae (Teme- nuSy Cresphontes, Aristodemus, descendants of Heracles. The conquerors crossed the northern portion of the Peloponnesus without making a settlement, and turned towards the countries on the western coast. The inhabitants of these regions, the Epei, being subdued, the JEtolians established themselves here, and founded a new commonwealth, called Elis. Out of the mixture of the .ZEtolians and Epei, sprang the new tribe of the Elei. The Dorians passed through southern Arcadia, probably up the valley of the Alpheus, and estab- lished themselves in the south and east of Peloponnesus. The native population, consisting of Achseans and .ZEolians, were in part expelled, in part placed in subjection; while in some regions they gave up certain territories to the new-comers by treaty. The last was the case in Laconia, where the native chiefs made treaties with the invaders and thereby received for a time recognition of their princely rights and support in their supremacy. So arose in Peloponnesus, one after another, but slowly and after much fighting and many revolutions, the following Dorian communi- ties: 1. Messenia (Cresphontes}; 2. Sparta (Procles and Eurysthenes, sons of Aristodemus); 3. Argos (Temenus), at first the most powerfu state, at the head of a league, to which Epidaurus and Trcezen, unde. their own rulers, belonged; 4. Fhlius; 5. Sicyon;6. Corinth, these three containing many of the old inhabitants, who lived among the new inhabitants under the same laws. Outside of Peloponnesus: 7. Megara; and 8. the island .ZEgina (Afyj/a). The remains of the old population, the Achaeans, who were driven from their homes, expelled or subjugated the jEgialian lonians, who inhabited the northern coast of Peloponnesus. The whole region was henceforward called Achaia. 1068 (?). Codrus (KtSpos), the last king of Athens, fell a vol- untary sacrifice in battle against the Dorians. According to the legend, Codrus was the son of the Nestorian Melanthus, who had fled from Pylos to Athens. 1 See p 43, note 1- B. C. Greeks. 49 The immediate consequence of these migrations and conquests was the practice of colonization, on a great scale, which at first was car* tied on by the tribes which had been expelled from their homes, but in which the conquering Dorians soon took active part. The Pelasgic population, driven from Thessaly, settled partly on the peninsula Chalcidice, partly in Crete, and partly on the coast of Mysia-, the Minyce from lolcos, and Orchomeuos occupied Lemnos, Imbros, Samothrace. More important were the 1000-900 (?) -33olian, Ionian, Dorian colonies which settled along the coast of Asia Minor and its islands* -ffiolian and Achaean colonies: Mitylene and Methymna on the island of Lesbos; Cyme and Smyrna on the mainland of Asia Minor (Smyrna afterwards became Ionian). The lonians, who were driven away by the Acha3ans, fled first to Attica, but finally founded along the coast of Lydia 12 cities with a common sanctuary at Panionium on Mycale, the most important of which were: Miletus, mother-city of more than 80 colonies, Ephesus, Phoccea (p. 26), Colophon, and occupied the islands of Samos and Chios. Dorian colonies, along the coast of Caria: Halicarnassus and Cni- dus. Dorians and Achceans founded settlements in Crete, Rhodes, where they gradually drove out the Phoenicians, in Melos and in Thyra, whence in 631 the colony of Cyrene was sent out to the north coast of Africa. 1000 (7).1 Homer and his successors (Homeridse). Iliad and Odyssey. Constitution of society and government. During the heroic period, and at the beginning of historic times, we find everywhere a patriarchal monarchy, the hereditary property of families who derived their descent from the gods. In the historic times gradual formation in all states of a republican constitution, partly through the extinction, partly through the expulsion, of the old dynasties. This republican constitution was at first aristocratic; later, in most states, democratic, frequently reaching the latter state through the intervening suprem- acy of a Tyrant (Ttpawos), a name applied to every one who attained supreme power in an illegal manner, and originally not conveying the idea of an arbitrary or cruel government. The democracy of antiquity was not, however, a form of govern ment in which the majority of the inhabitants, but in which the major- ity of the citizens, took part in the conduct of the commonwealth. In most of the Greek states, the majority of the population consisted, not of citizens, but of slaves.1 Democracies in the modern sense were almost unknown in ancient times. In Doric Sparta the population consisted of three classes, strictly distinct from one another: 1. Spartiatce (^.irapriarai, comprising o/totot, 1 The Grecian statements concerning the epoch of Homer differ almost five hundred years from one another. * Cf. Becker, Charlcles (trans.), 361; and Schoeniann, Antiquities oj Greece, I. 100 foil. 50 Ancient History. B. c, i. e. those having full rights, and viro^iov^ i- e. those of less means, who could not furnish the required contribution to the Syssites) di- vided into three Phylse, each composed of 10 Obse (w£a/) ; these were the Dorian conquerors, who occupied the fertile portions of the La- conian territory, the valley of the Eurotas, and the lowlands extending to the sea; 2. Lacedemonians or Periceci (wfpioiKoi, i. e. they who dwell round about), descendants of those Achteans who had submitted to the conquerors by treaties. They were free, but payed dues, as trib- utary property-holders and small land-owners, and were without political rights, but were, however, bound to military service; 3. Helots (from eft-wres, "prisoners"?), serfs of the state. They were divided among the Spartiatse by lot, and tilled their lands, paying to their lords a fixed portion of the harvest. The number of the Periceci was almost four times that of the Spartiatce, while the number of the Helots was, perhaps, from 2 to 3 times as great as that of the Pe- riceci. 820 (?)• Constitution and Laws of Lycurgus. Lycurgus (Av/coupyos), according to tradition of royal descent, and guardian of the young king Charilaus, arranged the relation of the three classes, as described above, according to settled principles. His code of laws was for the Spartiatse alone. The form of government was an aristocratic republic, in spite of the two hereditary kings (generals, high priests, judges). Both kings must be of the Heraclid race, one a member of the Agidce (from Agis, son of Eurystheus), the other of the Eurypontidce (from Eurypon, grandson of Procles; see p. 48). The Council of Elders (yepovaia, 2S Gerontes, at least 60 years of age, elected for life) under the two kings as presiding officers had: 1. the previous discussion of everything that was to be laid before the popular assembly; 2. jurisdiction over capital crimes. The popular assembly (aAfa), consisting of all Spartiatte over thirty years of age, who had not lost their political rights, had no right of initiation, and decided without debate. At a later period the five Ephors, i. e. in- spectors (for the 5 wards) who had probably existed before Lycurgus, acquired great power (p. 56). Assignment of an hereditary landed estate to every Spartan family, which had lost its possessions since the conquest; equal division of the Helots, or slaves of the state, for the purpose of tilling these lands. No new division of all landed property.1 (Tradition makes Lycurgus divide the land into 9000 (4500 ?) lots for the Spartiatse, and 30,000 for the Periosci.) Establishment of social unions or com- pulsory clubs ((TK-nvat ), whose members ate together, even in time of peace : Phiditia or Syssitia. Children were brought up in common, and the young men of the Spartan warrior-nobles dwelt together. The Crypteia (wpinrTefa), an organized guard over the Helots by young Spartans. No actual hunting of the Helots.2 776. First Olympiad, that is, the first year in which 1 Qrote, Hist, of Greece (Boston, 1851), II, 393 foil. 2 Schoemann, Antiq. of Greece, I. 195. 6. c. Greeks. 51 the name of the Olympian victor was recorded (The first was Coroibus.) Olympian games (raised to greater importance since 820, by the par- ticipation of Sparta ?) ; Nemean games since 573, in honor of Zeus, Isthmean games (Poseidon, since 582), and Pythian games (Apollo, en- larged after 590). Oracle of Apollo at Delphi, founded, according to tradition, at the command of the god, by Cretans (i. e. Dorians) from Cnosus. Amphictyonies, societies for common worship (per- formance of sacrifices), the most important of which was the Delphic. 734. Foundation of Syracuse * by the Corinthian Archias. 743-724. (?) First Messenian war. Aristodemus king of the Mes- senians. Defence of Ithome. Those Messenians that did not emigrate became tributary. A part of the land was confis- cated as conquered territory. 708. Foundation of Tarentum by the Spartan Phalanthus. 645-628. 2 Second Messenian war. Aristomenes. Defence of Ira (Elpd), for nine years. The Athenian bard Tyrtseus accom- panied the Spartans. After the fall of Ira the greater part of the Messenians fled to Sicily; Zancle, also, was occupied by them, but does not appear to have received the name Messana before the fifth century.3 The remaining Messenians became Helots. In Athens government of the nobles (Eupatridce) since the death of Codrus (1068 ?). The chief officers of state were the Archons, at first (1067-753) chosen for life, from the family of Codrus ex- clusively, afterwards (752-683) elected for ten years, the first four only being of the family of Codrus, the rest taken from the Eupa- tridce in general. From 682 on there were nine archons chosen every year, and serving only one year, taken from the Eupatridce alone, and chosen by them alone. These were: 1. Archon Eponymus (i. e. he from whom the year is named), the presiding officer. 2. Basileus, i. e. king of the sacrifices, high priest. 3. Polemarchus, at first leader of the army, afterwards, when the military command was entrusted to Strateges by turn, only superintendent of military affairs; the other six were Thesmothetce, judges, heads of the department of justice. Cir. 621. Laws of the Archon Draco. No alteration of the consti- tution, only reform of the criminal law, and the law relating to debts, introducing great severity, frequent use of the death penalty, and heavy fines. Hence later known as the "Law of Draco, written with blood." 624? Insurrection of Cylon, who, with the assistance of his father-in-law Theagenes, tyrant of Megara, seized the Acropo- lis. Cylon was driven into banishment by the Archon Megades, of the family of the Alcmceonidce, and his followers were put to 1 Concerning the date of the foundation, see Holm, Gesch. Siciliens, I. 881 eqq. 2 According to Duncker, Gesch. des Altherth., and Curtius, I. 240. Ao Cording to the older but very doubtful assumption, 685-668. » Holm, Gesch. Siciliens, I. 200. 52 Ancient History. B. c. death while clinging for protection to the altars. On account of this sacrilege the Archons for the year were banished. Re- ligious purification of Athens by Epimenides of Cnossus. Solon, of the family of the Nelidse, gained great influence by the recapture of Salamis, which had been taken by the Megareeans, and through his share in the 600-590. l First sacred war against Crisa and Cirrha, whose in- habitants had robbed the temple of Apollo in Delphi. The Amphyctyonies destroyed both cities after a long contest ; the inhabitants were enslaved and their land consecrated to the Pythian Apollo. Growing dissatisfaction in Athens with the government of the nobility, and internal disorders. The citizens were divided into three parties: 1. The great land-owners of the plain (ol CK rov -n-eSzou), the Eupatridce. 2. The peasants of the mountainous districts (5m/cpiot). 3. The inhabitants of the coast (irdpa\oi), a well-to-do middle class. 594. Solon, while Archon Eponymus, being authorized by a special enactment to negotiate between the aristoc- racy and the people, proposed and carried out at first the Seisachtheia (i. e. the removal of burdens), whereby debts secured by mortgage were reduced about 27 % by the intro- duction of a new standard of coinage; the Attic or Eubcean talent ($1078.87) instead of the Aginetan talent ($1630.50) ; personal security for debts was abolished, and all money fines as yet unpaid were remitted. Amnesty for all who had been deprived of their political rights (&rtp.oi). Return of the Alcmseonidse. The Constitution and Laws of Solon were established for the citizens (TroAircu) only. Excluded from all political rights were: 1. The metceci (^TOLKOI, foreigners not citizens, but living in Athens under protection of the government), who were regarded in law as minors, and required to be represented by a patron (Trpoo-TctTTjs) who was a citizen, in all legal transactions. 2. The slaves (SouAot). The two latter classes formed the great majority of the inhabitants. In her most prosperous days the citizens of Athens may be estimated at 90,000, the metceci at 45,000, the slaves at 360,000. So that in the period of most extreme democracy the sovereign people formed a small minority of the population. 2 Division of all citizens, for purposes of military service and the exercise of political rights, into classes, according to income received from property in land, no regard being paid to movable property of any kind. The unit of measure was the medimnus (52.53 liter), for grain and vegetables; the metretes (39.39 liter), for wine and olive oil. The following four classes were formed: — 1. Pentakosiomedimni, men whose estates brought in a minimum of 500 medimni and metretes. According to Curtius, Hist, of Greece, I. 281. The date formerly ac- ed was 596-586. Cf. Schoemann, Antiq. of Greece, I. 348, 353. B. c. Greeks. 53 2. Knights (lirire'is), yield of estates 300-500 medimni. 3. Zeugitce (i. e. they who work their land with one span of mules), yield of estates at least 150 medimni. 4. Thetes, comprising all who owned land yielding less than 150 medimni, or possessed no land, but were either day laborers in the country, or artisans, sailors, tradesmen in the city. Taxation consisted in the duty of the citizens, as arranged in these four classes, to systematically supply ships, horses, and arms for mili- tary service. The members of the first three classes served as hoplites ((jTrAtTcu), heavy armed foot-soldiers; members of the first two classes served also in case of need as cavalry, furnishing their own horses, while members of the first class furnished ships for the fleet at their own expense, for which purpose they were enrolled in 48 naucrarise; the thetes were to be called upon to serve as light-armed foot, or upon the fleet, only to defend the country from invasion. There was no other regular taxation of citizens; state officials served without pay, and the other expenses of the commonwealth were covered by the yield of the mines, which were state property, by fines, by a poll- tax laid on the metoeci, and by the harbor dues. When extraordinary taxes were necessary, they were adjusted on the basis of the classes described above, the fourth class, however, being exempt. After the time of Solon, the nine archons were taken from the first class ; every citizen had a vote in their election. The council (/3ouA.^) of 400, formerly chosen from the Eupatridce alone, was henceforward open to all citizens of the first three classes over thirty years old. The popular assembly (&KAi? 54 Ancient History. B. c, 560-527* Pisistratus (TIeto-to-TpaTos), tyrant of Athens. Emigration of Athenian nobles, under Miltiades the elder, to the Thracian Chersonese. Solon left Athens again and went to Asia Minor. Conversation with Crossus in Sardes (see p. 26). He died (559) at Soli, in Cyprus (?). Pisistratus ruled in Athens under the forms of the Solonian consti- tution, which he did not revoke. He managed that the people should always choose archons who suited him. Driven out by a coalition of the nobles and the moderates, 569, he returned five years later (554). A second time exiled in 552, he again regained his power after eleven years absence, and ruled without further interrup- tion from 541 to 527. New emigration of noble families, particu- larly that of the Alcmceonidce. Pisistratus conducted his government until his death, with mildness and wisdom, and bequeathed it to his son, 527-510. Hippias ('Iiririas'), under whom 619. Platcece seceded from the Boeotian League and entered into alliance with Athens. The Boeotians were defeated by the Athenians. Hippias conducted the government after the man- ner of his father, until his brother, Hipparchus, was murdered by Harmodius ('Ap^i^Stos) and Aristoglton ('Apto-ToyeiTGw) in 514. (See Thucydides, VI. 54r-59, where he criticises the traditional tale of Harmodius and Aristoglton.) Hippias took a cruel revenge, was driven out of the city by the exiled nobles (Clis- thenes at the head of the Alcmceonidce) in connection with a Spartan army under Cleomenes. He took refuge with Darius, king of Persia. 509- Reforms of Clisthenes (KAeurflei^s), son of Mega- cles, grandson of Clisthenes, of S icy on. This was not only a change in the constitution, but a social reform as well. The constitution of Solon was not, however, repealed, but only further developed in a democratic manner, without as yet intro- ducing equal political rights of all citizens. The Solonian arrange- ment of classes for purposes of taxation remained; the archonship was as before restricted to the first class, and membership of the council to the first three classes. With the consent of the Delphic oracle, now indebted to the Alc- maeonidse, for the erection of a new temple, the four old Athenian tribes (uAai), Geleontes, Hoplites, Argadeis, ^Egicoreis(p. 45), which Solon had left in existence, were set aside, and there were substituted for them ten new tribes, which were political and religious unions. These new tribes did not form connected territorial divisions.1 Each tribe consisted of ten demes, or local communities, which, how- ever, were not contiguous, but were scattered about the country and interspersed with demes belonging to other tribes. In all there were 100 demes, later 174. This arrangement was designed to break up the local influence of the aristocracy, and put an end to the old patri- archal condition of things, whereby only nobles and large land-owners 1 Dunoker, IV. 454; Schoemann, Antiq. of Greece, I. 369. B. c. Greeks. 55 could hold the position of demarch (8^ua/>X<>*)> the presiding officer of a community. Henceforward every two demes formed a naucrary, which was ex- pected to fit out and man a trireme (a vessel with three banks of oars) ; whereas the old division of Attica, made in 682, into 48 nau- craries, had been based on the old politico-religious division into tribes and phratries. These phratries (^parp/at, 12), the subdivisions of the old tribes (u\ai), were untouched by the reform of Clisthenes, but they were reduced to the condition of religious corporations for keeping lists of births, marriages, and deaths, but without political impor- tance. The council (BouA^) was increased from 400 to 500 members, fifty for each tribe ; and each of these sets of fifty presided in the council for the tenth part of a year (prytany, TrpvTavela); the members of these presiding committees of fifty were called prytanies. Instead of four popular assemblies in a year, as formerly, ten were held hence- forward. 508. The Athenian nobility, headed by Isagaras, with the help of a Spartan army under Cleomenes, brought about a short re- action. Clisthenes fled; the Acropolis was delivered to the Spartans by a treacherous archon. A revolt of the Athenian populace compelled Cleomenes to make a disgraceful capit- ulation : withdrawal of the Spartans without arms, and sur- render of the leaders of the aristocracy. The latter were put to death, and Clisthenes was recalled. 506. An expedition of the Spartans against Athens under their kings, Cleomenes and Demeratus, at the head of their Peloponnesian allies, was broken up by the sudden withdrawal of the Corin- thians and the lack of harmony between the Spartan kings. The allies of the Spartans, the Boeotians and the Chalcidians from Euboea, were defeated by the Athenians The latter con- quered a part of Eubo2a, and apportioned 400C peasant holdings among Attic farmers, who retained their Athenian citizenship. The Athenian democracy derived an accession of strength from a reduction in the powers of the archons. The place of holding the popular assembly was changed from the market-place (ayopd), where, according to a custom sanctified by its antiquity, the first archon presided, to the rocky hill of the Pnyx ; and the duty of presiding in the popular assembly and in the council was fixed upon an offi- cer (&no-Tc&njs), who was chosen by lot from the prytany, for the time being, and who was changed every day. This officer also held the keys of the Acropolis and of the archives. It is uncertain how far Clisthenes had introduced the use of the lot, in selecting state offi- cials (of course, only from the numbers of qualified candidates). Election of ten Strategi, one from each tribe, each of whom had by turns the chief command of the army, which formerly belonged to the archon polemarchus. The right of appeal from the decision of the thesmothetse to the heliasts, which had been introduced before Solon for certain cases, was now extended to all cases. Establishment of the ostracism (do-rpaKiff^s, used until 417^, i. e. the power of the sovereign popular assembly to decree, by means of a secret ballotf 56 Ancient History. B. c. with bits of pottery (Jbrrpaxa), the banishment of any citizen who en- dangered the public liberty, without process of law.1 In Peloponnesus, during this period of internal development at Athens, Sparta had become the first power. Soon after the first Messenian war, an essential increase in the powers of the Ephors had taken place (under king Theopompus). About 560, another re- form had been accomplished by the Geront Chiton, with the aid and religious consecration of Epimenides of Cnossus, which completed the aristocratic form of government at Sparta, and gave increased strength to the commonwealth. The Ephors received an extraordinary dis- ciplinary power over every individual, not excepting even the kings,, The power of the latter gradually dwindled to a shadow. After the victory at Thyrea (549), the power of Argos, which in the seventh century had again attained, under King Phidon, a transient increase, was broken, and the Argive league was dissolved. The Spartan state, which was everywhere the opponent of tyranny and the pro- tector of republican-aristocratic governments, became the leader of a league of the Peloponnesian states, and claimed the Hegemony over all the Hellenic cantons. THIRD PERIOD. From the beginning of the Persian wars to the loss of inde- pendence by the Battle of Chseronea. 500-338. 500-449. Persian wars. 500-494. Revolt of the Ionian Greeks against the Persians (p. 28). The assistance rendered them by Athens and Eretria was the immediate cause of the attempt of the Persians to subjugate European Greece. 493-479. Attack of the Persians upon the Greeks. 493 (492 ?). First expedition of the Persians against Greece, under Mardonius. The land force subdued the coast of Thrace • the fleet conquered the island of Thasos. Alexander, king of Macedonia, submitted volun- tarily. The Persian army, surprised by a Thracian tribe, suffered great loss; the fleet was for the most part destroyed by a storm off the promontory of Athos. Mardcnius thereupon decided to return. Construction of citadels on the Thracian coast to serve as points of support in future campaigns : Byzantium, Sestos, Abdera, received Persian garrisons. 491. The Persian heralds, who required signs of submission (water and earth), were sacrilegiously murdered at Sparta and Athens The Cyclades and jEgina promised submission to Persia. The Athenians received from the Spartans -35ginetan hostages. 490. Second, expedition of the Persians against Greece, un- 1 The ostracism was in no sense a sentence or a juridical decision, but a purely political act of the highest power in the state. B. C. Greeks. 61 der Artaphernes (the young nephew of Darius) and an older general, the Mede Datis. A fleet of 600 triremes and the same number of transports, with 100,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry on board, crossed the j3£gean sea. After destroying the city of Naxos, the Persians landed in Eubcea. The city of Eretria was stormed, and taken by treachery ; those of the inhabitants who were not put to death were sent as prisoners to the great king at Susa. By the advice of Hippias (p. 54) the Per- sians landed on the east coast of Attica, and encamped in the vicinity of Marathon. At Athens the entire military power of the city (9-10,000 Hop- lites)1 was called to arms under the ten Strategi of the ten tribes, among whom were Aristides, Themistocles, and Miltiades (the younger), who had been recalled from the Chersonese. The Athenians crossed the Brilessus and advanced to meet the Persians; they en- camped in face of the enemy for nine days in a position strengthened by entrenchments, and whence they covered the road to Athens. Re- inforced by 1000 Platseans, they attacked the Persians without wait- ing for the arrival of the assistance which had been sought from Sparta. It is probable that the Persians had at this time embarked a portion of their army, especially the cavalry, in order to attempt a second landing in the immediate neighborhood of Athens. After hard fighting the Athenians defeated the enemy in the 490. 12 September. Battle of Marathon, under the leadership of Miltiades. The plan of the Persians to surprise Athens from the sea was prevented by a forced march of the army back to the city. The Per- sian fleet returned to Asia Minor. Hippias died in Lemnos. 489. Ill-considered and unsuccessful attack of Miltiades, who had been clothed with unrestricted power as military commander, upon Pares Miltiades, on his return to Athens wounded, was brought to trial at the complaint of Xanthippus, and con- demned to pay the costs of the expedition, amounting to fifty talents, which sum was paid by his son Cimon, after the death of his father. Aristides and Themistocles were now the leading statesmen at Athens. The latter devoted special attention to increase and im- provement of the fleet, the necessity of which was proved to the Athenians by an unsuccessful war with ^Egina, which occurred at this time, and for which they were obliged to hire ships from the Corinthians.2 On the motion of Themistocles, the income from the silver works at Laurium were spent upon the fleet, and 20 triremes were built every year. 483. As the growing rivalry between Aristides and Themistocles endangered the commonweal, at the suggestion of the council the assembly decided between the two men by the ostracism (p. 55). Aristides was condemned to ten years' exile from Athens by more than 6000 votes. 1 Duncker, Gesch. d. Alterthum, IV. 673. Curtius, Hist, of Greece, II. 246 a Curtius, Hist, of Greece. II. 262. 58 Ancient History. B. c. Themistocles urging the fortification of Piraeus, a strong wall was built, the foundations of which are yet visible, which also enclosed the small harbors of Munychia and Zea on the southeast of Piraeus. Radical reform of the naval department. The naucraries (p. 55), which had not been able to furnish all the ships needed by the state, since the year 500 B. c., were dissolved, and their place supplied by a new arrangement known as the trierarchies. The building of ships and the supply of the more essential portions of their equipment were undertaken by the state; the completion of the equipment, the repairs, and the supplies of the crew, during service, of one ship was assigned as a service due the state (Xtnovpyta) to one well-to-do citizen, who in return was appointed trierarch, or commander-in-chief of the ship. Whereas in the naucraries the expenses of the ships had fallen exclusively upon the Pentakosiomedimni (i. e. the large land- owners, p. 52), all citizens, whether land-owners or not, whose property exceeded a certain standard could be called upon for this purpose, and were entitled to the honor of the trierarchy.1 481-480. Third expedition of the Persians against Greece, under Xerxes. This expedition, planned by Darius, was carried out by his son Xerxes, after extensive preparations. Pisistratus, son of Hippias, and Demaratus, the deposed king of Sparta, accompanied Xerxes on the expedition. Construction of a canal at Acanthus by the force on the fleet and the subject Thracians, to avoid the storms about Mt. Athos. Bridge over the Hellespont, between Sestos and Abydos, built by Phoenician and Egyptian laborers. Erection of large magazines in Asia Minor and on the coast of Thracia. 481. The troops from the eastern and southern parts of the empire assembled at Critalla in Cappadocia, whence they were con- ducted to Sardes by the king in person. 480. In the spring departure from Sardes (about 900,000 men). March through Mysia. Passage of the Hellespont, lasting seven days. March through Thrace and Macedonia. Passage of the fleet (more than 1300 triremes, among which were over 400 Grecian ships from Asia Minor) through the canal at Acanthus. After the Greeks had given up the plan of defending the pass of Tempe, the Persian army traversed Thessaly without opposition. Not only the Thessalians, but also the Boeotian cities, with the exception of Platceoe and Thespice, sent the king symbols of submission. 480. July, Battle of the Greeks under Leonidas, at Ther- mopylae (i. e. warm gates, a pass at the foot of Calli- dromus, near hot springs) against the army of Xerxes. The Spartan king Leonidas, defended the pass of Thermopylae, with about 6000 Hoplites, among whom were 300 Spartiatce, and 1000 Lacedaemonian Periozci, against the overwhelming force of the 1 Boeckh, Public Economy of the Athenians (Lamb's trans.), 359, 695-746- B. c. Greeks. 59 Persians, while 1000 Phocians guarded the footpath over (Eta. The Persians, guided over this path by the traitor Ephialtes, drove back the Phocians and attacked the Grecian army in the rear. Leonidas ordered the Perioeci and the troops of the allies to retire, and died a heroic death with his 300 Spartiatse and 700 Thespians, who re- fused to leave him. The Thebans, who had fought under Leonidas against their will, laid down their arms; part of them were cut down: part branded, at the king's command, and sent back to Thebes. At the same time 480- Indecisive sea-fight at Artemisium, a promontory and temple at the northern point of Eubcea. During the first day about 280 Grecian ships, under conduct of the Spartan EuryUades, fought against the Persian fleet, under Achce- menes, which was weakened through losses by storms, and the dis- patch of 200 ships around the southern end of Eubcea. Night put an end to the indecisive battle. Loss of the 200 Persian ships which were sent around Eubcea. On the second day the Grecian fleet, reinforced by 53 triremes, had a victorious contest with Cilician ships. On the third day, also, the battle remained undecided, although the Persians attacked with their whole fleet. On receipt of the news of the capture of the pass of Thermopylae, the Grecian fleet hastened to the Gulf of Salamis. The Pelopon- nesian army, having established itself on the isthmus, began the con- struction of a wall across the isthmus, instead of coming to the as- sistance of the Athenians. Xerxes traversed central Greece, without meeting with resistance. Locrians and Dorians submitted. He ravaged the land of the Pho- cians, the detachment sent to Delphi was, however, driven back, with the help of a thunderstorm. Bo3otia was treated as a friendly coun- try. Thespice and Platcece alone were destroyed. The Athenians abandoned their city, leaving only a garrison in the Acropolis. The fortifications of the Piraeus being incomplete, the fleet conveyed the old men, women, and children, with all personal effects, to Salamis, JEgina, and Argotis, in which latter place the Athenian children were provided with schooling at the expense of the inhabitants. Return of the exiles permitted. Xerxes entered the city, the Acropolis was taken by storm, the temples thereupon and the city burned to the ground. 480- 20 Sept. Naval battle of Salamis. The Grecian fleet, now united and strongly reinforced (378 tri- remes, 7 fifty-oared vessels), was under the command of the Spartan Bury blades. The Grecians, being through the contrivance of the strategus Themistocles, surrounded by the enemy and forced to fight, won a brilliant victory over the Persian fleet, which still numbered 750 (?) vessels. The island of Psyttalea, which the Persians had oc- cupied, was recaptured by Aristldes, who had hastened from ^Egina to lake part in the combat. The Greeks lost 40, the Persians 200, ships, he Persian fleet anchored in the bay of Phaleron. Retreat, not 60 Ancient History. B. c. flight, of Xerxes. Mardonius was left in Thessaly with the best part of the army (260,000 men). 480. Nov. Xerxes, after suffering great loss through drought and lack of provisions, reached the Hellespont, where he found the fleet, which transported the army, the bridge having been carried away by storms. The Grecian fleet, instead of pursuing the Persians, as Themis- tocles wished, laid unsuccessful siege to the city of Andros. The Athenians returned to their city, and at once began its reconstruction. 479. Fourth expedition of the Persians against Greece. After Mardonius had in vain offered the Athenians, through Alexander of Macedonia, a separate peace with recognition of their independence, he entered Attica and advanced on Athens, strength- ened by a reinforcement under Artabdzus, and by contingents from his allies in northern Greece, Thessalians, Boeotians, a part of the Phocians, and the Ar gives. The Athenians, being a second time faith- lessly left in the lurch by the Spartans, retired again to Salainis. Whatever had been rebuilt in the city, the Persians destroyed. Finally the whole Peloponnesian force of 30,000 hoplites and twice as many light-armed troops having crossed the isthmus, Mardonius retired, and took up a favorable position in Breotia on the Asopus. More than 10,000 Athenians, Platceans, and Thespians joined the Hel- lenic army. Pausanias was the leader of the Spartans and of the whole force. He commanded the most imposing army that Hellas had ever seen. The Hellenes, however, had no cavalry. 479. Sept. Battle of Platsese. After long delay and much marching back and forth, Pausanias , who had twice entrusted the most dangerous positions to the Athe- nians under tne command of Aristides, decided to retreat without offering battle; being, however, attacked by Mardonius and com- pelled to defend himself, he fought bravely at the head of the Pelo- ponnesians, and, being well supported by the Athenians, gained a decisive victory. Mardonius fell. Rout of the Persians; their camp captured by the Greeks. The Grecian army advanced before Thebes; the leaders of the Per- sian party were given up, and executed on the isthmus. At the beginning of the campaign against Mardonius a Grecian fleet under the Spartan king, Leotychidas, — Xanthippus commanding the Athenians under him, — had been dispatched to patrol the ./Egean Sea. At the call of the Samians the fleet sailed for Asia Minor, and took the offensive against the Persians. 479-449. Offensive war of the Grecians against the Persians. The Persian admiral, Mardontes, distrusting the Greeks of Asia Minor, who were in his fleet, did not venture to accept the naval battle offered him near Samos. He beached his fleet at the promontory of Mycale, opposite Samos, and en- trenched himself. The Grecian marines landed, and utterly defeated the Persians in the B, c. Greeks. 6] 479. Battle of Mycale (on the day of the battle of Platseae ?), captured the camp and burned the Persian ships. Several of the island cities, par- ticularly Samos, Lesbos, and Chios, and afterwards the Grecian coast towns of Asia Minor, joined the Hellenic league. The Peloponnesians returned home; the Athenians and lonians con- quered Sestos in the Thracian Chersonese. Rebuilding and enlargement of Athens, which, in spite of the ob- jection of the Peloponnesians, was surrounded with strong walls. (Stratagem of Themistocles.) Completion of the fortification of Piraeus, where a large city grew up. 478 (?). Reform of Aristldes, from which dates the real supremacy of the democracy in Athens. The state offices were opened to all four classes alike (p. 53). Under the command of Pausanias, the united fleet of Peloponne- sians, Athenians, and Ionic Greeks of Asia Minor conquered Byzan- tium, and acquired a rich booty. The overbearing demeanor of Pausanias toward the other members of the league, and the winning manner of the Athenian leaders, A ristldes and Cimon, brought it about that after the recall of Pausanias by the Ephors 477 (?). The Hegemony (chief conduct of the war) was transferred from Sparta to Athens, and a Hellenic con- federacy (symmachy) was formed, the political head of which was Athens, and whose religious centre was the temple of Apollo in Delos, where the treasury of the league was also established. The smaller states contrib- ute money only, instead of furnishing contingents of ships. Rivalry between Themistocles and Cimon. The supporters of the latter procured the ostracism of Themistocles. He retired to Argos. While there suspicion attached to him of being implicated in the treasonable intrigues of Pausanias. The latter, threatened with im- prisonment by the Ephors, took refuge in the temple of Athena at Sparta, and there died of starvation (467?). Themistocles, driven from Argos, went to Corey ra, thence to Epirus, and finally to Susa, where he offered the Persian monarch his services against his native land. Artaxerxes I. (p. 28) gave him a princely domain in Asia Minor, where he died (460). After the retirement of Aristldes from political life, and his death, which occurred soon after (467 ?), Cimon became the leader of the Athenian commonwealth. He began the construction of the two long walls (ja ) at Corinth should adjust their differences. FOURTH PERIOD. Graeco-Macedonian or Hellenistic Epoch down to the Sub- jugation of Greece by the Romans (338-146). After the murder of Philip, who was on the point of beginning the war against Persia, by Pausanias (336), the Macedonian throne was occupied by his son, who had been educated by Aristotle ('Apto-TOTf'Arjs, 384-322), and was now 20 years old. 336-323. Alexander the Great ('AA^avSpos).1 He forced the Greeks to transfer to him the Hegemony and the command against the Persians, quickly reduced the revolted Thracians ( Triballians), Getce and Illyrians in the north, appeared on the news of a Grecian uprising (of the Athenians and Thebans) for the second time in Greece, defeated the Thebans, destroyed Thebes with the exception of the house of the poet Pindar (522-442 ?), and sold the inhabitants as slaves. The terrified Athenians submitted and were pardoned. Antipater left as vicegerent in Macedonia. In 330 revolt of the Spartans put down by Antipater in the bloody battle of Megalopolis, where 5000 Spartans, under their king Agis II., met a heroic death. 334. Expedition of Alexander against Persia,2 Spring. which was not merely a war of conquest, but also a scien- 1 Droysen, Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen (Geschichte des Hellenismus, 2 Aufl., 1877, Th. I. with 5 maps by R. Kiepert). Hertzberg, Die asiatischen Feldziiqe Alexanders d. Gr., with a map bv H. Kiepert. 2 For the route, see Kiepert, Atlas Antiguus, Tab. II. 74 Ancient History. B. c< tific expedition, and a journey of discovery. Alexander crossed the Hellespont at Abydos with 30,000 infantry and 5000 cav- alry (generals: Perdiccas, Clitus, Parmenio, Hephcestio, Craterus, Ptolemceus, Antigonus), defeated the Persian satraps and Mem- non, leader of the Grecian mercenaries of Darius, completely in the 334. Battle of the Granicus (a rivulet in Troas). Rescue of Alexander by Clitus. Advancing through Mysia and Lydia, Alexander proclaimed the freedom of the Grecian cities and islands from Persian rule, conquered Miletus and Halicarnassus, and traversed Caria and Lycia. Prevented from advancing further by the steep mountains, he went northward through the land of the Pisi- dians to Phrygia by way of Celcence, Gordium (the Gordian knot), and through Cappadocia to Cilicia (bath in the Cydnus). At Tarsus he was taken ill, but speedily recovering (potion of the physician Philip- pus) he passed through the Syrian Gates to Myriandrus on the coast in Syria. Meantime the Persian king, Darius III. (p. 29) had ap- proached from the Euphrates with a large army and got to the rear of the Macedonians. On hearing this, Alexander turned back from Syria and gained a brilliant victory over the Persians in the 333. Battle of Issus, in Cilicia. Nov. An immense number of Persians fell; the rest were captured or scattered. Darius escaped, but his mother, his wives, and daughters fell into the hands of the victor. In order to completely destroy the Persian power at sea, Alexander conquered Syria, Phoenicia, where he besieged Tyre for seven months, and Palestine, advanced into Egypt without opposition, and went from Pelusium to Memphis. Foundation of Alexandria on a well- chosen site. Expedition across the Libyan desert to the oracle of Zeus Ammon in the oasis of Sivah. Leaving Egypt, Alexander passed through Palestine and Syria by way of Damascus, crossed the Eu- phrates at Thapsacus, traversed Mesopotamia, crossed the Tigris, and defeated the Persian army, which outnumbered his own 20 times, in the 331. Battle of Gaugamela or Arbela (TO "ApjSeAa), Oct. not far from the ruins of Nineveh. While Darius fled north- ward, Alexander crossed the Tigris a second time, entered Babylon without resistance, traversed Babylonia, crossed the Tigris a third time, captured the capital of Persia, Susa in Susiana, and traversed Persis. Capture of Pasargadce and Persepolis. In the spring of 330 Alexander set out in pursuit of Darius. Crossing Media to Ecbatana in the north, he hastened through the Caspian gates to Parthia. There, in the neighborhood of Heca- tompylos, Darius Codomannus was murdered (330) by the satrap Bessus, who fled to Bactria and assumed the royal title. After an expedition northward to Hyrcania against the Grecian mercenaries, Alexander traversed Parthia toward the east, turned southward, for the purpose of punishing an insurrection of satraps, and crossed Aria and Drangiana. In Prophthasia discovery of the conspiracy ol B. c. Greeks. 75 Fhilotas, who was condemned by the army and executed; his father, Parmenio, was put to death in Ecbatana (330) at Alexander's com- mand. Alexander now crossed Arachosia in a northeasterly direction, crossed the Paropanisus (p. 24), or Indian Caucasus, in the spring of 329 (foundation of a new Alexandria}, advanced into Bactria, pur- sued Bessus, who had retreated beyond the Oxus, but was delivered to Alexander, and ultimately crucified. Alexander went northward as far as the Jaxartes (the modern Sir Daria), where he founded Alexandria Eschdta; after some short expeditions against the nomades (Scythians) on the other side of the Jaxartes, he remained for some time in Sogdiana (murder of Clitus in 328 in Maracanda, now Samarcand), after which he went to Bactria. Marriage with Rox- ana, daughter of a Bactrian prince. Alexander began at this time to adopt oriental clothing and customs. 327. Expedition of Alexander to India. Having once more crossed the Paropanisus, Alexander, after sharp fighting with the mountain tribes, reached the Indus, crossed it, and entered the Punjab (country of five rivers). In alliance with the Indian prince Taxiles, at the 326. Battle of the Hydaspes (Vitasta, now Ihelum) he defeated Porus, and took him prisoner, treated him, how- ever, with magnanimity, and replaced him on his throne as a dependent prince. Foundation of Niccea and Bucephala. Alexander went eastward as far as the Hyphasis (Vip§9a, now Vjasa, or Bey as), when the Macedonian soldiers refused to go farther, and compelled him to re- turn to the Hydaspes. Construction of a fleet of some 2000 (?) ships, which conveyed a portion of the army down the Hydaspes to the Acesines (now Chenaub), while the remaining part (with 200 ele- phants) marched along the shore. Contest with the Malli. Alex- ander's rash bravery and severe wound. After his recovery the fleet and army proceeded, and finally reached the junction of the united Punjab rivers with the Indus. In 325 army and fleet went down the Indus. Craterus returned to Persis with a part of the army by the short route to the west. Alexander continued with the fleet and land force to the delta of the Indus, where the fleet under Nearchus entered the Indian Ocean. Ebb and flow of the tide. Nearchus coasted to the west, and discovered the entrance to the Persian Gulf, while Alexander conducted the rest of the army through the desert of Gedrosia (Baluchistan) . After terrible suffering and severe loss he arrived in Carmania, met Craterus, and later Nearchus on the coast. The latter was dispatched to discover the mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates. 324. Return of Alexander to Persis ; arraignment and punishment Jan. of the avaricious and cruel governors who had given up the king and his army for lost. Arrival in Susa. Here Alexan- der disclosed his great plan of Hellenizing the East, uniting the victor and the vanquished into one great nation and found- ing a great Macedonian-Persian universal empire on a 76 Ancient History. B. c. basis of equality of the Grseco-Macedonian and the Oriental po- pulation. Marriage of Alexander with the eldest daughter of Darius III. and the youngest sister of Artaxerxes III., while Hephcestion took to wife the youngest daughter of Darius III. Eighty Macedonian officers married Persian ladies of good family, and in consequence of rewards offered by the king, 10,000 Macedonians took Persian wives. Great plans for open- ing commercial relations with other nations and for the con- struction of roads on a large scale. Alexander, as successor of the Great King, required to be worshipped as a divinity. 324. A mutiny of the Macedonian army at Opis on the Tigris was July, quelled by Alexander's courage and wisdom. The veterans were disbanded after receiving great rewards and sent to Macedonia under Craterus, while Antipater was to bring new troops thence. Death of Hephcestion. Alexander, undertook the exploration of the Euphrates. 323. Death of Alexander the Great, June, at Babylon, which he had destined for the capital of the new empire. 323-276. "Wars of the Diadochi (successors of Alex- ander.)1 These long and complicated contests, which broke out immediately after the death of Alexander, destroyed the newly founded universal empire, but carried on successfully in another way the work which Alexander had begun of Hellenizing the east, and spreading Grecian language and culture. (Hellenistic language, $ KOIV^} SioAe/cros), so that the new Persian empire which afterwards grew up on this ground was very different from the old Persian monarchy, and a worthy rival of its great opponent, the empire of Rome. Perdiccas became regent in Asia for Alexander's half brother Philip Arrhidceus and his posthumous son by Roxana, Alexander. An- tipater and Craterus shared the regency of the west. The other generals received lieutenancies : Ptolemseus, Egypt ; Antigonus, Pamphylia, Phrygia and Lycia; Eumenes, Alexander's secretary, Pa- phlygonia and Cappadocia, which however he had first to subdue; Cas sander, Caria; Leonnatus, Phrygia on the Hellespont. The plan of Perdiccas, who married Alexander's sister, to make himself king, caused a league of the other generals against him. Perdiccas was murdered by his own troops while on an expedition against Ptolemseus (321). The new regent, Antipater, made a new assignment of the lieutenancies, wherein Seleucus obtained the satrapy of Babylon. After the death of Antipater (319) a war followed between his son Cassander, and the aged Polysperchon over the regency. Antigonus, in league with Cassander, was victorious in Asia over Eumenes, who was betrayed by his own soldiers and whom he executed, while Cas- sander was victorious in Europe (316). Lysimachus made himself master of the lieutenancy of Thrace. Antigonus wishing to bring the whole empire under his sceptre, a i Droysen, Geschichle des Hellenismus, 2 Ed. Pt. 2 u. 3, 1877, 78 B. c. Greeks. 77 315-301. war broke out between Antigonus and the other generals, in the course of which Antigonus and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes (IloAtopKTjT^s) assumed the royal title (306). Their example was followed by Seleucus, Lysimachus, Cassander. During this period, a time abounding in horrors, every member of the royal family of Alexander perished, mostly by murder. His ambitious and cruel mother Olympias was condemned to death at the instance of Cassander, and stoned by the relatives of her own victims. After a long contest attended with varying success, the war against Antigonus was ended by the 301. Battle of Ipsus ("Ityos in Phrygia). Antigonus fell, his son Demetrius fled and led for many years an adventurous life as a pirate. In Europe the war still lasted. After the death of Cassander (297), his two sons quarreled about the succession. Demetrius took the opportunity to seize the supreme power in Macedonia and Greece. He lost his power indeed through arrogance and desire for conquest after a reign of seven years, but his son Antigonus Gonatas after a changeful career gained permanent possession of Macedonia (277). Thus after many divisions and the formation of many sovereignties of but short duration, there grew up out of the Macedonian-Persian universal empire, five monarchies, of decidedly Hellenistic character, in which Greek was the language of the court and the government, of inscriptions and coinage, and of the educated classes, and in some of which Grecian art, literature and learning reached a high develop- ment. Nevertheless, these five monarchies, from their formation to their fall, bore the imprint of the deepest moral decay. These five states, to which we must add the republic of Rhodes and the Grecian Cantons, were : 1. Egypt under the Ptolemies or Lagidae with its capital at Alexandria. Ptolemceus I. (323-285), called Soter, i. e. saviour, because he sent aid to the Rhodians, or Lagi, i. e. son of Lagus, founder of the king- dom. Ptolemceus II. (285-247) called Philadelphus from being the husband of his sister Arsinoe; foundation of the museum with the Alex- andrine library. Ptolemceus III. (247-221), called Euerget.es, i. e. benefactor, by the priests, temporary conquest of Caria, Lycia, Cilicia, Cyprus. Ptolemceus IV., Philopater (221-205), decline of the power of the monarchy. Ptolemceus V., Epiphdnes (205-181) ; Egypt be- comes dependent on the Romans. 2. Syria, under the Seleucidse. Capital at first Seleucia, on the Tigris, afterwards Antiochia on the Orontes. Seleucus /. Nicator (312-281), founder of the kingdom. Antiochus I. Soter (281-261). Antiochus II. Theos (261-246). Seleucus II. (246-226). Seleucus III. (226-222). Antiochus III. the Great (222- 187). Defeated at Magnesia (190) by the Romans, Antiochus was 78 Ancient History. B. c, compelled to accept a peace, which struck the kingdom of the Seleu- cidse from the roll of the great powers. The following states separated themselves from the Syrian realm of the Seleucidse, and did not belong to the Hellenistic system of states. 278. a. The confederacy of the Galatians (p. 35) in Asia Minor, between Bithynia, Phrygia, Lycaonia and Cappadocia, founded by Gallic tribes, who, during the wars of the Diodochi, had ravaged Macedonia and Greece, crossed the Hellespont and in 278 settled in Asia Minor. They consisted of the three tribes of Trocmi, Tectdsages and Tolistoboii (each under four Tetrarchs) with the three capitals Tavia, Ancyra and Pessinus. In the first century before Christ, Deiotarus became king of all Galatia, which Augustus made a Roman province. 250. b. The Parthians (p. 29) who under the ArsacidEB (250 B. c. to 226 A. D.) conquered all lands between the Euphrates and the Indus, and formed a dam, in the east, first against the Hellenistic and afterwards against the Roman power. 167. c. The Jews under the Maccabees (p. 11). The two following countries were never dependent on the empire of the Seleucidse. a. Pontus, which had, it is true, submitted to Alexander the Great, but was recognized as independent under its own kings of Persian descent (of the Achsemenidse it was claimed, p. 25), by the victors at Ipsus (p. 77). The last kings were Mithridates VI. the Great, and his son Pharnaces (see Roman History, Fourth Period, p. 129). b. Armenia, although kings of Armenia first appear after the battle of Magnesia, (190). 3. The kingdom of Pergamon under the Attalidse, Capi- tal, Pergamus in Mysia. Founded by Philetcerus (283-263) who had been appointed gov- ernor by Lysimachus. Eumenes I. (263-241). Attains I. (241-197). Eumenes II. (197-159), founder of the library of Pergamus. Atta- ins II. (159-138). Attains III. (138-133), who bequeathed the kingdom to the Romans. 4. Bithynia. Capital, Nicomedia. Founded by Nicomedes I. (277-250 ?). Zeilas (250-228?). Pru- sias I. (228-183), with whom Hannibal took refuge. Prusias II. (183-149). Nicomedes II. (149-91). Nicomedes III. (91-75), who bequeathed the kingdom to the Romans. 5. Macedonia under the descendants of Demetrius Poli- orcetes. Capital, Pella. Antigonus Gonatas (277-239). Demetrius II. (239-229). Antigonus Doson (229-220). Philip V. (Ill}, (221-179) defeated by the Romans at Cynoscephdlce (197). Perseus (179-168). After the battle of Pydna (168) Macedonia became a dependency of Rome, in 146 it was made a Roman province (p. 122). 6. The island of Rhodes (To'oV), since the battle of Ipsus (301) an independent state ; since the sec- B. c. Greeks. 79 ond century (B. c.,) dependent ally of the Romans ; made a province by the Emperor Vespasian, 71 A. D. 7. The Greek cantons, under the lead of Athens, made a futile attempt, immediately after the death of Alexander the Great, to throw off the Macedonian yoke. From the city of Lamia in Thessaly, in the neighborhood of which the war was principally waged, it was known as the 323-322. Lamian War. The Greeks were at first successful under Leosthenes, and defeated Leonnatus, but were defeated by Antipater and Craterus at Crannon, south of the Peneus. The cantons submitted one after another. The Athenians were compelled to receive a Macedonian garrison in Munychia and to give up their democratic constitution. (Phaeton and Demddes, the political leaders). Citizenship was regulated by a property census. Demosthenes fled and took poison on the island of Calauria (Argolis). During the war between Cassander and Polys- perchon (p. 76) the democratic party regained its supremacy in Athens, and Phocion was executed ; later, however, Demetrius of Phaleron, the political companion of Phocion, became under Macedonian su- premacy, the ruler of the Athenian commonwealth (317-307). In the course of the wars of the Diadochi Demetrius Poliorcetes gained possession of Athens several times and made the Acropolis the scene of the greatest debauchery (307-295). The last attempt to throw off the Macedonian yoke and regain its old importance in Greece was made by Athens under Glaucon and Chremontdes in 263 B. c. but it was defeated after a three years' war and continued to be tributary to the Macedonians. Thenceforward Athens had no political influence in Greece ; it retained, however, its autonomy as regarded its municipal administration, and continued to be the seat of culture and learning. Thessaly, during this period, was a Macedonian province ; Epirus was for a time a separate state, afterwards it was allied with Mace- donia. Most of the cantons of central Greece and Peloponnesus became allies, more or less dependent, of the Macedonian sovereigns. The complete subjugation of Greece by Macedonia was prevented by the 280. -^Etolian League founded about 280, and the Achaean League which was renewed at the same time. The latter grew to considerable power and acquired the hegemony in Peloponnesus after it was joined by Sicyon (251) which was freed from its tyrants by Ardtus, and by Corinth (243), which Ard- tus had freed from the Macedonian garrison. Jealous of this hegemony the .ZEtolian League and Sparta, which had completely lost her ancient simplicity of life, and was in the hands of a wealthy oligarchy, joined forces against the Achseaii League. The young king Agis IV. paid with his life for his attempt to induce a reform of the Spartan state (241 ?). A similar at- tempt made by King Cleomenes III. had better success, though for a time only : he caused the ephors to be surprised and put to death, 80 Ancient History. B. c. banished eighty oligarchs, and established a reformed constitution. Cleomenes conquered Argos and Mantinea, and waged successful war against the Achaean League. Aratus sought aid against Sparta from the Macedonian king Antigonus Doson, and delivered the Acropolis of Corinth into his hands. The Spartans were defeated in the 221. Battle of Sellasia (in Laconia). Cleomenes escaped by flight and died in Egypt (220). The Macedonians entered Sparta, restored the oligarchy and forced upon the Spartans an alliance with the Achaean League, now under Mace- donian Supremacy. The latter was immediately afterwards in- volved in a war with the .ZEtolian League, during which the Spartans took sides against the Achseans, and Peloponnesus was horribly rav- aged (220-217). About this time the ^Etolian League formed an alliance with the Romans against Philip V. (///.)> °f Macedonia, who was allied with Hannibal. (First Macedonian war, see Roman history, third Period, p. 116). Philopcemen, who has been called " the last of the Greeks," be- came Strategus of the Achaean League in 207, and defeated the Spartans under their tyrant, Machamdas, in the 206. Battle of Mantinea, and slew the tyrant. In the second Macedonian war (see Roman history, p. 118). the Achcean League likewise joined the Romans against Philip V. (///.)> who, after the battle of Cynoscephalm (197), was forced to abandon the hegemony of Greece. The Romans proclaimed the freedom of all the Grecian cantons, but they gave support everywhere to that party which devoted itself to the advance- ment of Roman interests, and caused themselves to be fre- quently appealed to as arbitrators. After the death of a second Tyrant of Sparta, the cruel NaHs, Philopcemen humbled the Spartans again, and forced them to reenter the Achaean League, but was soon after taken prisoner and put to death in a war against the Messinians, who had revolted at the in- stance of Deinocrdtes (183). After the death of Philopcemen, decline of the power of the Achcean League, which made a final exertion in the so-called Achaean war against the Romans, which ended with the Defeat of the Greeks at Leucopetra, on the isthmus, and the 146. Capture and destruction of Corinth. The Corinthians were sold as slaves; a part of their land wan* given to Sicyon; the rest became the property of the Roman state. The remaining Greek cantons were treated with kind- ness, and for the most part retained their own administration and jurisdiction, but were subject to the Roman governor of Macedonia. It was not until later (27) that Peloponnesus and Central Greece seem to have become a Roman province under the name of Achaia. B. C. Roman History. 81 § 3. ROMAN HISTORY. GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF ANCIENT ITALY. (See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. VII., VIII., and IX.) Italia was first used as the general name of the larger part of the peninsula, which is traversed by the Apennines and extended to the Macro, and Rubicon, since the middle of the third century before Christ; as applied to the whole peninsula, as far as the Alps, Italia was first employed in scientific usage by Polybius (about 150) ; it was not used officially and in a political sense, until after the time of Au- gustus. It was divided into Upper Italy, Central Italy, and Lower Italy. I. Upper Italy, traversed by the Padus (Po), and the Athesis or Atdgis (Adige, Etsch), and containing the lakes, Lacus Ver- bdnus (Lago Maggiore), Lacus Larius (L. di Como), and Lacus Bena- cus (L. di Garda), comprised the following three districts which, before Augustus, were not reckoned a part of political Italy: 1. Liguria, Vercellce (Vercelli), Taurasia, later Augusta Taurinorum (Torino, Turin), Genoa (GenSva); 2. Gallia Cisalpina, also called togata, in distinction from transalpine Gaul, which was known as Gallia bra- cata, divided by the Padus (Po) into: a. Gallia transpadana, Co- mum (Como) ; Mediolanum (Milano, Milan) ; Ticlnum (Pavia), on the Ticlnus, a branch of the Po; Cremona, on the Po; Mantua, on the Mincius, a branch of the Po, near which was the village of Andes, the birthplace of Virgil; Verona, on the Athesis. b. Gallia cispa- dana: Placentia fPiacenza), at the junction of the Trebia and the Padus, Mutina, (Modena), Parma, Bononia (Bologna), Ravenna, in ancient times a seaport. 3. Venetia: Patavlum (Padua), birthplace of Livius, Aquileia. II. Central Italy, lying between the little rivers Macra and Rubicon in the N., Sildrus and Frento in the S., was usually divided into six districts: Etruria, Latium, Campania, on the Mare Tyrrhe- num, or Inferum; Umbria, Picenum, Samnium, on the Mare Ad- riaticum or Superum. The Tiber, running from N. to S., divided Etruria on the right, from Umbria and Latium on the left bank. The name of Samnium is, however, more correctly applied to the southern inland district of Central Italy, so that the Sabellic tribes, who were related to the Samnites and Picentes, formed geographically a sepa- rate seventh group, under which were included the Vestini, Marruclni and Frentani, extending to the Adriatic coast, and the inland districts of the Sabines, Pceligni, and Marsi. 1. Etruria, inhabited by the Etruscans (Rasenna), or Tuscans, in twelve communities under kings or Lucumos. These formed a con- federacy, whose federal constitution seems to have been exceedingly loose. The most important places in Etruria were, from N. to S.: Pisce, Volaterrce, Arretium (Arezzo), Cortona, Perusia (Perugia, west of which Lake Trasimenus), Populonia, on the coast, Clusium (Chiusi)/ Votiinii, Tarauinii, Falerii. Ccere. Veii. 6 82 Ancient History. B. c. 2. Latium. In the smaller district of the Latini : Roma, on the left bank of the Tiber (a part of the modern city, Trastevere and Borgo, is on the right bank, but the principal part of the city is still on the left bank), traditionally said to be built on seven hills (montes: Capitolinus, Palatinus, Aventinus, Ccelius, Esquilinus; colles : Viminalis, Quirinalis). l On the southern summit of the Mons Capitolinus the Capitolium with the temple of Jupiter Capitol- inus, and the Tarpeian Rock ; on the northern summit, separated from the southern by the Intermontium, the Arx with the temple of Juno Moneta. At the foot of the Capitol, the Forum Romanum (the market-place), consisting of the Forum proper, and the Comitium, with the speakers' platform (Rostra, named from the prows of the ships from Antium) between the two. In the last century of the republic the forum was surrounded by temples and basilicas (e. g. Basilica Julia). The imperial forums were not open places, but masses of buildings and columned porticos. The Palatinus with the palaces of the emperors; E. of this, the Amphitheatrum Flavium (Colosseum, for 80,000 spectators). N. from the Capitolinus to the Tiber lay the field of Mars, Campus Martius, during the republic an open field used for military practice, athletic sports, and political gatherings, after Caesar and during the imperial period covered with splendid buildings, now the centre of the modern city. The buildings on the right bank of the Tiber did not belong to the Urbs proper. They were situated partially on the Mons Janiculus, par- tially on the Mons Vaticanus, where the Vatican and tne church of St. Peter now stand; eastward stood, by the Tiber, the Mausoleum Hadriani, where the Castle of St. Angelo now stands. Finally must be mentioned the island of the Tiber. Sixteen great artificial roads ran from Rome hi various directions : Via Appia and Via Latina to the S., Via Valeria to the E., Via Flaminia to the N., Via Aurelia to the W., etc. Ostia, the harbor of Rome, on the left bank of the Tiber, existed at the time of the kings; under the emperors a second harbor, Portus, on the right bank of the Tiber. Laurentum, Lavinium, Ardea, Suessa Pometia, Aricia (on the Via Appia), Velitrce not far distant, Alba Longa on the slope of Mt. Albanus, near the lake of Albania, Tusculum (near the present Frascati), Gabii, Tibur (Tivoli) on the Anio, a branch of the Tiber; Fidence, north of Rome, south of the brook Allia. In the land of the jEqui, Prceneste (afterwards a Latin city again. In the land of the Hernicce, Anagnia. In the land of the * Volscii, Fregellce, Arpinum, the birthplace of Marius and Cicero ; on the coast, Antium and Tarracina (Anxur), south of the Pomptine marshes. In the land of the Aruncii : Formice, Minturnce, on the Liris (Gari- gliano) ; Suessa (Aurunca), near the Mons Massicus and the Ager Falernus (famous wines). 1 The expression " seven-hilled city " applies properlv to old Rome, the pala- tine city. Its transfer to the Servian and republican Kome is the result of a later misunderstanding. The description of the city of the time of Con- stantine, leaves out the two colles, Quirinalis and Viminalis, and increases the number of montes to 7 by adding the Vaticanus and the Janiculus, which lay outside of the city proper. See Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, I. 116, note. B. c. Roman History. 83 3. Campania, traversed by the Volturnus (Volturno), with the mountains Gaurus and Vesuvius near Naples. Two bays separated from one another by a rocky isthmus: Sinus Cumanus (Bay of Naples), and Sinus Pcestanus (Bay of Salerno). Along the coasts Liternum; Cumce (Ktf/xrj, founded by a colony from Chalcis in Euboea in 1050 ?) ; Misenum near the promontory of similar name ; Puteoli (Puzzuoli) ; Baice near lake Lucrinus, famous as a watering place ; Parihenope or Palceopolis, the oldest part of Neapolis (Necfo-oAis, Napoli, Naples); Herculaneum and Pompeii, buried in 79 A. D. by lava and ashes from Vesuvius; Salernum on the Sinus Psestanus, the chief city of the Picentes who had been transferred thither. Inland: Capua (not the modern Capua, but Santa Maria Maggiore), with an immense amphitheatre; Nola. 4. Umbria. On the coast: Ariminum (Rimini), Pisaurum, Sena Gallica (Sinagaglia). Inland: Sentlnum, Iguvium, Spoletium. 5. Picenum. Ancona on the coast; Asculum Picenum. 6. Samnium (in the wider sense, see p. 81). In the land of the Sdbini : Amiternum, birthplace of Sallust ; Cures, Reate. In the land of the Podigni : Corfinium ; Sulmo, birthplace of Ovid. In Samnium proper: Bovianum; JEsernia; Beneventum (Benevento), former Mai- ventum; Caudium, in the neighborhood of the Caudine Pass (Furculce Caudince). III. Lower Italy, also called Greater Greece, Magna Grs&ca ('EAAos ^ /t*e7ctATj), was divided into four districts : Apulia, Calabria in the east, Lucania and Bruttium 1 in the west. 1. Apulia : Luceria, A(u)sculum Apulum, Cannce, Venusia, birth- place of Horace, near Mt. Vultur. 2. Calabria : Brundisium (Brindisi), the port of departure for Greece; Tarentum (Topos, see p. 51). 3. Lucania: Pcestum (Posidonia, UoareiScavla), with notable ruins of temples; Metapontum; Heraclea ('Hpa/cAeta). 4. Bruttium: Sybdris (Zvftapis), destroyed in 510, by the Crotonians ; Thurii afterwards built in its neighborhood (see p. 64); Croton (Kp6rcav), not far from the promontory of Lacinium; Locri Epizephyrii (AoKpol 'Ein&Qvpioi) ; Rhegium ('Priyiov, i. e. rent, from ^ywfjut the present Reggio). Consentia (Cosenza on the river Busento). Italian Islands. Sicilia (2i/eeAfa), separated from Italy by the Fretum Siculum (Strait of Messina), formerly called Sicania, also Trinacria, with its three capes, or promontories: Pelorum in the north, Pachynum in the south, arid Lilybceum in the west. On the eastern coast from north to south : Messana (formerly Zancle, p. 51), Tauromenium (Taormina), Catana (Catania) at the base of JEtna, Syracusae (2upaKouo-at, Siragossa, see p. 51), at the time of its greatest extent comprising five cities: Ortygia, situated on an island, and hence also called Nasos, which now forms the whole city, with the spring of Arethusa, Achradina, Tycha, Neapolis, and Epipolce, at first a suburb. 1 This form (instead of Bruttii, Bruttius Ager) has, however, no ancient authority. The Byzantines after the tenth century, A. D., gave Bruttium the name Calabria, after the Normans had dispossessed them of Calabria proper, and the eastern peninsula was known after that time as Apulia. 84 Ancient History. B. c. On the south coast: Camarlna, Gela, Agrigentum ('A/cpcfyas, now Girgenti), between Gela and Agrigentum the promontory of Ecnomos, not far from the mouth of the (southern) river Himera : Selinus (2eAti/oOs). On the west coast: Libybceum, Drepanum, Eryx. On the north coast: Panormus (Udvopfj.os, now Palermo, see p. 17), Himera, My Ice. In the interior of the island: Henna. Sardinia (2ap5c6): Caralis (Cagliari). Corsica (Kt5p*/os): Alalia, later the Roman colony of Aleria. Of the smaller islands the following are noteworthy: 1. Melita, now Malta, and Gaudos, now Gozzo, south of Sicily. 2. The Insulce JEgates, on the west of Sicily, not far from the promontory Lilybaeum. 3. The Insulce JEolice (now the Liparian islands) the largest, Lipara, north of Sicily. 4. Caprece, now Capri, and ^Enaria, now Ischia, at the entrance to the Bay of Naples. 5. The Pontian islands, Pontia, Pandataria. 6. llva, now Elba. RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT ROMANS.1 The Romans possessed an ancient religion entirely distinct from that of Greece. It was a common inheritance of the Italians, though probably early receiving Etruscan and Grecian elements. In the last centuries of the republic the theogony of Greece was imported into Roman literature, and to some extent into the state re- ligion. At a still later time, under a policy of tolerance, all forms of faith and superstition were represented in the great capital. The religion of the Romans was a polytheism, but their deifica- tion of nature was not so detailed, nor were their deities so human as was the case among the Greeks. Their faith had a sterner aspect, the practical side of religion was more natural to them than the poetic side. They honored and utilized their gods, but they wove few fancies about them. The great gods were: Jupiter, god of the sky, "father of gods and men;" Juno, his wife, goddees of maternity; Minerva, goddess of intellect, presiding over the arts; Mars, god of war, the most representative of the Italian divinities; Bellona, goddess of war; Vesta, patron of the Roman state, goddess of the national hearth; where burned the sacred fire; Ceres, Saturnus, goddess and god of agriculture; Ops, goddess of the harvest and of wealth; Her- cules, god of gain, presiding over the sanctity of contracts; Mer- curius, god of traffic; Neptunus, god of the sea. Venus seems not to have been one of the original Italian divinities. She first appears as a goddess of agriculture, but was soon identified with Aphrodite, the Grecian goddess of love. Of the lesser gods there were many, watching over every act of individuals and of the state, and over every stage of growth and development. Such were Tellus, Silvanus, Terminus, Quirinus, Janus, the god of the beginning and end, represented with a double face. (Gate of Janus in the comiturm, open in time of war, closed in time of peace). Lares and Penates, presiding over the family and the home, Sol, Luna, etc. i Rawlinson, Religions of the Ancient World, chap. VIII. Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, Book I. chap. XII. Leighton, Hist, of Rome, chap. IV. B. c. Roman History. 85 Worship. The worship of the Romans consisted of a round of ceremonies, — prayers, sacrifices, games, — of strictly prescribed form, with the object of securing the good-will, averting the anger or ascertaining the intentions of the gods. In private life these ceremonies were performed in the family and were conducted by its head, the paterfamilias; in matters affecting the whole people, the state, which was a larger family, conducted the worship. In early times the king presided at the ceremonies. Under the republic a rex sacrificulus was appointed to perform those religious acts which were formerly the exclusive right and duty of the king. The state maintained at public cost : 1. " Colleges of sacred lore " having general supervision over religion and all matters connected therewith. The most important were: The college of Pontifices? four in number (afterwards nine and sixteen), the highest religious power in the state. With them rested the decision as to which days were suitable for the transaction of business, public or private, and which not (dies fasti et nefasti). Hence they controlled the calendar, whereby they, with the augures, became important instruments in the hands of the government. The pontifices also decided upon the ac- tion made necessary by the auguries. At their head stood the pontifex maximus, who appointed the rex sacrificulus^ the fiamines and vestales. College of Augures, originally four, then nine and sixteen, who con- sulted the will of the gods, as revealed in omens, by the observation of the flight, cries, and manner of feeding of certain birds. College of Fetiales, twenty (?) in number, presiding over the relations be- tween the Romans and other peoples. They conducted the conclu- sion of treaties, acted as heralds, and performed the ceremony of de- claration of war, by throwing a blood-tipped spear into the hostile territory.1 Duumviri Sacrorum, having the charge of the Sibylline books. The haruspices exercised the art of interpreting the will of the gods from the examination of the entrails of slaughtered victims. They were an Etruscan institution. 2. Colleges of officiating priests: Fiamines, who presided in va- rious temples with chapters of assisting priests. Salii, or dancing priests, of Quirinus and Mars, the latter having charge of the sacred shields of Mars (ancillce). Vestal Virgins, guardians of the sacred fire of Vesta, six maidens who had taken the vow of virginity. Lu- perci, Fratres Arvales, etc. Besides the observance of sacrifices and the offering of prayers, the priests had charge of conducting various public games: Lupercalia, (Feb. 15th), Ferice Latince, Saturnalia (Dec.) and others. ETHNOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF ITALY.3 At the extreme south the lapygians. Their descent is not certainly established, though they undoubtedly belong to the Indo-European family and probably to the Illyrian race. In historic times the rem- nants of the tribe appear, in striking contradistinction to the true Italic!, in process of rapid Hellenization. 1 When the growth of the Roman dominion had made this a matter of diffi- culty, a plot of ground in Rome was set apart to represent hostile territory, and into this the spear was hurled. * Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, I. chap. 2. 86 Ancient History. B. c. To the Indo-European family belonged likewise the inhabitants of central Italy, the Italic! proper, who were divided into the Latin and the Umbro-Sabellian (Oskan), tribes. They were the next of kin of the Hellenes. The Italici entered Italy by land. The Latini occupied the western lowlands (Latium, connected with Idtus),1 the Umbro-Sabellian tribes spread themselves over the eastern part of Central Italy (Umbrians, Picentes, Sabines, Marsi, Hernici, Volscii). A main division of this group, the Samnites, occupied the mountain region which was named after them, and drove back the lapygians, From the Samnites several tribes branched off; so the Campdniansy called after the plain (Campus) which they settled along the Tyr- rhine sea. Peculiarly distinct from the Latin and Sabellian Italici, in language, religion and customs were the Etruscans (in their own language, Rasenna). Up to the present time all attempts to establish their ethnographical position, have failed to reach settled conclusions. The attempt recently made, to prove them members of the Indo- European family and the Etruscan language closely related to the Latin, must, it would seem, be regarded as a failure.2 Perhaps the Etruscan people were formed by the union of two dif- ferent tribes, one of which came to Italy over the Rsetian Alps, while the other came by sea. Before the invasion of the Celts, Etruscans dwelt north of the Apennines, on both sides of the Po, between the territory of the Veneti (as far as the Adige), and the Ligurians. The whole of Upper Italy was occupied by Celtic tribes (about 500 B. c.?), which gradually forced the Etruscans and Umbrians south- ward. Besides all these migrations into Italy from the north by land, colonization of no mean extent began very early on the part of the Hellenes, in Sicily and Lower Italy, by sea. (The Dorians, Chalcid- ians (i. e. Tomans), and jEolians were principally engaged therein). Roman History can be divided into five periods. 753(?)-510(?) I. Mythical time of the kings. 510-264. II. Development of the constitution by struggles between Patricians and Plebeians. Subjugation of Italy proper (Cen- tral and Lower Italy), down to the beginning of the Punic wars. 264—146. III. Epoch of the Punic wars, and beginning of the univer- sal rule of Rome, down to the destruction of Carthage and Corinth. 146-31. IV. Firm establishment of the universal supremacy of Rome, by the conquest of the East, Spain, and Gaul. Epoch of the civil wars, down to the beginning of the absolute rule of Octavian, in consequence of the battle of Actiwn. 1 The Ausonii (Aurunci, in Campania) probably belonged to the Latin race, as well ; also, perhaps the Italici in the narrower sense, who dwelt originally in the western part of lower Italy, and the Siculi. 2 "W. Corssen, Ueber die Sprache der Etrusker, 1874. ~W. Deecke, Etruskische Forschunqen, is of the contrary opinion, as is K. O. Muller, Di9 Utrusker, ed. by W. Deecke, 2 vols., 1377. B. c. Roman History. 87 31 B. C.-476 A. D. V. Sway of the Roman Ccesars, down to the fall of the Roman Empire of the west. The last period extends into Mediaeval History. FIRST PERIOD. Mythical Epoch of the Kings (753 i-SlO). Foundation of Rome according to the Roman legends. King Numitor of Alba Longa, the descendant of JEneas, who had settled in Latium with some Trojan refugees, was deprived of his throne by his brother Amulius, who put his son to death, and caused his daughter Rea Silvia to become a vestal virgin, in order that the line of Numitor should perish. The twins, Romulus and Remus, the sons of Rea Silvia and Mars, the god of war, were, by command of the king, thrown into the Tiber, then overflowing its banks. Their cradle being caught by the roots of a fig-tree, the children were rescued from drowning, were suckled by a she-wolf, and brought up by the royal shepherd Faustulus. As they grew up, Romulus and Remus led other shepherds on the hunt and in forays for booty. At the festival of the Lupercalia, they were surprised by robbers ; Romulus was taken prisoner, brought before Numitor, and accused of having plundered his fields. Numitor recognized his grandsons. The latter thereupon attacked the usurper Amulius at the head of their band, slew him, and placed the rightful king, their grandfather Numitor, again on the throne of Alba Longa. With the king's per- mission, the twins founded a city on that place on the bank of the Tiber where they had been exposed. (Festival of Palilia or Parilia, April 21, celebrated as the anniversary of the foundation.) In a quarrel as to who should give his name to the city, Remus was killed. Romulus, being now the only king, called the city after himself, Roma.2 Surmises about the real origin of Rome. The results of mod- ern scientific investigations leave not the least doubt that the Ro- man story of the foundation of the city is not historical, but an invention, having not the slightest basis of fact. It is perfectly clear that in reality Rome and the Romans did not derive their name from the founder of the city, but that, on the contrary, the name Romulus was formed by the inventors of the legend from the name of the city and the people.3 All tribal heroes are of divine origin ; that those of the Romans should be sons of Mars, the god of agriculture and of war, needs no explanation. The legend of the exposure of the twins and of their miraculous preservation and recog- nition bears a striking resemblance to the story of the youth of Cyrus (p. 26). The fabulous descent from the Trojan ^Eneas as- cribed to the family of the founder of Rome was an invention of 1 According to Varro's era 753, according to Cato's 751 ; but to change years of the city into years before Christ, 754 or 752 must be used as the minu. find. Both dates belong to the conventional chronology. See pp. 88 and 89. J Livius, I. 1-7. 8 Compare besides Mommsen, Schwegler, Rom. Gesch., and Peter, Rom. Gesch., I. 56. 88 Ancient History. B. c. Grecian writers (Stesickorus in the sixth century, Timceus in the third century, B. c.). The tale of the building of Rome by emigrants from Alba, under guidance of two princes of divine birth, was a naive attempt to explain the growth of a city in the barren and unhealthy Roman Campagua by connecting it with the common metropolis of Latium. Notliing can be considered historical except that Rome was, as regards the greater part of its population, a Latin settlement. The city was founded, or rather gradually arose, at a wholly unknown time and under wholly unknown circumstances. The settlement was formed very near the border of Latium, and just at the head of navigation (for small vessels) of the Tiber, the natural highway of commerce for Latium, without regard to the sterile char- acter of the immediate neighborhood. This gives probability to the supposition that Rome in its earliest days " was a border trading-post of the Latins." J Not that Rome was ever a mercantile city, after the manner of Corinth and Carthage ; it was merely a trading village, where the imports and exports of Latium, which was essentially an agricultural district, were exchanged. The opinion that the Roman people was a mixed race cannot be maintained, when it is considered that the development of the Roman language, political institutions, and religion, was free and individual to a degree seldom equalled. Of the three tribes or townships (Gaueri) which seem to have united to form Rome (the Ramnex (identical with Romani), the Titi(ens)es, and the Luceres),ihe first was certainly, the third in all probability, Latin ; the second was, it is true, Sabine, but it was soon completely blended with the Latin ele- ments, as the Roman language shows. The Royal Epoch, according to the Roman Legend.2 753-716. Romulus, warrior king. Establishment of a retreat on the Capitolinus. Ap- pointment of 100 Senatores or Patres (fathers), whose descendants are called Patricians. The three centuries of knights : Ramnes, Titi(ens}es, and Luceres. Rape of the Sabine women; war with the Sabines fol- lowing, their king, Titus Tatius, seized the fortress on the Capitol through the treachery of Tarpeia. Battle between the Romans and Sabines interrupted by the Sabine women, who had been carried off. Union of the Romans and Sabines in one double state under the common rule of Romulus and Tatius, until the latter 's death. War of Romulus with Fidence and Veil. Romulus is translated during a thunder-storm, and henceforward worshipped as the god Quirinus 715-673. Numa Pompilius of Cures, elected, after a year's interregnum, by the Romans from among the Sabines. Peaceful king; arranges the religious services of the Romans according to the advice of the Camcenas (prophetess) Egeria, his consort. Temple of Janus. Appointment of the five Pontifices, the first of whom is the Pontifex Maximus, the Flammes, 1 Mommsen, Hist, of Home, Book I. Chaps. 2 and 4. 2 Livius, I. 8 foil. B. c. Roman History. 89 Fetiales, the four Augures, the four vestal virgins, afterwards increased to six. 673-641. Tullus Hostilius, warlike king. War with Alba Longa; contest of the Horatii and Curatii decides in favor of Rome, to which Alba is obliged to submit. War with Veil and Fidence; treachery of the dictator of Alba, Mettius Fuffetius, who is torn in pieces. Destruction of Alba Longa; the in- habitants are transferred to Rome. 641-616. Ancus Marcius, grandson of Numa, at the same time peaceful and warlike (" et Numse et Romuli memor"). Development of the institution of the Petioles. Successful war with four Latin towns, the inhabitants of which are settled on the Aventine. For this reason Ancus Marcius is represented in the traditional story of the kings of Rome, as the founder of the class of the plebeians.1 Fortification of Janiculum, con- struction of a bridge of piles (pons sublicius) over the Tiber. Foundation of the harbor of Ostia. 616-578. Tarquinius Priscus, who with his wife Tanaquil emigrated from the Etruscan city of Tarquinii, and for whom Grecian descent from the Bacchiado3 of Cor- inth was afterwards invented. He became guardian of Ancus' son, and was elected to the throne. Commencement of the construction of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline hill. Construction of the cloacae* The Senate increased to 300 members ; the number of equites doubled. Circus Maximus. Successful wars with the Sabines, Latins, and Etrus- cans. After the murder of Tarquinius by the sons of Ancus , 578-534. Servius Tullius becomes king through the cunning of Tanaquil. He was the son of the slave woman Ocrisia and a god, was educated like a prince by Tanaquil in consequence of the utterance of an oracle, and became the son-in-law of Tarquinius. Wars with Veil. Rome joins the Latin league. Construction of the wall of Rome. Establishment of the census and the division of the centuries (p 92). Servius Tullius murdered by his son-in-law, 534-510. Tarquinius Superbus, represented by tradition as a cruel despot. Tarquinius Superbut (i. e. the haughty) subjugates the Latin league, conquers Suessa Po- metia, completes the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and gains posses- sion of the city of Gabii by the deceit and treachery of his son Sextus. Tradition ascribes to him the acquisition of the Sibylline books. Embassy of Titus and Aruns Tarquinius, the king's sons, to the oracle at Delphi. They are accompanied by their cousin, L. Junius Brutus, who represents himself as feeble-minded, in order to protect his life against the cruelty of the king; a story which was invented to explain the name of Brutus. Siege of Ardea. The rape of Lucretia, wife of L. Tarquinius Collatinus (i. e. from Collatia), by the king's son, Sextus, leads to the expulsion of the Tarquins and the abolition of monarchy. The insurrection is headed by L. Junius Brutus, whom the legend makes Tribunus Celerum, although he was commonly considered an imbecile. Over the body of Lucretia, who died by her own hand, he 1 Peter, Rvr,,. Gesch., I.3 33. Compare, on the other hand, p. 90. 90 Ancient History. B. c. called the people to arms, and incited the army against the king, who found the city gates closed upon him, and went into exile (Livius, I., 57-60). Historical Facts of the Epoch of the Kings.1 There is no doubt that the constitution of the oldest Roman state was a patriarchal monarchy ; and that, after the new settlement had become an independent community, the highest power in Rome was exercised by a line of sovereigns elected for life (rex, from the same stem as regere, to govern). But neither the number nor all the names of the traditional kings, nor yet the deeds ascribed to the reign of each, still less the chro- nology of their reigns, can be considered historically authentic. The artificiality of the first four reigns, which are alternately warlike and peaceable, is self-evident. Doubtless the extension of the Roman ter- ritory and Rome's hegemony over the Latin league was not acquired without severe contests and brilliant deeds of arms; but the story has come down to us in a fabulous form arid has been arbitrarily revised. The destruction of Alba, the ancient metropolis of Latiuin, is an his- torical fact ; the contest of three Roman against three Alban broth- ers, their cousins, is probably only a personified designation of a war between two closely related towns, with similar political divis- ions. As regards the last three reigns, it can be considered historical that the royal family of the Tarquins was of Etruscan origin : that under its rule Rome made an important advance in power and civilization ; that the division of the people into classes, the erection of the so-called Servian wall, portions of which are still in existence, and the construc- tion of the first cloacae date from their reigns. At the commencement of the actual history of Rome there is found to exist a sharp division of the population into Patricians, or citizens with full political rights, and Plebeians, or free inhabitants •without political rights (like the Lacedaemonian Periceci and the Athenian Metozci-, see pp. 50 and 52). The traditional legend gives no explanation of this important fact, but only two hints at one, and those contradictory.2 The citizens having full rights are evidently the de- scendants of the original settlers, the victors and later conquerors. Since, according to Roman usage, marriages of equals in rank con- ferred the rights of citizenship on the children, those having such rights called themselves Patricii, i. e. "Children of the fathers." The people who were not included in these families, but stood under their protection, who were compelled to have a protector (Patronus), were distinguished by the name Clientes (from cm ere). Their de- scendants, increased by the former citizens of Latin towns conquered in war, formed gradually a second Roman community, whose mem- bers were not citizens. These were called the Plebeians, the Plebs (or 1 See Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, Book I. chap. 4. Peter, Rom. Gesch. I3 54-56) likewise ascribes but a limited historical value to the traditional history of the kings. 2 See page 88 the rei^n of Romulus, and p. 89, that of Ancus Martins. Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, Book I. chap. 5. B. C. Roman History. 91 plebes, connected with plea, plenus) ; i. e. the masses, the great mob. As the majority of the population of conquered cities were compelled to enter the plebeian class, whether they were settled in or near Rome or remained in their old homes, it is incorrect to imagine the plebs composed of poor people entirely; there were from the beginning many wealthy and respected families among them. Under the oldest constitution of Rome, which is commonly called, from the legend, the Constitution of Romulus, the Patricians alone formed the municipality and the military force, the populus (con- nected with populari, to ravage), since they alone performed military service. They were divided into curiae, districts, at first 10 in num- ber, after the union of the Titles and Luceres with the Ramnes 3O (p. 88), each curia being divided into ten families or gentes. The assembly (populus) of the citizens or patricians, called by the king when he had an announcement or an inquiry to make, formed the comitia curiata. To this body citizens under sentence had the right of appeal for pardon (provocatio) ; only, however, with the consent of the king. The comitia elected the king, who, after elec- tion, exercised absolute power, having to consult the community only when changes of the existing law or the commencement of an offen- sive war were in question. The Senate (council of the elders, seniores, senatores) was an advisatory body, named by the king, but representing the gentes after a manner. This oldest form of the community was essentially altered by a reform conducted during the reign of the last dynasty, and which tradition has coupled with the name of Servius Tullius. Military service and payment of the tributum was thereby made obligatory on all land-owners, whether they were citizens or merely inhabitants of the class of metoeci. Every freeholder between seventeen and sixty years of age was now liable to service. The cavalry, composed of citizens, continued as before, but there was added to it a force of double its strength, which consisted wholly, or in great part, of ple- beians. The wealthiest land-owners were drawn upon to furnish the cavalry. No regard at all was paid to political or class differences in making up the infantry, but the kind of 'armor to be furnished by the warriors was regulated in accordance with a property classifica- tion. This is the Servian classification,1 for military service and taxation, of Patricians and Plebeians according to their property (Cen- sus). A. Cavalry (Bquites). 6 pure (?) patrician, 12 plebeian (and patrician) centuries ; in all 1800 horse, all of the first class. 1 The census was not expressed in money until the time of Appius Claudius (B. c. 312). Leighton, Hist, of Rome, p. 22, n. 5. [Trans.] 92 Ancient History. B. o B. Foot-Soldiers (Pedites). Number of Centuries. Property in Asses.1 Armor. Weapons. 80 C. with 20 jugera 100,000 galea, clipeus, oc- reae, lorlca 20 C. with | as much 75,000 galea, scutum, ocreae 20 C. with i as much 50,000 galea, scutum 20 C. with | as much 25,000 scutum 28 C. with i (1-10) as 12,000 much fundse It appears from the number of centuries (i. e. companies) in the different classes, that the division of the land at that time was such that more than half the farms contained 20 jugera or more, and a farm of that size was considered the standard. In the five classes : 168 centuries of foot-soldiers, each of 100 men = 16,800 men ; i. e. 4 legions of 4200 men each, 2 legions juniores (first levy, 17-46 years old, for service in the field) and 2 legions seniores (second levy, 47-60 years old, for garrison service). To be added are 3 centuries of fabri (pioneers), tubicines and cornucines (musicians), 2 centuries accensi velati (unarmed substitutes), 2 centuries prole- tar'ti and capite censi, making, with the cavalry, 193 centuries. As the population increased the number of centuries was not enlarged, but the separate divisions were strengthened by the addition of new recruits, without doing away entirely with the standard number. This new military body, arranged in classes and centuries, was henceforward consulted by the king in regard to offensive wars as the army had been when divided into curise. This was at first the only privilege which the new citizens shared ; all other rights were reserved to the comitia curiata, which consisted exclusively of patricians. Tt was not until later (at the beginning of the Republic) that the new arrangement of the community acquired political importance, and that a new popular assembly, the comitia centuriata, de- veloped out of the new military organization. The reform ascribed to Servius had originally a purely military character. It gave the Plebeians at first scarcely any rights, but only burdens ; it opened the way, however, whereby they became true citizens. The inhabitants who were not land-owners, be they clientes or foreign metceci, were henceforward distinct from the land-owning plebs. The inhabitants who owned no land were called, after the money which they had to pay for protection, eerarii.2 For purposes of conscription the city and township were divided into four wards (Tribus), so that each legion contained the same number of recruits from each ward. Every 4, later every 5 years a new census was taken, which closed with a sacrifice for purification (lustrum), whence in later times lustrum denoted a space of five years. 1 Mommsen, Hist . of Rome, Book I. chap. 6. Iiivius, I., 42 and foil. 2 Mommsen, Hist . of Home, Book I. chap. 6. B. C. Roman History. 93 SECOND PERIOD. Struggles between Patricians and Plebeians, Subjugation of Italy Proper, to the Beginning of the Punic Wars (510-264). 510 (?) . Expulsion of the Tarquins, Rome a Republic. According to Roman tradition, the consuls for the first year of the republic were 509 (?). Lucius Junius Brutus and L. Tarquinius Collatinus,, The latter, it is said, being related to the exiled royal family, soon fell under suspicion, and was replaced by L. Valerius Popli- cola, the first Consul suffectus, to whom tradition ascribes the lex Valeria de provocatione (Ne quis magistratus civem Romanum adversus provocationem (p. 91) neceret neve verberaret). On the same authority, the first dictator (p. 94) was Titus Lartius (501, against the Sabines). The Grecian historian Polybius calls the consuls of the first year 509 (?). Lucius Junius Brutus and Marcus Horatius.1 We know absolutely nothing which is historically authenticated about the details of this revolution. This alone is certain, that the arbitrary rule of the last king brought about his expulsion and the banishment of the whole gens Tarquinia. (The family sepulchre has been discovered in Caere, in Etruria). The fear lest the common- wealth should be transformed into a tyranny seems to have united the patricians and plebeians for a short time. We are better informed about the nature of the constitutional change, since on this point inferences can be drawn from the institu- tions which we find in existence in historic times. The change in the constitution was, as far as this is possible in a revolution, conservative in character. The sovereign reigning during life was replaced by two rulers holding office for a year, taken from the patricians. They were called at first Praetores, Judices, or Consules ; later, the lattei name only was applied to them.2 They exercised, generally, regal power: Imperium (i. e. sovereignty in war and peace); auspicia publica (i. e. supplication of the gods in behalf of the state) ; convening the popular assembly and the senate; taking the census; appointment of senators and the two patrician quaestors. The latter, whose office was established during the time of the kings, exercised the functions of criminal police, and soon acquired the administration of the state treasury under the supervision of the consuls. The consuls were assigned 12 lictores as a public indication of their official power. 1 Polybius, III. 22. The statement of Polybius, that the first treaty be- tween Rome and Carthage fell in the first yea/ of the Republic, ie disputed by Mommsen (l#im. Chronologie bis auf Caesar, 2 Ed. p. 320), but is strongly defended by Uissen (Jahrbilcher fur Philologie, 1867), and others. 2 The derivation of consul and prcetor is doubtful. Consul denotes either " administrator of the state " (qui consulit reipublicce), or merely colleague. Pr lently opposed by the nobility. A compromise was effected, and it was decreed that instead of consuls 444. military tribunes (6) with consular power (tri- buni militum consulari potestate) should be appointed, and that to this office plebeians could be elected. At the same time creation of a new patrician office, that of censor. The two censors were elected in the comitia centuriata, at first for 5 (4 ?) years, after 434 for 18 months, but every fifth year only, so that the office was vacant 3£ years out of every five. Functions of the censors : 1. Taking the census every 5 (4 ?) years (after every lustrum), and compiling the lists of citizens and taxes; appointment of senators (lectio senates') and the equites (recognitio equitum). 2. Preparation and publication of the budget, management of the state prop- erty, farming the indirect taxes (vectigalia}, superintendence of the public buildings. 3. Supervision of the public morality (regimen morum). The duties and privileges included under the latter head gave the office great moral and political im- portance in the next century (Notatio censorial). 459. Spurius Mcdius, a rich plebeian, who, during a famine, distrib- uted grain at a low price, was accused of aiming at royal power, and was slain by C. Servilius Ahala, the master of the horse of the octogenarian dictator, L. Quinctius Cincinnatus. 405-396. Siege of Veii, the history of which, like that of the previous wars with the Etruscans, has been much ornamented by tradition. The long continuance and obstinacy of the war with Veii is proved by the fact that then for the first time the campaigns were not interrupted during the winter. The result was, that the citi- zens who served in the army now for the first time received pay from the public treasury (i. e. out of the taxes on the public lands).1 Capture and destruction of Veii by the i Leighton, Hist, of Rome, p. 70, note 1. [TRANS. 100 Ancient History. B. c. dictator, M. Furius Camillus. The fall of Veil marks the beginning of the decline of the Etruscan power, which was hard pressed at the same time by the Latins in the south, Celts {Gauls} from beyond the Alps in the north, and from the sea by the Sicilian and Italian Greeks, especially the Syracusans, whose attacks had endured upward of a century. 391. Camillus went into exile in consequence of a complaint of in- justice in the division of the booty from Veii. Latium invaded by the Gauls in consequence of Roman ambas- sadors having taken part, in the war of the Etruscans of Clusium, against the Gauls. The Gauls demanded that the ambassadors (the three Fabii) should be delivered to them, to which the senate agreed. The proposal was, however, rejected by the citizens. 390 (July 18). Battle of the Allia, a brook, which falls into the Tiber eleven miles north of Rome. Utter defeat and rout of the Romans on the right bank of the Tiber, whereby the city was left defenceless. Abandoned by the citizens (the Mons Capitolinus alone contin- ued to be occupied), Rome was taken, plundered, and burnt by the Gauls under their Brennus, i. e. military ruler. Slaughter of the senators. Unsuccessful attempt to surprise the Capitol. The geese of Juno. M. Manlius Capitolinus. After a seven months' siege of the fortress, the withdrawal of the Gauls was purchased with gold. Legend (a later invention) of an expul- sion of the enemy by a victory of Camillus, who surprised the haughty Brennus ( Vce metis /) in the forum, while the gold was being weighed (!). Return of the inhabitants. The plan of emigrating to Veil broken up by Camillus. Hasty, but irregu- lar, reconstruction of the city, which soon regained its old Eower, after the ^Equi, the Volscians, and the Etruscans, who ad taken up arms again, had been defeated by Camillus. Equalization of the old orders. Origin of the new nobility. Recommencement of the civil contests against the patricians: 1, by the plebeian aristocracy to get admission to the consulate; 2, by the poor, indebted plebeians to obtain a reform of the laws of debtor and creditor, and a share of the public lands. The exertions of those tribunes who were friendly to the poorer classes were often neutral- ized by the opposition of their colleagues who represented the inter- ests of the plebeian aristocracy. The patrician M. Manlius Capi- tolinus, who had released plebeian debtors at his own expense, was accused of aiming at royal power, declared guilty of high treason, and thrown from the Tarpeian rock (384). A compromise was finally agreed upon between the plebeian aristocracy and the plebeian com- mons, whose results were seen in the 376. Laws proposed by C. Licinius and Lucius Sextius, trib- unes of the people (rogationes Licinice). The first two were designed to secure the poorer classes a material alleviation; the third to give the plebeian aristocracy the long-wished-foi equality with the patricians. B. c. Roman History. 101 I. Relief of the debtors by the deduction of interest already paid from the principal; the rest to be paid within three years in three installments (ut, deducto eo de capite quod usuris pernumeratum esset, id quod superesset triennio cequis portionibus persolveretur) . II. No one should possess more than 500 jugera of the public lands (ne quis plus quam quingenta jugera agri publici1 possideref). III. Abolition of the tribuni militum consulari potestate. One, at least, of the two consuls must be chosen from the plebeians (ne tribunorum militum comitia Jierent consulumque utique alter ex plebe crea- retur). After a long contest, and after the appointment of Camillus to the dictatorship had failed to accomplish anything, 367. The Licinian laws were passed. 366. L. Sextius Lateranus, colleague of the tribune Licinius, first plebeian consul. At the same time one of the three great colleges of priests (decemviri [formerly duoviri] sacris faciundis) was opened to the plebeians. In order to retain at least the administration of the judicial de- partment in the hands of their order, the patricians procured the establishment of a new patrician magistracy, the praetorship. The praetor (since 243, one praetor urbanus, and one prsetor inter cives et peregrinos; since 227, four; since 197, six praetors) had the jurisdiction (dare sc. judicium, dicere, sc. sententiam, addicere, sc. rem), and was the vicegerent of the consuls during their absence. At the same time a new cedile was appointed, called, to distinguish him from the plebeian officer of that name, the curule aedile ; this office was, however, soon (probably since 364; certainly since 304) made accessible to the ple- beians, and patrician and plebeian curule sediles were elected for alternate years. The duties of the two aediles curules were: 1. to manage the ludi Romani • 2. to supervise the markets and the street- police, and to preside in the police courts connected therewith. Although after the passage of the Licinian laws the patricians contin- ued their opposition to the political equalization of the orders, and even succeeded several times in electing two patrician consuls in open violation of the third Licinian law, all public offices were, neverthe- less, opened to all Roman citizens, in rapid succession : the dictatorship 356 (the office of magister equitum before the adoption of the Lici- nian laws 368), the censorship actually 351, legally 338, the prcetorship 337, the colleges of pontifices and augures (the number of members in each being increased to nine) 300, by the lex Ogulnia. The patrician order thereupon ceased to exist as a legally privileged caste, and con- tinued only as a social order or rank. A new nobility (optimates, nobiles) was gradually developed in political life, composed of those patrician and plebeian families which had for the longest time retained possession of the chief public offices (summi honores). These families regarded every citizen who obtained office, but did not belong to their set, as an upstart (homo novus). The 1 The word publici is lacking in the text of Livius (VI. 35). But it is cleat tliat the law could have referred to public land omy. Cf. Niebuhr, Hist, of Rome III. 11; and Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, I. 304 foil. 102 Ancient History. B. a new nobility could not, however, separate itself so sharply from the common people as the patrician order had done, but increased its ranks constantly from the most promising portion of the lower classes. Through the equalization of the plebeian aristocracy with the pa- tricians, the office of tribune, which was generally in the hands of the most distinguished plebeian families, lost, for a time at least, its revolutionary and anarchic character. The tribunes of the people soon obtained not only seats and votes in the senate, but also the right to convene it. Growing importance of the senate, which from this time on was the principal executive body governing the state. Since the establishment of the republic the senators had represented both orders (p. 94). They acquired their membership neither by the accident of birth, nor by the direct choice of the people. The censors (p. 99) filled vacancies in the senate principally from the numbers of those citizens which had occupied the office of quaestor (p. 99) or a higher office. Their age was at least 30 years ; prob- ably a property qualification was soon required. Being appointed for life, but subjected every four (5) years to a new lectio of the censors, who could expel unworthy members, the Roman senators were independent of a fickle public opinion. To the wise and ener- getic conduct of the senate Rome chiefly owed the great growth of her power which took place in the near future. As formerly, the comitice, exercised the rights of sovereignty proper, Xcially the comitia centuriata and the comitia tributa, in ;h all citizens, patricians and plebeians alike, were included (p. 96), while the right of approval vested in the patrician comitia curiata (or the narrower patrician senate, p. 94) became an empty form. Here belong two of the three laws of the plebeian dictator, Pub- lilius Philo (leges Publilice), of the year 338 : 1. A vote of the comitia tributa shall have the force of law without having been ap- proved by the comitia curiata (ut plebiscita omnes Quirites tenerent). 2. Laws presented to the centuries shall be approved beforehand (ut legum, quce comitiis centuriatis ferrentur, patres ante initum suffragium auctores fierent). 3. One censor must be a plebeian (ut alter ubique ex plebe censor crearetur). The same Publilius Philo became the first plebeian praetor in 337. In the year 312 the censor Appius Claudius included the inhab- itants of Rome who were not freeholders in the tribes which they pre- ferred, and in the centuries according to their property. This far- reaching and actually revolutionary change in the comitia centuriata and tributa was altered in a conservative sense by the censor Q. Fa- bius Rullianus (Maximus) in the year 304. As regards the comitia tributa, those freemen who were not freeholders, and those freed- men (libertini) whose property in land was valued at less than 30,000 sestertes (about $1500^, were divided among the four city wards (tribus urbance), which now became the last in rank instead of the first. The country wards (tribus rusticce), the number of which had by the year 241 risen from 17 to 31 (making the whole number of the tribes 35, p. 96), were reserved for freemen who were freeholders, and for freedmen having larger landed properties. In the comitia B. c. Roman History. 103 centuriata, where the wealthy members had already acquired many privileges, equality of the freemen who were and those who were not freeholders was secured ; but the freedmen, with excep- tion of those of the first two classes, were entirely shut out from the centuries.1 The Licinian laws had naturally only ameliorated, not radically cured, the desperate condition of the poor and indebted plebeians. The law of the consul Pcetelius (lex Pcetelia), passed in 326 or 313, secured to every insolvent debtor who should transfer his prop- erty to the creditor his personal freedom (ne quis ceris alieni causa nectatur, utique bona tantummodo obnoxia sint). By these and other ameliorations, and by the ever-increasing foundation of colonies of citizens and division of public lands among the poor, in consequence of successful wars, the social question was for a short time forced into the background. At this time occurred the alteration in the Servian constitution of the army.2 Division of the new legion into 30 maniples, each con- taining 3 centuries. Arrangement in order of battle in three lines (hastati, principes, triarii). The assignment of arms according to property classification was abolished. Long lances (hasta) were re- served for the third line, the first and second line receiving in their stead the pilum, a short spear, adapted both for thrusting and hurl- ing. A short cut and thrust sword was used by all. 367-349. Four wars with the Gauls who had permanently settled in upper Italy (henceforward known as Gallia Cisalpina), and thence made frequent inroads into central Italy. In the first war single combat between T. Manlius Torquatus and a gi- gantic Gaul ; in the second, the first triumph of a plebeian consul. The fourth war was ended by a great defeat inflicted upon the Gauls in the Pomptine region by the consul M. Fu- rius Camillus, the younger. Single combat of M. Valerius Corvus with a Gaul. 362. Story of a chasm opened in the forum closed by the sacrifice of M. Curtius. 362-358. War with the Hernici and the revolted Latin cities (especially Tibur), ending in the renewal of the old league between Rome on the one part and the Latins and Hernici on the other; whereby both people were more strictly subjected to the Romans than before. 358-351. Wars with the Etruscan cities Tarquinii, Caere, and Falerii (victory of C. Marcius Rutilius, the first plebeian dicta- tor, 356), which led to the reduction of the whole of south- ern Etruria under Roman supremacy. 348. (First ?) treaty of commerce between Rome and Carthage,8 the text of which has been preserved by Polybius (III. 22). 350-345. War with the Volscii, who were defeated in 346 at Satri- cum, and the Aurunci. The power of both peoples was com- pletely broken. The Roman legions forced their way south- 1 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, Book II. chap. 3. 2 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, Book II. chap. 8, and Peter, I.s 222 foil. 3 See p. 93, note 1. 104 Ancient History. B. c. ward without stay. This great development of Rome's power brought about the 343-266. wars with the Samnites, the other Italians, and the Greek cities of Italy. Result : Subjugation of all Italy to the Rubicon and Macra, under the supremacy of Rome. 343-341. First war with the Samnites. Cause : The Sidici in Teanum and the Campanians in Capua, both Samnite tribes who had emigrated from their home, asked aid of the Romans against their relatives, the Samnites of the mountains, who had formed a confederacy in Samnium proper, whence they con- tinually ravaged the plain (Campania), with new swarms. According to the Roman tradition,1 their armies gained three vic- tories in Campania over the Samnites : victory of M. Valerius Cor- vus on Mount Gaurus (near Cumse) ; victory of A. Cornelius Cossus, after his army had been rescued by P. Dedus Mus, a military trib- une ; finally, victory of both Roman armies at Suessula. The war was ended by a treaty, whereby Rome received Capua, the Samnites Teanum. The Samnites were induced to conclude this treaty by a war with Tarentum, the Romans by the 340-338. Great Latin War. The Latins rebelled against the hegemony of Rome and demanded complete equality with the Romans. One consul and half the senate were to be Latins. Capua (in spite of the opposition of the optimates) and the Volscii were allied with the Latins. Victory of the {Roman and Samnite f) armies over the Latins and Campanians in the neighborhood of Vesuvius under the consul T. Manlius Imperiosus. Execution of the young son of the consul, who against his father's command had fought with the Latin commander and defeated him. P. Decius Mus sacrificed his life for the safety of his army. Decisive battle at Trifanum (between Minturnce and Suessa) ; victory of the consul Manlius over the Latins and Campa- nians. Dissolution of the Latin League, which became a mere relig- ious association for the celebration of festivals. Isolation of the Latin cities from one another. Commercium and connubium between them were prohibited. Most of the cities received Roman citizen- ship without suffrage, i. e. they became subjects. Several were obliged to cede land, which was divided among Roman citizens ; others were converted into Roman colonies (p. 109), e. g. Antium. The orator's stand in the forum Romanum was ornamented with the bows of the old ships of this city (hence rostra). The Roman -power in the territories of the Volscii and in Campania was strengthened by the settlement of colonies of Roman citizens. Capita and other cities became dependent Roman communities (p. 109). i Livius, VII. 29 foil. See this tradition criticised by Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, I. 365, note. B. c. Roman History. 105 326-304. Second war with the Samnites and the other Italians. Cause : Encroachments of the Romans on the Liris, especially the transformation of Fregellce, into a Roman colony, and the capture of Palceopolis (twin city of Neopolis), by Q. Publilius Philo, the first pro-consul. Alliance of the Romans with the Apulians and Lucanians and, in the course of the war, with the Sabellian cities south of the Volturnus (Nola, Nuceria, Herculaneum, Pompeii), who at first sided with the Samnites. The Romans had the advantage in the first years of the war, and crossed Samnium to Apulia, plundering as they went ; but in 321 the consuls Sp. Postumius and T. Veturius, hastening from Campania to the assistance of the Apulian city Luceria, were surrounded by the Samnites under Gavius Pontius in the Caudine Pass (furculce Caudince), near the present Arpaia, and compelled to capitulate, swear to a treaty of peace, and give 600 Roman equites as hostages. The whole Roman army was sent under the yoke. The Roman senate refused to approve the treaty, and delivered the consuls to the Samnites, who refused to receive them. The Samnites conquered Luceria in Apulia and Fregellce on the Liris. By desperate exertions the Romans got the upper hand again. In 319 the Roman consul L. Papirius Cursor reconquered Luceria, released the Roman hostages, and sent the Samnite garrison under the yoke. The war went on during the succeeding years with chang- ing fortune ; nevertheless, the Romans subdued their revolted allies and subjects, and punished the leaders in the revolt with death. They defeated the Samnites at Capua, drove them out of Campania com- pletely, and reconquered Fregellce. Settlement of new colonies (p. 109) . Construction of a great military road from Rome to Capua, through the Pomptine marshes, the Via Appia, part of which still remains. (Begun under the censor Appius Claudius, 312). Alter 312, when the 40 years' peace with the Etruscans expired, the Etruscan cities took part in the war against Rome. Soon the whole of Etruria, which was still, independent, was in arms against the destroyer of Italian liberty. Siege of the Roman border fortress, Sutrium. The victorious advance of the consul Q. Fabius Rullianus through the Ciminian forest, and his victory at the Vadimonian lake (310) caused the powerful cities of Perusia, Cortona, Arretium, to withdraw from the coalition against Rome, and effected after 308 a provisional truce throughout Etruria. The Umbrians, Pi- centini, Marsians, Frentanians, Pcelignians, who had joined the Ital- ian coalition, continued the war, and were ultimately joined by the Hernicans. The fortune of war for a short time favored the Sam- nites and their allies, but the Romans soon acquired a decided ascen- dency. L. Papirius Cursor defeated the Samnites in a great battle (309). Nuceria, the last Campanian town in alliance with the Sam- nites, was attacked by the Romans by land and sea, and forced to surrender. First appearance of a Roman war fleet. The con- sul L. Postumius invaded Samnium from the Adriatic Sea ; another 106 Ancient History. B. C. Roman army advanced from Campania. A decisive victory of the Romans and the capture of Bovianum (305), the capital of the Samnite league, ended the war. The Samnites begged for peace, and with their Sabellian allies obtained a renewal of the old treaties and equality with Rome. Foundation of numerous Roman colonies and several military roads ; the Hernican league was dissolved ; the Volscians and JEquians were obliged to receive Roman citizenship without suffrage. Construction of two great military roads from Rome : the northern (later called Via Flaminia) extended to Narnia (Nequinum) ; the southern (later Via Valeria} extended by way of Carsioli to Alba Fucentia (i. e. on lake Fucinus), the key to the territory of the Mar si. 298-290. Third war against the Samnites and the other Italians. Cause: The Samnites succeeded in bringing men of their party into power throughout Lucania, and concluded a league with the Lucanians in order to risk a final struggle for the independence of Italy. New rising among the Etruscans. The consul L. Cornelius Scipio (whose sarcophagus, with an old Latin inscription,1 discovered in 1780, is still to be seen in the Vati- can Museum) forced the Lucanians to abjure their alliance with Sam- nium. 297, victory of Rullianus at Tifernum; victory of P. Decius Mus at Maluentum. In 296 the desperate exertions of the Samnites en- abled them to place three armies in the field : one to defend their own country, one for Campania, while the third was conducted by its commander Gellius Egnatius through the Marsian and Umbrian lands to Etruria. This prevented the Etruscans from concluding the peace which they had negotiated with Rome and conjured up the old coali- tion of the Italians, which was now joined by Gallic tribes. Great prep- parations in Rome. The consuls Q. Fabius Rullianus and P. Decius Mus advanced to Umbria with 60,000 men, where in 295 the deci- sive battle of Sentinum was fought, and by the devotion of P. De- cius Mus (Livius, X. 28) after a long contest ended in favor of the Romans. Dissolution of the army of the coalition, the Gauls scat- tered, the Samnites returned to Samnium, the Umbrians submitted, the Etruscans asked for peace in the next year (294). The war lasted in Samnium four years longer with varying fortune. In 293 the Sam- nites suffered a severe defeat at Aquilonia from L. Papirius Cursor and Spurius Carvilius. In 292 the Samnites gained their last victory under the command of Gavius Pontius the younger. Finally the Samnites concluded peace with the consul M9 . Curius Dentatus, as it seems, without ceding territory; but the Romans 1 This inscription, which it is conjectured from linguistic reasons, was en graved some time after the death of Scipio, was : — Cornelius Lucius Scipio Barbdtus Gnnivod pntre proffndtusfdrtis vir sapiensque quoins forma virtutei parisuma ( parissima) fuit consol censor aidilis queifuit apud vos Taurdsid Cisauna Sdmnio cepit subigit omne Loucdnam opsidesque, abdoucit. B. C. Roman History. 107 thereby gained a chance to strengthen their power in the rest of Italy. This was accomplished by the foundation of new colonies which should serve as checks on the Italians, especially Minturnce, and Sin- uessa in the territory of the Auruiicans, Hatria in Picenum, Venusia in Apulia. The Sabines were obliged to become subject to Rome, after a short and feeble resistance. At this time, after the Samnite wars, the 286 (?). Hortensian law (lex Hortensia) was passed. Thereby it was settled that all decrees of the comitia tributa should be binding on all citizens. This was accomplished by the dictator Hortensius after a dangerous uprising of the plebeians, who had been unable to come to terms with the opposite party in regard to a reduction of debts, and had withdrawn to the Janiculus (last secessio plebis). About this time questions of peace and alliance began to be submitted to the comitia tri- buta. By the lex Maenia the second Publilian law (that the curise, or the narrow patrician senate, should assent beforehand to the resolves, see p. 102) was extended to the elections which took place in the comitia centuriata. Nevertheless, the real importance of the public assemblies was declining ; they .became more and more instruments in the hands of the presiding officers. After a short truce in Italy, in consequence of the peace with the Samnites, there broke out a 285-282. war between Rome and a new Italian coalition. Cause : The inhabitants of Thurii being attacked by the Lucanians and Bruttians, sought help from the Romans. Alliance of the Lucan- ians and Bruttians with the Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls of north- ern Italy. The annihilation of a Roman army at Arretium by Senonian mercenaries of the Etruscans was terribly avenged by the Romans. The Gallic tribe of the Senones was in part slaughtered, in part driven from its home in Umbria. A victory of the Romans over the north Italians and their Gallic allies by Lake Vadimonium (283), and another at Populonia (282), inclined the Gauls to peace. After a victory of the consul C. Fabricius over the Lucanians at Thurii the non-Dorian Greek cities joined the Romans. Locri, Croton, and Thurii received Roman garrisons. This advance of the Romans led to the 282-272. 'War with Tarentum. Special cause: Old treaties with Tarentum prohibited Roman ships of war from passing the promontory of Lacinium. A Roman war fleet on its way to the Umbrian coast anchored in the harbor of Tarentum. The people, incited by demagogues in the assembly, at- tacked the vessels, and captured five, whose crews were either put to death or sold into slavery. A Roman embassy which demanded rep- aration in Tarentum was insulted. A Roman army advanced into the Tarentine territory. The Taren- tines called to their assistance Fyrrhus, king of Epirus, a renowned general and leader of mercenaries, who had long meditated the plan of conquering for himself and the Hellenic nation a new empire in the 108 Ancient History. B. c. west. Pyrrhus at first sent Milon with 3000 Epirotes to Tarentum (281) ; he himself landed in Italy, the following year, with an army of 25,000 men (Epirotes, Macedonians, Greeks, etc.) and twenty ele- phants. The war between Pyrrhus and the Romans was a contest of an army of mercenaries against militia, of a military monarchy against the government of a senate. Strict discipline maintained by the king in Tarentum ; the theatres were closed, the death penalty imposed on evasion of military service. Great preparations at Rome ; even the proletarii, generally free from military service, were enrolled. One Roman army was sent to Etruria, the main army to lower Italy. In the 280. Battle of Heraclea, near the Siris, the Romans were defeated, after a struggle whose result was long doubtful, by the phalanx and the elephants. Great losses of Pyrrhus. The Bruttians, Lucanians, and Samnites joined the king. The offer of peace made by Pyrrhus to the Romans through Cine as was haughtily rejected by the senate. Speech of the blind consular Ap- pius Claudius. Pyrrhus advanced. as far as Anagnia in Campania, but there halted and returned to lower Italy, as two Roman armies took the field against him, and the allies of the Romans remained faithful. Roman embassy (C. Fabricius) sent to Pyrrhus to treat for an ex- change of prisoners. In the following year the two armies, each numbering with the allied troops 70,000 men, met in the bloody 279. Battle of A(u)sculum, in Apulia, which lasted two days, and in which Pyrrhus was victor, but again suffered enormous loss. The Syracusans, who, since the death of Agathocles (289, p. 20), had been hard pressed by the Carthaginians, called for aid upon Pyrrhus, who gladly gave heed to the request, but left a garrison in Tarentum. Offensive and defensive alliance of Rome and Car- thage (279) ; a Carthaginian fleet appeared off the coast of Italy, but soon returned to Sicily. The Roman's conduct of the war in Italy was at first feeble, owing to their great losses, but they soon captured all the cities on the south coast excepting Tarentum and Rhegium. After two years' absence (p. 20), Pyrrhus again landed in Italy. He started to assist the Samnites, who were hard pressed by the Romans, but was completely defeated in the 275. Battle of Beneventum. 1300 prisoners and 4 elephants fell into the hands of the victors. Despairing of success against Rome, Pyrrhus re- turned to Epirus, leaving a garrison in Tarentum. Not until after the death of Pyrrhus, which took place in 272 at Argos, did Milon surrender the city and fortress of Tarentum to the Romans, on condition of free departure. The Taren- tines were obliged to deliver up their arms and ships, and destroy their walls, but retained their own municipal admin- istration. After the fall of Tarentum, subjugation of the Lucanians, Sam- nites, and Bruttians. All were compelled to cede portions of their ter- ritories and to receive colonies (see below). In 270 capture of Rhe* B. c. Roman History. 109 gium, which had been for ten years in the hands of Campanian muti- neers, who were now punished with death. In 268 the Picentini were defeated and a large number of them transferred to Campania. The subjugation of Italy to the Rubicon and Macro, was completed by the defeat of the Sallentini in Calabria, 266. As regards the relation of the conquered towns to Rome we must distinguish: I. Municipal cities (municipia), i. e. communities having Roman citizenship without suffrage and with no claim to a public office at Rome (sine sujfragio et jure honorum). They had the burdens but not the privileges of Roman citizens. Some places were permitted to keep the administration of their municipal affairs under officials of their own choosing ; in others the municipal constitution was entirely abolished. II. Colonies (colonice), i. e. Roman strongholds and fortresses. Many conquered towns had to cede a part of their land, which was then divided among poor Roman citizens, who retained all their rights of citizenship, and thenceforward formed the ruling class in the col- onies, like the patricians, while the old population was reduced to inhabitants having no political rights. The Latin colonies are to be dis- tinguished from the Roman colonies; the former owed their establish- ment to the Latin League, but had been further developed after its dissolution, in that the senate distributed lands among Latin or Roman citizens, who renounced their jus suffragii et honorum. In the municipalities, as in the colonies, the jurisdiction was in the hands of a prefect (prcefectus iuri dicundo) appointed by the prcetor urbanus (p. 101). III. Allies (socii, civitates foederatce), whose relation to Rome was regulated by treaty, who had for the most part their own administra- tion and jurisdiction, and were freed from service in the legion, but were obliged to furnish auxiliary troops or ships. THIRD PERIOD. Punic "Wars. From the Beginning of Rome's universal Em- pire, to the Destruction of Carthage and Corinth. (264-146). 264-241- First Punic War. Contest over Sicily. For the earlier history of the Punic people (Carthaginians) see p. 16, etc. Cause of the war: The ill-feeling which had long existed between Rome, the first land power, and Carthage, the first sea power, of the west, and which had only been waived for a moment during the at- tack of Pyrrhus, who represented the Hellenic states which were hostile to both powers (pp. 76 and 108). Since 311 the Romans had endeavored to form a fleet of war. About this time establishment at Rome of two commanders of the fleet (duumviri navales), later (267) of 4 qucestors of the fleet (qucestores classici). Special cause : The Mamertines, i. e. men of Mars, formerly Campanian mercenaries in the pay of Agathocles (p. 20), had seized the city of Messana and put the male population to death. They were 110 Ancient History. B. c. besieged by king Hiero II. of Syracuse. Part of their number sought aid from the Carthaginians, another part from the Romans. The Roman senate hesitated ; the assemblies resolved to grant the assist- ance asked (265). A Roman fleet, consisting principally of the ships of the south Italian allies, and the advance guard of the army, arrived in Rhegium. Meanwhile the Mamertines had admitted Carthagin- ian ships to the harbor and received a Carthaginian garrison in the citadel. The Roman advance guard crossed the strait, occupied Mes- sana, and drove the garrison from the citadel. The Carthaginians declared war. 264. A Carthaginian fleet besieged the Romans in Messana. The consul Appius Claudius Caudex crossed the strait with the main body of the army and relieved Messana. Unsuccessful attempt to take Syracuse. The consul returned to Italy, leaving a garrison in Messana. 263. Two Roman armies crossed to Sicily. Victory of the consul M. Valerius Maximus, called Messalla, over the Carthaginians and Syracusans. Hiero, king of Syracuse, deserted the Cartha- ginians and joined the Romans, who advanced to the south coast of Sicily. 262. Agrigentum captured by the Romans after defeat of a Carthaginian army under Hanno, advancing to its relief. The Romans resolved to construct a large fleet. They built the first five-decker 1 (penteris) after the model of a stranded Carthaginian ship. 260. First naval expedition of the Romans against Lipdra, with 17 sliips, had an unfortunate end, the whole squadron with the consul Cn. Cornelius Scipio being captured by the Carthagin- ians. Immediately afterwards, however, 260. First naval victory of the Romans under C. Duilius at Mylse, west of Messana. Boarding bridges. Special hon- ors paid to Duilius. Columna rostrata in the Forum. The war was continued in the following years with changing fortune ; the Carthaginians under Hamilcar maintained themselves in the western portion of the island. 257. Drawn battle at sea, off the promontory of Tyndaris. The Roman senate decided to attempt a landing in Africa. A fleet of 330 ships under the consuls M. Atilius Regulus and L. Man- lius Volso sailed for the southern coast of Sicily, where, at the mouth of the Himera, the troops were taken on board. A Carthaginian fleet of 350 vessels attempted to stop the expedition, but in the great 256. Ncval battle of Ecnomus (south coast of Sicily) it was completely defeated. What was left of the Carthagin- ian fleet took up position before Carthage to protect the city. The Roman consuls landed to the east of the city at Clupea and laid waste the Carthaginian territory. Manlius returned to Italy with half the army; Regulus remained with 15,000 men. The Carthaginians being defeated sued for peace. Regulus demanded the cession of Sicily and Sardinia, surrender of prisoners and all vessels of war except one, 1 Not the first ship of war ; the Romans had long had vessels of war and three-deckers, see pp, 105, 107, 109. B. C. Roman History. Ill and acknowledgment of Rome's supremacy. Stung by these inso- lent demands, the Carthaginians resolved upon most energetic prepa- rations, and levied troops in Greece, whence numerous bands of mer- cenaries, and among them the Spartan Xanthippus, went to Africa. The Carthaginian army being thus greatly strengthened (the ele- phants numbered 100), 255. Regulus was defeated at Times and captured. A part of the Roman army escaped to Clupea. The senate at once sent a fleet to Africa, which, after gaining a naval victory over the Carthaginians at the promontory of Hermes, took on board the Roman army, which was surrounded at Clupea ; but on the return voyage three fourths of the ships were lost in a storm. The Carthaginians reopened the war in Sicily, landing in Lilybseum under Hasd- tbal, son of Hanno. The Romans built a new fleet. 254. Capture of Panorama by the Romans. In the following year (253) the Roman fleet crossed to Africa and laid waste the coast. On the return voyage from Sicily to Italy it was almost annihilated by a storm. The Roman senate declined to continue the naval warfare. On land the Romans gained the 251. Victory of Panorama over Hasdrubal under the consul CaBcilius Metellus, who at his triumph in Rome exhibited over 100 elephants. The story of the embassy of Regulus to Rome falls in the period subsequent to this victory. It is, like the story of the cruelties inflicted upon him by the Carthaginians, probably an invention of a later time. The Romans renewed the naval war. They besieged LilybcEum in vain. The consul P. Claudius Pulcher in the 249. Sea-fight at Drepanum defeated by the Carthaginians. Capture of a great number of Roman ships. After two more Roman fleets had been destroyed by storms on the south coast of Sicily, the Romans, for the second time, abandoned naval warfare. 248-242. Campaign by land on the south side of Sicily .^ The Car- thaginian general Hamilcar, called Barak or Barcas (i. e. lightning) not only defended himself for 6 years successfully against the Romans, first on Mt. Eircte (Monte Pellegrino, near Palermo), then on Eryx, but also annoyed the Italian coasts by privateers. Through the contributions of rich patriots at Rome, a new fleet was finally built entirely at private cost. With this fleet the consul C. Lutatius Catulus won the decisive 241. Victory at the JEgatian Islands (opposite Lilybseum), over the Carthaginian fleet under Hanno. Peace : I. The Carthaginians gave up all claims to Sicily. II. They paid 3200 talents ($4,000,000) war indemnity in ten years. The larger western part of Sicily became the first Roman prov- ince ; the smaller eastern l part continued under the supremacy of Syracuse, which was allied with Rome. 1 The territory of Syracuse, Acrce, Leontini, Megara. Helorum, Netum> Tauromenium. Comp. Marquardt-Mommsen, Rom. Alth., IV. 91. 112 Ancient History. B. c. 241 (?). In this period, probably, occurred the democratic reform of the constitution of the centuries, concerning the de- tails of which but little is known with certainty. Only this ig clear : that the right of first vote was taken from the centuries of equites and that henceforward the century which should cast the first vote (centuria prcerogativa) was determined by lot. It is probable that the centuries from now on formed a subdivision of the wards (tribus). It is further probable that the number of centuries was increased; per- haps an equal number of centuries (i. e. voting bodies) was estab- lished for each class (p. 92), and in this manner the preponderance of the first class was abolished.1 238. The Romans made use of an insurrection of the mercenaries and Libyan subjects against Carthage to extort from the Car- thaginians the cession of Sardinia. This island was at a later time united with the island of Corsica (formerly Etruscan, afterwards conquered by the Romans) to form one province. For the present the Romans were satisfied with the occupation of the coasts. 229-228. War with the Illyrians of Scodra, brought about by the piracies and acts of violence committed by these tribes, and their refusal to make the reparation demanded by the senate. A Roman fleet of 200 ships soon brought the Illyrian pirates to terms, and compelled the queen Teuta, the guardian of her son, to accept the following conditions : release of all Grecian cities from her sway, abandonment of piracy, limitation of navigation, and payment of a tribute. The Greeks attested their gratitude to the senate by admit- ting all Romans to the Isthmian games and the Eleusinian mysteries (p. 44). The lasting result of the war was the firm establishment of Roman superiority in the Adriatic Sea and supremacy over Corcyra, Apollonia, Epidamnus, and some neighboring tribes. In 219 the re- newal of the war led to the subjugation of a part of Illyria by L. jEmilius Paullus. 225-222. Subjugation of Cisalpine Gaul brought about by a dangerous invasion of the Gallic tribes inhabiting the plains of the Po (except the Cenomani) joined by numerous bands of transalpine Gauls. The Celts entered Etruria 70,000 strong and advanced upon Rome. The Romans sent two consular armies against them, which were reinforced by a third. Surrounded by these forces the Gauls were defeated and annihilated in the 225. Battle of Telamon, south of the mouth of the Umbro. The consul C. Atilius Regulus fell, 10,000 Gauls and one of their military leaders were captured, nearly all the rest fell or killed themselves. The Romans entered Gallia Cispadana, and the inhabitants, the Boii, submitted. The Romans crossed the Po, with severe losses (223), and defeated the Insubres. After two more victories in the following year (222) the consul Cn. Scipio captured Mediolanum, the capital of the In- subres, and Comum. To strengthen their power the Romans founded the fortresses of Placentia, Cremona, and Mutina. The military 1 Becker, Rom. Alterth. II.s, p. 9, foil. B. c. Roman History. 113 road to Spolelium was extended across the Apennines to the Adri- atic Sea, and along the coast to Ariminum (ViaFlaminia). Further measures for the firmer establishment of their power in Cisalpine Gaul were interrupted by the 218-201. Second Punic War.1 Causes : Envy of the Romans, excited by the new prosperity of Carthage, springing from her recent acquisitions in Spain, and the efforts of the party of the Barcse to take revenge on Rome. Special causes : The conquests of Hamilcar Barcas in south- ern and western Spain (236-228) being successfully pursued after his death by his son-in-law Hasdrubal, the Romans concluded a treaty with the Grecian cities Zacynihus or Saguntum, north of Valencia, and Emporice, now Ampurias, at the foot of the Pyrenees, and com- pelled the Carthaginians to promise to neither attack these cities nor cross the Ebro with the purpose of making further conquests. After the murder of Hasdrubal (221) the army chose the son of Hamilcar Barcas, Hannibal, then 28 years old, for their general. In order to make war unavoidable even against the will of the Carthaginian government, Hannibal conquered and destroyed Sagun* turn (219) after a brave resistance of the inhabitants for eight months. A refusal to deliver up Hannibal as demanded by a Roman embassy in Carthage was followed by a declaration of war on the part of the Romans. The plan of the Romans to land their main army in Africa, while a *econd army should engage the Carthaginian troops in Spain, was thwarted by 218. Hannibal's daring expedition to Italy by land.2 Leaving a sufficient number of troops in Spain, Hannibal crossed the Pyrenees with 50,000 foot, 9000 horse, and 37 elephants, traversed Gaul not far from the coast by way of Narbo (Narbonne) and Nemausus (Nimes). The Roman consul P. Cor- nelius Scipio, who had stopped at Massilia on the voyage to Spain, heard of Hannibal's march, but his attempt to prevent the Cartha- ginians from crossing the Rhodanus (Rhone) with a division of his army came too late ; the Carthaginian army had already passed the river above Avenio (Avignon). Cavalry skirmish. The Roman consul sent his brother Cn. Scipio with the main part of the army to Spain, while he himself returned with a small force to northern Italy (Pisce). Hannibal marched up the Rhone to Vienna, then turned eastward through the territory of the Allobroges and Centrones, where he forced a way with great loss, crossed the Alps, still fighting, by the pass of the Little St. Bernard, and after indescribable exertions and severe losses reached the valley of the Dora Baltea with about 26,000 men and a few elephants. In upper Italy a small Roman army was engaged with the revolted Gauls. Hannibal defeated the consul Scipio, who had gone on before with the cavalry and light- armed foot soldiers, in the 1 Also called the Hannibalic War (Bellum ffannibnlicum'). 2 See Kiepert, Atlas Ant. Tab. VII. and X. The topographical quea* tions have been settled by the Englishmen Wickham and Cramer. 8 114 Ancient History. B. c. 218. Cavalry engagement on the Ticiiius, a northern branch of Sept. the Po. The wounded consul was rescued by his seventeen- years-old son, the future "Africanus." Reinforced by the Gauls, Hannibal defeated in the 218. Battle of the Trebia, a southern branch of the Po, the other Dec. consul, Tib. Sempronius Longus, who had been hastily recalled from Sicily before the commencement of his African expedi- tion, and now commanded the united Roman armies ; the remnant of the Roman force threw itself into the fortresses Placentia and Cremona. In northern Italy Hannibal organized the national insurrection of the Cisalpine Gauls ; over 60,000 joined his army. In Rome two new consular armies were placed in the field for the next campaign. One under Cn. Servilius took the Via Flaminia to Ariminum in Um- bria, the other under C. Flaminius the Via Cassia to Arretium in Etruria, to meet a possible attack by the Carthaginians. After Han- nibal had released without ransom all prisoners belonging to the Roman allies, and by their influence had incited all Italy to desert Rome, he crossed the Apennines, and marched, unexpectedly to the Romans, through the swampy regions about the Arno. Severe losses. Hannibal himself lost an eye. By this march he flanked the Roman defensive position. The consul Flaminius followed him in all haste, and allowed himself to be decoyed by Hannibal into a narrow pass. In the 217. Battle of Lake Trasimene, between Cortona and Perusia, the Roman army was partly slaughtered, partly made pris- oner (in all 30,000 men). Terror at Rome. Preparations for the defence of the city, destruction of the bridges over the Tiber. Ap- pointment of Q. Fabius Maximus as dictator. Hannibal, how- ever, did not march upon Rome, but passed the fortress of Spoletium after an unsuccessful attempt to surprise it, traversed Urribria across the Apennines to Picenum and the Adriatic Sea. There he rested his army, reorganized it after the Italian system, and established com- munication with Carthage by sea. Then he advanced southward. His hope that the Sabellian tribes would join him was not ful- filled ; most of the cities closed their gates upon him. After the dictator Q. Fabius Maximus had united his 2 new legions with the army of Ariminum, he followed, at a discreet distance, the Carthaginian army, which went through Samnium to Apulia, and passed by Luceria to Arpi. Fabius avoided a pitched battle (hence his nickname Cunctator, delayer), but tried successfully to weaken the Carthaginian army by numerous skirmishes. Hannibal crossed the Apennines again, and went through Samnium to Capua, which he tried in vain to seduce from Rome. The dictator followed and obstructed the Carthaginian march on the Volturnus, where Hannibal gained the pass by a stratagem only (Livius, XXII. 16). After he had severely harried the Sabellian tribes, Hannibal returned to Apulia. Meantime the military conduct of Fabius Maximus had so dis- pleased the Roman populace that they entrusted one half the army to the independent command of M. Minucius, master of the horse. B. c. Roman History. 115 who had had a fortunate skirmish with the Carthaginians, as a second dictator.1 The new dictator attacked Hannibal, but was defeated, and only saved from complete annihilation by the first dictator, Fabius Maximus. The consuls for 216 were the veteran general L. .ffimilius Paul- lus, elected by the optimates, and the incompetent C. Terentiua Varro, elected by the popular party for the purpose of taking the offensive against Hannibal with an army of 86,000 Romans and allies. On the day when he had the decisive vote in the council of war, Varro imprudently attacked the Carthaginians, who held an advantageous position. The Romans suffered in the 216. Battle of Cannae (in Apulia, on the Aufidus), the most terri- ble defeat they ever experienced ; 70,000 fell (among them more than eighty men of senatorial rank and the consul L. jEmilius Paullus) ; the rest were captured or dispersed. Varro, with a small troop, escaped to Canusium. In the same year the legion which had been sent to Cisalpine Gaul was almost entirely destroyed. The secession of Capua, the Sam- nites, Lucanians, and many cities of lower Italy from the Roman alliance was the immediate consequence of the battle of Cannse. Admirable conduct of the Roman senate. The time of mourning for the families of the fallen was limited to thirty days. Hannibal's ambassadors, who offered to exchange prisoners, were refused entrance to the city. A new army was formed by a levy of the youngest men and all who could bear arms, even slaves; they were armed in part out of the ancient spoils from the temples. M. Claudius Marcel- lus, who had approved himself in the Gallic war, was placed in com- mand of the new army, which joined the remnants of the army of Canrae. A second army was conducted by the dictator M. Junius. The Romans successfully defended Naples, Cumce, and Nola. Carthage formed an alliance with Philip V. (///.) of Macedonia, and Hieronymus, the grandson and successor of Hiero, of Syracuse. Hannibal went into winter quarters at Capua. 215. The fortune of war turned in favor of the Romans. Q. Fabius Maximus, Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, the consuls, and M. Clau- dius Marcellus, pro-consul, led three Roman armies. In the 215. Battle of Nola, Marcellus defeated Hannibal, who retired to Apulia. Hannibal was obliged to assume the defensive, since, with the exception of 4000 men, he received no support from Carthage. The dispatch of rein- forcements from Spain was prevented by the successful 218-211. War of the Romans against the Carthaginians in Spain. The Romans, under P. Scipio and Cn. Scipio, defeated Hasdrubal, Hannibal's brother, on the Iberus (Ebro), crossed this river, and pene- trated the Carthaginian territory as far as the Bcetis (Guadalquivir). There they defeated the Carthaginians in two encounters at Illiturgi 1 Established by an inscription found in 1862. See Mommsen, Rom. Gesch* 1.6, p. 599, note. 116 Ancient History. B. c. and Intibili, and maintained themselves in southern Spain, until 212, in spite of varying fortune. At the same time they were pressing the Carthaginians in Africa through their ally, Syphax, king of western Numidia. The alliance with Philip of Macedon likewise brought no help to Hannibal. The 214-205. First Macedonian war was successfully conducted by the Romans with scanty forces. The irresolute Philip did not dare to fulfil his promise to Hannibal of landing in Italy. In 211 the Romans brought about a league of Gre- cian states against Philip, under the lead of the ^Btolians, which was joined by Illyrian and Thracian chiefs, and even by King Attains of Pergamus. The war was, on the whole, unfavorable to Philip. In 206 peace was concluded between Philip and the Romans, against the wishes of the latter; but it was, nevertheless, accepted by the senate. The alliance with Syracuse proved also of no use to Hannibal, as the 214-210. War in Sicily (Siege of Syracuse) was decided by Marcellus in favor of the Romans. After the destruction of the Carthaginian army of relief under Hamilcar, by defeat and disease in the swampy lowlands of the AnoptU, 212. Syracuse was captured and plundered, in spite of a brave resistance (Archimedes). In Italy Hannibal gained possession of Tarentum through treachery (212), and laid siege to the citadel of that city by land and sea. Death of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus in Samnitim. Hannibal advanced to Campania and compelled the Romans to raise the siege of Capua, after which he defeated two Roman armies in Lucania and Apulia, but retired to Tarentum. The Romans again laid siege to Capua. In Spain the war took an unfavorable turn for Rome in this same year, 212. Both Scipios were defeated and killed by the Cartha- ginians and their ally, Massinissa, son of the king of eastern Nu- midia (king himself in 208). The Romans were driven back over the Ebro. 211. Hannibal attacked the Roman army before Capua. He was repulsed, and in order to force the Romans to raise the siege he marched through Samnium to the territory of the ^iEqui on the later Via Valeria, past Tibur, across the Anio, directly upon Rome, and encamped a mile from the city (Hannibal ante portas /). Finding the Romans prepared for defence, he retired, after ravaging the neigh- borhood, to lower Italy, without having gained his end. 211. Capua surrendered to the Romans, who visited a terrible punishment upon the city. Fifty-three citi- zens were beheaded, many sold into slavery ; the community was de- prived of the right of self-government. Hannibal's attack on Rhe- gium and on the citadel of Tarentum having miscarried, his Italian allies abandoned him, and tried to make their peace with the Romans. 210. P. Cornelius Scipio, son and nephew of the brothers who fell in Spain, and now 25 years old, was sent to Spain with procon- sular powers (Livius, XXVI. 18). B. c. Roman History. 117 In Italy Hannibal gained a victory over the proconsul Cn. Fulvius at Herdonea. In Sicily the Romans captured Agrigentum, slaugh- tering the Carthaginian garrison and selling the populace as slaves, and reduced the whole island under their power. In Spain Scipio crossed the Ebro (209) and conquered New Carthage. 209. M. Marcellus, having been defeated in an encounter with Han- nibal, gained a victory over him in a second battle on the fol- lowing day. Q. Fabius Maximus captured Tarentum; 30,000 Tarentines were sold as slaves. Hannibal retired to Meta- pontum. 208. Marcellus fell in a cavalry skirmish at Venusia. Great ex- haustion of Rome and its allies in consequence of the war in its own country, now in its tenth year. In Spain Scipio (208) pressed victoriously southward, but fought a drawn battle at Bcecula with Hasdrubal, and was unable to prevent him from crossing the Pyrenees on his way to his brother Hannibal. Arrived in upper Italy (207), Hasdrubal was successful in inciting the Cisalpine Gauls to arms. Great preparations in Rome (23 legions) to prevent his union with Hannibal, who was advancing to meet him through Lucania and Apulia. The consul M. Livius Salinator was sent against Hasdrubal, the consul C. Claudius Nero against Hannibal. Drawn battle at Grumentum in Lucania, between Nero and Hannibal • the latter broke through the enemy, marched to Apulia, and encamped by Canusium. Nero, who had followed him, left a part of the army to watch Hannibal, while with the rest he joined his colleague by means of forced marches. The two consuls defeated Hasdrubal in the bloody 207. Battle of Sena gallica, not far from the river Metaurus. Death of Hasdrubal. On receipt of the news of this defeat (the Romans threw the head of Hasdrubal among the Cartha- ginian pickets), Hannibal retired to Bruttium. In Spain victory of Scipio at Bcecula over Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo. 206. After completing the expulsion of the Carthaginians from Spain by the capture of Gades (Cadiz), and after concluding a secret alliance with Massinissa, P. Cornelius Scipio returned to Rome. For the following year 205. Scipio was elected consul, and made preparations in Sicily for an African expedition. Mago, the youngest brother of Hannibal, landed at Genoa with the remnants of the Spanish army of the Carthaginians, and called the Ligurians to arms. At once, the Romans levied three armies against him. 204. Scipio landed in Africa. Massinissa, who had been driven from his throne by the Carthaginians, and by Syphax, husband of HasdrubaVs daughter Sophonisbe, now their ally, joined Scipio. 203. Scipio defeated Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo, and Syphax by a night attack, and threatened Carthage. Unsuccessful negotiations for peace. The Carthaginians recalled Hannibal and Mago from Italy. The latter died on the passage. Hannibal em- barked at Croton, having previously massacred the Italian sol- diers who refused to accompany him. After fruitless personal negotiations between Scipio and Hannibal the J18 Ancient History. B. c. 202. Decisive battle of Zama was fought, wherein the Carthaginian army was defeated and annihilated. Hannibal escaped to Hadrumetum. 201. Scipio granted the Carthaginians peace on the following con- ditions : 1. Surrender of their Spanish possessions and of all Mediterranean islands still under their control. 2. Transfer of the kingdom of Syphax to Massinissa. 3. Payment of a yearly tribute of 200 talents ($250,000) to? fifty years. 4. Surrender and destruc- tion of all ships of war except ten. 5. No war to be undertaken without the permission of Rome. P. Cornelius Scipio, who received the cognomen of Africanus, celebrated his triumph in Rome with a splendor never before witnessed (Syphax). The Italian allies of Hannibal were in part sentenced to cede large portions of their territory, in part reduced to subjects of Rome, de- prived of their independence and their right to bear arms (peregrini dediticii). Foundation of numerous Roman colonies in Lower Italy. In consequence of another general rising of the Cisalpine Gauls and the Ligurians, 200-191. Upper Italy was again subjugated after a severe strug- gle. Although the peoples of Transpadane Gaul retained their tribal constitutions they soon became, with few exceptions, com- pletely Latinized. This took place still more quickly among the Cis- padane Gauls after the leading tribe, the Boii, had been almost exter- minated in war. Numerous colonies were in part founded, in part reorganized. Via JEmilia from Ariminum to Placentia. Spain was regarded as a Roman province after 205. It was divided into : 1. Hispania citerior, later Tarraconensis ; and 2. Hispa- nia ulterior, or Bcetica and Lusitania. The country was, however, dur- ing this period, and a part of the next, commonly in a state of war. In 195 the consul, M. Porcius Cato, gained a great victory over the Spaniards, and decreed a universal disarmament. The insurrections soon began again. A victory of the prsetor L. jEmilius Paullus (189), and another, still more important, gained by the praetor, C. Calpur- nius, over the Lusitanians (185), induced quiet for a time in Hispania ulterior. The victories of Q. Fulvius Flaccus (181) and Tiberius Grac- chus (179-178) partially subdued the Celtiberians of Hispania citerior. 200-197. Second Macedonian War. Cause: A Macedonian force of mercenaries sent, as the senate maintained, by king Philip, had fought at Zama against the Romans. King Attains of Pergamus, the inhabitants of Rhodes and Athens be- sought assistance from the Romans against King Philip V. (III.) of Macedonia, who, in alliance with Antiochus III. was warring with Egypt and also grievously troubling the supplicants. In the autumn of 200 the Romans landed at Apollonia, in Illyria, under P. Sulpicius Galba. The Roman fleet guarded Piraeus and threatened Euboea. Philip was repulsed before Athens, and driven from Central Greece. The Romans, who were joined in 199 by the jEtolians and afterwards by the Achceans, carried on the war with varying fortune, but without result, until (198) the consul, T. Quinc- B. c. Roman History. 119 tius Flamininus, took command of the army. He subdued Epirus, got into the rear of Philip's strong position, and defeated the king in the 197. Battle of Cynoscephalse (Kw6s Ke^aAat, in Thessaly). Peace : Philip was obliged to give up the hegemony of Greece, and in general all possessions outside of Macedonia proper, and to pay 1000 talents ($1,250,000) in ten years. He was to maintain no more than 5000 soldiers and five ships of war, and not to carry on war beyond his own borders without the consent of Rome. During the Isthmian games, T. Quinc- tius Flamininus proclaimed, under general rejoicing, the de- cree of the Roman senate declaring the Greek states free and independent. The majority joined the Achaean league. The Romans limited, without destroying, the power of Nabis, tyrant of Sparta, hoping thus to counterbalance the Achaean league. 195. At Carthage a democratic reform of the constitution was car- ried out by the influence of Hannibal. The oligarchs defamed Hannibal before the Roman senate, which demanded that he be delivered to the Romans. Hannibal fled to the East. 192-189. War with Antiochus III., of Syria. Cause : Interference of the king of Syria in Grecian affairs, and of the Romans in Asiatic politics ; reception of Hannibal at the court of Antiochus. Antiochus, deceived by the ^Etolians who had fallen out with Rome, and promised to join him with all the Greek cantons as allies, began the war, without listening to the advice of Hannibal, by landing in Thessaly on the Gulf of Pagasae, whence he went to Eubo3a. Most of the Greeks, especially the Achaean league, remained true to the Ro- mans, who were also joined by Philip of Macedon, Eumenes ofPerga- mus, and Rhodes. Antiochus occupied the pass of Thermopylae. Landing of the consul, Manius Acilius Glabrio, in Epirus (191) and march to Thessaly. The former consul, M. Porcius Cato, conqueror of the Spaniards, who served as military tribune in the Roman army, surprised the ^Etolians on the mountain path of Ephialtes, while the consul captured the pass itself and scattered the army of Antiochus, who escaped to Chalcis with a few soldiers, and there took ship for Ephesus. The Romans besieged the JStolians in Naupactus; their fleet, under C. Livius, defeated that of Antiochus at Chios. In the following year (190) a fleet from Rhodes defeated a fleet of the king, under the command of Hannibal, at the mouth of the Eurymedon, and somewhat later the Roman fleet, with that of Rhodes, won a naval victory at Myonnesus. A Roman army, nominally under the command of the consul, L. Cornelius Scipio, but really under his brother, P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus, marched through Macedonia and Thrace, crossed the HeU lespont, and defeated Antiochus in the 190. Battle of Magnesia on the Sipylus, not far from Smyrna, whereupon the king concluded peace in 120 Ancient History. B. c. the following year : 1. Surrender of all European possessions, and of his Asiatic possessions as far as the Taurus. 2. Payment of 15,000 Eubreaii talents ($19,125,000) within twelve years. 3. Surrender of Hannihal, who, however, escaped. This peace struck the kingdom of the Seleucidse from the list of great powers. The Roman senate having resolved, for the present, not to acquire any immediate pos- sessions in Asia, divided the ceded territory among its allies, Eumenes of Pergamus, and Rhodes, and proclaimed itself the protector of the Greek cities of Asia against the Galatians (189, Expedition of Cn. Manlius Volvo), and regulator of the political relations of Asia. In Greece the -ZEtolians were conquered and subjugated, the other can- tons retained, for the present, their independence. Internecine quar- rels continued among the Greeks, and the Roman senate was in all cases appealed to as arbitrator. Philip of Macedonia received but scanty remuneration for his services in the war against Syria. 183 (?). Death of Hannibal. He poisoned himself at the court of Prusias, king of Bithynia, by whom he saw himself betrayed. Death of his conqueror, P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus, at Linternum, whither he had retired after he and his brother, Lucius, had been ac- cused by M. Porcius Cato of having been bribed by Antiochus. 180. The lex annalis of the tribune, L. Villius, established, besides a military service of ten years, a fixed age for all the curule offices : sediles, 37 years ; praetor, 40 ; consul, 43. Since the first Punic war the expenses of the great games were no longer borne by the public treasury, but by the sediles, which at once closed the office to all who were not men of property. The higher offices of state, and the position of senator, became more and more decidedly privi- leges of the nobility (p. 102). 171-168. Third Macedonian war. Destruction of the Macedonian monarchy. Cause : The plan of Philip V. (III.), to revenge himself on the Romans, and to regain the old borders of Macedonia, was carried forward by his son and successor, Perseus, the murderer of his brother Demetrius, who favored Rome. King Eumenes of Pergamus informed the senate of the preparations of Perseus. During the first three campaigns, weak and unsuccessful conduct on the part of the Roman generals, combined with injustice and cruelty against the allied Achaeans and Epirotes, who were thereby forced to actual desertion. At last L. JEmilius Paullus, son of the consul who fell at Cannae (p. 115), obtained the chief command. He restored dis- cipline in the Roman army, drove back the Macedonians, and defeated Perseus in the 168 Battle of Pydna. Sept. 11,000 Macedonians were captured, 20,000 perished. Perseus fell into the power of the Romans (in Samothrace). Splendid triumph of JEmilius Paullus. The spoils brought to Rome were so im- mense that henceforward the citizens were relieved from the tributum, Dissolution of the kingdom of Macedonia, which was transformed into 4 confederacies dependent upon Rome, neither the right of emi- B. c. Roman History. 121 gration nor of intermarriage (commercium et connubium) being allowed them. Genthius, king of Illyrla, who had been an ally of Perseus, be- ing soon conquered (168), that country was divided into 3 tributary districts with federal constitutions. Epirus was cruelly punished, 70 towns being plundered and destroyed, 150,000 Epirotes sold as slaves. The Greek cantons, friend and foe alike, were reduced to the condi- tion of subject clients. 1000 Achseans of high standing, among whom was the historian Polybius, were carried to Rome for examination (187), and detained without trial 16 years in Italian cities under sur- veillance. The old allies of the Romans, Eumenes of Pergamus and Rhodes, who had attempted to hold the position of mediators during the war, were chastised and all the possessions of the latter on the mainland taken away. In a war which broke out between Syria and Egypt the senate interfered as guardian of both powers. The Ro- man ambassador, C. Popillius Lcenas, arrogantly and insultingly or- dered Antiochus IV., king of Syria, to retire from before Alexandria. He drew a line around the king with his staff, and bade him decide before he stepped from the circle. (Polybius, xxix. 27.) 149-146. Third Punic War. Cause : The Carthaginians, whose commerce and maritime power had begun to increase, having been unable to procure from Rome any reparation for several losses of territory which they had sustained at the hands of Massinissa, finally took up arms themselves. The Roman senate, on the instigation of M. Porcius Cato (" Ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam ") declared this a breach of the peace. Two Roman armies landed at Utica. Humble submission of the Carthaginians, who at the command of the consul delivered up their war-ships and weapons. But when ordered to abandon their city and make a new settlement ten miles from the sea, the Carthaginians re- solved on a desperate resistance. With the greatest sacrifices on the part of all the inhabitants of Carthage, without regard to rank, age or sex, new equipments were provided. Weapons were manufac- tured day and night. A new fleet was built in the inner harbor. An attack of the Romans was repulsed. Siege of Carthage. 147. P. Cornelius Scipio -S3milianus (son of JEmilius Paullus, adopted son of P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus (Major), assumed the command. He shut off the city completely on both the land and sea side. 146. Capture and destruction of Carthage. Street fight lasting six days, and a conflagration which lasted seventeen days. The remaining inhabitants were sold into slavery. The coast land from the river Tusca, opposite the island of Galaiha (Galita), to Thence, on the Syrtis minor, was made a Roman province under the name Africa, with the capital at Utica. The rest of the country fell for the present to the allied kingdom of Numidia. Splendid tri" umph of Scipio, who received the name of Africanus (Minor). 14&-146. Fourth Macedonian War, 122 Ancient History. B. G against Andriscus, who gave himself out as Pkilippus, brother of Per- BCUS (Pseudo-Philippus), and incited the Macedonians to rise against the Roman rule. He was defeated in two battles and captured by Q. Ccecilius Metellus. Macedonia became a Roman province (146). 146. Achaean War. Cause : Return of 300 Achaeans from Italy, after an imprisonment of 16 years (p. 121). The anti-Roman party was thereby strengthened in all cities. Incited by Critolaus and Diceus, the Achaean league be- gan war with Sparta, with whom the Romans took sides. The senate pronounced the dissolution of the League. Victory of Metellus over Critolaus at Scarphea in Locris. Diceus summoned all who could bear arms together on the Isthmus, and armed 12,000 slaves. He was defeated by the consul L. Mummius in the 146. Battle of Leucopetra. Corinth, the chief city of the Achaean league, was occupied by Mummius without a blow. The art treasures were sent to Rome, and the inhabitants were sold as slaves. The territory of the city was in part given to Sicyon, in part transformed into Roman public land. Corinth destroyed at the command of the senate. The other Greek cities were, for the most part, mildly treated, and allowed to retain their autonomy (their own administration and juris- diction), but in such a way that they were subordinated to the governor of Macedonia and had to pay tribute to Rome. Not until later (p. 80), it seems, did Greece become a Roman province with the name Achaia. At the close of this epoch Rome possessed eight provinces 1. Sicilia (241). 2. Sardinia (238), with Corsica. 3. Hispania cite- rior (205). 4. Hispania ulterior (205). 5. Gallia Cisalpina (191?), 6. Illyricum (168). 7. Africa (140). 8. Macedonia (146), and Greece (Achaia). The first four provinces were at first governed by praetors, so that, counting the praetor urbanus and the prcetor inter cives et peregri- nos (p. 101) who always stayed in Rome, there were six praetors elected every year. Later, however, it was decreed that all six (after Sulla, 8) praetors should remain in Rome during their year of office, 4 (6) to preside over the standing courts (qucestiones perpetuce). Of these the first, for cases of extortion (de repetundis), was established iiv. 149 by the lex Calpurnia • to this were added down to the time of Sulla (p. 132) courts having jurisdiction over fraud in obtaining office (de ambitu), over high treason (de maiestate), over embezzle- ment (de peculatu). Sulla created courts for the trial of cases of murder and poisoning (de sicariis et venejiciis) of forgery of wills and of counterfeiting (defalso). For the year succeeding their year of office the praetors went as pro-praetors to the provinces which had fallen to them by lot. The propraetors received, as a rule, however, only those provinces 8. c. Roman History. 123 which were considered quiet, and which could be administered with- out any considerable military force. Those which were still the scene of warfare were assigned to one of the consuls in office, or to a proconsul, the consul of the preceding year having his term of command prolonged for the prosecution of the war (imperium proro- gare) or an ex-consul (yir consularis} or an ex-pra3tor (vir prcetorius) being appointed proconsul. Thus the provinces were at a later period distinguished into proconsular and proprcetorial. The organization of a province was commonly entrusted to the gen- eral who had conquered it, and a commission of ten senators. Many cities in the provinces retained their own jurisdiction and municipal government (civitates liberce), in consequence of a treaty concluded with the Roman people (fcedus, hence civitates fcederatce), or of a law (lex) or decree of the senate (senatus consultum). The taxes of the provinces were generally let to tax-farmers (publicani), mostly Ro- man citizens of the equestrian order (ordo equester) many of whom also did business in the provinces as bankers (negotiatores).1 In 153 the term of service for the consulate began in January for the first time, and this soon became the rule. Especially noteworthy in this epoch is the practical disappearance of the dictatorship. The last dictator with military power was appointed after the battle of Cannse (216), and the last nominated for municipal business was in 202. After this, in times of peculiar danger, the senate conferred dictatorial power on the consuls, by the formula : " The consuls shall take measures for the public good according to their discretion." (Videant consules ne quid detrimenti respublica capiat), which some- what resembles a modern proclamation of martial law or state of siege. FOURTH PERIOD. Firm Establishment of the Universal Power of Rome. Pe- riod of the Civil Wars (146-31). 143-133. Numantine War. Continuance of hostilities in Spain. War in Lusitania against ViriathuSj 147—139, ended only by the latter's murder. The war in northern Spain centred around the fortified city of Numantia,2 which was vainly besieged by Metellus, and then by several incapable generals, who utterly neglected the discipline of the army. Finally P. Cornelius Scipio jEmttianus Africanus (Minor) received the com- mand. He restored discipline, and, after an investment of fifteen months' duration, starved the city into submission. Desperate de- fence. 133. Surrender and destruction of Numantia. Scipio JEmilianus received the surname of Numanticus. After the fall of Numantia all Spain, excepting the mountain tribes of the north, was reduced under Roman government. 135-132. First servile war. Insurrection of the slaves in Sicily, who were terribly ill- treated, under the Syrian Eunus, who called himself king 1 Marquardt-Mommsen, Rom. Alt. IV. 338 foil, and 377 foil. ^ 2 The present Garray, an hour's walk north of Soria on the Duevtf. ONTARIO 124 Ancient History. B. c. and fought a long time successfully against the Roman armies, main- taining himself in Henna and Tauromenium, but was finally captured and executed, together with a great number of the insurgents. 133-121. Civil disturbances under the Gracchi, excited by the political and social reforms urged through revo- lutionary means by the brothers Tiberius Gracchus and Caius Gracchus. Constant increase in the number of great estates worked by slaves {Latif undid). The number of slaves in Italy was immensely increased by the successful wars, and by a most extensive slave trade, especially with eastern Asia. The order of free peasants and renters was thereby greatly reduced, while there was formed in the capital a numerous rabble without property or occupation, who lived on bribes and gifts of grain. Bad government of the optimates (p. 101). Fam- ily cliques which took exclusive possession of all public offices and places in the senate. Tib. Sempronius Gracchus (163-133), son of the plebeian con- sul of the same name (through his mother, Cornelia, grandson of the victor of Zama, p. 118), when tribune of the people proposed the reenactment of the Liciniaii agrarian law (p. 101) which had long been forgotten, with this alteration, that besides the 500 jugera, 250 jugera of public land should be allowed for every two sons, and that damages should be paid for all buildings erected on land which had to be given up. Opposition of the tribune M. Octavius, who had been gained over by the senate, and whom Tib. Gracchus caused to be deposed by an unconstitutional popular decree. The agrarian law was accepted by the people ; its execution was entrusted to Tib. Gracchus, his father-in-law Appius Claudius, and his brother C. Gracchus. 133. Death of Attains III., king of Pergamus, who left his kingdom and his treasures to the Romans. Tib. Gracchus proposed in the popular assembly, contrary to the common usage, according to which the senate had the disposal of this inheritance, to divide the treasures of Pergamus among the new land- owners, in order that they might procure the necessary equipment. Preparation of further popular laws of political tendency; shorten- ing of the time of military service ; extension of the right of appeal, etc. Tib. Gracchus tried, contrary to the constitution, to secure the election to the tribunate for the following year. The election was forcibly stopped by the senate. Tib. Gracchus and 300 of his followers were killed by the optimates, armed with clubs and chair-legs, and led by the consul, P. Scipio Nasica. 129. After the defeat of Aristonicus, a pretender to the throne of the Attalidse, by Perpcrna, Pergamus became a Roman prov- ince under the name of Asia. 133-129. The division of the public lands was partially carried out as decreed. The struggle between the democracy and the optimates continued. The leader of the latter party, P. Scipio JEmilianus, husband of Semprortia, the sister of the Gracchi, B. c. Roman History. 125 who had successfully opposed the proposals of the democratic 129. tribune, C. Carbo, found dead in his bed (murdered ?). 125. The democratic consul, M. Fulvius Flaccus, who had unsuc~ cessfully proposed to gi\e the right of citizenship to all Ital- ians, was sent by the senate, which wished him out of the way, to assist the Massiliotes against the Gauls, by whom they were hard pressed. He laid the foundation of Roman supremacy in Transalpine Gaul. The immediate purpose of this occupation was the establish- ment of communication by land, between Italy and Spain. In 123 the proconsul, Sextius, founded the colony of Aquae, Sextice (Aix). Gallia Narbonensis, so called after the colony Narbo Martins founded in 121, a Roman province. In 123 the Balearic Islands were sub- jected to Rome. 123. Caius Sempronius Gracchus, for two years quaestor in Sardinia, returned to Rome against the will of the senate, and was elected tribune of the people. Surpassing his brother in talent, force of character, and passionate energy, C. Gracchus not only took up again the latter's social reforms, but also brought forward, one after another, a series of proposals looking to a revolutionary alteration of the constitution. Had they been completely adopted, these innovations would perchance have substituted for the existing aristocratic republican government the rule of one man under the form of a democracy. Whether C. Grac- chus desired such a power for himself is, however, very doubtful. By the regular distribution of grain, at the expense of the state, C. Grac- chus attempted to make the proletarii of the capital his willing tool in coercing the comitse. He was able to secure in 122 his election to the tribunate for the second time. The lex judiciaria transferred the jury-duty from the order of senators to that of the equites, and made the preexisting separa- tion between these two parts of the Roman aristocracy still more abrupt. The designation, " ordo equester" which belonged originally to those citizens only who actually did cavalry service, had been gradually extended to all who, in consequence of having property to the amount of at least 400,000 sesterces, were liable to such service. Since 129 the senators were obliged, according to law, on entering the senate, to leave the centuries of equites. Hence " equites " denoted especially the members of the aristocracy of ivealih, who were not members of the senate ; yet the young men of senatorial families continued to serve regularly in the centuries of equites. Encroachments of C. Gracchus on the administrative privileges of the senate by means of resolves of the popular assembly. The lex provocatio reenacted. Colonies sent out by decrees of the people in- Btead of by decrees of the senate. C. Gracchus himself established the colony of Junonia on the site of Carthage. The absence of the all-powerful tribune from Rome was utilized bv the senate, to secure him a dangerous opponent in the person of the tribune, M. Livius Drusus. The proposals of this tribune, in the interests of the lower classes, were constantly approved by the senate, with the view of undermining the popularity of Gracchus. 126 Ancient History. B. (X 122. The motion of C. Gracchus and his colleague, M. Fulvius Flac- cus, to grant the Latins all the rights of citizenship, and the other Italians Latin rights, was defeated by the united opposi- tion of the senate and the lower classes of the capital. C. Grac- chus was not elected tribune for the following (third) year. 121. Civil strife in the city, occasioned by a imirder committed by one of the supporters of Gracchus. The democratic party oc- cupied the Aventine, which, being poorly defended, was stormed by the optimates, C. Gracchus and M. Fulvius were slain, along with several hundred of their supporters. Of the prisoners about 3000 are said to have been strangled in prison.1 Restoration of the power of the senate, and the former condition of things. After M. Livius Drusus had removed the ground rent, and repealed the law prohibit- ing the alienation of assignments of public land, and thereby given the optimates opportunity to repurchase their confiscated lands, a decree of the people, 111, converted all public lands in possession of citizens into the private property (not subject to taxation) of those who had formerly enjoyed the usufruct. 111-105. 2 Jugurthine war. Cause: Micipsa, Massinissa's eldest son, had decreed in his will that after his death his sons, Hiempsal and Adherbal, should reign over Numidia in common with his nephew and adopted son, Jugur- tha. Quarrels of the kings. Attempt to actually divide the king- dom. Jugurtha murdered Hiempsal and expelled Adherbal, who sought protection in Rome. A commission of the senate, which was bribed by Jugurtha, arranged a division of the kingdom entirely in Jugurtha's favor. The latter attacked Adherbal anew, defeated him, and besieged him in Cirta, his capital. Without heeding the interven- tion of the Roman senate, Jugurtha captured Cirta, and put to death Adherbal and the whole male population of the city, including many Italians. Indignation at Rome, and, finally, at the instance of the tribune, C. Memmius, declaration of war against Jugurtha. Jugurtha bought from the consul, L. Calpurnius Bestia, a peace, which the senate, upon the motion of Memmius, refused to ratify. Invitation of the king to Rome. Jugurtha appeared in the city upon guarantee of safe conduct, and gained partisans for himself by his money. When, however, he connived at the murder of Massiva, a third grandson of Massinissa, in Rome itself, he was banished from the eity, and the war was renewed. 110-109. The war was unsuccessfully conducted by the Romans. Jugurtha defeated a Roman army, sent it under the yoke, and dictated a peace which was repudiated by the senate. 109. Q. Metellus, entrusted with the command, defeated Jugurtha on the river Muthul. The Romans occupied Numidia with two armies, one under Metellus, the other commanded by his legate C. Marius (son of a day laborer from the vicinity of Arpinum). i Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, III. 101-130. ,2 Concerning the chronology of this war, see Mommseu, III. p. 153, note. B. c. Roman History. 127 108. After fruitless negotiations, another Roman victory. Jugurtha withdrew to the oases of the desert and induced the nomads of those parts (Gcetulce) to take up arms against the Romans. Pursued into the desert, he joined forces with his father-in- law, Bocchus, king of Mauritania. 107. Marius, in spite of the opposition of the aristocrats, received the consulate and chief command. He conquered the Gsetu- lians, repulsed a combined attack of Jugurtha and Bocchus at Cirta, entered into secret negotiations with Bocchus through 106-105. his qusestor, L. Cornelius Sulla, and secured the deliv- ery of Jugurtha into his hands. The captive king was led in triumph at Rome and died of hunger in prison. Numidia was divided between Bocchus and Gauda, the last living grand- son of Massinissa. 113-101. War against the Cimbri and Teutones. The Germanic, or, according to others, Celtic, tribe of the Cimbri (Chempho, i. e. warriors ?) made their way from the 113. north into the Alpine regions, defeated at Noreia, in Corinthia, the consul Cn. Papirius Carbo, turned afterwards westward towards the Rhine, which they crossed, and defeated a Roman 109. army under M. Junius Silanus, who had hurried to the aid of the Allobroges. Helvetian bands pressed into Gaul, and 107. defeated the consul L. Cassius Longinus on the Garonne. The Cimbri traversed Gaul in various directions, defeated and an- nihilated two large Roman armies under Q. Servilius Ccepio 105. and Cn. Mallius Maximus at Arausia (Orange) on the Rhone. Terror at Rome. Violent proceedings of the democratic leaders against the incapable generals of the optimates. Ccepio, Maximus, and others condemned. 104—100. Marius elected consul five times in succession. The Cimbri meantime had crossed the Pyrenees and were wan- dering aimlessly about among the Spanish tribes. Defeated by the Celtiberians, they recrossed the Pyrenees, traversed western Gaul, and gave Marius time to reorganize the Roman forces in the Provincia Narbonensis (Provence). Defeated by the Belgians, the Cimbri united with the Germanic tribes of the Teutones and with Helve- tian tribes (Tougenes and Tigorini). These three peoples resolved to enter Italy in two separate bands. The greater part of the Cimbri and the Tigorini were to invade Italy from the north, while the Teutones with the Ambrones, the best among the Cimbri, and the Tougenes were to force their way into Italy through southern Gaul (102). Marius attempted to intercept the latter band. By his posi- tion at the junction of the Isere and the Rhone, he covered the two military roads which at that time alone connected Gaul and Italy (Pass of the Little St. Bernard, and the shore road). Futile attempt of the barbarians to storm the Roman camp. They passed the camp on their way down the Rhone. Marius, following them, defeated and annihilated their army in the 102. Battle of Aquge Sextiee (Aix in Provence, see p. 125). The king of the Teutones, Teutobod, was captured. Thereupon 128 Ancient History. B, c. Marius crossed the Alps to the assistance of his colleague Catulus, whom the Cimbri, having reached Italy by way of the Brenner Pass, had discomfited upon the Adige and driven behind the Po. The two consuls, having joined forces, ad- vanced across the Po and annihilated the Cimbri in the 101. Battle of Vercellae (in campis Raudiis). Triumph of Marius, who was hailed by the multitude, " the third Romulus," " the second Camillus" At the time of the Cimbrian war occurred the complete abolition of the Servian military organization, according to which military service was principally a tax on property, but which had already been several times altered. This had also long been the principle upon which the military service of the Italian allies was regulated. Hereafter the system of a citizen levy was supplemented by a re- cruiting system, principally of course from the idle and lazy portion of the population, and by a system of reinforcements, whereby cavalry and light-armed troops were drawn henceforward from the con- tingents of subject and vassal princes. A separate military order was formed, which was distinct from the civil order and opposed to it. The organization of the army, the strength and divisions of the legions (henceforward 6000 men in 10 cohorts), also underwent im- portant changes. 103-99. Second servile insurrection (in Sicily) under TrypJion and Athenion, which was put down by the consul, Manius Aquillius,aHer a hard struggle. 100. Marius, for the sixth time consul, aiming at the royal power, joined the leaders of the people, the praetor C. Servilius Glaucia and L. Appuleius Saturninus, with the purpose of overthrow- ing the constitution. Saturninus, having gained the tribunate by murder, procured by violent means a division of lands among the veterans of Marius. The consul Q. Metellus went into voluntary banishment. The murder of C. Memmius, who had been nominated consul for the year 99, led to an actual contest in the forum between the optimates and the popular party. Saturninus and Glaucia being betrayed by their accomplice, Marius, were killed, with many of their followers. 99. Q. Metellus recalled to Kome. Marius, hated by both parties on 98. account of his equivocal conduct, went for a time to Asia. 91. Three bills brought forward by the tribune M. Livius Dru- sus : 1. Reform of the judicial department (lex judiciaria), which re- stored to the senate the places on the juries which had been taken from it, at the same time enlarging the senate by the addition of 300 equites. 2. A new division of lands (lex agraria). 3. Bestowal of the right of citizenship on the Italians (de civitate sociis danda). The first two proposals were adopted by the comitia3, but declared null and void by the senate ; as he was on the point of bringing the third before the people, Drusus was assassinated. The disappointment of the Italian allies who had fixed their hopes upon Livius caused the revolt of nearly all the Italians excepting the Latins, most of the Etruscans and Umbrians and some southern cities, and led to the B. c. Roman History. 129 91-88. Marsian or social war. The Italians formed a federal republic under the name Italia, gov- erned by a senate of 500 senators from all Italian tribes. The capital was Corfinium. They appointed two consuls and twelve praetors. The terrible danger reconciled for the moment the parties at Rome, and caused the adoption of energetic measures : repeated levies of citizens, and enrollment of freedmen in the army. The best generals of both parties offered to serve under the consuls. 90. At the seat of war in the north, Marius fought against the Marsians and the other Sabellian tribes, for the most part, successfully. The Roman consul, Rutilius, fell; Cn. Pompeius Strabo, defeated at first, was afterwards victorious. At the southern seat of war (Campania, Samnium, Lucania), the allies got so decidedly the better of the Roman consul, L. Julius Ccesar, in spite of the dashing forays of Sulla, that the Etrus- cans and Umbrians, in the north, who had before remained faithful, were encouraged to revolt. In order to prevent this a law was passed Granting the right of citizenship to the Latins and to all districts among the above peoples which had remained faithful (lex Julia). 89. Successful conclusion of the war in the north. Superiority of the Roman arms in the south, especially under Sulla. By the lex Plautia-Papiria Roman citizenship was given to all Ital- ians who applied for it ; they were, however, included in 8 tribes only which were especially designated. The towns of Cisalpine Gaul which had municipal organizations received Latin rights (lex Pom- peia). 88. By this concession the war in the south was also in the main brought to a close. 88-84. First Mithridatic war. Cause : Mithradates or Mithridates VI., king of Pontus (120- 63), had extended his power over the eastern shore of the Black Sea (Colchis) and along the Cimmerian Bosphorus (Crimea, and southern Russia). Kingdom of the Bosphorus. He had conquered Paphlagonia and Cappadoda and had provoked the interference of the senate by his encroachments on the client cities of Rome in Asia Minor. Already had Sulla, who was then proconsul in Cilicia, in 92, taken arms against him, and reinstated a king in Cappadocia. A second expulsion of this king, and quarrels of Mithridates with the king of Bithynia, who was supported by the Roman consul M. Aquil- lius, led to war. 88. Mithridates defeated Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, on the Am- nias, a branch of the Halys, defeated the Roman generals, Op- pius, Cassius, and Aquillius (the latter being cruelly put to death), and drove them out of Asia Minor. The Grecian cities of Asia joined him, and upon an order issued from Ephesus, put to death in one day all the Italians within their walls (80,000, or according to others 150,000). 130 Ancient History. B. c. Sulla, the consul for 88, was on the point of starting for Asia to attack Mithridates, when there broke out the 88-82. Civil war between Sulla (optimates) and Ma- rius (democrats). Direct cause : the revolutionary proposals of the tribune P. Sul- picius, which were carried by the most violent means, and particularly designed to secure the division of the new citizens, Italians and f reed- men, among all the 35 tribes (ut novi cives libertinique in omnes tribus distribuerentur) . 88. The populace under the control of demagogues deprived Sulla of the chief command and gave it to his opponent Marius, with proconsular power. Sulla marched with his army from Nola upon Rome and took the city by storm. Sulpicius and eleven other outlaws were killed upon the flight. Marius escaped by way of Min- turnce to Africa. Sulla restored the old order of voting in the centuries as it had existed under the Servian constitution, but had been given up in 241 (p. 112), and decreed that in future the popular assemblies should not vote upon any measure which had not previously passed the senate. 87. An optimate, Cn. Octavius, and a democrat, L. Cornelius Cinna, were elected consuls. Sulla, as proconsul, took the command in the Mithridatic war. During Sulla's absence Cinna endeavored to renew the laws of Sulpicius by violence. After a bloody struggle in the forum he was driven out by the optimates. He formed an army in Campania of armed bands of dissatisfied Italians, liberated slaves, etc., and uniting with the aged Marius, who had returned from Africa, with Q. Sertorius and Cn. Papirius Carbo, advanced upon Rome, which was compelled to surrender. Revolutionary reign of terror in the city. Five days' slaughter at Marius' command of all optimates who had not fled (among others L. and C. Ccesar, M. Antonius, P. Cras- sus, Q. Catulus), confiscation of their property, plundering and out- rages of the armed bands. 86. Marius (for the 7th time) and Cinna, consuls ; Sulla deposed in his absence. Death of Marius, over seventy years old. L. Valerius Flaccus was made consul in his stead and appointed by the popular party to the command of the Mithridatic war. 87-84. Tyrannical government of Cinna at Rome, regardless of the newly restored democratic constitution. Meantime the outlawed Sulla was conducting the war against Mithridates. The latter had sent his general Archelaus with an army and fleet to Greece, where most of the cities joined him at once, par- ticularly Athens under the government of Aristion. 87. Sulla landed with 30,000 men in Epirus, advanced to Basotia, drove Archelaus and Aristion out of the country and besieged the former in Pirceus, the latter in Athens. He defeated an 86. army of relief from Pontus, and after a tedious siege captured March. Athens. Sulla defeated Archelaus, who had voluntarily evacuated Pirseus, gone by sea to Boeotia, and joined the rein- forcements sent by Mithridates, in the B. c. Roman History. 131 86. Battle of Chaeronea and in the next year in the 85. Battle of Orchomenus, after which he went into winter quar- ters in Thessaly. In the following year Sulla, supported by a fleet of ships, collected from Asia Minor and Syria by Lucullus, marched through Macedonia and Thrace, crossed the Helles- pont to Asia, and through the mediation of Archelaus concluded 84. Peace with Mithridates in Dardanos. I. Evacuation of the Roman province of Asia, restoration of all conquests made by Mithridates, and reinstatement of the kings of Bithynia and Cappa- docia. II. Mithridates surrendered 80 ships of war and paid 3000 talents. After the conclusion of peace, Sulla turned his attention to the Roman army of the democratic party which had gone to Asia in 86 under the consul Flaccus, and, after his murder, had fought suc- cessfully under Fimbria (victory over the younger Mithridates at Miletopolis). A part of the army having gone over to Sulla, Fim- bria committed suicide, whereupon the rest of his army joined Sulla. After leaving these troops behind (milites Flaviani, two legions) under Jjicinius Murena, and inflicting upon the Grecian cities of Asia Minor the immense fine of 20,000 talents ({$25,000,000), which Lucullus was to collect, Sulla sailed from Ephesus to Piraeus, went by land to Patrce, and thence by sea to Italy. 83. Sulla landed with 40,000 men in Brundisium. After the death of Cinna (84), during a mutiny in Ancona, where he intended to embark against Sulla, his colleagues Carbo, the younger Marius, and Sertorius were the leaders of the democratic party ; never- theless for the year 83 neither of them, but instead two incapable men, L. Scipio and C. Norbanus, were elected consuls. Sulla, who upon landing was joined by the 23-year old Cn. Pompeius with an army of volunteers, formally guaranteed their rights to the Ital- ians and marched against the consuls. He conquered Norbanus on Mt. Tifata and opened negotiations with Scipio, in the course of which the entire army of the latter went over to Sulla. 82. Sulla rested for the winter in Capua, and fought during the fol- lowing year against the younger Marius and Carbo, who had been appointed consuls. At Sacriportus Sulla defeated Marius, who retired to Prceneste, where he was surrounded by a division of the army nnder Q. Ofella. Sulla perceived this, and passed rapidly through Rome to attack the democrats in Etruria, whither also a part of his army under Metellus, Pompeius, and Crassus had already forced its way from Picenum and Umbria and were pressing Carbo hard. On receipt of the news that strong Samnite bands were advancing to the relief of Pneneste, Sulla went back to Latium, prevented the relief of Prseneste, and repulsed an attack of the Samnites upon Rome (Nov. 82). More than 3000 prisoners were slaughtered at Sulla's command. Prseneste surrendered, the younger Marius was put to death by his slaves at his own command. The party of Marius in northern Italy had already been completely defeated at Faventia. Carbo and Sertorius fled. Sulla took terrible vengeance upon the con- quered cities and towns of Italy. The party of Marius in Spain was defeated at a later time by C. Annius and Valerius Flaccus ; in Sicily and Africa it was defeated by Pompeius, whom Sulla allowed to tri- umph, and saluted with the surname of Magnus. 132 Ancient History. B. c 82. Sulla had himself appointed dictator in Rome for an un~ limited time, for the sake of reorganizing the commonwealth (dictator reipublicce constituendce, a power analogous to that of the de- cemvirs). Reactionary Reign of Terror. Proscription lists of the evil minded (lex de proscribendis mails civibus). The number of the out- lawed, on whose death a reward was set, and whose property was confiscated amounted to 4700. Allotments of lands to the veterans of Sulla and establishment of military colonies with full right of citizenship in the territories of cities of the hostile party, whose right of citizenship was abrogated. Liberation of 10,000 slaves be- longing to the proscribed citizens, and bestowal upon them of the right of citizenship (the so-called Cornelians). 83-81. Second Mithridatic War, conducted by the propraetor Murena (p. 131), who occupied Cappadocia, which Mithridates, in spite of the peace, had not com- pletely evacuated, and invaded Pontus, where he was defeated by Mithridates and obliged to withdraw. The war ended in a treaty which was a renewal of the first peace. Attempt at a conservative aristocratic reform of the government in Rome, by a series of laws originated by Sulla (leges Cornelice). Reorganization of the senate which had suffered severely from the proscriptions of the civil wars. It was now enlarged in an unprece- dented manner by the addition of 300 members to be chosen by the comitia tributa. Admission to the senate became a prerogative of the qusestorship. Henceforward 20 qucestors were annually elected by the comitia tributa. Abolition of the censors' privilege of revising the roll of the senate every five years, and consequently introduction of the irremovability of the senators. Thus the senate, for a short time, was indirectly chosen by the people, and acquired a representa- tive character. The places in the juries which C. Gracchus had transferred to the equites (p. 125) were restored to the senate. The privileges of the senate were further increased ; it acquired, in particular, the right of prolonging the term of office of proconsuls and propraetors, and of removing them. The comitice lost the power of electing the priests, which had been given them in 104, the priestly colleges receiving again the right of filling their own vacan- cies. On the other hand Sulla gave up the Servian order of voting, the restoration of which had been attempted in 88. Powers of the tribunes of the people reduced, misuse of the right of interpellation punished with heavy fines, the right of the tribunes to initiate roga- tions subjected to the approval of the senate ; it was also decreed that acceptance of the tribunate conveyed incapacity for accepting higher offices. Reorganization of the department of justice, increase of the perpetual courts (qucestiones perpetuce). Henceforward 8 prsetors. Criminal legislation (lex de sicariis, defalso, etc.). 81. Sulla permitted the election of consuls, but continued to conduct the government under the title of dictator. For the year 80. He caused himself and his companion in arms, Q. Metelius, to to be elected consuls, and so bridged the way to constitutional government. B. C. Roman History. 133 79. Sulia voluntarily abdicated the dictatorship and retired to private life. 78. Death of Sulla, probably in consequence of a hemorrhage.1 78-77. Attempt of M. AZmilius Lepidus (consul with Q. Lutatius Catulus, 78) and the Marian M. Junius Brutus, to violently overthrow the work of Sulla. Lepidus, on his way from Etruria to Rome at the head of an army, was defeated on the Campus Martins by Catulus • defeated a second time at Cosa, he fled to Sardinia, where he fell sick and died. Brutus was forced by Pompeius to sur- render at Mutina, and was afterwards put to death. 80-72. War against Sertorius, who in 83 had been allotted Lusitania and Spain as Ais prov- ince. He had been driven out (82) by Sulla's generals, and, after leading a roving life as an adventurer along the coasts of Spain and Africa, returned to Lusitania. Here this party leader, alike distin- guished as statesman and general, had founded an independent sov- ereignty. Q. Metellus and even Cn. Pompeius waged for a long time unsuccessful war against him. He formed an alliance with Mithn- dates, but was murdered, in 72, by his subordinate Perperna. The latter was defeated and executed by Pompeius. 73-71. War of the Gladiators and (third) Servile War. Bands of gladiators who had escaped from a gladiatorial school at Capua occupied Vesuvius under command of two Gauls and the Thracian Spartacus, and from this vantage-ground plundered and burned throughout the neighborhood. Reinforced by numerous slaves they grew to an army, and defeated four Roman armies in succession. Spartacus, who wanted to leave Italy, was forced by his companions to remain. He marched upon the capital. Terror in Rome. The prsetor M. Licinius Crasaus received the chief com- mand. The insurgents refrained from attacking Rome and wandered about Italy ravaging and plundering. Crassus defeated them in two battles, in the second of which, on the Silarus, Spartacus fell, fight- ing valiantly. The remnants of the bands were annihilated by Pom- peius, who was returning from Spain. In 70 the consuls M. Licinius Crassus and Cn. Pompeius Mag- nus restored to the tribunate the privileges whivjh it had lost under Sulla (p. 132). The Aurelian law (lex Aurelid), passed during their consulate, repealed the enactment of Sulla that the jurors should be taken exclusively from the senators ; henceforth one third should be senators, two thirds men of the equestrian census (of these one half should be taken from the so-called tribuni-cerarii). Already, in 72, the privilege of the censors, of revising the roll of the senate, which Sulla had abolished, had been restored (p. 132), and probably five years became again the length of the censors' term of office. 64 senators were expelled from the senate by the censors Gellius and Len- tulus. 1 He did not die of the so-called Phtkinasis. Cf. Mommaen, Hist, of Rome. III. p. 390. 184 Ancient History. B. o. 78-67. War against the pirates. The result of the neglect of the Roman marine since the destruc- tion of Carthage, and of the oppression of the Roman governors in Asia was a constant increase of piracy. There gradually grew up an organized pirate-community, whose principal seats were Crete and Cilicia. The pirates controlled the entire Mediterranean as far as the columns of Hercules, and captured the vessels which were convey- ing grain to Rome. 78. War had been waged with the pirates since 78, at first under the proconsul of Asia, P. Servilius, who destroyed many pirate 75. cities, and in the year 75 took possession of Isauria, Pamphylia, Pisidia, for Rome, under the name of Cilicia, and afterwards 74. under the prsetor M. Antonius, who possessed most extensive powers, but accomplished little, and in 71 died at Crete after being defeated by the Cretans. 68. Metellus after a long contest, subdued Crete (province since 67), whose inhabitants lived for the most part, upon piracy. As piracy still continued, 67. Fompeius received, on the motion of Gdbinius (lex Gabinia), for three years unlimited command over the whole Mediterra- nean and its coasts for fifty miles inland ; the public treasuries and resources of all the provinces and client states were placed uncondi- tionally at his disposal. In three months Pompeius, in two short cam- paigns, completedly cleared first the western, then the eastern, Mediterranean of pirates, captured 3000 vessels, put to death 10,000 pirates, destroyed their fortresses, captured 20,000 men, and settled them in the interior of the country. (Construction of Pompeiopolis in Cilicia.) 74-64. Third Mithridatic war. Cause : Strained relations between the Romans on the one side, and Mithridates of Pontus and his son-in-law, Tigranes of Armenia, on the other. The latter took possession of the kingdoms of Cappadocia and Syria. When Nicomedes III., of Bithynia, likewise son-in-law of Mithridates, bequeathed his kingdom to Rome, and Bithynia was made a Roman province, Mithridates declared war and occupied Bi- thynia. 74. The conduct of the war was entrusted to the two consuls L. Lu- cullus, who was to enter the kingdom of Pontus through Phry- gia, and M. Aurelius Cotta, who sailed with the fleet for the Propontis. Mithridates defeated the latter by land and sea at Chalcedon and laid siege to Cyzicus, which was relieved by Lu- cullus, who hastened from the south. 73. Mithridates was forced to retreat with great loss. Lucullus as proconsul conducted the war successfully at sea ; then took the offensive on land, crossed the Halys (Kisil Irmak), traversed Pontus, defeated Mithridates at Cabira, and drove the king completely out of his kingdom. He took refuge with his son- in-law, Tigranes, while Lucullus, after a tedious siege, cap- 72-70. tured the trading cities Heraclea, Sinope, Amisus, and occupied Armenia Minor. B. c. Roman History. 135 Without waiting for authority from the senate, Lucullus opened war upon Tigranes, crossed the Euphrates into Armenia proper, de- feated Tigranes in the famous 69. Battle of Tigranocerta, captured that city, and then turned against the two kings who had now joined forces. Lucullus forced the passage of the Euphrates (68) by a second successful encounter with the enemy, crossed the river here in its upper course for the second time,1 marched through the Armenian plateau toward Artaxata, the residence of Tigranes, but was compelled by a mutiny among his soldiers (P. Clodius, broth- er-in-law of Lucullus) to begin a retreat over the Tigris to Mesopo- tamia, long before he had reached Artaxata? Lucullus took Nisibis by storm, but was obliged to cross to the right bank of the Euphrates again to rescue a division of the army which had been cut off (67). Meantime Mithridates returned to Pon- tus and defeated a Roman force under Triarius at Zela (Zield). New mutinies in the army of Lucullus, who was at the same time in- formed that he was slandered at Rome, that he had been recalled, and the consul M\ Acilius Glabrio appointed in his stead. Glabrio went to Asia, but in consideration of the difficult position of affairs, did not assume command. Luccllus conducted the Roman army by a mas- terly retreat back to Asia Minor. Mithridates, having not only reconquered Pontus, but also com- menced to ravage Bithynia and Cappadocia, a law was passed at the instance of the tribune of the people, C. Manilius (Cicero's oration, pro imperio Cn. Pompeii, or pro lege Manilla), entrusting 66. Cn. Pompeius with the command in Asia with unlimited powers. Unfriendly meeting of Lucullus and Pompeius at Danala in Galatia. After concluding a treaty with the Parthians, whom he guaranteed possession of Mesopotamia, Pompeius opened the campaign partly with new troops, drove Mithridates out of Pontus, and defeated him in the 66. Battle by night on the Lycos (Yeshil Irmak), near the future Nicopolis in Armenia minor. Abandoned by Tigranes, Mithri- dates fled to Colchis. Pompeius followed as far as the Phasis, return- ing then to Armenia, where his ally, the king of the Parthians, had meantime made an inroad. At Artaxata Tigranes gave himself up to Pompeius, who permitted him to keep Armenia proper for his own kingdom, but took from him all his conquests, Syria, Phoenicia, Cappadocia, and imposed upon him a fine of 6000 talents. 65. After an expedition northward, where he fought successfully with the Caucasian tribes, Pompeius for the second time aban- doned the pursuit of Mithridates, who had taken refuge in the Tauric Chersonese (Crimea), and went to Pontus, and thence to Syria. 1 Cf. Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. III. 2 The second victory of Lucullus was not gained near Artaxata. Cf Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, IV. p. 70. 136 Ancient History. B. c. 64-63. Organization of the Roman possessions in Asia, under Pom- peius. New Provinces : 1. Fontus, comprising Bithynia (already treated as a province since 74), the coast of Paphlagonia, and the western part of Fontus proper, along the coast. The rest of the kingdom of Mithridates was given to vassal kings. 2. Syria, comprising at first only the coast from the gulf o^ Issus to Damascus, afterwards considerably enlarged. 3. Cilicia, reorganized by Pom- peius, although it had been a province in name since 75. It included Pamphylia and Isauria (p. 134). These Asiatic provinces were much cut up, and surrounded by: (a) territories of autonomous cities j (&) princely and priestly sovereignties under Roman supremacy. The most distinguished of the vassal kings of Rome in the east were the king of Cappadocia, and Deiotarus, king of Galatia (p. 78). In Palestine, after the capture of Jerusalem and the Temple, Pompeius restored Hyrcanus, who had been driven out by his brother, as high- priest and civil governor, but made him tributary to Rome. i63. Mithridates, who had busied himself with gigantic schemes of a land expedition to Italy, killed himself at Panticapceum, in the Tauric Chersonese, in consequence of the revolt of his son, Pharnaces. Upon receipt of this news Pompeius returned to Fontus. He confirmed Pharnaces in possession of the kingdom of the Bosphorus. 61. Return of Pompeius to Italy. He dismissed his -army at Brun- disium, and entered Rome as a private citizen. Magnificent triumph, lasting two days. 66-62. Conspiracy of Catiline. Union of the democrats and the anarchists. Leaders of the demo- crats: M. Crassus and C. Julius Caesar (born 102?, son-in-law of Cinna, outlawed by Sulla, afterwards pardoned, 67 quaestor in Spain, 65 zedile, 63 pontifex maximus). Leader of the anarchists: L. Ser- gius Catilina, ex-prsetor, one of Sulla's executioners. The demo- crats dreaded the reconciliation of Pompeius, whose military dictator- ship was the work of their own hands, with the optimates. Hence they sought to overthrow the existing government before the return of Pompeius, by a violent revolution, while the anarchists, in part pro- letarians, in part young men of honorable families who were sunk in debt, hoped for plunder and confiscation of property. The first conspiracy, in 66, according to which the consuls for 65 were to be murdered, and Crassus made dictator, and Ccesar, master of the horse, failed of execution through the indecision of some partici- pants. At the close of the year 64, it was again renewed for the pur- pose of securing the election of L. Catilina and C. Antonius (also a former follower of Sulla) at the consular elections for 63, by the in- fluence of Ccesar and Crassus, who were to remain in the background. Antonius alone was, however, actually elected; his colleague for 63 was M. Tullius Cicero, a favorite lawyer and orator, belonging to no party unreservedly (born 106, 75 qusestor in Sicily, 70 prosecutor of Verves, 69 sedile, 66 praetor urbanus). The latter resigned before- hand to Antonius, who was deep in debt, the lucrative governorship of Macedonia, thereby detaching him from the conspirators. B. C. Roman History. 137 Formation of an insurgent army in Etruria, under C. Manlius, a comrade of Catiline; at Rome organization of the conspirators, who, at a given signal, were to fire the city, and thereby produce universal confusion. .Plan of Catiline to murder his competitors at the con- sular election for 62, and the consul, Cicero, who would preside over the election. Cicero, informed of this by his spies, denounced the conspiracy in the senate, appeared on the day of the election sur- rounded by numerous . armed guards, and defeated the election of Catiline. The latter's plan of having Cicero surprised and murdered in his own house was also betrayed and failed. 63. Nov. 8. First speech of Cicero against Catiline delivered in the senate. Catiline left the city, and betook himself to the army of Manlius in Etruria. Nov. 9. Second speech of Cicero against Catiline, to the people. The accomplices of Catiline, Lentulus, Cethegus, Gabinius, Statilius, and Cceparius, were taken into custody on the strength of written proofs of guilt obtained by Cicero. Dec. 3. Third speech of Cicero against Catiline, to the people. Dec. 5. Fourth speech of Cicero against Catiline, in the senate. De- cree of the senate that the traitors be strangled in prison with- out trial and sentence (Ccesar opposed the resolution ; Cato's speech determined the vote), executed by the consul Cicero. Cicero greeted as pater patrice. The consul Antonius was entrusted with the conduct of the war against Catiline. His lieutenant defeated Catiline at Pistoria (62). Catiline and 3000 of his followers fell on the field. 62. Caesar administered the prjetorship in Rome. A part of his large indebtedness having been paid by Crassus, he went for 61. the year to Hispania Ulterior, as proprsetor, where he laid the foundation of his military fame, and where he found means to discharge his debts. He returned bearing the honorary title of " imperator," but refused to triumph, in order that he might become a candidate for the consulship. The refusal of the senate to grant the allotment of lands requested by Pompeius for his veterans, led to a complete break between Pompeius and the government, and resulted in the so-called 60. First Triumvirate, a reciprocal agreement of the three statesmen Pompeius, Caesar, and Crassus. They secured the election for the next year of 59. Caesar as consul. As his colleague, the optimate M. Bibulus, and the senate op- posed the proposals brought in by Csesar for an agrarian law, espe- cially in the interests of Pompeius' veterans (lex Julia de agro cam- pano : ut ager campanus plebi divideretur), and the ratification of the organization of Asia, these measures were submitted to the popular assemblies and passed by them, without the approval of the senate. Violence offered Bibulus and M. Porcius Cato. Bibulus did not dare leave his house again during his year of office. Intimate 138 Ancient History. B. c. friendship and close family ties between Caesar and Pompeius. Caesar's daughter, Julia, 23 years old, given to Pompeius in marriage. On the motion of P. Vatinius, tribune of the people, Csesar received by a popular decree the government of Gallia Cisalpina and Illyri- cum for 5 years, with extraordinary powers. At Pompeius' motion the astounded senate added Gallia Narbonensis (p. 125) to Caesar's province. A. Gabinius, a friend and military companion of Pompeius, and L. Piso, father-in-law of Csesar, were elected consuls for the following year. The execution of the agrarian law was en- trusted to Pompeius and Crassus. Before Csesar departed for his province, 58. The absence of Cato and Cicero from Rome was procured by P. Clodius, tribune of the people, who had secured this office at the sacrifice of his patrician rank by hasty adoption into a plebeian family. Cato was appointed by a popular vote to take pos- session of the kingdom of Cyprus, which had been left to Rome by will. Cicero was driven to flight by the decree, " Whoever shall have caused the execution of a Roman citizen without legal sentence shall be punished with outlawry " (lex Clodia : ut qui civem Romanum in- demnatum interemisset ei aqua et igni interdiceretur), and then banished by a second lex Clodia to a distance of 400 Roman miles from Rome. Clodius caused Cicero's house on the Palatine to be burned, and his Tusculan and Formean estate to be ravaged. 58-51. Conquest of Gaul by Csesar. Results of Caesar's eight years of brilliant warfare, and its meaning in the history of the world. 1. Annihilation of the Celts, as a nation, for whose lasting Romani- zation Csesar opened the way. 2. Creation of a dam which for four centuries protected the Romano-Hellenic civilization against destruction by the German bar- barians. 3. Enlargement of the boundaries of the old world, not only by the immediate conquest, but also through the information obtained by Caesar's expeditions to Britannia and Germania. 4. Acquirement of the means for accomplishing the change, now become necessary, of the Roman republic into a monarchy : the vet- eran legions and troops of the allied states, who had become at- tached to their general and expert in war. 58. Victory of Csesar over the Helvetians, who had invaded Gaul, at Bibracte,1 and over the German prince Ariovistus, N. E. of Vesontio (Besancon) in the vicinity of Muhlhausen in Alsace2 (Csesar, Bellum Gallicum, I.). 57. Subjugation of the Belgii. Annihilation of the Nervii in Hen- negau by a terrible battle on the Sambre, not far from Bavay (B. Gall. III.). In the southeast, occupation of Octodurus (Martigny), to secure the Alpine pass of the Great St. Bernard. 56. Subjugation of the Veneti in Armorica (Bretagne) by Csesar, 1 On the site of the modern Autun, according to v. Qoler ; two miles west flf Autun according to Napoleon III. (Vieae Cesar.) 2 See Mommsen. Hist, of Rome, IV. p. 244, note. B. C. Roman History. 139 after hard fighting on land and sea, and of the Aquitani by his lieutenant P. Crassus, son of the triumvir. In the north- east, successful war with the Morini and Menapii (B. Gall. III.). 55. Caesar drove the Germanic tribes of the Usipetes and Tenchteri back across the Rhine. Passage of the Rhine on a bridge of piles, between Coblence and Andernach. After a stay of fifteen days on the right bank, Caesar recrossed the stream. (B. Gall. IV.) First expedition to Britain with two legions. Departure from two ports, one of which was Itius portus, E. and W. of Cape Grisnez, landing between Dover and Deal, probably at Walmer Castle* (B. Gall. IV.} 54. Second expedition to Britain, with five legions. Cassivelaunus, leader of the British Celts. Caesar crossed the Stour and the Thames (between Kingston and Brentford), while Cassivelau- nus attacked the Roman camp where the ships lay. Retreat and embarkation of Caesar after he had received hostages. (B. Gall. V.) 53. Insurrection of the Eburones under Ambiorix, and of other tribes. Caesar crossed the Rhine a second time. (B. Gall. VI.) 52. General insurrection of the Gauls under the Arvernian, Vercin- getorix. Siege and capture of Avaricum (Bourges) by Cae- sar, occupation of Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris) by Labienus. Unsuccessful siege of Gergovia, near Clermont in the Auvergne ; Caesar, compelled to retreat, united with Labienus. Siege of Alesia (Alise Samte-Reine at Semur in the Dep. Cote d'Or, between Chatillon and Dijon) by Caesar, while the Roman army was in turn surrounded and besieged by the insurgent army of relief ; after a hard fight, complete victory of Caesar. Vercingetorix forced to surrender himself. He was exe- cuted at Rome, five years later (B. Gall. VII.). 61. Completion of the subjugation of Transalpine Gaul (cruel pun- ishment of the insurgents). Ten legions located in detach- ments throughout the country held it in obedience to Caesar. While these magnificent feats of war were placing the older mili- tary fame of Pompeius in the shade, the latter was trying unsuccess- fully to master the anarchy at Rome. Leader of the ultra-demo- crats, the former tribune, P. Clodius (pp. 135, 138). In opposition to him the recall of M. Tullius Cicero was procured in 57, by the efforts of the tribune T. Annius Milo. In the same year M. Porcius Cato returned to Rome. The aristocratic reaction opposed the armed bands of Clodius, which patrolled the streets and forum, with the armed bands of Milo. The attempt of the republicans in the senate to free themselves from the influence of the rulers, and the resolution to revise the agrarian law passed during the consulate of Caesar, resulted in a renewal of the alliance of the three statesmen. 1 Compare Heller, Ccesar's Expedition nach Brittanien, in the Zeitschrift f&r allg. Erdlcunde, 1865. According to v. Qoler, the first expedition started from Wissant near Cape Grisnez, the second from Calais. 140 Ancient History. B. c. In 56 a meeting of the triumvirs Caesar, Pompeius, and Crassus, and their followers (200 senators) took place in Luca. In conse- quence of agreements there concluded, the election of Pompeius and Crassus as consuls for 55 was carried by the use of force. A decree of the people (lex Trebonia) then assigned to Pompeius the government of both S pains for five years, and to Crassus that of Syria, while Caesar's command in Gaul was prolonged for five years more, and the payment of those troops which he had recruited on his own authority was assumed by the state. The Roman aristocracy was obliged to submit to these decrees. After the close of his year of office as consul Crassus went to Syria in 54, where he undertook in 53 an expedition against the Par- thians. He suffered a terrible defeat at Carrhse in Mesopotamia, and .was shortly after killed by the Parthians during an interview with one of their satraps. Pompeius remained in Rome, and dele- gated the administration of his provinces to his legates. In 52 Clodius and Milo happening to meet on the Via Appia, a fight sprang up between their followers, during which Clodius was wounded, and then, at Milo's command, put to death. Clodius' corpse was carried to the Curia Hastilia, near the forum in Rome, and there burnt, together with the building. To put an end to the disturbances of the mob which followed this event, Pompeius was appointed "consul without a colleague" by the senate, and clothed with dictatorial power. Trial of Milo, who was condemned by the jurors, in spite of Cicero's oration l in his defence, to be banished. Cicero proconsul in Cilicia. Breach between Caesar and Pompeius, whose connection had been previously weakened by the death of Julia (54). Pompeius selected his new father-in-law, Metellus Scipio, for his colleague in office, caused his governorship in Spain to be prolonged for five years, and deprived Caesar of two legions, urging the impor- tance of the Parthian war, which a victory had already ended. Pompeius openly reassumed the leadership of the republican aris- tocracy (lex de vi et ambitu). Caesar remained leader of the democ- racy, which under a constitution without representation led of neces- sity to monarchy. Demand of the senate that Caesar should resign his command before the expiration of the term which had formerly been granted him. Refusal of the senate to permit Caesar to stand for the consulship during his proconsulship, as had been allowed by the citizens. This brought about the 49-46. Civil war between Caesar and Pompeius. The senate declared Caesar a public enemy (liostis) should he not disband his army within a given time. The tribunes of the peo- ple who favored Caesar fled to him at Ravenna. 49. Caesar, with one legion, crossed the brook Rubicon, the boundary of his province, and thereby opened the civil war. Great con- sternation at Rome. Pompeius, who had only commenced his prepa- rations, and the greater part of the senate, fled to Brundisium. Caesar, * Not. the one which we have. This was written for the occasion, but the tumult and fear prevented its deliver}-. B. C. Roman History. 141 reinforced by a second legion which had overtaken him, marched through Umbria, Picenum, where Domitius, at Cor/inium, was obliged to surrender, and Apulia to Brundisium, to which he laid siege, after a third legion of veterans had joined him, and he had levied three new legions. Pompeius succeeded in conveying his troops, by two expeditions, to Greece, before the capture of the city. Caesar, unable to follow him from lack of vessels, commenced the construction of a fleet, and went to Rome. There he quieted the apprehensions of a return of the horrors of the first civil war. Magnanimous behavior toward his foes (Caesar, Bell. Civ. 1-33). 49. Caesar went by land to Spain to subdue Pompeius' legates, Spring, leaving Trebonius to besiege Massilia. The legates of Pom- 49. peius, Afranius and Petreius, were compelled to surrender at Aug. Her da (Lerida), N. of the Ebro, and their army was dis- banded (Caasar, Bell. Civ. I. 34-87). Varro, who commanded in Hispania ulteriora, threw himself into Gades (Cadiz), but most of the cities joining Caesar, he capitulated. On Caesar's march back to Italy, Massilia, which was suffering from starvation, surrendered on being threatened with a storm (Csesar, Bell. Civ. II. 1-22). Meantime Caesar's legate Curio had reduced Sicily to subjection. He then crossed to Africa, where he was at first victo- rious at Utica, but was afterwards defeated at the Bagradas by Juba> king of Numidia, who had declared for Pompeius, and fell in the battle (Cassar, Bell. Civ. II. 23-44). Caesar, during his absence, was proclaimed dictator at Rome by the praetor M. JEmilius Lepidus (on the authority of a new lex de dictator e creando}, but abdicated the office after eleven days, and had himself appointed consul, with P. Servilius, for the year 48. while that part of the senate which had participated in Pom- peius' flight to Greece prolonged the term of office of Pom- peius and all the officials of the previous year. Caesar landed in northern Epirus, at Oricum, not far from the promontory of Acroceraunia, with a part of his army. The trans- ports which returned for the rest of the troops were mostly captured by the fleet of Pompeius; and the coasts of Italy being sharply watched, Caesar was placed in a situation of great difficulty, as M. Antonius was able to transport the second half of the army only after several months. His army being at last united, Caesar inclosed the army of Pompeius at Dyrrhachium by a long chain of military posts Daily skirmishes, for the most part favorable for Caesar. At last however, Pompeius broke through Caesar's line. Caesar, defeated and compelled to retreat, went to Thessaly, whither Pompeius fol- lowed him, leaving Cato in Dyrrhachium. In the Thessalian plain was fought the 48. Decisive battle of Pharsalus. Aug. 9. Caesar, with about 22,000 men, defeated and completely scat- tered the army of Pompeius, which had more than twice that strength; 20,000 men laid down their arms. Pompeius fled to the coast, and took ship for Egypt by way of Lesbos. At the command 142 Ancient History. B. C. of the minister of the young king, Ptoleinseus, he was murdered upon landing. Csesar followed Pompeius and landed in Alexandria with 4000 men (Caesar, Bell Civ. III.). Especial honors paid to Csesar in Rome (consulate for five years, tribunate for life, dictatorship for one year). Csesar having taken it upon himself, at Alexandria, to decide between the ten-year old Ptole- mceus and his followers and his sixteen-year old sister Cleopatra, there broke out the so-called 48-47. Alexandrine war, an uprising of the whole population of Alexandria, sup- ported by the Roman army of occupation, which had been in garrison there since the restoration of the king Ptolemceus Auletes (55). Csesar, besieged in the royal palace, was in the greatest danger, from which only his reckless daring rescued him. He caused the Egyptian fleet to be set on fire, whereby the famous library of Alexandria (p. 77) was also burned. Ca3sar, with the help of an army of relief which arrived from Asia, defeated the Egyptian army on the Nile. The young king Ptolemseus was drowned on the flight. The government was given to Cleopatra and her younger brother, under Roman su- premacy, and a Roman garrison was left in Alexandria. Caesar went to Asia Minor, and in a Jive days' campaign (veni, vidi, vici) ended the 47. War against Fharnaces, son of Mithridates (p. 136), who had occupied Pontus, Arme- nia Minor, and Cappadocia. Csesar defeated him at Zela and forced him to fly. Pharnaces fell in battle against a revolted governor. Arrangement of the Asiatic relations. Deiotarus, who had fought against Csesar at Pharsalus, lost the greater part of his kingdom. Return of Csesar to Rome. After he had subdued a mutiny of the tenth legion, he undertook the 47-46. War in Africa against the adherents of Pompeius, Sextus Pompeius, Scipio, Cato, Labienus, Petreius, king Juba. Csesar landed at Hadrumetum, where he was in great danger, since the larger part of his force did not arrive till later in consequence of a storm. After several unim- portant encounters Csesar defeated and annihilated the republican army, which far outnumbered his own, in the 46. Battle of Thapsus, during and after which 50,000 of the enemy were slaughtered by Csesar's embittered soldiers. Scipio killed himself on the flight, Cato committed suicide in Utica, Petreius and Juba agreed to kill one another, in a personal contest. Juba struck Petreius down; and being himself but slightly wounded, had himself killed by one of his slaves. Labienus and Sextus Pompeius escaped to the latter's brother, Cn. Pompeius, in Spain. A part of Numidia was united with the province of Africa by Caesar; the rest was given to Bocchus, king of eastern Mauritania. Return of Csesar to Rome, where he celebrated four triumphs, fol B. c. Roman History. 143 Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces, Africa. Entertainments for the people, splen- did games, distribution of gold and grain. Caesar was appointed dic- tator for 10 years, and censor without a colleague, under the title prcefectus morum, for 3 years. Correction of the Calendar, by an extraordinary intercalation of 67 days in the year 46 ; thereafter there was a solar year of 365^ days (a leap-year every four years without exception). 46-45, War against the sons of Pompeius, Cnceus and Sextus, and the rest of the Pompeian party. Al- though repulsed before Corduba by Sextus Pompeius, Caesar by great exertions defeated both brothers in the 45. Battle of Munda, north of Ronda, between Cordova and Gibraltar, in which he was obliged to lead the legions against the enemy in person. Over 30,000 Pompeians were slain, and among them Labienus, Varus, Cn. Pompeius ; Sextus es- caped. After Caesar had returned to Rome he caused the senate to appoint him at first (45) consul for 10 years, afterwards (44) dictator, and censor for life. Since 48 he had borne the new official title Impera- tor, which denotes the possessor of the imperium, the concept of civil and military official power.1 This included full control of the finances and the military power of the state, and also the right of coining money with the portrait of the ruler of the state. As prcefectus morum (censor) Caesar had the right of enlarging the senate ; as pontifex maximus he possessed the control of religious affairs ; as possessor since 48 of a power resembling that of the tribunes, he had the ini- tiative in legislation, and was the inviolable (sacrosanctus) protector and representative of the people. Accordingly the position and powers of the new democratic monarch were almost exactly analo- gous to those of the old Roman kings. The people retained, nevertheless, at least in form, a share of the sovereignty, all laws affecting the constitution requiring, as under the republic, to be ratified by the comitiae, which were, however, easily controlled. The senate became again, what it had been under the kings, an advisatory council only. Caesar brought the number of members up to 900 and increased the number of quaestors from 20 to 40. Election to this office, it will be remembered (p. 132), admitted the holder to the senate. The democratic monarch, however, exercised to the utmost his right of appointing senators, and thereby gravely offended the nobility. Ex-centurions, Spaniards, Gauls, sons of freed- men, etc., found through him admission to the senate. The monarch had an extensive right of nomination at the elections of magistrates. Restoration of the old royal jurisdiction exercised by decision of the monarch alone, from whose sentence there was no appeal, — a right which, of course, was but rarely exercised (trial of Ligarius and of Deiotarus). In general the ordinary judicial system was retained. Praetors increased to 16. Reorganization of the military system. Creation of legati legionis 1 Cf. Mornmsen, Hist, of Rome, IV. 468, note. 144 Ancient History. B. G pro praztore, appointed by the imperator. Reform of the financial ad- ministration. The system of tax-farming was exchanged for the im- position of direct taxes. Allotment of the Italian domains, particu- larly among the veterans. Wide-spread colonization in the provinces with the view at once of Latinizing the provinces, and of diminishing the number of proletarians in the capital. Commencement of mag- nificent buildings in Rome. New system of provincial administration for the protection of the provinces against the extortions of the gov- ernors. Sumptuary laws. Criminal legislation. Arrangement of the relations of debtor and creditor. Project of a war against the Parthians, to revenge the Roman de- feat under Crassus (p. 140) and add to the security of the eastern boundary of the empire. Conspiracy of some 50 republican aristo- crats against Caesar's life (M. Junius Brutus, C. Cassius. Longinus, C. Trebonius, Decimus Brutus, Tillius Cimber, etc.). 44. Assassination of Caesar during a session of the March 15. senate, which on that day was held by chance in a hall in the theatre of Pompeius. Caesar fell, pierced with 23 wounds, at the foot of a statue of Pompeius. For a moment the senate took the reins of government again, and decreed that Caesar's laws should continue in force, and offered an amnesty to his murderers. But the populace of the capital, incited by the funeral oration of M. Antonius, violently assaulted the conspira- tors. The leaders of the conspirators departed for the provinces which the senate had assigned them : M. Brutus to Macedonia, Cassius to Syria, Decimus Brutus to Gallia dsalpina. In Rome M. Antonius (consul with Dolabelld), having possession of Caesar's papers, assumed an uncontrolled power under pretext of executing the will of the dictator, and caused Macedonia, the prov- ince of M. Brutus, to be assigned to himself with five of the six legions which Caesar had dispatched thither for the Parthian war. Dolabella received Syria, the province of Cassius, while the provinces of Crete and Cyrene were assigned to M. Brutus and Cassius. Anto- nius, moreover, procured from the popular assembly the province of Gallia dsalpina, which the senate had refused him. In the hope of balancing the usurped power of Antonius, the senate entered into negotiations with the eighteen-year-old C. Octavius, Caesar's grand- nephew and adopted son, henceforward known as C. Julius Caesar Octavianus. The latter, who was beloved by his soldiers, took com- mand of two legions. Antonius, endeavoring to eject Decimus Bru- tus from his province of Gallia cisalpina, there broke out the so-called 44-43. War of Mutina. As was advocated by Cicero in the Philippics, Hirtius and Pansa, consuls for 43, and the young Octavianus as propraetor, were sent against Antonius, who was besieging Decimus Brutus in Mutina (Modena). Pansa died at Bononia of a wound received in the first encounter ; Hirtius fell as victor in the 43. Battle of Mutina against Autonius, who was now declared an enemy of the state B. c. Roman History. 145 (hostis). While Decimus Brutus followed him to Gallia cisalpina, Octavianus, now sole commander of the army which was originally the army of the senate, marched to Rome, and extorted his appoint- ment to the consulship, the repeal of the amnesty extended to the conspirators, and their sentence (lex Pedia). This accomplished, he took the field, in appearance, against Antonius, with whom he already had had secret negotiations. Meantime Decimus Brutus was abandoned by his troops, captured upon his flight, and put to death at Antonius' command. At a meeting near Bononia, 43. The Second Triumvirate was formed Nov. avowedly for the " Organization of the State " (triumviri rei- publicce constituencies) by Antonius, Octavianus, and Lepi- dus, the former magister equitum of Csesar. This new assumption of power was ratified by a decree of the people for a period of five years. New proscriptions ; several hundred senators and 2000 equites outlawed and their property confiscated. Murder of Cicero. The triumvirs began 43-42. War against the republican party and crossed to Greece, where they were opposed by M. Bru- tus, who, despite the senate's decree, had taken possession of his province, and C. Cassius, who had defeated Dolabella in Syria and driven him to commit suicide. In the 42. Battle of Philippi in Thrace, Antonius, who commanded the right wing, de- feated the left wing of the republican army under Cassius, while Brutus with the right wing of the republicans drove back Octavia- nus. Hearing a false report of the defeat of Brutus, Cassius caused one of his slaves to put him to doath. Brutus, being defeated by Antonius in a second battle, killed kimself . Antonius ravaged the provinces of Asia and Syria, and then fol- lowed Cleopatra (p. 142), whom he had ordered to meet him at Tarsus, to Egypt. Meantime Octavianus, in Italy, was carrying out the promised allotments of land among the veterans. Quarrels between himself and the followers of Antonius led to the so-called 41-40. Civil war of Perusia between Octavianus and Lepidus on the one side and Lucius Antonius, the brother, and Fulvia, the wife of the triumvir, on the other. L. Antonius was compelled to surrender in Perusia. Octavia- nus, now supreme ruler of Italy, assumed the administration of Gaul and Spain, while Lepidus was put off with the government of Africa. Another civil war threatened, but was avoided by a compromise, which the death of Fulvia facilitated. Antonius married Octavia, the sister of Octavianus. The administration of the empire was divided between the triumvirs, so that 40. Octavianus received the west, Antonius the east, and Lepi- dus Africa. 39. In the following year, however, the triumvirs were obliged to make terms with Sextus Pompeius, who had created a naval 10 146 Ancient History. B. c. empire, with Sicily as the base, and had cut off the grain supplies from Rome. By the treaty of Miseiium Sextus Pompeius received Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica (?) and Peloponnesus, with the promise of a reim- bursement for the loss of his paternal property. Antonius went to the east, where he lived for the most part with Cleopatra in Egypt. He carried on, however, a war with the Par- thians, at first through his legate Ventidius (39), and afterwards in person (36), but without much success. New quarrels led to the 38-36. Sicilian war between the triumvirs and Sextus Pompeius. Octavianus, aban- doned by both his colleagues, was obliged to conduct the war alone at first, and suffered great loss at sea. A difference between Octa- vianus and Antonius was made up at a meeting in Tarentum, and Octavianus gave Antonius two Italian legions for the Parthian war, while Antonius placed 100 ships at the service of Octavianus against Sextus Pompeius. By means of this reinforcement, Octavianus got the upper hand of Sextus, especially since M. Vipsanius Agrippa commanded his fleet. Sextus Pompeius, defeated by Agrippa at Mylce, fled to Asia and died in Miletus. In the mean time, Lepidus, who had landed in Sicily, demanded this island for himself. Aban- doned by his men, he was forced to surrender to Octavianus, who permitted him to retain the dignity of Pontifex Maximus, and sent him to Circeii. The administration of Africa was assumed by Octa- vianus. 35-33. Campaigns of Octavianus against the Alpine tribes, the Dal- matians, and the Illyrians. Antonius defeated Artavasdes, king of Armenia, captured him, and led him in triumph at Alex- andria. New disputes between Octavianus and Antonius. The latter pre- sented Cleopatra with Roman territory, and sent his wife Octavia, the sister of Octavianus, papers of separation. Octavianus procured a popular decree removing Antonius from his command and declaring war upon Cleopatra. 31-30- War between Octavian and Antonius, also called Bellum A ctiacum. During the long delay of Antonius and Cleopatra in Ephesus, Athens, and at Patrce in Achaia, Octavianus completed his preparations and transported his army to Epirus. His fleet of 250 ships, under the command of Agrippa, defeated the fleet of Antonius and Cleo- patra, which outnumbered it, in the 31. Battle of Actium, Sept. 2 Cleopatra fled before the battle was entirely decided, and was followed by Antonius. The army of Antonius surrendered to Octavianus without a blow. 30. Octavianus went to Asia, where he entered upon his fourth con- sulship, returned for a short time to Italy by sea to repress a revolt, and then returned to his troops and marched through Syria to Egypt. Antonius, abandoned by his troops, killed himself on hear- B. C. Roman History. 147 ing a false report of Cleopatra's death. The latter, when convinced that Octavian spared her only that she might grace his triumph in Rome, poisoned herself. Octavianus made Egypt a Roman province. Octavianus sole ruler, after the manner of Caesar (p. 143). 29. Octavianus celebrated three triumphs in Rome, and the temple of Janus was closed for the third time in Roman history.1 FIFTH PERIOD. Reigns of the Roman Emperors down to the Fall of the "Western Empire.2 31 (30) B. C.-476 A. D. B. C. A. D. 31-68. The five Julii, or the descendants of Caesar's adopted son, 31-14. Caesar Octavianus Augustus. The surname Augustus (the Illustrious, the Sublime), which was given Octavianus by the senate in 27 B. c., is the name by which, as sole ruler of the Roman world, he is most commonly known ; it also became, like Princeps,s Ccesar, Imperator (p. 143), the title of the Roman sovereigns. In later times Ccesar became a peculiar designa- tion of the appointed successor of a reigning Augustus. Augustus reduced the senate to 600 members and made a high census (one million sesterces) the necessary condition of admission. The consular office was retained in name, but was sometimes held for a series of years by the imperator ; sometimes granted, as a special distinction, to some one else for a short time (two months). The prcefectus urbi, having police and criminal jurisdiction, and the prcefectus prcetorio, commander of the standing body-guard of nine (afterwards ten) praetorian cohorts, became the most important of- ficers. Division of Rome into 14, of Italy into 11, regiones. B. C. 27, new division of the provinces into senatorial, comprising those quiet provinces which could be administered without an army (Africa, Asia, Achaia, Illyricum, Macedonia, Sicilia, Creta, with Cy- renaica, Bithynia, Sardinia, Hispania Bc&ticd), and imperial, including those where an army was maintained, and which were administered by legates in the name of Augustus (Hispania Tarraconensis, Lusi- tania ; the four provinces of Gaul : Narbonensis, Lugdunensis, Aqui- tania, and Belgica ; Germania superior et inferior, Mazsia, Syria, Cilicia, Cyprus, JEgyptus).* Aerarium and Fiscus. Period of the highest development of Roman literature. Mcrce- nas (f B. c. 8), friend of Augustus, patron and protector of the poets : P. Vergilius Maro (70-19 B. c.), Q. Horatius Flaccus (65-8 B. c.) ; 1 Once under Numa, and once in 235. [TRANS.] 2 Peter, Rom. Gesch. III.3, 1871, and Rom. Gesch. in kiirzerer Fassung, 2d ed. 1878, p. 475 foil. 3 Princeps was, it is true, not an official title. About the meaning of this de- signation and its relation to the dignity of the Pnnceps senatus, see Mar- quardt-Mommsen, Rom. Alth. II.2, 2, p. 750 foil. 4 Later many changes were made in this division. All provinces created after 27 B. c. were assigned to the emperor. 148 Ancient History. B. c. the elegiac poets, C. Valerius Catullus (87-54 B. c.), Albius Tibullus (54-19 B. c. ?), S. Propertius (49-15 B. c. ?) ; P. Ovidius Naso (born 43 B. c., 9 A. D. banished to Tomi on the Pontus Euxinus, f 17). The historian T. Livius (59 B. C.-17 A. D.) Family of Augustus. C. Julius Csesar Octavianus Augustus, b. 63 B. c., f 14 A. D. Married : 1. Claudia. 2. Scribonia. 3. Livia. I Tiberius and Drusus, Sons of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia. Julia, t A. D. 14. Married : 1. Marcellus, 2. M. Vipsanius Agrippa. son of Octavia. t B. c. 12. t B. c. 23. I 3. Tiberius. 1 Gaius Csesar. I A. D. 4. Lucius Caesar. t A. 1). 2. 1 Agrippina. f A. D. 33. 1 Julia. f A. D. 28. Agrippa Postumus. t A. L>. 14. Julia (the elder) was banished to the island of Pandataria because of her excesses. Gaius Ccesar and Lucius Ccesar were adopted by Augustus B. c. 17, and designated as his successors. Agrippina (the elder) married Germanicus, son of Drusus, and became the mother of the younger Agrippina, the mother of Nero (p. 150). Agrippa Postumus, almost an idiot, was adopted, but afterward banished to the island of Planasia. Julia (the younger) was also banished. Tiberius, son of Livia by her first husband, Tiberius Claudius Nero, was adopted by Augustus, A. D. 4. 29. Mcesia subjugated (made a province in 16 B. c. ?). 27-25. Expedition of Augustus against the Cantabri and Astures, the operations against whom he was obliged, on account of sick- ness, for the most part to leave to his legates. 25. Expedition to Arabia, without results, conducted by C. ^Elius Gallus, prefect of Egypt. Subjugation of the Alpine tribe of the Salassi. Foundation of Augusta Prcetoria (Aosta). 23. Augustus caused the senate to confer upon him for life the dig- nity of the tribunate, and the proconsular imperium in general. 22 and 21. Successful war against the Ethiopians, conducted by Pe- tronius, the successor of Gallus in Egypt. 20. Campaign of Augustus against the Parthians, whose king Phra- ates, upon hearing of the arrival of Augustus in Syria restored the Roman standards which had been taken from Crassus. Tigranes was reinstated in the kingdom of Armenia by Tibe- rius. 19. Subjugation of Spain completed by the conquest of the Cantabri and Astures. 15. After the subjugation of the tribes from the northern boundary of Italy to the Danube, Raetia was made a Roman province, along with Vindelicia (Augusta Vindelicorum. now Augsburg) and Noricum. B. c -A. D. Roman History. 149 12-9. Starting from the left bank of the Rhine (Germania superior and Germania inferior, which had been constituted provinces in 27), Drusus undertook four campaigns in Germany proper, and led the Roman armies to the Weser and the Elbe. Drusus died upon the way back. 8-7. Tiberius, the brother of Drusus and his successor in the com- mand, after he had subjugated Fannonia (12-9), compelled a portion of the Germanic tribes on the right bank of the Rhine to recognize the supremacy of Rome. Birth, of Christ (four years before the commencement of our era?). 6-9. An attack made by Tiberius upon the Suevian kingdom of Mar- bod was interrupted by an insurrection of the Illyrian and Pan- nonian tribes, which were reduced to subjection only after a severe contest. 10. Pannonia (the S. W. portion of Hungary) made a Roman prov- ince. 9 (?). Three Roman legions under Quintilius Varus annihilated in the Teutoburg forest, by Armiiiius (Hermann ?), a leader of the Cherusci, and husband of Thusnelda. Lex Papia Poppcea and Lex Julia directed against celibacy. 14. Augustus died at Nola, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. 14-37. Tiberius (Claudius Nero), step-son of Augustus, by whom he had been adopted, a sus- picious despot. The (formal) right of ratifying laws transferred from the comities to the senate. The law against high treason (de maiestate) was extended to include the most trivial offences offered the sover- eign. Rewards given to informers (delatores). Revolt of the legions on the Rhine, quelled by Germanicus, son of the elder Drusus, and of the legions in Pannonia quelled by the younger Drusus, son of Tiberius (Tacitus, Annales. I. 16-49). 14r-16. Three expeditions under Germanicus against the Germans. On the third attempt, which was made by sea, Drusus landed at the mouth of the Ems, and crossed the Weser. Roman victory in the battle on the Campus Idistaviso (according to Grimm, Idisiaviso, " meadow of the elves ") over Arminius, between Minden and Hameln. In spite of the success of the Roman arms the right bank of the Rhine remained free (Tac. Ann. II. 5-26). 17. Germanicus recalled from Germany, through the envy of Tibe- , rius, and sent to the East, installed a king in Armenia, made Cappadocia a Roman province, and died (19) in Syria (of poi- son, administered by Piso?). 23-31. Rule of the abandoned Sejanus, Tiberius' favorite. By uniting the prfetorian cohorts in one camp near Rome, Sejanus laid the foundation of the future power of the praetorians. Sejanus poisoned Drusus, son of Tiberius. 27. Tiberius took up his residence in Caprece (Capri). 29. Banishment of the elder Agrippina (f 33). — Livia f. 150 Ancient History. A. D. 31. Trial of Sejanus, who was executed in company with many others (accomplices in the conspiracy?). Macro succeeded Sejanus in the favor of Tiberius. 37-41. Caligula (properly, Gains Caesar Germanicus), youngest son of Germanicus, called by the soldiers Caligula (bootling), a cruel, half-crazy tyrant (pderint, dum metuant!). Self-- adoration. Bridge over the bay of Puteoli. Childish expedition with an immense army to the coast of Gaul (39-40), which ended with the collection of mussels (spolia oceani). After his murder the praetorians proclaimed as imperator his uncle, 41-54. Claudius (Tiberius Claudius Nero), son of Drusus, younger brother of Germanicus, a weak- minded, vacillating prince, ruled by miserable favorites (the freed- men Narcissus and Pallas) and his wives: 1, the shameless Messalina, and, after he had caused her to be killed, 2, the ambitious Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus (Tacitus, Annales, XI. and XII.). 43. Commencement of the conquest of Britain under the command of A. Plautius and his legate, T. Flavins Vespasianus ; the southern part of Britain became a Roman province (Tacitus, Agricola, 13, 14 ; Ann. XII. 31-40). During Claudius' reign the following provinces were incorporated : in Africa, Mauretania, Tingitana, and Mauretania Ccesariensis (42); in the east Lycia (43), Thracia (46), Judcea, which had been a de- pendent kingdom 41^4, became in 44 a province again. Agrippina persuaded Claudius to adopt L. Domitius, her son by Cn. Domitius (he took the name of Nero at his adoption), and to appoint him his successor in place of his own son by Messalina, Britannicus, whose sister Octavia was the promised wife of Nero. As Claudius showed signs of repenting of the adoption of Nero, Agrippina poisoned him. 54-68' Nero (Nero Claudius Ccesar Augustus Germanicus), proclaimed imperator by the prsetorians, was for the first five years of his reign under the guidance of the prcefectus prceto- rio Burrus and his teacher L. Seneca, who prevented the influence of his mother Agrippina from becoming predominant. Law against informers. With Nero's passion for the freedwoman Acte, and afterwards for Poppcea Sabina, the opposition between himsolf and his mother grew stronger and stronger, and the list of his crimes began. He poisoned (55) his step-brother Britannicus, whom his mother had threatened to make imperator, had Agrippina put to death (59), drove from him his wife Octavia, whom he afterwards executed (62), and married Poppcea Sabina. Excesses and mad cruelty of Nero. He appeared in public as chariot-driver in the races, actor, and singer. Crawling servility of the senate (Tac. Ann. XIII.-XVL). 61. Revolt in Britain, suppressed by Suetonius Paulinus. 58-63. War with the Parthians and Armenians. After the capture and destruction of Artaxata, Domitius Corbulo forced King Tiridates of Armenia to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome. A. D. Roman History. 151 64. A fire of six days' duration, followed by another lasting three days, destroyed a large part of Rome (set by Nero's command, in order that he might rebuild the city more beau- tifully ?). Nero accused the Jews and the communities of Christians of setting fire to the city. 64. First persecution of the Christians.1 Re-building in Rome, on a large scale. The palace of Nero (domus aurea) occupied the entire Palatine and extended to the Esquiline. 65. Conspiracy of Piso discovered (Seneca f). 68. Revolt in Gaul (C. Julius Vindex) and in Hispania citerior, where the governor Sulpicius Galba, then 73 years of age, was proclaimed and acknowledged imperator. Nero fled and killed himself on the estate of one of his freedmen in the neighbor- hood of Rome. 68-69. Galba (Servius Sulpicius Galba), June-Jan, whose avarice soon gained him the hatred of his soldiers (Tac. Hist. I.), and who became the victim of the revolt of 69. Otho (Marcus Salvius Otho Titianus), Jan.-Apr. once a favorite of Nero's (Tac. Hist. I. II.) The legions on the Rhine had already proclaimed as imperator 69- Vitellius (Aulas Vitellius), Apr.-Dec. who defeated Otho in the neighborhood of Cremona, entered Rome and made the city the scene of his senseless gluttony and extravagance. (Tac. Hist. II., III.) 69-96- The three Flavian emperors. 69-79. Vespasianus (Titus Flavins Vespasianus) proclaimed imperator through the influence of Licinius Mud- anus , governor of Syria, at first in Alexandria, afterwards by his own legions and those of Syria in Palestine, where he was conducting the war against the Jews who had been in revolt since 66. Vespasianus transferred the military command to his son, Titus, and went to Rome, after a long stay at Alexandria, to find that his adherents had already put ViteUius to death. Restoration of discipline in the army and order in the finances. Reorganization of the senate. 69-71. Revolt of the Batavians under Julius (Claudius?) Civilis (Tac. Hist. IV.), one of their leaders of royal descent. The insurgents at first declared that they took up arms not against the Roman empire, but against Vitellius, and for Vespasianus. Thus they gained the assistance of a large part cf the Roman soldiers in those parts. Claudius Civilis repeatedly defeated the Romans, and, reinforced by Germans from the other side of the Rhine, thirsting for booty, he advanced far into Gaul. A great part of the Gallic tribes joined 1 But see Overbook, Studien z. Gesch. d. alien Kirche, Pt. 1, p. 93 foil. 152 Ancient History. A. ix him, and for a moment he dreamed of founding an independent Gallic Empire. When once Vespasian's power in Rome was secure, however, Cerealis, favored by the quarrels which had broken out between the allied Batavians, Gauls, and Germans, put an end to the revolt, and again reduced all Gaul under the Roman supremacy. 70. Capture of Jerusalem by Titus (p. 12). Triumphal arch of Titus in Rome. Erection of the Amphitheatrum Flavium (Col- osseum). 78. Agricola, father-in-law of the historian Tacitus, made prepara- tions for the complete subjugation of Britain. Vespasianus was succeeded by his son, 79-81. Titus (Titus Flavins Vespasianus), called, because of his admirable qualities, amor et delicice gen- eris humani. Punishment of informers. 79. Eruption of Vesuvius. Herculaneum buried by mud, Pompeii by ashes and mud. Death of the elder Plinius, the leader of the Roman fleet at Misenum. 80. Fire and plague in Rome. Titus was succeeded by his brother, 81-96. Domitianus (Titus Flavius Domitianus), a cowardly, cruel despot. He undertook a campaign against the Chatti (83), but returned without having seen a foe, notwithstand- ing which he celebrated a triumph. During his reign the construc- tion of the Roman boundary wall between the Rhine and the Danube was commenced. It was guarded by soldiers, who were settled upon public land along its course (agri decumates). 81-84. Successful campaigns of Agricola in Britain, whereby the Roman power was extended as far as Scotland. Agricola recalled by Domitian through envy. 86-90. Unsuccessful wars against the Dacians. Domitian bought peace of Decebalus by a yearly tribute. 93. Death of Agricola (poisoned by order of Domitian ?). Cruel persecution of the Jews, Christians, and philosophers. 96. Domitianus murdered by the freedman Stephanus, the empress, who was in fear of her own life, and • the prsef ectus prt^torio, Petronius Secundus, being cognizant of the crime. 96-192. Nerva and his adopted family. 96-98. Nerva (Marcus Cocceius Nerva), a senator 64 years of age, was raised to the throne by the mur derers of Domitian. He repealed the law of treason, re called the exiles, and reduced the taxes. He adopted and appointed as his successor 98-117. Trajan (Marcus Ulpius Traianus), governor of the province of Germania inferior, born in the Roman colony of Italica in Spain, the first occupant of the throne of the Csesars who was not an Italian. Excellent ruler and general. Magnificent buildings in Rome (Forum Traianum) and throughout the empire. A. D. Roman History. 153 101-102. First war against the Dacians, in consequence of Trajan's refusal to pay the tribute promised by Domitian. Trajan crossed the Danube, captured the fortress of the king Deceba- lus and forced him to make peace and cede a portion of his territory. 105-107. In the second war against the Dacians Trajan built a stone bridge across the Danube (at Turnu Severinu), crossed the stream, defeated and subdued the Dacians. Decebalu? killed himself. Magnificent games at Rome, wherein 10,OOG gladiators are said to have appeared. Dacia, that is Wallachia, Moldau, Eastern Hungary, and Transyl- vania (Siebenburgen), made a Roman province. Settlement of nu- merous colonists in Dacia, from whom the present Roumanians de- rive their descent. It would be more correct to say their language only, the Roumanian or Daco -Romanic, which prevails in Wal- lachia, Moldau and a part of Transylvania. The column of Trajan at Rome completed in 113. The governor of Syria took possession (105) of the region E. and S. of Damascus and of Judcea to the northern end of the Red Sea, as the Roman province of Arabia.1 114-116. Wars of Trajan with the Parthians. Chosroes, nephew of the Parthian king, driven from Armenia. Armenia, Meso- potamia, Assyria, including Babylonia, made Roman provinces. Trajan, favored, as it seems, by internal troubles in the Parthian monarchy, conquered Seleucia and Ctesiphon on the Tigris, and sailed down the river to the Persian Gulf. Trajan, having appointed a king over the Parthians, started upon his return, but died at Selinus (Trajanopolis) in Cilicia. 117-138. Hadrian (PuUius JElms Hadrianus), adopted by Trajan (?). A lover of peace, an excellent ad- ministrator, learned and vain. Hadrian abandoned the new provinces of Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria, so that the Euphrates formed the eastern boundary of the Roman empire. He restored quiet in Mcesia, and strengthened his power by the execution of those who conspired against him. 121. Hadrian began his progress through all the provinces of the em- pire, with a visit to Gaul. Magnificent buildings : in Rome the Moles Hadriani, on the site of the present Castle of St. Angelo, and the double temple of Venus and the goddess Roma, and the Athenaeum; in Athens, the city oj Hadrian (the Olympieum completed). Magnificent villa at Tibur (Tivoli). In Britain a wall of defence was built against the Picts and Scots. Collection of the edicts of the praetors (edictum perpetuum) com- menced by the jurist Salvius Julianus. 132-135. Revolt of the Jews on account of the foundation of the colony of ^Elia Capitolina (p. 12). Hadrian had adopted, during a fit of sickness, L. JElius Verus, and 1 That is, Arabia Pefrcea, so called from its capital, Petra, not the whole peninsula of Arabia. Kiepert, Atlas. AnU Tab. XII. 154 Ancient History. A. D. appointed him Ccesar (p. 147) ; but as Verus died before him he adopted T. Aurelius Antoninus under the condition that the latter should adopt in place of a son his nephew, the young M. Annius Verus, under the name of Marcus Aurelius, and L. Commodus Verus, the son of the deceased Csesar, ^Elius Verus. 138-161- Antoninus Pius (Titus Aurelius Antoninus Pius). Peaceable reign, during which the borders were, however, vigorously defended against the attacks of the barbarians. Antoninus had his adopted sou, M. Aurelius, educated by phil- osophers of the iStoie school. 161-180. Marcus Aurelius (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus), a wise and active sovereign, highly educated (pupil of Corne- lius Fronto), a Stoic philosopher. Until 169 he reigned in common with his brother by adoption, the dissipated Lucius Verus. 162-165. War against the Parthians under the command of L. Verus, who, however, soon gave himself up to dissipation in Antiochia, while his legatees carried on the war with success, conquered Artaxata, appointed a king in Armenia, and burned Seleucia and Ctesiphon. A part of Mesopotamia was again made a Roman province. 166. Plague and famine in Italy. 166-180. War with the Marcommani and Quadi. Marcus Aurelius fought with various fortune against the barbarians, who con- stantly made new attacks. During a short peace with the bar- barians, conquest of the rebel Avidius Cassius in Syria, 175. Triumph in Rome, 176. The senate erected an equestrian statue in his honor, which still adorns the Capitol. Before he had succeeded in making the boundaries of the empire along the Danube secure, he died in Vindobona (Vienna). He was succeeded by his degenerate son 180-192. Commodus, who bought peace of the Germans at the price of a tribute, entrusted the government for the most part to the prsef ectus prfetorio; abandoned himself to his inclination for dissipation and cruelty, and was finally murdered by his intimates. 193-284. Imperators for the most part appointed by the soldiers. 193. Pertinax, strict and economical, murdered after three months by the praetorians, who placed on the throne in his stead 193. Didius Julianus, who, among all competitors, promised them the largest present. The Illyrian legions proclaimed 193-211. Septimius Severus, who was recognized by the senate and maintained himself A. D. Roman History. 155 against the other pretenders (Pescennius Niger in the East, Clodius Albinus in Gaul). Successful campaigns in Mesopotamia. Improve- ments in the administration of justice through the jurist Papinianus. In 208 expedition to Britain against the Scots. Restoration of the Roman wall, which had been partially destroyed. Septimius Sev- rus died in Eboracum (York). His son, Ul-217. Caracalla (Antoninus Bassianus) murdered his half-brother and co-regent Geta along with thousands of his adherents, among whom was Papinianus. By the Constitutio Antoniana Roman citizenship was conferred upon all inhabitants of the provinces, for the sake of the higher taxation which could then be imposed. Systematic plundering of the provinces, unsuccessful wars against the Goths (wrongly called Getaz) in Dacia, cruel treatment of the inhabit- ants of Alexandria. Plundering expedition against the Parthians. Murder of Caracalla. His successor, 217. Macrinus, purchased peace from the Parthians. The soldiers proclaimed as imperator the fourteen-year-old 218-222. Elagabalus (the form Heliogabalus is a corruption), priest of the sun at Emesa in Syria, who was put forward as the son of Caracalla. He gave himself up to the most infamous de- bauchery ; the government was conducted by his mother and grandmother. He adopted his cousin, the young Bassianus Alexianus, who succeeded to the throne after the murder of Elagabalus by the pra3torians, under the name of 222-235. Severus Alexander. Excellent ruler, advised by the jurists Domitius Ulpianus and Julius Paullus. His strictness with the soldiers led to several mutinies, in one of which Ulpianus was murdered. ?26. In consequence of the dissolution of the Parthian monarchy of the Arsacidae and the foundation of the new Persian em- pire of the Sassanidee by Artakshatr (Artaxares, corrupted into Artaxerxes, new Persian, Ardeshir), a descendant of Sassan, a new war broke out in the East, which Severus Alexander carried on, ac- cording to the Roman historian Lampridius, with success ; according to the Grecian Herodian, unsuccessfully. At all events there seems to have been an armistice in 233. After the murder of Severus Alex- ander on the Rhine the soldiers raised to the throne 235-238. Maximinus Thrax, a Thracian of extraordinary size and strength. Expedition across the Rhine ; German townships laid waste. Meanwhile the legions in Africa proclaimed the senator, 237. G-ordiarms I., then eighty years old, imperator. He appointed his son, Gor- dianus II., co-regent. They were both defeated by the prsefect of Mauretania: the sou fell in the battle, the father put himself to death. 156 Ancient History. A. D. The senate at Rome, which had already taken sides against Maximi- nus Thrax, elected the senators Pupienus Maximus and Ceelius Bal- binus, Augusti, to whom was added, at the people's demand, the thirteen-year-old grandson of Gordianus I. Maximinus Thrax was killed by his own soldiers at the siege of Aquileia. The praetorians at Rome murdered the two imperators appointed by the senate, Pu- pienus and Balbinus, so that the young 238-244. Gordianus III. was left sole imperator. A new war with the Persians (241). The young imperator married the daughter of the veteran Misitheus (Timesitheus),whom he made prafectus prretorio, and whose guidance lie followed. After the death of his father-in-law Gordianus was murdered by the new prsefectus prsetorio, 244-249. Philippus Arabs, whom he had been obliged to accept as co-regent in 243 at the demand of the soldiers. Peace with Persia. Philippus returned to Rome (became a Christian in secret ?). 248. Celebration of the thousandth anniversary of the foundation of Rome. Revolt of the Mcesian and Pannonian legions, which proclaimed one of their officers imperator. 249-251. Decius, whom Philippus sent to quell the mutiny, was compelled by the legions to assume the title of imperator. He defeated and killed Philippus in the battle of Verona. 250. General persecution of the Christians. Martyrdom of Fabianus, bishop of Rome. Decius defeated the Goths, who were plundering Thrace, but fell in battle after he had followed them across the Danube. The legions elected 251-253. Gallus, who soon had his co-regent, Hostilianus, son of Decius, put to death. Destructive pestilence in almost all parts of the em- pire. Gallus was deposed by the conqueror of the Goths, 253. ^Emilianus, who after four months was killed by the soldiers. He was succeeded by 253-260. Valerianus, the general of the legions in Gaul and Germania. He ap- pointed his son, Gallienus, co-regent, and both carried on the war with the German bands, who were constantly making new inroads, espe- cially the Franks in Gaul, the Alamanni, who invaded northern Italy but were driven back at Mediolanum, and the Goths on the Danube. Unsuccessful expedition of Valerianus against the Persians ; defeated at Edessa, he was captured, and at the age of seventy carried about as the slave of King Artaxerxes. His reign and that of his son, A. D. Roman History. 157 260-268. Gallienus, was disturbed by the appearance of a great number of pretend- ers to the throne, and by the invasions of the barbarians, particularly of the Goths, who came in ships from the Black Sea. Confusion throughout the empire ; the so-called "time of the thirty tyrants." Two pretenders only maintained themselves for any length of time, Tetricus in Gaul and Spain, and Odenathus (of Palmyra) in Syria. The latter wrested Mesopotamia from Persia, and was recognized by Gallienus as co-regent for the East. After the murder of Odenathus (267) his consort, Zenobia, ruled in Palmyra. Gallienus laid siege to Mediolanum, which had been occupied by the pretender Aureolus, and was there murdered by contrivance of the latter. Aureolus was put to death by 268-270. Claudius II., whom the soldiers raised to the throne. He defeated the Ala- manni and the Goths, and was succeeded by 270-275. Aurelianus. He concluded peace with the Goths by the sacrifice of the province of Dacia. The Danube was henceforward the boundary of the empire ; the greater part of the Roman colonists were transported to Moesia, a part of which was now called Dacia (Aureliana). Aure- lian repulsed the Alamanni and Marcomanni, who had made an inroad into Italy (victory on the Metaurus), and began the erection of a new wall around Rome, which included the enlarged imperial city (?71, completed in 276). He defeated Zenobia in two battles, at Antiochia and at Edessa, subdued Syria, besieged and destroyed Palmyra, cap- tured Zenobia, and reconquered Egypt (273). Having thus subdued the East, he turned against Tetricus in Gaul, whom he defeated and captured at Chalons (274). Aurelian, rightly called " Restorer of the universal Empire" (Restitutor Orbis), was murdered on an expedition against the Persians. At the request of the army the senate elected the senator 275. Tacitus imperator. He defeated the Alani, who had invaded Asia Minor, but died after three months. His brother Florianus, who attempted to secure the succession, was defeated by 276-282. Probus, who drove back the Franks, Burgundians, Alamanni and Van- dals, entered Germany, and strengthened the wall between the Rhine and Danube (p. 152). He enrolled a large number of Germans as mercenaries in the Roman army, and employed the soldiers in drain- ing swamps and building canals and roads, for which reason he was murdered by them. The prsefectus prsetorio, 282-283. Cams, succeeded. He appointed liis sons Carinus and Numerianus Caesars, and afterwards Augusti, conquered the Sarmatians, and per- 158 Ancient History. A. D. ished (struck by lightning ?) on an expedition against the Persians, alter having captured Ctesiphoii. 284. Numerianus, who had accompanied his father to the East, was murdered by his father-in-law. 284. Carinus, who had remained in the West, fought at first with success against 284-305- Diocletianus, who had been proclaimed imperator by the soldiers. Carinus was ultimately murdered by his own troops. Diocletian, who created an oriental court at Nicomedia in Bithynia, and thence ruled the East, entrusted the administration of affairs in the 285. West to the brave Maximianus, as his co-regent or Augustus, who took up his residence for the most part in Mediolanum (Milan). 292. Diocletian appointed two more Ccesars : 1. Constantius Chlorus, who was obliged to divorce his wife Helena and marry the step-daughter of Maximianus, received the government of Gaul, Britain, and Spain, and dwelt commonly in Augusta Trevirorum (Trier), while Maximianus was appointed to the government of Italy and Africa. 2. Galerius, who became l)iocletian's son-in-law, and received the government of Illyri- cum, including Macedonia and Greece. 296. Diocletian subdued the revolt of Egypt. Constantius sup- pressed a revolt in Britain. Galerius fought against the Persians, unsuccessfully in the first year, but in the second (297) he gained an important victory, and extended the frontiers to tne Tigris again. Maximianus suppressed an insurrection in Africa. Gen- ii tantius defeated the Alamanni. 303. General persecution of the Christians, which Constantius discouraged in his province. 305. Diocletian abdicated and retired to Salonce in Dalmatia, after he had obliged Maximianus also to resign his dignity. Constantius and Galerius were raised to Augusti. At the desire of Galerius, the claims of Constantinus, son of Constantius, and of Maxentius, son of Maximianus, being passed over, Severus and Maximinus were appointed Csesars, the first receiv- ing Italy and Africa, the second Syria and Egypt. 306. After the death of Constantius in Britain, his son (by Helena), Coiistaiitine, assumed the administration of his father's prov- inces, Gaul, Spain, and Britain, with the title of Cresar. He fought successfully with the Franks and Bructeri. Meanwhile the prsetorians at Rome chose Maxentius imperator, where- upon his father, Maximianus, reassumed the dignity he had unwillingly resigned. The empire had thus six rulers, three Augusti and three Ca3sars. 307. The Csesar Severus, having been created Augustus by Gale- rius, went to Italy to attack Maxentius, but was deserted by his soldiers and put to death at Ravenna. Galerius appointed Licin- A. D. Roman History. 159 ius co-regent and Augustus in his stead, and Constantine therefore assumed the same title, so that there were now six Augusti in the empire. 310. In the struggle that followed, the aged Maximianus was cap tured in Massilia and put to death by command of Constantino Galerius died of disease (311). War between Maxentius and Constantine. The latter issued edicts in favor of the Christians. Maxentius was defeated at Turin 312. and at Saxa rubra, four miles from Rome, by Constantine (Hoc signo vinces /), and perished by drowning as he attempted to cross the Tiber. Constantine became the protector of the Christians, but re- mained up to his death a catechumen. 313. Alliance between Constantine and Licinius, who married Constantine's sister. Constantine took the field against the Franks, Licinius against Maximinus, who was defeated, and killed himself in Tarsus ; so that now 313-323. Constantine and Licinius were the only rulers in the empire, the former in the West, the latter in the East. In 314r however, they were embroiled in conflict. Licinius, defeated in two encounters, was obliged to cede Illyricum, Macedonia, and Achaia to Constantine. 323. Second war between Constantine and Licinius. The latter, de- feated at Adrianople and Chalcedon, surrendered in Nicomedia, and was executed (324) by Constantine's command. 323-337- Constantine (the Great) sole ruler. Christianity recognized by the State and favored at tho expense of paganism. 325. First general (cecumenic) Council of the Church at Nicaea, in Bithynia. Arianism, i. e. the doctrine of Arius ( 'Apetos), formerly a presbyter in Alexandria, according to which Christ was not of the same nature, but of like nature only (6/Aotoiknos), with God the Father, was rejected, and the doctrine of Athanasius of Alexandria, according to which Christ was of the same nature (o/xoouo-tos, consub- stanlialis) with God the Father, was declared a dogma of the Church by the Symbolum Niccenum. 330. Constantine selected Byzantium (Nova Roma, Constantino- polis) for the capital. The empire was redistricted. The four great prefectures, Oriens, lllyricum orientate, Italia, Gallia, were divided into 13 dioceses, these into 116 provinces.1 New hierarchy of officials, 7 superior court offices. Council of state (consistorium prin- cipis). New arrangement of the taxes. Cruelty of Constantine in his family. His eldest son, Crispus, and one of his nephews executed through the plots of .his wife, Fausta, who was herself put to death. Constantine, before his death, divided the administration of the empire among his three sons as Augusti, and two nephews as Caesars. After his death, in Bithynia, the two Caesars were put to death by Constantius. The three sons of Constantine redivided the empire at Constantinople. i Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. XII. 160 Ancient History. A. D. 337-340. Constantinus II. received the West (the prefec- tures of Italia, Gallia, and a part of Africa). 337-361- Constantius received the East, the prefecture Oriens. 337-350. Constans received the prefectures of Illyricum orientale and a part of Africa. Constantius carried on a long and indecisive war with the Persians. Constantinus II. attacked his brother Constans, and fell at Aquileia. In 350 Constans also died, so that Constantius, after the conquest of the usurper Magnentius (353), again united the whole empire. Julianus, a cousin of the emperor, who was appointed Csesar, fought success- fully with the Alamanni and Ripuarian Franks, and assigned the Salian Franks lands in northern Gaul. Constantius died on an expe- dition against 361-363. Julianus, who had been proclaimed Augustus by the legions. He is known as the apostate (apostatd), because he was an adherent of the heathen philosophy and abandoned Christianity, hoping to bring about a reaction in favor of the heathen cult, which he wished restored in a purified form. Julianus defeated the Alamanni and the Franks, re- stored the fortresses which had been erected against them along the frontier, and defeated the Persians at Ctesiphon, but died of a wound on his return. The soldiers raised the Christian 363-364. Jovianus, to the throne. He ceded the greater part of Mesopotamia to the Persians. Christianity reinstated in the privileges which Con- stantine had granted. After the sudden death of Jovianus the legions raised 364-375. Valentinianus I. to the throne. He appointed as co-regent first his brother, 364-378. Valens, an Arian, who governed the East from Constantinople, and afterwards, for the West, his son, 367-383. Gratianus, who, upon his father's death, acknowledged as co-regent for the administration of the West his four-year-old half-brother, 375-392. Valentinian II., who had been proclaimed imperator by the soldiers. 375- Beginning of the migrations of the Teutonic tribes (p. 170). 378. After the death of Valens at Adrianople in battle against the West Goths, Gratianus created the heathen A. D. Roman History. 161 379-395. Theodosius co-regent, and entrusted him with the administration of the East. Theodosius became a Christian after his recovery from a severe illness, fought successfully against the West Goths, but was obliged to accept them as allies (foederati) in their abodes in Mcesia and Thrace. Gratianus fell in battle against the imperator proclaimed by the legions in Britain, 383-388. Clemens Maximus, whom Theodosius recognized as co-regent under the condition that he should leave Italy in the hands of the young Valentinian II. In 387 Maximus drove Valentinian from Italy. He fled to Theodo- sius, who, returning with him, captured Clemens Maximus at Aqui- leia, and executed him. 390. Insurrection in Thessalonica, cruelly punished by Theodosius (7000 executions). On this account bishop Ambrosius of Milan, eight months later, excluded the emperor from Christian com- munion, until he had done penance. 392. After the murder of Valentinian II. by Arbogastes, and after the new imperator, Eugenius, whom Arbogastes set up, had 394. fallen at Aquileia in battle with Theodosius, and Arbogastes had put himself to death, the whole empire was, for the last time, reunited under 394-395. Theodosius, After his death the division of administration into an eastern and a western section, which had existed for a hundred years, became a permanent division of the empire. 395-1453. Arcadius received the Eastern empire, also called the Byzantine or Grecian empire. Imperial vicar, Rujinus. Capital Byzantium or Constantinople. The 395-476. Western empire, capital Rome, Ravenna im- perial residence after 402, under 395-423. Honorius. Guardian and chancellor, the Vandal Stilicho, murdered in 408 by command of Honorius to whom he had been defamed. After the death of Honorius the usurper 424. Joannes reigned for a short time, but was finally over- thrown with the assistance of the Eastern empire and the six- year-old 425-455. Valentinian III. made imperator, the government being conducted at first by his mother Placida, sister of Honorius, in his name. Valen- tinian was murdered by 455. Petronius Maximus, who married Eudoxia, widow of Valentinian, but was killed shortly before the capture of Rome by the Vandals (p. 173). 162 Ancient History. A. D. The throne was usurped by 455-556. Avitus who was soon deposed by Recimir, a military leader of the German mercenaries in the Roman army. Recimir placed upon the throne 457-461. Majorianus, whom he afterwards deposed in favor of 461-465. Libius Severus, after whose deposition (?) 465-467. Recimir conducted the government without the pretence of an imperial figure-head until 467 when he placed 467-472. Anthemius upon the throne, who was succeeded by 472. Olybrius. Recimir and his sovereign dying this year, the Eastern court interposed and placed 473. Glycerius on the throne of the West, who was succeeded by 473-475. Julius Nepos, also by appointment of the emperor of the East. In 475 Orestes, a leader among the mercenaries, placed his son 475-476. Romulus Augustulus upon the throne, who, combining in his name that of Rome's first king and first emperor, became the last of the imperial line in the West, being deposed by 476. Odovaker (Odoacer), military leader of the Heruli and Rugii, who made himself ruler (not king) of Italy, and was recognized by the Eastern emperor Zeno as patricius of Rome and prefect of Italy (p. 173). § 4. TEUTONS. Aryan. Geography: The Teutonic race has occupied three regions in Europe. I. Germany comprises Central Europe, the slope from the Alps N. to the sea. It may be roughly bounded as follows : N. German Ocean, Baltic • E. a vague line indicated by the Vistula, and the Car- pathian Mts. • S. the Alps • W. the Rhine. This region falls into three physical divisions : 1. The broad and lofty chain of the Alps divided into the Swiss Alps on the W. and the Tyrolese Alps on the E., whose deep valleys fostered the rise of small independent communities (p. 245 ). Mont Blanc (14,748 ft.), Monte Rosa, Jungfrau, etc., Lake Geneva, Lake Constance, Lake of Lucerne ( Vierwaldstattesee), etc. 2. A broad upland extending two thirds of the way from the Alps to the sea, and embracing the present Wurtemberg, Bavaria, Bohemia, Sax- B. c.-A. D. Teutons. 163 ony, Saxon duchies, Hesse, etc. 3. A low plain reaching to the sea, and including the present Holland, Hanover, Prussia, etc. Modern Germany comprises 2 and 3. The peninsula of Denmark has belonged, in historic times, politically to Scandinavia and Germany. Through the middle of Germany a range of low mountains extends from S.E. to N.W. from the Jura in France to the Carpathians in Hungary. This range, known to the Romans as Hercynia silva, in- cludes the Jura, Vosges, Schwarzwald (Black Forest) Taunus, Thuringer Wald, Erz Gebirge, Riesen Gebirge, Sudetes, and forms an arc whose convex side is turned toward the W. and N. The valley of the Dan- ube S. of this range, and the depression on its northern base extend- ing from the Lahu to the middle Elbe (the old commercial route be- tween Frankfort o. M. and Leipsic), are the two natural roads which give the East access to western Europe. Other mountain groups : Bohemian Forest, forming the S.E. border of Bohemia, Harz, N. of the Frankfort road. Rivers : S. the Danube, flowing into the Black Sea ; N. the Rhine, with its branches NecTcar, Main, etc., Ems, Weser, Elbe, flowing into the German Ocean ; Oder, Vistula flowing into the Baltic. The Roman provinces Rcetia, Vindelicia, Noricum, Pannonia, occu- pied the Alps and the southern bank of the Danube. Germania superior and inferior were Gallic provinces on the left bank of the Upper and Lower Rhine. To Germany proper, which was never a province of the empire, the Romans applied the name, Germania magna. II. Scandinavia, the great peninsula jutting W. and S. from the north of Europe. It falls into two divisions : 1. A rugged, moun- tainous region on the W., with deeply indented coasts (Norway). 2. On the E. a less mountainous region with numerous rivers flowing into the Baltic and the Gulf of Bothnia (Sweden). The southern part of Scandinavia was known to the Romans under the name Scandia, and was thought to be an island. III. The British Isles. See pp. 36 and 176. Ethnology : I. According to the theory of the Asiatic origin of the Aryans, the Teutonic migration followed the Celtic and preceded that of the Slavs. The Teutons, or Germans, appear to have taken the northern route and to have first settled along the coast, on the plain, and in the northern portion of the plateau. The valley of the Danube and Bohemia were early occupied by Celtic tribes, and it was only gradually that these were dispossessed by the invading Ger- mans. Whether the Teutons entered Germany in two bands, is not clear ; certain it is that from .a very early time a radical difference has existed in language and customs among the Germans, whereby they are divided into High Germans, inhabiting the inland plateau, and Low Germans, dwelling on the coast. The Romans divided the Germans (Germani)1 either into two sec- tions, the Suevi and the non-Suevi (Csesar), or into three branches which were named after the sons of " Mannus, the son of the earth-born god Tuisco," Istcevones, Ingcevones, Herminones. The former division 1 The orierin of this name is doubtful. See the disputed passage in Tacitus, Germania, 2. 1 G4 Ancient History. B. c.-A. D. is thought to correspond to that of High (Suevi) and Low Germans ; the latter answers territorially to the fusions of tribes which later formed the Franks, Saxons, and Thuringians. Of the separate tribes may be mentioned: I. Non-Suevi: Istsevones, UbiL Usipii, Tencterii, Sugambri, Marsi, on the right bank of the Rhine where we find later the Alamanni and Ripuarian Franks ; Ingsevones, Batavians, Fri'- sians, Saxons, Chauci, Cimbri, along the coast from the Rhine to the right bank of the Elbe. II. Suevi, Chatti, in Hecsen, Cherusci on the Upper Weser, Hermunduri in Thuringia, extending as far as the Danube (these three were included under the Herminones), Marc- omanni in Bohemia (see below), Quadi on the Danube, Semnones, the centre of what seems to have been a very loose political organization of the Suevi, between the Elbe and Oder, Langobardi, Rugii in the northeast toward the Vistula, Burgundiones on the Oder, Guttones (later Goths) extending beyond the Vistula, Vandali, Alani (?). In Denmark dwelt the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes, until the fifth century A. D., when a large part of these tribes migrated to England, and their place was taken by Danes from the islands on the E. II. Scandinavia was occupied by Finnish tribes (Sltones), from the N., and by invading Germans from the S. at an unknown time : Gautce (Goths), Sueones (Swedes) in Sweden ; Northmen in Norway. III. British Isles. See pp. 36 and 176. Religion : The religion of the Teutonic race was a pantheistic nature worship. I. Germans : Beyond the unsatisfactory passages in Caesar (Bell. Gall. VI. 21) and Tacitus (Germania 9, 10, etc.), all our knowledge of the ancient religion of the Germans before the introduction of Roman civilization and of Christianity is derived by inference from later sources, or from the younger but much fuller mythology of Scandinavia. Among the great gods (A sis) of the Germans were: Woden (Odin in the north), the "all-father"; Donar (Thor), his son, at once the storm-god, and the god of agri- culture ; Zio or Thiu (Tyr) also a son of Woden, god of war ; Pro (Freyr}, god of love ; Paltar (Baldur), god of justice ; Nerthus or Hertlia (Frau Bertha), the earth ; Frauwa (Freya), sister of Fro ; Friga (Fria}, wife of Woden ; Helia (Hel) goddess of the lower r2gions. Below the Ases were the Giants, the Nornes or fates, the Walkyres or messengers of the gods. In the realm of lower mythology the German imagination was remarkably fertile. Fairies, cobolds, elves, nixes, abounded, and still live in childrens' tales, and the many popular fancies which the modern study of folk lore has revealed. The Germans had no corporation of priests like that of the Druids, though the priests and priestesses of certain divinities stood in high honor. Their worship consisted in the repetition of formal invocations, and in the offering of sacrifices, prisoners being often immolated to the gods. Woods and trees were held in special reverence and often devoted to the performance of worship beneath their branches. Cer- tain days were set apart for the worship of certain deities, whose names have come down to us in the names of the days of the week. Tuesday (Thiu'sdag), Wednesday (Woden'sdag), Thursday (Thor's- dag, Donnerstag), Friday (Freya'sdag). Some of the customs of B. c.-A. D. Teutons. 165 these recurring festivities were afterwards impressed into the service of Christianity. Such was the decoration of trees with flower- wreaths and candles, now a part of Christmas rites,1 and such the colored eggs in a " hare's iiest," now an Easter custom, but originally an offering to some heathen divinity. Divinations by flight of birds, neighing of horses, throwing sticks, etc. li. Scandinavia : The faith of the northern Teutons was one of the most remarkable of the heathen religions, and one of the last in Europe to yield to Christianity. After being long transmitted by hearsay the northern mythology was first committed to writing in the poem of the Elder Edda in the twelfth, or as some scholars Lold, in the thirteenth century. The poem is supplemented by the com- mentary known as the Younger Edda, written by Snorri feturluson (1178-1C41). In the beginning existed the All-Father. In chaos (Ginungagap) he created two worlds, Niflheim, the ice-worM, in the north, and Muspelheim, the fire-world, where sat Surt with the flaming sword, in the south. Midway of the two their opposing influences produced the giant Ymer, who became the progenitor of the evil race of frost- giants (Hrymihurses). Ymer was fed by the milk of the cow Aud- humbra, who licked the ice-blocks and set free the god Bure, to whom a giant's daughter bore three sons, Odin, Vile, and Ve. These three slew Ymer, in the deluge of whose blood perished all the frost-giants, save two, who became the ancestors of a new race of frost-giants. Of the body of Ymer the gods formed the universe, the earth, the sky and the stars. Dwarfs were the earliest inhabitants of the earth, sifter- wards the first man and woman were created from two trees. The universe thus formed comprised nine worlds. Of these the highest was Muspelheim, in whose highest part was Gimle, the abode of the blest. Below Muspelheim was Asaheim, or Godheim, where dwelt the great gods (Asa) in their capital, Asgard, with its lofty halls, the fairest of which was Valhal, the hall of Odin. Below Godheim was Mannaheim, or Midgard, the earth, a disk of land sur- rounded by the ocean and held together by the Midgard-serpent which lay at the bottom of the ocean, its tail between its jaws. Across the ocean was Jotunheim, the world of the giants, whose one purpose was the annoyance of mankind, on which account they were perpetually at war with man's defenders, the gods of Godheim. Be- low the earth was Helheim, the world of the dead, and, lowest of all, Niflheim, with the fountain Hvergdmer. Bifroust, the bridge between Godheim and Mannaheim. G jailor-bridge between Helheim, Jotun- heim and the worlds above. These worlds were, in the fancy of the north, surrounded and united by a mighty ash-tree, Yggdrasil, with three roots reaching to Godheim, Jotunheim, and Niflheim. The great gods were Odin and his sons : Thor, Vali, Haimdall, Vidar, Baldur, Braga, Tyr, Hodur, besides Aller, Forsete, and Njord, 1 Tn Germany the tree is simply decorated, the presents to be exchanged are piled around the support of the tree or placed on an adjacent table. The ex- change of gifts was not a part of the old German custom, but is perhaps a sur- vival of a practice observed by the Romans during the Saturnalia (p. 85). 166 Ancient History. B. c.-A. D. Freyr, sea gods, and Lake. Of the goddesses the chief were Frigga, wife of Odin, Freyja, goddess of love, Saga, goddess of history. Above all the gods were the Nornes, or fates. Below the gods were elves, trolls, witches, etc. Exploits of the gods. Especially famous were the dealings of Thor with the giants. After the creation fol- lowed a golden age when all was well in Godheim, but after a time evil crept in personified as Loke. Death of Baldur, killed through the contrivance of Loke by his brother Hodur with a sprig of mistle- toe, Frigga having bound all other created things not to hurt Baldur. Lake's children were the Fenris-wolf, chained until the coming of Ragnarok, the Midgard-serpent, and Hel. Binding of Loke. Finally comes the end of the world, Ragnarok, the Twilight of the Gods. Battle of the Asa-gods with the Midgard-serpent, Loke, and the Fenris-wolf, who have broken their chains. The good and the bad alike perish in the combat. Surt consumes Yggdrasil and the whole world in flames. Vidar, Vale, Hodur, Baldur, and the sons of Thor survive. A new earth and a new heaven are created. According to the belief of the Northmen, all good men and all who died in battle crossed over the bridge Bifroust (the rainbow) to Valhal, where they spent their days feasting and fighting, until Ragnarok when they passed to Gimle. Cowards and evil-doers were punished in Helheim, and after Ragnarok in Naostrand.1 Civilization : It is probable that the Germans had not completed the transition from a pastoral to an agricultural people, when they arrived in central Europe. They were certainly in a low stage of civilization when they became known to the Romans, a stage riot un- like that reached by the most advanced of the American Indians, the Iroquois. Cities were unknown to them ; they seem to have settled for the most part each individual apart, each tribe separated from the other by a broad strip of mark-land.2 Orders : 1. Nobles, who derived their descent from the gods, but were entitled to no political privileges because of their nobility. 2. Freemen, that is, land-owners, men born to arms, the work upon whose land was done by their bondmen; out of this class developed later the lower nobility. 3. Freedmen (liti, lassen), or half -freemen, renters bound to military service, but excluded from the ownership of land, from the popular assembly, and from the courts. 4. Servants or bondmen, in part serfs bound to the soil (glebce adscripti), in part actual slaves. The latter two classes formed the majority of the population. Custom of comradeship (gasindi leudes}, out of which the feudal system developed after the occupation of the Roman provinces and the division of land among the faithful (fideles), and under the in- fluence of the Christian religion. Feudal superior (suzerain). Vas- sen, vassals, or men • fief (feudum or benejicium), held on tenure of service, distinct from allodium, property in fee simple. 1 The relation of these myths to Christianity, the extent to which they have been influenced by acquaintance with the Scriptures, is a subject of active in- quiry, but nothing can as yet be said to be definitely determined. See Bugge, Ent'stehung der Nordischen Goiter. 2 Whoever desires to become involved in that most hopeless of all historical questions, the social and political organization of the ancient Germans, is re. ferred to Waitz, Verfassunysytschichtt, where references will be found. B. c.-A. D. Teutons. 167 History : I. The date of the first arrival of Teutons in Europe is wholly unknown. Pytheas of Massalia, who visited the amber coasts of the Baltic about 350 B. c., met with German tribes. From that time on only the bare introduction of the word Germani in the Roman annals for 225 B. c. hints at any knowledge of the Teutons until the close of the second century B. c., when the tribes of the Cimbri and Teutones left their homes at the base of the Danish peninsula (driven from them by a flood?) and, after humiliating the Roman arms in Gaul, found their death on the fields of Aquae Sextiae and Vercellae (102, 101, B. c., p. 127). The terrors of the invasion died away, but the Romans did not come again into contact with the Germans until Caesar's invasion of Gaul brought on a contest with the Suevian prince Ariovistus which ended in the latter's defeat (58 B. c.). Sub- jugation of the Germans on the left bank of the Rhine. Caesar's two expeditions across the Rhine (58, 55, p. 139). Under Augustus, systematic attempt to subjugate Germania magna. Conquest of Rcetia and Noricum by Drusus (15), of Pannonia and Vindelicia. Expeditions of Drusus from the Rhine : 1. With the fleet on the Ems (12) ; 2. Against the Cherusci on the Weser, foun- dation of the citadel Aliso (11) ; 3. Along the Main to the Werra and Elbe (9). Legend of the "white woman." Death of Drusus. His successor Tiberius, reduced all the tribes between the Rhine and the Elbe to submission and began the active construction of fortresses and colonies. The folly of Tiberius' successor, Varus, alienated the Germans and led to revolt. Under Arminius, one of the nobles of the Cherusci, three Roman legions were annihilated in the three days' battle in the Teutoburg Forest l (9 A. D. ?). Augustus gave up the hope of subjugating the Germans, and later emperors did not revive it. Expeditions of Germanicus in revenge for the Teutoburg massacre, 14, 15, 16. Thenceforward the Romans were contented with maintain- ing their borders ag-ainst the free tribes, and with colonizing the land south of the Mam and the Danube. Line of fortifications from Aschqffenburg, on the Main, to Regensburg, on the Danube (Pfahl- graben, Teufelsmauer). Along this line Roman soldiers were settled on land for the rent of which they paid a tenth of the produce, hence agri decumates. Foundation of colonies : Curia Rretorum (Clmr) in Rretia ; Juvenum (Salsburg) in Noricum ; Vindobonum (Vienna) in Pannonia ; Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg), Castra regina (Re- gensburg) in Vindelicia. Active intercourse between Rome and Ger- many. Germans served both as privates and as officers in the Roman army (so Arminius). Traffic in amber. Of the internal affairs of the free Germans we are but scantily informed. In the first century B. c. a portion of the Hprmunduri, the Marcomanni, had invaded Bohemia) driven out the Celtic Boii (who took refuge in Pannonia, where they were gradually exterminated by the Roman arms) and established a state which, under Marbod (Maroboduus), grew to formidable proportions. Intended expedi- tion of Tiberivis against Marbod frustrated by the Paiinoiiian revolt (8). Feuds between the German tribes fostered by the Romans, Arminius expelled Marbod from his kingdom, but was himself man 1 The locality has not been satisfactorily made out. 168 Ancient History. B. c.-A. D. dered under suspicion of aiming at supreme power. The Cherusci, Hermunduri and Bructeri were nearly exterminated in internecine strife. Revolt of the Batavians under Civilis (p. 151). War of Marcus Aurelius with the Marcomanni (p. 154). In process of time a change came over the political organization of the Germans. The multitude of small tribes disappeared and we find in their stead a smaller number of more extensive tribes. At the same time the Slavs began to press upon the eastern Germans and urge them westward. Tne Germans increased in power and popula- tion, and became better and better trained in the arts of war and political intrigue as they came more and more into intimate connec- tion with Rome. The provincial armies were largely German ; Ger- man officers rose to high distinction and great influence in Rome- So Rome grew weaker and her foes stronger until at last the im- pulse of the invading Huns in the east set all the tribes in motion. II. Scandinavia : Northern annalists present an historical Odin, probably no less mythical than Odin the god. According to these tales (which, like some other mythical history, may have greater his- torical value than the present credits them with), Odin was the leader of the Asas who dwelt in Asia between the Black Sea and the Caspian. Attracted to the falling fortunes of Mithridates, he was driven from his kingdom by Pompeius. He conducted the Asas westward to Scandinavia where he subdued Denmark, Sweden and Norway, and gave these countries to his sons ; Denmark to Skjold, Sweden to Yngave, Norway to Seeming. Odin ended his days in Sweden. The history of Scandinavia as far as ascertained belongs to the next period, and will be found on page 207. III. British Isles. For the history of the Teutonic invasion of England see p. 176. § 5. SLAYS AND LITHUANIANS. Aryan. These closely related peoples belong to the northern branch of the European Aryans, and their westward migration followed that of the Teutons. The Slavs were known to the late Roman geographers under the name Venedce (hence Wends) as inhabiting the region beyond the Vistula, which bore the general name of Sarmatia, from the nomadic Sarmatians who inhabited it, interspersed with the Slavs, from whom they differed in language and descent. In the fifth century A. D. the Slavs occupied the country between the Baltic and the Black Sea, between the Carpathians and the Don. They dwelt in the steppes of Russia as far north as Novgorod on the Volga, and their westernmost limit lay between the Vistula and the Oder. In the sixth century the Slavs began to extend them • selves south and west, a movement which resulted in the permanent occupation of Bohemia and of the Balkan peninsula, while their settlement extended east to Tyrol. In 623 A. D. temporary formation of a Slavic monarchy of great extent under Samo in Bohemia, which endured thirty-five years. The conquests of the Slavs came to an end with the seventh century, and the separate kingdoms of Poland, Bohemia, Russia, were gradually formed. A. D. Slavs and Lithuanians. 169 Of the religion of the Slavs little is known with certainty, owing to the diversity of nomenclature among the various divisions of this wide-spread people, and to the lack of trustworthy authorities. Among the Slavs of the Baltic, who had a class of priests and built temples, occur the names Svatovit or Svantovit, god of light or of the air, with a temple at Arkona ; Triglath, the three-headed god, worshipped in Pomerania (Stettin) ; Radigost, Rugevit or Ranovit (in Rugeu), Jarouit, all gods of war ; Zcerneboh, " the black god," an evil deity. The Russians worshipped Khors, Volos, or Veles, god of the herds (St. Blaise) ; Koupalo, god of the harvest ; Jaryln, god of generation ; Stribog, god of the winds ; Lada, goddess of love and passion. The gods were worshipped by offerings of fruit and animals, seldom by human sacrifices. The Slavs were a pastoral and agricultural people. All inhab- itants of the same district were kinsmen, bearing a common name, liv- ing under the rule of an elected elder, and holding property in com- mon. A union of such districts formed a tribe ; a union of tribes formed a people. The Lithuanians play no part in history before the thirteenth century. In the wider sense the name includes the Letts and the ancient Prussians, who were known to the Romans as jEstui. In the narrower sense it is limited to the inhabitants of the region between the Meinel and the Finnish Esthoniaus. II. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. FIRST PERIOD. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE MIGRATIONS OF THE NORTHERN TRIBES TO THE TREATY OF VERDUN1 (375-843). § 1. MIGRATIONS OF THE NORTHERN PEOPLES. Habitations of the Germanic tribes in the fourth century A. D. Alani, whose German descent is, however, not certain, on the lower Volga ; East Goths in southern Russia ; West Goths in Dacia (eastern Hungary, Roumania) ; Vandals in Pannonia (southwestern Hungary) ; Suevi in Moravia, Bohemia, and Bavaria; Burgundians on the Neckar and the Rhine, with Worms as their capital (compare p. 164); Ala- manni (or Alemanni) on the Rhine, between the Main and the Alps, partly along the Roman boundary wall (agri decumates) ; Ripuarian Franks on both sides of the lower Rhine (capital at Colonia Agrip- pina) ; Salic Franks on the mouths of the Rhine (in Meergau, "dis- trict on the sea," the Meruwe, hence Merowingians ;) 2 Saxons from the Elbe almost to the Rhine ; Thuringians south of the Saxons ; Lan- gobards on the lower Elbe. The peoples which appear in the so-called migrations of the peoples were generally heterogeneous armed bands under the command of a leader or king chosen for his military prowess (Heerkonig). 375. Beginning of the migration of the Teutonic tribes. Period of migrations and invasions. The Huns, a Mongolian race, crossed the Volga. The Huns, joined by the Alani, whom they had defeated, fell upon the East Goths (king Ermanaric or Hermanric, of the family of the Amali), and, in union with these, upon the West Goths. That part of the West Gothic race which had remained heathen took refuge in the Carpathians ; the Christians,3 and those who 1 Assmann, Geschichte des Mittelalters. 2d edition, by E. Meyer. 2 According to other scholars the name was a patronymic. 8 A Gothic bishop (Theophilus) took part in the council of Nicsea (325). Wulfila (Ulfilas), bishop of the West Goths (348-381), translator of the Bible; cf. Dahn, Die Koniye der Germanen, VI. 41. A. D. Migrations of the Northern Peoples. 171 were just on the point of accepting Christianity (in the form of Arianism), were allotted habitations in Mcesia by the em- peror Valens. Disputes with the Roman officials at the pas- sage of the Danube (Fridigern, leader of the West Goths) led to war, and the Goths advanced, ravaging as they went. 378. Battle of Adrianople. Valens defeated and slain. His successor, Theodosius, made peace with the West Goths, who, for pay and the gift of a dwelling-place, were to protect the frontiers of the Roman Empire asfcederati. Alaric, leader of the West Goths, belonging to the family of the Balthi (i. e. " bold ") enraged at not receiving pay from Arcadius, laid waste Macedonia, Illyria, and Greece (395), and advanced into Pelo- ponnesus. Stilicho, magister utriusque militice of the Western Empire (p. 161), came to the assistance of the Eastern court. Landing with an army at Corinth he surrounded the West Goths, but allowed them to escape. Alaric went to Illyria, and compelled the court at Byzan- tium to recognize him as dux in lllyricum orientale. 401. Alaric's first invasion of Italy. After a victory at Aquileia he crossed the Po. Stilicho hastened from Rfetia to meet him. 402. Drawn battle at Pollentia. Alaric made another attempt to advance southward, but was compelled to return to Illyria by disease, hunger, and desertion. 404-406. German bands under Radagais invaded Italy, but were defeated by Stilicho at Fcesulce, and annihilated by continued fighting and by hunger. 406-409 Bands of Vandals, Suevi, and Alani left the regions along the Danube, crossed the Rhine, sustained great loss in contests with the Franks, and finally (409) invaded Spain. Foundation of Teutonic monarchies in Roman territory. The Salian Pranks gradually occupied northern Gaul. The Burgundians settled (406-413) on the middle Rhine ( Worms). 408. Stilicho murdered by the command of the emperor Honorius (p. 161). Alaric's second invasion of Italy. He besieged Rome, but retired on receipt of a ransom. The court at Ravenna refusing to grant Alaric's request that the Goths should be assigned lands for a per- manent settlement in northern Italy, Alaric again advanced upon Rome, and forced the senate to .appoint Attains, prefect of the city, emperor. Alaric besieged Honorius in Ravenna without success, quarrelled with Attains, whom he deposed, and advanced for the third time upon Rome. 410. Capture and sack of Rome by Alaric. Alaric went to Lower Italy with the intention of crossing to Sicily, and thence to Africa, but died at the close of 410, at Cosenza, and was buried beneath the Busento. 410-415. Athaulf, brother of Alaric's wife, led the West Goths to Gaul, though whether in fulfilment of a treaty with Honorius 172 Mediaeval History. A. D. to resist the Romans, who had forced their way into the province, or of his own accord, is uncertain. He carried with him trie sister of Honoring, who was detained as a hostage in the Gothic camp, and mar- ried her in Narbonne (414). The proposed treaty with the imperial court was not, however, concluded. Athaulf, hard pressed by the im- perial general Constantius, went to Spain, conquered Barcelona, and was murdered (415). After the murder of his successor, Sigric, 415-419. Walja became king of the West Goths. He concluded a treaty with Honorius, and fought for Rome against Vandals, Alani, and Suevi. He received a grant of southern Gaul under Roman supremacy. Walja was the founder of the 415-507. West Gothic (Visigothic) kingdom of To- losa, with its capital at ToLusa (Toulouse), which soon lecame independent.1 429. King Genseric (Geiseric) conducted the Vandals and a portion of the Alani to Africa, at the invitation, as the story goes,'2 of the Roman governor Bonifacius. The latter was slandered at court by Aetius, and accused of treason, but, making his peace with Placidia, the mother and guardian of the Emperor Valen- tinian III., he fought unsuccessfully against Genseric, who, after a short peace with the Romans (435), conquered Car- thage (439). 429-534. Kingdom of the Vandals in Africa. Capital, Carthage (S. Augustinus, bishop of Hippo Regius f430). 440. The Vandals, having created a great naval power, plundered the coasts of Sicily and lower Italy, by their fleets. 443. The Burgundians settled on the upper Rhone and on the Saone ; the Alamanni extended themselves over the Roman province of Germania superior (hence called Alsace), and also occupied a part of Switzerland, east of the Burgundian territory. 449. The Angles and Saxons, long known as pirates along the coasts of the German Oc3an, and having settlements on the coast of Flanders (litus Saxonicum8), were called in by the Brit- ons, after the withdrawal of the Roman legions from Britain, to assist them in repelling the robber tribes of the north- ern mountains, the Picts and Scots. The Saxons and Angles crossed to Britain (according to tradition, the first bands were led by Hengist and Horsa), and founded in the course of time 8 states : Kent, Sussex, Wes&ex, Essex, East Anglia, Mercia, Deira, Bernicia. The last two were later united to form Northumbria (north of the Humber); hence the number of states was then 7 (heptarchy). The Britons for the most part migrated to Wales, and to Ar- morica in Gaul, which was hence called Bretagne (Brittany). For the details of the settlements, see p. 176. 1 Cf. Dahn, Die Konige der Germanen, Pt. V. 2 Tliis is denied by the more receut authorities. « See, however, p. 38. A. D. Migrations of the Northern Peoples. 1 73 451. Attila (Etzel, " Scourge of God "), king of the Huns (in his train armed bands of Germanic peoples, whom he had sub- jected, East Goths, Gepidce, etc.), invaded and ravaged Gaul. He besieged Orleans in vain. Battle on the Catalaunian fields (near Chdlons-sur-Marne: the battle-field itself was at Troyes}. Attila defeated by Aetius, the Roman governor of the small district around Lutetia, which alone remained in possession of the Romans, and the West Goths (with the aid of auxiliaries from the Franks, Burgundians, etc.). Theodoric /., king of the West Goths, fell in the battle. 452. Attila went to Italy, destroyed Aquileia. Venice founded by Italian fugitives. Rome saved by Bishop Leo (.'). After the death of Attila (453) the monarchy of the Huns fell asunder. Not only the German tribes which had been subjugated by the Huns became free (the Gepidce were the first to shake olf the yoke) ; the Slavic peoples also regained their liberty. During the following centuries these latter tribes extended themselves throughout the east- ern parts of Germany. 455. Rome, after the murder of Valentinian III., by Maximus, plundered for 14 days by the Vandals, who had been called in by Eudoxia, widow of Valentinian. The Vandals controlled the entire northern coast of Africa as far as Gyrene, and the islands of the western Mediterranean. 476. Odovakar (Odoacer), leader of Herulian and other German bands in the pay of Rome, became ruler in Italy, after the deposition of the last emperor of the West (p. 162). There was no conquest of the western empire by Odovakar, but the line of Emperors in the West came to an end in consequence of domestic revolution, and thereby the last bond was broken which had united the provinces, long since occupied by the barbarians, who, however, had usually nominally recognized the supremacy of the Imperator or Augustus in Ravenna. 486. Battle of Soissons. The Mcrowingian Chlodwig (Chlodowech, Clovis, 481-511), leader of the Salic Franks, defeated the Roman governor Syagrius, the successor of Aetius. Kingdom of the Franks in northern Gaul. Chlodwig by cruelty and deceit made himself sole ruler of all the Franks. 496. Victory of Chlodwig over the Alamanni (not at Tolbiacum or Ziilpich).1 Conversion of Chlodwig and the Franks to Catholic Christianity. Chlodwig baptized by Remigius, 1 Assmann, I. 53. 174 Mediaeval History. A. D. bishop of Rheims (Mitis depone colla Slgamber, adora quod incendisti, incende quod adorasti). 493. Theodoric the Great (493-526), after having de- feated Odovakar, with whom he had been at war since 489, founded the 493-555. Kingdom of the East Goths (Ostrogoths) in Italy. Residence Ravenna, at times Verona, hence in the hero romances : Dietrich von Birn. Cassiodorus, historian. Boethius (de con- solattone philosophies ), and bymmachus, executed (52o). 500. Chlodwig, king of the Franks, attacked the Burgundians, to revenge himself on Gundobad, the uncle of his wife Chlotilde, for the murder of her father, defeated them at Dijon, and made them tributary to the Franks. 507. Chlodwig defeated the West Goths at Vouille, or Voulon,1 on the Clain, a branch of the Vienne, in the vicinity of Poitiers. The West Goths, assisted by the East Goths, defeated the Franks at Aries, and maintained their control of Septimania (the coast be- tween the Rhone and Pyrenees). Theodoric the Great united a part of southern Gaul to the king- dom of the East Goths, and undertook the government of that part which the West Goths retained, as well as of the Spanish possessions of that people, as the guardian of their king, his grandson Ama- laric, a minor (son of Alaric //.), and retained it till his death (526), which first severed the connection of the two Gothic kingdoms. 507 (526)-7H. West Gothic (Visigothic) Kingdom in Spain, with its capital at Toledo. 526. After the death of Theodoric, his daughter Amalasuniha be- came regent in the East Gothic kingdom for her son Aihalaric. The latter died young (534), and his mother associated with herself as co-regent her cousin Theodahad (Theodat), who murdered her, thereby causing 535-555. War between the East Goths and the Eastern Empire. 533-534. Belisarius, general of Justinian, Emperor of the East (527-565), destroyed the Vandal power in Africa. Decay of the kingdom of the Vandals after the death of Genseric (477). Hilderic deposed by Gelimer, whom Beli- sarius captured. Brilliant campaign of Belisarius against Vitiges, king of the 540. East Goths, whom he carried captive to Constantinople. Belisarius, after he had declined the Italian crown, offered him by the East Goths, was dispatched by Justinian against the Persians. During his absence the East Goths, under their new king Totila, reconquered the greater part of Italy. 1 Dahn, Die Konige d. Germ. V. 109. A. D. Migrations of the Northern Peoples 175 544-549. Belisarius, sent again to Italy, fought with varying suc- cess, but with increasing fame, against Totila. He recaptured Rome. After Belisarius had been again recalled, Rome was a second time taken by Totila. 552. Narses, the successor of Belisarius, defeated Totila at Taginaj or Busta Gallorum. Totila fell on the field. 553. The last king of the East Goths, Teja, fell in the battle of Mons lactarius (near Vesuvius). 555. Narses destroyed the kingdom of the East Goths. Ex- archate. 568-774. Kingdom of the Langobards (Lombards) in Italy. Alboin. Alboin, with the help of the Avars (on the lower Danube), de- stroyed the kingdom of the Gepidce and married Rosamunda, the daughter of the king of the Gepidse. At the head of his Lango- bards, with the aid of Saxons and Slavs, he conquered Italy as far south as the Tiber. Capital of the kingdom of the Langobards, Pavia (Papia). The Langobards conquered almost the entire Ex- archate of the Byzantines, who retained only Venice, Ravenna, Naples, and Calabria. Rome (ducatus Romce) became gradually indepen- dent under its bishops. (Patrimonium Pelri.) After Alboin had been murdered by Rosamund, because, as the story goes, he attempted, during a carouse, to force her to drink from her father's skull, his successor Cleph pushed his conquests to lower Italy/ where independent Langobardian duchies, like Bene- ventum, were established. After an interregnum of ten years his son Authari was recognized as king. Through the influence of his wife, Theodelinde, a Bavarian princess, the conversion of the Lango- bards to Christianity was begun. Among the successors of Authari the following deserve mention : Rothari, in whose reign the famous code of laws of the Langobards appeared (644) ; Grimoald, duke of Beneventum, who violently usurped the throne and completed the conversion of the Langobards ; Liutprand (717-744), who made further additions to the code of the Langobards; and Aistulf (750-756), whose attempt to conquer Rome was frustrated by Pipin, king of the Franks (p. 184). 585. Kingdom of the Suevi in Spain united with that of the West Goths, who, like all the barbarians that had adopted Arianism, were converted to the Roman Catholic church (587). 690-601. Gregory I. (the Great), bishop of Rome. Beginning of the Papacy (Papa, non-Tray, i. e. father, formerly the title of every Christian bishop, soon applied exclusively to the succes- sor of St. Peter). 176 Mediceval History. A. D. § 2. TEUTONIC KINGDOMS IN BRITAIN. From the first invasions to the supremacy of Bcgberht 449 (?)-828. Roman Britain. Political divisions: 1. Britannia prima, S. of the Thames and the Severn (Cantii, Regni, Belgse, Atrebates, Durotriges, Dumnonii). 2. Britannia secunda, Wales (Silures, Demetse, Ordo vices). 3. Flama Ccesariensis, between the Thames, Severn, and Humber (Trinobantes, Caytieuchlani, Iceni, Dobuni, Coritavi, Cornavii). 4. Maxima Ccesa- riensis, between the Humber and the Tyne (Parisii, Brigantes). 5. Valentia, between the Tyne and the Forth (Otadeni, Gadeni, Selgovee, Novantse). Fortifications : In the N. wall of Agricola (81) or Lollius Urbi- cus, between the Friths of Forth and Clyde ; wall of Hadrian (122) between the Solway Frith and a point on the opposite coast near New- castle-on-Tyne (replaced in the third century by the wall of Severus). In the S. the strongholds Burgh Castle, Reculver, Richborough, Lym- ne, Pevensey, along the Saxon shore. (Compare the Cinque Ports.) Towns : Camulodunum (Colchester), Glevum (Gloucester), Lin- dum (Lincoln), Deva (Chester), Eburacum (York), Londinium (London). Roads : Wailing Street from Kent to the Forth, Hermin Street from Sussex coast to Humber, Foss Way from Cornwall to Lincoln, Ikenild Street from Caistor to Dorchester.1 The Teutonic Invaders. After the withdrawal of the Roman legions (about 410) the Brit- ons suffered severely from the ravages of the Scots (Irish') on the W. and the Picts (Gaels) on the N., which they resisted unaided for several decades. About the middle of the fifth century the Britons were overwhelmed from another quarter. Bands of Low Germans from the coast of Europe, west of the Baltic, whose piratical expedi- tions had long been the terror of southeastern Britain, began to set- tle in the island and conquer themselves homes and kingdoms. That they came at first to aid the Britons against their other foes is not impossible ; but little faith, however, can be placed in the story of Vortigern and Rowena. The invaders came principally from three Teutonic tribes : Jutes, inhabiting the northern part of Denmark (Jutland) ; Angles or En- gle from modern Schleswig, south of the Jutes; Saxons, a more nu- merous people, living south of Schleswig along the Elbe and westward on the coast. Of the Jutes and Saxons only a portion emigrated; the Angles seem to have gone en masse. Religion : The new settlers were pagans, sharing the faith of the 1 Green. The more usual but incorrect routes assigned these roads are: Watlinq, Kent to Cardigan Bay; Hermin. St. Davids to Southampton; Foss, Cornwall to Lincoln; Ikenild, St. Davids to Tynemouth. See Scarth, Roman Britain, p. 116. A. D. Teutonic Kingdoms in Britain. 177 continental Germans (p. 164). Each man was priest in his household, and political rulers exercised also priestly functions for the regions under their control. Civilization : The invaders were rude warriors, cultivators of the soil, but fond of the hunt and still more fond of war. They settled in villages, the dwellers in each village being kinsmen, who often gave their family name to the place of their abode. In each village all were united by a bond of mutual protection and responsibility. Around the house-lots and garden-plots, which were for the most part practi- cally private property, extended the common land, the " mark," com- prising tilled land, pasture and woodland, which also served to isolate one village from another. The people were divided into four orders: athel, nobles ; ceorl, free landowners ; laets, tenants owing service to their landlords ; slaves, generally captives taken in war. Whether either of the invading tribes were under kings at home is unknown ; their leaders during the invasion were war-chiefs, ealdormen, whose power was frequently prolonged and concentrated by the military ne- cessities of their new conditions, until it became royal and they took the title of king. Each village had its governor and its council, the latter composed of all freemen in the village ; each aggregate of vil- lages (the hundred) had its governor and council ; the aggregate of hundreds which made up the tribe had its king and its great council (witan), which elected the king, generally out of some one noble fam- ily, and was consulted by him. The witan was in theory composed of all freemen in the tribe, but it soon became practically limited to the more wealthy and powerful among them. Each ealdorman, perhaps every man of note, had a personal following of companions (thegns), who had devoted themselves to his service and were supported by him. The development of monarchy caused a corresponding develop- ment of this institution. Powerful men were proud to be thegns of the king, and thus the number and power of the king's military house- hold constantly increased. Jutes (Kent). 449 (?).! Landing of the chiefs Hengist and Horsa in Thanet (then an island). Gradual conquest of the country between the Thames and the Andredsweald (p. 36). East and West Kent. South Saxons (Sussex). 477. jElle, a Saxon ealderman, with his sons Cymen, Wlencing, and Cissa, landed at Cissanceaster and conquered the region S. of the Andredsweald. 491. Storm of Anderida. Massacre of the inhabitants. 1 The date is variouslv given, but 449 is the year most commonly accepted. I have followed throughout the conservative scholars. The ultra-skepticism which would limit our knowledge of the 5th and 6th centuries in Britain to what can be guessed from the condition of things there in the 7th, 8th, and 9th centuries seems to me to be based on hypercriticism. 12 178 Mediaeval History. A. D. West Saxons (Wessex). A more important settlement was that begun by the Saxons, under the ealdormen 495. Cerdic and Cynric, on the southern coast, W. of the Andreds- weald. The formation of the country directed their line of extension W. and N., thus bringing them into contact with the great body of western Cymry. 517. Cerdic and Cyiiric assumed the royal title. At the beginning of the second decade of the sixth century the Saxon advance was so sternly checked that fifty years elapsed before it was again resumed. Battle of Mons Badonicus (520). The Cym- ric traditions of Arthur,1 king of the Silures, to whom this repulse of the pagan invaders is attributed, are probably founded in truth. Cynric (534-556) conquered modern Berkshire. Ceawlin (556- 591 [3]) raised Wessex to such power that later years entitled him the second Bretwalda of Britain (the first being JElls). The meaning of this title is not clear. By the 577. Battle of Deorham Ceawlin extended his power to the Severn and separated the Cymry of Cornwall (Devraint) from those of West Wales. East Saxons (Essex). During the latter half of the fifth century Saxons settled north of the Thames. Sack of Camulodunum. Establishment of a small kingdom under the shadow of the great forest which then reached to the Wash (Ercenwin, 527?). Middle Saxons (Middlesex). A small division of the East Saxons, dwelling about London. East Angles (East Anglia). While the East Saxons were making their settlements, Angles were occupying the region to the N., between the sea, the great fens about the Wash (Uffa, 575 ?), and the forest. Norfolk, Suffolk. North Angles (Northumbria). Deira. Early in the sixth century settlements 01 Angles north of the Humber. Conquest of central Yorkshire. Bernicia. At the same time other Angles were settling along the Frith of Forth, where they may have found a Jutish colony already 547. established. Under Ida, " the flame bearer," as the Cymry called him, the Angles pushed their conquests to the Esk.2 Bernicia thus comprised the Lowlands of Scotland, a region which still contains the purest type of the Teutonic con- querors of Britain. Saxon and Gael. 1 The northern Cymry seem also to have had traditions of an Arthur. Later fugitives to Bretagne carried the memory of Arthur with them; there his name was connected with the French legend of the Holy Grail, and woven into the romances which make up the Arthurian cycle. 2 The stubborn resistance of the Cymry here as' well as in the south has been attributed to Arthur. A. D. Teutonic Kingdoms in Britain. 179 Middle Angles (Mercia). Early in the sixth century scattered bands of Angles occupied the present counties of Lincoln, Nottingham, Leicester, Warwick, and Northampton. The small kingdoms and lordships thus founded (Lindesjaras, Gainas, Magescetas, Hwiccas) were at a later time united in the great kingdom of Mercia (Cridda, 582 ?). Thus Britain south of the Firth at the close of the third quarter of the sixth century was divided between Cymry and Teutons by a line drawn nearly N. and S. midway of the breadth of the land. Teuton and Celt, pagan and Christian, faced one another throughout the length of the island. As far as it went, the conquest was thorough. Not that the Cymry were exterminated ; many remained within the feaxon lines, and traces of Celtic, and of still older blood, are not in- frequent in the most Teutonic parts of England to-day. Though the subjugated Cymry, however, might retain their Celtic blood, in all else they were soon assimilated with the conquerors. Temporary halt in the work of conquest. Wars of the invaders among themselves. 588. Formation of the kingdom of Northumbria by the enforced union of Bernicia and Deira under JEthelric, king of Bernicia. 590-616. Supremacy of JBthelbert, king of Kent, afterwards called the third Bretwalda, over Essex, East Anglia, Middle Britain. His wife was the Catholic Christian princess Bertha, daughter of Charibert, king of the Franks. 597. Arrival of Augustine, legate of Pope Gregory the Great. Conversion of Kent. Quarrel between the British church and Augustine (date of Easter, form of the tonsure). Conversion of the East Saxons. Laws of ^Ethelbert. An attempt to convert the East Angles led to the revolt and About 610-617. Supremacy of Reedwald, of East Anglia, over Middle Britain. He was afterwards called the fourth Bret- walda. In the N. ^Ethel/nth of Northumbria defeated the Cymry of Strath clyde in the great 607. Battle of Chester, and extended his realm to the sea, cutting off Strathclyde from Wales, as Wales had been severed from Cornwall by the battle of Deorham (p. 178). ^Ethelfrith defeated and slain in the battle of the Idle by Rcedwald, who had taken up the claims of Eadwine, son of ^Ella, formerly king of Deira. 617-633. Supremacy of Eadwine of Northumbria, called the fifth Bretwalda. His overlordship was more comprehensive than that of any of his predecessors, since, after the conquest of Wessex (526), it included all Teutonic Britain except Kent. Conver- sion of Northumbria (627). Revolt of the Mercians under Penda (627-655), who, in alliance with Cadwallon of Wales, de- feated Eadwine in the battle of Heathfield (633). Death of Ead- wine. 633-655. Supremacy of Penda of Mercia over Middle Britain, Essex, and East Anglia. 180 Mediaval History. A. D. 635. Defeat of Cadwallon by Oswald of Bernicia, in the battle of the Hevenfeld. Conquest of Deira. 635-642. Supremacy of Oswald of Northumbria, afterwards called the sixth Bretwalda, over Wessex, Sussex, Essex, Kent. Conversion of Northumbria (where many people had relapsed into paganism) by Irish (not Roman) missionaries. Conversion of Wes- sex. In the contest over East Anglia Oswald was defeated by Penda, and slain in the 642. Battle of the Maserfeld. Penda's sovereignty extended over Wessex, East Anglia, Deira. 655. Battle of the Wiriwaed. Penda defeated by Oswiu, brother of Oswald, and his successor in Bernicia, and slain. 655-659. Supremacy of Oswiu of Northumbria, called the sev- enth Bretwalda, over all Teutonic Britain except Wessex, Kent, and Sussex. 659. Revolt of Mercia under Wulfhere. Henceforward the kings of Northumbria were sovereigns of merely local power. Rivalry between the Irish missionaries and Rome. A council con- vened by Oswiu, decided in favor of Rome. Theodore of Tarsus, archbishop of Canterbury (609), undertook the organization of the English church. 688-726. Ine, king of Wessex. Conquest of Kent (694). Wars with the Cyiiiry of Cornwall (710). Laws of Ine, the oldest West Saxon code. Abdication of Ine (726). Willibrod, missionary to the Frisians. Boniface (Winfrith), apostle of the Germans. Wilfrith, bishop of York. Cuthbert, of Lindisfarne. Benedict Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth. Caed- mon. Baeda (672-735) ; Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum. 733-752. Supremacy of .ffithelbald of Mercia over all England S. of the Humber. 752. Battle of Burford (Oxfordshire). Defeat of ^Ethelbald of Mercia by the West Saxon, Cuihred. Henceforward Teutonic Britain remained divided between the three great kingdoms, Northumbria, "Wessex, Mercia. 756. Strathclyde subjected to Northumbria by Eadberht. 755-794. Of fa, king of Mercia. Conquest of Oxfordshire from Wessex (777 ?). Conquest of the Welsh kingdom of Powys, W. of the Severn. 0/a's Dyke from the mouth of the Wye to that of the Dee. Friendship between Offa and Charles the Great. Laws of Offa. 789. First recorded landing of Northmen in Britain on the coast of Devonshire. 802-837. Ecgberht, king of Wessex, being elected to suc- ceed Beorhtric after thirteen years' exile spent in the kingdom of the West Franks. Cornwall made tributary. Defeat of Beornwulfoi Mercia, at the battle of Ellandune (825). Sub- mission of all England S. of the Thames, and of Essex. Ecgberht overlord of Mercia and Northumbria (828). Submis- sion of Wales (828). A. D. Kingdom of the Franks under the Merowingians. 181 All England south of the Forth, with the possible exception of Strathclyde, united under Ecgberht. 834. The Northmen ravaged Sheppey. Ecgberht defeated by the Danes. 836. Battle of Hengestesdun. Victory of Ecgberht over Welsh and Danes. Death of Ecgberht (837). (See p. 203.} § 3. THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS UNDER THE MEROWIN- GIANS. (Seep. 173.) 611. After the death of Chlodwig the first division of the kingdom of the Franks. According to this division, which was not strictly territorial, the four sons of Chlodwig, Theoderic /. (Thierry, 511^533). Chlodomer (Chlodomir, 511-524), Chil- debert I. (511-558), Chlotar I. (Clotaire, 511-561) ruled the kingdom from the four court-camps of Metz, Orleans, Paris and Soissons. 630-532. The kingdom of the Thuringians conquered by the eldest of the brothers (Theoderic). The two younger brothers sub- jugated the Burgundians. The northern part of Thuringia, as far south as the Unstrut, fell to the Saxons, the allies of the Franks in the war. The southern part (to the Danube) became Frankish territory, but the name of Franco- nia was given to the region south of the Thuringian forest; the dis- trict between the Unstrut, the Thuringian forest, and the Saale con- tinued to be called Thuringia. Acquisition of Provence (536) and the supremacy over Swabia and Bavaria on the fall of the kingdom of the East Goths. 558^561. The whole Frankish kingdom again united under Chlo- tar I., who outlived his three brothers. After his death 561. A second division of the kingdom among the grandsons of Chlodwig, Guntram (561-593), Charibert I. (561-^567), Sigi- bert I. (561-575), and Chilperic I. (561-584), into four, later (567) into three parts : Austrasia, with the capital at Rheims, and a population chiefly German ; Neustria, with the capital at Soissons ; Burgundy, with Orleans as capital ; in both of which later divisions the mass of the population was Romano- Celtic or Romance.1 Family divisions and wars full of horrors. Feud of Brunhilde the slave, 613. Second union of the entire kingdom of the Franks under Chlotar II. of Neustria, great-grandson of Chlodwig. Brunhilde captured, tortured, and dragged to death by a wild horse. Origin of the power of the majores domus (Hausmeier, mayors of 1 Charibert received the territory around Paris, but after his early death this was equally divided among his brothers, and the triple division alone was hence- forth of importance. [TRANS.] 182 Mediceval History. A. D. the palace"), who were at first superintendents of the royal household, afterwards leaders of the feudal retainers (leudes). The race of the Pipins (afterwards called Carolingians), of pure German blood,1 ac- quired an hereditary claim to the office of major domus, in Austrasia first, and afterwards in Neustria. 622-678. Third division of the kingdom of the Franks (interrupted, however, by several temporary unions) into the two parts into which it had meanwhile separated : 1. Austrasia (principally German), separated by the Schelde from 2. Neustria (Romance, northern France to the Loire, not reck- oning Bretayne which was independent) and Burgundy. The duchies of Aquitania and Vasconia (Guyenne and Gascogne), between the Loire and the Pyrenees, were almost independent. (Seep. 183.) § 4. MOHAMMED (MAHOMET) AND THE CALIPHATE. 622. Mohammed's flight (Hegira) from Mecca to Medina. 16 July. Mohammed (i. e. he who is greatly praised), born at Mecca, 571, of the family of Hashem, a merchant, husband of the wealthy Chadija, acquainted from his journeys with the Jewish and the Christian religions, proclaimed himself a prophet among the tribe of the Koreishites. Islam (i. e. a submission to the will of God conse- quent on belief). One God (Allah) and Mohammed his prophet. Moslems (the believers). Victories of Mohammed in Arabia (61.9) ; preparation for conquests in Syria. Mohammed died 632. Caliphs (i. e. successors) : 632-634. Alu-leJcr, father-in-law of the prophet. Collection of the Koran (Quran), later enlarged by the transcription of an oral tradition, the Soona. Separation of the believers into Soonees, who recognized this addition, and Sheeah, who rejected it, and regarded All, the son-in-law of Mohammed, as his only right- ful successor. Wars with the Eastern Empire and the Persians. 634_644. Omar, founder of the Arabian supremacy in the East. He assumed the title of Emir-al-Mumenin (" Prince of the faithful"), which was afterwards borne by all the caliphs. Conquest of Syria (Damascus 635), Palestine, Phoenicia. De- struction of the empire of the Sassanidce (the New Persians) by the battle of Nehavend (641). Conquest of Egypt by Omar's general Amroo. Capture of Alexandria. 644-656. Othmann (Osman). Conquest of northern Africa. Cap- ture of Rhodes. Murder of Othman during an insurrection. 656-661. All, husband of Fatima, Mohammed's daughter, not uni- versally recognized. Muawwiyah proclaims himself caliph in Syria. After bloody civil wars and after the murder of Ali, the Sooneite 661-750. Ommiads obtained the caliphate. 661-680. Muawwiyah I., great-grandson of Omeyyah. He trans- ferred the residence of the caliphs from Medina to Damascus. 1 Bonnell, Die Anfanye, des Karolinyischen Hausts, 1866. A. D. Kingdom of the Franks under the Carolingians. 183 The caliphate was made hereditary. About 700 the governor Musa completed the conquest of Byzantine Africa as far as the Atlantic Ocean. The Berbers, who ac- cepted Islam, together with the inhabitants of Punic, Greek, and Roman descent, became amalgamated with the Arabians under the name of Moors. Tarilc,1 one of Musa's generals, crossed from northern Africa to bpaiii, and in the 711. Battle of Xeres de la Frontera (plains of the Guadal- quivir) destroyed the kingdom of the Visigoths. From this time on there coexisted in Spain: 1. the province of the caliphate, which became, at a later date (756), the separate caliphate of Cordova; 2. the Christian kingdom of Asturia, founded by Pelagius, afterwards the kingdom of Leon. The Arabians penetrated the passes in the country of the Basques and invaded Gaul. Here a limit was set to their conquests by the 732. Battle between Tours and Poitiers, where they were defeated by Charles Martel. Under the last of the Ommiads the caliphate reached its greatest extent, embracing southwestern Asia from the Gulf of Arabia and the Indus to the Mediterranean and the Caucasus, the entire northern coast of Africa, a great part of the Spanish peninsula, and in southern France the county of Narbona, besides Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Isles. In the caliphate declining vigor; constant wars with the followers of Ali. Abul Abbas, great-grandson of an uncle of the prophet, over- threw the last Ommiad caliph, Merwan II. 750-1258. Rule of the Abbasides. Residence at Bagdad. Treacherous murder of all the Ommiad princes (90). One only, Abd-er-Rahman, escaped to Spain, and founded there the 756. caliphate of Cordova. (See p. 209.) §5. KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS UNDER THE CAROLINGIANS. (Seep. I8tf.} 887. Pipin of Heristal, major domus (mayor of the palace) of Austrasia, became by the victory of Testri (not far from St. Quentin) over the major domus of Soissons (Neustria) sole major domus of the whole kingdom of the Franks, and called himself in future dux et princeps Franco/rum. Eudes, duke of Aquitaine, defeated by the Arabian invaders, sought help from Charles, the son and successor of the major domus Pipin of Heristal. 732, Battle between Tours and Poitiers. Victory of 1 From him comes the name Gibel or Jebel-al-TariTc (Gibraltar), i. e. moun- tain of Tarik, near which he landed. It would appear that the story of Tarik's having been summoned by the Visigothic count Julian, is im'thica!." Cf. Dahn, KSn. d. Germ. V. 227. 184 Jlfediteval History. A. D. Charles Martel (major domus 714-741) over the Arabs. 751.1 With Pipin the Short (741-768), Charles Martel's son, the Carolingians became kings of the Franks. The last king of the Merowingian line (les ro is faineants), Childe- ric III., was deposed with the consent of Pope Zacharias and placed in a monastery. Pipin was raised upon the shield on the field of Mars at Soissons, as king of the Franks. In 754 Pope Stephen III., who had come to France to seek help, anointed Pipin and his sons Charles and Karlmann as kings of the Franks. For the future Pipin styled himself " king by the grace of God" In requital of this service Pipin drove back Aistud, king of the Langobards, who was threatening the Pope (p. 175). Gift of the Exarchate of Ravenna and the Pentapolis (Ancona, Sinigaglia, Fano, Pesaro, Rimini), the territory of Bologna and Ferrara, to the Pope, and thereby the first foundation of the Papal States. Pipin patricius of Rome, that city not being included in the gift to the Pope.2 Bonifacius (the Anglo-Saxon Benedictine monk Winfried, named Bonifacius by Pope Gregory II.), the apostle of the Germans (about 680-754). He preached Christianity in the country of the East Franks, in Thuringia, Hesse, and Friesland. Bishop since 722, archbishop since 732 without a settled bishopric, he brought all newly founded bishoprics and monasteries into strict dependence upon the Papal chair. In 742 Concilium Germanicum, recognition of the Pope as head of the Church. In 748 Bonifacius became the first archbishop of Mainz • in 754 he was killed by the heathen Friesians. 768-814. Charles the Great (Charlemagne), since the death of his brother Karlmann (771), sole ruler. Karl- mann's sons took refuge with Desiderius, king of the Lango- bards, whose daughter Charles had married, but afterwards rejected. 773-774. Destruction of the kingdom of the Langobards. The Pope having refused to crown the sons of Karlmann, Desi- derius occupied the Pentapolis and threatened Rome. Charles came to the assistance of the Pope, ex officio, as patricius of Rome. Capture of Pavia after a six months' siege, during which Charles had visited Rome and renewed his alliance with the Pope. Desiderius placed in a monastery. Charles, king of Italy, by which is meant the kingdom of the Langobards, northern and central Italy. The larger part of southern Italy remained in the possession of the Eastern Empire. 772-804. War with the Saxons. The country of the Saxons was divided as follows. "West- phalia, on the Sieg, Ruhr, and Lippe, and on both sides of the Ems ; 1 See the proof in Q. Kichter, Annalen d. deutschen Geschichte im Mittelal ter, I. p. 216. 2 See, however. Oslsner, Jahrb. d. frank. Reichs unter Kiinig Pippin, Chap. IX. p. 129 foil. A. D. Kingdom of the Franks under the Carolingians. 185 Engern, on both sides of the Weser as far as the Leine ; Eastphalia, as far as the Elbe • Northalbingia, N. of the lower Llbe to the Eider. The Saxon war was resolved upon in the assembly (May-field) at Worms (772). 772. Capture of the Eresburg, destruction of the Irminsul. 775, Capture of Sigiburg. Subjugation of the Saxons W. of the Elbe. The Saxons destroyed the Eresburg1, but were subjugated anew, 776-777. First May-field in the land of the Saxons, at Paderbom. New insurrection of the Saxons upon receipt of the news of Charles's defeat in the Pyrenees, 778; subdued by the army of the east Franks and Alamanni. 779, Charles gained a victory at Bocholt on the Aa. 780, Submission of the Saxons ; acceptance of Christianity. After a new and general revolt headed by Widukind or Witte- kind, and a defeat of the Frankish army, Charles took the iield in person with success. 782, Slaughter of 450J Saxons on the Aller. 783, A new and terrible uprising, the result of this massacre. Charles victorious first at Detmold, then on the Hase. 785, After a two years' resistance Wittekind submitted and became a Christian. 778. Wars of Charles in Spain. Conquest of Saragossa. Return by Roncevaux, and defeat of the Frankish rearguard. Death of the hero Roland, margrave of the Breton coast, a pretended nephew of Charles, whose deeds are celebrated in a series of romances. The Spanish mark l was of later foundation, and was strengthened by Lud- wig, son of Charles (801). 788. Abolition of the duchy of the Bajuvariae (Bavarians), after the second revolt of duke Tassilo. Wars with the Northmen (the common name of the Germans of the Scandinavian north), and with the Slavs. Charles de- feated the Wiltzi and advanced to the Peene (789). 791-799. War with the Avars (who had aided Tassilo, duke of Ba- varia) conducted principally by Charles' son Pipin. 796. Storm of the King's Ring (the chief camp of the Avars) between the Danube and the Theiss. The country between the Ems and the Raab was annexed to the Frankish empire and occupied by German colonists, especially by Bavarians. (Soon after, complete ruin of the kingdom of the Avars.) 800. Charles revived the office of Emperor of the West. Pope Leo III., ill-treated by the relatives of his predecessor in an insurrection, and expelled from the city (799), sought Charles' camp at Paderborn. Restored by Charles to Rome, he crowned him emperor on Christmas-day, 800. 793-804. New revolts among the Saxons particularly in the N., led to a war with the Danes, with whom the Saxons had taken ref- uge. Gottfried, king of Denmark, invaded the Frankish mark; his ships harassed the coasts of the German Ocean. 1 Mark : a strip of land on the border of a country, where the military power was espeoiallv well kept up, under a Markgraf (border-count), who was responsible for the safety of the border. — TKANS. 186 Mediceval History. A. D. 808. The Danes, defeated by Charles, the eldest son of the emperor, retired beyond the Eider. 810. The emperor was obliged to take the field against Gottfried in person. The Danish king was murdered by his own servants. Peace with his successors. Saxony north of the Elbe remained a part of the Frankish kingdom. Boundaries of the kingdom : Ebro, Raab, Eider, Garigliano, The Wends were again subjugated. Charles resided in Aachen in Austrasia (Aix-la-Chapelle) prin- cipally on account of its warm springs, or in the County Palatine on the Rhine, at Ingelheim, or in Nymwegen. Capitularii, imperial re- scripts. Assemblies composed of all men of rank, both churchmen and laymen (" in quo placito generalitas universorum maiorum, tarn clericorum quam laicorum coaveniebat "). Levy of troops (Heer- ban). Governors of counties (Gaugrafen), counts of the border dis- tricts (comites march ice, Markgrafen), imperial messengers (missi regis, Sendgrafen), who made periodical circuits in different parts of the empire, heard complaints and reported the same with other observa- tions and suggestions to the emperor. The Anglo-Saxon scholar Alcuin, the Langobard Paul, son of Warnefrid (Paulus Diaconus}-. called to the imperial court, where intellectual pursuits were favored and shared by the emperor. Schools for the education of the clergy, at Tours and Paris. Einhard (Eginhard), the favorite secretary of Charles (author of the Vita Caroli Imperatoris}. Charles the Great became the centre of the most important series of romances of the Middle Age. 786-809. In the East Charles found a friend and admirer in Har- oun-al-Rashid, Caliph of Bagdad. His reign and that of his son Mamun cover the most fruitful period of science, art, and manufactures among the Arabs. The elder sons of Charles the Great, Charles and Pipin, dying before their father, he was succeeded by his youngest sou, 814-840. Ludwig the Pious. (Louis le Debonnaire). Ludwig's nephew, Bernhard, Pipin's son, according to Charles' decree, king of Italy under the supremacy of his uncle, re- belled against the latter, was defeated, captured, and killed. Ludwig had 4 sons : Lothar, Pipin, Ludwig, Charles the Bald (the latter by Judith, his second wife, of the noble Alamannian family oc the Welfs). In 829 Ludwig substituted a new division of the empire, whereby his youngest son, Karl, received Alamannia and the royal title for the division made in 817, under which Lothar held the larger part of the empire and the imperial crown, Pipin had Aquitania, and Ludwig, Bavaria. The three elder sons at once revolted, and civil wr..r broke out. On the Field of Lies, near Colmar in Alsace, Ludwig, the father, was deserted by his troops (833). He was taken prisoner (public penance in the church at Soissons), but soon released by his repentant son Ludwig, and replaced upon the throne (834). Pipin died in 838, and his share of the empire was divided between Lothar and Charles, which caused a new rebellion on the part of Ludwig. In 840 Ludwig the Pious died on an island in the Rhine, near Ingelheim. Ludwig and Charles in alliance defeated Lothar at Fontanetum (Fon- tenaille or Fontenay ?) in 841. Bi-lingual oath of Strassburg (842). A. D. New Persian Empire of the Sassanidce. IS'* 843. Treaty of Verdun. Division of the empire among Aug. the brothers as follows : 1. Lothar : Centre of the Frankish lands, i. e. Australia, Fries- land, the Alamannian lands on the left bank of the Rhine, the greater part of Burgundy, Provence, a part of Languedoc; in general, a region bounded by the Schelde, Meuse, Saone, Rhone* in the west, by the Rhine and Alps in the east, and Frankish Italy. 2. Ludwig the German : The eastern part of the Frankish lands, i. e. all those parts of the empire lying on the right bank of the Rhine, except Friesland ; the diocese of Mainz, Worms, and Speier on the left bank (in general a region lying between the Rhine and the Elbe). 3. Charles the Bald : The western part of the Frankish lands, i. e. Neustria, Aquitania, the northern part of Burgundy, Sspti- mania, the Spanish Mark. Lothar retained the imperial dignity which his father had given him. His kingdom, which lacked natural boundaries and comprised various nationalities, contained within itself the germ of rapid disso- lution. The Treaty of Verdun was originally merely & family contract, made without regard to national differences. In Ludwig's kingdom, how- ever, the German element was in the majority ; in that of Charles the Romance element prevailed. Thus there developed, in the course of the following centuries, from the East Frankish element the German, from the West Frankish the French nationality. The East Franks called their language, in contrast to the Latin used by the educated clergy, the deutsche, i. e. the language of the people, and gradually (since Henry I. ?; those who spoke Deutsche came to be called Deutsche.1 (See pp. 193, 201.} § 6. NMW PKRSIAX EMPIRE OF THE SASSANID^E.2 Aryan. 22G-641. ' (Seep. 155.) 226-240. Artaxerxes I. (Artahshatr), son, not of Sasan, but of Papak, probably king of Persia proper, revolted against Artabanus, the last king of Par- thia (p. 30), whom he defeated and slew in the battle of Hormuz. Contest of Artaxerxes with the Arsacid kings of Bactria and Arme- nia. The claim preferred by Artaxerxes to all Asia as far as the ^Egean involved him in a war with Rome. Defeat of Alexander Severus, followed by peace. Subjugation of Armenia. Restoration of the religion of Zoroaster. Collection of the text of the Zend Avesta. Artaxerxes was succeeded by his son, 240-271. Sapor I. (Shahpuhri). Wars with Rome. I. (241-244.) The Romans were suc- 1 V. Giesebrecht, Gesch. d. deulschen Kaiserzeit, I. 4th ed. p. 149. 2 Rawiinsou, Seventh (jr^at Oriental Monarchy. 188 Mediaeval History. A. D. cessful under Gordianus, but his successor, Philippus, concluded peace with Sapor, leaving Armenia in his hands, but retaining Mesopotamia. II. (258-260.) A glorious war for Persia. Nisibis, Edessa, Antioch fell into their hands, and the Roman emperor Valerianus was cap- tured and remained a prisoner until his death (265 or 266). Defeat of Persians by Odenathus of Palmyra (p. 157). Erection of many buildings and engineering works in Persia. Mani, or Manes, a teacher of a new form of religion compounded of Christianity and Zoroasterianism (Manicheism), expelled from Persia. Sapor was succeeded by his son, Hormisdas I. (Auhrmazdi), who reigned one year and ten days (271-272) and was followed by his brother, Varahran I. (272-275). Execution of Mani. Aid sent to Zenobia (p. 157). The murder of Aurelianus (275) put an end to his expedition against Varahran, who was succeeded in the same year by his son Varahran II. (275-292?). His reign is marked chiefly by the war with Rome (283), which was closed by the mysterious death of Cams (283-284). Revolt of Tiridates of Armenia, aided by Rome. Varahran III., son of Varahran II., reigned four mouths, and was followed by his brother, 292-301. Narses, who after defeating his brother and rival, Hormisdas, drove Tiridates from Armenia (i.96). War with Rome. Galerius, at first unsuccessful in Mesopotamia, finally defeated Narses. Peace (297) : 1. Persia ceded five provinces beyond the Tigris to Rome. 2. The Tigris recognized as the general boundary between Persia and Rome.1 3. Cession of a large part of Media to Armenia. 4. Persia surrendered to Rome her supremacy over Iberia (Georgia). Abdication of Narses and accession of his son, Hormisdas II. (301-309), whose reign covers little of importance. At his death the nobles set aside his son Hormisdas, and conferred the crown upon his unborn child. A boy was born, who received the name 309-379 (?). Sapor II. During his minority the country suffered from invasions of the Arabs, but on arriving at his seventeenth year Sapor assumed the government, and inflicted a terrible punishment on Arabia. Persecu- tion of Christians (about 325). First war with Rome (337-350). Defeat of Constantius at Singara (348). Nisibis in Mesopotamia thrice besieged by Sapor in vain (338, 340, 350). War of Sapor with Tatar tribes in the E. (351-359) and extension of Persian power in this direction. Armenia went over to Rome. Second war with Rome (359-363). Invasion of Syria. Capture of Amida after a desperate resistance. Julianus, emperor of Rome, invaded Persia, and defeated the Persians before Ctesiphon (362), but immediately began a retreat, in the course of which he died. His successor, Jovian, concluded peace with Sapor for thirty years (363) : 1. Restoration of the five provinces ceded by Narses. 2. Surrender of Nisibis and Singara to Persia. 3. Rome to give up all connection with Armenia. Conquest of Armenia by Sapor. Third war with Rome (371-376), carried on without energy and concluded by an obscure peace. 1 Rawlinson, Seventh Monarchy, 128 foil., discusses the conditions. A. D. New Persian Empire of the Sassanidce. 189 The brilliant reign of Sapor was followed by a time of quiet. Artaxerxes II. (379-383.) Sapor III. (383-388.) Division of Armenia between Persia and Rome, — Persia receiving the larger part. Varahran IV. (388-399) deposed Chosroes, king of Persian Armenia, and placed his own brother on the throne (391). Varahran was murdered during a mutiny, and succeeded by his son Isdigerd I. (Izdikerti) (399-419 [420]), whose peaceful reign is remarkable for little, except a persecution of the Christians in Persia and Armenia. He was succeeded by his son, 419 (420)^t40. Varahran V., who, having put down Chosroe's, a pretender to the throne, re- newed the persecution of the Christians, and began war with Rome. Meeting with no success, he concluded peace (422), and agreed to stop the persecution. (Charity of Acacius, bishop of Amida, who ransomed 7000 Persian captives.) Beginning of Persia's wars with the Ephthi- alites (Pers. Haithal), a people dwelling beyond the Oxus, and prob- ably of " Thibetic or Turkish stock " (not Huns). Surprise, defeat, and death of the invading Khan. The Persians crossed the Oxus and chastised the Tatars in their own territory. Varahran was succeeded by his son, 440-457. Isdigerd II., who at once declared war upon Rome, but as hastily concluded peace. Nine years' war with the Epthialites, ending with their defeat in their own country. The attempt of Isdigerd to convert Armenia to Zoroastrianism brought on a religious war, wherein the Christians were defeated (455 or 456). Forcible conversion of Armenia. To- ward the close of his reign Isdigerd was defeated by the Ephthialites ^ After his death civil war between his sons Perozes and Hormisdasy ending in the victory of 459-483 (?). Perozes. Great famine in the seventh year of his reign (?). Unsuccess- ful war and disgraceful peace with the Ephthialites (464-465). Re- volt of Armenia under Vahan, which was still unsubdued when Pero- zes again attacked the Ephthialites, at whose hands he suffered a severe defeat, falling in the battle. He was succeeded by his brother (?) 483(?)-487. Balas (Pers. Valakhesh or Volgases), under whom Persia probably paid tribute to Khush-newaz, the Ephthialite Khan. Pacification of Armenia. Edict of toleration. Destruction of fire-altars. Balas was succeeded by 487(?)-498. Kobad, (first reign) son of Perozes, who had been in hiding among the Ephthi- alites. Successful war with the Khazars, a people of uncertain race (Turkish or Caucasian?), dwelling between the Volga and the Don. Communistic and ascetic doctrines of Mazdak, a high priest of Zoro- aster, to which many converts were made, the king being of the number. Consequent disturbances in Persia and Armenia resulting in the deposition of Kobad and the accession of his brother, 498-501. Zamasp. Kobad, however, soon escaped to the Ephthialites and returned 190 Mediceval History. A. D. at the head of an army, whereupon Zamasp voluntarily resigned the crown. 501-531. Kobad (second reign). Withdrawal of support from Masdak. The refusal of the Eastern Empire to fulfil its agreement to contribute to the defence of the pass of Derbend in the Caucasus, which was the usual route of the nomadic tribes in their invasions of Persia or the Eastern Empire, caused Kobad to declare war. Sack of Amida (502). An Ephthi- alite invasion induced peace hi 507. Erection of the fortress of Daras, twelve miles from Nisibis by Anastasius, emperor of the East. Second war with the Eastern Empire (524-531), wherein the Per- sians, at first successful, were defeated by Belisarius in the battle of Daras (528). Kobad was succeeded by his son, 531-579. Chosroes I. Anushirwan (" The Just ") per- haps the greatest of the Sassanid kings. Peace with Rome (533) : 1. Rome paid 11,000 Ibs. of gold toward the fortification of the Caucasus. 2. Daras retained its fortifica- tions, but was not to be the Roman headquarters. 3. Reciprocal sur- render of recent conquests. 4. Eternal friendship and alliance, whence this peace is known as the " endless peace." It endured for seven years, at the end of which time Chosroes, jealous of the great victo- ries of Justinian in the West, listened to the prayers of the East Goths and declared war. 540. Capture of Antioch. Chosroes extorted ransom from the principal cities of west- ern Asia Minor ; returned home. A truce, concluded in 545, was broken in 549 by Rome, who sent assistance to the Lazi (inhabitants of ancient Colchis) in their war with Persia. 551. Capture of Fetra by the Romans and Lazi. 563. Definite peace between Persia and Rome. 1. Lazica ceded to Rome. 2. Rome to make a yearly pay- ment to Persia. 3. Exercise of their faith secured to the Christians in Persia. 4. Commercial intercourse between the empires restricted to certain roads and marts. 5. Free diplomatic intercourse. 6. Daras to retain its fortifications. 7. Disputes to be settled by arbi- tration. 8. Allies of either party included in the peace. 9. Persia undertook the maintenance of the Caspian Gates alone. 10. The peace was concluded for fifty years. Successful wars with the Ephthialites and Khazars. 562. Expedition of Chosroes to Arabia, against the Christian king- dom founded there by Abyssinians early in the sixth century. Chosroes expelled the Abyssinians and left the country under the control of Saif, leader of the native Homerites ; after his murder Arabia was made a Persian province. The expedition to India ascribed to Chosroes is doubtful. Dezabul, Khan of the Turks, who had recently subjugated the Ephthialites and entered into alliance with the Eastern Empire, invaded Persia, but met with no success. 572. Justin, Emperor of the East, declared war on Persia. Chos« roes ravaged Syria. Fail of Daras (573). A.. D. New Persian Empire of the Sassanidce. 191 ChpsroSs died, 579, in Mesopotamia. Improved administration in Persia under Chosroes. Empire di- vided into four governments : East, Khorassan, Seistan, Kirman • North, Armenia, Azerbizan, Ghilan, Koum, Isfahan; South, Pars, Ahwaz ; West, Irak, or Babylonia, Assyria, Mesopotamia. Frequent progresses of the king. Substitution of a fixed land tax for the for- mer variable tax on produce. Tax collectors placed under the super- vision of the priests. Reform in the army. Improved irrigation. Protection of foreigners. Encouragement of learning. Laws of Artaxerxes revised. Collection of the Shah-na-meh, or Book of the Kings, the basis of Firdusi's epic. Introduction of the Fables of Pilpay, and of the game of chess from India. Toleration extended to Christians. Chosroe's was succeeded by his son, 579-589. Hormisdas IV. (Hormazd). At first a wise ruler, afterwards the worst of Persian kings. 579. Invasion of Persia by the Eastern Emperor Maurice. 581. Defeat of the Persians at Constantia. The war continued with alternate defeat and victory until in 589. Persia was invaded by Arabs, Khazars, and above all by the great Khan of the Turks. He was defeated by the Persian general Bohr am and fell in the battle. In the same year Hormisdas provoked a war with Rome by invading Lazica. Bahrain was de- feated on the Araxes. An insult offered him by the king caused his revolt and the deposition and murder of Hormisdas, who was suc- ceeded by his son, 589-628. Chosroes II., Eberwiz, who was at once involved in war with Bahram, who drove him from the kingdom and assumed the crown. The reign of Bahrain (Varahran VI.) was short (590-591). Chosroes had taken refuge at Constantinople, and a Roman force restored him to his throne. Bahram, defeated, fled to the Turks. The second reign of Chosroes II. was marked by a wonderful in- crease of Persia's power, and by its sudden fall. 603-610. War with Phocas, murderer of Maurice. Capture of Daras. Syria, Armenia, Galatia, Phrygia, ravaged. Sack of Antioch. The accession of Heraclius to the throne of the Eastern Empire did not end the war. 612. Invasion of Cappadocia. 614. Capture of Damascus. 815. Sack of Jerusalem. 616. Capture of Pelusium and Alexandria by the Persian general Shahr-Barz. Submission of Egypt. 617. Fall of Chalcedon. The Persians encamped within a mile of Constantinople. 620. Capture of Ancyra and of Rhodes. Persia restored to the limits which it attained under Darius I. So nearly had Chosroes driven Heraclius to despair that he pre- pared to take refuge in Carthage, but his design was prevented by the citizens of Constantinople. Thus driven to bay, the emperor formed the desperate resolve of attacking his enemy in his own country. 192 Mediaeval History. A. D. 622. Landing of the Romans in the Gulf of Issus. Defeat of Shahr-Barz. 623. Heraclius sailed to Lazica, and invaded Armenia. Chosroes re- treated, and the Romans wintered in Albania. 625. Battle of the Sarus. Defeat of Shahr-barz. Chosroes al- lied himself with the Avars, and placed two armies in the field: one against Heraclius in Asia Minor, one destined for a direct attack on Constantinople. The latter attempt failed, Constantinople held out, although attacked also by hosts of Bulgarians and other barbarians from the west. Winter campaign of Heraclius. 627. Dec. 12. Battle of Nineveh. Defeat of the Persians. Flight of Chosroes. Heraclius advanced to Ctesiphon, but returned without assaulting the city. Mutiny of the Persian troops at Ctesiphon under two of the king's sons. Seizure and murder of Chosroes. He was succeeded by his son, 628-629 (?). Kobad II. (Siroes), who concluded peace with Rome on a basis of exchange of conquests and captives. Death of Kobad (of the plague ?). Usur- pation of Shahr-barz, who before two months were over was mur- dered by his own troops. Reigns of Furandocht and Azermi- docht, daughters of Chosroes II., followed by a period of anarchy, during which nine or ten nobles held the throne successively. 632-641 (651). Isdigerd, grandson of Chosroes II., last Sassanid king of Persia. His whole reign was a struggle against the growing power of the Caliphs Abu^Bekr and Omar (p. 182). 633. Expedition of Kaled (the " sword of God ") to Hira. Defeat of the Persians. The whole region west of the Euphrates fell into the hands of the Arabs, who, however, suffered a temporary check by the loss of the " Battle of the Bridge." Their ravages were soon renewed, and extended throughout Mesopotamia. Great exertions of the Persians. Levy of an army of 120,000 men, which was defeated in the four days' 636. Battle of Cadesia, by Sa'ad Ibu Abi Wakas. Loss of the Durufsh-kawani, or royal standard of Persia. 637. Invasion of Mesopotamia by Sa'ad. Capture of Ctesiphon. Defeat of the Persians in the battle of Jalula. 639. Invasion of Susiana and Persia proper by the Arabs. Capture of Hormuzan, a Persian general, who, being brought before Omar, asked for a cup of water, which he hesitated to taste until as- sured by the Caliph that he should not be harmed until he had drunk the water, whereupon he dashed the water on the ground before the astonished Caliph, who respected his promise and spared the Persian's life. The recall of Sa'ad emboldened Isdigerd to make a final effort. Collection of an army of 150,000 men, which was totally defeated in the A. D. It.fily and Germany. 193 641. Battle of Nehavend ("victory of victories"). Fall of the Sassanid power. Persia henceforward governed by the caliphs. Isdigerd III. lived for ten years a fugitive, and was at last murdered (651). SECOND PERIOD. FROM THE TREATY OF VERDUN TO THE BEGINNING OF THE CRUSADES (843-1096). §1. ITALY AND GERMANY. (See p. 18 L) 843-875. Carolingians in Italy. After the death of two sons of Lothar I., Ludwig the German and Charles the Bald divided Lothar's inheritance hy the treaty of Mersen on the Meuse (870). The German portion (Friesland, Lotha- ringia or Lothringen (Lorraine), so called after Lothar II.} was an- nexed to the kingdom of the East Franks, the Romance portion (Burgundy, Provence) to the kingdom of the West Franks. Boun- dary, the Meuse. After the death of Ludwig II., who was the eldest son of Lothar I. (875), Charles the Bald became Emperor (f 877). 843-911. Carolingians in Germany. 843-876. Ludwig the German. Wars with the Slavs, with Charles the Bald, and especially with the Northmen, i. e. the Scandinavian sea warriors (Vikings), by whose ferocious energy the west of Europe was during this epoch harassed almost beyond belief. In 845 simultaneous attack by the Northmen upon all three of the Frankish kingdoms. Ludwig the German's son, 876-887. Charles the Fat, at first in conjunction with his brothers, Karlmann (f 880) and Ludwig (f 882). Successful resistance to the claims of Charles the Bald on the Rhine (battle of Andernach, 876) and Italy. Charles the Fat became Emperor in 881, and in 884 was elected king of the West Franks. He united once more under one sceptre the Mon- archy of Charles the 3-reat, with the exception of cisjurane Burgundy (Dauphine, Provence, part of Languedoc), which became a separate kingdom under Boso. Charles the Fat was deposed by East and West Franks on account of his cowardice (siege of Paris by the Northmen), abdicated the throne at Tribur (887), and died almost immediately thereafter. The East Franks elected 887-899. Arnulf of Carinthia, grandson of Ludwig the German, illegitimate son of Karlmann. He defeated the Northmen upon the Dyle (at Lowen, 891), and in alliance with the Magyars, a nomadic Finnish tribe, which had gradually made its way from the Ural region towards Europe, and under guidance of 13 194 Mediaeval History. A. D. Arpad had invaded Hungary, conquered Svatopluk II. (893), the founder of the kingdom of Moravia. Arnulf went twice to Italy, and was crowned Emperor (8l;6). His son, 899-911. Ludwig the Child (six years old), was completely under the influence of Hatto, archbishop of Mainz. Terrible devastation of Germany by the Magyars. In 908 they traversed Bavaria, Franconia, and penetrated into Thuringia and Saxony. Lewis, defeated in the neighborhood of the Lech (910), was obliged to pay them tribute. Internecine feuds in Franconia : Adalbert of Babenberg against B.udolf, bishop of Wiirzburg, of the family of Conrad of Hesse. Victory of the Conradines. Adalbert executed in front of his castle. Weakness of the young king. Thd monarchy seemed about to break up into duchies : Saxony, Fraii- coiiia, Bavaria, Swabia, Lotharingia. After Ludwig's death the aged Otto the Illustrious, duke of Jbaxony, refused the crown, and se- cured the election of 911-918. Conrad I. of Franconia, by the nobles. Invasions of Danes, Slavs, and Magyars. Conrad was constantly at war with the West Franks and with his own subjects in a vain endeavor to obtain recognition of his sover- eignty, especially from Henry, son of Otto the illustrious and duke of Saxony, since 912. Lotharingia, with the exception of Alsace, became a part of the kingdom of the West Franks. 919-1024. Kings and Emperors of the Saxon house. In obedience to the wish of Conrad, expressed on his death- bed, and seconded by his brother, Eberhard, the Saxons and Franks elected at Fritzlar on the Eder 919-936. Henry I. the Fowler, founder of the German monarchy. Henry compelled Burkhard, duke of Alamannia (Swabia), and Arnulf, duke of Bavaria, to acknowledge his supremacy. 924. The Magyars (Hungarians) made a new inroad. Henry con- cluded a nine years' truce with them, and secured immunity for Saxony and Thuringia by payment of tribute. 925. Henry regained Lotharingia. Enlargement and better fortification of old fortresses (Merse- burg} and construction of new ones (Quedlinburq, Godar}, which at a later period became cities. There was no wide-spread founding of cities by Henry himself, but in his reign the Saxons were gradually accustomed to city life and to cavalry service in war. Successful wars with the Wends, against whom a great mark was established along the middle Elbe, out of which at a later time (after the retirement of margrave (Markgrqf) Gero, 963) were formed the Altmark or Northmark, Meissen, and the Ostmark (later Mark Lau- sitz), lying between the two. Victory at Lenz°.n (929). Wars with the Bohemians (recognition of the duty of feudal service), and with the Danes (Gorm the Old). Creation of a mark between the Eider and Sley (934), afterwards called Mark Schleswig. A. D. Italy and Germany. 195 Henry refused to pay the promised tribute to the Magyars, who thereupon made a new inroad. 933. Victory of Henry over the Hungarians (on the Un- strut?).1 Henry died in 936. He was succeeded by his eldest son by Muthilde, 936-973. Otto I., the Great, who was elected by Saxons and Franks, and crowned at Aachen by the archbishop of Mainz. Homage of the princes of all the German races (Stamme). First appearance of the four court offices : duke of Lotharingia, Chamberlain ; duke of Franconia, Stew- ard • duke of Swabia, Cup-bearer ; duke of Bavaria, Marshal. Countless swarms of Hungarians crossed Franconia (937), to in- vade Saxony. Defeated and pursued by Otto, they took a western direction, and ravaged France as far as the Loire. Otto defeated the rebellious duke of Bavaria, and drove him from his duchy, and subdued a revolt of Eberhard, duke of Franconia, and his own half-brother, Thankmar, who fell in the battle on the Eres- burg (938). Henry, Otto's younger brother, rebelled, and was de- feated by Otto along with his ally Giselbert, duke of Lotharingia, at Birthen, on the Rhine ; the rebels, with whom Eberhard made com- mon cause, called in the assistance of the French. Eberhard fell at Andernach, Giselbert was drowned on his flight, Henry fled to France (939). A murderous assault which Henry made upon his brother after he had received forgiveness failed ; Henry threw him- self upon the king's mercy, received forgiveness a second time (941), and became henceforward, with his brother Bruno, archbishop of Cologne (since £53), the king's chief reliance. Otto gave Lotha- ringia in 944 to Conrad the Red, the ancestor of the Franco-SrJic royal house, who four years afterwards became his son-in-law. Otto made his brother Henry duke of Bavaria (947). Wars with the Wends, conducted by margrave Gero; with the Danes, under Otto himself, who advanced to Jutland (Mark Schleswig given to Hermann Eillung) ; with Boleslav, duke of Bohemia (950), who became a vassal of the empire ; and with the Hungarians, princi- pally under the command of Henry. 948. Otto appointed his son Liudolf (by Edtiha) duke of Swabia. 946-950. Otto interfered in the French wars. He protected King Louis IV. against Hugo, count of France, both of whom were his brothers-in-law. 951. First expedition of Otto's to Italy against Berengar II. of Ivrea Otto released and married Adelheid, the widow of King Lothar (of the house of Burgundy), and then nineteen years of age. Berengar submitted to Otto as his suzerain (952). 953. Liudolf, Otto's son, and Conrad, duke of Lotharingia, Otto's son- in-law, rebelled against the king. 954. New inroad of the Hungarians, who swept through Germany, ravaging as they went, to France ; the rebels were in alliance i Probahlv not, at Merseburg. See V. Giesebrecht, Gesch. der Deutschen Kaiserzeit, I.4, 232. 196 Mediaeval History. A. D. with them. After a severe struggle and several fruitless at- tempts at reconciliation, Liudolf and Conrad submitted. They were forgiven, but deprived of their duchies. Archbishop Bruno received Lotharingia; duke Burkhard, Sviabia. Bavaria, still in revolt, was subjugated by Otto and his brother Henry. New inroad of the Hungarians. 955. Victory over the Hungarians on the Lechfeld Aug. 10. (Augsburg). Conrad fell in the battle. The Bavarian Ostmark, which was afterwards transformed into the duchy of Austria (Oesterreich), reestablished. Victorious expedition against the Wends, whom Otto defeated on the Rekenitz. 957. Liudolf died in arms against Berengar, who was in rebellion. 931. Second expedition of Otto's to Italy, Pope John XII. having im- plored his assistance against Berengar. Otto hastened to Rome, where he 962. Renewed the imperial office. Holy Roman Em Feb. pire of the German Nation. While Otto was engaged in the war with Berengar in Lom- bardy, John XII. endeavored to free himself from the impe- 963. rial protection and allied himself with Otto's foes. The em- Nov. peror advanced upon Rome and captured the city ; John fled. The Romans were obliged to promise never to elect another Pope without the consent of the emperor. John was deposed by a synod in Rome, and Leo VIII. elected Pope. 964. A revolt of the Romans quickly suppressed. While Otto Jan. was again absent in northern Italy, where Berengar had, meantime, been obliged to surrender (he died as prisoner in Bamberg), Leo was expelled by the Romans, and John returned, but soon died in consequence of his dissipation. The Ro- mans choose Benedict Pope. Otto captured Rome the second time, deposed Benedict, and reinstated Leo. 966-967. Third expedition to Italy. Otto's son, Otto II., already crowned as German king, received the imperial crown at Rome. Otto I. died at Memleben, near Merseburg. His sepulchre is in the cathedral of the bishopric of Magdeburg, which he had created. 973-983. Otto II., highly gifted, but passionate, husband of the Grecian princess Theophano. 976. Otto's cousin, Henry the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria, insti- gated a conspiracy against the emperor, was conquered and deposed. Bavaria given to Otto of Swabia, son of Liudolf. Carinthia separated from Bavaria and made a duchy. Luit- paid of Babenberg received the (Bavarian) Eastmark. 978. Otto surprised by Lothar, king of France, escaped with diffi- culty, reconquered Lotharingia, invaded France, and besieged Paris, but without success. 980-983. Wars in Italy. The emperor crossed the Alps, to Rome, 981. advanced into southern Italy, defeated the Greeks and Sara- A. D. Italy and Germany. 197 982. cens at Colonne, south of Cotrone, but was afterwards defeated by them further south on the Calabrian coast l where his army was annihilated. 983. Victorious advance of the Danes and Wends ; destruction of the bishoprics of Havelberg and Brandenburg. Otto II. died in Rome. 983-1002. Otto III., three years old. Henry the Quarrelsome 's claim to the guardianship, and to the crown itself, was denied, but Bavaria, without Carinthia, was returned to him. Otto's mother, the Grecian Theophano, conducted the regency in Germany, his grandmother, Adelheid, in Italy ; after the death of Theophano (991), Adelheid and Willigis, archbishop of Mainz, conducted the government until the young prince took the reins in 995. From his great intel- lectual endowments known as the " Wonder of the World," he was dreamy and unpractical. Three Roman expeditions. 996. On the first expedition Otto was crowned by Gregory V. 998-999. On the second his teacher Gerbert was elected pope as Sylvester II. Attempt of Crescentius to throw off the German yoke and restore the ancient republic. He was defeated and executed. It was Otto's design to make " golden Rome " the imperial residence and centre of a new universal empire. 1000. Journey through Germany, pilgrimage to the grave of St. Adalbert, foundation of the archbishopric of Gnesen. A wide- spread belief that this year would bring the end of the world and the coming of the Kingdom of Heaven led thousands of people to undertake a pilgrimage to Rome. 1001. During his third visit to Italy, revolt of the Romans. Otto died in the castle of Paterno at the foot of Soracte. 1002-1024. Henry II. (the Saint), son of Henry the Quarrelsome of Bavaria, great-grandson of Henry L, was elected king at Mainz, after his rival, Eckard, margrave of Meissen, had been murdered. Henry II. enforced the acknowl- edgment of his sovereignty, particularly from Hermann, duke of Swabia. 1004. First expedition to Italy against Ardoin of Ivrea ; Henry crowned king of Italy in Pavia. 1004-1018. Wars with Boleslav, king of Poland, who was compelled to give up Bohemia, but retained Lusatia. Foundation of the bishopric of Bamberg (1007). Increase in the power of the church. Reform of the monasteries. Energetic en- forcement of the public peace. 1014. Second expedition to Italy. Henry crowned emperor in Rome. Ardoin gives up his resistance (died in a monastery, 1015). 1016-1018. Henry went to war to secure his inheritance in Bur- i The battlefield is unknown; it was not at Basentello. SeeV.Qieaebrecht, Gfsch. d. dtutachen Kaiserzeit, I.4 597. 198 Medieval History. A. D. gundy, which had been resigned in his favor by the last king of Burgundy,1 Rudolf III. (1016). 1022. On the third expedition to Italy, Henry fought with the Gre- cians in lower Italy, with the assistance of the Normans who had settled there in 1015. Henry died July 15, 1024. 1024-1125. Franconian or Salian Emperors. Election held at Oppenheim between Mainz and Worms, — • the first election in which princes of all the tribes had partici- pated. After hesitating a short time between the two Conrads, cousins, the princes chose the elder, the son of the Frankish count Henry, eldest son of Otto of Carinthia, over the younger, the son of Conrad, younger son of Otto of Carinthia. 1024-1039. Conrad II. (the Salian). 1025-1030. Revolt of the Babenberger, Ernst, duke of Swabia, step- son of Conrad, son of his wife Gisela, resulting from the con- flicting claims of the emperor and of Ernst as the personal heir of Henry II., upon Burgundy (Aries). Ernst fell in bat- tle in 1030. 1026. Expedition to Italy. Conrad crowned king of Italy in Milan, but obliged to bring Pavia and Ravenna to submission by force of arms. Crowned emperor, 1027, in the presence of Cnut the Great, king of England and Denmark, and Rudolf III. of Burgundy (Aries). The Eider made the boundary between Germany and Denmark, Schleswig, therefore, was abandoned to the Danes. Invasion of Germany by the Poles under Mieczeslav II., where they ravaged the country to the Saale, and carried 10,000 prisoners to Poland. Conrad hastened from the Rhine, and provided defences against a new inroad, but attacked the Hungarians, though without success (1030). In 1031 Conrad attacked the Poles, forced them to surrender their prisoners, and restored Lusatia to the empire. Miec- zeslav became the Emperor's vassal (1032). After the death of Rudolf III. (1032), Burgundy, that is, the kingdom of Aries, which was formed in 933, by the union of cisjur- ane and trans jurane Burgundy (p. 193), was, in three campaigns, wrested from the hands of Odo, Count of Champagne, who claimed it as heir of Henry II. and united with the empire. At a later time, however, the Romance portions of Burgundy, the lands along the Rhone, Saone, here, and Durance, fell to France^; the Alamannian por- tions (Franche Comte, Switzerland) remained a part of the empire. In Italy the small fiefs were made legally hereditary, and this became the common custom in Germany. To counterbalance this tendency Conrad seems to have designed doing away with ducal offices, and making the royal supremacy immediate and hereditary throughout all German lands. 1036. On his return from a second expedition to Italy, Conrad 1039. died at Utrecht. His son had been crowned at Aachen in June 4th his boyhood, and now succeeded to the throne as 1 Otherwise known as the kingdom of Aries. — TRANS. A. D. Italy and Germany. 199 1039-1056. Henry III. (called ;'' the Black "). The imperial power at its highest point. King Henry was for a time, also, duke of Bavaria, Swabia, and Franconia. The ducal throne in Carinthia was long vacant. 1042-1044. In Hungary the king, Peter, whom Henry had rein- stated at the expense of three campaigns, became a vassal of the empire. Extension of the Bavarian Eastmark to the Leitha. Tedious wars with the unruly Godfrey the Bearded, duke of upper Lotharingia, which was at last (1049) given to the Alsacian count Gerhard, the ancestor of the house of Lorraine.1 Godfrey went to Italy (1054), where he married Beatrix of Tuscany. Henry favored the attempt to introduce the Treuga Dei (p. 203). Proclamation of a general king's peace in the empire. 1046-1047. First expedition to Rome. Henry caused a synod to depose the three rival Popes (Sylvester III., Benedict IX., Gregory VI.), each of whom was accused of simony, and appointed a German, Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, Pope, as Clement II., who crowned him emperor (Christmas, 1046). After Clement, Henry appointed three German Popes in succession. He invested Drogo, son of the Norman Tancred of Hauteville, with Apulia. 1055. Second Roman expedition. Henry died at Gozlar, Oct. 28, 1056. He was succeeded by his son, 1056-1106. Henry IV., six years old, who had been crowned king at the age of four. Spoiled in his youth, he grew to manhood passionate but weak. His mother, Agnes of Poitou, the regent, gave Bavaria to the Saxon count Otto of Nord- heim, Carinthia to Berthold of Zahringen, Swabia to her son-in-law, Rudolf of Rheinf eld. Abduction of the young king from Kaiserswert to Cologne (1062) by Archbishop Anno, who was soon obliged to share the administration of the empire with Adalbert, the ambitious arch- bishop of Bremen (1065). Conspiracy of the princes against Adal- bert of Bremen. Imperial Diet at Tribur (1066). Adalbert banished from court for three years (f 1072). Otto of Nordheim deposed from the dukedom of Bavaria, which was given to his son-in-law, Welf, son of the margrave Azzo of Este. (The house of Welf was extinct in the male line.) Magnus, duke of Saxony, kept in confinement. Revolt of the Saxons, whom Henry had displeased by the erection of numerous fortresses in their land. Flight of Henry from the Harzburg (1073), humiliating peace, de- struction of the Harzburg. Henry defeated the Saxons on the Unstrut (1075). Contest with Pope 1073-1085. Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) , descended from a family having a small estate in southern Tuscany. He was educated at the monastery of Cluny. He had, as 1 In possession of Lorraine down to 1737. See Modern History. Second Period, § 3. 200 Mediaeval History. A. D. cardinal-subdeacon, afterwards as archdeacon and chancellor, con- ducted the temporal affairs of the papacy under Jive Popes. Strict enforcement of the celibacy of the clergy, war against simony (Acts viii. 18), and lay investitures, whereby is meant the investi- ture of clergy with the secular estates and rights of their spiritual benefices by the temporal power, by means of the ring and staff. Gregory in alliance with Robert Guiscard, duke of the Normans, and with the dissatisfied princes in Germany. Henry excommuni- cated (1076) ; suspended from his royal office by the Diet at Tribur (Oct. 1076), and the ultimate decision referred to a Diet to be held at Augsburg in February, 1077. A few days before Christmas Henry left Speier in secret with his wife, son, and one attendant; crossing the Alps under great hardship, 1077. Henry humbled himself before the Pope at Ca- Jan. 25-28. nossa, a castle belonging to the Pope's firm friend, the powerful Matilda, marchioness of Tuscany. After three days' delay, passed by Henry in the garb of a penitent in the snow-covered castle court, Gregory admitted him to his presence, and gave him a conditional absolution. Fortune turned in Henry's favor. Rudolf of Swabia, whom the malcontents in Germany had elected king (March, 1077) at Forch- heim, was defeated and mortally wounded in the battle on the Elsier (1080). Swabia given to Frederic of Hohenstaufen, Henry's son-in- law (1079). Henry, a second time excommunicated (1080), went to Italy, cap- tured Rome, and was crowned by Clement III., a Pope of his own creation. Gregory VII., besieged in the castle of St. Angelo, was re- leased by the Norman, Robert Guiscard, and died (1085) at Salerno. (Dilexi justitiam et odi iniquitatem, propterea morior in exilio). The influence of Gregory VII. had been felt in all parts of the Christian world. It was under his auspices, some have claimed at his suggestion, that William of Normandy undertook the conquest of England. Henry was involved in a contest with a new king set up by the Sax- ons, Hermann of Salm, son of the count of Luxemburg. Hermann, however, abdicated in 1088, and died the same year. Submission of the Saxons upon receiving assurance that their ancient privileges should be respected. The church was still hostile. Marriage of Matilda of Tuscany with Welf V., son of duke Welf of Bavaria. 1090-1097. Third expedition to Italy. Henry captured Mantua after a siege of eleven months, but was in general unsuccess- ful. Revolt of his son Conrad (1092). Henry returned to Germany in 1097, in which year the bands of the first cru- saders, under Walter of Perejo and Peter the Hermit, crossed Germany. War with Conrad (died 1101), and afterwards with Henry's other son, Henry, who imprisoned his father. Flight of the emperor' to Luttich, where he died Aug. 7, 1106. He was succeeded by his younger son, A. D. France. 201 1106-1125. Henry V. The king went to Rome, took Pope Paschal II. prisoner, and forced him to perform the coronation and acknowledge the imperial right of investiture (1111). As soon as the emperor had left Italy the Lateran Council declared the concessions invalid as having been extorted by force, and a second council at Vienna excommunicated Henry. Wars with German princes who were in revolt, especially with Lothar of Saxony, and the archbishops of Mainz and Cologne. Vic- tory of the Saxons at Welfesholze, near Mansfeld (1115). The war of the investiture was ended, after a long contest with Calixtus 1L, by the 1122. Concordat of Worms. Election of bishops and abbots in Germany to take place in the presence of the emperor or his representatives ; investiture by the emperor must precede consecration, but was to be conferred not with the ring and staff, but with the sceptre. In Italy and Burgundy in- vestiture was to follow canonical election and consecration. Ecclesi- astics holding secular benefices were bound to perform the feudal duties. (See p. 218.) §2. FRANCE. (See p. 187.] 843-987. Carolingian kings of the Franks, 843-877. Charles the Bald. His rule was limited to the neighborhood of Laon; Brittany and Septimania were independent ; his supremacy in Aquitania was but nominal. Ravages of the Northmen incessant, daring, terrible. Sack of Saintes, Limoges, Bordeaux, Tours, Rouen, Orleans, Toulouse, Ba- yeux, Evreux, Nantes. Some quarters of Paris, even, were ravaged. Lotharingia divided between France and Germany by the treaty of Meersen (870^. Ourthe, Meuse, Jura, the boundary between Germany and France. Charles wasted his energy striving for the imperial crown. Fiefs proclaimed hereditary at the diet of Chiersi (877). Charles died on Mont Cenis, returning from an unsuccessful expedition to Italy. Rise of scholasticism. Joannes Scotus Erigena. Hincmar oj Rheims. Charles was succeeded by his son, 877-879. Ludwig the Stammerer (Louis II., le Begue). 879-882. Ludwig III. (Louis III.) in the north of France. 879-884. Karlmann in Aquitaine, and over the whole kingdom after 882. The ravages of the Northmen increased in frequency and dura- tion in spite of Ludwig's victory at Saucourt in 881 (Ludwig- slied}. Revolt of Boso, duke of cisjurane Burgundy (879). The heir of Ludwig II., Charles, being but five years old, the nobles chose 884-887. Charles the Fat of Germany, king, thus uniting the whole empire once more in one hand. Siege of Paris by the Northmen under Rollo (Hrolf) in 885. Heroic defence by Elides (Odo), count of Paris. Charles, consent- ing to buy the retreat of the Northmen, was deposed in 887. (Died in 888 in Germany.) 202 Mediaeval History. A. D. The empire of Charles reduced to six clearly distinct states : Italy, Germany, Lorraine, Provence, Transjurane Burgundy (formed by the union of western Switzerland and Franctie Comte, under Rudolf I., nephew of Eudes), France. In France the nobles passed over the infant Charles, and elected 883-898. Eudes, count of Paris, son of Robert the Strong. The opposition party among the nobles advocated the claims of 893-923. Charles III., the Simple, who was not generally acknowl- edged until after the death of Eudes. In his reign the 911 (?)• Northmen gained a permanent foothold on the Seine (Normandy), under Rolf (Hollo), the first duke of Nor- mandy, with feudal sovereignty over Brittany. Treaty of St. Claire sur Epte, near Ghisors. Baptism of Hollo under the name of Robert. Revolts against Charles. Robert, duke of France, brother of Eudes, proclaimed king, but slain in the battle of Soissons (923). His place was filled by his son-in-law, Rudolf of Burgundy. Charles treacher- ously seized by Herbert of Vermandois and imprisoned (died in 919). His wife, Eadgyfa (Edwina), fled to her brother ^Ethelstane, king of England, with her three-year-old son Ludwig IV., hence called d'Oatre Mer (Beyond Seas). Rudolf dying in 936 without issue, the nobles, Hagli the White, duke of France (f 956), Herbert of Vermandois, and William Longsword of Normandy, recalled 936-954. Ludwig from Beyond Seas (Louis IV., cl'Outremer). in whose reign the country was torn with civil war between the king, Hugh the White, or Great, and Otto, king of Germany (east Franks). Ludwig was succeeded by his son, 954-986. Lothar, who was under the influence of Hugh Capet, son of Hugh the Great. An unsuccessful attempt to acquire Lorraine brought on an invasion of France by Otto II. of Germany. Lothar was succeeded by his son, 986-987. Ludwig V. (le Faineant*), who, after a short and stormy reign, died suddenly (987), without issue. The direct line of Charles the Great was extinct. The only man who had a claim to the succession was the uncle of Ludwig, Charles, duke of Lorraine, a vassal of the emperor. 987-1328. Capetian dynasty, direct line. 987-996. Hugh Capet was chosen king, but was powerless to resist the great feudal nobles, each of whom surpassed the king in military power and ex- tent of territory (dukes of Normandy, Brittany, Burgundy, Aquitaine; counts of Flanders, Champagne, Vermandois). The royal domain reached from the Somme to the Loire, with Normandy and Anjoii on the west and Champagne on the east. Paris in the centre was the capital of the new French monarchy, as Laon had been the capita] of the old German kingdom. Capture; of Charles the Carolingian. Gerbert, archbishop of Rheims, afterwards Pope Sylvester II. Un- der Hugh's son, A. D. England. 203 996-1031. Robert, the royal power was wasted to a shadow. The king, pious, weak, and absurd, was involved in domestic trouble and in constant wars with the nobles. Rising of the serfs (i)97). Famine (1030-103^). The Vexin on the Seine given to Normandy. Robert's son, 1031-1060. Henry I., retained scarcely a trace of power, beyond the nomination of the bishops. Introduction of the "Truce of God" (Treuga Dei) by the clergy (at first [1041] in Guienne), whereby a cessation of all feuds was en- joined by the church during church festivals and from Wednesday eoening to Monday morning in eozry week (only 80 days in a year avail- able for warfare). The crown having now become hereditary, Henry was succeeded quietly by his son, 1060-1108. Philip I., whose long reign, distinguished by no deeds of his own, is re- markable for two important events : the conquest of England by the Normans (1036), and the first crusade (1096). (Sec, r>. ?V> §3. ENGLAND. (Seep. 181.) 828-1066. England under the West Saxon kings. 828-837. Ecgberht, king of Wessex" (p. 180), ruler of Sussex, Kent, Essex, overlord of Mercia, East Anglia, Northumbria, Wales f and Straihclyde. Ravages of the Northmen. Pouring in swarms from the northern kingdom* of Denmark and Scandinavia, these pirates, the vikings, harassed England and the continent almost beyond belief. The Eng- lish called the Northmen " Danes," although not all their assailants came from that kingdom. The Northmen were still heathens. The epoch of their invasions falls into three divisions : I. (789-866) Period of invasion and ravage without settlement. II. (866-1003) Period of settlement and conquest in various parts of the country. III. (1003-1066) Period of political conquest. The first recorded attack was in 789 (p. 180). In 834 Sheppey was ravaged. Defeat of the Danes at Hengestesdun (836). Ecgberht was succeeded by his son .SJthelwulf (837-858). In 851 the Danes took London and Canterbury ; in 855 they wintered for the first time in Sheppey. jEthelwulf married Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald, king of the West Franks. He was succeeded by his son .SJthelbald (858-860), who married his father's widow. On his deafvh Judith returned to the continent and married Baldwin, after- wards count of Flanders. From this union descended Matilda, wife of William the Conqueror. ^Ethelbald was succeeded by his brother JEthelberht (860-866), who was followed by his brother, 866-871. .ffithelred I. Settlement of the Danes in Northumbria (romance of Ragnaf Lodbrog}. The Danes in East Anglia (866), in Mercia (868). 870. East Anglia conquered and settled by the Danes. Martyrdom of St. JSdmund, king of the East Angles. 204 Mediaeval History. A. D. Sack of Peterborough and Croyland. Danes in Wessex (871). Nine battles were fought with the invaders this year. At ^Escesdun the Danes were defeated by JEthelred and ^Elfred his brother. 871-901. Alfred the Great. In the earlier years of his reign Wessex was at peace, but the other parts of England still suffered from Danish inroads. In 87G Danes settled in Northumbria, and Guthorm, Danish king in East Anglia, entered Wessex. In 877 lands in Mercia were divided among the Danes. 878. The Danes ravaged Wessex. Alfred took refuge in the forest. Erection of the fortress of Athelney. Defeat of the Danes at Ethandun. Treaty of Wedmore, between JElfred and Guthorm. The Danes left Wessex, but East Anglia and a part of Mercia were given up to them. London, how- ever, was retained by zElfred. The country of the Danes, Danelagh, as it came to be called, now embraced the larger part of England. 880-893. Peace in Wessex. ^Elfred was a skilful warrior but no lover of war. His genius was for civil government. Revision of the laws; separation of the judicial from the executive department. Trial by jury was not intro- duced by yElfred; that institution was of Norman origin, a develop- ment of principles of old Frankish law. Creation of a fleet (88::). Submission of several Welsh provinces. Encouragement of learning. Bseda's Ecclesiastical History, Orosius' History, and Bcethius' Consola- tion of Philosophy, translated into Anglo-Saxon by Alfred. Voyages of Othhere and Wulfhere along the northern shores of Europe under- taken at Alfred's request. Asser. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle probably put into shape in this reign. The Danish war broke out again in 893 with an invasion of Kent. Defeat of the Danes at Buttington. In 901 AUfred died. He left five children : two sons, Eadward and jEthelweard, and three daughters, ^Bthelflaed the "Lady of the Mercians," wife of Mfhelred, (p. 203) liain the Conqueror. 901-925. Eadward the Elder. Erection of fortresses along the Mercian frontier by Eadward and ^Ethel/Iced. Conquest of the Five Boroughs (Derby, Lincoln, Leices- ter, Stamford, Nottingham) by ^Ethelflsed. Annexation of Mercia tc Wessex. Conquest of East Anglia and Essex. Submission of Strati- clyde and all the Scots (924). Eadward lord of all Britain. Wes- sex, Kent, Sussex, he ruled by inheritance ; Mercia, Essex, East A nglia, by conquest from the Danes; Northumberland, Wales, Scotland, Strafh- clyde, as overlord. Eadward died in 925, and was succeeded by his son. 925-940. JEthelstan. League of Scots, Welsh, and Danes crushed in 926. Again A. D. England. 205 renewed, it was again broken up by the defeat of the allies in the 937. Battle of Brunanburh. JSthelstan was succeeded by his brother Eadmund (940- 946). Revolt of Danes and Scots. Reconquest of the Five Boroughs and the Danelagh. Cumberland given as a fief to Malcolm, king of Scots. Dunctan appointed abbot of Glastonbury. Murder of Ead- mund, who was succeeded by his brother Eadred (946-955). A revolt of the Danes was crushed in 954 ; final submission of the Danelagh. Eadwig (955-959), nephew of Eadred, quarrelled with Dunstan, and drove him from the country. He was succeeded by his brother, 959-975. Eadgar, the under king of Mercia. Dunstan, recalled in 958, arch- bishop of Canterbury 959, was the true ruler. The royal power stood high. Revision of the laws. Secular priests were out of favor, and monks were installed in many of the wealthiest churches. Mainte- nance of a large fleet. Eadgar was followed by his son Bad ward (the martyr), murdered 978. 978-1016. -ffithelred II., the Unready,1 son of Eadgar, in whose reign the political conquest of England was under- taken by the Danish sovereigns (p. 203). Danish invasions began, after a long interval, in 980. Death of Dunstan, 988. Battle of Maldon against the Danes (991), when Brihtnoth, ealdorman of the East Saxons, fell. (Song of Brihtnoth's Death.) In this year (991) the plan of buying oif the Danes was adopted, 10,000 pounds being paid, which were raised by a special tax (Danegeld). In 994 Anlaf (Olaf Tryggvesson) and Swegen (Svend with the Forked Beard) rav- aged Kent, and were paid 16,000 pounds. Ravages of the Northmen in 997, 998, 999, 1001, 1002, 1003, 1004, 1006, 1009, 1010, 1011, 1013, 1015. 1002. 24,000 pounds paid to the Northmen. Massacre of all (?) Danes in England, upon one day (Nov. 13, Danish Vespers) by order of ^Ethelred. Swegen resolves on the conquest of Eng- land. Marriage of jEthelred and Emma, daughter of Richard I., duke of Normandy. In 1007, 36,000 pounds, in 1012, 48,000 pounds, were paid to the Northmen. Death of Swegen (1014). Election of his son Cnut (Canute) to succeed him. The Danes had now recov- ered all that part of England which they had acquired by the treaty of Wedmore (p. 204) in 878. Upon the death of ^thelred the Danish party in England chose Cnut king, but the English party, which centred in London, chose Eadmund Ironside (1016), son of ^Ethel- red. He made a brave stand, and many battles were fought this year. After the defeat of Eadmund at Aasandun peace was con- cluded. Eadmund received Wessex, Essex, East Anglia, and Lon- don ; Cnut received Northumberland and Mercia. The nominal over- lordship of England remained with Eadmund. After the death of Eadmund (1016) Cnut became king of England. 1 Suoh is his conventional title: probably "Despiser of Counsel" would bet- ter convey the meaning of " Redeless.'" 206 Mediaeval History. A. D. 1016-1042. Danish supremacy over England. 1016-1035. Cnut. England divided into four governments : Wessex, under Cnut; Mercia, East Anglia, Northumberland, under Jarls or Earls. Huscarls, Cnut's personal following. Cnut in Rome (102.7). Laws of Cnut (10i:8). Subjugation of Malcolm, king of Scots (1031). Cnut was succeeded by his sons Harold (1035-104:0) and Harthacnut (1040-1042). Godwine, earl of Wessex ; Leofric, earl of Mercia ; Siward, earl of Northumberland. On Harthacnut' 's death the son of jEthelred, 1042-1066. Eadward, the Confessor, was elected king. He had been educated at the Norman court, and during his reign Norman influence was supreme at the court of England. The country was in the hands of the great earls Godwine, Leofric, Siward. In 1051, Godwine, father-in-law of the king, was ex- iled. Recalled in 1052 he brought about a general banishment of the French. Upon the death of Godwine his power passed to his son Harold (1053). In 1055 Harold's brother Tostig succeeded Siward as earl of Northumberland. In 1057 Harold's brother Gyrth was made earl in Norfolk and Suffolk, and another brother of Harold, Leofmne, earl of Kent and Essex. Subjugation of Wales by Harold (1063). Revolt of Northumberland (1065). Deposition of Tostig and election of Morkere, grandson of Leofric of Mercia, and brother of Edwin, then earl of Mercia. On the death of Eadward, 1066. Harold, earl of Wessex, was elected king. A claim to the succession was immediately advanced by Wil- liam, duke of Normandy, upon three grounds. 1. The alleged be- quest of Eadward the Confessor. 2. An oath taken by Harold upon occasion of his having been shipwrecked on the coast of Normandy about 1064, in virtue of which he had become William's vassal, and had promised to marry his daughter and secure him the succession after the death of Eadward. 3. The right of his wife, Matilda (p. 204). The claim being rejected, William at once prepared to assert it by arms. Invasion of Yorkshire by Harold Hardrada, king of Norway, and Tostig, brother of Harold of England. Sept. 25. Battle of Stamfordbridge. Defeat and death of the invaders. William had meantime landed at Pevensey. Harold hastened south, but was defeated in the Oct. 14. Battle of Hastings or Senlac, and fell on the field. Eadgar JEtheling, grandson of JEadmund Ironsides, was chosen king, but soon submitted, with all the chief men, to the victor. Election of Wtt* Ham. (See p- 2*9.) A. D. The North. 207 § 4. THE NORTH. (Seep. 168.) Denmark. Northern historians of the Middle Age refer the conquest of the North to the Asas under Odin (p. 168), who gave Denmark to his son. After him came Dan the Famous, who gave a name to the king- dom. Under Frode the Peaceful, who reigned at the beginning of our era, Denmark enjoyed a Golden Age. In the eighth century the famous battle of Bravalla was fought between Harold Hildetand, king of Denmark, and Sigurd Ring, king of Sweden, and ended iii favor of the Swedes. Thus far all is mythical. The true history of Denmark begins with Gorm the Old. It is clear, however, that the Danes had settled in two bands : one occupying the peninsula, Jutland, Schleswig, and Holstem; the other occupying the eastern islands Zealand, Funen, etc. Both divisions, between which there was scanty intercourse, were ruled by numerous petty chiefs (smaa-kongar), among the most famous of whom was the king and high-priest of Lejre in Zealand, who was at the head of a loose confederacy of the islands. When Jutes and Angles in the fifth century migrated to Britain (p. 176), Danes from the islands seem to have taken their place in the peninsula. Godfrey, king of Jutland, was embroiled with Charles the Great, and built a Dannevirk or line of fortresses across the peninsula. Under his successor, Hemming, the Eyder was made the boundary between Denmark and the Frankish empire. In 822 Christianity preached in Denmark by Ebbo, archbishop of Rheims. In 8^6 Ansgarius, "the Apostle of the North," labored in Denmark, but without lasting results. Gorm the Old (about 860-935), the first king of all Denmark, was a devout heathen, who persecuted the new faith until forced to refrain by Henry I. of Germany. Erection of the great Dannevirke between the Sley and the Eyder. Gorm ruled the peninsula, the islands, and Skaania and Bleking, the southern provinces of Sweden. Harold Blue-tooth (Blaatand}, 935-985. War with Norway. Otto II. of Ger- many, in 975, forced Harold to consent to the introduction of Chris- tianity in his kingdom. Svend Forked Beard (Tveskjced), 985-1014. Successful revolt of the tributary Wends. Svend in England (p. £05), Knut the Great (1014-1035), king of Denmark and of England. He passed most of his time in England, which led to an attempt on the part of Ulf-Jarl to make Plardeknat king in Denmark. It failed, and Knut later had Ulf killed. In 1028 Knut was proclaimed king of Norway. Hardeknut (Hathacnut) (1035-1042) succeeded his father in Den- mark. His war with Magnus of Norway ended in an agreement whereby whoever should outlire the other should inherit his kingdom. Under this treaty Magnus ruled Denmark, 1042-1047. He was suc- ceeded by Svend Estridsen, son of Ulf-Jarl and Estride, sister of Knvt (1047-1076). War for seventeen years with Harold Hardrada of Norway was brought to a close in 1064. War with the Wends. Svend raised Denmark to a position of power, which was lost under 208 Mediaeval History. A, r* his five sons who followed him: Harold Heyn (1076-1080), St Knut (1080-1086), Olaf Hunger (1086-1095), Erik Ejegod (1095- 1103), Niels (1105-1135). (See p. 28S.) Sweden. (See p. 209.) Sweden was the first of the Scandinavian kingdoms to attain power. According to tradition there were two races in the country besides the Finns, the Gota or Gauta (Goths) and the Svea. The Svea traced their origin to the followers of Odin. Njord, son of Odin, was the first king of Sweden. His son, Frey Yngve, built the temple of Upp-sala, and founded the line of the Ynglingar, which ruled the Svea until Ingjald Ill-raada so angered the petty kings by his cruelty that they revolted. The king burned himself and his family, and his son Olaf fled to Norway. Ivar Vidfadme, king of Skaania, which was independent before its conquest by Gorm of Denmark, succeeded Ing- jald. This was in the seventh century. In the eighth (?) century falls the mythical battle of Bravalla, where Sigurd Ring, king of Sweden, defeated Harold Hildetand of Den- mark. Sigurd's son, Ragnar Lodbrog, is even more famous in story than his father. (Tale of his capture by ./Ella of Northumberland, and of his death in a pit of serpents, which his sons avenged by the slaughter of ^Ella. See p. 203, where the discrepancy in date is to be noted.) In the ninth century authentic history begins. Mission of Ansga- rius (829-865) to Sweden, where his preaching met with great suc- cess. Erik Emundsson, king of Sweden (died in 885 ?), made im- portant conquests in the East. At the same time bands of Swedes settled around Novgorod, subjugated the Slavs, and laid the foundation of the future empire of Russia (Varinjar, Russ.\ Olaf the Lap-king (993-1024) was the first Christian king of Swe- den. War with St. Olaf of Norway. The last king of the Upsala line was Emund Gammle (the Old), who died about 1056. Stenkil (1056-1066). (See p. Mi.) Norway. (See p. 209.) According to tradition Norway was first settled by Olaf Trcetelje of the Ynglingar line, who fled from Sweden after the death of his father Ingjald. The country was governed by numerous petty kings, and remained weak and distracted, like Sweden and Denmark, until, as in those countries, a process of consolidation set in in the ninth cen- tury. Halfdan the Black (841-863) reduced many of the petty kings to subjection, and his son, Harald Haarfager (863-930), completed the work of conquest and introduced the feudal system. Defeat of the Jarls at Hafurstfjord, 872. These changes, and the repression of free- booting which followed them, induced a great migration of the Jarls, the most famous of the vikings. Establishment of Northmen under Rolf Ganger (Hollo) in Normandy. Conquest of Dublin by Olauf in 852. Discovery and settlement of Iceland, 860-875, etc. Erik Blodiixe (930-934), Hakon (934-961), Harald Graafell, Hakon Jarl (988-995). Olaf Try ggvasson (996-1000). He disappeared at the A. D. Spanish Peninsula. 209 battle of Svold, where he was defeated by Olaf the Lap-king of Sweden, Svend Tveskceg of Denmark, and Erik and Svend, sous of Hakon Jarl. The victors divided Norway between them. Discovery and settlement of Greenland by Erik the Red (985). Vinlaiid (America) seen by Bjarne, and visited by Leif and others, 980-1011. See p. 281. Norway was again united under St. Olaf (II.) 1015-1030, in whose reign Christianity was introduced. Magnus the Good, son of Oiaf (1035-1047), king of Denmark from 1042 to 1047. The Graagaas, or book of the law. Harald III., Hardrada, founded Opslo (Chris- tiania), and fell at Stamford Bridge 1066 (p. 206). Magnus II. (1066- 1069), Olaf (1069-1093), Magnus III. Barfod (1095-1103). Con- quest of the Orkneys and Hebrides ; of Dublin. Death of Magnus in Ireland. (See p. § 5. SPANISH PENINSULA. (See p. 183.) 755-1031. Caliphate of Cordova, founded by the last Ommiad, Abd-er-Rahman (p. 183). Most brilliant period of the Moorish civilization, in the ninth and tenth centuries. Abd-er-Rahman III., Hakem II., Almanzor, his general. The populous city of Cordova, the seat of science and arts. 1031. Dissolution of the caliphate of Cordova into a number of small states. The Morabethes or Almoravides (Yussaf), sum- moned from Mauretania, successfully opposed the Christians (1086), but made themselves masters of Mohammedan Spain. Christian Kingdoms. Asturia (Oviedo), since the conquest of the country as far as the Duero by Alfonso III. in the tenth century, called the king- dom of Leon, after the new residence, Leon. Castile, so called from the castles erected against the Arabs, origi- nally a county of Asturia. Navarre, a border state in the Pyrenees : first a county under French supremacy, then independent. Sancho 1. assumed the title King of Navarre (905), and subjugated Aragon, originally a Frankish county north of Navarre. 1000-1035. Sancho III. the Great, king of Navarre, and, by inheritance, king of Castile, divided at his death his king- dom among his three sons. As Leon and Castile were soon united, there existed henceforward three Christian kingdoms in Spain : 1, Castile-Leon ; 2, Navarre ; 3, Aragon. We must also reckon the county of Barcelona, which grew out of the Spanish mark of - Charles the Great, and was independent after the time of Charles the Bald. Wars of Ruy Diaz, called by the Arabs Cid, i. e. Lord (died 1099). (See p. £00.) 210 Mediaeval History. A. D. § 6. THE EAST. Eastern Empire. 527-565. Justinian L, emperor of the East. Belisarius. Narses (p. 175). Codification of the law in the form known as the corpus juris civilis (Tribdnianus), comprising : 1. Institutiones. 2. Pandectce or Digesta. 3. Codex. 4. Novellce, later additions. Parties of the circus : Greens, Blues, Reds, and Whites. Bloody contests (" Nika," 532). The church of St. Sophia, built by Con- staiitine (Hagia Sophia), burnt and rebuilt with great splendor. Decline of the empire under Justinian's successors (cruelty, mutila- tions). A part of the Asiatic and African provinces conquered by the Persians and afterwards by the Arabs. 726-842. Contest over images. Image-breakers (et/coi/o/fAoa-Tat, icon- oclasts) and image worshippers (ei/covoSoGAot). 717-741. Leo the Isaurian. Image worship prohibited. 780-802. Irene, who out of love of power had her own son blinded, restored image worship. The accession of a woman to the imperial throne served as a pretext to legalize the transfer of the imperial crown from the East to the West. 842. Theodora fully restored image worship. 867-1057. Eastern emperors of the Macedonian line. The empire, hard pressed by Arabs, Bulgarians, and Magyars. The emperors Nicephorus Phocas and John Zimisces, whom Theophano, widow of Romanus II. (died 962), placed on the throne, partially reconquered the provinces which the Arabs and Bulgarians had torn from the empire. (See p. 2^0.) Caliphate of Bagdad under the Abbasides (750-1258). Immediately after the reigns of Haroun-al-Raschid and Mamun (p. 186), the power ot tiie caliphs began to decline. 935. The kimir al Onira (i. e. prince of princes) received all the secular power; the caliph remained only spiritual head of the faithful. 969, Egypt independent under Fatimites. 1058. Seljuk Turks (Togrul Bey, Alp Arslan, Malek Shah} at- tained the dignity of Emir, al Omra. Seljuk supremacy. 1092. The empire of the Seljuks separated into a number of small sultanates (Iran, Kerman, Aleppo, Damascus, Iconium orJKoum). India. The early history is exceedingly uncertain, and the most impor- tant events are assigned dates differing from one another by over four centuries. The Guptas, who succeeded in power the Sahs of Surdshha (60 B. C.-235 A. D.), occupied Kanauj from 319 to about 470, when they were overthrown by Tatar invaders (Huns ?), and the Valabhw, who dwelt in Cutch and the northern part of Bombay, were the principal power in India, 480-722. A. D. The East. 211 Actual authentic history begins with the Arabic invasions. Sind was the first province to feel the Mohammedan attack. It was con- quered in 711, but in 750 a general uprising expelled the victors. About 1000-1186. Supremacy of the Sultans of Ghazni. The next great attack was made by a Turk, Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, (in Kabul), who invaded India seventeen times, and con- quered the country to the Ganges. The decisive struggle took place at Peshawar, where Mahmud was victorious. In 1024 famous expe- dition to Guzerat. Destruction of the idol pillar filled with jewels. (?) Mahmud was succeeded by fourteen rulers of his house, the last of whom, Bahrain, was conquered by Allah-ud-din of Ghor. Bahram's son, Khusru, founded at Lahore the first Mohammedan dynasty in India proper. 1186-1206. Supremacy of the Afghans of Ghor. In 1186, Khusru's son was made captive by Muhammed Ghori, after which the predominance exercised by the Turks of Ghazni passed into the hands of the Afghans of Ghor. Muhammed Ghori was killed in 1206. (See p. 241.) China. (See p. S2.) 590-618. Dynasty of Suy, under whose energetic sway China was partially rescued from the confusion of the Three Kingdoms (p. 32). 618-907. Dynasty of Tang, founded by the usurper, Le Yuen, who, as emperor, took the name of Kau-tsu. The first part of this period down to 718 was a brilliant time for China, and the Golden Age of literature. The earlier rulers (Tai-tsung, 627-650 ; Kaou-tsung, 650-683; Woo How, 683-705, the wife of Kaou-tsung, who usurped the throne on her hus- band's death) were valiant warriors and wise rulers, who held the Tatars in check, recovered much of the former possessions of China in Central Asia, and raised the empire to a commanding position among other nations ; 643, embassies from Persia and Constantinople in China. From 718 the attacks of the Tatars increased in vehemence. From 763 to 780 their inroads were incessant. Under Woo-tsung (841-847) temples were destroyed, monasteries and nunneries closed, and all foreign priests (Christian, Persian, Bud- dhist) banished. The reaction was, however, short-lived. Inven- tion of printing. 907-960. Five dynasties (Later Leang, Later Tang, Later Tsin, Later Han, Later Chow) occupied the throne within this period, but the power of each was very limited. In Ho-nan, Sze-chuen, and other provinces independent states arose. 960-976. Chaou-kwang-yin, as emperor, Tai-tsoo, the founder of the dynasty of the Later Sung, fought with success against the Khitan Tatars, who had occupied the whole of Manchuria, estab- lishing there the empire of Hia. Succeeding emperors were less for- tunate, and paid tribute to the Tatars (976-1101). (Seep. 241.} 212 Mediceval History. A. a, Japan.1 From the reign of Ojin (270-310, p. 33) to the close of the sixth century, the history of Japan is a record of quiet progress in civiliza- tion, under the influence of continental intercourse and of increasing wealth. Throughout this period, as before, the Mikados were actual sovereigns and personal commanders. The close of this epoch saw the introduction of Buddhism into Japan and its rapid spread (p. 33). The seventh century is of surpassing interest in the history of Japan, for then it was that causes long working in silence and un- seen resulted in changes subversive of the entire social and political life of the Japanese, — changes which led to the withdrawal of the Mikado from personal intercourse with his subjects behind a veil of formal etiquette and heightened reverence, and to the predominance of the military over the civil power, until the actual government of the country passed from its legal sovereign, the Mikado, into the hands of an usurping military chieftain, thus creating a long-enduring, much misunderstood system of dual government, — changes whose final outcome was a feudal system corresponding to that known to mediseval Europe, which, with its legitimate offspring, oppression, weakness, anarchy, lasted until 1868. These changes were the following : I. The growth of a numerous court nobility of imperial, and hence of divine, descent. II. The creation of numerous offices of state which became the property of the court nobility. III. The division of the male population into an agricultural and a military class. IV. The separation of state offices into two sections, the civil and the military, and the continuance of each in the hands of one group of noble families. I. The kuge, or court nobility, owed their numbers to the practice of polygamy, which the necessity of providing against the extinction of a divine dynastic line imposed on the Mikados. They comprise at present one hundred and fifty-five families, which form among them- selves larger groups, or clans. Such clans are : the Fujiwara, the most famous of all the kuge ; the Sugawara ; the Taira (Heike in Chinese characters) ; the Minamoto (Genji in Chinese charac- ters). II. In 603 the requirements of a more extensive empire caused the establishment of eight great administrative departments, and of a host of smaller offices, which were filled by members of the kuge, and gradually became vested in certain families. III. The demand of the growing empire for increased military efficiency led to the division of the whole male population into two classes : 1. the class of agricultural laborers, comprising all who were unfit for military service ; they were relegated to a life of un- broken toil, and were burdened with the annual payment of a quan- tity of rice sufficient for the support of the 2. military class, the Samurai, which included all the bravest and most intellectual men in Japan. Relieved from the necessity of working by the tax received from the first class, and not overburdened with military duties, these 1 Grilfis, The Mikado's Empire. Heed, Japan. Adams, History of Japan. A. D. Crusades. 213 men were free to devote themselves to the pursuit of literature and learning, forming the best element in the nation. IV. The Fujiwara, increasing in power, gradually absorbed all civil offices, while the military offices were filled from the two families of Taira and Minamoto, better known as Hei and Gen. Thus did the Fujiwara become enervated by the luxury of palace life ; thus did the Mikado, while his office gained in respect and reverence by its envi- ronment of titled officials, lose all real power, and sink to a mere pup- pet in the hands of intriguing nobles, to be installed and deposed at will ; thus did both emperor and court constantly lose ground before the growing influence of those energetic families to whom were given the active duties of military command. The generals, or Shoguns, became the "Mayors of the Palace" of Japan. So originated the dual government, which was not, as foreigners long thought, a con- stitutional institution, whereby the civil and military functions of gov- ernment were vested in the Shogun or temporal emperor (Tycoon), and the religious functions in the Mikado or spiritual emperor, but an un- constitutional innovation, wherein a subordinate officer had usurped that authority which belonged of right to the only emperor, the Mi- kado, and whose position that emperor had never recognized. The natural result of this state of affairs was the evolution of mili- tary feudalism, whose rise is considered in the next period. 794. The capital of the empire, the home of the Mikado and tho kuge, permanently fixed at Kioto, near Lake Biwa. 1156. Outbreak of war between the families of Gen and Hei (Mina- moto and Taira), which had previously shared the military offices in peace. (See p. 242.) THIRD PERIOD. EPOCH OF THE CRUSADES (1096-1270). § 1. CRUSADES. Cause : The pilgrimages of the Christians to the Holy Sepulchre, where St. Helena, mother of Constantino the Great, had built a vault for the Sepulchre and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, were inter- rupted after the Fatimites, and yet more after the Seljuks came to power ; ill-treatment of the pilgrims. The hermit Peter of Amiens demanded of the Pope Urban II. (1088-1099) assistance in freeing the holy places, and preached the Crusade in Italy (?) and France.1 Councils of the church at Pia- cenza and Clermont in Auvergne (1095). Address by the Pope ; uni- versal enthusiasm. (It is the will of God /) The undisciplined bands led by Peter, by the French knight Walter ofPacy, and his nephew Walter Senzaveir (the Penniless), and others, were for the most part, annihilated in Hungary and Bulgaria. 1 V. Sybel Gesch. des ersten Kreuzzuas, 1841, has shown on conclusive grounds that the idea of the Crusades originated principally with Pope Urban II. It has recently heen made doubtful whether Peter of Amiens had been iff the Holy Land at all before the first Crusade. 214 Mediaeval History. A. IX 1096-1099. First Crusade. Kingdom of Jerusalem. Leaders of the first Crusade : Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of lower Lotharingia ; his brothers, Baldwin and Eustach ; Robert, duke of Normandy, son of William the Conqueror ; Robert of Flanders ; Stephen of Blois ; Raymond IV., count of Toulouse ; Hugo of Ver- mandois, brother of Philip I., king of France • Bohemond of Taren- tum, son of Robert Guiscard ; his nephew Tancred. They led 200,- 000 or 300,000 warriors to the East. Bishop Adhemar of Puy, who was the first to take the Cross at Clermont, went with the expedition as papal legate (died 1098). No king took part personally in this Crusade. The princes went to Constantinople, where all except Raymond did feudal homage to the emperor, Alexius Comnenus. Attack upon the territory of Kilij Arslan, Sultan of Iconium (or Roum). 1097. Niccea surrendered to the Grecian emperor after a siege of June, several weeks' duration. Victory of the Crusaders at Dory- July 1. Iceum over the Sultan Kilij Arslan. Baldwin, separated from the main army, crossed the Euphrates, and conquered a principality for himself in Edessa. 1097-1098. The main army besieged Antiochia on the Orontes for nine months in vain, but finally the city was betrayed to BoJiemund of Tarentum by the Armenian renegade, Firuz 1098. (Pyrrhus). Kerboga, the powerful Emir of Mossul, besieged the Crusaders, exhausted through sickness and want, in An- tioch, with an immense army. Victorious sally of the Chris- tians (the holy lance !) ; the Seljuk army defeated and scat- tered. Long rest of the Crusaders in Antioch and quarrels among them. 1099. Expedition along the coast toward Jerusalem. Unsuccessful siege of the fortress of Areas. In May they advanced be- yond Ccesarea. On the 7th of June the Crusaders, now numbering but 21,500 effective men, beheld the Holy City, which the Fatimites had reconquered from the Seljuks in 1098. After a five weeks' siege, 1099. Storm of Jerusalem. July 15. Terrible massacre ; pilgrimage to the Church of the Resurrection. Establishment of a feudal kingdom of Jerusalem, chiefly French, with vassal counties : Edessa, Antiochia, and afterwards Tripoli* (Assises du royaume de Jerusalem). Three chief officers : Senechal, Conne table, Marshall. Two patriarchs, at Jerusalem and at Antiochia. Godfrey of Bouillon, Protector of the Holy Sepulchre, defeated the Sultan of Egypt at Ascalon or Gaza. Godfrey died 1100. His brother, Baldwin I., king of Jerusalem. Acre, Trioplis, Berytus (Beirut), Sidon, conquered with the aid of Pisa and Genoa. Baldwin I. (died 1118) was succeeded by Baldwin II. (died 1131), Fuko of Anjou (died 1143), under whom the kingdom of Jerusalem reached its greatest extent, Baldwin III. (died 1162), Amalric (died 1173), Baldwin IV. (died 1184), Baldwin V. (not of age, died 1186), Veil (Guy) of Lusignan. A.. D. Crusades. 215 1147-1149. Second Crusade. Without result. Cause : Conquest of Edessa by Emadeddin ('Imad-ed-Deen) Zenki, Emir of Mossul (1144). Second conquest and destruction of the city by his son Noureddin (Noor-ed-Deen) (1146). Bernard, ab- bot of Clairvaux, preached the Crusade. Conrad III. of Germany and Louis VII. of France started for Palestine ; the former from Regensburg (Ratisbon), the latter from Metz, somewhat later. Both armies passed through Hungary to Asia Minor $ the German army, being far in advance, entered Phrygia, where it was almost annihilated by want and by the opposition of the Sultan of Iconium, but few regaining Nicsea. With this scanty fol- lowing Conrad joined the expedition of the French army along the coast, but returned from Ephesus to Constantinople, on account of ill health. Louis and the French nobility took ship from Pamphylia for Antiochia. The common soldiery continued by land to Cilicia, and were completely annihilated by hunger and the enemy. Conrad went from Constantinople to the Holy Land by sea (1148), and in conjunction with the French made an unsuccessful attack on Da- mascus. 1189-1192. Third Crusade. Conquest of Acre (St. Jean d'Acre), or Ptolemais. Cause : Capture of Veit (Guy) of Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, at Tiberias on the sea of Genezareth. Conquest of Acre and Jerusa- lem by Saladin (Salah-ed-Deen) (1187), the founder of the dynasty of the Ayoubites in Egypt. He treated the Christians magnani- mously. The emperor Frederic I., who in his youth had taken part in the second Crusade, undertook in his old age an expedition from Regens- burg (Ratisbon) in the spring of 1189, passed through Hungary, spent the winter in Adrianople, crossed (1190) to Asia Minor, con- quered Iconium, and went to Cilicia, where he was drowned in the Calycadnus (Seleph). His son, Frederic of Swabia, led a part of the pilgrims, many having turned back, by way of Tarsus, Antiochia, and Tyrus to Accon (Ptolemais, St. Jean d'Acre). He died (1191) during the siege of this city, which was conducted by the king Guy of Lusignan, who had gained his freedom. Richard the Lion-Hearted (Cceur-de-Lion), king of England, but French in nationality and language, and Philip II., Augustus (French Auguste, a title of respect which was given him later), king of France, went by sea to the Holy Land (1190), — Richard from Mar- seilles, Philip from Genoa ; participation of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. After a long stay in Sicily and many quarrels the two kings reached Acre, which Lusignan had already besieged for nearly two years. The city was now soon forced to surrender (July, 1191). Philip having quarrelled with Richard, returned to France (1191). Heroic deeds (and cruelty) of Richard, who, however, was twice obliged to turn back from before Jerusalem. Armistice with Saladin. The strip of coast from Joppa to Acre given to the Christians ; pil- grimages to the holy places permitted. Richard gave Cyprus, which 216 Mediceval History. A. D, he had conquered in 1191, as a fief to Veit (Guy) of Lusignan (au- tumn of 1192), who transferred his title of " King of Jerusalem " to Henry of Champagne. Richard on his return suffered a shipwreck at Aquileia, was recog- nized in Vienna, detained by Leopold, duke of Austria, at the com- mand of the emperor Henry VI., kept a prisoner by the emperor thirteen months in Trifels (near Annweiler in the county Palatine) and in Worms, and released only upon payment of a ransom and ren- dering homage.1 1202-1204. Fourth Crusade. Latin empire (1204-1261). At the instance of Pope Innocent III. (preaching by Fulco of Neuilly) a Crusade directed originally against Egypt was undertaken by powerful French barons, assisted by Baldwin, count of Flanders, and Boniface, marquis of Montferrat. The Crusaders undertook the siege of Zara in Dalmatia, which the king of Hungary had seized, for the Venetians (Doge Henry Dandolo), partly in payment for transport. At the urgent request of Alexius, son of the Eastern emperor Isaac Angelus, who had been dethroned by his brother, a request strongly supported by Philip of Swabia, the Crusaders went to Constantinople with the Venetian fleet of 480 sail, captured the city, and replaced Alexius and his father on the throne (1203). The emperor was un- able to fulfill his compact with the Crusaders. (Union of the Greek Church with that of Rome ; large payments in money.) Contention, during which the city caught fire. Revolt of the Greek populace. (Isaac died.) After the murder of Alexius by the Greeks, second capture of the city, pillage, new conflagration, which consumed many works of ancient literature. Establishment of the Latin empire (Baldwin, emperor) ; many coast districts and islands fell to the Venetians; the marquis of Mont- ferrat became king of Thessalonica • French dukes in Athens, Achaia, etc. Villehardouin, historian of the expedition. Establishment of a Greek empire at Niccea by Theodore Lascaris, and a second, the empire of Trebizond on the coast of the Pontus Eu~ xinus, by a descendant of the Comnenes. Michael Palceologus, of the Nicsean empire, put an end to the Latin empire in 1261. 1212. The children's Crusade. Thousands of German and French boys started for the Holy Land. Many died on the way, many were sold into slavery. 1217. Crusade of Andrew II., king of Hungary, without result. 1218-1221. Unsuccessful attack upon Egypt under John of Briennet " king of Jerusalem." 1228-1229. Fifth Crusade. Jerusalem regained for a short time. Frederic II., emperor of the West, who was under the papal ban 1 It is probable that the story of the Austrian banner having been trodden in the filth at Acre b}' Richard's command is not a fable (cf. Tceche, Kaiser Heinrich, VI. pp. 256, 558), but the imprisonment of Richard had doubtless higher political motives, and is sufficiently explained by the alliance of Richard with the Welfic party iu Germany, see p. 223. A. D. Crusades. 217 for not having fulfilled his promise of undertaking a Crusade, went to Acre by sea, and received Jerusalem (where he crowned himself), Nazareth, and a strip of land reaching to the coast, together with Sidon, from Sultan Kameel (El Kdmil), on condition of a ten years' armistice. Jerusalem was lost again, and finally, 1244. 1248-1254. Sixth Crusade. Without result. Louis IX., king of France (St. Louis), went to Cyprus and passed the winter there. In order to destroy the Saracen power 'in its stronghold of Egypt, he went in the spring of 1249 to Damietta and captured the city. On the expedition which he undertook in November against Cairo, Louis was defeated by the Ayoubite Sultan Toordn-shdh (Almoadan), cut off from Damietta, and captured with the entire French army (April, 1250). The execution of the treaty of peace, whereby the king was to be liberated on condition of evacu- ating Darmietta and paying a heavy ransom, was delayed by the over- throw of the Ayoubites by the Mamelukes. Louis coasted along Palestine, fortified Acre and other cities of the coast, in the course of a residence of almost four years, and returned to France in 1254. 1268. Antiochia lost to the Mohammedans. 1270. Seventh Crusade. Without result. Louis IX. went to Tunis, where he and the greater part of the army were carried off by sickness. 1291. Acre (Ptolema'is) stormed by the Mamelukes ; the Christians abandoned their last possessions in Palestine (Tyre, Berytus, Sidon). The Crusades were the greatest events of the Middle Age. In spite of the excesses and cruelties of many of the Crusaders they lend to the time to which they belong an ideal, a religious character. Results of the Crusades : 1. Increased power and authority of the Church and the Papacy. 2. Increase of the personal power of princes, owing to the reversion of many feudal holdings which became vacant. 3. Rise of independent communities, who bought their freedom from their overlords who needed funds for the pilgrimage. 4. Devel- opment of commerce. The Italian republics at the height of their power. 5. Intellectual growth resulting from the new ideas brought back from the East ; especial advance in the knowledge of geography and natural history. 6. Perfection of the institution of knighthood (chivalry) ; the three Religious Orders of Knighthood. 1. Knights of St. John, or Hospitalers; i. e. knights of the hospital of St. John in Jerusalem, founded by merchants from Amalfi, 1070. The brotherhood was enlarged after the first Crusade (Gerhard), and converted into an order of knighthood after the manner of the Templars (Raimund Dupuis). Black mantle, white cross. The order was transferred to Cyprus (1291), to Rhodes (1310), whence they were called Knights of Rhodes. Rhodes lost, 1522 ; in 1526 the order received a gift of Malta from the emperor Charles V., thence called Knights of Malta. 2. Knights of the Temple or Templars (from the temple of Solomon, 218 Mediaeval History. A. D. on whose site stood the house of the order in Jerusalem), orig- inating in a union of nine French knights in 1118 (Hugo de Pay ens). White mantle, red cross. In 1291 the order was transferred to Cyprus; in 1312 dissolved by Pope Clement V. at the Council of Vienne. 3. The Order of Teutonic Knights, originally brotherhood of the German hospital founded in 1190, was in 1198 raised to an order of knighthood by Frederic of Sivabia before Acre, dur- ing the third Crusade. White mantle, black cross. Seat of the order at Acre. Under the grand matter Hermann of Salza a band of knights went to Prussia, then occupied by the heathen Wends, hi 1226. Hermann of Balk, first Landmeister in Prus- sia, which was subjugated by bloody wars (1226-1283). In 1291 the seat of the grand master was tranferred to Venice, 1309 to Marienburg, 1457 to Kb'nigsberg. The land of the order was secularized in 1525. Those knights who remained Catho- lic maintained possession of the German estates. Residence of the grand master at Mergentheim at Franconia. The or- der was dissolved in 1809. In all three orders, knights, priests, brothers in service. §2. GERMANY AND ITALY. (See p. 201.} 1125-1137. Lothar of Saxony, supported by his son-in-law Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria, of the house of Welf, whom he later appointed duke of Saxony as well, and Berthold, duke of Zdhringen. Lothar fought (until 1135) against the two powerful Hohenstaufens, Frederic, duke of Swabia, and Conrad, nephew of the last emperor, Henry V. Their father was Frederic of Biiren and Stauf en, son-in-law of the emperor Henry IV (p. 200). 1132-1133. On his first Roman expedition Lothar was crowned by Pope Innocent II., and accepted the allodial possessions of Matilda of Tuscany as a fief from the Pope. 1136-1137. On his second Roman expedition Lothar attacked the Norman Roger II., who had assumed the title of king of the two Sicilies, and drove him for a short time to Sicily. On his return Lothar died at Breitenwang in upper Bavaria (Dec. 3-4, 1137). Under Lothar's reign German influence made great advances in the North and East. "The Danish king Magnus recognized anew the overlordship of the Emperor ; Bohemia did feudal homage. The Wends were driven back, and in increasing numbers converted to Christianity. Holstein given to Adolf, count of Schaumburg, the margravate of Meis- sen to Conrad of Wettin, the Nordmark or Altmark, at the mouth of the Havel and on the left bank of the Elbe, to Albert the Bear, of the house of Ballenstadt or Askania (1134), who had done Lothar im- portant service on the first Roman expedition. Albert crossed the Elbe and conquered almost the entire Mittelmark, which then received the name of Brandenburg, from its chief city. JL, D. Germany and Italy. 219 1138-1254. House of Hohenstaufen (Staufer),1 so called from the castle of Staufen in Swabia. 1138-1152. Conrad III., elected by the party opposed to the Saxon house, without par- ticipation of the Saxons and Bavarians. War of the Ghibelliiies (Italian corruption of Waiblingen, the name of a castle of the Hohenstaufens) and the Welfs, or Guelfs (cf. the genealogical table). Conrad put Henry the Proud under the ban, and gave Saxony to Albert the Bear, and Bavaria to Leopold IV., margrave of Austria. 1139. During the changing fortunes of the war Henry the Proud died. The claims of his ten-year-old son Henry (afterwards called the Lion) to Saxony were maintained by the latter's mother and grandmother and their connection. Bavaria was claimed by Welf VI., brother of Henry the Proud. Welf ad- vanced to the relief of the city of Weinsberg, which Conrad besieged. In the 1140. Battle 2 of Weinsberg Conrad conquered, and the city was com- pelled to surrender. (" The Faithful Wives of Weinsberg," poem by Burger.) After the death of Leopold of Austria (Oct. 18, 1141), Bavaria fell to his brother, Henry Jasomirgott,8 who married Gertrude, Henry the Proud's widow (1142). Her son, Henry the Lion, received Saxony. Albert the Bear gave up his claim to Saxony ; the mark of Bran- denburg, which was a fief held directly from the emperor (reichsun- mittelbar), and his other possessions, which his enemies had occupied, were restored to him. Conrad's Crusade (p. 215). Conrad, whose eldest son, Henry, who had already been elected king, died before him, appointed as his suc- cessor not his second son, a minor, but his nephew, Frederic of Swabia, who was unanimously elected by the princes. Conrad died Feb. 11, 1152, at Bamberg. 1152-1190. Frederic I., Barbarossa, one of the most heroic figures of the Middle Age. Diet at Merseburg. Frederic settled the disputed succession to the Danish crown. Sven became king of Denmark as a vassal of the empire (1152). Frederic's main object was to make good the imperial authority, and in particular to restore the imperial rights in northern Italy, which had become narrowed by neglect. ' Hence war with the power- ful republican cities of Lombardy. Six expeditions to Italy. 1154-1155. First expedition. Frederic destroyed some small places which opposed him, and was crowned king of Italy in Pavia, 1 V. Baumer, Gesch. der Hohenstaufen u. ihrer Zeit; Jafltf, Gesch. desd. R. unter Konrad III. ; Prutz, Geschichte Friedrichs I. 2 Recent investigators deny that the cry of Hie Welf! Hie Waiblingen ! was heard here for the first time. 8 So called from his favorite oath. 220 I 1 Mediaeval History. _fs A. Bt s-l a sf-® ~1I fi-s k^ W *J ho g- «g^ h *|3 l|« ^•g» r,§l -||| C^-g I f^ii ^ S ? g :| ".2 S >> O •- 62 ;s £ 3 S O S'oK 4 2.11 zs s ••§ I l« .«s s »-i A. D. Germany and Italy. 221 and emperor at Rome by Hadrian IV., who had appealed to him for aid against the Romans. Arnold of Brescia, scholar of the schoolman Abelard, a popular preacher, who inveighed against the secular power of the clergy and possession of estates by the church, was condemned and burnt. 1153. Convention of Constance between Frederic and the Papal See. 1156. Henry the Lion received Bavaria again. Austria was sep- arated from Bavaria, and raised to a duchy, hereditary in the female as well as the male line. 1157. Diet at Wiirzburg. Nearly all the states of the West did homage to the imperial power (Holy Roman Empire). In Besan9on the Burgundiaii nobles submitted again to the em- pire. The Bohemian duke Vladislav received from Fred- eric the royal crown. 1158-1162. Second expedition to Italy. The Lombard cities, including Milan itself, submitted. At the diet on the Ron- calian Fields the rights of the emperor were defined as against the cities. Jurisdiction in the cities transferred from the consuls to an officer of the empire, the Podesta. Prohibition of the right of pri- vate war between the cities. The Milanese revolted. Quarrel be- tween the Pope and the emperor. Tedious war with Milan, which surrendered after a two years' siege. At the emperor's command 1162. Milan -was destroyed by the inhabitants of the neighboring cities. 1159-1177. Schism in the Church. Alexander III. elected by the majority of the cardinals, Victor IV. by the minority (who favored the emperor), and recognized by the council which Frederic convened at Pa via. Alliance between Alex- ander III. and the Lombard cities. 1163. Third Expedition without an army. After the death of Victor IV. (April, 1164), a new anti-pope, Paschal III., was elected by the imperial party. New disturbances in Italy soon broke out. 1166-1168. Fourth Expedition. Paschal III. conducted to Rome by Frederic. 1167. Lombard League between the cities of Lombardy (Cremonaf Bergamo, Br°scia, Mantua, and Ferrara) and the cities of the Veronese March (Verona, Vicenza, Padua, Treviso), which had united in 1164. Union of Guelfs with Ghibellines. They rebuilt Milan, built Alessandria (so called after their ally, Pope Alexander III.), and occupied the passes of the Alps. The emperor, whose army was almost annihilated by a plague which broke out in Rome, with difficulty escaped to Germany. In Germany a great feud had been raging since 1166 between Henry the Lion and his enemies, the archbishops of Magdeburg and Bremen, Albert the Bear, Otto of Meissen, etc. The emperor put an end to the strife at the Diet of Bamberg (1168). Henry the Lion undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem (1172). 1174-1177. Fifth Expedition. The emperor entered Lombardy over Mont Cenis. He besieged Alessandria in vain. Henry 222 Medieval History. A. D. the Lion deserted him and returned to Germany. The em- peror attacked the Lombards, but in spite of his heroic cour- age, at the 1176. Battle of Legnano, was completely defeated. Negotiations and armistice with Alexander III. and the Lombard cities. 1177. Reconciliation between the emperor and the Pope at Venice. 1183. The definitive peace with the Lombard cities was concluded at Constance. The emperor renounced all regal privileges which he had hitherto claimed in the towns ; acknowledged the right of the confederated cities to levy armies, to fortify themselves, and to exercise civil and criminal jurisdiction. By the popular nomination the consuls acquired the rights of imperial vicars. The extension of the confederacy for the purpose of maintaining these rights was authorized. The cities agreed to maintain all just rights of the emperor, a recognition of the overlordship of the emperor, which, how- ever, they were allowed to redeem by an annual payment. Henry the Lion humbled in Germany. After his neglect to appear at four diets, he was put under the ban of the empire and his fiefs declared forfeited (1180). He defended himself bravely and de- feated the archbishop of Cologne. Upon the approach of the em- peror Henry's vassals gradually deserted him. Henry threw himself at the emperor's feet in Erfurt (1181), but was allowed to retain his allodial estates only, Braunschweig (Brunswick) and Lilneburg. Divis- ion of the old duchy of Saxony. Part of Westphalia was given to the archbishopric of Cologne. Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen became in the course of time free cities, owing allegiance to the empire only. The archbishop of Magdeburg and Bremen, the bishops of Halber- stadt, Hildesheim, Lubeck, etc., the counts of Holstein and Oldenburg, etc., became immediate vassals of the empire. Eastern Saxony and the ducal title were given to Bernard of As- kania, son of Albert the Bear. Otto of Wittelsbach received Bavaria. Henry the Lion was obliged to leave the country for three years. He went to the court of Henry II. of England, his father-in-law. 1184. Brilliant court festival at Mainz. 1184-1186. Sixth expedition to Italy (peaceful). The emperor gave his son Henry, who was now t\\enty-one, but had long 1186. been king elect of Germany, in marriage to Constance, daughter of Roger II., aunt and heiress of William II., the last Norman king of Naples and Sicily. 1190. Frederic's crusade and death (p. 215). His son, King Henry, whom he left behind as vicegerent, was obliged to take the field against Henry the Lion, who, upon the emperor's departure, had been sent out of the empire for another three years, but had since re- turned from England. The death of William II. of Sicily in Nov- ember, 1189, led Henry to come to an understanding with Henry the Lion. In the mean time came the news of the emperor's death. 1190-1197. Henry VI., a highly educated statesman, but stern and relentless. 1191. First expedition to Italy. Henry received the imperial crown at A. D. Germany and Italy. 223 Rome, after he had abandoned Tusculum, which had ever been true to his father, to the Romans. The city was destroyed ; Frascati grew up near its site. Henry went to Naples to rescue the inher- itance of his wife, Constance, from Tancred of Lecce, whom the native party in Palermo had elected king. Unsuccessful siege of Naples for three months. Sickness in the army compelled the emperor to return to Germany. 1192-1194. New war with Henry the Lion, who had not kept the first treaty. The war ended in a compromise, the conclusion of which was assisted by the liberation of the brother-in-law of Henry the Lion, Richard Cceur-de-Lion of England (p. 216), and by a marriage between Agnes, daughter of the emperor's uncle, Conradt count palatine of the Rhine, with Henry, son of Henry the Lion. 1194. Second expedition to Italy, where Tancred had died. War with his widow and his son William. The emperor subju- gated the kingdom of the two Sicilies, and punished with severity the participants in a conspiracy against himself. 1194. Henry threatened with excommunication for withholding the estates of Matilda (p. 200) from the Pope. 1196. Diet at Wiirzburg. Henry's plan of making Germany (united with the Sicilies) an hereditary monarchy, on condition that all fiefs should become hereditary, even in the female line, failed in consequence of the resistance of the princes and the lesser nobility. 1197. Third expedition to Italy. Henry suppressed a second con- spiracy with cruel severity. In the midst of his great plans (conquest of the Eastern Empire, Crusade), he died suddenly in Messina, thirty-two years old (28 Sept. 1197). Double election m Germany. 1198-1208. Philip of Swabia, youngest son of Frederic Barbarossa. 1198-1215 (1218). Otto IV. of Brunswick, son of Henry the Lion. 1198-1215. War for the crown between the house of Hohenstaufen and of Welf. Otto IV., recognized by Pope Innocent III., was defeated by Philip and his power reduced almost to the limits of Brunswick. In the midst of preparations for a last and decisive combat Philip was assassinated at Bamberg by the count palatine Otto of Wittelsbach. Otto IV. was universally recognized and crowned at Rome by Innocent III. (1209), after having abandoned the estates of Matilda to the papal chair and made other concessions. He was soon involved in a quarrel with the Pope, however, and the latter put forward his ward Frederic, son of Henry VI., as anti-emperor (1212). Otto IV., in alliance with England, was defeated at Bouvines (near Lille) by Philip II. Augustus (1214), and returned to his own do- mains. Died at the Harzburg (May 10, 1218). 1212-1250. Frederic II. also king of the two Sicilies, a prince of remarkable gifts, but passionate, more Italian than German, having been born in Sicily and educated by his Italian 224 Mediaeval History. A. D. mother. He was an energetic opponent of the spiritual supremacy, having indeed but little liking for the church ; in his hereditary estates he favored the Saracens. 1215. Frederic went to Germany, was crowned German king in Aachen, where he promised to undertake a crusade, and 1217. gave Swabia to his young son Henry, and 1220. had him elected king of Rome (the title given to the Ger- man king elect). Frederic left Germany for fifteen years. Expe- dition to Rome. After renewing the promises which he had for- merly made to Pope Innocent III. (feudal supremacy of the papal chair over his hereditary domain, which should never be united with Germany, crusade), he was crowned by Honorius III. at Rome. 1222. The emperor's son Henry, solemnly crowned king at Aachen. His chief adviser and chancellor was Engelbert, archbishop of Cologne (murdered 1225). 1225. Frederic took as his second wife, lolanthe, daughter of John of Brienne, titulary king of Jerusalem. Promise of a crusade renewed. 1226. Diet at Cremona ; quarrels with the Lombard cities. 1227. The Crusade which had been commenced was broken up by a contagious disease. The successor of Pope Honorius III., the octogenarian Gregory IX., placed the emperor under the ban. 1227. Battle of Bornhovede. The Danes, who under Waldemar II. had extended their power over the coasts of the Baltic, were decisively defeated. 1228-1229. Crusade of Frederic II. (p. 216). 1229. Frederic drove from his dominions the papal (key) troops, who had invaded them. 1230. Peace with the Pope at S. Germane. Removal of the ban. 1230-1240. Legislation of Frederic in his Sicilian kingdom. Regulation of feudal relations. Representation of the cities. 1234. Revolt of the young king Henry, in alliance with the lower German nobility and the Lombard cities, against his father, sup- pressed by Frederic with the aid of the princes of the empire and the imperial cities. Henry submitted, was kept in strict confinement, then sent to Italy, where he died, 1242. Reconciliation with the Welfs. Erection of a new duchy, Brunswick-Lilneburg, for Otto the Child. Third marriage of the emperor at Worms with Isabella, sister of Henry III. of England. Diet at Mainz. Enactment of a Eablic peace {first publication of a law in German as well as in atin). 1236. Victorious campaign against the Lombards. In Germany Frederic the Warlike of Austria, a follower of the rebel Henry, deposed and put under the ban. 1237. Frederic II. in Vienna, which was proclaimed an imperial city. Afterwards Frederic the Warlike received Austria and Styria again. 1237. Diet at Speier. Election and coronation of Conrad, the sec- ond son of the emperor as German king. 1237. Brilliant victory of Frederic over the Lombards at Corte- Nov. nuova. Frederic's obstinacy in pressing his demands too A. D. Germany and Italy. 225 far, prevented vhe complete subjugation of Lombardy. Interference of the Pope, who had claims on Sardinia, and was offended at the assumption by Frederic's natural son Enzio (an Italian corruption of Heinz), the husband of Adelisa, heiress of a part of the island, of the title of king of Sardinia. 1239-1250. War of Frederic II. with the Popes Gregory IX. and Innocent IV. 1239. Frederic accused of heresy by Gregory and excommunicated anew. Ancona conquered by Enzio. 1241. Naval victory of Enzio at Elba over the Genoese fleet which was conveying some ecclesiastics to the council at Rome. Death of Gregory. His successor, Innocent IV. (1243-1254), fled to Lyons. Germany threatened with a Mongol invasion (p. 240). Innocent IV. called a council at 1245. Lyons, renewed the ban against the emperor, formally de- posed him, summoned the German princes to a new election, and urged all subjects of the emperor to revolt. In Ger- many the spiritual princes elected 1246-1247. Heinrich Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, who, though at first victorious, was defeated by Conrad, Frederic's son, at Ulm, and died (1247) at the Wartburg. The house of the landgraves of Thuringia ending with Heinrich Raspe, the eastern part of that state was joined to the margravate of Meissen, while the western part became the landgravate Hessen. 1247-1256. William of Holland, second anti-king, attained no authority in Germany. 1248. Frederic, at first successful in Italy, was repulsed before Padua. His son Enzio was captured by the Bolognese in the 1249. Battle of Fossalta (died after an imprisonment of twenty-two years in a dungeon). Treason (?) of Peter of Vinea (Vineis), Frederic's chancellor. 1250. Frederic died in Fiorentino in the arms of his son Manfred (Dec. 19). He was succeeded by his son. 1250-1254. Conrad IV. (anti-king: William of Holland) fought since 1252 for his hereditary realm only, in Italy. 1256. William of Holland fell in battle with the Frisians (twenty- seven years old). 1256-1273. Interregnum in Germany. Club-law, Faus- trecht. Richard, Earl of Cornwall, younger son of King John (Lack- land) of England, elected by a part of the princes, and crowned a< Aachen, was recognized along the Rhine only (died 1272). Alphonsi X. of Castile, grandson of Philip of Hohenstaufen, son of Frederic Barbarossa, elected by the other princes, never came to Germany. In the kingdom of the two Sicilies the brave Manfred, son of Frederic II., was at first chancellor for the minor king Conradin, son of Conrad IV., afterwards (1258) king. Charles ofAnjou, brother 15 226 Mediceval History. A. D. of Louis IX. of France, to whom the Pope gave the crown, defeated Manfred, who was betrayed by his barons, at Beneventum (1266), and made himself king of Naples and Sicily. Manfred fell on the field. Conradin went to Italy with Frederic of Baden, also called Fred- eric of Austria (being the son of the Babenberg heiress of Austria). He was defeated between Scurcola and Tagliacozzo on Lago di Celano (1268), and executed at Naples. 1282. Sicilian vespers, so called because the conspiracy broke out on Easter Monday at vesper time. Slaughter of all the French in Sicily. John of Procida. Peter of A ragon, king of Sicily, Charles of Anjou limited to the kingdom of Naples. § 3. FRANCE.1 (Seep. 203.) The royal domain of the Capetians was at first limited to the duchy of France {Isle de France and Orleanais). The great vassals, who were, in the beginning, almost independent, were gradually reduced to submission in this and the following period. 1060-1108. Philip I. Quarrel with Gregory VII. First Crusade. A long reign, in which the king accomplished nothing. 1108-1137. Louis VI., the Fat, an able and good king, who had, moreover, the good sense to avail himself of the talents of Suger, abbot of St. Denis, whom he made minister. Perceptible growth of the royal power. Marriage of the king's son, Louis ( F7/.), with Eleanor, daughter of William of Aquitaine, heiress of Poitou, Guyenne, and Gascony. 1137-1180. Louis VII. Second Crusade (p. 215). Louis was a weak king, a favorite with the clergy, whose reign was less disastrous than might have been expected, because of the influence of Suger, who administered the kingdom during Louis' absence in the East. After his return Louis obtained a divorce from Eleanor, who married Henry of Anjou, conveying to this prince, who soon became king of England, Poitou, Guyenne and Gascony, for which Henry did homage to Louis. In this transfer lay one germ of the hundred years' war. 1180-1223. Philip II., Augustus, one of the ablest of the kings of France ; unscrupulous, cold, but of great political sagacity. (Third) Crusade with Richard Coeur- de-Lion. After Philip's return in 1190 he attacked Normandy, but made little headway during the lifetime of Richard. (Erection of the Chateau Gaillard by Richard, on the Seine, above Rouen.) After Richard's death (1199) Philip took up the claims of Arthur, son of Richard's brother Geoffrey, who had been passed over in Nor- mandy in favor of Richard's younger brother John, but he was hin- dered from prosecuting them by his quarrel with Innocent III. in relation to the divorce which Philip had secured from his wife, Ingeborg of Denmark, in order that he might marry Agnes of Meran, Submission of Philip (1200). After the death of Arthur (1203) Philip moved upon Normandy i Kitchin, History of France. A. D. France. 227 anew. Rejection of the Pope's claim to arbitrate between the kings. The fall of the Chateau Gaillard was followed by the submission of Normandy (1204). John having refused to obey the summons of Philip to appear for trial on account of the murder of Arthur, Philip declared his fiefs forfeited. Crusade against the Albigenses, Waldenses and Cathari, rationalist sects protected by Raymond, count of Toulouse, and the viscount of Beziers and Carcassonne (1207-1244). Storm of Beziers (1207. " Slay all, God will know his own."). Conquest of the county of Toulouse by Simon of Montfort (1211-1215). Death of Simon at the siege of revolted Toulouse (1218). War in Flanders with the feudal lords, supported by John of Eng- land and Otto of Germany. Philip, assisted by the cities, victorious in the 1214. Battle of Bouvines : Aug. 29. Unsuccessful expedition of ITiilip's son Louis to England (1216). 1223-1226. Louis VIII. New crusade against the count of Tou- louse, whose lands had been declared forfeit. 1229. Establishment of the Inquisition as a regular tribunal by Pope Gregory IX., inquisitors having existed since 1203 under In- nocent III. 1226-1270. Louis IX., St. Louis. During the king's minority regency of his mother Blanche, who repressed a revolt of the barons. The war with the Albigenses ended by the extermination of the sect (1244). (Sixth) Crusade of St. Louis (p. 217). Blanche regent during his absence. After the king's re- turn, 1254, wise government. Surrender of Perigord, the Limousin and southern Saintonge to Henry of England, whereupon Henry re- nounced his claim to Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, Poitou, northern Saintonge. Prohibition of wager of battle. Limitation of feudal jurisdiction. Establishment of right of appeal to the king from the feudal courts in all cases. The Pragmatic Sanction attrib- ated to St. Louis is probably a forgery, but Louis' attitude toward Rome was one of assertion of all regal rights. During this reign the domain of the crown received the following additions : The part of the county of Toulouse between the Rhone, the sea and the Pyrenees (1229), Chartres, Blois, Sancerre, ceded by Theobald of Champagne and Navarre (1234) ; Macon, by purchase (1239) ; Perche (1257) ; Aries, Forcalquier, Foix and Cahors (1262). Second (seventh) Crusade and death of St. Louis (1270). (Seep. 254J 228 Mediceval History. A. D ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS FROM ECGBERHT TO HENRY IIL ANGLO-SAXON. Ecgberht. 802-837. Charles the Bald. Emperor. FLANDERS : = (!) Judith, who 837-858. I afterwards ra. (2) ^Ethelbald. (3): • I \ .ffithelbald. -SJthelberht. -SJthelred. -Alfred. 858-860. 860-866. 866-871. 871-901. - Baldwin I | f 879. II. t 918. Eadward 1 son, 2 dau. the Elder. 901-925. ^Ifthryth = -ffithelstan. Eadmund. Eadred. 925-940. 940-946. 946-955. '•NORMANDY. Rollo. Arnulf I. t 965. William | Longsword. Baldwin (III.) I t 962. Ea Ea dvrig. 955-959. Eadgar. 959-975. 1 Richard the Fearless. 1 Ami t 98 Baldw tic If II. 8. inlV. 36. dward the Martyr. 975-978. L -Slthelred H.=2 E 978-1016. 1 2 mma. Ri< theG< hard )od. Godwine Earl of Mercia. 1 Eadmund Eadward Robert Baldwin V. Ironsides. Harold. Eadgy th = the Confessor, the Magnificent t 1067. 1016. 1066. 1042-1066. or the Devil. Eadward J Eadgar ^Etheling. Margaret = Malcolm I king of Scots. "William the Conqueror = Matilda. 1066-1087. Eadgar king of Scots. )ber C. Ad( Robert. William Ruf us. Henry I. Adela 1087-1100. 1100-1135. m.Stephe* Matilda : c. of Blois Matilda = Geoffrey of Anjou, Stephen I Plantagenet. 1135-1154. Henry II. 1154-1189. Henry. Richard Geoffrey. Coeur-de-Lion. | 1189-1199. Arthur, t 1203. John Lackland. 1199-1216 Henry III 1216-1272. A. D. England. 229 § 4. ENGLAND. (See p. 206.) 1066-1154. Norman kings.1 1066-1087. William I., the Conqueror, completed the subjection of the Anglo-Saxons, who were robbed of their estates and terribly ill-treated. Two nationalities and two languages existed for a long time side by side in England, English, or Anglo-Saxon, and French. The king and the nobility were French Normans or Frenchmen. The submission of 1066 was partial, Mercia and Northumbria re- maining aloof. 1068. Revolt in the north, incited and aided by a Danish fleet under Swegen. Returning from Normandy William bought off the Danes, and crushed the insurgents by a masterly winter campaign. Northumberland ravaged with fire and sword. 1071. Revolt of the English under Eadwin and Morkere, which ended with the defeat and death of Eadwin, and the capture of Ely in the fens where Morkere had taken refuge with the outlaw Here- ward. 1075-76. Rebellion of the Norman barons in England easily crushed. Revolt of the conqueror's son Robert in Normandy (1077-1080). Imprisonment of William's brother, Odo, bishop of Bayeux, for trouble- some and intriguing conduct. A threatened invasion from Norway and Denmark averted, 1085. William met his death by accident while engaged in a struggle with Philip of France about the Vexin (Sept. 9, 1087). After the revolt of 1071. the four large earldoms were abolished, and the shire became the largest political division. Sheriffs appointed by the king in each shire. William introduced feudalism in its continental form, placing Norman barons over the lands of the English nobility, who gradually sank to the position of a middle class. In 1086 the power of the barons was weakened by the exaction of an oath of fealty from all under tenants to the king direct. The same year saw the completion of the great survey whose results were inscribed in the Domesday Book, an inventory of all lands " burthened with special dues to the crown." The lower local courts were pre- served, but their subordination to the king's court was strongly in- sisted on. William reformed and reorganized the English Church, assisted by Lanfranc, abbot of St. Stephen at Caen, whom he appointed arch- bishop of Canterbury. Homage to the Pope, however, William ex- pressly refused to render. He kept the appointment of bishops in his own hands. No papal letter could be received, no papal synod held in England, no English bishop appeal to Rome without the king's consent. 1 Aupjustin Thierry, Histoire de la conquetede VAngleterre. Green, Hi&> lory of the English People. 230 Mediaeval History. A. D. 1087-1100. William II., the Red, second son of William I. obtained the English crown, while Robert, the eldest son, succeeded in Normandy. A revolt of the Nor- man barons in favor of Robert was suppressed by help of the English in 1090. Death of Lanfranc, 1089. Ascendency of Ranulf Flambard. Extortions of William. Formation of the New Forest. 1093. Anselm, abbot of Bee, appointed archbishop of Canterbury. He was soon involved in a quarrel with the king on the ques- tion of investitures and on other matters. In 1097 Anselm appealed to Rome and left England. 1097. Edgar, son of Margaret (sister of Eadgar Aetheling), ob- tained the Scottish crown, thus closing the civil war in Scotland between the Celtic and English parties. William was found dead in the New Forest, Aug. 2, 1100 (murdered ?). 1100-1135. Henry L, Beauclerc, on learning of the death of William II., hastened to England and secured the crown in spite of the opposition of those barons who pressed the claim of Robert of Normandy, then returning from the Crusade. Issue of a charter, wherein the exactions and abuses of William the Red were prohibited and the " Law of Edward the Con- fessor " restored. Henry married Matilda, daughter of Malcolm of Scotland, and Margaret, sister of Eadgar Aetheling. Recall of Anselm. 1101. Invasion of Robert of Normandy, with the connivance of many of the Norman barons on both sides of the Channel, ended by treaty without a battle. Punishment of the rebel barons. Robert oj Belesme, earl of Shrewsbury, driven from England. In 1104 Henry invaded Normandy. Robert was defeated at the 1106. Battle of Tinchebrai and kept in captivity until his death (1134). Henry took poss:ssion of Normandy. Quarrel with Anselm in regard to investitures, ending, after the exile and return of Anselm, in a compromise (1106). Introduction of the Cistercians in England. Suppression of the great feudatories and substitution of a class of lesser nobles. Death of Henry's son William by the sinking of the " White Ship " in the Channel (1120). Marriage of Henry's daughter Matilda to Geoffrey, son of Fulk the Black, count of Anjou (1128). Normandy and Maine definitely se- cured by Henry. Henry died 1135. 1135-1154. Stephen of Blois, son of Adela, daughter of William I., and the count of Blois, seized the crown in defiance of the rights of Matilda and her son Henry, and was elected at London principally by the citizens. Char- ter of Oxford (1136). (Second) invasion of the Scots repulsed in the 1138. Battle of the Standard, at Cowton Moor in Yorkshire. Arrest of Roger of Salisbury and the bishop of Lincoln (1139). In the same year Matilda landed A. D. England. 231 in England. Stephen defeated and captured at the battle of Lincoln (1141). Matilda was elected Lady of England by the clergy. Her severe and impolitic government soon alienated her followers. Fin- ally Stephen, having been exchanged, took up the war again, which went on with varying success until 1147 when Robert of Gloucester died and Matilda left England. In 1153 Henry of Anjou landed in Eng- land to make good his claim. Without a battle an understanding was reached and Henry was recognized as the heir of the crown (Treaty of Wallingford 1153). The reign of Stephen was one of the darkest periods in English history. His weakness, and the confusion of civil war had given the feudal nobles full liberty. Castles were erected in great num- bers throughout England, and each was the home of oppression and cruelty. Stephen died 1154. 1154-1399. House of Anjou (Plantagenet)1 in the di- rect line. 1154-1189. Henry II. Outside of England Henry possessed : 1. Normandy and the suzerainty over Brittany, as the heir of the Norman kings. 2. Anjou and Maine, inherited from his father. 3. Poitou, Guyenne and Gascony, acquired by marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine (1152) ; in all more than half of France. The reign of Henry is the period of full amalgamation of the Eng- lish and the Normans. The accession of Henry (at 21 years of age) was welcomed as the beginning of a better time. Banishment of the mercenaries main- tained by Stephen. Demolition of the castles. Resumption and res- toration of estates, which was attended with difficulty, some of the new nobles requiring to be dislodged by force. 1158. First Welsh war not successful. 1162. Thomas Becket, the chancellor, made archbishop of Canter- bury. Reestablishment of the exchequer, a bureau for assessing and collecting the taxes. Introduction of scutage, a commutation in money for personal service in the army permitted to the lower ten- ants. 1163. Second Welsh war. As chancellor, Becket had been the king's servant and friend ; as archbishop, he became at once his opponent, resisting his wishes even in financial matters ; an opposition which seems to have led to the abolition of danegeld (p. 205). Becket bitterly opposed the king's reform of the ecclesiastical law relating to the punishment of eccle- siastics for criminal offenses. Henry demanded that after ecclesias- tical punishment had been administered the offender should be handed over to receive the punishment of the civil law. The wishes of the king in this respect and on other points involving church and state were formulated in the 1 So called from the bit of broom (genet) which Geoffrey of Aujou, son of king ¥ulk of Jerusalem (p. 230), was wont to wear in his helm. 232 Medieval History. A. D, 1164. Constitutions of Clarendon. The jurisdiction of secular courts over clerical offenders waa affirmed, appeal to Rome in such cases was prohibited, the election of bishops in the presence of royal officers, and with the king's con- sent, was insisted on, as was the investiture of the bishop or abbot elect with his secular lands by the king. At first Becket accepted the constitutions ; but afterwards he withdrew his acceptance and appealed to Rome. Brought to trial and condemned on some mat- ters connected with his chancellorship, Becket fled to France. 1165. Third Welsh war. 1166. Assize of Clarendon. Reestablishment of Frank-pledge, or mutual responsibility of the inhabitants of a village. In each shire criminals were to be presented by twelve men from the shire and four from each town (grand jury) ; abolition of compurgation (proof of innocence by oath of neighbors) for which the ordeal or judgment of God was substituted. 1170. Henry under threat of interdict was reconciled with Becket, who returned to England. He soon became embroiled with the king, and was murdered by four knights of Henry's court, in consequence of Henry's passionate outbreak against him (December 29, 1170). Establishment of itinerant or circuit judges. Court of appeal, afterwards the great and privy council. 1171. Expedition of Henry to Ireland. A bull of Adrian IV. in 1157 had given this country to Henry, but no use had been made of the authority until Dermod, king of Leinster, fled to Henry, did him homage, and sought aid in his wars. Aid was sent in 1169, and in 1171 Henry went in person. Richard of Clare (Strongbow), son-in-law of Dermod, made earl of Leinster. The southeastern part of Ireland submitted to Henry. 1172. Absolution of Henry. Penance at Becket's tomb, 1174. 1173. Rebellion of Henry's eldest son Henry, and general league of French and English lords, Louis VII. and William the Lion of Scotland against the king. Defeat of Louis. Capture of William who was released only afier acknowledging Henry as his suzerain (1175). Death of Henry the younger, 1183. 1181. Assize of arms. Restoration of militia service. 1189. Conspiracy of Henry's sons, Richard and John, with Philip of France. Humiliation and death of Henry II. 1189-1199. Richard I., Cceur-de-Lion. His reign was passed almost entirely away from England, Crusade (p. 215). On his return Richard \vas captured by Leopold of Austria, delivered to the emperor, and detained thirteen months in captivity, being released at last for a heavy ransom. During his absence Eleanor, his mother, was regent. Persecution of the Jews. The intrigues of Philip of France and the king's brother John resulted in war in England, which was quickly suppressed after the return of Richard (1194). For the rest of his reign Richard was in France at war with Philip. Erection of the Chateau Gaillard on the Seine. Death of Richard before the castle of Chains- Chabrol (1199). A. D. England. 233 During his absence England was governed by Hubert Walter, and after his resignation in consequence of a refusal of money by the great council, by Geoffrey Fitz Peter. 1199-1216. John Lackland. John was recognized in England without opposition and secured Normandy, but Anjou, Maine and Touraine acknowledged the claim of Arthur son of Geoffrey. 1203. Death of Arthur while in John's power. Philip at once secured the sentence of John and the forfeiture of his fiefs. Nor- mandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine and a part of Aquitaine were at once lost to John. Henceforward John was restricted to his English king- dom. The death of Hubert Walter, archbishop of Canterbury (1205) was followed by a disputed election. A reference to Rome resulted in the election of Stephen Langton by command of Innocent III. (1207). John refused to receive him and the kingdom was visited with an interdict (1208). Moved by fear of deposition, John finally yielded, received Langton, and accepted his kingdom as a fief of the papacy (1213). John's exactions and misgovernment had embroiled him with the barons since 1199. Refusal of the barons to follow John to France (1213). 1214. Defeat of John at Bouvines in Flanders (p. 227). On John's return negotiations were opened with the barons, but failed, and the confederated lords occupied London. 1215- Magna Charta granted by John at Runnymede. June The provisions of this charter applied to the commons 15-23. as well as to the nobles and clergy, and directed that its benefits should reach the lower tenants.1 Principal provisions : 1. Ratification of Henry's charter. 2. Security for personal freedom ; no freeman should u be taken, imprisoned or damaged in person or estate, but by the judgment of his peers" or u by the law of the land " (Art. 39). 2 3. Regulation of feudal dues and obligations. 4. Regulation of national taxation ; limitation of the aid (aux- ilium) which could be collected without the consent of the great council to the three ancient and well known cases (ransom of the lord ; knighting of his eldest son ; marriage of his eldest daughter). 5. Specification of members of the great council, and of the cases for which, and manner in which it should be convened. The charter declared null and void by the Pope. Suspension of Langton. War soon broke out ; the French party among the barons, declaring the crown forfeited, bestowed it upon Louis, son of Philip 1 Stubbs, Early Plantogenets, 149. 2 Nullus liber homo capiatur vel imprisonetur aut dissaisiatur aut utlaghetur aut exuletur aut aliquo modo destruatur, nee super eum ibimus, nee super eum Qiittemus, nisi per legale judicium pariura suorum vel per legem terrae. 234 Mediaeval History. A. ix of France, who in 1216 came to England. Death of John (October 19, 1216). 1216-1272. Henry III., of Winchester, son of John. The death of John was fatal to the hopes of Louis. The English party which secured the coronation of the nine-year old Henry, though small at first soon outnumbered the French. The de- feat of the French fleet off Thanet determined Louis to give up the contest and return to France. Regency of William Marshall (1216- 1219). The Magna Charta was twice reissued in a modified form. After the death of William Marshall, England was governed by Peter des Roches, Pandulf, the papal legate, Hubert de Burgh, the justiciary, and archbishop Langton, who had returned and soon super- seded Pandulf as legate (1221). Second coronation (1220). Third reissue of the charter (1223). Henry's personal government began in 1227, and soon involved the country in difficulties. Heavy taxa- tion necessitated by the demands of the Pope and by the foreign policy of the king. Fall of Hubert de Burgh (1232) ; of Peter des Roches (1234). Marriage of Henry to Eleanor of Provence (1236). Struggle over the money grants in the great council, which hence- forward was called Parliament. Papal exactions of enormous sums of money. Of the French possessions of the Angevines Henry had retained only Aquitaine and Gascony. 1253. Return of Simon of Montfort, earl of Leicester (son of Simon of Montfort, who had led the crusade against the Albi- genses), to England from the government of Gascony. Simon soon took a prominent part in the parliamentary struggle which now as- sumed formidable proportions. 1258. Parliament of Oxford. The barons presented a list of griev- ances, the Provisions of Oxford, the reforms demanded in which were to be carried out under a commission of twenty-four barons. Permanent council of fifteen barons to meet three times a year. 1263. Outbreak of war between the king and the barons. Arbitra- tion of Louis IX. of France (1264). Provisions of Oxford annulled. This decision resulted in a renewal of the war. The king and his son Edward were defeated in the 1264. Battle of Lewes. May 14. Treaty (Mise of Lewes) between the parties. Native coun- selors presented and a new council arranged by a parlia- ment in which four knights from each shire were added to the clergy and nobility. Council of Nine. 1265. Parliament of Simon of Montfort, the first Parliament Jan. 20. to which representatives of the boroughs were called (yei; this did not become a legal custom until in the next reign), Edward released. Arms were again taken up. In the 1265. Battle of Evesham, Aug. 4. Earl Simon was defeated and fell on the field. Death of Henry (Nov. 16, 1272). In this reign the begging friars came to England. Revival of A. D. The North. 235 scholasticism. Fame of Oxford. Roger Bacon, author of Opus Magnum, " the encyclopaedia of the thirteenth century." Mathew Paris. Revival of Welsh literature. Mabinogion. Geoffrey of Mon- mouth. Romances of Arthur. (See p. 268.) § 5. THE NORTH. Denmark. 1134-1397. The extinction of the direct line of Estridsen (p. 208) jj^g by a period of confusion and wars over the succession 1134-1137, Erik Lamb, 1137-1147) until, 1157-1182. Waldemar I., the Great, was elected to the throne. Subjugation of the Wends, who had long harassed Denmark. Capture of Ancona on the island of Riigen. Suppression of a revolt in Skaania, caused by the severity of bishop Absalon. Waldemar's son 1182-1202. Knut VI. was even more successful than his father, and refused to acknowledge the suzerainty of the emperor, Frederic Barbarossa, as Waldemar had done. Defeat of a naval expedition of the Wends, who received aid from the emperor, by bishop Absalon (1184) ; Hither Pommerania submitted, as did a part of Mecklenburg. Knut, " King of the Slavs." Expedition to Esthonia. War with the count of Holstein and other German princes. Conquest of Liibeck and Ham- burg. Capture of Adolf of Holstein. Quarrel with Philip Augustus of France over his treatment of Ingebord (p. 226) , Knut was suc- ceeded by his brother, 1202-1241. Waldemar II., the Conqueror, the first portion of whose reign forms one of the most bril- liant epochs of Danish history. Adolf of Holstein released on condi- tion of ceding all Holstein to Waldemar, who granted it as a fief to his nephew, Albert of Orlamund. Unsuccessful interference in Nor- way and Sweden. Conquest of Oesel and of a large part of Prussia. In return for his recognition of Frederic II. over his rivals as em- peror, Waldemar obtained a cession of all conquests in Germany, north of the Elbe and the Elde (Holstein, Lauenburg, part of Meck- lenburg). Expedition to Esthonia. The Danneborg, or national standard (1219). Waldemar's power fell more rapidly than it was acquired. In 1223 the king and his son were treacherously captured by Henry, count of Schwerin, and imprisoned in the castle of Danne- borg, in Hanover, for three years. . Waldemar obtained his release by the payment of a heavy ransom, and the renunciation of all his con- quests south of the Elbe, and in the Slavic countries. Holstein ceded to Adolf the Young (1225). This renunciation was annulled by the Pope, and Waldemar tried to regain Holstein, but was defeated in the battle of Bornhceved (1227). The rest of his reign was passed for the most part in peace. He died in 1241. Of all his con* 286 Mediceval History. A. D. quests only Rugen, some places in Mecklenburg, Prussia, Estho- nia, remained to Denmark. Waldemar's code of laws. Waldemar was twice married : 1. Margrete of Bohemia, a well-beloved princess (Dagmar). 2. Berengaria of Portugal, by whom he had three sons who mounted the throne in succession. Waldemar committed the political blunder of dividing the kingdom among his sons so that the nominal king possessed only a small part of the monarchy ; Schleswig was conferred on Abel. This led to disputes, so that the following period was one of civil strife, wars of succession, murder, and exile of kings. Erik (1241-1250). Abe( (1250-1252). In this reign the towns began to send representatives to the council (Danehof). Christopher (1252-1259). War about Schleswig, the king claiming that it had been granted to Abel as a personal fief, while the descen- dants of Abel declared that it was an hereditary fief. Conflict with the archbishop Jacob Erlandsen. Erik Glipping (1259-1286). Oc- cupation of Schleswig. Erik Menved (1286-1319). Regency of the queen mother. Miserable condition of Denmark. The larger part of the kingdom granted out to Danish and German nobles. Chris- topher II. (1320^1334). The nobles and clergy extorted from the king certain capitulations, which materially weakened the power of the crown for 340 years. Confirmation of privileges of the clergy. No ecclesiastic could be tried in a secular court, neither could the tenants of ecclesiastical foundations. No bishop could be imprisoned without the consent of the Pope. The property and persons of the clergy were free from all taxation. The nobles could not be com- pelled to follow the king beyond the limits of the kingdom ; if they were captured in war the crown was obliged to ransom them within a year, or lose the right of holding them to military service. The king could declare war only with the consent of the nobles and clergy. No person could be imprisoned without having been tried and con- demned in a local court and in the king's court, whence an appeal lay to the national Diet. Laws could be made, repealed, and amended, only upon the motion of the nobles in the annual Diet, and with the consent of the whole nation. Peasants must not be unjustly treated by the king's agents, nor compelled to carry the king's baggage be- yond their own township. Commerce should be free and not bur- dened with extraordinary dues. War with Geert, count of Holstein, who invaded the kingdom, and with the aid of discontented nobles drove Christopher from the kingdom. Election of Waldemar, duke of Schleswig ; soon after, Christopher, by great concessions, acquired the crown again. Eight years of anarchy (1332-1340). Skaania, Hal- land, Bleking attached themselves to Sweden. After the death of Geert, the youngest son of Christopher, 1340-1375. Waldemar III., Attadag, was made king, and devoted himself to acquiring, by pur- chase or by force, the alienated crown lands, in which he met with success. In 1359 Waldemar regained Skaania, Halland, and Bleking from the Swedish king, Magnus Smek, and affianced his daughter Margaret to Hakon, son of the Swedish king. Denmark restored to her boundaries as they had been under Waldemar L A. D. Tfte North. 237 This success was followed by a general war with Sweden, Mecklen* burg, the Hanseatic League, etc., which in spite of the sack of Copen- hagen ended disadvantageous^ for the Hanse towns, 1363. In 1368, however, the Hansa, in alliance with Holstein, Mecklenburg, and Sweden, began war again, and in 1370 obtained from the Danish es- tates a treaty which secured for them the most extensive commercial privileges. In 1372 Waldemar accepted this peace of Stralsund. In 1375 Waldemar died. Passing over the claim of Albert, duke of Mecklenburg, the son of Waldemar's eldest daughter, the estates elected the son of his youngest daughter Olaf, (1376-1387), then six years of age. In 1380 Olaf succeeded his father Hakon as king of Norway, and both lands were well governed by his mother Margaret, the regent, who, after Olaf's death, 1387, was elected queen in both countries. In 1388, Sweden revolted against the king, Albert, and Margaret accepted an offer of the crown. In the battle of Falkce- ping (1389), Albert was defeated and captured. In 1397, the three kingdoms were united by the Union of Calmar. (See p. 276.) Sweden. (See p. 208.} 1066-1397. After the death of Stenkil (p. 208), the country was distracted by wars between the Svea and the Gauta, which lasted, with slight inter- ruptions, for two hundred years ; whereby the people suffered greatly, the free peasants disappeared, and a nobility of warriors arose which was exempt from taxation and possessed its own juris- diction. These nobles acquired supremacy in the Diet, and re- duced the power of the king to a shadow. Under Erik IX., the Saint (1150-1162), Christianity was introduced throughout the king- dom. Establishment of the archbishopric of Upsala (1163). The family of the Bonder, which began with Erik the Saint, became ex- tinct with Erik Eriksson Lce-spe (1223-1250). Under this family the power of the clergy had so increased that in 1248 they were forbid- den to take the oath of allegiance to the king. At the same time celibacy was introduced. The Bonder dynasty was succeeded by that of the Folkunger, which came to the throne with Waldemar (1250- 1275), son of Birger Jarl, who continued until his death (1266) the actual ruler of Sweden, as he had been under Erik Lcespe. Founda- tion of Stockholm (1255). Birger assigned his other sons large duchies in Sweden, thereby planting the seeds of future discord. In 1275, Waldemar was imprisoned by his brother Magnus, duke of Sodermanland, and remained a captive until his death (1302). Mag- nus (1279-1290) proved a good ruler and left a prosperous kingdom to his son Birger (1290-1319). The regent Torkel governed wisely until his fall in 1306, when war broke out between Birger and his brothers Erik and Waldemar. In 1317 Birger made his brothers pris- oners and starved them to death. This caused a popular revolt which expelled Birger and placed on the throne the son of Erik, Magnus Smek (1320-1363). During the regency Norway fell to Magnus, through his maternal grandfather Hakon, and Skaania, 238 Medieval History. A. D. Halland, and Bleking, which belonged to Denmark, but had been pawned to Holstein, submitted to Magnus, who paid the mortgage. Magnus, after he became of age (1333) made a poor ruler. In 1360, he surrendered Skaania, Halland, Bleking to Waldemar Attadag of Denmark, and betrothed his son Hakon to Waldemar's daughter Margaret. In 1365 A Ibert of Mecklenburg was proclaimed king, and in the battle of Enkceping (1365) captured Magnus who was released in 1371 upon making renunciation of the crown of Sweden. Albert (1365-1388) was king in name only, the power being in the hands of the nobles. In 1388 the nobles deposed the king and offered the crown to Margaret of Norway and Denmark, by whom it was ac- cepted. At the battle of Falkaping Albert was made prisoner and, after an imprisonment of six years, renounced the crown. In 1397 Sweden joined Norway and Denmark in the Union of Calmar. (See p. 276.) Norway. (Seep. 209.} 1103-1397. After the death of Magnus Barfod in Ireland (p. 209), his three sons Ejsten, Sigurd, and Olaf, reigned in conjunction until the death of Ejsten and Olaf left Sigurd sole ruler. Sigurd made a pilgrim- age to Jerusalem. He was followed by his son Magnus the Blind, who in 1134 was obliged to cede half the kingdom to Harold Gille, who came from Ireland and claimed to be a son of Magnus Barfod. There followed a wretched period of civil war ; strife between the Birkebenerne, or national party, and the Baglerne, or clerical party, in which the former finally got the upper hand. Magnus V. (1161— 1184), Sverre (1177-1202), Hakon III. (1202-1204), Guttorm the child (1204), Inge Baardsen (1204^1217). 1217 (1223)-1262. Hakon IV. son of Hakon III., grandson of Sverre. He crushed his rivals, weakened the power of the clergy, restored quiet to the country, and raised Norway once more to an influential position among European nations. Conquest of Iceland (1260) and submission of Greenland. Hakon died in 1262, after suffering a defeat at the hands of the Scots in an expedition which he had undertaken against Scotland. He was followed by his son Magnus Lagabceter (1262-1280) who ceded the Isle of Man and the Hebrides to Scotland. Collection and publication of a new code of laws (1264r-1279). Erik Priest-hater (1280-1299). War with Denmark over the dowry of his mother, Ingeborg. War with the Hanse towns, wherein the king was worsted and obliged to grant the towns full privileges in Norway, and to join the league. Death of Margaret (" The Maid of Norway "), daughter of Erik, and granddaughter on her mother's side of Alexander III. of Scot- land, while on her way to claim that crown after the latter's death. Hakon V. (1299-1319). War with Sweden and Denmark. Dying without male issue, he left the crown to his daughter's son, Magnus, king of Sweden, who ascended the throne in 1320. In 1350 Magnus bestowed the crown of Norway on his son Hakon VI. (1350-1380), who in 1362 became co-regent for Sweden. In 1363 Hakon married A. D. The North. 239 240 Mediceval History. A. D Margaret the heiress of Denmark. Hakon was succeeded by his minor son Olaf (1380-1387), whose mother Margaret administered the kingdom of Norway as she had done that of Denmark, which Olaf had inherited in 1376. After Olaf s death in 1387 Margaret (1387- 1412) was recognized as queen of both Norway and Denmark. The union of the two monarchies was completed by the Union of Calmar and endured until 1814. At the Union of Calmar (1397) Sweden was united with the two kingdoms. (See p. 276.) § 6. SPANISH PENINSULA. (Seep. 209.) Arabic Spain was conquered from the Mordbethes or Almoravides (p. 209) by the Almohades about the middle of the twelfth century. Since the defeat at Tolosa (1212) steady decline of the power of the Arabians, who since the reign of Alfonso X. of Castile were con- fined to the kingdom of Granada. 1095. County of Portugal, between the Duero and Minho, granted as a Castilian fief to the Burgundian count Henry, whose son liberated himself from the overlordship of Castile, and called him- self King of Portugal (1140). Aragon and Catalonia (county of Barcelona) united (1137). Leon and Castile separated again (1157) ; finally definitely united (1230). About 1150. Origin of the three orders of knighthood which took their names from the cities guarded by them : 1. San Jago di Compostella (Galicia), 2. Alcantara (on the Tajo), 3. Calatrava (on the Guadiana. (See p. 275.) § 7. THE EA$T. Eastern Empire. (See p. 210.) 1057-1185. Eastern emperors of the houses of the Ducas and the Comnenes. 1185-1204. Dynasty of Angelus. 1204-1261. Latin empire (p. 216). (Seep. 278.) The Mongols. 1206. The Mongols elected on the Amur, Temuchin, their chief. He took the honorary title Jenghiz Khan, under which, rather than under his true name, he is known in history. The Mongols con- quered a part of China, destroyed the empire of the Chowaresmians, which reached from India to the Caspian Sea, and subjugated south- ern Russia. Temuchin's grandson Batu made plundering expeditions through Russia, defeated the Poles and fought the 1241. Battle of Wahlstatt, against the Germans under Henry the Pious, duke of Liegnitz. The Mongols, although victorious, retired to the East, and ravaged Hungary. A Christian army under Wenzel, king of Bohemia, cut them off from Austria. A. D. The East. 241 The greater part of the Mongols went back to Asia, but Russia was under their sway till 1480. 1258. The Mongols conquered Bagdad and destroyed the Caliphate. Their immense empire separated into Khanates, (China, Khan- ate of Kaptchak on the Volga, Jagatai in Turkestan, Iran, etc.) (See p. 278.) India. (See p. 211.} 1206-1500. The Afghan empire broke up after the death of Muhammad Ghori (p. 211), and the vicegerency of the Punjab and Hindustan became an independent sultanate under Kutab-ud-din, sultan of Delhi (1206- 1210), who was originally a slave, and founded the slave dynasty (1206-1288). He extended the Mohammedan rule as far as the Brahma-putra. Under his successors the sultanate suffered from Mon- gol invasions. Allah-ud-din, viceroy of Oude, who had made daring expeditions into the Deccan, murdered the sultan Jeldl-ud-din, his uncle, and made himself sultan. Conquest of Guzerat. Capture of Chitor in Rajputana (1300). Conquest of portions of the Deccan. After the death of Allah-ud-din (1316) revolts occurred which were suppressed by the Turkish governor of the Punjab, Tughlak, who mounted the throne of Delhi, and founded a new line of sultans, who transferred their residence to Tughlakabad. Tuglath was succeeded by his son Muhammad Tughlak (1325-1351), who was obliged to pur- chase the retreat of the Mongols from the Punjab. A terrible famine induced him to remove the population of Delhi to Deoghur, and the misery of those who survived the journey of 700 miles induced him to send them back again. Large issue of copper coinage, followed by financial panic. Rebellions broke out everywhere, and the Mo- hammedan empire separated into numerous small states. Firuz-Shah (1350-1388). 1398. Invasion of Hindustan by Timiir Shah. Allah-ud-din had ex- tended his power over a large part of the south, but the Hindu revolt of 1316 had shattered it. The southern part of the peninsula was comprised in the Hindu empire of Vijayanagar (Narsinga), about 1300. In 1350, on the death of Muhammad Tughlak, the Moham- medan army in the Deccan had set up a sultan of its own, whose capital was at Kulbarga. These Bahmani sultans were soon in- volved in a series of horrible wars with the empire of Vijayanagar. The Bahmani empire endured until 1500, when it was broken up into five kingdoms. (Seep. 353.) China. (Seep. 211.) 1101-1398. The Khitan Tatars having established themselves firmly in Leaou- tsung, Hwy-tsung (1101-1126) conceived the idea of inviting the Neu-che Tatars to take the field against them ; they did so and ex- pelled the Khitan, but occupied the province themselves, and thence spread over Chili-li, Shen-se, Shun-se, and Ho-nan. Under Kaou- 16 242 • Mediaeval History. A. D. tsung (1127-1163) the Neu-cJie Tatars, or as they now called them- selves, the Kins, reached to the Yang-tse-Keang. The new empire of the Kins invited attack from the Mongol Tatars, who experienced at this period a wonderful development of power. In 1213 Jenghiz Khan invaded the Kin province of Leaou-tsung; ninety cities were razed to the ground. After the death of Jenghiz (1227) his son Ogdai (1227-1241) continued the work of conquest. 1232. Fall of the Kin dynasty, brought about by an alliance of the Mongols with the independent kingdom of Sung, in the south. Mangu (1248-1259), son of the warrior Too-le, was succeeded by his brother, 1259-1294. Kublai Khan, Mongol emperor. The complete fall of Sung in 1280 left Kublai lord over all China, as well as ruler of almost all the rest of Asia, excepting Hindustan and Arabia. China was never more illus- trious or powerful. Visit of Marco Polo, the Venetian, to the court of Kublai. Unsuccessful attack upon Japan (1281, p. 243). The immediate successors of Kublai were men of little note : Yuen- ching (1294H307), Woo-tung (1307-1311). Jin-tsung (1311-1320) endeavored to blend the two races, and admitted many Chinese to official positions. After his death matters went from bad to worse, until Shun-te (1333-1368) was driven from the empire by Choo- yuen-chang, the son of a Chinese laborer, who, in 1368, proclaimed himself emperor under the name of 1368-1398. Hung- woo, the founder of the Ming dynasty. Subjugation of Tatary. (Seep. 878.) Japan. (See p. 213.) 1156-1392. 1156. The wars of Gen and Hei, which began in this year, are very famous in Japanese annals. In the first battle (1156) the Taira (Heishe) were victorious, under Kiyomori, and obtained control of the royal palace. Exiled from Kioto, the Minamoto (Genji), under the enterprising brothers, Yoritomo and Yoshitsune, founded a power in the plain of the Koanto, with Kamakura as their capital. The death of Kiyomori (1181) was the signal for the downfall of the house of Hei. Kioto was captured by the Minamoto. The final struggle occurred in the 1185. Naval battle of Dan no ura, near Shimonoseki. The Taira were utterly defeated, many perished in the fight, and the family was exterminated throughout the islands, save a few who, escaping to KiusUu, transmitted their name to the present day. Secure in victory, Yoritomo left the Mikado and the kuge in Kioto undisturbed, while he strengthened his power at Kamakura. Five men of his family were appointed governors of provinces, an office previously filled only by civilians. A special tax was levied through- out the empire for the support of standing garrisons in all the prov- A. D. The East. 243 inces, and these troops were under military rulers of his own race, who shared the government of the province with the civil governor, and were subordinate to Yoritomo himself. In 1192 Yoritomo was appointed Sei-i Tai Shogun, or generalissimo. He was henceforward known as the Shogun. With the death of Yoritomo (1199) fell the power of the Minamoto. 1200-1333. Supremacy of the family of Hojo. The founder of the Hojo ascendency was Tokimasa, father-in-law of Yoritomo, who exercised absolute control over the degenerate descendants of that able Shogun. None of the Hojo ever held the office of Shogun, but, vassals of a vassal, they ruled the Shogun and the Mikado as Yoritomo had ruled the Mikado alone. The line of Yoritomo ended in 1219, when the Shogunate was transferred to the Fujiwara, who held it until 1251, when their vassal-masters handed it over to one of the sons of the reigning Mikado, in whose familv it remained until 1333. Since the conquest of China by the Mongol-Tatars, the victors had kept the subjugation of Japan steadily in view. Embassy after em- bassy had demanded submission and been repulsed ; the last, in 1279, was beheaded. 1281. Invasion of Japan by the Mongol Tatars. Destruction of the armada by a typhoon; defeat and massacre of the survivors upon the island of Taka. By this repulse Hojo Tokimune won great praise ; he was, indeed, a man of great capacity and good sense. After him, however, the Hojo grew more and more outrageous in their treatment of the Mikado until a revolt broke out, headed by Kusunoki-Masashige and Nitta Yoshisada, which ended in the 1333. Capture and destruction of Kamakura, and the exter- mination of the Hojo family. For a time (1333-1336) the Mikado Go-Daigo (1319-1338) was monarch in fact as in name, but his weakness cost him his newly found authority. Ashikaga Takauji, one of the leaders in the revolt against the Hojo, revolted against his new master, seized Kioto, and set up a rival Mikado who appointed him Sei-i Tai Shogun. 1336-1392. War of the Chrysanthemums, between the false Mikado at Kioto and the true Mikado at Yoshino, each displaying the imperial emblem, the chrysanthemum. Peace was concluded in 1392 under the condition that the imperial throne should be occupied by mikados taken alternately from the rival houses. The northern branch died out after a few generations. During this period (since the establishment of the Shogun at Kioto) feudalism reached its full development. The country was divided among the soldiers of the Shogun, who held their estates as fiefs from the Shogun, to whom they owed service. Gradually the agricultural and other classes became attached to certain of these military lords, daimios, and received their lands from them as fiefs. The taxes which supported the Mikado and the court were absorbed by the daimios, and the kuge was left to abject poverty. (See p. 278.) 244 Medieval History. FOURTH PERIOD. FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE CRUSADES TO THE DIS- COVERY OF AMERICA, 1270-1492. § 1. GERMANY. (See p. 1273-1347. Kings and Emperors of various houses. 1273-1291. Rudolf I., count of Hapsburg and Kyburg, landgrave in Alsace, the most powerful prince in Helvetia, was elected by the three archbishops of Mainz, Cologne and Trier and the count Palatine of the Rhine, through the influence of his cousin, the burggrave Frederic of Hohenzollem. Strict enforcement of the public peace. War with Ottocar, king of Bohemia, who had taken possession of Austria, after the extinction of the Babenberg line (1246), had reconquered Styria from the Hun- garians, and had inherited Carinthia and Carniola. Ottocar was put under the ban and his fiefs proclaimed forfeited. Rudolf took Vienna, and was on the point of crossing the Danube when Ottocar agreed to a treaty (Nov., 1276), whereby he abandoned Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, but received Bohemia and Moravia again as fiefs of the empire. Ottocar however soon renewed the war. 1278. Victory of Rudolf on the Marchfeld (near Vienna). Death of Ottocar. Peace with the guardian of his son Wenzel who received Bohemia and, later, Moravia. Development of the family power of the Hapsburgs. Austria, Styria, Carinthia, given as imperial fiefs to Rudolf's sons, Albert and Rudolf. Carin- thia was given to Meinhard, count of Tyrol, Rudolf's brother-in-law. Campaigns of Rudolf in Burgundy and Swabia, particularly against Eberhard of Wurtemberg. In Swabia since the fall of the Hohen- staufens the most powerful princes were the counts of Wiirtem- berg, and the margraves of Baden. The ducal title in Swabia de- scended to Rudolf's son Rudolf, and from him to his son John (Parricida), but this title designated only authority over the Haps- burg estates in Swabia. Formation of a great number of fiefs held immediately of the empire in Swabia. Through the exertions of the archbishop of Mainz, Rudolf's son Albert was not elected his succes- sor, but the choice fell on a relative of the archbishop, 1292-1298. Adolf of Nassau, whose reign was devoted to the attempt to establish a dynastic power by the acquisition of Thuringia and Meissen fin opposition to the brothers Frederic * and Diezmanri). Adolf was deposed at the Diet of Mainz, by the influence of his former patron, the archbishop of Mainz, l The title "with the bitten cheek " appears to have been a later invention ; his contemporaries called this Frederic, son of Margaret, daughter of Frederic II., by the surname " the Cheerful." See Wegele, Fried, der Freidige, 1868- A. D. Germany. 245 without the approval of the archbishops of Cologne and Trier and the count Palatine. He fell at Gollheim in personal con- flict with 1298-1308. Albert L, of Austria, son of Rudolf I. who had been elected king by the opposing party. Alliance with Philip the Fair, king of France, against the Pope. Albert tried in vain to recover Holland as a vacant fief of the empire. Alliance of the three ecclesiastical electors and the count Palatine against the king, who was victorious (1301), and reduced the princes to obedience (siege of the castle of Bingen}. Unsuccessful wars with Bohemia, and with Frederic and Diezmann of Meissen, who defeated the im- perial army under the burggrave of Nuremberg at Lucka, not far from Altenburg"(1307). Albert was murdered by his nephew John (Parricida) between the Aar and Reuss, near the Hapsburg. His widow Elizabeth and his daughter Agnes took terrible vengeance for this murder. Through the influence of the archbishop of Trier the princes elected as king his brother 1308-1313. Henry VII., count of Liitzelnburg or Lux- emburg, a half-Frenchman. 1309. The Swiss Cantons received from Henry VII. doc- June 3. umentary confirmation of their immediate feudal re- lation to the empire. Origin of the Swiss Confederacy. Of the inhabitants of the cantons, those dwelling in Schwyz seem to have been, for the most part,/ra> peasants ; while in Uri and Unter- walden the majority were in a condition of servitude, as regarded either their persons or their estates. The most extensive landowners were monasteries (e. g. the Frauenmiinster in Zurich), and nobles re- siding out of the country, like the counts of Lenzburg and those of Hapsburg. After the extinction of the former (1172), at any rate since the thirteenth century, the counts of Hapsburg exercised, under various legal titles as landgraves or advocates, full jurisdiction and presided in the assemblies. Under the imperfectly developed admin- istration of that time, the holder of these privileges was considered the actual ruler of the country. As early as the first half of the thirteenth century the cantons had resisted the efforts of the Hapsburgers to develop their stewardship into an actual sovereignty over them ; indeed they had even attempted in part to withdraw themselves from the stewardship of the Haps- burgers. In 1231 Henry, regent for his father Frederic II. in Ger- many (p. 224), granted the people of Uri a charter which removed them from under the protection of the Hapsburgers and replaced them under that of the empire. In 1240 Frederic II. gave the peo- Ele of Schwyz a charter which promised them- an immediate tenure pom the empire. After the middle of the thirteenth century, the Hapsburgers were nevertheless still in possession of their office 246 Medieval History. A. D. of steward or advocate ( Vogt} for the cantons. Rudolf I. seems to have recognized the charter of Uri, but not that of Schwyz. Imme- diately upon his death, on Aug. 1, 1291, the cantons Uri, Schwyz, and Nidwalden (which was afterwards united with the towns of Obwalden under the name Unterwalden) concluded a perpetual league. Al- though intended only to insure the maintenance of existing condi- tions, this league is to be regarded as the beginning of the Con- federacy. By making shrewd use of the confusion that followed in Germany, but not without many changes of fortune (after the battle of Gollheim (p. 245) the cantons were obliged to recognize the su- premacy of the Hapsburgers), the confederates in 1309 attained the object for which their ancestors had striven. The Swiss narrative, to which the popular poetry has added many ornaments, and which condenses the facts of the gradual acquirement of an immediate relation to the empire into a short space of time, and exaggerates their effects, can no longer be regarded as historical in view of the results of modern investigation.1 It is first found in chronicles which were written between two and three hundred years after the events, and is often contradicted by the documents.2 Neither the Oath on the Rutli (1307, Werner Stauffacher, Walther Fiirst, Ar- nold Melchthal), nor the expulsion of the bailiffs on the 1st of January 1308, is historically authenticated. The Swiss confederacy was not formed by the exertions of three or of thirty individuals, but was the result of many historical events which united in powerfully assisting the energetic and enduring efforts of the inhabitants of the cantons to free themselves from all foreign su- premacy. As regards the story of Tell, it is now established that neither the shooting of the apple from the head of his son, nor the murder of the bailiff Gessler in the hollow way at Kiissnacht can be in any way re- garded as an historical event. It has been proved that among the Kiissnacht bailiffs of that time there was no Gessler. The legend of the shooting of the apple occurs five times outside of the cantons, agreeing almost to the wording of the answer which the archer gives the tyrant : in Norway, in Iceland, in Denmark, in Holstein, and on the middle Rhine, and, with an altered motive, a sixth time in Eng- land. Hence it is tolerably certain that we have here to do with a common Germanic tradition. Moreover, the resemblance of the Swiss version to the elder narrative of Saxo Grammaticus (twelfth century) of the shot of Toko, tho Dane, who is said to have lived in the tenth century, is so striking as to render it probable that the Swiss chroniclers had that historian before them. Whether a man of the name of Tell ever lived in Uri is a question which cannot be answered with certainty either in the affirmative or the negative.8 It is one, moreover, which has but little interest when 1 A. Huber: die Waldstatte Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, 1861 ; and Roch- holz, Tell und Gesder in Sage und Geschic'hte, 1877. 2 The honor of having first used this fact after a true scientific fashion to dis- prove the tradition belongs to the Swiss historian Kopp ( Urkunden zur Ge- schichte der eidgenossischen Biinde, 1835 and 1857; Reichsyeschichte, 1845-1858). 8 According to the investigations of Kopp, who examined all the archives in Uri, and HocJaholz (p. 257, note), the latter is almost certainly the case. A. D. Germany. 247 it is admitted that the main features of the legend are unhistorical. It is noteworthy that Tell, even in the legend, plays no part at all in the common insurrection, after the murder of the bailiff. It was not until later, when the Swiss had actually worked out their freedom, that his deed was invented, and surrounded by the halo of popular belief, his name made a symbol of Swiss energy and love of freedom The Tell chapels and the memorial festivals are no proof that Tell was an historical personage, since the erection of the former and the estab- lishment of the latter can be shown to date from a time when the tradi- tion was already fully developed. The document concerning a public meeting of 1388, when more than a hundred people are said to have declared that they knew Tell, is evidently a later interpolation. 1310. Henry's son, John, was placed on the throne of Bohemia by the national assembly, in spite of the claims of the Hapsburg- ers, whereby the Liitzelnburgers acquired a family power. 1310-1313. Henry's Roman expedition. He was crowned king of Italy in Pa via, and emperor in Rome (1312). 1314-1347. Ludwig of Upper Bavaria at war with 1314-1330. Frederic of Austria, son of Albert. 1315. Victory of the Swiss confederates in the pass between lake Nov. 15. Ageri and the mountain Morgarten over Leopold of Aus- tria, Frederic's brother. The flower of the Austrian chivalry (1500 in number) slaughtered. Dec. 9. Renewal of the league between Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden at Brunnen. 1316. Recognition of the immediate dependence of the cantons upon the empire, by king Ludwig. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the people generally bought off the ever diminishing rights of the landed monasteries. Rapid growth of the league of the confederates, which was joined by one after another of the remaining districts, who thus withdrew themselves from the control of the territorial lords. At the close of the fifteenth century Austria had been entirely driven out of the lands south of the Rhine. After 1340 no imperial bailiff is mentioned in the cantons, which in conse- quence of the weakness of the imperial power soon became republics, so that the proclamation of the independence of Switzerland in the Peace of Westphalia (1648) was only the legal recognition of a state of things which had long existed in fact. 1322. Battle at Ampfing near Muhldorf. Frederic of Austria de- feated and captured (Schweppermann • the story is probably unhistoric). 1324. Ludwig gave the mark Brandenburg, which had reverted by the extinction of the Askanian line, to his son Ludwig, whom he afterwards married with Margaret Maultasch, the heiress of Tyrol and Carinthia. 1325. Frederic set at liberty upon renouncing his claim to the throne. He surrendered himself again as prisoner, was made co-regent by Ludwig, died 1330. 1327-1330. Ludwig's Roman expedition. Crowned emperor *n Rome (Anti-pope Nicholas V.} 248 Mediceval History. A. D, The Electoral meeting at Rense (1338) declared every legally elected German king to be thereby constituted Roman emperor, even without papal coronation. The violent means adopted by Ludwig to increase his domestic power led, a year before his death, to the election of Charles, son of John, king of Bohemia (f 1346 in the battle of Crecy). Charles was not universally recognized until after Ludwig's death. 1347-1437. Emperors of the Luxemburg — Bohe= mian line. 1347-1378. Charles IV. A prince with nothing knightly in his character, but wise in statecraft, and shrewd in calculation ; a scholar (he studied at Paris and Bologna, spoke and wrote Bohemian, German, Latin, French, Italian). War with the Bavarian party. In opposition to Ludwig there appeared in Brandenburg the false Waldemar (1348-1350), who was assisted by Charles. The emperor's first care was his hereditary kingdom, Bohemia (whence he was styled by Maximilian I., "Bohemia's father, the Holy Roman Empire's arch-step-father"). The emperor in 1348 founded a university, after the pattern of that in Paris, at Prague, the first in Germany. The Bavarian party elected in opposition 1349. Gunther of Schwarzburg, king of Germany, but he died in Jan. June of the same year (poisoned ?). Plague (Black Death) in Germany, and throughout nearly all Europe. Persecutions of the Jews. Flagellants. 1353. Berne joined the Swiss confederacy which now included Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Lucerne, Zurich, Glarus, Zug, and Bernef the so-called eight old cantons. 1354^1355. Charles's first expedition to Rome. He was crowned emperor at Rome with a humiliating ceremony. Silesia and Lower Lusatia (Niederlausitz) united with Bohemia. 1356. Golden Bull.1 Fundamental law of the empire. The election of the emperor was definitively intrusted to the seven electors, who had practically exercised this right for a long time ; 2 three ecclesiastics : 1. Archbishop of Mainz (arch-chancellor of Germany) ; 2. Archbishop of Trier (arch-chancellor of Burgundy) ; 3. Archbishop of Cologne (arch-chancellor of Italy) ; four secu- lar: 4. King of Bohemia (arch-seneschal); 5. Count Palatine of the Rhine (arch-steward); 6. Duke of Saxon- Wittenberg (arch-mar- shall); 7. Margrave of Brandenburg (arch-chainberlain). Estab- lishment of the indivisibility and inalienableness of the electoral states, which were made hereditary in the male line and received cer- tain regalia (privilegium de non appellando, etc.). The electoral vote went with the land. 1 So called from the gold case which contained the seal. 2 The electoral vote had been disputed hptween the two Saxon lines and the two lines of Wittelsbach. It was now assigned to Saxon- Wittenberg and \he County Palatine, but refused to Saxon-Lauenburg and Bavaria. A. D. Germany. 249 1363. Austria acquired Tyrol. The heiress of Tyrol, Margaret Maultasch, who outlived her husband, the Bavarian Ludwig, elector of Brandenburg (p. 247), and her only son, Meinhard, gave her county after the latter's death to duke Rudolf of Austria. 1368. Second expedition of Charles to Italy in alliance with the Pope against the Visconti. 1373. By the treaty of Fiirstenwalde, Otto the Finne @azy), the last Bavarian margrave of Brandenburg, transferred the mark to Charles IV., in return for an annuity. Leagues of the Cities. The Hanseatic League. The union of several seaports and trad- ing cities, between the Baltic and the Elbe, formed in the thirteenth century (between 1255 and 1262 ?), was the beginning of this league.1 Separate alliance between Lubeck and Hamburg. In the fourteenth century the league attained wide extent and great power. After this time the name Hansa (i. e. trade guild) was commonly applied to the league. Since 1350 over ninety cities ex- tending from the mouth of the Schelde to Esthonia, besides many inland cities (e. g. Magdeburg, Berlin, Thorn), belonged to the Hansa. Object of the alliance : common defense, security of sea and land routes, settlement of disputes between members by arbitration, ac- quirement and maintenance of trading privileges in foreign countries. Capital of the league : Lubeck. Division of the league into three, afterwards four, quarters : 1. Prussian and Livonian; principal town, Dantzig • 2. Wendic, including also the cities of Mecklenburg, Pom- merania, and the Marches ; chief town, Lubeck; 3. Saxon; chief town, Brunswick ; 4. Westphclian ; chief town, Cologne. Principal trading ground, all northern Europe. Principal trading stations : Novgorod, Stockholm, Wisby (in Gothland), Bergen, Bruges, London. Ships of war (Orlogschiffe). 1361. War with Waldemar IV., king of Denmark, under the conduct of the burghermaster of Liibeck, John Wittenborg, who captured and plundered Copenhagen, but was afterwards defeated before Hel- gingborg, and, in consequence, beheaded at Lubeck. 1367-1370. Second war with Waldemar IV. The king compelled to fly. Copenhagen, Helsingb'r, and other cities conquered. A glorious and advantageous peace for the Kansa, concluded at Stral* sund, ended the war. The League of Rhine cities, founded about the middle of the thirteenth century (league of Worms and Mainz), to insure stricter enforcement of the public peace, comprised at various times more than seventy cities, not all upon the Rhine (e. g. Bremen, Regensburg, Nuremberg) ; both temporal and spiritual princes joined the league. The Swabian city league concluded in 1376, particularly as a de- fense against the counts of Wiirtemberg. Eberhard the Greiner (i. e» Quarreler), also called Rauschebart. (Uhland's ballads.) 1 Unions of German merchants in foreign countries under this name had long axisted, the oldest being in London. 250 Medieval History. A. D. Associations of Nobles founded by members of the middle nobility, the imperial knights, particularly in Swabia, Franconia, and on the Rhine, to maintain their independence against the cities on the one hand and against the higher nobility, the princes of the empire, who were everywhere trying to acquire territorial sovereignty on the other. The princes of the empire were either spiritual (archbishops, three of whom were electors (p. 248), bishops, abbots), or secular (dukes, counts- palatine, margraves, burggraves). The following associations of nobles deserve mention : the Martinsvogel (named after the day of their union), the Schlegler, the Lb'wenbund. 1377. Beginning of the wars between the cities and the nobles. Battle of Reutlingen. Brilliant victory of the Swabian league (Ulm, the capital) over Ulrich, son of Eberhard. The Swabian league recognized by the emperor. 1378. Death of Charles IV., after he had so divided his lands among his three sons that Wenzel received Bohemia and Silesia (Lux- emburg fell to him afterwards also), Sigismund, the mark of Branden- burg, John, Lusatia. In Moravia two nephews of Charles, Prokop and Jobst, were margraves. The election to the German throne had already fallen upon 1378-1400. Wenzel, Charles IV.'s oldest son. 1381. The Swabian league united with that of the Rhine, and after- wards entered into alliance with a part of the Swiss confed- eracy. 1384. Wenzel proclaimed a new public peace, the so-called Heidel- berger Stallung (Stallung = preserve of game, etc.), for four years, which, however, was broken after the king had returned to Bohemia. Leopold of Austria, who, in the division of Hapsburg estates had re- ceived the western lands, attacked the Swiss confederacy in alliance with the south German nobility. In the 1386. Battle of Sempach (Arnold von Winkelried?),1 he was defeated and lost his life. His second son, Leopold, renewed the war and was defeated in the 1388. Battle of No/els, by the men of Glarus and Schwyz. The war with the cities broke out anew. Eberhard the Greiner defeated the Swabian cities at Dbffingen, where his son Ulrich fell. Rupert, count Palatine, defeated the Rhine towns at Worms. These victories restored the superiority of the princes over the cities. 1389. New public peace for eight years proclaimed by Wenzel at the council of the princes at Eger. Wenzel, who was hated in Bohemia for his cruelty and indolence, and had been several times made a prisoner in civil quarrels, was de- posed by a section of the princes of the empire (1400). He died 1419 as king of Bohemia. 1 See O. Kleissner, die Quellen zur Sempacher Schlacht und die Winkelried- sage, 1873. A. D. Germany. 251 1400-1410. Rupert, Count Palatine, who was barely able to make the royal authority respected within his own party. 1401. Unsuccessful expedition to Italy. The German army was de- feated at Brescia by John Galeazzo Visconti, whom Wenzel had appointed hereditary duke of Milan (1395). 1409. In consequence of the Hussite troubles (p. 252) in Prague and a change in the university statutes, all Germans, profes- sors and students alike (5000 in number), left the university of Prague and went to Leipzig, where Frederic the Warlike of Meissen founded a university. The council of Pisa, convened to restore papal unity (Pope Gregory XII., against Pope Benedict XIII.), elected Alexander V. as a third Pope, not having been able to induce the former two to abdicate. 1410-1437. Sigismund, brother of Wenzel, in right of his wife, daughter of Ludwig the Great, king of Hungary, margrave of Brandenburg since the death of Charles IV. Sigismund was at first elected by the votes of Trier, the County Palatine, and Brandenburg, whose vote he himself cast through his plenipotentiary Frederic, burggrave of Nuremberg. The other princes elected Jobst of Moravia (f 1411). By the skillful management of his plenipotentiary, and the recognition of the successor of Alexander V., John XXIII., Sigismund gained the votes of the opposition at a second election, went to Italy, fought unsuccessfully with Venice and Milan, but induced Pope John XXIII., who was hard pressed by Naples, to summon an ecumenical council in German territory. 1414-1418. Council of Constance (Kostnitz). At once a council of the empire and, in a certain way, a Euro- pean congress, visited by Italian, German, French, English, and after- wards by Spanish prelates (5 patriarchs, 33 cardinals, 200 arch- bishops and bishops), and by numerous princes with imposing trains, so that at times there were as many as 80,000 strangers in the city. The council had three objects : 1. Suppression of heresy (causa fidei). 2. Healing of the schism (causa unionis). 3. Reformation of the church (causa reformationis).1 The party of reform secured the adoption of the plan of voting by nations, Germans, French, English, Italian, having each one common vote. Pope John XXIII., who appeared in person, was first induced to public abdication, but afterwards escaped to Schaffhausen with the help of Frederic, duke of Austria, who being put under the ban was forced to submit. Upon the motion of Gerson, chancellor of the University of Paris, the council proclaimed its superiority over the Pope, but proceeded to take up the causa fidei next. Condemnation of the doctrine of the Englishman Wiclif (1327-1384) (opposition to confession, transubstantiation, and absolution), and the chief mis- sionary and developer of this doctrine, John Hus (a Bohemian of Czechish descent, born at Hussinec, 1369 ; 1398, professor ; 1409, rec- 1 Cf. Hiibler, die Konstanzer Reformation, 1867. 252 Mediceval History. A. D. tor of the University of Prague ; since 1412 under the ban), who, re- lying upon a safe conduct from the emperor, had appeared in Con- stance. Hus burnt (July, 1415, his friend Hieronymus of Prague, 1416). After the execution of Hus, the causa unionis was again taken up. John XXIII. was deposed ; Gregory XII. abdicated voluntarily. Sigismund went to Spain to secure the abdication of Benedict XIII. During the long absence of the emperor, discussion of the causa ref- ormationis. After Sigismund's return (1417) Benedict XIII. was deposed by the council. It was now demanded by the party of reform that a thorough re- form of the church in all its parts should precede the election of a new Pope ; the Ultramontanes (i. e. the Italians), reinforced by the Spaniards as a fifth nation, succeeded in bringing about an immediate election, so that the reform fell through. Martin V. elected Pope, Nov. 1417 (although with the condition : de fienda reformatione post electionem), dissolved the council 1418, as an agreement could not be reached. The three concordats which were concluded with the Ger- mans, the English, and the Romans, brought about no real abolition of abuses. At Constance in 1415 Sigismund invested Frederic burggrave of Nuremberg with the mark Brandenburg, the electoral vote, and the office of archchamberlain, as a reward for the important services he had done him (especially at his election), and the empire. The cere- mony of investiture took place in 141 7.1 1423. After the extinction of the Askanian house, Sigismund in- vested Frederic the Warlike, of the house of Wettin, margrave of Meissen, with the electoral duchy of Saxony (Witten- berg). 1419-1436. Hussite War. Terrible indignation of the Bohemians at the execution of Hus. His followers, the Hussites, also called Utraquists, because they demanded communion in both kinds, bread and wine (sub utraque specie), for the laity as well as for the clergy, attempted to spread their doctrine, which the council had rejected, by force. Re- volt in Prague. Ziska leader of the Hussites. After the death of king Wenzel (1419), Sigismund was heir to the Bohemian throne. He was crowned in Prague, but was soon obliged to leave the country. The imperial troops were driven back as they entered Bohemia (1421). Sigismund was disgracefully defeated (1422) at Deutsch-Brod. The Hussites ravaged the neighboring countries (skillful use of gun- powder and clumsy cannon ; ramparts of wagons). The coun- cil of Basel (1431-1449) concluded a treaty with the moderate Hus- sites (Calixtinians), (compact of Prague 1433) ; the Taborites, whose leaders (the two Prokops) fell in battle, were defeated and annihilated at Bohmisch-Brod (1434). 1420-1460. Epoch of the greatest power of the secret tribunals of Westphalia (Vehmgerichte). 1 The mortgaging the mark for a sum of money was only a form. There was no sale, only a "remunerative present." Cf. Kiedel, Gesch. des Preuss. .Konigshauses, IL 269. A. D. Germany. 253 1438-1740. Emperors of the House of Hapsburg. 1438-1439. Albert II., son-in-law of Sigismund, whom he succeded in Bohemia and Hungary as well, died after returning from an expedition against the Turks. 1440-1493. Frederic III. (IV.),1 cousin of Albert, the last emperor who was crowned in Rome (1452). He was powerless both in Germany and in his own lands, and involved in war with his brothers. Mneas Silvius Piccolomini (when Pope, Pius //.), his adviser. Civil war in Switzerland ; Zurich allied with Austria (1440-1446). The troops of Ziirich defeated by the confederates. Ziirich besieged. At the request of Frederic, Charles VII. of France sent the Dauphin (afterwards Louis XI.), with the unbridled bands of the Armagnacs, against Basel, to raise the siege of Zurich. Heroic death of 160O Confederates at St. Jacob (1444). Peace with France. Since their victory at Ragaz (1446) over the German troops, the Swiss con- federacy was practically independent. Native kings elected in Hun- gary and Bohemia (1457) whom Frederic was obliged to recognize. The reforms resolved upon in the Council of Basel (1431-1449) were abandoned by the Concordat of Vienna concluded with Pope Eugenius IV. (1446). About 1450 John Gutenberg 2 practised (at Mainz) the art of printing. (Johann Fust, Peter Schoffer). Frederic, obliged to give up parts of the duchy of Austria to his brother and his cousin, besieged by them in Vienna, and released by George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia (1462). The marriage of Frederic's son, archduke Maximilian, with Mary, daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy (f 1477), caused several wars with France, and, after the death of Mary (1482), with the revolted Netherlands. Maximilian, however, succeeded in keeping the Burgundian inheritance for his son by Mary, the arch- duke Philip. Only the duchy of Burgundy (la Bourgogne, capital Dijon), fell to France. Frederic III., involved in a war with Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, was driven out of Austria and restored by Maximilian (only after the death of Corvinus, 1490). Maximilian, after the extinction of a branch line, received Tyrol, which the house of Hapsburg had acquired in 1363 (p. 249), and at Frederic's death was in possession of all the Austrian lands. (See p. 800.) 1 If Frederic of Austria, opponent and co-regent of Ludwig of Bavaria, be counted, he was Frederic IV. 2 His family name was Gensfleisch ; the name Gutenberg was that of his mother's patrician family. The claim brought forward in the Netherlands that Lorenz Jansson ( Coster) in Haarlem was the true inventor of printing (1423) has been proved by Van der Linde to rest upon a forgery. His investigations assign Fust and especially Schoffer a much less important position than has been commonly attributed to them. 254 Mediaeval History. A. D. § 2. FRANCE. (See p. 227.) 1270-1285. Philip III., le Hardi, the Rash. A quiet reign whose troubles were mostly from outside. Sicilian Vespers (p. 226). Philip married his son, 1285-1314. Philip IV., le Bel, the Fair, with Johanna, heiress of Navarre. Systematic introduction and development of the Civil (Roman) Law. Increased importance of parliament, from which ecclesiastics were removed in 1287 ; in 1302 it was fixed at Paris. (The French parliament was a court, not a legislature). Agreement between Philip and Edward I., of England, Edward renouncing his claims upon Normandy and receiving from Philip 10,000 livres and a guarantee of non-forfeiture for the rest of his French fiefs. 1292-1293. Conflicts between English and Norman sailors ; sack of La Rochelle. Edward I. of England, summoned before the court of his suzerain, sent instead his brother, earl of Lancas- ter, who surrendered Guienne to Philip as security for a satis- factory arrangement. Pliilip, hereupon, declared Edward's fiefs forfeited, by reason of his non-appearance. 1294-1297. War between France and England, carried on in Gas- cony and in Flanders, Philip being successful in both fields. 1299, June 19. Peace was concluded between France and England at Montreuil-sur-Mer, on the basis of present possession as re- garded territory. Marriage of Edward I. and Margaret, sister of Philip IV. (see below). 1296-1304. Quarrel with Pope Boniface VIII. The strife originated in the king's need of money, owing to the growing central- ization of government, which led him to tax ecclesiastical property. Bull, " Clericis laicos" forbidding the clergy to pay taxes to the secular government without consent of the Pope (1296). Philip replied by an ordinance prohibiting the exportation of money or valuables from the kingdom without the king's permission. From these extreme positions the princes gradually retreated until a reconciliation was patched up. As a private man the Pope became arbitrator between Philip and Edward, and secured two thirds of Aquitaine to France, which was, however, again transferred to England by a marriage treaty, wherein Edward was betrothed to Philip's sister Margaret, and his son, Edward (II.) to Philip's daughter Isabelle. Flanders an- nexed to France. The quarrel between the king and the Pope broke out afresh in 1301. The bull " Ausculta jili," wherein the Pope asserted his su- premacy over all kings, was burned by Philip's order. Remonstrance of the estates of France with the Pope (1302). Revolt of Flanders. The French army of feudal barons was totally defeated by Flemish citizens in the 1302. July 1. Battle of Courtrai (Day of the Spurs'). Four thousand gilt spurs were captured by the victors. So many fiefs were vacated that Philip saw the royal power considera- bly strengthened. v D. France. 255 Publication of the decretal « Unam Sanctam" (Nov. 18, 1302) claiming the supremacy of the spiritual power over the temporal ; this was followed by a threat of excommunication. In France the last bull was seized, and violent measures taken against the Pope. On Sept. 7, 1303, Boniface VIII. was seized at Anagni by the king's adviser, Nogeret, and Sciarra Colonna, and treated with indignity. He was shortly released by a popular uprising, but finding Rome on his return in French hands, fell ill and died. Philip recognized the independence of Flanders (1305, June 5). Benedict XI. dying, after nine months Philip secured the election of a Frenchman as Clement V. Reconciliation of the church with the king. 1309. Removal of the papal residence to Avignon (1309-1376). 1307. Arrest of all Knights Templars in France. Trial of the knights on various charges of immorality and heretical doctrines and practices. By the free use of hearsay evidence and of torture, their condemnation was secured, and fifty-four were burned. Abolition of the order (1312) by the Pope. Execution of the grand master, Jacques de Molai, confiscation of the lands of the templars. Annexa- tion of Lyons, hitherto independent through the very number of her claimants, to France (1312). Death of Philip, Nov. 29, 1314. 1314-1316. Louis X. le Hutin, the Quarrelsome, through his mother heir of Navarre. His uncle, Charles of Valois, was the true ruler. Execution of Philip's minister, De Marigni. Serfs per- mitted to purchase their freedom. (Comme selon le droit de nature chacun doit naistre franc). Louis died June 5, 1316. His brother 1316-1322. Philip V. le Long, the Tall, was appointed regent for the queen, who was with child. On the death of the queen's son, soon after birth, Philip proclaimed him- self king, and to put aside the claims of Jeanne, daughter of Louis X., he decreed that on the basis of ancient Frankish law,1 no female could succeed to the throne of France (the Salic law). Excesses of the Pastoureaux suppressed by force. Attacks upon the lepers and the Jews. Acquisition of Douay, Orchies, Ryssel from Flanders. Philip died Jan. 3, 1322, and was succeeded by his brother, 1322-1328. Charles IV., the Fair, Died January 31, 1328, without male issue. Jeanne, daughter of Louis X.t received Navarre. In France, according to the Salic law, the 1 Lest Salica, tit. 42, 6. De terra vero salica in mulierem nulla portio transit, sed Hoc virilis sexus acquirit. This applies strictly to allodial possessions, and Hot to fiefs or to the crown. 256 Mediceval History. ft f~^ ~^ 08 0 o3 % 3 •§ § S "3 1 * fi 'H s S - J 1 1 •9 rn -o .-a — J ^J -2 „ 1—1 'yj ^ 1*J| t ^ ~li 1 1 f r s j i . ^ c8 ! I |~^r — • g ^ "S w 09 i^ «O — ** kj v, ^, •° ^ ^ CD S § GJ -*-» iH t tej Q ? .a S s. t rt oj •w* ^ 0 CO ^ w IO pH 2 *® 0 00 ^ E3 W Q £2 j^ .s rj r OQ H 1 I 2 J o-l g S^o S o "" J i s 1 f ^ oj _ go *O "S ^ s J3 ^ i § 0 CO r^ C3 1—1 0 0 j>_ i 1 -1 * ^ 3 1 1 ^s P^ W I b' .ft i i rf ! 2 M OJ S •rH r^ ^^ C8 l~~ll A. D. France. 257 1328-1498 (1589). House of Valois, a younger line of the Capets, succeeded. Louis VIII., 1223-1226. I Louis IX., St. Louis, Charles, count of Anjou and Provenct, 1226-1270. ancestor of the kings of Naples. I Philip III., le Hardi, Robert (6th son), count of Clermont, 1270-1285. ancestor of the Bourbons. I Philip IV., le Bel, Charles, count of Valois, Louis, count of Ev- 1285-1314. ancestor of the house of reux. | Valois. | Loui leHu 1314- Jean queer Nava sX., tin. 1316. Philip V., Charles IV., Isabelle le Long. le Bel. m. Ed- P 1316-1322. 1322-1328. ward II. 1 | | of England, daughters. daughter. j Edward III., hili 328- Jol PVI., -1350. mil., ne, i of rre. | of England. le Bon, John, 1350-1364. 1316. lived seven days. 1328-1350. Philip VI., nephew of Philip IV. Philip was the choice of the feudal barons, who had regained somewhat of their old power since the death of Philip the Fair, but his tyranny alienated his vassals, while his oppressive exactions ham- pered trade and deprived him of the hearty support of the cities. Quarrel with Edward III. of England, springing out of the claim of the English sovereign to the French crown through his mother, Isa- belle, daughter of Philip IV. (see the genealogy). Alliance with Scotland. Outbreak of the 1339-1453. Hundred years "War between France and England. (Froissart 1337-1410 (?), chronicler of the war.) Naval victory of the English and their allies, the Flemish (Jacob van Artevelde), at Sluys (1340). Contested succession in Brittany ; John de Montfort, one claimant, obtained the aid of Edward, and recognized him as king of France. (Heroism of Marguerite, countess of Montfort.) Landing of Edward in Normandy (1346). 1346. Battle of Crecy, in Picardy. August 26. Victory of the English. Use of cannon (?). Death of the blind king, John of Bohemia, the father of Charles IV.1 1347. Capture of Calais (story of the intercession of Queen Philippa) 1 Recent investigators reject the story that the fifteen-year-old Prince of Wales (the Black Prince), took from the helmet of the fallen king John, the devise "Icadien." 17 258 Mediaeval History. A D. 1347-1349. Black Death in France. Acquisition of Montpellier from James of Arragon, and of the Dauphine of Vienne from the last Dauphin, Humbert II. (who went into a monastery) by purchase. Vienne was given to Charles, son of John of Normandy, grandson of Philip. He took the title of Dauphin, and on his accession to the throne decreed that the Dauphine should never be united with the crown. Hence Dauphin became the title of the heir of the French crown. Origin of the practice of selling offices and titles. First imposition of the gabelle, a tax in the form of control of all salt works by the gov- ernment. Death of Philip, Aug. 22, 1350 ; he was followed by his son, 1350-1364. John II., le Bon. Feud with Charles the Bad, king of Navarre ; arrest and im- prisonment of Charles (1356). 1356. Battle of Poitiers (properly Maupertuis). Sept. 19. Victory of the Black Prince with 10,000 men, over John with 50,000. Capture of John (a prisoner for four years). Meanwhile confusion reigned in France where the young Dau- phin, as regent, was unable to suppress the terrible civil con- flicts. 1357-1358. Insurrection of the bourgeoisie of Paris, led by Etieiine Marcel, the provost of the traders (pre'vot des marchands)f who entered into treasonable connection with Charles the Bad, king of Navarre. Meeting of the estates; abolition of abuses. Truce with England for two years. Murder of the marshalls of Champagne and Normandy in the regent's presence, by order of Marcel. The government in the hands of Marcel and a com- mittee of thirty-six. 1358. Peasant war, accompanied by horrible cruelties, known as the Jacquerie, under the lead of Guillaume Caillet, called Jacques Bonhomme, which afterwards became the nickname for the lower class in general, in France. Murder of Marcel in Paris. 1360. Peace of Bretigny (near Chartres). Edward received Poitou, Guienne, and Gascony, in full sover- eignty, but renounced his claim to the French crown, and re- nounced also all other fiefs in France. Release of John, for a ransom. 1363. Burgundy occupied by John on the death of the queen and her son by her former marriage, Philip, duke of Burgundy, pass- ing over the claim of Charles of Navarre. The duchy was given to the king's son, Philip the Bold, founder of the Burgun- dian branch line of Valois. By his marriage with the heiress of Flanders, the new duke laid the foundation of the power of the house of Burgundy in the Netherlands. Return of John to captivity. He died April 8, 1364, and was followed by his son, 1364-1380. Charles V., le Sage, the Wise. In the war between Peter the Cruel, of Castile, and his brother, Henry of Trastamara, Charles favored the latter, while the f or^ A. D. France. 259 mer was allied with the Black Prince. Expelled by Bertrand du Guesclin, Pedro was restored by the Black Prince (Battle of Najara, 1367). In 1369 Pedro was killed in personal com- bat with his brother. Reform of the coinage in France. 1369. Charles declared war on Edward. Du Guesclin (1313-1380), constable of France (1370). Most of the English possessions in France were again united witli the crown of France. Death of the Black Prince (1376). Death of Charles, Sept. 16, 1380. He was followed by his son, 1380-1422. Charles VI., then eleven years old. Quarrels of his uncles, the dukes of Anjou, of Burgundy, of Bourbon, and of Berry. 1386. Threatened invasion of England comes to naught. Revolt in Ghent under Philip van Artevelde. Crushed by Charles (De Clisson, constable) at the battle of Roosebec (1382) ; slaughter of the Flemings. Death of Van Artevelde. 1392. Charles being seized with madness, the regency was assumed by the dukes of Burgundy and Berry, setting aside the duke of Orleans, the brother of the king. Civil strife between the parties of Burgundy and Orleans (Armagnacs 1). 1407. The duke of Orleans murdered by order of John, duke of Bur- gundy. Cabochians (from one Caboche, a butcher) in Paris, overthrown by the Orleanists under the Dauphin. 1415. Henry V. of England, landing at Harfleur, captured that city Oct. 15. (Sept. 22), and in the Battle of Azincourt (Agincourt), he totally defeated a vastly superior French army. Capture of the dukes of Orleans and Bourbon. Death of the Dauphin, of the king's second son, John, and of the duke of Berry. The queen, Isa- beau, of Bavaria, took refuge with the duke of Burgundy. Massacre of the Armagnacs at Paris, 1418. Rouen captured by the English. John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, murdered at the bridge of Montereau by the followers of the Dauphin (Tanneguy DuchateP). John's son, Philip, hereupon concluded, with the consdnt of the queen, the Treaty of Troyes with the English (1420). Henry V. married Catharine, daughter of Charles VI., and became regent and heir of France. Under John the Fearless (1371-1419) and his son, Philip the Good (1396-1467), the house of Burgundy reached the summit of its power. Philip made himself master of the inheritance of Jacqueline, daughter of William, count of Holland, although the emperor, Sigismund, had declared her lands to be vacant fiefs of the empire. Death of Henry V. of England (at Vincennes, Aug. 31, 1422), and of Charles VI. of France (Oct. 21, 1422). The latter was succeeded by his son, 1422-1461. Charles VII., who, for the present, was recognized south of the Loire only ; in the north Henry VI., infant king of England, was acknowledged 1 From Bernard, count of Armagnac, father-in-law of the duke of Orleans, who became head of the Orleanists about 1410. 260 Mediaeval History. A. D. lord. Duke of Bedford, regent in France, allied with the duke of Burgundy. Siege of Orleans (1428). 1429. Jeanne d'Arc (more properly, Dare), born in Domremy, on the left bank of the Meuse, convinced that she was chosen by Heaven to be the deliverer of France, succeeded in obtaining from the king permission to relieve Orleans, the accomplishment of which feat (April 29-May 8) earned for her the name Maid of Orleans (La Pucelle). The English driven back. Charles VII. crowned at Rheims. Intrigues against Jeanne at the French court. Captured by the Bur- gundians at Compiegne (1430), she was delivered to the English, and, after a mock trial, condemned for sorcery, and burnt in Rouen (1431). 1435. The duke of Burgundy recognized Charles VII., on condition of receiving Auxerre, Macon, Peronne, Montdidier, and the towns on the Somme, and being released from feudal homage. Death of the duke of Bedford. 1436-1449. Period of inaction, utilized by Charles VII., for the in- troduction of reforms : establishment of a permanent tax to be levied by the king without the cooperation of the estates ; aboli- tion of the " free companies," and institution of regular companies, the beginning of standing armies (ordinance of Orleans, 1439), 1449-1461. Renewal of the war. After some fluctuations of fortune (Taibot uiGuyenne; his death, 1453) the English lost all their possessions in France except Calais. 1453. Fall of Constantinople. End of the Eastern Empire. Introduction of Grecian scholars and Grecian writers into Eu- rope (p. 278). Death of Charles VII., July 22, 1461. He was succeeded by his son, 1461-1483. Louis XL, who by his shrewdness and perfidy annihilated the power of the great barons and laid the foundation of absolute monarchy. Revocation of the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VII. (issued in 1438 by the council of Bourges : declaration of the rights of the Gallican church ; limitation of the power of the papacy in France ; appeals to Rome forbidden). 1462. Acquisition of Roussillon and Cerdagne by mortgage. Re- demption of Amiens, Abbeville and St. Quentin from Bur- gundy. 1464. League of the Public Weal (Ligue du bien publique), a conspiracy of the dukes of Brittany, Bourbon, Lorraine, Alencon, Berry, and the count of Charolois. Battle of MontVhery. Louis broke up the league by the concessions of the treaty of Conftans (restoration of the towns on the Somme, Normandy granted to the duke of Berry), the execution of which he evaded. Death of Philip of Bur- gundy ; accession of his son Charles the Bold (le Temeraire). Con- flict between the duke and the king. Meeting at Peronne (Oct. 1468). Storm of Liege. 1475. Invasion of France by Edward IV. of England in alliance with Burgundy. Meeting at Pequigny (near Amiens) between A. D. France. 261 !*; 9.5-3 HI S? * r Cll- PP Eslsuh §§! B^a?. I £5. 1^*2 g eg 1!.^ rf II les I. t 1 I rles n 262 Mediceval History. A. D. Louis and Edward. Betrothal of the Dauphin Charles to Edwax'd's eldest daughter. Peace between France and Burgundy. War of Charles the Bold with the Swiss cantons. Defeat of the duke in the 1476. Battle of Granson, in the March 1. June 22. Battle of Murten, (Morat) and in the 1477. Battle of Nancy, where Charles was slain. Jan. 5. The duchy of Burgundy united with the crown of France, as was likewise Anjou, Provence, and Maine through the extinction of the house of Anjou (1480). Annexation of Alen^on, Perche, Guyenne, during this reign. The king's servants : Olivier le Dain, Tristan VHermite. Death of Louis XL, Aug. 30, 1483. He was succeeded by his son, 1483-1498. Charles VIII. Death of the duke of Brittany (1488). The coalition of the emperor, Spain, and England to preserve the independence of the duchy bore no fruit. In 1491 Charles married Anne, daughter of the duke of Brittany. Peace of Senlis with the emperor (1493) ; peace of Etaples with England. Cession of Roussillon and Cerdagne to Spain. 1495. Rapid conquest of the kingdom of Naples which Charles claimed by inheritance through his father from Charles, count of Maine and Provence (see the genealogy), which, however, he was soon forced to abandon in consequence of a league between the Pope, the emperor, the duke of Milan, Venice, and Spain. (See p. 318.} § 3. ITALY. (Seep. 226.) Milan : since the time of the emperor Henry VII. (1308-1313) under the Visconti as imperial viceroys; since 1395 as dukes. After the extinction of the line of the Visconti (1447) Milan became for a short time a republic. The condottieri Francesco Sforza, hus- band of a daughter of the last Visconti, who served in the pay of Milan, soon seized the power and became duke of Milan (1450). Venice : since 697 one state under a doge (dux) ; from about 1000 A. D., ruler of the Adriatic, increased in power and influence throughout the period of the crusades. Participation in the so-called fourth crusade (p. 216), under the doge Henry Dandolo, then ninety- four years of age. After the crusades and the war with Genoa, which lasted 125 years, Venice was mistress of the Mediterranean and tho trade with the East, during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Acquisition of Corfu 1387, of Cyprus by gift of Catharine Cornaro, 1489. The republic at the height of its power in the first half of the fifteenth century. Constitution strictly oligarchical. 1172. Establish- ment of the Great Council, with 450-500 members, followed by that of the Small Council (Signoria), which limited the power of the doges still more. 1298. Closing of the Great Council. Golden book of the nobility (1315). Conspiracies — among others that of the doge Marino Faliero (executed in 1355) — led to the creation of the power- ful Council of Ten. Since 1439 the three terrible state inquisitors. A.. D. England. 263 Genoa, since the reestablishment of the Greek empire in the East a powerful state, especially since the final victory over Pisa in Italy (Sardinia and Corsica) ; weakened by the war with Venice and by civil disturbances in the second half of the fifteenth century ; sub- jected now to Milan, now to France. In Florence, after long civil contests, democracy and tyranny having ruled the city in turn since 1282, the family of Medici ac- quired princely rank, about 1400, and brought the city to its highest point of power. Giovanni de' Medici, a rich banker, founder of the power of his family. His son, Cosimo (Cosmus), the father of his country (died 1464). Under his grandson, Lorenzo (died 1492), de- velopment of the arts in Florence. Renovation of the sciences, advanced by Grecian scholars, who had fled from the Eastern Empire before the Turks. Dante Alighieri, author of the " Divine Comedy," born 1265, at Florence, where he played an important part in the political complications, banished 1302, died at Ravenna, September 14, 1321. Francesco Fetrarca, the "father of the revival of learning" (1304-1374). Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), author of the "De- camerone." The Papal States, founded by the presents of Pipin and Charles the Great (p. 184) ; in the twelfth century increased by the bequest of the countess Matilda of Tuscany (p. 200) and other acquisitions ; since Innocent III. completely independent of the empire. Pope Boniface VIII. (1294r-1303) at variance with Philip IV. of France (p. 254). His successor, Clement V. (a Frenchman), transferred the papal residence to Avignon. Residence of the Popes at 1309-1376. Avignon. (" Babylonish captivity.") At Rome the visionary tribune Cola di Rienzi (1347, papal senator 1354). Comtat Venaissin in the thirteenth century, Avignon in the fourteenth century, became the property of the papacy. From 1378 on there was one Pope at Rome, elected by the Italian cardinals, and one at Avignon, elected by the French cardinals, to which number the Council of Pisa (1409) added a third, until the Council of Constance restored the unity of the church (p. 251). (Great Schism, 1378-1417). At Naples, the house of Anjou : the elder line until 1382 (death of Queen Joan I.) ; the younger (Durazzo) until 1435 (death of Joan II.). (See the genealogy, p. 261.) Sicily, 1282-1295 united with Aragon; 1295-1409 under a branch of the house of Aragon ; after 1409 again united with Aragon, whose king, Alphonso V. (1416-1458), conquered Naples in 1435. After his death (1458), Naples, but not Sicily, descended to his natural son (Ferdinand I.) and his successors ( — 1501). {Seep. 326.) § 4. ENGLAND. (Seep. 235.) 1272-1307. Edward I., Longshanks. The great events of this reign were the annexation of Wales to England and the introduction of financial, legal, and legislative reforms. 264 Mediaeval History. A. D. Edward was returning from the (seventh) Crusade, when he heard of his accession at Capua. Devoting a year to Gascony, he reached England and was crowned in 1274. During the barons' wars Wales had become practically independ- ent, and Llewelyn, prince of North Wales, refused even nominal submission to Edward until 1276-1284. Conquest of Wales. 1277. Edward led an army into Wales, and forced the prince to cede the coast district as far as Conway, and do homage for the rest. 1282. Insurrection of Llewelyn and his brother David. After hard fighting, the death of Llewelyn (Dec., 1282) and the cap- ture of David (hanged, drawn, and quartered, Sept. 1283) led to the complete submission of the country. (No "Massacre of the Bards.") 1284. Annexation of Wales to England. After this the title " Prince of Wales " was generally given to the heir of the crown. 1289. Return of the king from a three years' absence in Gascony ; punishment of the oppressive judges. 1290. Expulsion of the Jews from England (over 16,000). 1291. Death of the queen, Eleanor (daughter of Ferdinand III. of Castile). Erection of crosses along the route by which the body was carried from Lincolnshire to London ; those at Northamp- ton and Walfham still exist. 1292. Baliol, whom Edward had decided to be the rightful heir to the Scottish throne, did homage for the fief and became king of Scotland. After the death of Alexander III. of Scotland the crown passed to his granddaughter Margaret, the Maid of Norway, to whom Edward had betrothed his son ; but she died on the voyage from Norway (1290), and thirteen claimants for the crown appeared. The Scottish estates being unable to decide between the two strongest claimants, Baliol and Bruce, referred the case to Edward. (See the gene- alogy.) 1293. Hostilities between English sailors from the Cinque Ports (Dover, Sandwich, Hastings, Hythe, Romney) l and French mariners resulted in a naval battle. Philip IV. of France summoned Edward to Paris to answer for the occurrence. As a step in the negotiations the fortresses of Guyenne were temporarily placed in Philip's hands, whereupon he declared Edward contumacious and his fiefs forfeited. 1294. Rebellion of Madoc in Wales suppressed. 1294. War with France followed by war with Scotland, which joined France. 1296. Capture of Berwick ; massacre of the inhabitants. Defeat l These towns, to which Winchelsea, Rye, and Seaford were afterwards added, possessed peculiar privileges. They were under the care of the Warden of the Cinque Ports ; their representatives in Parliament were known as barons. The towns were fortified under William I. A. D. England. 265 *-i- tc i 1* fljp s s^£> ^a-Hii .- 1 s •I 'IS I fs* •Hl- « | H II ~ •ft -i 4-r BALIOL. 1295. B g ii 58 ^OJ il 1* Ja II 266 Mediaeval History. A. D, of the Scots at Dunbar. Baliol resigned the crown and was imprisoned. Scotch coronation stone carried to London. Scot- land under an English regent. 1297. Revolt of the Scots under Sir William Wallace. Defeat of the regent. Edward's demands for money from the clergy being refused (bull Clericis laicos, 1296), the recalcitrant clergy were placed under the ban. In 1297 the king summoned the barons to follow him to Flanders, The resistance of the lords ended with the acquiescence of the king in the 1297. Re-issue of the Great Charter and the forest charter (Conjir- matio chartarum) with additional articles, by which the right of taxation without the consent of Parliament was renounced (1301). 1298. Truce with France enabled Edward to invade Scotland. At the July 22. Battle of Falkirk, the Scots under Wallace were completely defeated. Appeal to the Pope, who laid claim to the suzerainty over Scotland, — a claim which was rejected by the English lords in 1301. 1303. Peace of Amiens with France. Edward had previously mar- ried Margaret, sister of Philip IV., and betrothed his son Ed- ward to Philip's daughter Isabella. Invasion of Scotland. Submission of Bruce and Comyn. 1305. Execution of Wallace, who had been betrayed to the English. 1306. Opposing claims of Bruce and Comyn ; murder of Comynf coronation of Robert Bruce (March 27). 1307. July 7. Death of Edward I., on his way to Scotland. Legal and Legislative reforms under Edward. 1275. First statute of Westminster : a codification of previous stat- utes. Grant of a regular tax on exported wool, and of a fif- teenth of movable property. These forms of taxation, the in- direct customs duties, and the taxation of personal estate were intended to supplement the older land tax, which they grad- ually surpassed in importance. Separation of the old king's court into three tribunals : Court of Exchequer, for cases where the royal revenue was in- volved ; Court of King's Bench, with jurisdiction in al? matters concerning the sovereign, and in criminal cases espe- cially reserved for his decision (" pleas of the crown ") ; Court of Common Pleas, for cases between private individuals. Development of the jurisdiction of : 1. the royal council (later the " Star Chamber ") ; 2. of the Chancellor, in cases where relief could not be obtained by the ordinary or " common " law. This higher jurisdiction emanating directly from the sovereign was known as equity. 1279. Statute of Mortmain (de religiosis}, forbidding the aliena- tion of land to religious bodies (whereby it became free from feudal dues) without the permission of the king. A. D. England. 267 1285. Statute of Winchester, regulating the militia and the pre- servation of public order. Conservators of the Peace (later called Justices of the Peace} appointed in every shire to execute the provisions of the statute. Second Statute of Westminster, amending the Statute of Mortmain. 1290. Third Statute of Westminster (Quia emptores), providing that when land was alienated the sub-tenant should hold directly of the overlord, and not of the tenant. 1295. Summons of the first perfect Parliament ; clergy, barons summoned severally by special writ ; commons sum- moned by writ to the sheriffs directing the election of two knights from each shire, two citizens from each city, two burghers from each borough. 1297. De Tallagio non Concedendo, prohibiting the imposition of taxation without the consent of Parliament. 1307-1327. Edward II., fourth son of Edward I. Peace with Scotland ; Aymer de Valence, governor. Recall of the king's favorite, Piers Gaveston, a Gascon, who had been banished by Edward I. Marriage of Ed- ward II. with Isabella of France. Gaveston soon incurred the hatred of the barons, and he was banished (1308), soon, however, to be re- called. 1310. Government entrusted to twenty-one ordainers. 1311. Ordinances of the Parliament of 1311 presented by the ordainers. Reform of abuses ; punishment of favorites ; ap- pointment of great officers by and with the consent and approval of the barons ; consent of the barons necessary for declaration of war ; parliaments to be called every year. Execution of Gaveston (1312). The successes of Bruce in Scotland (capture of Linlithgow, 1311; Perth, 1312 ; Edinburgh, 1313 ; siege of Stirling, 1314) produced a temporary reconciliation between the king and the barons. Edward marched to Scotland with 100,000 men, and in the 1314. Battle of Bannockburn, June 24. was totally defeated by 30,000 foot-soldiers under Robert Bruce. The king's new favorites, the two Despensers, father and son, were as displeasing to the nobility as Gaveston had been ; in 1321 Parlia- ment decreed the exile of the favorites. Edward showed unexpected energy ; at the battle of Boroughbridge, the earl of Lancaster, the leader of the barons, was defeated and captured (executed March, 1322). Repeal of the ordinances of 1311. After an unsuccessful •invasion of Scotland, 1323. Edward concluded peace for thirteen years with Bruce, whose assumption of the royal title was passed over in silence. Isabella, sent to France in 1325 to treat with Charles IV., concern- ing the English fiefs in France, intrigued with Roger Mortimer and other hostile barons, and in 1326 landed in England. Capture of Bristol; execution of the Despensers ; imprisonment of the king. 268 Mediaeval History. A. D. 1327. Deposition of Edward II., in parliament; accession of his son, Edward. Edward, imprisoned in Berkeley Castle, was there murdered, Sept. 21, 1327. 1327-1377. Edward III. Council of regency (earl of Lancaster), Edward being but fifteen years of age. The queen and Mortimer the true rulers. 1328. Unsuccessful war with Scotland. James, earl of Douglas. Treaty of Northampton, Bruce recognized as king, and feu- dal superiority of the English crown renounced. 1330. Edward took the government into his own hands. Execution of Mortimer. Imprisonment of the queen-mother. The death of Robert Bruce (1329) was followed by civil war in Scotland, during which Edward Baliol seized the crown ; Bruce's infant son, David, fled to France. Baliol did homage to Edward, which induced a revolt of the Scottish nobles: Baliol driven over the border. Edward hastened north; defeat of the Scots in the 1333. Battle of Halidon Hill, near Berwick (henceforward this town belonged to England). Baliol restored to the Scottish throne. Scotland south of the Forth ceded to England, and homage rendered for the remainder. Alliance between the patriotic party in Scotland and France. 1337. War with France (the Hundred Years' War). Edward claimed the French crown in right of his mother (see p. 257). 1341. Completion of the separation of parliament into an Upper House (Lords), composed of the nobility, and a Lower House (Commons), composed of the representatives of boroughs and the knights of shires. The process of separation had begun as far back as the reign of Edward I. The responsibility of ministers established by act of parliament (revoked by the king in the same year). 1342. David Bruce returned to Scotland and recovered the throne. Scotland henceforward independent. 1346. Battle of Neville's Cross, near Durham ; defeat of the Scots ; capture of David IL, who was retained in captivity until 1357. Battle of Crecy, p. 257. 1348-49. Black Death in England; more than a half of the popula- tion perished. As the visitations of the plague were especially heavy among the lower classes, a scarcity of labor and rise of wages followed, which led to the passing of the Statute of Laborers, regulating wages. In the next year (1350) laborers were forbidden to leave their own parish. Edward invaded and ravaged Scotland, but won no lasting suc- cess. Battle of Poitiers, p. 258. In 1357 David II. was ransomed. 1360. Peace of Bretigny (p. 258). Renunciation of the French crown and of Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine. Cession in full sovereignty to England of Aquitaine (Gascony, Guyenne Poitou, Saintonge, the Limousin, the Angoumois, Perigord, Bi- gorre, Rouergue), Ponthieu, Guisnes, Calais. L361. Return of the Black Death. Popular discontent. Preaching of John Ball. William Longland, author of Piers Plow- man. 1356. A. D. England. 269 1369. Final visitation of the Black Death. 1370. Capture of Limoges by the Black Prince ; massacre of the in- habitants (death of the Black Prince, June 8, 1376). 1371. John of Gaunt, fourth son of Edward III., married the daughter of Pedro the Cruel of Castile, and assumed the title of king of Castile. Loss of all the English possessions in France, except Bordeaux, Calais, and Bayonne. Peace for three years (1374). 1376. The Good Parliament. Opposition of William of Wykeham and Peter de la Mare (Speaker of the Commons) to John of Gaunt. Punishment of favorites, reformation of the arbitrary royal council (Concilium Ordinarium). After the dissolution of the parliament John of Gaunt disregarded its enactments ; to William of Wykeham he opposed John Wiclif (1327-1384), who taught that the property of the clergy was at the disposal of the crown. 1377, June 20. Death of Edward III. During this reign the crime of treason was denned by the Statute of Treason (1351) ; transfer of a suit to foreign courts was pro- hibited (1353, future Statute of Prcemunire) ; Parliament acquired the power of impeachment; trial by jury assumed a more modern form ^separation of the old jury into a jury proper, and witnesses) ; a poll- tax was introduced (1377) ; English was directed to be used in courts of law (1361). In Ireland, the Statute of Kilkenny (1367) prohibited intermarriage of the English and Irish, and supplanted the native lan- guage and customs by English. 1377-1399. Richard II., son of the Black Prince, twelve years old. The king was in the hands of Parliament, and his uncles, the dukes of Lancaster (John of Gaunt), York, and Gloucester, were excluded from the re- gency. The war with France and Scotland requiring money, a poll- tax was assessed in 1379, and again in 1380. 1381. Revolt of the peasants under John Ball and Wat Tyler; capture of London ; burning of the duke of Lancaster's palace, the Savoy. Wat Tyler killed by Walworth, mayor of London. Suppression of the revolt. Disregard of the charter abolishing serfdom, which Richard had at first granted. Villanage was, however, doomed. Wyclif 's doctrines spread by his " poor preachers." Denial of Transubstantiation (1381). Wiclif 's adherents nicknamed Lollards by their opponents. Wiclif's translation of the Bible. 1388. Battle of Chevy Chase (Otterburne), between Lord Henry Percy and the earl of Douglas ; defeat of the English. (Ballad of Chevy Chase). Quarrel between Richard and his favorites, (Robert de Vere, Michael de la Pole), and the parliament. In 1386, Continual Council under the duke of Gloucester, for one year. Defeat of the king ; impeach- ment of Vere and others, before the " Wonderful " Parliament (1388). £n 1389 Richard took the government into his own hands. 270 Mediceval History. A. D. 1393. Statute of Fraemunire, prohibiting the introduction of papal bulls. 1396. Richard married Isabella, daughter of Charles VI. of France, and concluded peace for 26 years. 1397. Imprisonment (and death) of the duke of Gloucester. Im- peachment of the earls of Arundel, Warwick, Nottingham^ Derby. Arundel was executed ; Warwick imprisoned for life ; Nottingham was made duke of Norfolk ; Derby (Henry Bo- lingbroke, son of John of Gaunt), duke of Hereford. 1398. Quarrel between Hereford and Norfolk. The king forbade their combat, and banished Norfolk for life, Hereford for six years. Richard made an expedition to Ireland, where the isolation of the English who were settled within the conquered district, the so-called English Pale (Drogheda, Dublin, Wexford, Water- ford, Cork) had rendered them almost independent of England. During his absence 1399. Henry Bolingbroke, since the death of his father, duke of Lancaster, landed in England. Richard returned from Ire- land, only to be captured, deposed, and imprisoned in the castle of Pontefract (murdered?). Geoffrey Chaucer (died 1400), Canterbury Tales. 1399-1461. House of Lancaster, a branch of the house of Plantagenet. 1399-1413. Henry IV., under which name the duke of Lancaster ascended the throne, the claims of Edmund Mortimer, earl of March, the true heir, being passed over. 1400. Conspiracy of the earls of Rutland, Huntingdon, Salisbury, Kent, and Spencer suppressed. Revolt of Wales under Owen Glendower ; defeat of Sir Edmund Mortimer (1402). 1402. A Scottish inroad under the earl of Douglas defeated at Hom- ildon Hill. Capture of Douglas. As Henry refused to allow the ransom of Edmund Mortimer (he being the uncle of the young earl of March, the true heir to the crown), a conspiracy was formed against him by Harry Percy (Hot- spur), brother-in-law of Mortimer, to whose family the king was largely indebted for his throne, who induced his father, the earl of Northum- berland, and his uncle, the earl of Worcester, to join with himself, Glen- dower, and Douglas, and take up arms. In the 1403. Battle of Shrewsbury, July 21. the conspirators were defeated. Harry Percy was killed and Douglas taken. Conspiracy of Mowbray and Scroop, archbishop of York ; execution of the conspirators. 1405. Capture of James, heir of the Scottish throne, while on his way to the court of France (James was the second son of Robert III. of Scotland ; the eldest, duke of Rothsay, had been starved to death by the king's brother, duke of Albany), and detained in Eng- land until 1423. A.. D. England. 271 1408. Defeat of the earl of Northumberland and Lord Bardolph at Bramham Moor; death of the former. 1413. March 20. Death of Henry IV. 1413-1422. Henry V., Monmouth. While prince, companion of wild rakes ; as king, energetic and brave. Trial and condemnation for heresy of Sir John Oldcastle (Lord Cobham), a friend of the king. Oldcastle escaped from prison, and a rising of the Lollards assumed formidable proportions ; it was, how- ever, easily suppressed. (Oldcastle captured and burned, 1417). 1415. Conspiracy of the earl of Cambridge, Lord Scrope and Sir Thomas Grey detected. Execution of the conspirators. 1415-1420. War with France (p. 259). 1415. Oct. 25. Battle of Agincourt. 1417. Second invasion of France. In England, unsuccessful Scottish inroad (« The Foul Raid "). 1420. May 21. Peace of Troyes. Henry married Catharine, daughter of Charles VII. of France, and was accepted as regent and heir of the crown. 1421. Third invasion of France. Death of Henry at Vincennes, August 31, 1422. Use of English in the House of Commons. Sir Richard Whitting- ton, thrice lord mayor of London. 1422-1461. Henry VI., Windsor. Not quite nine months old at his father's death. Parliament refused to appoint a regency, and named the king's uncle, duke of Gloucester, protector, in the absence of his brother, the duke of Bed- ford, who was regent in France. 1423. Liberation of James I. of Scotland, after the conclusion of an agreement with the English not to assist one another's enemies. 1422-1453. War in France. Expulsion of the English. (Joan of Arc.) See p. 260. 1437. James I. of Scotland murdered by the earl of Athol and Robert Grahame. 1445. Marriage of Henry VI. with Margaret, daughter of Rene, titular king of Naples and Jerusalem. Henry promised to re- store to Rene his hereditary lands of Anjou and Maine. This mar- riage was the work of William de la Pole, earl of Suffolk (soon made a duke), whose influence at court surpassed that of the earlier adviser, Cardinal Beaufort (died 1447). Arrest and suspicious death of the duke of Gloucester. The loss of Normandy was followed by the im- peachment of Suffolk, who was banished by Henry, but seized at sea and put to death (1450). 1450. Rebellion of Jack Cade (" Mortimer "). The insurgents occupied London and murdered Lord Say, one of the ministers. The rebellion was soon suppressed, and Cade, while in hiding, was killed by Alexander Iden. The government now passed into the hands of Richard, duke of Xork, grandson of the fifth son of Edward III., son of Anna Morti* 2V 2 Mediaeval History. A. D. mer, heiress of the claims of the third line, who returned to England from Ireland ; his power, however, was not enough to oust his rival, the duke of Somerset, grandson of John of Gaunt, and in 1452 he was induced to dismiss his army, and then forced to swear allegiance, 1452. James II. of Scotland murdered William, earl of Douglas ; defection of the Douglases to England. 1453. Battle of Castillon in France. Death of Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury. Surrender of Bordeaux. Of all the English possessions in France Calais alone was left in their hands. 1453. Birth of Prince Edward, son of Henry VI. Insanity of Henry. The duke of York protector. Imprisonment of Somerset. The recovery of the king in 1454 was followed by the restoration of Somerset to power. The duke of York, the earls of Salisbury and Warwick, now took up arms against Henry and his advisers. 1455-1485. Wars of the Red Rose of Lancaster and the White Rose of York (see the genealogical table). 1455. Battle of St. Albans. York victorious. Death of Somer- May 22. set ; capture of Henry. A hollow reconciliation (1458) was followed by a new resort to arms. At the battle of Bloreheath (Sept. 23, 1459), the Lancastrians were defeated. The victory was a barren one for York ; defection in his army caused him to abandon the contest and retire to Ireland. Flight of Yorkist leaders. York and his party attainted of treason by the Parliament of Coventry. 1460. Landing of the earls of Salisbury, March (afterwards Ed- ward IV."), and Warwick, in England. In the 1460. Battle of Northampton, July 10. the Lancastrians were defeated ; capture of Henry ; flight of Margaret and her son to Scotland. The duke of York entered London and preferred his claim to the crown. Parliament decided that he should succeed Henry. 1460. Battle of Wakefield. Dec. 30. Defeat of York by the queen and Prince Edward. York fell on the field, the earl of Salisbury and the earl of Rutland, son of York, were killed. 1461. Battle of Mortimer's Cross, near Hereford. Defeat of the Feb. 2. Lancastrians by the son of the duke of York, Edward, earl of March (now duke of York). Feb. 17. Second Battle of St. Albans. Defeat of the Yorkists under Warwick. Release of Henry. The earl of March, however, came to the rescue, joined the remnants of Warwick's army with his own, and entered London, where he was proclaimed king by acclamation, March 3, 1461. 1461-1485. House of York (branch line of the house of Plantagenet). 1461-1483. Edward IV. The early part of his reign was disturbed by constant attempts of the Lancastrians to overthrow the new dynasty. I). England. 273 §£ 274 Mediceval History. A. D. 1461, March 27. Battle of Ferry Bridge. Defeat of the Lancas- trians. March 29. Battle of Towton. After a most obstinate fight Ed- ward and Warwick prevailed, and the Lancastrians were totally defeated (said to have lost 28,000 men). Edward was crowned (June 28), and his brothers, George and Richard, were created dukes (Clarence and Gloucester). In 1462 Margaret obtained assistance from France, and made two~ attempts to retrieve the Lancastrian cause, but both were unsuccessful. Henry retired to Wales ; Margaret to Lorraine. A final uprising of the Lancastrians was crushed at Hedgeley Moor and at Hexham (1464). 1464. Secret marriage of Edward with Elizabeth Grey, daughter of Richard Woodville, baron Rivers, and widow of Sir John Grey, a Lancastrian. This marriage and the advancement conferred on the family of the new queen much exasperated the earl of War- wick and the other Yorkists. The dissatisfaction of Warwick was increased by the marriage of Edward's sister Margaret with the duke of Burgundy, and he intrigued with the duke of Clarence, giving him his daughter in marriage and promising him the crown. Revolt of "William of Rydesdale in 1469. Execution of the queen's father, Earl Rivers. Edward became reconciled with War- wick, but a victory over the insurgents at Stamford (" Loose-coat Field ") (1470) so strengthened the king that he .proclaimed War- wick and Clarence traitors, and they fled to France. Reconciliation of Warwick and Margaret. 1470. Warwick landed in England, occupied London, and pro- claimed Henry (who had been imprisoned since 1465) king. Edward fled to Burgundy, but returning with assistance was well received, and joined by Clarence. Re-imprisonment of Henry. 1471, April 4. Battle of Barnet. The Lancastrians under Warwick (the king-maker) totally defeated. May 4. Battle of Tewksbury. Defeat of Margaret, who was captured ; murder of her son Edward. Henry VI. died in the Tower May 22, the day when Edward IV. reentered London. 1475. Invasion of France by Edward, who, in connivance with the duke of Burgundy, claimed the French crown. Subscriptions sup- posed to be voluntary (benevolences), without consent of Parlia- ment, now first introduced to raise money for this invasion. The war was ended without a battle by the Peace of Pequigny (1475). Truce for seven years ; payment of a large annual sum to England ; ransom of Margaret ; betrothal of the dauphin to Edward's eldest daughter, Elizabeth. 1478. Trial and condemnation of Clarence for treason. He was exe- cuted in the Tower. (Popular report that he was drowned in a butt of malmsey.) 1480. War with Scotland, which was ended by the Treaty of Fother- ingay, wherein Berwick was surrendered to the English. As Louis XI. now refused to consent to the marriage of the dauphin A. D. Spanish Peninsula. 275 with Edward's daughter, as arranged at the treaty of Pequigny, Edward resolved on war, but died suddenly, April 9, 1483. 1483. April-June. Edward V. Richard, duke of Gloucester, regent for the thirteen-year-old king. The king and his brother, duke of York, confined in the Tower. Richard created protector. Execution of Lord Hastings. Gloucester advanced a claim to the crown, based on the asserted in- validity of Edward III.'s marriage with Elizabeth Woodville. The claim being admitted by Parliament, Richard accepted the crown (June 26). 1483-1485. Richard III. The new king began his reign by a progress in the north. Murder of the two princes in the Tower (Tyrell and Dighton). The Duke of Buckingham (to whose services Richard largely owed the crown), headed an insurrection in favor of Henry, earl of Richmond (great-great-grandson of John of Gaunt). Execution of Buckingham. Return of Richmond to France without landing. 1484. Confirmation of Richard's title by Parliament. The following table shows the derivation of Buckingham from Ed- ward III.:- Edward III. I | 4 | 6 John of Gaunt, Thomas, Duke of Gloucester, by his 3d wife. | | Anne = Edmund, Earl of Stafford. John, Earl of Somerset. I Edmund, Duke of Somerset. Humphrey, Duke of Buckingham. I | John Margaret • Humphrey, Lord Stafford. Margaret , Dul Henry, Duke of Buckingham. Henry VII. In 1485 Richmond made another attempt, landed at Milford Haven,, and completely defeated Richard in the 1485. Battle of Bosworth Field, Aug. 22. where Richard was slain. In 1471 William Caxton, printer, established a press at West- minster ; in 1474, he published " The Game and Playe of Chesse," the first book printed in England. (See p. 333.) §5. SPANISH PENINSULA. (Seep. 2J.O.) Spain. The Moors in Spain were, since 1238, confined to the kingdom of Granada, where agriculture, commerce, and industry flourished. 276 Mediceval History. A. D. Wars with the Christian kingdoms, occasionally in alliance with Morocco. 1492. Conquest of Granada and union of the kingdom with Castile. The kingdoms of Castile and Aragon during this period were in- volved in constant wars, ever renewed and of varying fortune, with the Moors and with one another. In both kingdoms bloody wars of succession and civil wars. Of the kings of Castile may be mentioned, in the thirteenth century Sancho 1 V., in the fourteenth Peter the Cruel and Henry the Bastard, the first of whom was aided, in his war with Henry for the throne, by England (victory of the Black Prince at Najard, 1367), the latter by France. Mercenary bands or free companies, under Bertrand du Guesclin. Peter defeated and killed at Montiel in 1369. Peter III. (1276-1285) of Aragon acquired the crown of Sicily, which he bequeathed to his second son, James, while his eldest son, Alphonso III., succeeded him in Aragon. His successor, Peter IV., curbed the excessive power of the nobility of Aragon. In 1410, after the extinction of the royal family of Catalonia, a Castilian prince, Fer- dinand, ascended the throne of Aragon. His grandson, Ferdinand the Catholic (1479-1516), by the marriage which he had made be- fore his elevation to the throne with Isabella, heiress of Castile, laid the foundation for the final union of the two kingdoms. Portugal. The legitimate line of Burgundy became extinct (1383), and was succeeded by the illegitimate Burgundian line. Heroic age of Portu- gal, which now reached its greatest power. Conquests, Ceuta, Tan- giers ; formation of a Christian kingdom of Algarbe on the northern coast of Africa. Voyages and discoveries (p. 279), under the patron- age of the Infant, Henry the Navigator (1394-1460 ; discovery of Porto Santo and Madeira, 1418-19 ; Cape Verde, 1445 ; Azores, 1447; Cape Verde Islands, 1455). (Seep. 328.) § 6. THE NORTH AND EAST. Denmark, Norway, Sweden. (Seep. 240.) Each a united kingdom from about 850 on, converted to Christian- ity about 1000, these three kingdoms were united by the Union of Calmar (1397). Margaret, queen of Denmark, daughter of Walde- mar IV., married Hakon VI. of Norway, and after the death of Hakon succeeded to the throne, at first for her minor son (f 1387). The crown of Sweden was transferred to her by the estates of that king- dom. The union lasted (interrupted by Sweden) to 1524. (See p. 351.) Russia. From 862 to 1598, under the house of Rurik, converted by Vladimir the Great 988, soon divided into many principalities, which were in theory subordinate to the Grand Prince of Kiev, but practically were A. D. The North and East. 277 tolerably independent. During the supremacy of the Mongols in Rus- sia, which endured 250 years, there grew up a new grand principal- ity, that of Moscow, which after the devastation of Kiev by the Mongols (1239), and its conquest by the Lithuanians (1320, p. 169), became the national centre of Russia. After a long contest the Mongol supremacy in Russia was overthrown (1480) by Ivan HI., the Great, the founder of the united monarchy. Republic of Nov- gorod subjugated (1478). (Seep. 852.) Poland. Under the Piasts (840-1370, Christian about 1000) involved in war with Germany, with the heathen Prussians (later with the Teu- tonic knights), and with Russia. The last king of this house was Casimir the Great. Short union with Hungary under Louis the Great (1370-1382). Louis' younger daughter, Hedwig, married the grand duke of Lithuania, Vladislav II. Jagello, whereby Poland and Lithu- ania were united under the house of Jagello from 1386 to 1572. Conversion of Lithuania. (See p. 352.) Prussia. Conquered in the thirteenth century by the Teutonic order (p. 218), since 1309 residence of the grand master at Marienburg. The order attained its greatest power under Winrich von Kniprode (1351- 1382) ; beginning of a gradual decline. Defeat of the order by the Poles at Tannenberg (1410). The energy and daring of Henry of Plauen brought about the ad- vantageous first peace of Thorn (1411). The revolt of the Prussian nobles in the country and the cities and their alliance with Poland led to the second peace of Thorn (1466) : West Prussia and Ermeland ceded to Poland ; the order retained East Prussia as a Polish fief. Hungary. Toward the close of the ninth century Hungary was occupied by the Finnish J tribe of Magyars (p. 193) ; until 1301 under the reign- ing house of the Arpads. Introduction of Christianity by the duke Geisa and his son St. Stephan, the first king of Hungary (crowned 1000). Extensive immigration of Germans. Ecclesiastical division of the country into ten bishoprics ; political division into seventy-two counties (Gespanschafteri). Formation of a powerful aristocracy (Magnats). The Golden Bull extorted from King Andrew II. (con temporary of the emperor Frederic II.), after his return from a cru- sade (p. 216), is the foundation of the privileges of the Hungarian nobility. After the extinction of the Arpads, Hungary came under the house of Anjou (1308-1382). Period of greatest power under Louis the Great (1342-1382), who in 1370, succeeded to the throne of Poland also. Under Sigismund of the house of Luxemburg (1387-1437), be* 1 Vambery, Ursprung d. Mayyaren, endeavors to prove the Turkish origin of this people; they were, at all events, Turanian. — TRANS. 278 MedicBval History. A. D. ginning of the decline of the kingdom. Albert of Austria (1438- 1439), and afterwards, Vladislav III. of Poland, elected king ; the latter fell at Varna (1444) in battle against the Turks, whereupon Albert's minor son, Ladislaus Postumus, succeeded. The chancellor of the kingdom, John Hunyadi, defeated the Turks at Belgrade (1456). After his death and that of Ladislaus, Hunyadi's son, Matthias Cor- vinus, became king (1458-1490). After his brilliant reign Hungary was united with Bohemia under Ladislaus II., of the house of Jagello, and the succession was secured to the archduke Maximilian of Aus- tria. (Seep. 800.) Turks, Mongols, and the Eastern Empire. (Seep. 2^0.) Supremacy of the Osman (Ottoman) Turks, Turcoman nomads, founded in Asia Minor by Osman I., about 1300. His successors, Urchan, Murad I., and Bajazet I., extended Turkish power during the fourteenth century to the confines of Europe (Adrianople, residence of the sovereigns in 1365). The development of the Osmanic power was temporarily checked by the Mongols under Timur Lenk (i. e. the Lame), commonly called Tamerlane or Timur the Tatar, Bajazet being defeated and cap- tured in 1402 at Angora. One of Bajazet's successors, Muhammed //., destroyed the Eastern Empire, which had been under the rule of the Palceologi since 1261, by the 1453. Conquest of Constantinople. Flight of Grecian scholars to Italy, where they taught in the universities, and gave the impulse to a new study of Grecian literature. (Seep. 353.) China. (See p. In 1403 the rebellious prince, Yen, succeeded to the throne under the name Yung-lo (1403-1425), and proved an efficient ruler, carry- ing his arms into Tatary, and annexing Cochin-China and Tonquin to China. Under Seuen-tih (1426-1436) Cochin-China revolted. Chingtung (1436-1465) fell into the hands of the Tatars in 1450, and remained a prisoner until released by a Chinese victory in 1457. The quiet reigns of Ching-hwa (1465-1488) and Hung-che (1488- 1506) were unmarked by important events. (See p. 354-) Japan. (See p. Under the domination of the Ashikaga Shoguns (1336-1573), whose founder, Ashikaga-Taka-Uji, set up a rival emperor, Japan was under two dynasties, — the southern (legitimate) at Yoshino, the northern (usurpers) at Kioto; the true sovereigns, meantime, were the Shoguns at Kioto. The period is a dark one, filled with constant wars between the dynasties, and civil wars in Kioto. It is curious to reflect that in the midst of these wretched wars Columbus was sending messengers into the interior of Cuba charged with letters to the sovereign of Japan, whereby he hoped to open communication for Spain with a monarch whose power was as limit- less as his wealth. (See p. 355.) IIL MODERN HISTORY. FIRST PERIOD. FROM THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA TO THE PEACE OF WEST PHALIA (1492-1648). §1. INVENTIONS, DISCOVERIES, AND COLONIES. Three inventions, whose discovery belongs to the Middle Age, but which came into more common use at the beginning of the modern period, have played a very important part in the total change in society which followed. 1. The magnetic needle, probably early discovered by the Chinese, applied in navigation (compass) in the east in the thirteenth century; in the west at the beginning of the fourteenth (by Flavio Gioja?). This invention materially advanced the discoveries of the new era. 2. Gunpowder, probably introduced into Europe from Asia (China, India, Arabia). According to a tradi- tion whose truth can no longer be maintained, invented by the monk, Berthold Schwarz, at Freiburg in the Breisgau, 1354 (?). It was first used in Europe about the middle of the fourteenth century. The new class of weapons thus introduced were at first in the highest degree imperfect, and of but little value ; but their improvement gradually brought about a complete revolution in military science and art, and thereby led to the destruction of chivalry. Standing armies took the place of the feudal levies, and aided the princes to triumph over the lower order of feudal nobility. 3. Printing (p. 253), which was more widely spread after the conquest of Mainz (1462), had scattered the assistants of Fust to various lands. This invention would, however, have very largely failed of its effect, but for the improvement made at about the same time in the manufacture of Paper. 1492. Discovery of America by Columbus (Colon). For details and the further course of discovery see page 282, etc. 1498. Ocean route to the East Indies discovered by Vasco da Grama. After the Canary Islands, Madeira, and. the Azores had been discov- ered by daring sailors (especially Italians) in the first half of the fourteenth century, but had since been partially forgotten, the Portu- guese at the instance of the Infant, Henry the Navigator (p. 276), be- 280 Modern History. A. D. gan in 1415 to push southward along the coast of Africa in order to find the way to India. The death of Henry (1460) interrupted the prog- ress of discovery for a considerable time, but in 1486 Bartholomaeus Diaz reached Cabo tormentoso, called by John II., Cabo da buena esperanza (Cape of Good Hope), and in 1498 Vasco da Gama landed on the coast of Malabar (Calicut, p. 353). {Martin Behaim of Nu- remberg, author of the celebrated globe still preserved in that city, which shows the state of geographical knowledge just before the dis- covery of America (1492), was in the service of the king of Portu- gal.) . The Eastern trade (in silk, cotton, pearls, spices and other luxuries), had been carried on partly by land through central Asia, and partly across the Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea, and across Arabia and through the Persian Gulf. The conquests of Islam, and especially the capture of Constantinople, had greatly diminished the number of prof- itable routes, so that the discovery of a new route became of great importance, especially to the maritime nations of western Europe who had been excluded from trade with the East, wherein the merchant republics of Italy, Pisa, Genoa, Venice, had grown rich and powerful. The Portuguese attempted the eastern route around Africa. Columbus found at the court of Spain patrons willing to try the experiment of a western route, at once (according to the data with which he reck- oned) shorter and simpler. The success of the Portuguese struck a mortal blow at the pros- perity of Alexandria and the great cities of Italy, and secured a monopoly of the Eastern trade to Portugal for one hundred years, after which it passed into the hands of the Dutch and English. The failure of Columbus had a still greater importance in history, disclosing a new world, where immigrants from the old should develop new political constitutions and new social conditions. The Portuguese power in the East Indies was founded by the vice- roy A Imeida (1504-1509), and especially by Albuquerque (1509-1515 ; see p. 353). 1519-1522. First voyage around the world under Fer- dinand Magalhaes (Magellan), a Portuguese who had entered the Spanish service. Passage to the Pacific through the Straits of Magellan. Magalhaes was killed in 1521 on one of the Philippine Islands. §2. AMERICA. It is probable that as early as 1000 the Northmen, who had occu- pied Iceland since 874 and had thence made settlements in Greenland (985), had not only discovered but had tried to colonize the conti- nent of America (Vinland).1 1 More than a dozen claims to the discovery or attempts at the discovery of America before Columbus have been preferred by various nationalities, a brief list of which is here appended : 1. St Brandan (565) and St. Maclovius (Malo) in the sixth century. 2. Seveu Spanish bishops (714 or 734) ; Isl- and of Seven Cities, also called Antillia, a name afterwards transferred to the Antilles. 3. Buddhist priests from China (458), followed by Hoei-Shin (499) A. D. America. 281 986. Bjarni Herjulfson saw the coast of Vinland, but did not land. 1001. Leif Erikson discovered Helluland, Markland, Vinland, where he built some booths. 1002. Thorwald Erikson coasted along Kjalarnes and died at Kros- nanness. 1007-1009. Thorfinn Karlsefne, under whom a colony was established which remained several years in Vinland. Birth of the child Snorri. 1011. Helge and Finnbvrge with Freydis, wife of Thorwald. The tragical ending of this settlement seems to have discouraged colonization ; yet traces of intercourse are observable for a long time, (1121, Bishop Erik of Greenland ; 1266, voyage of clergymen of Greenland to the Arctic regions ; 1255, Adelhard and Thorwald Helgason ; 1347, voyage of seventeen men from Greenland). The identification of the places visited and named by the Northmen is attended with great, perhaps insurmountable difficulties. The detailed exposition of Rafn (Helluland = Newfoundland or Labra- dor ; Markland = Nova Scotia ; Vinland = Mt. Hope Bay ; Kjal- arness = Cape Cod ; Krossanness = Boston Harbor) is hardly to be accepted ; some writers place the southern limit of discovery at the southern point of Newfoundland.1 Wherever they were made, the settlements of the Northmen in America were not lasting, and the remembrance of them had almost passed away by the fourteenth century. Although Columbus had discovered Fou-sang. (See Leland, Fou-sanq, for arguments in favor of this discovery.) 4. Basques; Juan de PEstraide (about 1000). 5. Northmen (986). 6. Ari Marson, from Limerick in Ireland (982) discovered Huitramann land (White Man's Land) or Irland it Hilda (Great Ireland). South Carolina ? Florida? He was succeeded by Bjarni Asbrandson, (999), and Gudleif Gud- langson (1029). 7. Arabians; Avmaghruins (in the eleventh century). 8. Madoc ap Gwynedd, a Welsh prince (1170). 9. Vadino and Guido Vi- valda (1281), Theodora Doria and Ugolino Vivalda (1292), Venetians. 10. Nicolo and Antonio Zeno (1380-90). This "discovery " involves an older one made by a fisherman of " Frislanda " about 1360. 11. Cortereal, 1403. 12. Szkolny, a Polish pilot (1476). 13. Alonzo Sanchez de Helva (1484), the pilot who as some claim died in the house of Columbus, leaving his journal in the latter's hands. 14. Martin Behaim (1484). 15. Cousin and Finzon from Dieppe (1487). This discovery of America has been assigned to still other races by disputants over the origin of the American Indians, among which may be mentioned : Egyptians, Tyrians, Phoenicians, Canaanites, Norwegians, Chinese, Iberians, Scythians, Tatars, Jews (the Lost Tribes), Romans, Malays; there is also the theory of settlement by the inhabitants of Atlantis, and of a new creation. It is pleasant, from a patriotic standpoint, to state that it has been recently asserted that Europe was originally populated from. America. 1 Three "relics" of the Northmen have been famous in their time. 1. The Writinr Rock on the Taunton River near Dighton, Mass. It was claimed that the inscription was in runes, and it has been interp?-eted by northern scholars to contain an account of the voyage of Thorfinrt, but it seems at present that Washington's opinion of the Indian origin of the picture writing is to be ac- cepted as correct. 2. The Old Stone Mill at Newport, R. I. The northern origin of this structure can hardly be maintained against the more probable theory of its construction by Gov. Benedict Arnold in the latter half of the sev- enteenth century. 3. The " Skeleton in Armor," discovered in the early part of the present century at Fall River, Mass., is now admitted to have been that of an Indian. 282 Modern History. A. D. visited Iceland in 1477, it is not probable that he had heard of them ; it is evident, from his own writings, that he had no suspicions of the existence of a continent southwest of Iceland.1 Christoforo Colombo (he called himself and signed himself, after he became a Spaniard, regularly Cristobal Colon), born (1435 ?, 1446 ?) at Genoa, of plebeian origin, a sailor from his earli- est youth, wished to try a western route by sea to India (by which name in his day, the whole East was meant), and especially to Zipangu, (Japan) the magic island, which the Venetian Marco Polo (travels 1271-1295) had described in the book Mirabilia Mundl. Starting from the erroneous calculations of Ptolemy and Marinus concerning the size of the earth and the length of the habitable region (the Eas- tern Continent), Columbus made the circumference of the earth too short by a sixth, thus locating Zipangu in about the position of the Sandwich Islands. His plans having been rejected by Portugal (after the failure of an expedition secretly despatched westward to discover land), Columbus in 1486 accepted the service of the crown of Castile (Isabella). Delayed in the execution of his project by the Arabian war and the lack of money at the court, he was about to offer his services at the court of France or England, when the cap- ture of Grenada promised the necessary means for the expedition.2 Contract with Columbus, who received nobility, the hereditary dignity of admiral and viceroy, aad one tenth of the income from the newly discovered lands. 1492, Aug. 3-1493, March 15. First Voyage. Departure from Polos with three small vessels on the 3d of August, from the Canaries on Sept. 6. On Oct. 12, landing on Guanahani,8 one of the Bahama islands. Discovery of Cuba (called by Columbus Juanna) and Hayti (Espanola, St. Domingo). Ship- wreck off Hayti, foundation of the first colony (Navidad} on that island. 1493, May 3. Bull of Alexander VI. establishing the line of parti- tion, which divided that part of the world not possessed by any Christian prince between Spain and Portugal by a meridian line one hundred leagues west of the Azores. All W. of that line to fall to Spain, all E. of it, to Portugal. This compromise between the claims of the Spaniards based on the discoveries of Columbus, and those of the Portuguese based on their dis- coveries in the Atlantic, was afterwards revised so that the line was extended 270 leagues further west (1494). 1493, Sept 25-1496, June 11. Second voyage of Columbus from Cadiz, with seventeen vessels and 1500 persons. Discovery of the Lesser Antilles (inhabited by Caribs, which Colum- 1 See Feschel : GescJi. d. Zeitalters d. Entdeckungen, 2d ed., p. 84- 2 That Columbus laid his plans before Genoa is unhistorical (Peschel, 2d ed. p. 120). 3 The chief claimants for the honor of having been the first landing place of Columbus are Cat Island, Turk's Island, Waiting's Island, Samana. The latter claim was first advanced, and ably advocated by Capt. G-. V. Fox in his " Attempt to solve the Problem of the First Landing Place of Columbus in the New World." Wash. 1882. (U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.) A. D. America. bus misunderstood, Carafe, whence Cannibals") and the island of Jam- aica. Voyage along the southern coast of Cuba to within a short dis- tance of the western end. Foundation of Isabella in Hayti (Dec. 1493), of San Domingo on the same island by Bartholomew Columbus. 1497, May-Aug. Voyage of John and Sebastian Cabot from Bristol with two vessels. Discovery of land (Prima Vista, Cape Breton Island (?), Newfoundland (?) June 24, 1497 (not 1494). They explored the coast N. to 67£° N. and S. for an uncer- tain distance, probably not so far as Florida, as has been claimed. 1497. First (alleged) voyage of Amerigo Vespucci. Discovery of the continent of South America. This voyage is doubtful, though many give it credence. 1498, May-July (?). Voyage of Sebastian Cabot ; doubtful re- sults (68° N. to 35° N. ?). 1498, May 30-1500, Nov. 25. Third voyage of Columbus. Dis- covery of Trinidad (July 31), the continent of South America (Aug. 1) ; discovery of the mouth of the Orinoco. Exploration of the (pearl) coast as far as Margarita Island. Return of Columbus to His- paniola. Dangerous revolt of Roldan, with whom the admiral was obliged to conclude a treaty. Columbus, who was disliked by the set- tlers on account of his foreign birth, and his avarice, — a vice from which he cannot be absolved,1 — was accused at court.' Bobadilla, sent out as judge with especial powers, sent Columbus and his brother in chains to Spain (1500). Columbus was at once released upon his arri- val and treated with distinction ; he retained the dignity of admiral, but as viceroy was superseded by Ovando. 1499, May-1500, June. Voyage of Alonzo de Hojeda and Ame- rigo Vespucci. Discovery of Surinam, Paria, Venezuela, and the coast of South America from 3° N. (Brazil?) to Cape Vela. This is often called the second voyage of Vespucci, but the first voyage, which he is said to have made in 1497, when he reached the continent of South America, is doubtful. Vespucci was a learned Florentine (1451-1512) who participated in two Portuguese voyages to South America, entered the service of Castile in 1505, and filled the position of Royal Pilot from 1508 until his death, a post in which he rendered important services to science, particularly in the construction of maps. The new world was called after him, not by him, America. The originator of this name was Martin Waltzemuller (Hylacomylus) from Freiburg in the Breisgau, professor at St. Die in Lorraine (1507). The name of America spread at first only in Germany and Switzerland, and did not come into gen- eral use until the close of the sixteenth century.2 1 Peschel, 2d ed., p. 272. 2 Humboldt, Examen critique de Fhistoire et de la geographic du nouveau continent ; Peschel, Gesch. d. Zeitalter d. Entdeckungen, cap. XIII. , Abhand- lungen zur Erd-und Volkerlcunde, 1877. Two attempts have been recently made to derive America from a native word : Jules Marcou, in the Atlantic Monthly (1875, March), and T. H. Lambert, in the Bulletin of the American Geographical Soc. for 1883, p. 45. According to the former, America is a cor- ruption of the Indian name of a range of mountains in Nicaragua; the latter derives it from a native name of the empire of the Incas in Peru. The first dated map to bear the name " America " was that in the edition of Solinus of 1520 by Apianus. 284 Modern History. A. D, 1499, Dec.-1500, Sept. Voyage of Vincent Yafiez Pinzon from Palos. Discovery of CapeS. Augustin (Feb. 28), of the Amazon. Pas- sage of the equator. This voyage traced the South American coast to 8° 20' S. 1500, April. Pedro Alvarez Cabral, bound for the East Indies, was accidentally (?) carried westward until he reached the coast of Brazil, in about 10° S. He called the country Terra Sanctce Crucis, and took possession of it for Portugal. 1500. Gaspar de Cortereal, a Portuguese, discovered Newfoundland (Conception Bay), the mouth of the St. Lawrence, and the coast of Labrador. 1501. Cortereal sailed again in the hope of finding the passage to the East Indies, a hope which inspired the continuous efforts of nearly all the early explorers. He was lost upon the voyage. 1501. Second voyage of Vespucci under a Portuguese commander. 1502, May 11-1504, Nov. 7. Fourth (and last) voyage of Co- lumbus. Discovery of the Bay of Honduras, Veragua, Porto Bello. Shipwreck at Jamaica. Columbus died in Valladolid (1506) without a suspicion that he had discovered a new continent, and in the firm belief that his discoveries were parts of Asia. His son, Don Diego Columbus, viceroy and admi- ral. A grandson and great grandson of the discoverer retained the hereditary title of admiral. De Bastidas traced in 1500-1502 the coast of Panama to Pt. Manzanilla. Hojeda (1502), Vespucci (3d voyage, 1503), Juan de la Cosa (1505), etc., examined more minutely the coasts already dis- covered, while in the Spanish possessions the work of settlement and conquest was being pushed forward. Cruelties inflicted on the Indi- ans of the West Indies, whose race disappeared with frightful rapid- ity. It is probable that more was learned of the coasts of both Amer- icas in this period than has been divulged ; the rivalry of Spain and Portugal leading to a careful secrecy regarding all discoveries. The exact historical value of the D'Este map, just made public by M. Har- risse, cannot be known as yet, but seems to have clearly established the fact that the coast of North America from Florida to beyond Cape Cod was well known to the Portuguese in 1502. 1504. French fishermen at the banks of Newfoundland. 1506. Jean Denys of Honfleur, and Camart of Rouen, examined (and sketched) the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 1506. Juan Diaz de Solis and Vincent Yanez Pinzon discovered Yuca- tan. In 1508 they coasted South America to 40° S. 1508. Circumnavigation of Cuba, by Ocampo. Aubert in the St. Law- rence. Importation of negroes from Africa to the Spanish possessions in the West Indies, where they were employed in the mines. 1511. Conquest of Cuba by Diego Velasquez. 1512. Discovery of Florida by Juan Ponce de Leon, governor (since 1510) of Porto Rico. 1513. Discovery of the Pacific Ocean by Vasco Nunez de Bal- boa, who crossed the isthmus from Antigua on the Gulf of Ura- &.. D. America. 285 ba (Keats' sonnet). Balboa was put to death in 1514 by Daviia, governor of Darien, Carthagena, and Uraba (Castila del Oro). 1515. Voyage of Juan Diaz de Solis in search of a passage to the East Indies. Discovery of the Rio de la Plata, on the banks of which river Solis was killed by the natives. 1517. Alleged voyage of Sebastian Cabot and Sir Thomas Pert. It is very doubtful if this voyage was made, or if made, what part of America was reached. Bartholome de Las Casas (1474-1566) went to the Indies in 1502 with Columbus, bishop of Chiapa (in Mexico), advocate and pro- tector of the Indians. 1517. Francis Hernandez Cordova rediscovered Yucatan (Cape Ca- toche) ; advanced civilization of the inhabitants (Mayas), who were under the supremacy of the Aztec empire in Mexico. 1518. Juan de Grijalva coasted from Yucatan to Panuco, and brought back tidings of the Mexican empire of Montezuma. Name of " New Spain " given to the region which he ex- plored. 1519. Alvarez Pineda, by order of the governor of Jamaica, Garay, coasted from Cape Florida to the river of Panuco. 1519-1521- Conquest of Mexico by Hernando Cortez (1485-1547), whom Velasquez, the governor of Cuba, had appointed to the command of a small force of 600 foot, sixteen cavalry, thirteen cross-bowmen, fourteen cannon, but immediately removed. Cortez sailed against the will of the governor. Capture of Tabasco (March). Landing at St. Juan de Uloa (April 21). Negotiations with Monte- zuma, who ordered the invaders to leave the kingdom. Cortez, elected general by the troops, dispatched one ship to carry a report to king Charles of Spain, and beached (not burned) the rest. Foun- dation of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. In alliance with the Tlascalans. Cortez marched upon Mexico, the capital of Montezuma (Montecuh- cuma), who admitted him to the city (Nov. 8). Daring seizure of the king in his own house. Cortez was obliged to march against Narvaez whom Velasquez had sent to chastise him. He defeated Narvaez, and strengthening his army with the soldiers of his opponent, returned to Mexico (1520, June). Revolt of the Mexicans, storm of the temple, death of Montezuma of wounds inflicted by his subjects, who were indignant at his submission to the Spaniards. The Spaniards, leaving the city (July 1), were furiously attacked on one of the causeways through the lake and suffered terrible loss (Nocke triste). Reinforced, Cortez defeated the Mexicans in a pitched battle near Otompan (July 8). Occupation of Tescuco (Dec. 31). Conquest of Iztapalapan (1521). After having built a fleet of thirteen vessels which were transported by land and launched in the lake of Mexico, Cortez laid siege to the capital. After a long investment, accom- panied with an almost daily storm (May-Aug. 13, 1521) the city was taken. Capture of the king Guatemozin, who was tortured and 286 Modern History. A. D. finally executed. Submission of the country. Cortez, at first gov- ernor of New Spain with unlimited power, was afterwards restricted to the chief command of the military forces. Prosecuting the search for a western passage he discovered California (1526). Cortez re- turned to Spain in 1540, and died at Seville in 1547. 1520. Nov. 7-Nov. 28. Passage of the Straits of Magellan by Magalhaes, see p. 280. 1520. Voyage undertaken for slaves at the suggestion of Lucas Vasquez d'Ayllon, exploration of the east coast of North America to 32° or 34° N. Cabo de Sta Helena, "Chicora." 1522. Discovery of the Bermudas. 1524. Alleged voyage of Giovanni de Verrazzano in the service of the king of France. The letter of Verrazzano which gives the only existing account of the voyage ascribes to the writer the discovery of the east coast of North America from 34° (39°) N. to 50° N. It has been thought that many places mentioned can be identified. The truth of the whole story has been disputed, but present opinion seems to be in favor of its acceptance (?). 1524. Geographical congress of Badajos, to settle the boundary be- tween Spain and Portugal in the eastern hemisphere, which should correspond to the line of Alexander VI. in the western ; after a stormy ses-sion the council separated without reaching an agreement. 1525-1527. Exploration of the coast of Peru by Francisco Pizarro (1478 (?)-1541), as a preliminary to the conquest of that king- dom, of which he had heard on Balboa's expedition (p. 284), in accordance with an agreement made by Pizarro, Diego de Almagro, and Hernando de Luque. Repulse of Pizarro and Almagro. 1525. Voyage of Estevan Gomez, a Spaniard, along the east coast of North America, 34° N. to 44° N. 1526. Voyage of Sebastian Cabot in the service of Spain. Ex- ploration of the Rio de la Plata, Parana, Paraguay, Uruguay. The English had taken but little part in the discoveries since the time of Cabot, although traces enough of intercourse re- main to show that the New World was not entirely neglected. 1527. Voyage of John Rut, who coasted north to 53° N. and returned by way of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and the coast of Maine (Norumbega). 1528. Unsuccessful expedition of Pamphilo de Narvaez to Florida, under a grant of all the country between Cape Florida and the River of Palms. After visiting Apalache (June 5) Nar- vaez sailed westward and was lost in a storm (Nov.). Of the survivors, four, one of whom was Cabeca de Vaca, made their way by land to the Spanish possessions in Mexico (1536). 1528. Settlement of Germans at Caro, between St. Martha and Maracapana ; presented to the family of Welser by Charles V. 1531-1532. Conquest of Peru by Pizarro. The undertaking was favored by a civil war which was raging A. D. America. 287 at the time in the empire of the Incas. Foundation of St. Michael on the Piuro in Peru. Capture of the Inca, Atahuallpa, before his army (Nov. 16), who, after the extortion of an immense ransom, was put to death (1533). March of Alvarado from Puerto Viego to Quito. Occupation of Lima, the capital of the Incas (1534). Feuds between the Spanish leaders. Almagro. defeated (1538) and executed by Pizzaro. The latter was afterwards killed, with his brother. The Spanish crown assumed the administration of the country (1548). 1534. First voyage of Jacques Cartier, a French sailor, from St. Malo. Discovery of the west coast of Newfoundland (May 10), Prince Edwqrd's Island, Miramichi Bay. Anticosti, coast to 50° N. 1535. May-1536. July. Second voyage of Cartier; discovery of the Bay of St. Lawrence, River of St. Lawrence (Hochelaga), as far as the site of Montreal. Information received about the great lakes. Foundation of the modern city of Lima. Unsuccessful invasion of Chili by Almagro. 1537. Discovery of Lower California by Cortez. 1538. The west coast of South America explored to 40° S, by Valdivia. 1539. May-1543, Sept. Expedition of Ferdinando de Soto, gover- nor of Cuba, for the conquest of Florida, with nine vessels and over 900 men. After toilsome marches in Florida, with no result but disappointment, De Soto led his men westward to the Mississippi, where he died (at the juncture of this stream and the Guacoya) and was buried in the stream. The remains of the expedition (311 men) reached Panuco Sept. 10, 1543. According to Dr. Kohl, De Soto reached 30° 40' N". in Georgia, and explored the Mississippi to the Ohio (38° N.) 1539-1540. Alonzo de Camargo coasted from the Straits of Magellan to Peru, completing the exploration of the coast of South America. 1540. Expedition of Alarcon in search of the passage to the Indies (Straits of Anian). Exploration of the coast of California to 36° N. Voyage up the Rio Colorado. Lower California, pre- viously held to be an island, was thus shown to be a peninsula. Early maps so represent it ; afterwards the conviction that it was an island spread anew and late into the next century the best maps of America contained this error. 1540-1542. Expedition of Francisco Vasquez Coronado, sent out by the Spanish viceroy, Mendoza, in search of the seven cities of Cibola, concerning whose wealth the Spaniards had derived extravagant ideas from the reports of the Indians. Coronado , reached Zuni May 11. Discovery of the Moqui canon of the Colorado. Reports of a city, Quivira. Coronado wintered at Zuni among the Pueblo Indians. In 1541 he marched north- east to 40° N. and returned to Mexico (bisons). 1540. Expedition of Cartier to the St. Lawrence, with five ships. Roberval (Jean Francois de la Roche, lord of Roberval), ap- pointed governor of Canada and Hochelaga and all countries 288 Modern History. A. Dt north of 40° N. (New France), failed to take part in this voyage. Cartier founded the fortress of Charlesburg and explored the St. Lawrence. 1541. Gonzalo Pizarro, governor of Quito, crossed the Andes and ex- plored the river Napo for 200 leagues : his subordinate, Fran- cisco Orellana sailed down the Napo to the Amazon, and down that river to the sea (Aug. 6). Orellana returned in 1543 to conquer the country, but died in the search for the Napo. 1542. Roberval reached Newfoundland, where he met Cartier, who, against the will of the governor, returned to France. Rober- val built a fort not far above the island of Orleans, but the en- terprise was soon abandoned. Rodriguez de Cabrillo, sent in search of the passage to the In- dies, discovered Cape Mendocino in 42° N. on the west of North America, and explored as far as 44° N. 1545. Mines of Potosi claimed for Spain. 1547. Pedro de Gasca, president of Peru. Organization and pacifica- tion of the country. 1547. Bishopric of Paraguay established. 1548. First act of the English Parliament relating to America (2 Edw. VI. : regulation of the fisheries at Newfoundland). First attempt of the admiral de Coligny to found a Protestant settlement in America. The chevalier Nicolaus Durand de Villegagnon led two ships to Brazil, and founded a colony at the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. Geneva sent fourteen missionaries to the colony. Villegagnon now joined the Cath- olic church, and his defection ruined the colony ; many set- tlers returned to France (1557), some of the rest were mur- dered by the Portuguese (1558), and in 1560 the colony was entirely broken up by the Portuguese government. Andre Thevet, who accompanied Villegagnon, on his return to France coasted along the east coast of North America to the Bacallaos (Newfoundland), and on his return described his voyage in a gossipy, untrustworthy book. 1558. Last Spanish expedition to Carolana ; no settlement made. 1560-1561. Expedition of Pedro de Urana in search of the empire of the Ormaguas, and of the scoundrel Lope de Aguirre in search of El Dorado in South America. 1562. Second attempt of admiral de Coligny to establish a Huguenot colony in America. Expedition of Jean Ribault. Erection of Charles Fort near Port Royal in South Carolina. The settlement was soon abandoned. 1563. First slave voyage made by the English to America. John Hawkins with three ships brought 300 negroes to the West Indies. 1564. Third attempt of Coligny to establish a Huguenot Colony in America. Rene Laudonniere, sent to carry aid to Ribault's colony, finding the settlers gone built Fort Carolina on the St. John's river in Florida (June). Arrival of Ribault (1565, Aug. 28). A. D. America. 289 1565, Sept. 20. Storm of Fort Carolina by the Spaniards under Menendez de Aviles ; massacre of the garrison ("I do this not as to Frenchmen, but as to Lutherans"). Ribault, having put to sea, was wrecked, captured, and slain with many of his company. Construction of three Spanish forts (Castle of St. Augustine). 1568. Expedition of Dominique de Gourges to avenge the mas- April, sacre of the French at Fort Carolina. Capture and destruc- tion of the Spanish forts, massacre of the garrison (" I do this not as to Spaniards, nor as to mariners, but as to traitors, rob- bers and murderers"). 1572. First voyage of Francis Drake to South America. Attack upon Nombre de Dios, Carthagena, etc. 1576, First voyage of Martin Frobisher in search of a northwest June-Aug. passage. Discovery of Frobisher' s Strait and Meta In- cognita on the north coast of North America (60°). Supposed discovery of gold. 1577, May-Sept. Second voyage of Frobisher. 1578, May-Sept. Third voyage of Frobisher. 1577, Dec. 13-1580, Nov. 3. Voyage of Francis Drake around the world. Touching the west coast of North America he dis- covered " Drake's Port," and claimed the country between 38° N. and 42° N. for England under the name of New Albion. 1578. Unsuccessful voyage of discovery of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, un- der a patent from queen Elizabeth. 1583. Second voyage of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Landing at New- foundland he took formal possession of the island for England in right of the discovery of the Cabots. On the return voyage Sir Humphrey Gilbert was lost in a storm. 1584. Sir "Walter Raleigh having secured a transfer to himself of the patent granted to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, his half-brother, dis- patched Amidas and Barlow to explore the coast of North America north of the Spanish settlements. They landed on July 13. the island of Wocokon and took possession of the country for the queen. Exploration of Roanoke. On their return the explorers gave glowing accounts of the country, which received the name of Virginia. 1585. Colony of 180 persons under Sir Richard Grenville sent to Roanoke Island • suffering from destitution they were re- moved in 1586 by Drake. Grenville arriving with supplies immedi- ately after their departure left fifteen sailors to hold possession ; they had, however, all disappeared before the arrival (1587) of 117 new colonists. " Borough of Raleigh in Virginia," governdr, John White. Virginia Dare, first English child born in America. This colony met an unknown fate. White returned to Virginia in 1590, but could not find the colony. In 1589 Raleigh sold his patent. 1585. First voyage of John Davis to the north. Exploration of Davis Straits to 66° 40'. Discovery of Gilbert Sound and Cumberland Straits. 19 290 Modern History. A. D. 1586. Naval expedition of Sir Francis Drake to the Spanish West Indies. Sack of St. Domingo and Carihagena. Rescue of the colony of Virginia. 1587. Third voyage of John Davis (the second was to Labrador in 1586). He reached 72° 12' N. and discovered the Cumber- land Islands, London Coast, Lumley's Inlet (Frobisher's Strait *). 1592. Alleged discovery of the strait of Juan de la Fuca on the west coast of North America in 48° N. by Apostolos Valerianos, a Greek, who had been in the service of Spain under the name of Juan de la Fuca. Peschel (Gesch. d. Erdkunde, I. 273) regards the story as apocryphal. 1595. Expedition of Sir Walter Raleigh to Guiana. Capture of the city of St. James. Search for El Dorado. Voyage up the Orinoco for 400 miles. 1595. Expedition of Drake and Hawkins to the West Indies. Death of Hawkins. Drake died 1596. 1598. The Marquis de la Roche obtained from Henry IV. of France a commission to conquer Canada. He left forty convicts on the Isle of Sable, made some explorations in Acadia, and re- turned to France. After his d° N.) to Sir Robert Heath, being the first instance of a proprietary grant by the crown. No settlement seems to have been made, on which account the grant was subsequently declared void, and a part of the territory granted out under the name of Carolina, a proceeding which resulted in much ill-feeling. 1632. Grant of Maryland (the region between the Potomac and 41° N.) to Cecil Calvert, the second lord Baltimore, son of Sir George Calvert, to whom the grant was originally made, but who died before putting it to use. The grant was met by a protest from Virginia which was of no avail. In 1634, the first colony reached Maryland ; being about two hundred persons. Gift of fifty acres of land to each emigrant as pri- vate property. The Calverts being Roman Catholics, no men- tion of religious establishment appeared in the charter beyond the recognition of Christianity as established by English com- mon law. The proprietary, or grantee holding directly of the crown, was subject to no corporation or company, appointed the dep- uty governor and the executive officers, regulated the legisla- tion$ and received the taxes. The general assembly of the colonists possessed an advisory power, and the right of express- ing non-approval. 1636. Grant of New Albion (including New Jersey) from the vice- roy of Ireland to Sir Edward Plowden. This New Albion, which was not settled, must not be confounded with the tract of like name discovered by Drake on the western coast of America (p. 289). The Plymouth Company. Immediately upon the receipt of the charter the company had dis- patched two explorers to the region of their grant (Challons, Hanam), and in 1807, George Popham and Raleigh Gilbert led 120 colonists to the 294 Modern History. A. D northern colony. They built Fort St. George on Parker's " Isl- and" (peninsula), at the mouth of the Kennebec River in Maine (Aug. 11). The death of George Popham and of Sit John Popham in England (1608) so disheartened the colonists that they returned to England. No further attempts at settle- ment being made for some time, the French (who had also a claim to these regions (see 1604) planted several colonies within the territory of the Plymouth Company. 1614. Exploration of the coast of the northern colony by John Smith from Penobscot to Cape Cod. On his return he wrote an ac- count of his voyage and published a map of the district explored, to which the name of New England was given. Trouble with the Indians, springing from the action of Thomas Hunt, who carried off twenty-seven natives to the West Indies for slaves, discouraged settlement. After the frustration of an attempt at colonization by Smith in 1615 through adverse circumstances, the company itself made no more attempts at settlements, and the colonies that grew up in its territories were founded by companies or individuals under its charter but in- dependent of its action. One of the most important settlements, in- deed, wap.ni«. company was reorganized as the Council at Plymouth for New England with territory from Philadelphia to Chaleur Bay (40° N. to 48° N. across the continent). 1620. Settlement of Plymouth in New England by English separatists from Holland. This religious sect, a sort of left wing of the larger body of Puritans, had left England in 1607-8 on account of the intolerance with which they were treated, and settled at Leyden in Holland (1609) to the number of 1000 or more, under their minister, John Rob- inson. After several attempts to secure a patent from the London company (South Virginia), and a promise of toleration from the king, they succeeded in the former endeavor in 1619, but not in the latter. Procuring two ships (Speedwell, Mayflower) , a part of the con- gregation, and some others, set sail Aug. 5, from Southampton (hav- ing left Leyden in July) for the vicinity of Hudson's River. Twice driven back by stress of weather the Pilgrims (a name applied much earlier to the whole body in Holland) finally left Plymouth in the Mayflower, Sept. 6. On Nov. 9 they sighted Cape Cod, but instead of running southward they were induced by fear of shoal water, by the late season, and perhaps by the cunning of the shipmaster, to anchor at the Cape. On Nov. 11, the company signed a compact of govern- ment (they being beyond the limits of the London Company), and elected John Carver governor. For some weeks they explored the coast, landing at various places. (Birth of Peregrine White, the first European child born in New England). Toward the close of De^ cember they fixed on the site of Plymouth, and landing, began the erection of a house and portioned out land among the settlers (nine- teen families, 102 individuals).1 1 The date is disputed ; that of the landing of the whole body can hardly be A. D. America. 295 1621. Intercourse of the colonists (Capt. Miles Standish) with the In- dians (Samoset, Massasoit, chief of the Indians in that vicin- ity). Upon the death of Carver, William Bradford was elected governor. Arrival of a new patent from the Plymouth Company, also made out in the name of the London merchants, with whom the Pilgrims had formed a partnership before sail- ing. Over fifty of the original settlers died this year. Trouble with the Indians 1621-23. Meantime the territory of the Plymouth Company was being par- celed out among various adventurers by often conflicting grants. In 1621 Sir William Alexander obtained a patent for the whole of Aca- dia, under the name of Nova Scotia, from the crown of Scotland (confirmed, 1625). The region from Salem River to the Merrimac was granted to John Mason and called Mariana. In 1622 Sir Fernando Gorges and John Mason obtained a grant of all lands between the Merrimac and the Kennebec, which region was called at first Laconia, afterwards, Maine. In 1622 settlements were made on the site of the present Dover (Cochecho) and Portsmouth. In 1624 a few Puri- tans from England settled at Cape Ann; the colony afterwards re- moved to Naumheag (Roger Conant, 1626). In 1625 Captain Wollas- ton settled at Mount Wollaston, near Boston. 1623. The Plymouth Company sent out Francis West as " Admiral of New England," Robert Gorges as " Governor-General," and William Morrell as " Superintendent of Churches " but nothing came of this assertion of authority. 1627. The colony at Plymouth succeeded in buying off the London merchants in whose name their charter had been issued. Growth of the colony ; friendly intercourse with the Dutch. 1628. The Plymouth Company issued a grant of the land between three miles south of the Charles River, and three miles north of the Merrimac, reaching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, to a company which sent John Endicott as governor and colonists who joined the others at Naumkeag. In 1629 the name of the colony was changed to Salem. The colony at Plymouth obtained a grant on the Kennebec. Suppression of the settlement at Wollaston (" Merry Mount ") by Endicott. Morton, who after Wollaston's departure had ruled the colony and sold firearms (?) to the Indians, was seized by Standish from Plymouth and sent to England. 1629. Establishment of the company of Massachu- setts Bay (" The Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay in New England ") by a charter issued directly by the crown to the company, enlarged by new associates, which had settled Salem. The company was permitted to elect a governor, deputy governor, and eighteen assistants yearly, and to make laws not repugnant to those of England. The first governor of the company was Matthew Cradock. ascertained ; the landing of the first exploring party seems to have taken place on Dec. 11, O.S., or Dec. 21 (22), N S. (confusion here also). See Gay, " When did the Pilgrim Fathers land at Plymouth?" — Atlantic Monthly, November, 1881, p. 612. 296 Modern History. A DL A number of influential men soon becoming interested in the enter- prise, the governing council or court of the company in England (that is to say, " The Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay in New England") consented that the charter and government should be transferred to the colony (Aug. 29), under which agree- ment John Winthrop was chosen governor, and in 1630 sailed for New England with a large number of settlers, who landed at Charlestown, where an offshoot from the Salem colony was already established. Here a church was founded and two courts of assistants held. 1629. Mason and Gorges dissolving their connection, a new grant was made to each, Mason receiving the territory between the Merrimac and the Piscataqua, a region afterwards called New Hampshire.1 Gorges received the region between the Pis- cataqua and the Kennebec, under the name of New Somerset- shire. 1630. Third and last patent of the Plymouth colony, whereby it was assigned the district between the Cohasset River and the Nar- raganset, extending westward to the limits of Pokenakut or Sowamset. " The colonists were allowed to make orders, or- dinances, and constitutions, for the ordering, disposing, and governing their persons, and distributing the lands within the limits of the patent." 1630. Settlement of Boston, on the peninsula called Shawmut by the Indians, but Trimountain by the English, and then inhab- ited by an episcopal minister, William Blackstone. On Sept. 7, the court at Charlestown changed the name of Trimountain to Boston. First general court of Massachusetts held at Boston, Oct. 19. It was enacted that the freemen should elect the assistants, who were to choose out of their own num- ber the governor, but the next court decreed that the governor, deputy governor, and assistants should be elected directly by the freemen. Only church-members were freemen, so that the freemen formed a minority of the population. In 1631 a fortified town was begun on the Charles and called Newtown (afterwards Cambridge). Colony of Connecticut. The Dutch (Adrian Block, 1614) were the first to explore the coast of Connecticut and the river of that name, when they built a fort near Hartford. In 1630 the council of Plymouth granted to the earl of Warwick the land 120 miles S. E. from the Narraganset River, and extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In 1631 Warwick transferred this grant to the viscount Say and Seal, lord Brook, and others. In 1633 the colonies of Plymouth and Boston conferred on the question of settling the Connecticut valley ; as the Massachu- setts colony declined the enterprise a company was sent out from 1 The " Deed from four Indian sagamores to John Wheelwright and others, 1629," long accepted as the foundation of the history of New Hampshire, is How generally accounted a forgery. Holmes, Annals, I. 199, note 2. "Win- throp, Journal, ed. by Savage. 'Fogg, Gazeteer of N. H. A. D. America. 297 Plymouth, which disregarded the prohibition of the Dutch and set up a house on the Connecticut. The rival claims of the Dutch and English were discussed without effect by the colonies. 1634. The growth of the colony of Massachusetts Bay preventing the attendance of all freemen at the general court, it was en- acted that whereas four courts should be held in a year, tho whole body of freemen should be present at that court only in which the elections were held ; at the other courts the freemen in the towns should send deputies. 1635. Surrender of the Charter of the Council of Plymouth to the crown in consequence of the hostility of the govern- ment and church. 1635. Foundation of the Connecticut colony by emigrants from Mas- sachusetts (Windsor, Wethersfield, Hartford), and by John Winthrop, son of Governor Winthrop of Massachusetts, who built a fort at Saybrook, under commission from the proprie- tors. In 1636 a large part of the inhabitants of Newtown (Cambridge) migrated to Connecticut and settled at Hart- 1636. A code of laws (the General Fundamentals) established at Plymouth. 1636. Foundation of Providence by Roger Williams, who had been expelled from Salem in 1634 for holding heretical doc- trines subversive of church and state. 1637. War of Connecticut (first general court at Hartford) and Mas- sachusetts against the unruly tribe of Pequots in Connecticut. Extermination of the Indians (Capt. John Mason). 1638. Foundation of the colony of Rhode Island by John Clark and others, who left Massachusetts on account of religious differences. Purchase of the island of Aquedneck (afterwards Isle of Rhodes) from the Indians. Foundation of the colony of New Haven in Connecticut under Davenport and Eaton. In this year another attempt was made by quo warranto pro- cess to rescind the charter of Massachusetts, but it failed of success. In consequence of a bequest of £779 17s. 2d. from John Har- vard, of Charlestown, the public school which the colony had enacted in the previous year should be established at Newtown received the name of Harvard College, while the name of the town was changed to Cambridge. 1639. Windsor, Hartford, Wethersfield, on the Connecticut, united to form a separate government. The constitution (Jan. 14) placed the executive, legislative, and judicial powers in the general assembly, composed of the deputies of the towns in the ratio of numbers of freemen, meeting twice a year. All could vote who had taken the oath of allegiance to the con- stitution. The grant of Sir Fernando Gorges was confirmed to him by the crown under the title of the Province of Maine. A general assembly of the deputies of the towns in Ply- mouth colony met for the first time (June 4). 298 Modern History. A. D, 1641. The Body of Liberties, a code of 100 laws established by the general court of the colony of Massachusetts Bay. 1643. Creation of the United Colonies of New England by the alliance of Connecticut, New Haven, Plymouth and Mas- sachusetts Bay (May 19) for mutual defense. B. Dutch Settlements. 1609. Henry Hudson, an Englishman in Dutch service, coasted from Newfoundland to the Chesapeake, and entered Hudson's River. Trading voyages of the Dutch (1610-1613). 1613. Establishment of a Dutch trading post on the island of Man- hattan at the mouth of the Hudson, or North River (so called to distinguish it from the South River, or Delaware). Alleged submission of the Dutch to Argal (p. 292). 1614. Establishment of the United New Netherland Company in Holland with a grant in America of territory from 40° N. to 45° N. Fort built at Manhattan, another, Fort Orange, near the present Albany (1615). Voyage of Adrian Block through Long Island sound (Block Island}. 1621. Creation of the Dutch West India Company to take the place of the New Netherland Company whose charter had expired. 1626. Peter Minuit, having purchased Manhattan Island for . twenty-four dollars, founded the settlement of New Amsterdam. Settlements were made under the charter of the company in Con- necticut, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania, as well as in New York. Many of these were founded under an enactment of the com- pany which gave the title of patroon to any person who should bring over a certain number of colonists under certain conditions ; the title represented a certain relation of suzerainty between the founder and the colonists. The council for New England had opposed what it regarded as the Dutch invasion in 1620-21, and the remonstrances of the English grew stronger after the foundation of New Amsterdam (1627, 1632). The settlement of Connecticut from New England (1632-1638) was opposed by the Dutch in vain, and the entire region was wrested from them. (Protest of Kieft, governor of New Netherlands against the foundation of New Haven.) The Dutch drove a nourishing trade with the Five Nations of the Iroquois in central New York, whom they supplied with firearms. C. Swedish Settlements. 1638. Foundation of Fort Christina on the Delaware by a colony of Swedes and Finns. The colony was called New Sweden, and was followed by other settlements. The Dutch considered this an invasion of their rights, but the disputes that followed led to no result until 1655, when New Sweden was annexed to New Netherlands. A. D. America. 299 D. New France and the Arctic Region. It must be remembered that France claimed, by right of the dis- coveries of Verrazano, the whole of North America north of Spanish Florida and Mexico, although settlements had been made only in Nova Scotia and on the St. Lawrence, nothing having come of the projected settlement between Spanish Florida and English Virginia. It was with the French in the north that the English settlers had to deal ; it was to Canada that they applied the name of New France, as that of Acadia was restricted to Nova Scotia. From the north the French afterwards made the great discoveries in the west which gave them new claims to the larger part of America. 1606. An attempted settlement on Cape Cod repulsed by the Indians. 1608. Foundation of Quebec (July 3) by a colony sent out by De Monts, under Champlain. 1609. Champlain, joining a war party of the Algonquins against the Iroquois, discovered Lake Champlain. 1610. Discovery of Hudson's Bay by Henry Hudson, who was searching for the northwest passage, in the service of an English company. On the return the crew mutinied and Hudson was put to sea in a small boat, and not heard of again. 1610. English colony sent to Newfoundland 46° N. to 52° N. (Con- ception Bay). 1612. Voyage of Thomas Button in search of the Northwest Passage. Discovery of New South Wales and New North Wales, Button's Bay. 1613. Madame de Guercheville, having secured the surrender of De Monts' patent, and the issue of a new patent from the crown for all New France between Florida and the St. Lawrence (except Port Royal), sent Saussage with two Jesuits, who took possession of Nova Scotia and founded a colony (St. Saviour) on Mt. Desert, which was immediately broken up by Ar gal's expedition from Virginia. All the French settlements in Acadia were also destroyed. 1615. Expedition of Champlain to Lake Huron. 1616. Voyage of Bylot and Baffin in search of the Northwest Pas- sage. Discovery of Wolstenholme's Sound, Lancaster Sound, Baffin's Bay (78° N.). 1621. Grant of Acadia under the name of Nova Scotia, to Sir William Alexander by the crown of Scotland. An attempt at settlement was unsuccessful and the French continued in pos- session. Grant of a part of Newfoundland to Sir George Col- vert (Lord Baltimore) who resided there until 1631. 1627. Transfer of the colony of Quebec to the company of a hun- dred associates under Cardinal Richelieu. 1629. Conquest of Quebec by Louis and Thomas KertTc, under a commission from Charles I. for the conquest of New France. An attack of David Kertk in 1628 had been repulsed by Champlain. 300 Modern History. A. D 1630. St. Estienne of La Tour, a Huguenot, bought from Sir William Alexander his patent for Nova Scotia, on condition that the colony should remain subject to Scotland. 1631. Voyages of Fox and James in search of a Northwest Passage. Fox explored the west coast of Hudson Bay from 65° 30' to 55° 10' in vain, but discovered Fox's Channel and reached Cape Peregrine. James discovered James Bay, where he passed a terrible winter. 1632. Treaty of St. Germain between France and England. Ces- sion of New France, Acadia, and Canada to France. 1635. Seizure of the trading post established at Penobscot by the Plymouth colonists by the French. Plymouth sent a vessel against the French, but failed to recover the place. Death of Champlain. 1641. Maisonneuve appointed governor of Montreal ; in 1642 he brought over several families and took possession of the island. (See p. 357.) § 3. GERMANY TO THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. THE REFORMA- TION. (See p. 25S.) 1493-1519. Maximilian I., who first took the title of " Roman Emperor elect." 1495. Diet at Worms. Perpetual public peace. Imperial Cham- ber (Reichskammergericht), first at Frankfort, then at Speier, after 1689 at Wetzlar. At the diet of Cologne (1512), establishment of ten circles for the better maintenance of the public peace (Land- fried enskreise) : Circle of : 1. Austria ; 2. Bavaria ; 3. Swabia; 4. Fran- conia ; 5. the Upper Rhine (Lorraine, Hesse, etc.) ; 6. the Lower Rhine, or the Electorates (Mainz, Trier, Cologne) ; 7. Burgundy (1556, ceded to the Spanish line of Hapsburg) ; 8. Westphalia ; 9. Lower Saxony (Brunswick, Liineburg, Lauenburg, Holstein, Meck- lenburg, etc.) ; 10. Upper Saxony (Saxony, Brandenburg, Pomer- ania, etc.). In all comprising 240 estates of the empire, exclusive of the imperial knights. Bohemia and the neighboring states, Moravia, Silesia, Lusatia, with Prussia and Switzerland, which was already completely independent, in fact, were not included in the circles. Establishment of the Aulic Council, a court more under the control of the emperor than the Imperial Chamber, and to which a large part of the work belonging to the latter was gradually diverted. Maximilian was obliged to invest Louis XII. of France with Milan. 1508. League of Cambray between Maximilian, Louis XII., Pope Julius II., and Ferdinand the Catholic, against Venice. Maxi- milian took possession of a part of the territory of the republic, but besieged Padua in vain (1509). The Pope withdrew from the league, and concluded with Venice and Ferdinand the Holy League (1511) against France, in which they were finally (1513) joined by Maximilian (p. 319). The following genealogical table shows the claim of the house of Hapsburg to Spain, and its division into a Spanish and German line. A. D. Germany. — Reformation. 301 Maximilian /., = Mary, Ferdinand, — Isabella, emperor, f 1519 of Burgundy, king of Aragon, f 1482. f d. of Charles the Bold, , duke of Burgundy. Philip the fair, = Joanna the Insane, queen of Castile \ 1504. archduke of Austria, t 1506. SPANISH. queen of Aragon and Castile, f 1555. GERMAN. Charles I. (V.), t 1558. Ferdinand I., 1 1564. m. Isabella of Portugal. m. Anna of Hungary. Philip II., king of Spain, Maximilian II., f 1598. emperor, f 1576. Maximilian's son Philip married Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand (king of Aragon and Naples) and Isabella (queen of Castile), hence heiress of the three kingdoms and the American Colonies. Philip him- self inherited from his mother, Mary, the heiress of Burgundy, the Bur- gundian Lands ; from his father, Maximilian, all the possessions of the Hapsburgs (Western Austria on the upper Rhine, Austria, Carinthia, Carniola, Tyrol, etc.). All these lands descended to Charles, the eldest son of Philip and Joanna, the ancestor of the elder, Spanish, line of the Hapsburg house. His younger brother, Ferdinand, ancestor of the younger, German, line of the house of Hapsburg, married Anna, sister of Louis II., last king of Bohemia and Hungary (whose wife was Alary, Ferdinand's sister).1 1517. Beginning of the Reformation. Luther. Martin Luther was born 1483 at Eisleben, son of a miner, became master of arts and instructor 1505 ; monk in the Augustine monastery at Erfurt- 1507 priest; 1508 professor at Wittenberg; 1511 sent to Rome on business connected with his order; 1512 doctor of theology. On Oct. 31, 1517, he nailed upon the door of the court church at Wittenberg his ninety-five theses against the misuse of absolution or indulgences (especially by the Dominican monk Tetzel). 1518. Beginning of the reformation in Switzerland by Zwingli at Zurich. Zwingli fell in battle at Kappel 1531. Summoned to Augsburg by Cardinal de Vio of Gaeta (Cajetanus), Luther could not be induced to abjure (1518), but appealed to the Pope.2 Mediation of the papal chamberlain v. Miltitz. After the discussion at Leipzig 1519 (Bodenstein, called Carlstadt, against Eck), the latter secured a papal bull against forty-one articles in Luther's writings. 1 These fortunate marriages of the house of Austria were celebrated in the following couplet : Bella gerant alii, tufelix Austria, nube ! Quce dat Mars aliis, dat tibi regna Venus. 2 De Papa, male inj'ormato ad Po.po.tn, melius informandum. 302 Modern History. A. D. Luther burnt (1520) the papal bull and the canon law ; whereupon he was excommunicated. In the mean time the German electors, in spite of the claims of Francis I. of France, had chosen the grandson of Maximilian I. in Spain, Charles I., as emperor. 1519-1556. Charles V. He came to Germany for the first time in 1520, for the pur- pose of holding a grand diet at Worms (1521). There Luther defended his doctrines before the emperor, under a safe-conduct. The ban of the empire being pronounced against him, he was carried to the Wartburg by Frederic the Wise, of Saxony, and there protected. The edict of Worms prohibited all new doctrines. Luther's transla- tion of the Bible. Hearing of Carlstadt's misdoings he returned to Wittenberg, and introduced public worship, with the liturgy in Ger- man and communion in both kinds, in electoral Saxony and in Hesse (1522). The spread of the Reformation in Germany was favored by the fact that the emperor, after the diet of Worms, had left Germany and was occupied with the war with Francis I. Franz von Sickingen and Ulrich von Hutten advocated the Reforma- tion. Sickingen stood at the head of an association of nobles directed against the spiritual principalities. He laid siege to Trier (1522) in vain, was besieged in Landstuhl, and fell in battle. Hutten fled the country and died on the island of Ufnau in the Lake of Zurich (1523). 1524-1525. The Peasants' War, in Swabia and Franconia, ac- companied with terrible outrages. The Twelve Articles. The peasants defeated at Kb'nigshofen on the Tauber and cruelly punished. Anabaptists in Thuringia. Thomas Milnzer captured at Franken- hausen and executed. Reformation in Prussia. Grandmaster Albert of Brandenburg duke of Prussia undjer Polish overlordship. Luther's marriage with Catharine of Bora, formerly a nun. Cate- chism. Ferdinand of Austria, the emperor's younger brother, edu- cated in Spain, to whom Charles had intrusted since 1522 the gov- ernment of the Hapsburg lands in Germany, formed an alliance in 1524, at the instigation of the papal legate Campeggio, with the two dukes of Bavaria and the bishop of Southern Germany, in order to oppose the religious changes. To counteract this move the league of Torgau was formed (1526) among the Protestants (John of Saxony, Philip of Hesse, Liineburg, Magdeburg, Prussia, etc.). They pro- cured an enactment at the diet of Speier, favorable to the new doctrine (1526). 1521-1526. First war of Charles V. with Francis I. Charles advanced claims to Milan and the duchy of Burgundy. Francis claimed Spanish Navarre and Naples. The French (under Lautrec) were driven from Milan, which was given to Francesco Sforza (1522). The French Connetable, Charles of Bourbon, transferred his allegiance to Charles V. Unfortunate invasion of Italy by the French 1523-24, under Bonnivert. The chevalier Bayard (" sans peur et sans reproche ") fell during the retreat. Imperial forces invaded southern France. Francis I. crossed Mt. Cenis, and recaptured Milan. A. D. Germany. — Reformation. 393 1525. Battle of Pavia. Francis defeated and captured. 1526. Peace of Madrid. Francis renounced all claim to Milan, Genoa, and Naples, as well as the overlordship of Flanders and Artois, assented to the cession of the duchy of Burgundy, and gave his sons as hostages > 1527-1529. Second war between Charles V. and Francis I., who had declared that the conditions of the peace of Madrid were extorted by force, and hence void. Alliance at Cognac between Fran- cis, the Pope, Venice and Francesco Sforza against the emperor. The imperial army, unpaid and mutinous, took Rome by storm under the constable of Bourbon, who fell in the assault (by the hand of Ben- venuto Cellini?)-, the Pope besieged in the Castle of St. Angelo (1527). The French general, Lautrec, invaded Naples, but the revolt of Genoa (Doria), whose independence Charles V. promised to recognize, and the plague, of which Lautrec himself died, compelled the French to raise the siege of the capital and to retire to France. 1529. Peace of Cambray (Paix des Dames). So called from the fact that it was negotiated by Margaret of Austria, Charles's aunt, and Louise of Savoy, duchess of Angouleme, mother of Francis. Francis paid two million crowns and renounced his claims upon Italy, Flanders and Artois • Charles promised not to press his claims upon Burgundy for the present, and released the French princes. 1529. Second diet at Speier, where, in consequence of the victorious position of the emperor, Ferdinand and the Catholic party took a more decided position. The strict execution of the decree of Worms (p. 302) was resolved upon. The evangelical estates protested against this resolution, whence they were called Protestants. 1526-1532. War with the Turks. Louis II., king of Hungary, having fallen in the battle of Mohacs (1526), one party chose Ferdinand, Charles's brother, the other John Zapolya. The latter was assisted by the Sultan Soliman (Suleiman), who besieged Vienna in vain (1529). 1530. Charles crowned emperor in Bologna by the Pope. This was the last coronation of a German emperor by the Pope. 1530. Brilliant Diet at Augsburg, the emperor presiding in per- son. Presentation of the Confession of Augsburg (Confes- sio Augustana) by Melanchthon (true name Schivarzerd, 1497-1560), the learned friend of Luther. The enactment of the diet commanded the abolition of all innovations. 1531. Schmalkaldic league, agreed upon in 1530, between the ma- Feb. 6. jority of Protestant princes and imperial cities. Charles caused his brother, Ferdinand, to be elected king of Rome, and crowned at Aachen. The elector of Saxony protested against this proceeding in the name of the Evangelicals. In consequence of the new danger which threatened from the Turks, 1532. Religious Peace of Nuremberg. The Augsburg edict was revoked, and free exercise of their religion permitted the Protestants until the meeting of a new council to be called within a year. 304 Modern History. A. D, Soliman invaded and ravaged Hungary. Heroic defence of Giinz. A great imperial army was sent to the aid of Hungary, and Soliman retired. 1534r-1535. Anabaptists in Minister (Johann Bockelsohn, from Ley- den). 1534. Philip, landgrave of Hessen, restored the Lutheran duke, Ulrich of Wiirtemberg, who had been driven out (1519) by the Swabian league of cities. The emperor had invested Fer- dinand with the duchy, but the latter was obliged to agree to a compact, whereby he was to renounce Wiirtemberg, but should be recognized as king of Rome by the evangelical party. 1535. Charles's expedition against Tunis (Chaireddin Barbarossa, the pirate). Tunis conquered ; liberation of all Christian slaves. 1536-1538. Third war, between Charles V. and Francis I., about Milan ; Francis I. having renewed his claims upon that duchy after the death of Francesco Sforza II., without issue. Charles in- vaded Provence anew, but fruitlessly. Francis made an inroad into Savoy and Piedmont, and accepted the alliance of Soliman, who pressed Hungary hard, and sent his fleet to ravage the coast of Italy. The war was ended by the 1538. Truce of Nice, which was concluded on the basis of posses- June 18. sion, at the time of its formation, for ten years. July. Meeting between Charles and Francis at Aigues Mortes. 1539-1540. Charles V. crossed France, for the purpose of suppress- ing a disturbance in Ghent, and was received by Francis with special distinction. Ghent punished by deprivation of its privi- leges. 1540. The Order of Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola (1534), approved by Pope Paul III., successfully opposed the spread of the Reformation. 1541. Reformation introduced into Geneva by Calvin (Jean Cau- vin, from Noyon in Picardy; born 1509; Catholic pastor in his eighteenth year, resigned his office ; studied law at Orleans and Bourges ; came forward as a reformer at Paris in 1532, finding pro- tection from Margaret of Navarre, sister of Francis I. Exiled from France, Calvin went to Basel, published the Institutio christiance relig- ionis 1535 ; 1536-1538 in Geneva ; 1538-1541 in Strasburg, after- wards head of the state in Geneva, f 1564). From Geneva the Reformation spread to France and Scotland (John Knox). 1541. Charles's unsuccessful expedition against Algiers. 1542. Henry, duke of Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel, driven from the country by the Schmalkaldic League. 1542-1544. Fourth war between Charles V. and Francis I., occa- sioned by the investiture of Charles's son, Philip, with Milan. The fact that two secret agents, whom Francis had sent to Soliman, were captured in Milan, and when they resisted, put to death, served as a pretext. A. D. Germany. — Reformation. 305 Francis in alliance with Soliman and the duke of Clem. The allied Turkish and French fleets bombarded and plundered Nice. Charles, in alliance with Henry VIII. of England, conquered the duke of Cleve, and advanced as far as Soissons. Soliman invaded Hungary and Austria. 1544. Peace of Crespy ; Francis' second son, the duke of Orleans, Sept. 18. was to marry a princess of the imperial family and receive Milan. He died in 1545, however ; Milan continued in the possession of the emperor, who gave it, nominally, to his son Philip, as a fief. Francis gave up his claims to Naples, and the overlordship of Flanders and Artois; Charles renounced his claims to Burgundy. 1545-1563. Council of Trent, not attended by the Protestants. Reforms in the church. Establishment of a number of dog- mas of the Catholic church. 1546, Feb. 18. Death of Luther at Eisleben. Charles V., who, since the peace of Crespy, was unhindered by foreign complications, sought to crush the independence of the estates of the empire in Germany, and to restore the unity of the church, to which he was urged by the Pope, who concluded an alli- ance with him, and promised money and troops. 1546-1547. Schmalkaldio War, The leaders of the league of Schmalkalden, John Frederic, elector of Saxony, and Philip, landgrave of Hesse, placed under the ban. Duke Maurice of Saxony concluded a secret alliance with the emperor. Irresolute conduct of the war by the allies in upper Ger- many. The elector and the landgrave could not be induced by gen- eral Schartlin of Augsburg to make a decisive attack, and finally re- tired, each to his own land. John Frederic of Saxony reconquered his electorate, which Maurice had occupied. Charles V. first reduced the members of the league in southern Germany (Augsburg, Nurem- berg, Ulm, duke of Wiirtemberg, etc.) to subjection, then went to Saxony, forced the passage of the Elbe, and defeated in the 1547. Battle of Miihlberg, on the Lochau Heath, near Torgau the 24 April, elector of Saxony, captured him, and besieged his capital, Wittenberg. Treaty mediated by Joachim II. of Branden- burg. The electoral dignity and lands given to the Albertine line (duke Maurice). The Ernestine line retained Weimar, Jena, Eisenach, Gotha, etc. The elector was kept in captivity. Philip of Hesse surrendered, and was detained in captivity, although Maurice and Joachim II. of Brandenburg had pledged themselves for his liberation. Interim of Augsburg (1548), not generally accepted by the Protestants. The city of Magdeburg, the centre of the opposition, placed under the ban. Maurice of Saxony, intrusted with the exe- cution of the decree, armed himself in secret against Charles V., and 1552. Surprised the emperor, after the conclusion of the treaty of Friedewalde (1551) with Henry II. of France, and forced him to liberate his father-in-law, Philip of Hesse, and to conclude the 1552. Convention of Passau. Free exercise of religion for the 306 Modern History. A. D, Aug. 2. adherents of the confession of Augsburg until the next diet. Maurice defeated Albert, margrave of Brandenburg-Culinbach at Sievershausen (1553), but was mortally wounded. 1555. Religious Peace of Augsburg. Sept. 25. The territorial princes and the free cities, who, at this date, acknowledged the confession of Augsburg, received freedom of wor- ship, the right to introduce the reformation within their territories (jus reformandi), and equal rights with the Catholic estates. No agreement reached as regarded the Ecclesiastical Reservation that bishops and abbots who became Protestant should lose their offices and incomes ; but this provision was inserted by imperial decree. This peace secured no privileges for the reformed religion (Genevan). 1552-1556. War between Charles V. and Henry II., who, as the ally of Maurice, had seized Metz, Toul, and Verdun. Charles besieged Metz, which was successfully defended by Francis of Guise. The truce of Vaucelles left France, provisionally, in possession of the cities which had been occupied. 1556. Abdication of Charles V. in Brussels (Oct. 25, 1555, and Jan. 15, 1556). The crown of Spain with the colonies, Naples, Milan, Franche- Cointe, and the Netherlands, went to his son Philip; the imperial office and the Hapsburg lands to his brother Ferdinand L (p. 302, 303). Charles lived in the monastery of St. Just as a private individual, but not as a monk, and died there in 1558. 1556-1564. Ferdinand I., husband of Anna, sister of Louis II., king of Bohemia- and Hungary, after whose death he was elected king of these countries by their estates. Constant warfare over the latter country, which he was obliged to abandon, in great part, to the Turks. His son, 1564-1576. Maximilian II., was of a mild disposition and favorably inclined to tho Protes- tants, whom he left undisturbed in the free exercise of their religion. War with Zapolya, prince of Transylvania, and the Turks. Sultan Soliman II. died in camp before Sigeth, which was defended by the heroic Zriny. By the truce with Selim II. (1566) each party retained its possessions. The imperial knight, Grumbach, who had broken the public peace by a feud with the bishop of Wiirzburg, had plundered the city of Wiirzburg (1563), and had been protected by John Fred- eric, duke of Saxony, was placed under the ban, and after the cap- ture of Gotha, cruelly executed (1567). The duke was kept in strict confinement in Austria until his death. Reaction against Protestantism. Anti-Reformation. 1576-1612. Rudolf II., son of the Emperor Maximilian II., a learned man, an astrologer and astronomer (Kepler, f 163(X A.. D. Germany. 307 OOP g_ ~g ||P| c3 •™ » I s - »g 308 Modern History. A. D. was appointed imperial mathematician by him), but incapable of gov- erning. New quarrels over the ecclesiastical reservation (p. 306). The imperial city of Donauworth, placed under the ban by the emperor, because a mob had disturbed a Catholic procession, was, in spite of the prohibition of the emperor, retained by Maximilian of Bavaria, who had executed the ban (1607). These troubles led to the forma- tion of a 1608. Protestant Union (leader, Frederic IV., elector Palatine), which was opposed by the 1609. Catholic League (leader, Maximilian, duke of Bavaria). Both princes were of the house of Wittelsbach. Rudolf, from whom his brother, Matthias, had forced the cession of Hungary, Moravia, and Austria, hoping to conciliate the Bohe- mians gave them the 1609. Royal Charter (Majestatsbrief), which permitted a free exer- cise of religion to the three estates of lords, knights, and royal cities. 1609. Beginning of the quarrel about the succession of Jiilich-Cleve on the death of John William, duke of Cleve. The elector of Brandenburg and the prince of Neuburg were the principal claimants. Rudolf, toward the close of his life, was forced by Matthias to ab- dicate the government of Bohemia. 1612-1619. Matthias, being childless, and having obtained the renunciation of his brothers, secured for his cousin Ferdinand, duke of Styria, Carin- thia, and Camiola, who had been educated by the Jesuits in strict Catholicism, the succession in Bohemia and Hungary, in spite of the objections of the Protestant estates. § 4. THE THIRTY YEARS' WAS, 1618-1648. The Thirty Years' War is generally divided into four periods., which were properly as many different wars. The first two, the Bo- hemian and the Danish, had a predominant religious character ; they developed from the revolt in Bohemia to a general attack by Catholic Europe upon Protestant Europe. The latter two, the Swedish and Sivedish-French, were political wars ; wars against the power of the house of Hapsburg, and wars of conquest on the part of Sweden and France upon German soil. 1. Period of war in Bohemia and the County Palatine. (1618-1623.) Occasion : Closing of a Utraquist 1 church in the territory of the abbot of Braunau, and destruction of another in a city of the arch" bishop of Prague, that is, in the territory of ecclesiastical estates, which 1 Utraquiat, that is, favoring communion in both kinds. A. D. Germany. — Thirty Years' War. 309 according to the view of the Protestants ought to be regarded as royal estates, in accordance with the Bohemian constitution.1 The irri- tation of the Bohemian Protestants (Utraquists) was increased by the transference of the administration of the country to ten governors, seven of whom were Catholics. Meeting of the defensors, and revolt in Prague, headed by count Matthias of Thurn. The governors, Mar- tinitz and Slaivataf and the secretary, Fabricius, thrown from a win- dow iii the palace of Prague, seventy feet into the diteh, but escaped with their lives (May 23, 1618). Thirty directors appointed by the rebels. The Protestant Union sent count Mansfeld to the aid of the Bohemians. From Silesia and Lusatia came troops under mar- grave John George of Jagerndorf. The imperial forces were defeated by Mansfeld and count Thurn. The emperor Matthias died 1619. Count Thurn marched upon Vienna. The Austrian estates, for the most part Protestants, threatened to join the Bohemians, and made rough demands upon Ferdinand, who, by his courage and the arrival of a few troops, was rescued from a dangerous situation. Thurn, who arrived before Vienna shortly afterwards, was soon obliged to retire by an unfavorable turn of the war in Bohemia.2 Ferdinand went to Frankfort, where he was elected emperor by the other six electors. 1619-1637. Ferdinand II. Meantime the Bohemians had deposed him from the throne of Bohemia and elected the young Frederic V., elector palatine, the head of the Union and of the German Calvinists, son-in-law of James I., king of England. (" The Winter King "). Count Thurn, for the second time before Vienna, allied with Beth- len Gabor, prince of Transylvania (Nov. 1619). Cold, want, and an inroad of an imperial partisan in Hungary, caused a retreat. Ferdinand leagued himself with Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, head of the Catholic League, the friend of his youth, who helped him sub- due the Austrian estates, with Spain (Spinola invaded the county palatine; treaty of Ulm, July 3, 1620; neutrality of the Union se- cured), and with the Lutheran elector of Saxony, who re-subjugated Lusatia and Silesia. Maximilian of Bavaria, with the army of the League commanded by Tilly, marched to Bohemia and joined the imperial general Buquoy. They were victorious in the 1620, Nov. 8. Battle on the White Hill over the troops of Frederic V., under the command of Chris- tian of Anhalt. Frederic was put under the ban, and his lands confis- cated ; he himself fled to Holland. Christian of< Anhalt and John George of Brandenburg-Jagerndorf, also put under the ban. Sub- jugation of the Bohemians, destruction of the Royal Charter, ex- ecution of the leading rebels, extirpation of Protestantism in Bohemia. Afterwards, violent anti-reformation in Austria, and, with less vio- lence, in Silesia. Dissolution of the Protestant Union and transfer of the seat of war 1 Cf. Gindely, Gesch. d. dreissiyjahr. Kriegs, vol. i. (1869), chap. 2. a Gindely, ii. (1878), chap. 2. 310 Modern History. A. D, to the palatinate, which was conquered in execution of the ban by Maximilian's general, Tilly (Jan Tzerklas, baron of Tilly, born 1559, in the Walloon Brabant), with the help of Spanish troops under Spinola. Tilly, defeated at Wiesloch by Mansfeld (April, 1622), de- feated the margrave of Baden-Durlach at Wimpfen (May), and Christian of Brunswick, brother of the reigning duke and administra- tor of the bishopric of Halberstadt, at Hochst (June/ 1622), and again at Stadtlohn in Westphalia (1623). 1623. Maximilian received the electoral vote belonging to Frederic V. and the Upper present in pledge. V. and the Upper Palatinate ; Saxony obtained Lusatia for the pledge. 2. Danish Period. Seat of War in Lower Saxony. 1625-1629. Christian IV., king of Denmark and duke of Holstein, was the head of the Lower Saxon Circle, and the leader of the Protestants. Albert of Wallenstein (Waldstein, born 1583, in Bohemia, of an utraquist family, but educated in the Catholic faith, 1617 count, 1623 prince of the empire, 1624 duke of Friedland) became the imperial commander of an army, recruited by himself, which was to be provi- sioned by a system of robbery. Wallenstein defeated Mansfeld at the Bridge of Dessau (1626), pursued him through Silesia to Hungary, where Mansfeld joined Bethlen Gabor. Mansfeld died in Dalmatia (Nov., 1626). Christian of Brunswick had died in June of the same year. Tilly defeated Christian IV. at Luther am Bareiiberge, in Bruns- wick (Aug., 1626). Tilly and Wallenstein conquered Holstein (1627). Wallenstein alone conquered Schleswig and Jutland, drove the dukes of Mecklenburg from the country, forced the duke of Pommerania to submission, but besieged Stralsund (1628) in vain, the citizens de- fending themselves heroically for ten weeks. 1629. Peace of Liibeck May 22. between the emperor and Christian IV. The latter re- ceived his lands back, but promised not to interfere in German affairs, and abandoned his allies. The dukes of Mecklenburg put un- der the ban. Wallenstein invested with their lands. 1629, March 29. Edict of Restitution: 1. Agreeably to the ecclesias- tical reservation (p. 306), all ecclesiastical estates which had been confiscated since the convention of Passau should be restored- This affected two archbishoprics: Magdeburg and Bremen • twelve bis- hoprics: Minden, Verden, Halberstadt, Lubeck, Ratzeburg, Meissen, Merseburg, Naumburg (the latter three were, however, left in the pos- session of the elector of Saxony), Brandenburg, Havelberg, Lebus and Camin, besides very many (about 120) monasteries and foundations. 2. Only the adherents of the Augsburg confession were to have free exercise of religion ; all other " sects " were to be broken up. Be- ginning of a merciless execution of the edict by Wallenstein's troops and those of the League- A. D. Germany. — Thirty Years' War. 311 1630. Electoral Assembly at Regensburg (Ratisbon). The party of Bavaria and the League was hostile to Wallen- stein and took up a position of determined opposition to the too pow- erful general. An excuse was found in the loud and well founded complaints of all estates of the empire, particularly the Catholics, over the terrible extortion and cruelty practiced by Wallenstein's army. The emperor consented to decree the dismissal of the general and a large part of the army. 1627-1631. War of succession over Mantua by the houses of Nevers and Guastalla. The former, supported by France (Richelieu himself took the field) obtained the duchy in the peace of Cherasco (April 6) although the imperial forces had been victorious and cap- tured Mantua. 3. Swedish Period (1630-1635). 1630. Gustavus II., Adolphus, king of Sweden, landed on July, the coast of Pomerania. Object and grounds of his interference : protection of the oppressed Protestants ; restoration of the dukes of Mecklenburg, his relatives ; the rejection of his mediation at the peace of Liibeck ; anxiety in regard to the maritime plans of the emperor. Political position of Sweden : Finland, Ingermannland, Esthonia, Livonia, belonged to the kingdom of Gustavus ; Curland was under Swedish influence. An ambitious monarch might easily dream of the acquisition of Prussia and Pomerania, which would have almost made the Baltic a Swedish sea. Gustavus concluded a subsidy treaty with France (Richelieu"). Gustavus Adolphus drove the imperial forces from Pomerania and marched up the Oder, where Tilly came against him (1631). The king went to Mecklenburg. Tilly retired to the Elbe, and laid siege to Magdeburg. Gustavus Adolphus captured Frankfort on the Oder. Negotiations with his brother-in-law, 'George William, elector of Bran- denburg (1619-1640), who was under the influence of Schwarzenberg. Spandau was at last surrendered to him. Negotiations in regard to the surrender of Wittenberg, with Saxony, which endeavored to main- tain the position of a third, mediatory, party in the empire, a sort of armed neutrality (diet of princes at Leipzig, 1631), and was with difficulty brought to form an alliance with an enemy of the empire. Meanwhile 1631. Capture of Magdeburg by Tilly. The storm was conducted May 20. by Pappenheim. Terrible massacre and sack of the city by the unbridled soldiery of Tilly, who did what he co»ld to check the outrages. Fire broke out suddenly in many places far removed from one another, and the whole city with the exception of the cathe- dral was consumed (Not by Tilly's command).1 Tilly took possession of Halle, Eisleben, Merseburg, and other cities 1 Probably the fire was set by previous agreement of the more determined portion of the defenders (Falkenbery). Cf. Wittich, Magdeburg, Gustav Adolf u. Tilly, vol. ii. 1874. 312 Modern History. A. D. and burned them. John George, elector of Saxony, formed an alli- ance with Gustavus Adolphus, who crossed the Elbe at Wittenberg. Leipzig occupied by Tilly. The imperial army and that of the Swedes and Saxons, each about 40,000 strong, were face to face. 1631. Battle of Leipzig or Breitenfeld. Sept. 17. The Saxons were at first put to rout by Tilly, but after a bloody fight Gustavus Adolphus won a brilliant victory. The Saxons entered Bohemia. Gustavus crossed Thuringia and Franconia to the Rhine by way of Erfurt, Wiirzburg, Hanau, Frank- fort, Darmstadt, crossed the Rhine at Oppenheim, and occupied Mainz. Winter quarters. Meantime Prague was captured by the Saxons under Arnim (Boyt- zenburg), a former subordinate of Wallenstein. The emperor held fruitless negotiations with the Saxons. At the urgent request of Ferdinand, Wallenstein collected an army, over which he received uncontrolled command. He recaptured Prague, and drove the Saxons from Bohemia. Their eagerness for the war and the Swedish alliance was already chilled. 1632. Gustavus advanced to the Danube by way of Nuremberg to meet Tilly. Conflict at Rain, near the confluence of the Lenz and the Danube. Tilly, mortally wounded, died at Ingolstadt. He was seventy-three years old. Gustavus went to Augsburg, vainly besieged Maximilian in Ingol- stadt, but forced Munich to surrender. Wallenstein summoned to the assistance of Maximilian. 1632. Fortified camp near Nuremberg. July-Sept. (Burgstall). Gustavus and Wallenstein face to face for eleven weeks. Wallenstein declined battle. Reinforced by Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar, the Swedes attacked Wallenstein's in- trenchments, but were repulsed with heavy loss. Gustavus advanced to the Danube. Wallenstein turned upon Saxony, now defenseless, Arnim having marched through Lusatia to Silesia with the Saxon and Brandenburg troops. Terrible ravages committed by the bands of Wallenstein. At the call of the elector of Saxony, Gustavus hastened back by way of Kitzingen and Schweinfurt, joined Bern- hard of Saxe- Weimar in Arnstadt, marched upon Naumburg, and hearing that Wallenstein had dispatched Pappenheim from Leipzig to the Rhine, attacked the imperial forces (18,000 against 20,000 Swedes). 1632. Battle of Liitzen. Death of Gustavus Adol- phus.1 Nov. 16. Pappenheim, recalled in haste, took part in the battle with his cavalry, after three o'clock ; he was mortally wounded. The victory of the Swedes was completed by Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar. Bernhard., Gustavus Horn, and Baner took command of the Swedish forces. The conduct of foreign affairs was assumed by the Swedish 1 The suspicion that the king was murdered by Francis Albert, duke of Lau- enburg, is totally unfounded. A. D. Germany. — Thirty Years' War. 313 chancellor, Axel Oxenstierna (born 1583, councillor since 1609). League of Heilbronn between the circles of Swabia, Franconia, Upper and Lower Rhine, on the one part, and Sweden on the other. 1633. Expedition of Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar to Franconia. He took Bamberg and Hb'chstadt, drove back the Bavarians under Aldringer, and joined fieldmarshal Horn. Bernhard received from the chancellor the investiture, with the bishoprics of Wiirzburg and Bamberg, under the name of the Duchy of Franconia, and occupied the upper Palatinate. Feb. After Wallenstein had tried and punished with death many of his officers in Prague, and had filled their places with new recruits, he marched to Silesia, fought with the Saxon, Brandenburg, and Swedish troops, and negotiated frequently with Arnim. Nego- tiations with Oxenstierna. Oct. Capture of a Swedish corps at Steinau-on-the-Oder. Wallenstein invaded Brandenburg, sending raiders as far as Berlin, and then plundered Lusatia. Nov. Regensburg (Ratisbon) captured by Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar. Wallenstein found himself unable to go to the assistance of the elector of Bavaria, as the emperor urged, and went into winter quarters in Bohemia. Growing estrangement between Wallenstein and the imperial court. The Spanish party and the league wished him removed from his com- mand. Wallenstein conducted secret negotiations with the Saxons, the Swedes, the French. He intended to create, with the help of the army (declaration of the generals Piccolomini, G alias, and Aldringer, at Pilseri), an independent position for himself, whence he could, with the aid of the two north German electors, liberate the emperor from the control of the Spanish party, and, if necessary, compel him to make peace and reorganize the internal affairs of the empire (on the basis of a religious peace?). He had resolved upon open revolt if the hostile party continued in power. Whether he harbored a wish for the crown of Bohemia, along with other fantastic plans, it is hard to decide. The court of Vienna succeeded in detaching the principal generals (Piccolomini, Gallas, Aldringer, Marradas, Colloredo) from his cause. How, Trzka, Kinski, remained faithful. 1634. Imperial proclamation : " Friedland was concerned in a con- Jan. 24. spiracy to rob the emperor of his crown." The chief officers of the army commanded to no longer obey him. Feb. 18. Second proclamation, formally deposing Wallenstein. On the 24th Wallenstein went to Eger, where he was to be met by Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, and Arnim. There occurred the Feb. 25. Assassination of Wallenstein by captain Devereux, at the instigation of the Irish general, Butler, after his intimate friends had been treacherously massacred. The emperor had not commanded the murder, nor had he definitely desired it ; but he had given rein to the party which he knew wished " to bring in Wallenstein, alive or dead," and, after the deed was done, he rewarded the murderers with honor and riches. 1634. Victory of the imperialists under Ferdinand, the emperor's son, and Gallas and the Bavarians (John of Werth), over the Swedes at Ndrdlingen 314 Modern History. A. D. 1635. Peace of Prague, May 30. between the emperor and the elector of Saxony. 1. The elector received Lusatia permanently, and the archbishopric of Magdeburg for his second son, August, for life. 2. Those ecclesiastical estates, not held immediately of the emperor, which had been confis- cated before the convention of Passau (p. 305), should remain to the possessor forever ; all others should remain for forty years (from 1627), and in case no further understanding was reached before the expiration of that period, forever, in the condition in which they were on Nov. 12, 1627. 3. Amnesty, except for participants in the dis- turbances in Bohemia and the Palatinate ; common cause to be made against. Sweden. The Lutherans alone to be allowed freedom of wor- ship. Brandenburg and the majority of the other Protestant estates accepted the peace. 4. Swedish-French period (1635-1648). The policy of Sweden was determined by Oxenstierna, that of France by Richelieu (f 1642), and afterwards by Mazarin. France fought at first in the person of Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar only, with whom subsidy-treaties had been concluded, and who was trying to conquer himself a new state in Alsace, in place of the duchy of Franconia, which he had lost by the battle of Nordlingen. Capture of Breisach, 1638. After his death (1639) France took control of his army. 1636. Victory of the Swedes under Baner at Wittstock over the imperialists and the Saxons. Death of Ferdinand II. His son, 1637-1657. Ferdinand III,, was desirous of peace. The ducal house of Pomerania became extinct (1637). After the death of Baner (1641) Torstenson became commander* in-chief of the Swedes. 1640. Death of George William. Frederic William, elector of Brandenburg. (The great elector, 1640-1688). 1641. Discussion of the preliminaries of peace in Hamburg. A con- gress agreed upon. 1642. Second Battle of Leipzig (Breitenfeld). Torstenson defeated the imperialists under PiccolominL Torstenson threatened the hereditary estates of the emperor. These Swedish successes aroused the envy of Christian IV. of Denmark. Hence 1643-1645. "War between Denmark and Sweden. 1643. Torstenson hastened by forced marches through Silesia, Sax- Sept, ony, Brunswick, to the north, conquered Holstein and Schles- wig, and invaded Jutland. Meanwhile the French in South Germany, under Marshall Gu^briant, had penetrated to Rottweil (Wiirtemberg). Guebriant fell in "battle. Shortly afterwards the French, under Rantzau, were surprised at Duttlingen by an Austro-Bavarian army under Mercy and Werth, and totally defeated. A.. D. Germany. — Thirty Years' War. 815 1643. Opening of the negotiations for peace in Osnabrttck with the Swedes • 1644 in Munster with the French. Marshal Turenne and the twenty-one-year-old prince of Bourbon, duke of Enghien, afterwards Prince of Conde, appointed commanders- iu-chief of the French troops. They forced the 1644. Bavarians under Mercy to retreat. Conde' captured Mann- heim, Speier, and Philippsburg. Turenne took Worms, Oppen- heim, Mainz, and Landau. Meanwhile an imperial army, under Gallas, had been sent to the aid of the Danes, who were hard pressed, both by land and by sea (by the Swedish admiral, Gustavus Wrangel). The im- 1645. perial force was repulsed by Torstenson and Konigsmark, pur- Jan, sued into Germany, and almost annihilated at Magdeburg. March. Brilliant victory of Torstenson over the imperialists at Jan- kau, not far from Tabor, in Bohemia, whereupon, in union with the prince of Transylvania, Rakoczy, he conquered the whole of Moravia, and advanced hard upon Vienna. May. Turenne defeated by John of Werth at Mergentheim, in Fran- conia. Aug. Turenne, at the head of the French and Hessians, defeated the Bavarians at Allersheim. Peace between Sweden and Denmark at Bromsebro (p. 352). After a futile siege of Briinn, the plague having broken out in his army, Torstenson returned to Bohemia. He resigned his command on account of illness, and was succeeded by Wrangel. 1646. Wrangel left Bohemia, united to his own force the Swedish troops under Konigsmark in Westphalia, and joined Turenne at Giessen. Swedes and French invaded Bavaria and forced the elector Maximilian to conclude the 1647. Truce of Ulm, and to renounce his alliance with the emperor, after Turenne had been recalled, from envy at the Swedish successes, and Wrangel had gone to Bohemia, Maximilian broke the truce and joined the imperialists again. 1648. Second invasion of Bavaria by the French and Swedes ; terrible ravages. A flood in the Inn prevented the further advance of the allies, who returned to the upper Palatinate. The Swedish general Konigsmark captured that part of Prague on the right bank of the Moldau (Kleinseite) . Terrible condition of Germany. Irreparable losses of men and wealth. Reduction of population ; increase of poverty ; retrograda- tion in all ranks. 1648. Peace of "Westphalia. Oct. 24. Negotiations from 1645-1648. Imperial ambassadors, count Trautmannsdorf and Dr. Volmar. French, count d'Avaux and count Servien. Swedish, count Oxenstierna, son of the chancellor, and baron Salvius. France and Sweden, against the will of the emperor, secured the participation of the estates of the empire in the negotia- tions. 316 Modern History. A. D. Conditions of the Peace.1 A. Indemnifications. 1. Sweden received as a fief of the empire the whole of hither Poinerania and Riigen with a part of farther Pomerana (Stettin, Garz, Damm, Gollnow, Wollin, and Usedom), the city of Wismar, formerly belonging to Mecklenburg, and the bishoprics Bremen (not the city) and Verden as secular duchies, and five million rix dollars. Sweden became a member of the diet with three votes. 2. France received without reservation of the feudal overlordship of the empire, hence with absolute sovereignty : the bishoprics and cities of Metz, Tout, and Verdun, which had been in French hands since 1552 ; Pignerol, the city of Breisach, the landgi-avate of upper and lower Alsace, which belonged to a branch of the Austrian house, and the government of ten imperial cities in Alsace (prsefec- tura provincialis decem civitatum imperialium), with express acknowl- edgment of their previous freedom. The other imperial estates in Alsace (particularly Strasburg) retained their immediate relation to the empire and their freedom. France also received the right of gar- risoning Philippsburg. 3. Hesse-Cassel : abbey of Hersfeld, Schaumburg, the fiefs of the foundation of Minden, and 600,000 rix dollars. 4. Brandenburg : as indemnification for Pomerania which be- longed to Brandenburg by the law of inheritance, but of which it re- ceived the larger part of farther Pomerania only, the bishoprics of Halberstadt, Minden, and Camin as secular principalities, the arch- bishopric of Magdeburg as a duchy, with the reservation that it should remain in possession of the administrator August of Saxony, during his life (f 1680). 5. Mecklenburg : the bishoprics of Schwerin and Ratzeburg as principalities. 6. Brunswick : alternate presentation to the bishopric of Osna- briick, where a Catholic and evangelical bishop were to alternate. B. Secular Affairs of the Empire. 1. General amnesty and return to the condition of things in 1618. 2. The electoral dignity and the upper Palatinate were left in the hands of the Wilhelmian line (Bavaria) of the house of Wittels- bach, while a new electorate (the eighth} was created for the Ru- dolfian line (Palatinate). 3. The territorial superiority (Landeshoheif) of the whole body of estates, as regarded their relation to the emperor, was recognized, which involved the right of concluding alliances with one another and with foreign powers, if they were not directed against empire or emperor. (Afterwards, since 1663, the standing diet at Regensburg developed the German constitution more in detail.) 4. The republics of the United Netherlands and of Switzerland were recognized as independent of the empire (p. 247). 1 K. F. Eichhorn, Deutsche Staats- u. Recktsgeschichte, iv. § 522 foil. A. D. Germany. — Thirty Years' War. 317 C. Ecclesiastical Affairs (Gravamina ecclesiasticd). 1. The Convention of Passau and the Peace of Augsburg (p. 305) were approved and extended so as to include the Calvinists. 2. Catholic and Protestant estates were to be on an entire equality in all affairs of the empire. 3. January 1, 1624, was adopted as the norm (annus normalis) by which questions of ownership of ecclesiastical estates and exercise of religion should be settled. As things were upon that date, so they were to remain forever ; that is, the ecclesiastical reservation (p. 306) was acknowledged to be binding for the future. The subjugated Pro- testants in Austria and Bohemia obtained no rights by the peace, but those evangelical states which had been gained by the anti-reformation during the war (the Lower Palatinate, Wurtemberg, Baden, etc.) were allowed to resume the exercise of that religion which had been theirs in 1618. The jus reformandi, the privilege of deciding by fiat the re- ligion of those subjects to whom the year 1628 did not secure free ex- ercise of religion, was retained for the future by the territorial lords. The right of emigration was, however, reserved to the subjects in such cases. The imperial court (Reichskammergericht) was restored, and its members were to be equally divided between Protestants and Catholics. France and Sweden guaranteed the peace. (Seep. 371.} 318 Modern History. A. D. § 5. FRANCE. (Stt p. 1498-1589. Houses of Orleans and Angouleme. Branch line of the house of Valois (since 1328, p. 257) whose relation to the main line is shown in the following genealogical table : Charles V. (third king of the house of Valois). 1364-1380. I 1 1 Charles VI. Louis, duke of Orleans, t 1407. 1380-1422. m. Valentine Visconti. 1 Charles VII. Charles, duke of Orleans. John, count of 1422-1461. f 1467. Angouleme. t 1467. Louis XI. Louis XII. 1461-1483. 1498-1515. Charles, count m. (2) Anna of Angouleme. of Brittany, t 1496. died without m. Louise male issue. I of Savoy- Cha rles VIII. m. Anna of Brit- 1515-1547. tany. 1483-1498. died without Henry II. male issue. 1547-1559. m. Catharine of Medici. I Francis II. 1559-1560 in. Mary Stuart. 1 Elizabeth m. Philip II. king of Spain. Charles IX. 1560-1574. 1 Henry III, 1574-1589. duke of Anjou; king of Poland. Francis, duke of Alencon and Anjou, t 1584. Margaret m. Henry IV. see p. 323. 1498-1515. Louis XII. obtained a divorce from Joanna, daughter of Louis XI., and married Anna of Brittany, widow of Charles VIII., in order to keep this duchy for the crown ; as grandson of Valentina Visconti he laid claim to Milan, drove out Ludovico Moro, who was imprisoned when he ventured to return to Milan (1500). 1501. Louis XII. in alliance with Ferdinand the Catholic, king of Ar- agon, conquered the kingdom of Naples. The Spaniards and French soon falling out, the latter were defeated by the Spanish general Gonzalvo de Cordova on the Garigliano (1504). Louis XII. gave up his claims to Naples. 1508. Louis a party in the League of Cambray, p. 300. In 1511 the Pope, Ferdinand the Catholic, and Venice, concluded the Holy League, with the object of driving the French out of Italy. The lat- A, D. France. 319 ter, under the young Gaston de Foix, duke of Nemours, nephew ot Louis XII., were at first successful in the war, taking Brescia (1512) by storm (Bayard, "without reproach or fear"), and defeating the united Spanish and Papal armies at Ravenna, with the aid of 5000 German mercenaries, in the same year ; they were, however, compelled by the Swiss to evacuate Milan. In 1513 the French formed a new alliance with Venice, but were defeated by the Swiss at Novara and withdrew from Italy. Henry VIII. of England, who had joined the Holy League in 1512, and the emperor Maximilian who had joined in 1513, invaded France, and defeated the French at 1513. Guinegate, called the " Battle of the Spurs " from the hasty Aug. 17. flight of the French. France concluded peace with the Pope, with Spain (1513), with the emperor, and with Henry VIII. (1514). Anna of Brittany having died, Louis took, as his third wife, Mary the sister of Henry VIII. He died soon after the marriage (Jan. 1, 1515). He was succeeded by his cousin, the Count of Angouleme, who had married Claudia, daughter of Louis XII. and Anna, hence heiress of Brittany, which, however, was not actually incorporated with France until 1598. As king the count of Angouleme is known as 1515-1547. Francis I. Courageous, fond of display, dis- solute. 1515. He reconquered Milan by the brilliant victory of Marignaiio Sept. 13-14. over the Swiss, who fought most bravely. Peace and alliance between France and Switzerland. Treaty of Geneva (Nov. 7, 1515) ; treaty of Fribourg (Nov. 29, 1516). The lat- ter (la paix perpetuelle) endured till the French Revolution. 1516. Increase of the royal power by a Concordat with the Pope which rescinded the Pragmatic Sanction of 1438 and placed the choice of bishops and abbots in the hands of the king ; the Pope on the other hand received the annates, or the first year's revenue of every ecclesiastical domain where the king's right of presentation was exercised. Francis also abandoned the principle of the Council of Basle, that the Pope was subordinate to an ecumenical council. 1520. Meeting of Francis and Henry VIII. of England in the neigh- borhood of Calais. " Field of the Cloth of Gold." The wars of Francis with Charles V. (p. 302, etc.) occupied the rest of Francis' reign. Restrictions upon the political rights of the Parliaments. Cultivation of literature and the arts. Rabelais (1483-1553). Perse- cutions of the Protestants. Francis died March 31, 1547. He was succeeded by his son 1547-1559. Henry II. Growing power of the house of Guise (Francis, duke of Guise and Charles, " Cardinal of Lorraine "). 320 Modern History. A. D HOUSE OF LORRAINE AND GUISE. Margaret, m. Henry VI., k. of England. le Bon, d. of Anjou and titular king of Naples and Sicily, in. Isabella, d. of Lorraine. ! Yolande, d. of Lorraine, m. Ferri II., c. of John II., d. of Lor- raine and Bar. Nicolas, Vaudemont, Guise, etc. Rend II., d. of Lorraine and Bar. d. of Lorraine and Bar, t 1473. c. of Vaudemont, Guise, etc. no male issue. f 1508. I I Antoine, d. of Lorraine and Bar. f 1544. Claude I., c. of Aumale, d. of Guise (1527). Fra d. of am Char! Lorraii t ncis I., Franc Lorraine Guis Bar. dered es II., d. of Hei le and Bar. of ( 1608. f is, d. of z, mur- 1563. Charles, Card, of Lorraine. Claude, d. of Aumale. Louis, Mary, m« Card, of James V. Guise, of Scot- land. Marv, queen of Scots. iry, d. Huise. L588. Charles, d. of Mayenne. Louis, Cardinal of Guise. t 1588. Henry's mistress, Diana of Poitiers, duchess of Valentinois, ruled him almost absolutely. Montmorency, constable. Persecution of the Protestants in France ; assistance to German Protestants. 1547. Final union of Brittany with the French crown. DESCENT OF BRITTANY. Francis II., d. of Brittany. t 1488. Charles VIII. k. of France. (i) Anne (2) = Louis XII., k. of France. Claude = Francis I. I I Francis the dauphin. t 1536, without male issue. Henry II., k. of Franca A. D. France. 321 1552. War wit*1 Charles V. (p. 306.) Seizure of the three bishop-. rics, Toul, Metz, Verdun. 1556-1559. War with Philip II. of Spain. The French defeated by the Spaniards with the aid of the English at 1557. St. Quentin (on the Somme), and by count Egmont at Grave- lines (1558). 1558. Calais and Guines, the last English possessions in France, Jan. captured by Francis, duke of Guise. 1559. Peace of Cateau-Cambre'sis : the French restored all their con- April, quests except Calais and the three bishoprics (Metz, Toul and Verdun). Henry II., who died of a wound received in a tourney, was succeeded by his three weak sons. 1559-1560. Francis II. (sixteen years old), the first husband of Mary Stuart of Scotland, a niece of the Guises. Persecution of the Protestants (chambres ardentes). Cruel executions. The king's mother, Catharine de' Medici, struggled for power and influence against the Bourbon princes, Anton (king of Na- varre) and Louis of Conde, descended from Louis IX. The Guises, at first rivals of the queen and then in alliance with her, conducted all affairs of state and surpassed in influence their opponents, the Catholic constable Montmorency, and his nephews, the three brothers Chatillon : Gaspard, admiral de Coligny (1517-1572), Francois d'Andelot, Cardi- nal Chatillon, afterwards leaders of the Huguenots. De I'Hopital, chancellor. Conspiracy of Amboise (La Renaudie) against the Guises defeated (1560). Death of Francis II. 1560-1574. Charles IX., ten years old, under the influence of his mother, Catha- rine de' Medici. 1562-1598. Wars of the Huguenots.1 Cruel persecutions compelled the Huguenots to take up arms. At the same time they became a political party opposed to the Catho- lic party. The wars of the Huguenots were therefore not simply religious wars, but also political civil wars, in which the leaders of both parties were endeavoring to take advantage of the weakness of the king and get control of the government. The first three wars form properly one war, interrupted by truces called peaces (Amboise, 1563, Longjumeau, 1568, St. Germain, 1570), which were without result. The conditional freedom of religious worship permitted the Hugue- nots was to be guaranteed by the surrender to them for two years, of the four strong towns La Rochelle, Cognac, Montauban, La Charite. 1572. Night of St. Bartholomew. Aug. 23-24. Murder of admiral Coligny and general massacre of Hu- guenots, under the conduct of Henry of Guise and Tavannes, on the occasion of the marriage of Henry of Bourbon, king of 1 Huguenots is said to be a nickname derived from King Hugo} a spectre which, 'in the belief of the people, nightly haunted the streets 'of Paris; whence the Protestants, from their nocturnal gatherings, were called Huguenots. Others derive the name from a corruption of Eidyenossen, confederates. 21 322 Modern History. A. D. Navarre (son of Anton, king of Navarre) with the sister of Charles IX., Margaret of Valois. Henry of Navarre saved his life by a pre- tended conversion to Catholicism. Over 3,000 Huguenots were slain in the capital, in the whole of France about 30,000. This bloody deed led to the 1572-1573. Fourth Civil War. La Rochelle, besieged by Henry, duke of Anjou, brother of Charles IX., made a brave defense. The election of the duke of Anjou to the crown of Poland brought about a compromise. Edict of Boulogne (July 8, 1573) ended the war favorably to the Huguenots. Charles IX. died May 30, 1574. His brother, who fled from Po- land, became king. 1574-1589. Henry III., a debauched weakling. The fifth civil war, during which Henry of Navarre re-as- sumed the Protestant faith, was concluded (1576) by conditions more favorable to the Huguenots than those of any previous peace. Peace of Chastenoy ( Paix de Monsieur, after the duke of Alencon) May 6, 1576. Hence dissatisfaction among the Catholics. Origin of the Holy League (1576) which in alliance with Philip II. of Spain purposed the annihilation of the reformed party, and the elevation of the Guises to the throne. The king, out of fear of the League pro- claimed himself its head and forbade the exercise of the Protestant religion throughout France. The Protestants and moderate Catho- lics had joined forces in 1575 by the confederation of Milhaud (po- litique-Huguenot) . Sixth Civil War, wherein the Huguenots were defeated, but ob- tained favorable terms at the peace of Bergerac (or Poitiers, Sept. 17, 1577), as the king was unwilling to let the League become too powerful. In spite of the renewal of the treaty of peace, not one of its articles was executed. This caused the Seventh Civil War (La guerre des amoureux) (1580), which was ended in the same year by the treaty of Fleix (near St. Foy), Nov. 26, in which the conditions granted the Huguenots in former treaties were confirmed. The death of Francis, duke of Alenfon (since the accession of Henry III., duke of Anjou), the younger brother of the king, in 1584 rendered the extinction of the house of Valois certain. As it was the intention of the League to exclude from the throne Henry of Navarre, who belonged to the reformed religion, and to give the crown to the latter's uncle, the Cardinal of Bourbon, and as the League meantime induced the king to revoke the concessions granted to the Huguenots, there broke out the 1585-1589. Eighth Civil War called the War of the Three Henrys (Henry III. of Valois, Henry of Navarre, Henry of Guise). The Catholic party triumphed in spite of the victory of Coutras (Oct. 20, 1587), gained by Henry of Navarre. Formation of the League of Sixteen at Paris, which purposed the deposition of the weak king. Guise entered Paris, was received with ac- clamation (" King of Paris ") ; the timid resistance of the king was broken by a popular insurrection (day of the Barricades, May 12, A. D. France. 323 It 1 « 89 -li aft I -§' : si i ti- 1 ?3 | ' L?a fr 2 3.5 § gSgr P 5-p-g i ?2,? r as t m. IV. .1 !- P lil- w 11- a.™— • a Charle tourbon B ^ -B o B* n C § i 1 Llll- V fap BOURBON ., 1 1270. 1? I! 324 Modern History. A. D. 1588). Henry III. fled to Blois, where he summoned the estates of the kingdom (fitats-Gene'raux, States General). Finding no sup- port among them against the League, he caused Henry, duke of Guise, and his brother, Louis the Cardinal, to be murdered (Dec. 23, 1588). At this news, a revolt of the Catholic party broke out, headed by the brother of the murdered men, the duke of Mayenne. Henry III fled to Henry of Navarre in the Huguenot camp, where he was mur- dered before Paris, at St. Cloud, by the monk Jacques Clement (July 31, f Aug. 2). Death of Catharine de' Medici (Jan. 5, 1589). Michael Montaigne, 1533-1592. 1589-1792. (1830.) House of Bourbon descended from St. Louis IX. 's younger son Robert, count of Clermont, husband of Beatrice of Bourbon. 1589-1610. Henry IV. The Catholic party refused to recognize Henry and made the old cardinal of Bourbon king under the name of Charles X. (f 1590). Some wished the duke of Mayenne to be his successor, while others joined themselves to Philip II. of Spain, who laid claim to the throne of France on behalf of his daughter by his third marriage with Eliz- abeth of Valois, sister of Henry III. Victory of Henry IV. over the duke of Mayenne at Arques (1589) and at the 1590. Battle of Ivry. March 14. Henry besieged Paris, which was relieved by Mayenne and the duke of Parma. Henry abjured the reformed religion at St. Denis (1593) and was crowned at Chartres (1594). Brissac having thereupon surrendered Paris to him, the power of the League was broken. Not, however, until Henry, after public penance, by his ambassadors at Rome, had been freed from the papal ban, was he generally recognized (by Mayenne too). The civil wars of religion were ended by the 1598. Edict of Nantes, April 15. which gave the Huguenots equal political rights with the Catholics, but by no means secured them entire freedom of religious worship. The edict granted the exercise of the reformed religion to nobles having the right of criminal jurisdiction (seigneurs hauls jus- ticiers), and to the citizens of a certain number of cities and towns, but prohibited it in all episcopal and archiepiscopal cities, at th court of the king, and in Paris, as well as within a circle of twent miles around the capital. Public offices were opened to the Hugueno" and mixed chambers were established in four Parliaments (Parii> Toulouse, Grenoble, Bordeaux}. The Huguenots obtained some forti- fied towns, and were recognized, to a certain extent, as an armed po- litical party. The Edict of Nantes was registered by the Parliament only after a long delay. Treaty of Vervins (May 2, 1598) with Spain ; restoration of all conquests to France. Adoption of measures looking to the improvement of the finances A. D. France. 325 and the general prosperity, which had gone to decay, especially by Rosny, afterwards duke of Sully (1560-1641). Fantastic plan or the king's (?) to establish a universal Christian republic in Europe comprising six hereditary monarchies (France, England, Spain, Den- mark, Sweden, Lombardy), five elective monarchies (the Empire, Papacy, Hungary, Poland, Bohemia), and four republics (Switzer- land, Italy, Venice, Belgium), which probably would have turned out to be a league against the too great power of the house of Haps- burg. Question of Cleves-Julich succession. Henry IV. supported the claims of Brandenburg. In the midst of great preparations for war, Henry was assassinated at Paris, 1610 (May 14), by the fanatic (Francois) Rava'dlac. He was succeeded by his minor son, 1610-1643. Louis XIII., nine years old. Regency of his mother, Mary de' Medici (1610-1617). Sully removed from office ; the Italian Concini (Mardchal d'Ancre) was placed in control of affairs. Louis XIII., declared of age in 1614, was in fact all his life under the guidance of others. Summons of the States-General, 1614, being the last before the Revolution of 1789. Arrest and murder of Concini,' the queen mother banished to Blois (1617). The king under the in- fluence of his favorite, the duke of Luynes. By the mediation of Armand-Jean du Plessis (born 1585, in Poitou, 1607 bishop of Lucon, 1622 cardinal), duke of Richelieu, a treaty was concluded between Luynes and the queen mother (1619). New civil war. Contest of the crown with the nobility and the Huguenots. After the death of Luynes (1621) Mary de' Medici and her favorite, Richelieu, obtained control of affairs. The influence of the latter soon became supreme, and the queen-dowager quarreled with him. 1624-1642. Administration of Richelieu, whose influence over the king was henceforward unbroken. Numerous con- spiracies against Richelieu instigated by Gaston of Orleans, the king's brother. 1625. Revolt of the Huguenots under the dukes of Rohan and Sou- bise. 1627-1628. Siege of La Rochelle, under the personal supervision of Richelieu. In spite of the dispatch of three fleets from England to the aid of the Huguenots, the city surrendered Oct. 28, 1628, after a heroic resistance of fourteen months. Defeat of the duke of Rohan, and complete subjugation of the Huguenots, who hereafter were no longer an armed political party, but only a toler- ated sect. War in Italy with Spain ; subjugation of Savoy, Riche- lieu at the head of the army. Treaty of Cherasco (April 6, 1631). France renounced all conquests in Italy, but by a secret treaty with Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, Pignerol was surrendered to France (negotiators of these treaties, Richelieu's confidant, Father Joseph and the Pope's agent, Mazarin). A final attempt of Mary Medici to overthrow the cardinal igno- miniously failed (Nov. 11, 1630, the "Day of Dupes "). Mary died at Cologne, 1642. 326 Modern History. A. D. Conspiracy of Gaston and the duke of Montmorency. 1632, Oct. 30. Defeat of the allies and execution of Montmorency. Foundation of the French Academy (1635). 1631-48. Participation of France in the Thirty Years' War. See p. 314. 1641. Conspiracy of Henri d'Effiat, marquis of Cinq-Mars (" Mon- sieur le Grand "). Secret treaty with Spain. The plot was exposed by Richelieu. 1642. Dec. 4. Death of Richelieu. The effect of Richelieu's administration had been to break the power of the nobles and make the crown independent of the parlia- ments. He restored French influence in Italy, in the Netherlands, in Germany (311), and established it in Sweden. Richelieu laid the foundation of the power of Louis XIV. Louis XIII. died May 14, 1643. (See p. 365.} § 6. ITALY. (Seep. 263.) The duchy of Milan, since 1556 (p. 306) an appanage of the Spanish crown, was held, nominally, as a fief of the empire. Venice. The discovery of the new route to the Indies struck at the root of the commercial prosperity of Venice, and her power was steadily de- clining during this period. The danger which threatened the repub- lic from the League of Cambray (1508), between the Pope, the emperor Maximilian, Louis XII., and Ferdinand the Catholic, passed away as the Pope, Julius II. withdrew from the League in 1510, made his peace with the Venetians and induced Ferdinand the Catholic to join the Holy League, which had for its object the expulsion of the French from Italy. On the other hand the Turkish power confined Venice to the coasts of the Mediterranean. In 1570 the Turks at- tacked Cyprus, of which Venice had acquired possession in 1489 (p. 262). The victory of Lepanto, gained by Don John of Austria (p. 330), retarded the progress of the Turks but little. In 1573 Venice was forced to deliver Cyprus to them, and at the close of this period retained of all her possessions in Grecian waters, Candia, Paros, and the Ionian Islands only. Genoa. Genoa freed herself in 1529 from French supremacy, under the doge, Andrea Doria, who gave the republic a new constitution. Unsuccessful conspiracy of Fiesco (Jan. 2, 1547). Gianettino Doria, the nephew of the doge, was murdered, and Andrea Doria was com- pelled to fly. The conspirators had got possession of nearly the whole city, when Fiesco was accidentally drowned. Return of the doge, restoration of the constitution. A. D. Italy. 327 Savoy. The dukes of Savoy, who also possessed Piedmont, were the most powerful of the native dynasties of northern Italy. Nevertheless, during this period, Bern deprived them of the Waadtland, and they got into straits during the war between France and the empire, lifter the peace of Cateau- Cambresis (1559), Emmanuel Philibert was reinstated in his duchy. Florence. In the year in which Charles VIII. of France invaded Italy (1494), Peter de' Medici, son of Lorenzo, who had concluded a treaty with the king, was driven from the city. The Dominican monk Savonarola (born 1452, prior of San Marco, 1490) was leader of the democratic party in Florence ; asceticism for a short time fashionable in Flor- ence. Savonarola excommunicated, and executed (May 23, 1498). In 1512 the Medici were restored in consequence of the victory of the Holy League (pp. 300 and 318). In 1527 the Medici were a second time expelled, and the republic for a while restored. In 1530, how- ever, Charles V. appointed Alexander de1 Medici hereditary ruler in Florence, and he soon assumed the ducal title. After his murder by his cousin, Lorenzino, Cosimo (Cosmus)de* Medici became duke (1537). He incorporated the republic of Siena with his territory, and in 1569 was created grand duke of Tuscany by Pope Pius V. Under Cosi- mo II., Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) taught in Florence, who, in 1633, was forced to abjure the Copernican System by the Inquisition at Rome (" It does move though " *). The Papacy. The following popes of this period deserve mention : the debauched and criminal Alexander VI. (1492-1503), of the family of Borgia. His daughter was Lucrezia Borgia • his second son Ccesar Borgia, ruler of the Romagna; the warlike Julius II. (1503-1513); the schol- arly Leo X. (1513-1521) of the family of Medici, a patron of art ; the fanatical Paul IV. (Caraffa, 1555-1559), upon whose advice Paul III. had established the Inquisition in 1542 ; Gregory XIII. (1572-1585), who revised the calendar by striking out leap year at the close of each century, excepting every fourth century ; the wise and severe Sixtus V. (1585-1590), who suppressed the banditti in the Papal States and adorned Rome. (Reerection of obelisks, completion of the dome of St. Peter's 2). Naples. Naples throughout this period was an appanage of Spain (since 1504, see p. 318/. Insurrection of the fisherman, Tommaso Aniello, called Masaniello (1647), soon suppressed (f July 16). Most nourishing period of Italian art. Painters : Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) ; Raphael Santi (erroneously called Sanzio, 1483- 1 This saying, it is nnw claimed, is unauthenticated. — [TRANS.] 2 Ranke, die romischen Pdpste, 6th ed., 1878. Modern History. A. D. 1520); Antonio Allegri, called Correggio (1494-1534); Michael Angela Buonarotti (1475-1564), also sculptor and architect ; Titian (1477- 1576); Paul Veronese (about 1535-1588). Poets: Ariosto (1474- 1533); Torquato Tasso (1544-1595). Politician: Macchiavelli (1469- 1527). (Seep. 415.) § 7. SPANISH PENINSULA AND THE NETHERLANDS. (Seep. 276) By the marriage of 1479-1516. Ferdinand the Catholic of Aragon and Isabella 1474-1504. of Castile (p. 276), which was consummated before the accession of either to the throne, the way was prepared for the future union of the two kingdoms. 1492. Conquest of Grenada, capital of the last Moorish kingdom Jan. 2. in the peninsula. In the same year, discovery of America (p. 282), and consequent acquisitions on the other side of the ocean for the crown of Castile. Conquest of Naples (1501-1504, see p. 327) for the crown of Aragon. Annexation of the grandmaster- ships of the three military orders of Calatrava (1487), Alcantara (1494), and San Jago (1499), to the crown. Support given to the league of the cities (Hermandad) against the robber-nobles; (Spanish) Inquisition. Upon Isabella's death (1504) her daughter, Joanna, wife of Philip, archduke of Austria (p. 301), was the legal heiress of Castile. Her father, Ferdinand the Catholic, however, who had long planned the union of the two kingdoms in one kingdom of Spain, obtained from the Cortes authority to carry on the government in place of his absent daughter. In 1506, Philip and Joanna went to Castile to expel Fer- dinand by force. Meeting of the two princes and treaty of Villafa- Jila, whereby the regency was granted to Philip. Shortly after the treaty Philip died suddenly (of poison ?), and Ferdinand resumed the regency (f 1516) , Joanna, who was insane, was kept in strict con- finement for 49 years (f 1555), first by her father, afterwards by her son Charles.1 Ferdinand was succeeded in both kingdoms (at first as co-regent of his mother, in theory) by the son of Philip and Joanna. Netherlands. Preliminary : These provinces, originally inhabited by Batavians and other German tribes, formed a part of the empire of Charles the Great, and after the treaty of Mersen (870) belonged in great part to Germany, forming a dependence of the duchy of Lotharingia. The decline of the ducal power favored the growth of powerful counties and duchies, such as Brabant, Flanders, Guelders, Holland, Zealand^ Hainault, and the bishopric of Utrecht. After 1384. and during the fifteenth century, the provinces were brought under control of the dukes of Burgundy. 1 The view advanced by Bergenrotb. (Karl V. und Johanna, in V. Sybel's Hist. Zeits., 1868), that Joanna was only declared insane from political reasons, has been clearly shown by other scholars (Gachard, Rcesler, Maurenbrecher) to rest on misunderstandings. A. D. Spanish Peninsula and the Netherlands. 329 Philip H. the Bold, fourth son of John II., k. of France. In 1363 made duke of Burgundy (the duchy reverted to the crown, 1361, by the extinction of the first ducal line in the person of Philip I.). In 1369 m. Margaret, dau. and heiress of Louis III., c. of Flanders and Artois, f 1404 John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, 1404-1419. Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, 1419-1467. Acquired Namur, by purchase, in 1425 ; in 1430, Brabant and Limburg, which had been bequeathed by Joanna, dau. of John III., d. of Brabant, to her great-nephew, Antoine, brother of John the Fearless ; in 1433, Holland, Hainault (Hennegau), Zealand, by cession from Jacqueline c. of Hol- land (of the Bavarian line) ; in 1443, Luxemburg, by ces- sion from Elizabeth of Luxemburg, and by purchase ; he also acquired Antwerp and Mechlin. Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, 1467-1477. Acquired Gelderland and Zutphen in 1472, by bequest from duke Arnold. Mary, f 1482 = Maximilian, arch- duke of Austria. Joanna, dau. of Ferdi- - nand of Arragon, and Isabella of Castile. Philip the Handsome, archduke of Austria, duke of Burgundy. Charles I. (V.) k. of Spain; archduke of Austria, d. of Burgundy, k. of Naples and Sicily, lord of Spanish America, emperor. They descended to the Hapsburg heirs of Charles the Bold, united and having a common states-general. In 1548 Charles V. annexed the Seventeen provinces (Brabant, Limburg, Luxemburg, Gelderland, Flan- ders, Artois, Hainault, Holland, Zealand, Namur t Zutphen, East and West Friesland, Mechlin, Utrecht, Overyssel, Groningen) to the Bur- gundian circle of the empire. 1516-1556. Charles I (as emperor, Charles V. p. 302). S30 Modern History. A. D, After suppressing a revolt in Castile he founded the absolute mon- archy, the Cortes henceforth having no importance. In America con- quest of Mexico, Peru, Chili, New Granada (p. 283, etc.). Upon his abdication the Spanish lands and the colonies, the Netherlands, Franche-Comte, Naples, and Milan, descended to his son 1556-1598. Philip II., who married four times : 1. Mary of Portugal, mother of Don Carlos ; 2. Mary the Catholic, of Eng- land (p. 336); 3. Elizabeth of Valois (p. 318); 4. Anne, daughter of Maximilian II. War with France (p. 381). Bloody persecution of the Moors and the Protestants in Spain. Inquisition, autos da fe' (i. e. acts of the faith). Conflict between the king and his heir, Don Carlos ; the lat- ter was arrested and died in prison (1568). Don John of Austria, a natural son of Charles I. (V.), gained over the Turks the 1571, Oct. 7. Naval battle of Lepanto (on the Gulf of Corinth). 1568-1648. War of Liberation in the Netherlands. Cause : The provinces of the Netherlands, which fell to Spain after the abdication of Charles I., rejoiced in the possession of ancient and important privileges. The estates (Staaten, etats) granted taxes and troops. The Spanish garrison, the penal edicts against heretics, the dread of the introduction of the Spanish Inquisition, led, during the rule of the regent Margaret of Parma (1559-1567), the natural sister of king Philip II., and her adviser, bishop Granvella, to a league of the nobles (the Compromis de Breda}, headed by Philip Marnix of St. Aldegonde. Presentation of a petition by 300 nobles (Gueux, Beggars, & party name, originating in the contemptuous exclamation of the jount of Barlaimont : Ce n'est qu'un tas de gueux). Insurrection of ihe lower classes. Destruction of images, and sack of the churches. These disturbances were opposed by Lamoral, count of Egmont (b. 1522, fought under Charles V. in Algiers, Germany, France ; led the cavalry at St. Quentin, and Gravelines, 1558 ; appointed governor of Flanders and Artois by Charles V. ; executed June 5, 1568), and William of Nassau, prince of Orange, the leaders of the higher nobil- ity in the Netherlands, who were soon no longer masters of the move- ment. Separation into a Catholic and a Protestant party. Although quiet was finally restored Philip sent the 1567. Duke of Alva with 20,000 Spaniards by way of Genoa, Savoy, and Franche Comte to the Netherlands. William of Orange and many thousand Netherlanders left their native land. Margaret resigned her regency and left the country. Creation of the " Council of Blood." The counts of Egmont and of Hoorn and many others were executed (1568). The estates of those who did not appear be- fore the tribunal were confiscated, including those of William of Orange. The latter and his brother, Louis of Orange, invaded the Netherlands, but were repulsed by Alva. The arbitrary taxes imposed by Alva (the tenth pfennig from the price of every article sold, the one hundredth part of every income), produced a new revolt. Capture of Brille, on the mouth of the Meuse by the Water Beggars (1572). Rapid spread of the insurrection, particularly in the northern provinces. A. D. Spanish Peninsula and the Netherlands. 331 1573. Alva recalled at his own request. His successor, Luis de Re- quesens y Zuniga, gained a victory 1574. At Mookerheide, where two brothers of the prince of Orange fell, but could not suppress the revolt, and died (1576). The sack of the cities of Antwerp, Mastricht, Ghent, etc., by the royal troops brought about the 1576. Pacification of Ghent, a treaty between all the provinces, whereby they united, without regard to national or religious differences, to drive the Spanish soldiers from the country. The new governor, Don John of Austria (p. 330), was not recog- nized by the majority of the provinces. In spite of the new disputes which had broken out among them he was unable to quiet the country, and died, 1578. He was succeeded by Alexander Farnese, duke of Parma (1578-1592), a shrewd statesman and an excellent general. He reduced the southern Catholic provinces, which form modern Bel- gium, to submission on condition of the restoration of their old politi- cal freedom. The seven northern provinces, Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gelderland, Groningen, Friesland, Overyssel, con- cluded 1579. The Union of Utrecht, proclaimed their complete independence of Spain (in 1581) and settled the hereditary Statthaltership upon William of Orange (the Silent, b. 1533, inherited the principality of Orange, 1544, ap- pointed commander-in-chief of the Netherlands and governor of Hol- land, Zealand and Utrecht, by Charles V., resigned his offices 1567, converted to Protestantism, elected commander-in-chief by the rebels, 1572, relieved Leyden, Oct., 1574, murdered by Balthazar Gerard, 10th July, 1584). After his murder at Delft, his son, the seventeen- year-old Maurice of Nassau, became the head of the seven provinces. Successful campaign of Alexander of Parma ; capture of Antwerp. The help furnished the Hollanders by the English (Leicester) induced Philip to fit out the Great Armada, which was destroyed by terrible storms and the bravery of the English (1588). After a long contest with changing fortunes, there was concluded under 1598-1621. Philip III. 1609. The twelve years' truce, on the basis of possession at the time. Under the weak king, who was controlled by his fa- vorites, the dukes of Lerma and Uzeda, father and son, the power and the prosperity of Spain declined, exhausted by constant war, the demoralization consequent on the discovery of America and the intro- duction of American gold, and the expulsion of 800,000 Moors, the most learned and industrious inhabitants of the peninsula. After the expiration of the truce with Holland the war was resumed until under 1621-1665. Philip IV. The Republic of the United Provinces obtained the 1648- recognition of their independence from Spain and the empire at the Peace of Westphalia. 332 Modern History. A. D. Under Philip III. and IV. (minister Olivarez), decline of the Spanish .power. Insurrection of the Catalonians, lasting twelve years. Revolt of Portugal. Portugal, under the illegitimate house of Burgundy (1385- 1580), descendants of John the Bastard (f 1433), son of Peter the Cruel, who was a descendant of Robert, duke of Burgundy, grandson of Hugh Capet. John, the Bastard, son of Pedro the Cruel. I 1 Edward. Alfonso, 1 Ferdinand. Fernando. f Emanuel. Fernando. 1 Isabella m. John \ ! III. Lewis. Henry. Edw ard. Beatrice, m. James. Charles V. Charles III. 1 d. of Savoy, i f~ — i 1 Philip II. = Maria. John. The Prior Emanuel Theodosius. k. of Spain. 1 of Crato. Pkilibert, d. of Savoy. Don Carlos. Sebastian. Maria m. Catharine • John. Alexander of I Parma. Theodosius. 1 1 Ranuccio John IV. of Parma. Kings of Portugal in heavy type. Claimants (except Philip II.) in italics. 1495-1521. Emanuel the Great. Golden age. Acquisitions in the East Indies, South America (Brazil), and Northern Africa. Under his successors, decline of the Portuguese power. Sebastian fell in the unfortunate 1578. Battle of Alkassor in Morocco. After the death of his succes- sor, Henry, 1581-1640. Portugal became a Spanish province. Four (?) false Sebastians.1 An almost bloodless revolution raised to the throne of Portugal the duke 1640. John of Braganza, as John IV. (descended through his mother from the legitimate, through his father from the illegitimate son of John the Bastard). (See pp. 390, 414.) 1 After the death of Henry (1580) there were five claimants for the crown of Portugal £.. D. EngCand and Scotland. 333 § 8. ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. (Seep. 275.) 1485-1603. House of Tudor (pp. 273, 275). 1485-1509. Henry VII. Henry's first act was to imprison the Earl of Warwick, son of the duke of Clarence. The first parliament (1485) secured the crown to Henry and his heirs. Five checks on the crown : 1. imposi- tion of new taxes and 2, the enactment of new laws without the consent of parliament prohibited ; 3. no man could be imprisoned without legal warrant ; 4. trial should be before twelve jurors in the county where the offense was committed, and there should be no ap- peal ; 5. officers of the crown were liable to trial for damages before a jury in case any person were injured by them, and no authority from the king could be pleaded. Violation of these checks. Ree's- tablishment of the king's court (Star Chamber ? 1488), which took cognizance of forgery, perjury, fraud, libel, conspiracy, etc., gave sen- tence without the use of a jury, and inflicted fines and mutilations. 1487. The pretended earl of Warwick (Simnel) landed in England, but was defeated at Stoke (16 June, 1487), and became one of the king's scullions. 1488-1499. Attempts of Perkin Warbeck, a Fleming who person- ated the duke of York, to overthrow Henry. Disavowed by Charles VIII. in the peace of Estaples (Nov. 9, 1492) which ended the war in which Henry had engaged on account of the annexation of Brittany by Charles VIII. (1491), Perkin found a warm reception in Flanders from the duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV. Expelled from Flanders by a provision of the commercial treaty with England (1496 Magnus intercursus), Perkin fled to Scotland, where his claim was recognized. Perkin and James IV. of Scotland in- vaded England in 1496. In 1497 a formidable insurrection broke out in Cornwall on occasion of an imposition of a tax by parliament. It was suppressed by the defeat at Blackheath (June 22, 1497), and the leaders executed (Ftammock). Peace with Scotland (Sept. 1497). Warbeck was soon taken and imprisoned in the Tower, where he escaped, but was recaptured. Plotting another escape with the earl of Warwick, both Perkin and Warwick were executed (1499). 1495. Statute of Drogheda (Poyning's law}. 1. No Irish parliament should be held without the consent of the king of England. 2. No bill could be brought forward in an Irish parliament without his consent. 3. All recent laws enacted in the Eng- lish parliament should hold in Ireland. 1502. Marriage of Henry's eldest daughter, Margaret, with James IV., king of Scotland. Henry's distinguishing characteristic was his avarice ; by various extortions (Empson, Dudley, "Morton's Fork") he accumulated a for- tune of nearly £2,000,000. During this reign occurred the discovery of the West Indies by Columbus (1492) and that of North America by the Cabots. 334 Modern History. A. D» 1509-1547. Henry VIII., of a cruel disposition and variable temperament. He was six times married : 1. Catharine of Aragon, widow of his brother Arthur, mother of Mary the Catholic (married June 3, 1509, divorced March 30, 1533). 2. Anne Boleyn, mother of Elizabeth (married Jan. 25, 1533, beheaded May 19, 1536). 3. Jane Seymour (married May 20, 1536, died after the birth of her son Edward VI. , Oct. 24, 1537). 4. Anne of Cleves (married Jan. 6, 1540, divorced June 24, 1540). 5. Catharine Howard (married Aug. 8, 1540, beheaded Feb. 12, 1542). 6. Catharine Parr, widow of lord Latimer (married July 10, 1543, outlived the king). Henry united in his person the claim of both Lancaster and York. Execution of Empson and Dudley. 1511. Henry a member of the Holy League (p. 300), received from the Pope the title of " Most Christian King." Henry having laid claim to the French crown sent troops to Spain, which were unsuccessful (1512). In 1513 the king went to France in person and with Maximilian, the emperor, won the bloodless victory of 1513, Aug. 17. Guinegate, the " Battle of the Spurs " (p. 319). 1513, Sept. 9. Battle of Flodden Field. Defeat and death of James IV. of Scotland who was allied with France. 1514, Aug. Peace with France (Tournay ceded to England, after- wards (1518) bought by France for 600,000 crowns) and with Scotland. 1515, Thomas Wolsey, the king's favorite, chancellor (b. 1471, ap- pointed almoner and dean of Lincoln by Henry VII., member of the council 1510, bishop of Tournay 1513, bishop of Lin- coln and archbishop of York 1514, cardinal and chancellor 1515, papal legate 1517, surrendered the great seal 1529, f Nov. 28, 1530). 1520, June 7. Meeting of Henry VIII. and Francis I. of France near Calais ("Field of the Cloth of Gold"). 1521. Execution of the duke of Buckingham on a charge of high treason. Buckingham was descended from Edward III. (p. 277). 1521. Henry wrote the " Assertion of the Seven Sacraments " in re- ply to Luther, and received the title of "Defender of the Faith " from Pope Leo X. After the battle of Pavia the relations between Henry and the emperor, which had been weakened by the double failure of the em- peror to secure the promised election of Wolsey as Pope, became so strained that war seemed inevitable, and a forced loan was assessed on the kingdom, which brought in but little. In 1523 an attempt to force a grant from parliament met with no success, but a rebellion was provoked which was suppressed only by abandoning the demand. 1527. Henry, desiring to divorce his wife in order to marry Anne Boleyn, alleged the invalidity of marriage with a deceased brother's wife, and appealed to Rome. The delays of the Pope and the scruples of Wolsey enraged the king, who deprived the latter of A.. D. England and Scotland. — Henry VIII. 335 the great seal and gave it to Sir Thomas More (1529). Sentence and pardon of Wolsey, who, however, died in disgrace (1530). At the suggestion of Cranmer the question was referred to the univer- sities of England and Europe, and a number deciding in the king's favor Henry married Anne Boleyn. Henry also broke with the Church of Rome. Confiscation of the annates, followed by the res- ignation of Sir Thomas More (1532). The Pope excommunicated Henry and annulled his divorce from Catharine, which Cranmer, now archbishop of Canterbury, had pro- nounced. After the birth of Elizabeth parliament confirmed the divorce, recognized Elizabeth as heir to the throne (1534), and se- cured the succession to other children of Anne in case of the death of the princess. 1534. Act of Supremacy, appointing the king and his succes- sors "Protector and only Supreme Head of the Church and Clergy of England" (1531). Refusal to take the oath of supremacy was made high treason, under which vote Sir Thomas More was condemned and beheaded (1535). Thomas Cromwell, a former servant of Wolsey, and his suc- cessor in the favor of the king, now vicegerent in matters relating to the church in England, issued a commission for the inspection of monasteries which resulted in the suppression, first of the smaller (1536), and afterwards (1539) of the larger monasteries, and the confiscation of their property. Abbots now ceased to sit in parlia- ment. 1536. Execution of Anne Boleyn on a charge of adultery. Princess Elizabeth proclaimed illegitimate by parliament. The crown was secured to any subsequent issue of the king, or should that fail, was left to his disposal. 1536. Publication of Tyndale's translation of the Bible, by Coverdale, under authority from the king. 1536. Suppression of the Catholic rebellion of Robert Aske, aided by Reginald Pole, son of Margaret, countess of Salisbury, daughter of George, duke of Clarence. 1539. Statute of the Six Articles, defining heresy; denial of any of these positions constituted heresy : 1. Transubstantiation ; 2. Communion in one kind for laymen ; 3. Celibacy of the priesthood ; 4. Inviolability of vows of chastity ; 5. Necessity of private masses ; 6. Necessity of auricular confession. 1540. Execution of Cromwell, on a charge of treason. Cromwell had fallen under Henry's displeasure by his advocacy of the king's marriage with Anne of Cleves, with whom the king was ill pleased. 1542. Ireland made a kingdom. 1542. War with Scotland. James V. defeated at the Nov. 25. Battle of Solway Moss. James V. died shortly afterward. Henry proposed a marriage between his son, Edward, and James's infant daughter, Mary, 336 Modern History. A. D. but the Scottish court preferred an alliance with Prance, whereupon Henry concluded an alliance with the emperor. 1544. Parliament recognized Mary and Elizabeth as heirs to the crown, in the event of the death of Edward without issue. 1545. Invasion of France. Coin debased ; property of guilds con- fiscated. 1547. Execution of the Earl of Surrey, on charge of high treason. Henry VIII. died Jan. 28, 1547, leaving a will, wherein the crown was left to the heirs of his sister, Mary, duchess of Suffolk, in the event of failure of issue by all of his children. 1547-1553. Edward VI., ten years of age ; his uncle, earl of Hertford, was appointed lord protector and duke of Somerset, and assumed the government. Repeal of the six articles (1547). Introduction of reformed doc- trines. 1549. Execution of lord Seymour, brother of the duke of Somerset, who wished to marry the princess Elizabeth. Establishment of uniformity of service by act of parliament ; introduction of Edward VI.'s first prayer-book (second, 1553). Fall of the protector, Somerset, who was superseded by lord Warwick, afterwards duke of Northumberland (1550). Exe- cution of Somerset (1552). 1551. Forty-two articles of religion published by Cranmer. 1553. Edward assigned the crown to Lady Jane Grey, daughter of his cousin, Frances Grey, eldest daughter of Mary, daughter of Henry VII., to. the exclusion of Mary and Elizabeth, daughters of Henry VIII. Lady Jane was married to the son of the duke of Northumberland. Death of Edward VI , July 6, 1553. 1553-1558. Mary the Catholic. The proclamation of Lady Jane Grey as queen by Northumber- land meeting with no response, Northumberland, Lady Jane, and others were arrested. Execution of Northumberland (Aug. 22, 1553). Restoration of Catholic bishops. Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, author of the Six Articles, lord chancellor. 1553. Marriage treaty between Mary and Philip of Spain, son of Charles V., afterwards Philip II. Philip was to have the title of king of England, but no hand in the government, and in case of Mary's death could not succeed her. This transaction (" The Spanish marriage ") being unpopular an insurrection broke out, headed by Sir Thomas Carew, the duke of Suffolk, and Sir Thomas Wyatt. The sup- pression of the rebellion was followed by the execution of Lady Jane Grey (Feb. 12, 1554), and her husband. Lady Jane was an ac- complished scholar (Roger Ascham) and had no desire for the crown. Imprisonment of Elizabeth who was soon released on the intercession of the emperor. 1554. July 25. Marriage of Mary and Philip. 1555. Cruel persecution of the Protestants (Bonner, bishop of Lon- A. D. England and Scotland. M*db- 1- OT? a <3 e ^ el rl ' -5s5 | 3 o ' a 3 o ?! I b1 -* J| w9« ^ sl 2fvF 1 JSp, 3 3 "g| 1 a «up! ^ 3,<< — £§e!il -M <3 00 1 § .«* H » I! Ill ° 1 4 'l » 1 i i a 5 —3. M »a w a .J «c C^a _ _ CoiiteS'S 1 1 S— CO 1 a cS P* s KllF" gOJPMg •i 2,3 ~«>3 P. i5! 3- W JC S| tt H^ i! p- 1 — - — i I~SI~ i ^0 I * P* l^p* '& w as ts^5 tt p. re o P-P |L|~ljr i ' '°: | i } a?- 1i ij § 1 of- 2 — 1-^ r I3 58 g f p<3. 53' 530^3 P_»~~ ** ll* e"&r- §£. e? Mg 'J pi fij a 838 Modern History, A. D. don). Oct. 16, Ridley and Latimer; March 21, 1556, Cranmer burnt at the stake. About 300 are said to have been burnt during this per- secution. Cardinal Pole, archbishop of Canterbury and papal legate (1556). 1557. England drawn into the Spanish war with France. Defeat of the French at the battle of St. Quentin (Aug. 10, 1557). 1558. Jan. 7. Loss of Calais, which was captured by the duke of Guise. Death of Mary, Nov. 17, 1558. 1558-1603. Elizabeth. Sir William Cecil (baron Burleigh, 1571), secretary of state. Sir Nicholas Bacon, lord privy seal. Repeal of the Catholic legisla- tion of Mary; reenactment of the laws of Henry VIII. relating to the church ; act of supremacy, act of uniformity. Revision of the prayer- book. 1559. Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis with France. Calais to be April 2. ceded to England in eight years. On the accession of Francis II. king of France, Mary, his wife, as- sumed the title of Queen of England and Scotland. Conformity exacted in Scotland. Treaty of Berwick (Jan. 1560), between Eliza- beth and the Scottish reformers. 1560. Treaty of Edinburgh between England, France, and Scotland. July 6. French interference in Scotland withdrawn. Adoption of a Confession of Faith by the Scotch estates. 1561. Return of Mary to Scotland after the death of Francis II., where she was at once involved in conflict with the Calvinists. (John Kiiox, b. 1505, the friend of Calvin at Geneva, d. 1572.) 1563. Adoption of the Thirty-Nine Articles, in place of the forty- two published by Cranmer. Completion of the establishment of the Anglican Church (Church of England, Episcopal Church) ; Protestant dogmas, with retention of the Catholic hierarchy and, par- tially, of the cult. Numerous dissenters or non-conformists (Presbyte- rians, Puritans, Brownists, Separatists, etc.). Parker, archbishop of Canterbury (1559). 1564. Peace of Troyes with France. English claims to Calais re- nounced for 220,000 crowns. In Scotland Mary married her cousin Darnley, who caused her fa- vorite Rizzio to be murdered (1566) and was himself murdered (Feb. 10, 1567) by Bothwell (earl of Hepburn), apparently with the knowl- edge of the queen.1 Marriage of Mary and Bothwell May 15, 1567. The nobles under Murray, Mary's natural brother, revolted, defeated Mary at Carbury Hill near Edinburgh, and imprisoned her at Loch- leven Castle. Abdication of Mary in favor of her son, James VI., July 24, 1567. Murray, regent. In May, 1568, Mary escaped from captivity ; defeated at Langside, May 13, she took refuge in England, where, after some delay, she was placed in confinement (1568). 1 Gaedeke, Maria Stuart, 1879. The cause of Mar j and Bothwell has been recently defended by John Watts De Pejster. A. D. England and Scotland. — Elizabeth. 839 1575. Elizabeth declined the government of the Netherland prov- inces of Holland and Zealand, offered her by the confederates. 1577. Alliance of Elizabeth and the Netherlands. 1583-84. Plots against the queen. (Arden, Parry) ; Spanish plot of Throgmorton • execution of the earl of Arundel for correspond- ing with Mary. Bond of Association. 1585. Troops sent to the aid of the Dutch republic under the earl of Leicester. Victory of Zutphen (Sept. 22, 1586), death of Sir Philip Sidney. 1586. Expedition of Sir Francis Drake to the West Indies, sack of St. Domingo and Carthagena ; rescue of the Virginia colony (p. 290). 1586. Conspiracy of Savage, Ballard, Babington, etc., discovered by the secretary of state, Walsingham ; execution of the conspirators. The government involved Mary, queen of Scots, in the plot. She was tried at Fotheringay Castle, Oct. 1586, and convicted on the presentation of letters which she alleged to be forged. She was convicted Oct. 25 and executed Feb. 8, 1587. 1588. War with Spain. Construction of an English fleet of war. The Spanish fleet, called the invincible armada (132 vessels, 3,165 cannon), was defeated in the Channel by the English fleet (Howard, Drake, Hawkins), July 21-29, and destroyed by a storm off the Hebrides. 1597. Rebellion of the Irish under Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone ; the failure of the earl of Essex to cope with the insurrection led to his recall, and his successor lord Mountjoy quickly subju- gated the country (1601). Capture of Tyrone, flight of the earl of Desmond. A rebellion of Essex in London was followed by his execution (1601). 1600. Charter of the East India Company. Death of Elizabeth, March 24, 1603. William Shakespeare, 1564-1616 ; Sir Philip Sidney, 1554-1586; Edmund Spenser, 1553-1599 ; William Tyndale, 1485 ?-1536 ; Ben Jonson, 1574-1637. 1603-1649 (1714). The House of Stuart. Personal Union of England and Scotland. 1603-1625. James I., as king of Scotland, James VI., son of Mary Stuart. The Scotch had brought him up in the Protestant faith. He was learned but pedantic, weak, lazy, and incapable of governing a large king- dom. Divine right of kingship, divine right of the bishops (" no bishop, no king "). In this century the after-effects of the Reformation made themselves felt in England as on the continent, and in both places resulted in war. In England, however, owing to the peculiar circumstances of the Reformation these effects were peculiarly condi- tioned ; the religious questions were confused and overshadowed by political and constitutional questions. 1603. James I. was proclaimed king March 24 ; lie entered London 34jO Modern History. A. D. on the 7th of May, and was crowned July 25. Presentation of the millenary petition immediately after James's arrival in London, signed by 1,000 (800) ministers, asking for the reform of abuses. The Main and the Bye. The " Main " was a plot to dethrone James in favor of Arabella Stuart (see geneal. table, p. 337), con- cocted by lord Cobham, Grey and others. Sir Walter Raleigh was also implicated and imprisoned until 1616 (" History of the World "). The " Bye " or the " Surprising treason " was a plot to imprison the king. Alliance with France, negotiated by Rosny (Sully). 1604. Jan. Hampton Court Conference between the bishops and the Puritans, where James presided. The Puritans failed to obtain any relaxation of the rules and orders of the church. The king issued a proclamation enforcing the act of uniformity (p. 338), and one banishing Jesuits and seminary priests (Goodwin and Fortescue). 1604, March 19-1611, Feb. 9. First Parliament of James I. The king's scheme of a real union of England and Scotland unfavorably received. Appointment of a commission to investigate the matter. 1604. Convocation (ecclesiastical court and legislature at first established [Edward I.] as an instrument for ecclesiastical tax- ation ; afterwards convened by archbishops for the settlement of church questions ; since Henry VIII. convened only by writ from the king, and sitting and enacting [canons] only by permission of the king) adopted some new canons which bore so hardly upon the Puri- tans that three hundred clergymen left their livings rather than con- form. Peace with Spain. James proclaimed " King of Great Britain, France and Ireland " (Oct. 24). Punishment of many recusants (under the recusancy laws of Elizabeth, whereby refusing to go to church, saying mass or assisting at mass was severely punished). 1605. Nov. 5. Gunpowder Plot, originating in 1604 with Robert Catesby, after the edict banish- ing the priests. Other conspirators : Winter, Wright, Percy. Prep- arations for blowing up the houses of Parliament with thirty-six barrels of gunpowder. Disclosure of the plot through an anonymous letter to Lord Monteagle from one of the conspirators, his brother-in-lawj Tresham. Arrest of Guy (Guido) Fawkes, in the vaults on Nov. 4, the day before the meeting of parliament. Trial and execution of the conspirators. Parliament met Nov. 9. 1606. Penal laws against papists. Plague in London. Episco- pacy restored in Scotland. James urged the union anew but in vain. Impositions. The grant of customs duties made at the begin- ning of every reign (tonnage and poundage, established by Edward III.) proving insufficient to meet James' expenditure, he had recourse to impositions without parliamentary grant, which Mary and Elizabeth had used to a small extent. Trial of Bates for refusing to pay an imposition on currants. The court of exchequer decided in favor of the king. A. D. England and Scotland. — James I. 341 1607. Settlement of Jamestown (p. 291). 1608. Establishment of new impositions. 1610. The Great Contract; in return for the surrender of some feudal privileges the king was to receive a yearly income of £200,000. The agreement was frustrated by a dispute over the impositions. Dissolution of parliament (Feb. 9, 1611). 1611. Plantation of Ulster, which was forfeited to the crown by the rebellion of Tyrone. Creation of baronets, an hereditary knighthood ; sale of the patents. 1611. Completion of the translation of the Bible, which was authorized by the king and had occupied forty-seven minis- ters since 1604. Imprisonment of Arabella Stuart. 1613. Robert Carr, the king's favorite (viscount Rochester in 1611), created duke of Somerset, and lord treasurer, on the death of the earl of Salisbury (Robert Cecil). Death of Henry, prince of Wales (Nov. 1612). First English factory at Surat. 1613. Marriage of the princess Elizabeth (" queen of Bohemia ") to the elector Palatine. Death of Sir Thomas Overbury, who was imprisoned in the Tower by the malice of Somerset. Mar- riage of Somerset and the countess of Essex. 1614. Apr. 5-June 7. Second Parliament of James I. Three hundred new members, among whom were John Pym (Somer- setshire), Thomas Wentworth (Yorkshire), John Eliot (St. Ger- mains). The whole session was spent in quarrelling with the king over the impositions, and parliament was dissolved without making an enactment, whence it is called the addled parliament. 1615. Renewal of the negotiation for the marriage of James's son to a Spanish princess (opened in 1611). Imposition of a benevo- lence, which was resisted by Oliver St. John and condemned by the chief justice, Sir Edward Coke, who was afterwards dismissed from office. Death of Arabella Stuart. Mission of Sir Thomas Roe to the Great Mogul. 1616. Condemnation of the duke and duchess of Somerset for the poisoning of Overbury. Rise of George Villiers in the king's favor ; viscount Villiers, earl, marquis, duke of Buckingham. 1617. Sir Walter Raleigh, released from the Tower, allowed tG sail for the Orinoco, where he hoped to discover a gold mine. Failing in this he attacked the Spanish towns on the Orinoco. 1618. Proclamation allowing sports on Sunday after church in Scot- land (Articles of Perth}. Francis Bacon, lord Verulam, vis- count of St. Albans, lord chancellor. In this year Sir Wal- ter Raleigh, returning from his expedition, was executed under the old sentence, as reparation to Spain. 1619. Commercial treaty with the Dutch respecting the East Indies. 1620. Settlement of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, in New England (p. 294). 1621. Jan. 30-1622, Feb. 8. Third Parliament of James I. The parliament granted a supply for the prosecution of the war in 842 Modern History. A. D. the palatinate (p. 310), in which James was half-hearted, and then took up the subject of grievances. Impeachment of Mompesson and Mitchell, who had bought monopolies of inn-licensing and the manu- facture of gold and silver thread; they were degraded, fined, and ban- ished. Impeachment of Francis Bacon, the chancellor, for bribery. Bacon admitted that he had received presents from parties in suits, but denied that they had affected his judgment. He was fined £40,- 000 (which was remitted) and declared incapable of holding office in the future. Petition of the commons against popery and the Spanish marriage. The angry rebuke of the king for meddling in affairs of state (" bring stools for these ambassadors ") drew from the parliament 1621, Dec. 18. The Great Protestation : " That the liberties, fran- chises, privileges, and jurisdictions of parliament are the ancient and undoubted birthright and inheritance of the subjects of England, and that the arduous and urgent affairs concerning the king, state, and defense of the realm . . . are proper subjects and matter of council and debate in parliament." The king tore the page containing the protestation from the journal of the commons. 1622, Feb. 8. Dissolution of parliament. Imprisonment of Southampton, Coke, Pym, Selden. Earl of Buckingham made duke of Buckingham. 1623, Charles, prince of Wales, and the duke of Buckingham, went to Spain and negotiated a marriage treaty, the provis- ions of which were so favorable to the Catholics as to excite great dissatisfaction in England ; finally, being unable to secure any help from Spain in regard to the palatinate, Charles and Buckingham returned in anger. Massacre of English residents on the island of Amboyna by the Dutch. 1624, Feb. 12-1625, Mar. 27. Fourth Parliament of James I. The Spanish marriage was broken off, but even the anger of Buckingham could not drive the parliament into a declaration of war with Spain. Supplies voted for defense. Mansfeld raised 1,200 men in England who reached Holland but nearly all perished there from lack of proper provisions. Marriage treaty with France for the marriage of Prince Charles with Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIII. 1625, March 27, death of James I. at Theobalds. 1625-1649. Charles I. 1625, May 11. Marriage of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria. Ships sent to Louis XIII. secretly engaged not to fight against the Huguenots. 1625. First Parliament of Charles I. (Assembled June 18 ; adjourned to Oxford July 11 ; dissolved Aug. 12.) Grant of tonnage and poundage for one year only, and of £140,000 for the war with Spain. Proceedings against Montague (" appello Caisarem" 1624). Unsuccessful expedition of Wimbledon against Cadiz. A. D. England and Scotland. — Charles I. 343 1626, Feb. 6-June 15. Second Parliament of Charles I. Charles had hoped for a more pliable parliament, as* he had appointed several of the leaders of the first parliament sheriffs, and so kept them out of the second. But this parliament, under the lead of Sir John Eliot, was more intractable than the last. Lord Bristol, to whom no writ had been sent by order of the king, received one on the interference of the lords, but was requested not to appear. Pie took his seat and brought charges against Buckingham, on which that lord was im- peached (May). Imprisonment of Sir John Eliot and Sir Dud- ley Digges, who were set at liberty upon the refusal of parlia- ment to proceed to business without them. War declared against France (1626-1630). 1627, Inglorious expedition of Buckingham to the relief of Roehelle (IsleofRhe). Exaction of a forced loan to raise money for the French war, and for the subsidy which Charles had agreed to supply to Chris- tian IV. of Denmark. Five persons, who were imprisoned for refusing to contribute, sued out a writ of habeas corpus, but, having been committed by the king's order, though without distinct charge, they were remanded to prison. 1628, March 17-1629, March 10. Third Parliament of Charles I. May. Passage of the Petition of Right : 1. Prohibition of benevo- lences, and all forms of taxation without consent of parliament. 2. Soldiers should not be billeted in private houses. 3. No com- mission should be given to military officers to execute martial law in time of peacj. 4. No one should be imprisoned unless upon a specified charge. Assent of the king (June 7). Grant of five subsidies. Suppression of the royalistic sermons of Main- waring. Charles having, after the first year of his reign, continued to levy tonnage and poundage, the commons drew up a remonstrance against that practice. June 26. Prorogation of parliament. Seizure of goods of merchants who refused to pay tonnage and poundage. Aug. 23. Assassination of Buckingham by Felton. 1629, Jan. New session of parliament. Oliver Cromwell spoke, for the first time, in this parliament. The commons at once took up the question of tonnage and poundage ; claim of privi- lege in the case of Rolfe, one of the merchants, whose goods had been seized, and who was a member of parliament. Adjournment of the house of commons. March 2. Meeting of parliament. Turbulent scene in the house of commons ; the speaker held in the chair while the resolutions of Eliot were read : Whoever introduced innovations in relig- ion, or opinions disagreeing with those of the true church ; whoever advised the levy of tonnage and poundage without grant of parliament ; whoever voluntarily paid such duties, was an enemy of the kingdom. 844 Modern History. A. D. March 5. Arrest of members ; imprisonment of Eliot (f Nov. 1632). March 10. Dissolution of parliament. For eleven years Charles governed without a parliament, raising money by illegal levies of taxes, sale of monopolies, and many other ways. Charles' advisers : William Laud (b. 1573, president of St. John's college, 1611-1621; dean of Gloucester, 1616; in Scotland as James I.'s chaplain, 1617; bishop of St. David's, 1621; chaplain to Buckingham, 1622 ; bishop of Bath and Wells, dean of the chapel royal, 1626 ; privy councillor, 1627; bishop of London, 1628 ; chancellor of Oxford, 1630 ; in Scotland with Charles I., 1633 ; archbishop of Canterbury, 1633 ; commissioner of the treasury, 1634 ; impeached, 1641 ; at- tainted (by bill) and executed, 1645), Thomas Wentworth (b. 1593; in parliament, 1614, 1621-1625 ; sheriff, 1625 ; imprisoned for refus- ing to comply with the forced loan ; in parliament, 1628 ; baron Went- worth, lord president of the council of the north, viscount Wentworth, 1628 ; privy councillor, 1629 ; lord deputy of Ireland, 1633 ; went to Ireland, 1633 ; earl of Stratford, and lord lieutenant of Ireland, 1639 ; impeached, 1640 ; attainted (by bill) and executed, May, 1641), Weston, lord treasurer. 1630, April. Peace with France. 1629. First charter of Massachusetts Bay Colony (p. 295). 1630, Nov. Peace with Spain. 1632. Predominant influence of Wentworth. 1633. June. Charles crowned at Edinburgh with ceremonies distaste- ful to the Scots. Government of Laud and Wentworth. Energetic enforcement of conformity. The declaration of sports (p. 341) reissued. Inrailment of the communion table. William Prynne, author of Histrio-Mastix, an attack on players, which was thought to reflect on the queen, pilloried and deprived of his ears. Wentworth, governor of Ireland. " Thor- ough." 1634. First writ for ship-money, a war tax levied only on seaboard towns, issued at the suggestion of Noy, attorney-general, and extended over the whole kingdom. 1635. Second writ for ship-money. 1637. Prynne, Bastwick, Burton, pilloried. June 23. An attempt to read the English liturgy in Edinburgh, in compliance with the order of Charles, produced a popular tumult at St. Giles. June. Trial of John Hampden, for refusing to pay his allotment of ship-money (twenty shillings). The court of exchequer de- cided against him, which created a strong popular excitement. Shortly after, Hampden, Pym, Cromwell, were prevented from sailing for America by a royal prohibition of emigration. 1638, Feb. 28. Signing of the Solemn League and Covenant (based on that of 1580), at Greyfriar's church in Edinburgh, for the defense of the reformed religion and resistance to inno- vations. 1638, Nov. 21. General assembly at Glasgow j abolition of episcopacy, the new liturgy, and the canons ; the kirk declared independent of the state. &. D. England and Scotland. — Charles I. 345 1639. The first bishops' war. The Scots seized Edinburgh castle, and raised an army. Charles marched to meet them near Berwick, but an agreement was reached without a battle. 1639, June 18. Pacification of Dunse (or Berwick). The armies were to be disbanded, and differences referred to a new general assembly and parliament. The general assembly at Edin- burgh confirmed the acts of the assembly of Glasgow, and the parlia- ment proved intractable. The king's necessities were now so great that he took the advice of Wentworth, now made earl of Strafford, and summoned 1640, April 13 -May 5. The fourth Parliament of Charles I. (" The Short Parliament ") at Westminster. As no supplies could be obtained without a redress of grievances, the parliament was soon dissolved. Popular tumults; attack on Laud's palace ; assault upon the court of high commission (created 1559, by Elizabeth, to try offenses against the ecclesiastical supremacy of the crown). 1640. Second bishops' war. Defeat of the royal troops at Newburn on the Tyne (Aug. 28). The king summoned a council of peers at York (Sept.). Treaty of Ripon (Oct. 26). A permanent treaty was set in prospect; meanwhile the Scottish army was to be paid £850 a day by Charles. Acting upon the advice of the peers, Charles now summoned 1640, Nov. 3. The Fifth and last Parliament. The Long Parliament (Nov. 3, 1640-March 16, 1660). First Session. Nov. 3, 1640-Sept. 8, 1641. The fact that the Scotch army was not to be disbanded until paid, gave the commons an extraordinary power over the king, which they were not slow to use. Lenthall, speaker. Nov. 11. Impeachment of the earl of Strafford, followed by the im- peachment of Laud. Both were committed to the Tower. 1641, Feb. 15. The triennial act passed, enacting that parliament should assemble every three years even without being sum- moned by the king. March 22. Commencement of the trial of Strafford. The result of the impeachment being uncertain, it was dropped and a bill of attainder introduced, which passed both houses (commons, Apr. 21, lords, Apr. 29). Bill to prevent clergymen from holding civil office introduced but thrown out by the lords (June). Introduction of a bill for the abolition of bishops ("root and branch bill "). May 10. Charles with great reluctance signed the bill of attainder against Strafford, and also the bill to prevent the dissolu- tion or proroguing of the present parliament without its own consent. (" Act for the perpetual Parliament" 846 Modern History. A. D, 1641, May 12. Execution of Strafford. July. Abolition of the Star Chamber and the High Commis- sion. Aug. Treaty of pacification with Scotland. The Scotch and Eng- lish armies were paid with the proceeds of a poll-tax. Charles went to Scotland. First interview of Edward Hyde, lord Clar- endon (1609-1674 ; " History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England)," with the king. Sept. 8. Parliament adjourned, but each house appointed a commit- tee to sit during the recess ; Pym chairman of the commons1' committee. Attempt of the king to conciliate the " moderates " in parlia- ment by giving offices of state to their leaders (Lucius Cary, lord Falkland). Oct. In Scotland the marquis of Montrose formed a plot for the seizure of the duke of Argyle, the leader of the Presbyterians, in which the king was thought to have a share. The discovery of the plot (" the incident ") threw Charles into the hands of Argyle, and an agreement was concluded whereby Charles gave the state offices to Argyle and his party, and the latter agreed not to interfere in the religious affairs in England. Oct. 20. Parliament assembled. Early in Nov. came news of the Irish massacre in Ulster ; the lowest estimate of the number of Protestants slain was 30,000. Great indignation in England. Yet the parliament was unwilling to trust Charles with an army. 1641, Dec. 1. The grand remonstrance, which had passed the house of commons in November, after a long and exciting de- bate, by a majority of eleven, presented to the king. It was a summary of all the grievances of his reign. On Dec. 14 the remonstrance was ordered to be printed. Several of the bishops having declared their inability to attend parliament on account of the conduct of the mob, and protested against the action of parliament in their absence, they were committed to the Tower for breach of privilege (Dec. 30). The petition of the commons for a guard under the earl of Essex rejected by the king. 1642, Jan. 3. Impeachment of lord Kimbolton, and of Pym, Hampden, Haselrig, Holies, Strode, members of the com- mons, for treasonable correspondence with the Scots in the recent war. As the commons declined to order their arrest Charles resolved to take matters into his own hands. Jan. 4. Attempt to seize the five members. Charles visited the house of commons in person, with five hundred troops, but finding that the five members were absent he withdrew quietly. The accused members, meanwhile, were in London. The commons immediately followed them, and formed themselves into a committee which sat at the Guild- hall, under the protection of the citizens. Jan. 10. Charles left London. The five members returned to par- liament on the following day. Jan, 12, rising at Kingston. A.. D. England and Scotland. 347 The freeholders of Buckinghamshire sent a remonstrance to the king. The commons made sure of several places and nastened to lay before the king a bill excluding the bishops from the house of Lords, which he signed, and a bill securing to the parliament the command of the militia, which he re- fused to sign. Charles at York (March), where he was joined in April by thirty-two peers and sixty-five members of the lower house. The king also obtained the great seal. At- tempt on Hull. • Henceforward the parliament at Westminster passed ordinances which were not submitted to the king. By an ordinance passed in May they assumed control of the militia. June 2. Submission of nineteen propositions by parliament to the king, demanding that the king should give his assent to the militia bill ; that all fortified places should be entrusted to officers appointed by parliament ; that the liturgy and church government should be reformed in accordance with the wishes of parliament ; that parliament should appoint and dismiss all royal ministers, appoint guardians for the king's children, and have the power of excluding from the upper house at will all peers created after that date. The propositions were indig- nantly rejected. July. Appointment of a committee of public safety by parliament. Essex appointed captain-general of an army of 20,000 foot and 4000 cavalry. Siege of Portsmouth. Aug. 22. Charles raised the royal standard at Nottingham. 1642-1646. The civil war ; the Great Rebellion. Oct. 23. Drawn battle of Edgehill. (Prince Rupert, son of the elector palatine and Elizabeth of England.) The king marched upon London, but being confronted at Brentford by Essex and Nov. 12. the trained bands of London under Skippon, he retired without fighting. « Affair of Brentford." Dec. The associated counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Cambridge, Hertfordshire, and Huntingdonshire raised a force which was en^ trusted to Oliver Cromwell (born April 25, 1599 in Hunting*. don), who made them a model band, " the Ironsides." 1643, Feb.-Apr. Fruitless negotiations at Oxford, followed by a re- newal of the war. In Feb. the queen landed in Yorkshire, bringing assistance from Holland. Apr. 27. Capture of Reading by Essex. May. Royalist rising in Cornwall ; defeat of the parliament at Strat- ton Hill (May 16). Defeat of Waller at Lansdowne Hill, and at Roundway Down (July). June 18. Hampden wounded in a skirmish with Rupert at Chal- grovejield, f June 24. July 1. Westminster assembly (continued until 1649), for the settlement of religious and theological matters. July 25. Capture of Bristol (the second city in the kingdom) by Rupert. Discouragement of the supporters of the parliament Sept. Essex relieved Gloucester, which was gallantly defended by Massey. 348 Modern History. A. D. 1643, Sept. £0. First battle of Newbury. Death of lord Falkland. Sept. 25. Signature of the Solemn League and Covenant by twenty-five peers and 288 members of the commons. Parlia- ment thus agreed to make the religions of England, Ireland, and Scotland as nearly uniform as possible, and to reform re- ligion " according to the word of God, and the example of the best reformed churches." All civil and military officers and all beneficed clergymen were compelled to sign the covenant (nearly 2000 clergymen were thus deprived of their livings). Thus the assistance of the Scots was secured. Sept. Charles concluded peace with the Irish insurgents, and took the fatal step of enlisting a force from their numbers for the war in England. Dec. 8. Death of Pym. 1644. Jan. A Scotch army crossed the Tweed. Parliament con- vened at Oxford by the king. Jan. 25. Battle of Nantwich. Defeat of the Irish by Sir Thomas Fairfax. Feb. 15. Joint committee of the two kingdoms. March. Trial of Laud. York besieged by Fairfax and the Scots. Siege of Oxford by Essex and Waller. Siege of Latham House (countess of Derby) raised by Rupert (May). July 2. Battle of Marston Moor. Prince Rupert, who defeated the Scots, was in turn totally de- feated by Cromwell at the head of his picked troops (Ironsides). Hitherto the king had held the west and north of England, while the parliament was supreme in the east. This victory gave the north to parliament. Surrender of York July 16, of Newcastle Oct 20. This success was partially offset in the south by the de- feat of Waller at the June 29. Battle of Copredy Bridge, and by the Sept. Surrender of Essex's infantry in Cornwall to Charles. Es- sex escaped to London by sea. 1644, Aug.-1645, Sept. Campaign of Montrose in Scotland. Montrose entered Scotland in disguise, Aug. 1644. Victory of Tippamuir Sept. 1 ; sack of Aberdeen (Bridge of Dee) Sept. 13 ; capture of Perth ; Montrose retired to Athole (Oct. 4) ; Fyrie castle (Oct. 14) ; Montrose retired to Badenach (Nov. 6) ; harrying of Argyleshire (Dec.-Jan. 18) ; march from Loch Ness to Inverlochy at Ben Nevis (Jan. 31-Feb. 1). Battle of Inverlochy, Feb. 2. Surren- der of Elgin, Feb. 19. Montrose at Aberdeen (March 9) ; Stone- haven (March 21). Victory of Auldcarn (May 4) ; victory of Alford (July 2) ; of Kilsyth (Aug. 15) ; court at Bothwell (Sept. 3) ; Kelso (Sept. 10) ; Leslie crossed the Tweed (Sept. 6). De- feat of Montrose at Philiphaugh (Sept. 13). 1644, Oct. 27. Second battle of Newbury fought between the king and Essex, Waller, and Manchester. Dec. Promulgation of a directory instead of a liturgy. Christmas made a fast. 1645. Jan. Attainder and execution (Jan. 10) of Laud. A.. D. England and Scotland. 349 1645, Jan.-Feb. Truce known as the treaty of Uxbridge ; the pro- posals of the parliament rejected by the king. Dissensions within the parliament. Rise of the sect of indepen- dents (advocates of religious liberty) who formed a growing opposi- tion to the Presbyterians. Cromwell fast becoming the leading man in England since the victory of Marston Moor. Quarrel with Man- chester. April 3. The Self-denying Ordinance passed by both houses (the commons had passed a similar bill Dec. 1644) preventing mem- bers of either house from holding military command. Estab- lishment of Presbyterianism, with some reservations in favor of the independents. Fairfax superseded Essex as captain-general. Cromwell, lieutenant-general (suspension of the self-denying ordinance in his case). Introduction of reform in the army after the plans of Crom- well ; the new model. June 14. Battle of Naseby. Complete defeat of the king, followed by the general ruin of his cause. Capture of his private letters. Surrender of Lei- cester (June 18), Bridgewater (July 23), Bristol (Sept. 11), Carlisle, Winchester, Basing House (Oct.), Latham House (Dec.). March 26. Defeat and capture of lord Ashley at Stow-on-the- Wold ; last battle of the civil war. 1646, May 5. Charles surrendered himself to the Scots. July 24. Parliamentary propositions submitted to Charles at Newcastle. Parliament to have control of the militia for twenty years ; Charles to take the covenant and support the Presbyterian establishment. Charles rejected the propositions, preferring to await the result of the impending breach between parlia- ment, representing Presbyterianism, and the army, comprising the independents. The independent opposition, the " tolera- tion " party in parliament, grew constantly in strength. 1647, Jan. 30. The Scots surrendered Charles to the parliament on payment of the expenses of their army (£400,000). Charles was brought to Holmby House in Northamptonshire. Contention between parliament and the army. The commons voted the disbandment of all soldiers not needed for garrison purposes or in Ireland. Fairfax appointed commander-in- chief. The self-denying ordinance re-enacted. The new model, however, refused to disband until its claims for arrears were satisfied. May 12. Charles accepted a modified form of the parliamentary propositions. It was too late. June 4. Charles seized at Holmby House by cornet Joyce and carried to the army. On the same day Cromwell, having heard of the intention of the Presbyterians to seize him in parliament, fled to the army at Triptow Heath. Here the army had taken an oath not to disband until liberty of conscience was secure, and 350 Modern History. A. D* had adopted a new organization ; appointment to a council of adjudicators. 1647, June 10. The army at St. Albans. " Humble representation n addressed to parliament. June 16. The army demanded the exclusion from parliament of eleven members who were peculiarly obnoxious to it (Holies'). July 26. The house of commons mobbed by London apprentices on account of a change in the commanders of the London militia which the army had requested. The two speakers, fourteen lords, and one hundred commons fled to the army. July 24. Proposals presented to the king by the army. Belief and worship should be free to all ; parliament to control the mili- tary and naval forces for ten years, and to appoint officers of state ; triennial parliament ; reformation of the house of commons, etc., rejected by the king, who was invited to Lon- don by that part of the parliament still sitting at Westmin- ster. Aug. 6. The army entered London and restored the members which had taken refuge with it. Charles removed to Hampton Court. Sept. 7. Parliament again offered Charles a modified form of the nineteen propositions ; on its rejection a new draft was pre- pared, but before its presentation Nov. 11. Charles escaped to the Isle of Wight, where he was detained by the governor of Carisbrooke Castle. Dec. 24. " The four bills " presented to the king by parliament : 1. Parliament to command the army for twenty years ; 2. All declarations and proclamations against the parliament to be recalled ; 3. All peers created since the great seal was sent to Charles to be incapable of sitting in the house ; 4. The two houses should adjourn at pleasure. Charles, who was only playing with the parliament in the hope of securing aid from Scotland, rejected the four bills (Dec. 28), after he had already signed , Dec. 26. A secret treaty with the Scots (" The Engagement"). Charles agreed to abolish Episcopacy and restore Presbyte- rianism ; the Scots, who looked with horror on the rising tide of toleration in England, agreed to restore him by force of arms. 1648. Jan. 15. Parliament renounced allegiance to the king, and voted to have no more communication with him. 1648. Second Civil War. At once a war between Scotland and England, a war between the Royalists and the Roundheads, and a war between the Presbyterians and the Independents. Committee of safety renewed, sitting at Derby House. March. A meeting of army officers at Windsor resolved that the king must be brought to trial. April 24. Call of the house. 306 members. The Presbyterians having returned to their seats, now regained control, and mani* A. D. The North and East. 351 fested a desire to come to an agreement with the king. Vir- tual repeal of the non-communication resolution. 1648, May 2. Ordinance for suppression of blasphemies and heresies, aimed at the independents, especially at Cromwell, Ireton, etc. July 20-29. Parliament resolved to open negotiations with the king. Aug. 14. Holies resumed his seat. Royalist outbreaks in Wales, Cornwall, Devon, Kent; riots in London. July 25. The duke of Hamilton led a Scotch army into England. Cromwell having suppressed the rising in Wales met the Scots in the Aug. 17-20. Three days' battle at Preston Pans, and annihilated their army. Aug. 28. Surrender of Colchester to Fairfax. End of the second civil war. Sept. 18-Nov. " Treaty of Newport " negotiated between the king and the parliament, without result. Nov. 16. Grand remonstrance of the army. Dec. 1. Charles seized by the army and carried to Hurst Castle. Dec. 4. The army entered London (19 peers, 232 commons). Dec. 5. Parliament voted that the king's propositions formed a basis on which an agreement might be reached. This vote was the last straw ; the army took matters into its own hands. Dec. 6-7. Pride's Purge. Colonel Pride, by order of the council of officers, forcibly excluded the Presbyterian members (96) from the parliament. The " Rump " Parliament (some 60 members). Dec. 13. Repeal of the vote to proceed with the treaty. Vote that Charles should be brought to trial. The king conveyed to Windsor (Dec. 23). 1649, Jan. 1. Appointment of a high court of justice (135 members) to try the king ; as this was rejected by the lords (Jan. 2) the commons resolved Jan. 4. That legislative power resided solely with the com- mons. Jan. 6. Passage of the ordinance without the concurrence of the lords. Jan. 20. Agreement of the people, a form of government drawn up by the army. Jan. 20-27. Trial of Charles I. before the high court (67 members present, Bradshaw presiding) ; the king merely denied the jurisdiction of the court. He was sentenced to death. Jan. 30. Execution of Charles I. at Whitehall in London. (Seep. 375.) § 9. THE NORTH AND EAST. (Seep. 276.} The Union of the three Scandinavian kingdoms, weakened by the action of Sweden, since the election of 1448. Christian I. of Oldenburg, as king of the Union, was com- pletely dissolved in consequence of the cruelties of Christian IL 352 Modern History. A. D. 1520. Massacre of Stockholm. Revolt of the Dalecarlians un- der the conduct of Gustavus Vasa (b. 1496, hostage in Den- mark, 1518, fled to Dalecarlia, 1519, concealed himself under dis- guises and worked in the mines). He defeated the Danes, and became first administrator of the kingdom, then king (1523). Sweden. (Seep. 276.) 1523-1654. House of Vasa. 1523-1560. Gustavus I., Vasa. Introduction of the Reformation. The throne made hereditary. Gustavus I. was succeeded by his eldest son Erik XIV., who, being insane, was deposed and mur- dered. His successor was the second son of Gustavus, John III., whose son Sigismund was Catholic, and king of Poland (1587), and hence displaced in Sweden by his uncle Charles IX. the youngest son of Gustavus I. Charles's son, 1611-1632. Gustavus II. Adolphus, conducted successful wars with Poland and Russia. For his participation in the Thirty Years' War and his death see p. 311. He was followed by his daughter 1632-1654. Christina, who was well educated, but averse to affairs of government. She abdicated in 1654 in favor of her cousin Charles Gustavus of Pfalz-Zweibrucken, son of a sister of Gustavus Adolphus. Christina became a Catholic and died at Rome, 1689. (See p. 373.) Denmark and Norway. (See p. 276..) These countries remained united. Under Christian II. the Refor- mation began to spread into Denmark. Christian was displaced by his uncle, the duke of Schleswig-Holstein, who ascended the Danish throne as 1523-1533. Frederic I. and favored the Reformation. After his death (1533), the so-called Feuds of the Counts (Jilrgen Wullenwever, burghermaster of Liibeck). Frederic's son 1536-1559. Christian III. completed the introduction of the Refor- mation. For the participation of Christian IV. in the Thirty Years' War, see p. 310. After a 1643-1645. War with Sweden, Christian was obliged to surrender the islands of Gottland and Oesel at the Peace of Bromsebro (p. 315). (Seep. 373.) Poland. (See p. 277.) 1386-1572. Jagellons. The kingdom reached its greatest extenl (Baltic, Carpathians, Black Sea), but already the germ of de- cay was forming in the privileges of the numerous nobility. 1572-1791. Poland an elective monarchy. Introduction of the liberum veto. Elected kings : Henry of Anjou (p. 322); Ste- phen Bathory of Transylvania, followed by three kings of the house of Vasa ; Sigismund III., Vladislas IV., John Casimir (to 1668). V (See p. 37 4.) Russia. (Seep. 276.) After the extinction of the house of Rurik (1598), and a war of succession lasting ten years (the false Demetrius} A. D. TJie North and East. 353 1613- The house of Romanow succeeded to the throne, which it occupied until 1762. (See p. 374-) Turks. (Seep. 278.*} The empire of the Ottoman Turks reached its highest development under Soliman II. (1520-1566), the Magnificent, the contemporary of the emperor Charles V. (p. 303). Under his successors began the decline, caused especially by the influence of the Janizaries. India. (See p. 241.) 1497. Covilham reached Calicut by land from Portugal. 1498. Portuguese vessels under Vasco da Gama reached Calicut by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. The Muhainmedan power which the sultans of Delhi under various dynasties had extended over almost all India, broke up in the latter half of the fourteenth and during the fifteenth century. When the Portuguese gained a foothold in the peninsula, its political constitu- tion was as follows : At Delhi, Muhammedan sultans of the Afghan dynasty with greatly reduced dominion ; in Bengal (1340-1576), Afghan (Muhammedan) kings; in Guzerat (1391-1573) a Muham- medan dynasty had its capital at Ahmedabdd ; in the Deccan the Muhammedan empire of the Bahmani (1347-1525) had separated into five kingdoms : Bijdpur (1489-1686), Golconda (1512-1687), Ahmednagar (1490-1636), Ellichpur (1484-1572), Bidar (1492- 1609[57]. The southern part of the peninsula was still in the hands of the powerful Hindu kingdom, Vijayanagar (1118-1565). Da Gama was followed in 1500 by Cabral (on the voyage acciden- tal discovery (?) of Brazil) ; in 1502 a papal bull created the king of Portugal " Lord of the navigation, conquests, and trade of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India." First Portuguese governor and viceroy of India, Almeida (1505). In 1509 Alfonso d* Albuquerque was ap- pointed to this office ; capture of Goa (1510), and of Malacca. 1526-1761 (1857). Mughal (Mogul) Empire in India. The founder of the Mughal empire was Babar, a descendant of Tamerlane (1494 king of Ferghana on the Jaxartes, 1497 con- queror of Samarkand, seized Kabul, 1504), who in 1526 invaded the Punjab and defeated the sultan of Delhi in the 1526. Battle of Panipat.1 Defeat of the Rajputs of Chittor (1527) . Under Babar's son Hu~ mdyun (1530-56) the Mughais were driven from India by Sher Shah, the Afghan ruler of Bengal; but they returned in 1556 and under Humayiin's son Akbar (Bairdm the real commander), defeated the Afghans at Panipat (1556). 1556-1605. Akbar the Great whose reign is a long series of conquests. 1 The first of the three great battles which decided the fate of India on tha; same plain ; viz. in 1526, 1556, 1761. (Hunter, Indian Empire, p. 234.) 354 Modern History. A. DC 1565. Battle of Talikot. Destruction of the Hindoo empire of Vijayanagar by a union of the Muhammedan kingdoms of the Deccan. Conquests of Akbar : 1561-68, Rajputs of Jaipur, Jodhpur, Chit- lor; 1572-73, Guzerat (revolted 1581, reconquered 1593); 1586-92 Kashmir • 1592, Sind ; 1594, Kandahar, Akbar's empire now comprised all India north of the Vindhyar Mts. ; in the Deccan he was not suc- cessful. Akbar organized the administration, reformed the military and financial system, and conciliated the Hindus. Akbar was suc- ceeded by his son Salim, Jahangir (1605-27). His reign was much troubled by rebellions, and his wars in the Deccan were without last- ing success. Shah Jahan (1628-1658). Kandahar, several times lost and recovered between the Mughals and the Persians, was finally lost by the Mughal empire, 1653. Shah Jahan won some successes in the Deccan ; submission of Bijdpur, Golconda, Ahmednagar. The empire was at the height of its power and magnificence (peacock throne). Shah Jahan deposed by his son Aurangzeb, and imprisoned (died 1666). From 1500 to 1600 the Portuguese had enjoyed a monopoly of the trade with India ; with the close of the sixteenth century, the Dutch and English appeared as their rivals. The East India Company of London was incorporated in 1660, and various others similar com- panies were established at different times ; but all were ultimately incorporated with the original company. (" The Governor and Com- pany of Merchants of London trading to the East Indies," 1600 ; Courten's Association [" Assador Merchants "] 1635-1650 ; " Com- pany of Merchant Adventurers," 1655-1657 ; " General Society trad- ing to the East Indies" ["English Company "], 1698-1 709,' united with the original company as " The United Company of Merchants of England trading to the East Indies "). The first twelve voyages were separate ventures ; after 1612 voyages were made for the com- pany. Opposition of the Portuguese. Battle of Swally. Defeat of the Portuguese. Establishment of an English factory at Surat, 1614. Mission of Sir Thomas Roe to Jahangir (Great Mogul), 1615. Treaty with the Dutch, 1619, without lasting effect. Massacre of English on the island of Amboyna (1623) followed by the withdrawal of the Eng- lish from the Indian Archipelago (1624). Presidency of Bantam, 1635. Foundation of Madras (Fort St. George}, 1639. Dutch East India Company, 1602. French East India Companies 1604, 1611, 1615, 1642 (Richelieu's). (Seep. 389.) China. (See p. 278.) 1506-1522. Ching-tih. Rebellion of the prince of King suppressed after a severe war. About 1522 the Portuguese established themselves at Macao. 1542. Tatar invasion under Yen-ta, in the reign of Kea-tsing. Coast of China ravaged by a Japanese fleet. 1567-1573. Lung-king. His reign was troubled by the Tatars, to relieve the country of whom he resorted to bribery. 1573-1620. Wan-leih. The Tatars continuing their disturbances the emperor gave Yen-ta lands in the province of Shen-se. A.. D. China. — Japan. 355 1592. The Japanese invaded Corea, but were defeated and compelled to sue for peace. 1597. The Japanese renewed the attack and defeated a Chinese fleet and army, but suddenly evacuated the peninsula. 1603. Ricci, the Jesuit, at the Chinese court ; he preached Christian- ity hi China (f 1610). 1604. Dutch in China ; also the Spanish. 1616. Invasion of China by Manchoo Tatars who defeated the Chinese, and returning in 1619, Conquered and settled in the province of Leaou-tung. 1620. Teen-ning, the Manchoo ruler, threw off the pretense of alle- giance to the Chinese and proclaimed his independence. He established his capital at San-Koo. Wen-leih was succeeded by Tai-chang (1620), who was followed by Teen-ke (1620-1627). In 1627, Tsung-ching, the last sovereign of the Ming (1368-1643) dynasty ascended the throne. Rebellion of Le Tsze-cMng and Shang Ko-he. The emperor, being hard pressed, applied for aid to the Manchoo Tatars. These allies defeated the rebels, but refused to abandon the fruits of their victories. Seizing Pekin they raised to the throne of China a sou of Teen-ningy the Manchoo ruler, who, as the first of the 1644— x, Ta-tsing or Great Pure dynasty, took the name of 1644. Shuii-che. Capture of Nan-king. Period of confusion wherein the lin- gering resistance of the Chinese was gradually crushed out, and the shaved head and pig-tail, signs of Tatar sovereignty, became more and more common. (See p. 390.) Japan. (See p. 278.) The period of the Ashikaga shoguns (1344-1573) contains few events of importance, especially after the end of the dual dynasties in 1391, by the act of the southern emperor, who resigned his power on the condition that the imperial office should henceforward alternate between the two lines. The violation of this agreement was the cause of much fighting. 1558-1588. Oki-Machi, mikado. This reign saw the fall of the Ashikagas, and the rise of three of the most renowned men of Japan : Nobunaga, HideyosU, Tokugawa lyeyasu. Introduction of cannon. The development of feudalism had weakened the power of the shoguns, as they had formerly destroyed that of the mikado. Ota Nobunaga was a feudal lord who acquired fame in a war with the head of another powerful family, Yoshimoto (1560). To him the mikado entrusted the task of pacifying the un- happy country, while his aid was also sought by Yoshiaki, the rightful shogun, who had been dispossessed by Yoshikage. By the battle of Anagawa (1570), where Tokugawa lyeyasu fought under Nobunaga, Yoshiaki was restored to power, but in 1573 he was deposed by No* buiiaga, whom he had plotted to murder. 3«>6 Modern History. A- D. 1573-1582. Government of Nobunaga. Nobunaga appointed no successor but retained the power in his own hands. He was a determined opponent of the over- powerful Buddhist priests, and took Christianity (the Jesuit Xavier at Kioto) under his protection. Slaughter of the Bud- dhist priests and capture of their fortified temples. Death of Nobunaga in a revolt (1582). 1582-1598. Government of Hideyoshi. The rebel was suppressed by the general Hideyoshi, who after considerable fighting reduced the whole country to subjection (1592). War with China; invasion of Corea (p. 355), Hideyo- shi was unfavorable to Christianity. 1588, publication of a de- cree ordering the expulsion of the Jesuits ; this, however, was not obeyed. In 1593 nine missionaries were burned at Naga- saki. Hideyoshi, the Taiko. He was succeeded by an infant son, under the regency of Tokugawa lyeyasu, whose govern- ment was popular but who was involved in political troubles that led to war. 1600. Battle of Sekigahara. lyeyasu defeated his enemies, and in 1603 was made Sei-i-tai-shoyun, being the first of the 1603-1868. Tokugawa Shoguns, some of whom subse- quently took the title of Tai-kun (Tycoon) " high prince." The rule of lyeyasu was distinguished by the revival of learning and the growth of foreign intercourse (Dutch, English). lyeyasu re- signed his office in 1605 to his son but retained his power until his death. lyeyasu died 1616, leaving the "Legacy of lyeyasu," a code of laws. Redistribution of land. Those vassals of the crown who re- ceived a revenue of 10,000 measures of rice were called daimios and numbered 245, eighteen of whom were governors of provinces (koku- shiu). Next to the daimios stood the samurai, to whom the daimios leased their farms in return for military service. The shogun (who was the first of the daimios) was surrounded by the hatamoto, "house-carls," from whom he selected his officials. They are said to have numbered 80,000. Below the hatamoto were the gokenin, also attached directly to the shogun as private soldiers, comprising the Tokugawa clan. lyeyasu removed the capital of the shogun from Kamakura to Yedo. The successor of lyeyasu, Hide- tada, sent a messenger to Europe to study Christianity, but his report not being considered favorable, the shogun forbade the introduction of that religion. 1630-1643. Too-Fuku-no-in, daughter of the mikado, Go-mino-o, and the daughter of the shogun, Hidetata, followed the former on the throne as Miosho-Tenno. lyemitsu, who succeeded to the shogunate in 1653, was an excel- lent ruler, but ordered tfhe vigorous enforcement of laws against the Christians, and closed Japan to all foreigners except the Chinese and the Dutch, who were allowed to trade at Nagasaki. 1637. Revolt of the Christians at Shimabara finally suppressed; A. D. America. 357 massacre of the survivors. Persecution throughout the empire. Extirpation of Christianity. Death of lyemitsu, 1649. (See p. 445.) SECOND PERIOD. FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO THE BEGINNING OF THE FIRST FRENCH REVOLUTION, 1648-1789. A. The second half of the seventeenth century. § 1. AMERICA. (See p. 800.) British, Dutch, and Swedish Colonies. 1644. Union of Providence and the Rhode Island towns (New- port, Portsmouth) under one charter, obtained by Roger Williams. Union of Saybrook and Connecticut under the latter name. The colony contained eight taxable towns ; that of New Haven numbered six. Separation of the general court of Massachusetts Bay into two houses. April 18. Three hundred colonists massacred by the Indians in Vir- ginia. 1645. Rebellion of Clayborne and Ingle in Maryland ; they seized the government, but were put down in 1646. 1646. In Massachusetts John Eliot commenced his missionary labors among the Indians at Nonantum. (Translation of the Bible into Massachusetts dialect, 1661-63). Act of parliament freeing merchandise for the American colonies from all duty for three years, on condition that colonial pro- ductions should be exported only in English vessels. In New Netherlands Kieft was succeeded by Peter Stuyvesant, as governor, who immediately formulated a claim to all the region between Cape Henlopen and Cape Cod. 1648. The petition of Rhode Island 1 to be admitted to the union rejected, as that colony would not submit itself to the jurisdic- tion of Plymouth. 1649. Incorporation in England of the " Society for Propagating the Gospel in New England." Grant of the land between the Rappahannock and Potomac to lord Culpepper and other royalists. Massacre of the Hurons at St. Ignatius by the Iroquois. 1650. Agreement between New Netherlands and the United Colonies establishing the boundary between the Dutch and English at Oyster Bay, on Long Island, and Greenwich Bay, Connecticut. i "Where Rhode Island is mentioned, before the charter of 1663, it is prob- able that the Island only is meant." Holmes' Annals, I. 287, note 2. 358 Modern History. A. D. 1651. Passage of the Navigation Act in England (p. 376). 1652. The province of Maine joined to Massachusetts. The parliament in England assumed control of Maryland, and suspended the government of Rhode Island, but the latter order did not take effect. 1655. Stuyvesant, governor of New Netherlands, seized the Swed- ish forts on the Delaware, and broke up the colony of New Sweden. 1659. Virginia proclaimed Charles II. king of England, Scotland, Ireland, and Virginia, and restored the royal governor, Sir William Berkeley. Execution of two Quakers in Massachusetts. 1661. Penal laws against Quakers suspended by order of the king. 1662. Charter of Connecticut granted by the king. New Haven refused to accept it. The assembly was composed of the gov- ernor, deputy-governor, twelve assistants, and two deputies from every town. 1662. Lord Baltimore confirmed in the government of Maryland. 1663. Grant of Carolina (all land between 31° N. and 36° N.) to the earl of Clarendon and associates. Charter of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. 1664. Grant of New Netherlands, from the Connecticut to the Delaware, to the king's brother, James, duke of York and Albany. The grant included the eastern part of Maine, and islands south and west of Cape Cod. The region between the Hudson and the Delaware (Nova Ccesarea, or New Jersey) was granted by the duke to lord Berkeley, and Sir George Carteret. Aug. 27. Surrender of New Amsterdam to the English ; name of the colony changed to New York. Sept. 24. Surrender of Fort Orange, whose name was changed to Albany. 1665. Maine restored to the heirs of Sir Fernando Gorges. Union of Connecticut and New Haven. The royal commissioners empowered to hear complaints in New England, after conferring with the general court of Massachu- setts, left the provinces in anger, as the court would not ac- knowledge their commission. 1666. Depredations of the buccaneers in the West Indies. 1667. Grant of the Bahamas to the proprietors of Carolina. 1667. Treaty of Breda between England and France. Acadia sur- rendered to France ; Antigua, Monserrat, and the French part of St. Christopher surrendered to England. 1668. Massachusetts reassumed the government of Maine. 1669. Adoption of the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina, which were drawn up by John Locke. Incorporation of the Hudson Bay Company. (Governor and company of adventurers of England trading into Hud- son's Bay.) 1670. Foundation of Charlestown in Carolina. A.. D. America. 359 Treaty of Madrid between Spain and England, settling the boundaries of their respective territories on the basis of pos- session. 1672. The Spaniards at St. Augustine endeavored to dislodge the settlers in Carolina, but were repulsed. 1673. War having broken out between England and Holland, the Dutch captured New York and received the submission of that colony, of Albany and New Jersey. In the peace of 1674 these places were restored to England. The grant to lord Culpepper was converted to a lease for thirty- one years. 1675. Edmund Andros, governor of New York, attempted to secure the land west of the Connecticut by force of arms, but was foiled by the energy of the colonists. 1675-1676. King Philip's War. This was the most extensive combination which the natives had formed against the foreign invaders. King Philip was the son of Massasoit and chief of the Wampanoags. He lived at Mount Hope, near Fall River, Mass. He formed a league comprising nearly all the Indians from Maine to Connecticut. War broke out in June, 1675. and raged with peculiar violence in Massachusetts. Deerfield burnt (Sept. 1). Attack on Hadley (Sept. 1) repulsed by Goffe, one of the judges of Charles I. (?). In the fall (Sept.-Oct.) the United Colonies took the war upon themselves and raised 2,000 troops. Capture of the fort of the Narragansetts by Winslow (Dec. 19). Assaults more or less severe on Warwick, Lancaster, Medfield, Weymouth, Groton, Rehoboth, Providence, Wrentham, Sudbury, Scituate, Bridgewater, Plymouth, Hatfield, and other towns (1676, Jan.-June). Defeat of the Indians near Deerfield (May 19, Fall Fight). Surprise of Philip by captain Church • capture of his wife and son (the latter was sold into slavery), Aug. 2. Philip shot (Aug. 12). 1676. Rebellion of Nathaniel Bacon in Virginia. Jamestown burnt. The rebellion came to an end with the sudden death of Bacon. In the following year royal troops arrived to repress the rebel- lion, but found all quiet. New Jersey divided into East and West Jersey. East Jer- sey was governed by Carteret; West Jersey was held by the duke of York. (Hence, " the Jerseys.") 1677. The dispute between Massachusetts and the heirs of Sir Fer- nando Gorges over Maine being decided in favor of the latter by the English courts, Massachusetts bought the province of Maine, which henceforward formed a part of that colony. 1680. New Hampshire separated from Massachusetts by royal charter. The king appointed the president and council, and retained the right of annulling all acts of the legislature. Foundation of a new settlement in Carolina, called, like the first, Charlestown (the present Charleston). West Jersey restored to the proprietors, the heirs of lord Berkeley. 1681, March 4. Grant of Pennsylvania (the region between 41 ° 360 Modern History. A. D. and 43° N. lat. running 5° west from the Delaware River) to "William Penn. Establishment of a settlement. 1682. Penn brought a colony to Pennsylvania (Aug.). Publication of a frame of government and a body of laws (April-May). Treaty with the Indians. Foundation of Philadelphia. 1683. First legislative assembly in New York ; two houses. Only two sessions are known to have been held before the revolu- tion of 1688. 1684. The troubles between Massachusetts and the crown cul- minated in the forfeiture of the charter. These troubles were of old standing, dating from the restoration of Charles II. The favorable reception of Goffe and Whallei/, two " regicides," in Boston, at the opening of that monarch's reign, was no favorable omen ; and almost the first news received from the col- ony brought complaints of ill-treatment from Quakers who had suf- fered under the rigorous laws. In 1661 Charles sent a letter to Mas- sachusetts prohibiting the colony from proceeding further in the prosecution of imprisoned Quakers, and ordering their release ; he subsequently withdrew his protection. Further controversy led to the dispatch of agents to England. The confirmation of the char- ter obtained by them was conditioned in a way peculiarly aggra- vating to the colonists : all laws derogatory to the royal authority should be repealed ; the oath of allegiance should be imposed ac- cording to the directions of the charter ; freedom and liberty of conscience in the use of the Book of Common Prayer should be allowed ; the sacrament should not be denied to any person of good life and conversation ; all freeholders of competent estates and good character, and orthodox in religion, should be admitted to vote. These demands being evasively met, the king, in 1664, appointed commissioners (Nwolls, Carr, Cartwright, Maverick) to hear com- plaints and appeals in New England, and settle the peace of the country, who, barely touching at Boston, proceeded to the seizure of New Netherlands. Returning to Boston in the spring of 1665 their demand for a recognition of the commission was met by the excuse that the general court would plead his majesty's charter, whereupon the commission returned to England in anger. The court, however, acknowledged the conditional right of freeholders to vote, and agreed to permit the toleration of Quakers and churchmen for a time. A long period of controversy followed, and agents were sent back and forth with very little effect. In 1671 the colony was " almost on the brink of renouncing any dependence on the crown." The original causes of dispute became complicated by the controversy with the heirs of Gorges in regard to Maine, and by the evasion and disregard of the navigation laws practiced by the colony (1663). In 1676 the royal governors were commanded to insist on strict compli- ance with the commercial laws, both the navigation laws, and those imposing duties on intercolonial trade (1672). John Leverett, gov- ernor of Massachusetts, refused compliance, and in 1679 the general court voted " that the acts of navigation are an invasion of the rights and privileges of the subjects of his majesty in this colony, they not being represented in parliament." The agents then in London to de~ A. D. America. 361 fend the colony in the suit of the heirs of Gorges were sent home with the demand that the Maine purchase be undone and new agents sent to pr