8 pings 9 2489 94yeemabauryte ww wh Ms Anasarazmysamamee ITS Uh gts TNT eE Nasa ays amen ewae mans PopLRTET ynnmAt SAS: E -tebt heb peenanubyner Mpesese sr eerie Ie) a-eiacavarsaassenannnemecqcetarcetaraimusacatsnereresesmon ue PTT "S "es ee eteteiotacscaciesa ssslacararerstasenerspsrsnannsnst teenies a aeetanaLenseeleeanane Senses eee aaa ee TT RNS EN ee eT AT RTT Poisonous Snakes OF THE WORLD aie a wtasacnrenenets © sieneseneree ee eutumerieutar et -snems meee mernnnns TLS Ra a aeasenanavensereene O bb62T00 TOEO O MOVOTO A A IOHAA/TIAW Poisonous Snakes OF THE WORLD A MANUAL FOR USE BY U.S. AMPHIBIOUS FORCES NAVMED P-5099 DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY BUREAU OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY United States Government Printing Office Washington, D. C. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 Stock Number 008-045-00009-7 FOREWORD The first edition of the ONI 3-62, Poisonous Snakes of the World, was published on 30 June 1962 under the auspices of the Office of Naval Intelli- gence of the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations. The widespread in- terest generated by this publication and the increasing commitments of Navy and Marine forces throughout the world, particularly in Southeast Asia, have served to emphasize the need for a more authoritative manual that can be used for training and in support of military operations. The Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, having recognized this necessity, assumed the responsi- bility for a more definitive and comprehensive up-to-date presentation of the problems relating to venomous snakes. Commander Granville M. Moore, MSC, USN, was appointed as coordi- nator and principal editor to work with a committee of eminent herpetologists, selected by the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists, to revise the manual. The Bureau of Medicine and Surgery gratefully acknowl- edges the important contributions made by this committee and the services provided by the New York Zoological Society. First aid procedures in cases of snakebite as described herein are ap- proved by the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery and the specific treatment set forth represents the official policy of this Bureau at the time of publication. This manual is recommended for use by all ships, stations, and commands in need of authoritative information about snakes and snakebites. R. B. Brown Vice Admiral, MC United States Navy Surgeon General and Chief, Bureau of Medicine and Surgery PREFACE This revision has been made with the assistance of a committee appointed by the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists. The commit- tee consisted of Dr. Herndon G. Dowling, Dr. Sherman A. Minton, Jr. (chair- man), and Dr. Findlay E. Russell. The text has been largely rewritten, however, many of the original illustrations have been retained. This manual is intended to serve as a training aid and as an identification guide to the most widely distributed species of dangerously venomous snakes. Geographic distribution of all currently recognized species of venomous snakes is presented in tabular form. Information on habitat and biology of im- portant snake species has been provided. First aid procedures in case of snakebite and suggestions for the definitive medical management of the snakebite victim are presented. There is a table of world sources of antivenins. The manuscript for the text of this manual was submitted for publication on 1 November 1965. A few additions have been made during the editing and proofreading of the text but most of the included information is as of the date of submission. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Tn revising this manual, the members of the Committee gratefully ac- knowledge the advice and assistance of the following, each of whom is a rec- ognized authority in some aspect of biology or medicine: C. A. Ahuga, Steven C. Anderson, H. D. Baernstein, Charles M. Bogert, F. W. Buess, W. Leslie Burger, Roger Conant, Carl Gans, Joseph F. Gennaro, Jr., Itzchak Gilboa, Alice C. Grandison, Laurence M. Klauber, Robert E. Kuntz, Alan E. Leviton, Hymen Marx, Samuel B. McDowell, K. A. C. Powell, George B. Rabb, H. Alistair Reid, Janis A. Roze, the late F. A. Shannon, Harold Voris, John E. Werler, and Eric Worrell. Personnel of the Medical Photography Division, Naval Medical School, National Naval Medical Center, prepared most of the line illustrations and furnished some of the photographs. Dr. 'T. E. Reed, Director of the National Zoological Park, kindly made available certain specimens for photography. The index was prepared by Itzchak Gilboa. Sh ests Wks dhe Isls (Gy, 1DP EF. EB. R. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page OTC] fo aes an Oe eel ental aps AB a AA a pe hs Ho ee es 2 Bk De eet ey cd, iil Profacesste< tS a als a ts Be. Or aS oe ne lv Acknowledamen tsa a eee v listvofatablesse toe ae ee ae Se ee eld ee BE. Bane etme vill Listrata Colon platessa ee eek ee ee Seem A Bee eS vill CHAPTER | Gerrercalie lm forrricatt rte ae a ee ee ee 1 CHAPTER Il PrecctutlonsatOwAV.OI COC Ke it cme eee aa ae 2 CHAPTER III How to Recognize Snake Venom Poisoning (SymptomsmandisSigns)= ==" === aes Le ee eee 4 CHAPTER IV FirshvAid eo seer es Ue ee Be Oe ee ee 13 CHAPTER V Medicallilreatment= «25 = 5 ee ee eee 20 CHAPTER VI RecognifiomlofsROisomoUs:oMClk es pee eas we me 25 CHAPTER VII Distribution and Identification of Poisonous Land Snakes**____________________ 33 Sections NorthieAMmenica= ===" = eee = eee ee eee See 35 SECON Xa CO) aN Oe treet ieee Urn Tal cae 47 Section 3, South America and the West Indies_____________________ 59 Sechione we UtG NOs SC le ee ee Peek aes eee oe 71 Sections aNOrbneAcLrICH = Same Seeeenen ee eee ee COC Section 6; Gentralliand SoushernyAcunicn ess see ee ee 85 Sechlonie(s -LnemNenr and Middle Biases ee ee ee ee 105 SectionsS\SoutheastcAsiie 2 ea eee en ee ee 115 SectionOs hese Hast. ee ee ee ee 131 Section: 105, Australia and the Pacific Islands. -- = = 2 139 CHAPTER VIII MINER SOCIESICIKGS oe a a a ee 157 CHAPTER IX Antivenin) Sources=—==2- =.) ee ee ee ee Se eee ee 169 Glossary:2.£ *<= 22. 2 rr ee ee eee 181 General References <== = = a ee a ee ee ee 184 [| 2 [ee ee eS eee SD She. CE ee ee ee ee ee ee 186 * To facilitate use of this chapter as a reference work, a separate table of contents has been provided. ** To facilitate use of this chapter as a reference work, separate tables of contents have been provided and placed at the beginning of each geographic section. Viii LIST OF TABLES Page 1. Yield and Lethality of Venoms of Important Poisonous Snakes... 6 2 Symptonispmejsions of Crotuiidsbitesaa == === a= aaa 8 Se IS MNPLONIS ul lonS Ol \Vapenid Isites= === === =e eee = eee 9 £ Symptoms and ssions of Wlapid) Bites ssa" =e ee 10 5. Distribution of Poisonous Snakes of North America__--~-~--~---- 36 6. Distribution of Poisonous Snakes of Mexico ands Centre Americas sae ea oe ea ee ee ee 48 7. Distribution of Poisonous Snakes of South America ANG eune VWeSty ln Ciege ete ee ee ee a ee ee 60 8. Distribution of Poisonous Snakes of EKurope_--------------------- 12 9. Distribution of Poisonous Snakes of North Africa_________.-_____- 78 10. Distribution of Poisonous Snakes of Central FHaVal peo\UA al si hoy 9s Wa (eh: wpe ee a ee Se om ee ee 86 11. Distribution of Poisonous Snakes of the Near ance Mnddlew wsts- es 2 ee ee a ee 106 12. Distribution of Poisonous Snakes of Southeast Asia________________ 116 13. Distribution of Poisonous Snakes of the Far East_-___-_--__-______ yay) 14. Distribution of Poisonous Snakes of Australia and the IRAcinicalshan sen 6 Lee a ee ae. ee eee 140 Ta ID rel gyetrivoig\eronn, AS teh, RoNM Stotst ee eee SS 158 LIST OF COLOR PLATES I. Representative American Pit Vipers (Crotalidae)~_.---------~- 205 II. Representatives of Some Poisonous Snake Families___-----~-~--~- 206 III. Representatives of Some Poisonous Snake Families__------------ 207 iV; Representative Pit Vapers (Crotulidie) === Se 208 \Wo isto, 1eoricomous Sitallass Olt AGI = ee ee 209 WAL Series |Rorsonvone Sinalkes Oi JACI ee 210 WAU Sone lzorconans Simelkvas obs Anp GA e 211 WiDEIES Some se OISOMOTS Small xe sions NG tare Coe ee 212 Chapter | GENERAL INFORMATION Personnel of the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps may find themselves stationed or visiting in many parts of the world, particularly the countries bordering the oceans. In some of these countries, snakebite is a significant public health hazard. The risk of being bitten increases during amphib- lous operations, especially in tropical and sub- tropical regions. During such operations the natural habitat of venomous snakes may be dis- turbed so that exposure to them is markedly in- creased. American military forees have never experi- enced casualty rates from snake venom poisoning sufficiently high to jeopardize the outcome of an operation. However, the threat of snakebite may create a morale problem sufficient to delay an operation or cause unnecessary fear during its execution, While snakebite has been rare and fatalities therefrom have been even more uncom- mon in the military forces, it does constitute a medical emergency requiring immediate attention and considerable judgment in management. This manual is designed to facilitate identifica- tion of the major groups (genera) of poisonous snakes and to identify the most dangerous species. It is not practical to by-pass the specialized ter- minology of herpetology completely, but herpeto- logical terms are avoided whenever possible. Those that are used are defined in the glossary or are evident from examination of the figures. Geographic definitions of regions discussed are provided because of differences in the use of such words as Middle East. Southeast Asia, Near East, Snakes found in more than one re- gion are listed in each. A second aim of the manual is to give sugges- tions for preventing snakebite, und a third aim is to indicate practical first aid measures should snakebite oceur. Principles and procedures for medical management of snake venom poisoning are discussed, but it is not a purpose of this manual to evaluate all of the varied and some- times conflicting therapeutic regimens that have appeared in the medical literature. A list of general references is included at the end of the manual, and most chapters and see- tions are followed by a list of specific references. A space for notes will be found at the end of This may be used for additional references and information gained under local conditions. et cetera. most chapters and sections. The index has been prepared as a major source Many local or vernacular names are found on/y in the index, where they are re- ferred to the scientific name of the species. of information. Chapter II PRECAUTIONS TO AVOID SNAKEBITE The best way to keep from being bitten by snakes is to avoid them. However, since there is little choice in a duty assignment, there are certain precautions to be taken in “snake coun- try.” In such areas it is advisable to carry a snakebite first aid kit. Snakebite Kit, Suction (FSN 6545-952-5325), may be ordered through the Armed Forces Supply Agency. When such kits are not available, the following items can be substituted: an antiseptic, a razor or sharp knife, a piece of rubber tubing or similar item to be used as a tourniquet, and any device capable of providing suction. A 10 ml. syringe with needle, a vial of physiologic saline and two vials of ad- renalin should also be carried for use in admin- istering horse serum sensitivity tests (see p. 16). Reminders When in snake infested country it is important to: 1. Remember that snakes are probably more afraid of humans than humans are of snakes. Given the chance snakes will usually retreat to avoid an encounter. 2. Learn to recognize the poisonous snakes in the area of operation. Avoid killing harmless snakes. 3. Avoid walking around after dark. Many venomous snakes are nocturnal and will travel at night far beyond the distances they may venture during the day. If you must walk at night be sure to wear boots. 4. Remember that snakes in general avoid di- rect sunlight, and that they are most active at moderate temperatures. 5. Avoid caves, open tombs, and known snake Snakes live in areas which afford protection and which may be frequented by other They may be found in consider- able numbers in caves and open tombs during the hibernation period which in most snakes ex- tends from fall until early sprmg. They may also seek out these same areas during the summer months. 6. Remember that poisonous snakes may be found at high altitudes, and that they can climb trees and fences. 7. Walk on clear paths as much as possible. Avoid tall grass and areas of heavy underbrush or ground covering. Wear protective clothing when entering such areas. 8. Avoid swimming in waters where snakes abound. Most land species of poisonous snakes swim well, and may, under unusual circum- stances, bite while in water. Sea snakes are not uncommon in the Indo-Pacific area, and while most species are docile some may bite when handled or disturbed. 9. Avoid sleeping on the ground whenever pos- sible. 10. Avoid walking close to rocky ledges. snakes a wide passage, just in case. 11. Avoid hiking alone in snake-infested areas. 12. Avoid horse-play involving live or dead Snakes should not be handled carelessly. Teasing people with snakes may have unexpected and unfortunate results. den areas. small animals. Give snakes. Specific Precautions The following DON’7s are suggested for those in snake country. 1. DON’T put your hands or feet in places you can not look, and DON’T put them in places without first look- ing. 2. DON’T turn or lift a rock or fallen tree with your hands. Move it with a stick, or with your foot if your ankle and leg are properly protected. 3. DON’T disturb snakes. 4. DON’T put your sleeping bag near rock piles or rubbish piles or near the entrance to a cave. DDONAL sit around carefully. down without first looking Precautions to Avoid Snakebite 6. DON’T gather firewood after dark. 7. DON’T step over a log if the other side is not visible. Step on it first. 8. DON’T enter snake-infested areas without adequate protective clothing. 9. DON’T handle freshly killed venomous snakes. Always carry them on a stick or in a bag if they must be returned to the command post. 10. DON’T crawl under a fence in high grass, or in an uncleared area. 11. DON’T go out of your way to kill a snake. Thousands of people are bitten by snakes each year merely because they try to kill them without knowing anything of their habits or habitats. 12. Finally, DON’T PANIC! NOTES Chapter Ill HOW TO RECOGNIZE SNAKE VENOM POISONING Symptoms and Signs INTRODUCTION In most parts of the world, bites by nonveno- mous snakes occur far more frequently than bites Since the differentiation is often difficult, all victims of snakebite should be brought under the care of a physician as quickly as possible. Whenever feasible the offending snake should be killed and brought with the vic- tim to the physician or person charged with the responsibility of identifying the reptile. While it is not always possible to identify the snake responsible for the bite by the tooth or fang marks found on the victim’s skin, in some cases these may be of considerable value in differentiat- ing between bites by venomous and nonvenomous Bites by the vipers (Old World vipers, pit vipers of Asia, eastern Europe, and the rattle- snakes and related species of the Americas) usually result in one or two relatively large punc- ture wounds of varying depth, depending on the size of the snake, the force of its strike, and other factors. In most cases, additional tooth marks are not seen. Bites by the elapid snakes (cobras, mambas, tiger snake, taipan, coral snakes and related species) usually produce one or two small puncture wounds, although occasionally there may be one or two additional punctures. Sea snake bites are characterized by multiple (2 to 20) pinhead-sized puncture wounds. In some cases the teeth may be broken off and remain in the wound. Proper identification of fang or tooth marks may be complicated in those cases where skin tears result from jerking an extremity away dur- ing the biting act. This is a particular problem in viper bites where long scratches or even lacera- by venomous snakes. species. 4 tions are inflicted by the fangs. In bites by elapid snakes there may be superficial scratches from the snake’s mandibular and palatine teeth. Thus, it can be seen that while fang or tooth pat- terns may be of assistance in determining the identity of an offending snake, they should not be depended upon as the deciding factor in estab- lishing the diagnosis. It should be noted that one can be bitten by a In 3 to 40 per cent of the bites inflicted by venomous snakes, no signs or symptoms of poisoning develop. This may be due to the fact that the snake does not always eject venom or, if venom is ejected, that it does not enter the wound, as can happen in very superficial bites. This important fact should always be considered before specific treatment is started. venomous snake and not be poisoned. sometimes Venom Apparatus The venom apparatus of a snake consists of a gland, a duct, and one or more fangs located on each side the the head (fig. 1). The size of these structures depends on the size and spe- cies of the snake. Each venom gland is in- vested in a connective tissue sheath which is in- vaded by the muscles that contract it during dis- charge of the venom. The mnervation of these muscles is different from that controlling the biting mechanisms; thus, the snake can control the amount of venom it ejects. It can discharge venom from either fang, from both, or from neither. Snakes rarely eject the full contents of their glands. Most rattlesnakes probably discharge between 25 and 75 percent of their venom when they bite a human. The true vipers discharge about the same, perhaps slightly less. There appears to be a greater variation in the amount an elapid may discharge. Many victims of elapid venom poison- ing have minimal signs and symptoms; others show evidence of severe poisoning. The fangs of the vipers are two elongated, ca- naliculated teeth of the maxillary bones. These bones can be rotated so that the fangs can be moved from their resting positions against the upper jaw, to their biting positions, approxi- mately perpendicular to the upper jaw. ‘These snakes have full control over their fangs, rais- ing or lowering them at will as when striking, biting, or yawning. The two functional fangs are shed periodically and are replaced by the first reserve fangs. The fangs of the elapid snakes are two enlarged anterior maxillary teeth. These teeth are hollow and are fixed in an erect position. Snake Venoms The venom of most snakes is a complex mix- How to Recognize Snake Venom Poisoning ture, chiefly proteins, many of which have enzy- matic activity. Some of the effects of snake venoms are due to the nonenzymatic protein por- tions of the venom, while others are due to the enzymes and enzymatic combinations. The symp- toms and signs of snake venom poisoning may be complicated by the release of several substances from the victim’s own tissues. These autophar- macologic substances sometimes render diagnosis and treatment more difficult. The arbitrary division of venoms into such groups as neurotoxins, hemotoxins, and cardio- toxins, while having some useful purpose in classi- fication, has led to much misunderstanding and a number of errors in treatment. It has become increasingly apparent that these divisions are over-simplified and misleading. Neurotoxins can, and often do, have cardiotoxic or hemotoxic ac- tivity, or both; cardiotoxins may have neurotoxic or hemotoxic activity, or both; and hemotoxins may have the other activities. It is best to con- sider a// snake venoms capable of producing sev- eral changes, sometimes concomitantly, in one Ficure 1.—Figures of fangs, venom ducts, and venom glands of: A. Cobra (Elapidae), and B. Viper (Viperidae). The fangs of elapid snakes are much shorter than those of vipers and do not rotate. In each case the venom glands lie outside the main jaw muscles toward the back of the head. The venom ducts lead from the glands to the bases of the hollow fangs. Poisonous Snakes of the World TABLE 1.—YIELD AND LETHALITY OF VENOMS OF IMPORTANT POISONOUS SNAKES Snake j}North America A. Rattlesnakes (Crotalus) Bastern diamondback (C. adamanteus) Western diamondback (C. atror) Timber (C. horridus horridus) Prairie (@. viridis viridis) Great Basin (C. v. lutosus) Southern Pacific (C. v. helleri) Red diamond (C. ruber ruber) Mojave (C. seutulatus) Sidewinder (C. cerastes) B. Moccasins (Agkistrodon) Cottonmouth (A. piscivorus) Copperhead (A. contortriz) Cantil (A. bilineatus) C. Coral snakes (Micrurus) Pastern coral snake (M. fulvius) Central and South America A. Rattlesnakes (Crotalus) Cascabel (C. durissus terrificus) B. American lance-headed vipers (Bothrops) Barba amarilla (B. atror) C. Bushmaster (Lachesis mutus) = n = A. Cobras (Naja) Asian cobra (N. naja) B. Kraits (Bungarus) Indian krait (B. caeruleus) C. Vipers (Vipera) Russell's viper (V. russelit) D. Pit vipers (Agkistrodon) Malayan pit viper (A. rhodostoma) Africa A. Vipers Puff adder (Bitis arietans) Saw-sealed viper (Hchis carinatus) B. Mambas (Dendroaspis) Eastern green mamba (D. angusticeps) Australia A. Tiger snake (Notechis scutatus) Europe A. Vipers European viper (Vipera berus) Indo-Pacific A. Sea snakes Beaked sea snake (Hnhydrina schistosa) Average length of adule (inches) 33-65 80-65 32-54 82-46 82-46 380-48 30-52 22—40 18-30 30-50 24-36 3042 16-28 20448 46-80 70-110 45-65 3648 40-50 25-85 30-48 16-22 50-72 30-56 18-24 30448 Approximate yield, dry venom (mg. 870-720 175-825 95-150 25-100 75-150 75-160 125—400 50-90 1840 90-148 40-72 50-95 2-6 20-40 70-160 280-450 170-825 8-20 130-250 40-60 130-200 20-35 60-95 30-70 6-18 ) LDow 3.68 0.04 0.80 Intraperi- toneal (mg./kg.) Intravenous Ds (mg./kg.) or more of the organ systems of the body. It is also apparent that quantitative and, per- haps, qualitative differences in the chemistry of venoms may occur at the species level and may, in fact, be evident in snakes of the same species taken from different geographic areas. Thus, differences in the symptoms and signs of poison- ing may occur even when similar snakes are in- volved in a series of accidents. In Table 1 are given the names of some of the more important venomous snakes of the world, their adult average lengths, the approximate amount of dried venom contained within their venom glands (adult specimens), and the intra- peritoneal and intravenous LD; 9 in mice, as ex- pressed in milligrams of venom (on a dry weight basis) per kilogram of test animal body weight. The purpose of this table is to demonstrate the considerable differences that exist in the lethality of various snake venoms. In general, the venoms of the vipers cause deleterious changes in the tissues both at the site of the bite and in its proximity, changes in the red blood cells, defects in coagulation, injury to the blood vessels; and, to a lesser extent, damage to the heart muscle, kidneys, and lungs. The venom of the tropical rattlesnake, Crotalus duris- sus, causes more severe changes in nerve conduc- tion and neuromuscular transmission than do other crotalid venoms. The venoms of the elapid snakes cause lesser local tissue changes, but offen cause serious alterations in sensory and motor function as well as cardiac and respiratory difli- culties. SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS The symptoms, signs, and the gravity of snake venom poisoning are dependent upon a number of factors: the age and size of the victim, the na- ture, location, depth, and number of bites, the leneth of time the snake holds on, the extent of anger or fear that motivates the snake to strike, the amount of venom injected, the species and size of the snake involved, the condition of its fangs and venom glands, the victim’s sensitivity to the venom, the pathogens present in the snake's mouth, and the degree and kind of first aid and subsequent medical care. It can be seen that How to Recognize Snake Venom Poisoning snakebites may vary in severity from trivial to extremely grave. The findings given in tables 2, 3, and 4 are those observed in what may be termed typical, moderately severe cases of snake venom poison- ing. While they are not complete, they do pro- vide a ready reference of the more commonly observed sequelae of bites by venomous snakes. Diagnosis of crotalid envenomation is depen- dent upon the presence of one or more fang marks, and immediate and usually progressive swelling, edema, and pain. In most cases swell- ing and edema are constant findings and are usually seen about the injured area within 10 minutes of the bite. In the absence of treat- ment, the swelling progresses rapidly and may in- volve the entire injured extremity within one Generally, however, swelling and edema spread more slowly, and usually over a period of Swelling and edema are most marked following bites by the North American rattlesnakes (excluding the Mojave, massasaugas, and pigmy rattlesnakes) and the American lance- headed vipers (Bothrops). Swelling is slightly less marked following bites by the Malayan pit viper related species, the Asian lance-headed vipers (Z’rimeres- hour. 8 to 36 hours. (Aghkistrodon rhodostoma) and urus), and the American moceasins (A ghkistro- don). It is least acute following bites by the easeabel (Crotalus durissus terrificus). In many cases, discoloration of the skin and ecchymosis appear in the area of the bite within The skin appears tense and shiny. Vesicles may form within 3 hours, and are gen- erally present by the end of 24 hours. Hemor- rhagie vesiculations and petechiae are common. Pain immediately following the bite is a com- mon complaint in most cases of crotalid poison- ing. It is most severe following bites by the South American pit vipers (except for the cas- cabel, which is less severe) ; the eastern diamond- several hours. back, western diamondback, and timber rattle- snakes of North America, and the Asian lance- headed vipers. Weakness, sweating, faintness, and nausea are commonly reported. Regional lymph nodes may be enlarged, painful, and tender. 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SOTOISO A ee Ol tmiasectossae a UIYS JO WOTVAOLOOSTCT SN a a ae a UIvd PaCS ep a lea BUepsa PUB SUTT[IMS SUIPIOLD) ennoeet) . acfewged), | (wonousty) | saxuurorien Hele Resi ypab: wala $3119 GMVLOYD JO SNOIS GNV SWOLdWAS~@ J19dV1L How to Recognize Snake Venom Poisoning "SUO]JUMOUGAUA JAdIA S,[[essnyy pur uy Ajavpnoyjavd ‘and00 Avu yovI} AIVUTAN puv oUT}Se}UY ‘SUNT ay} WoOAy Fuypaa[q ‘AaAVMOF{ “S0}{q JodjaA uvedoing puv steppe ynd uy punom Jo vor OF pay] = aL ste ea ee tS ieee = coe aut} Surjjopo pasuojoa = a cia A ce RT Rte ag ae ee a SjaejB[d pasBoeso0 = i oe SS SST RSE SSS SSS SE SSE SIso.09 7 se sefeee Behe Pe ek gies eae RE, oa ree eT ae stsourAypogy at sar te ee ele ow ott A Rigs See oA ee SODIS9, ae 1 a we aS at peers a ae a Ee FP ae geen Bimeny, Is crt pete OM ns eR | ORIPDS Tae Sa ae Seo Se aes , OS BYLIOMLa Hy] ate ++ ae MOO Go elatrip Me grantees esc isc a eae wae de a eee oe yous ar are ae Be ae wie Mle ge = oe ae ee eae uoisue}od AFT = ar See maketh | MM latr x rem | fee ciate oe ae ae ie earainn ge BIINUTOJO1g = = sae ee ay Oe | eee ce alee aN oa ee mao BLINN GLY ats sar ee lit ee OS ol eee Se ar a ajBi UL Sesuvyo pus aspnd yea, + 1 = ee ett) | Renin: aaa ee pane a aaa stidnd yo aoreyeiIq| at spar a Wy) Or ee OR | gee ee a Bueps [voRy stale AIP sate ee ![lUe eC; ae ar oee sepou ydurs| [BUOTsed SuToMg aN = arte Se fete) I Se See ep enn re age mee ein IaAey IO STII) ap stat ots Per ame Rc tet ee ao er eae ae a a ee ee Gate + ee er reac ae aa ge eS arar ae SE) IR Pe | eS aa ae ae a cat Sata ne | mttaer ar ciate arr cre FS WP ei et a a ae eee a States ++ gee e||P ptens 8 ae ae re Stata SS 8 il) ier | eae eae oat a tah Sa || Rt a satdads paivjas pue (uijaqgay v49gi A) JadiA aunueAdT (supjaiar sizig) JOPPV Bud. (su4aq v4ag1 A) (smyoursv2 s1q9q) jodiq ueadoing JadiA PayBIg-Mesg (ayjassn4 vsadi A) JadiA s.jjassny sugig pue swoiduts S31Id GladIA JO SNOIS GNV SWOLdWAS—E 31dV1L Poisonous Snakes of the World SUOTJVNOISBJ IpPsnyY [eae SisA[vivd 10 stsared ‘ssauyvea dpPSnyT Ss a eS ae SISO1I0U paZzI[Bo0'T poe aan a wa SOPISVA posZzI[Boo'T = aa UIYS JO WOVIOTOOSIP pazIpRoo'T ea Se sepou ydurdA, [VUOTSeI ut ule FE co ee Se ured [eulMopqy et pS a SUIJIMIOA PUB BISNBN pS tse METER ee UOTBAT[VS BAISSIXGT ee a ee motsuajods PT gaa ae 9}]BI UT SeSuByO puv ostnd yvaA, A ee eS a UOISTA JO Suranyp_ | eS ne a 7 Poe ome oe Tg JoepvoAL rer Sr ae woneiidset Ul sasuBy) age Ge asere ter eth Nn rasa a Mes 2 ac ot 3 ia >) eae ek SUIMOT[VMS ut Aj[noWIp ‘qoveds jo Ssurianys ‘Jvorq} PUB sNSuU0}] pauoeyoIy} JO SurjpoaT fates 44 athe ESE || See SSouUyVAM ‘SSaMISMOI as = = | ae BUapa PaZI[Boo'] + + ie ilpauncpeaentisa a Ths SSE utd { SHAPIAIT WY ) SoyeUS [PIO-D —= ——— (snurantxo) uediey (sidsvoapuaq) sequey (snavsung) SURI (PION) se3qo’) susig pur suoidurss SALId didv1d JO SNOIS GNV SWOLdWAS—P J1dV1L 10 the tongue and mouth or scalp. Paresthesia about the wound is sometimes reported. Viperid venom poisoning is characterized by burning pain of rapid onset, swelling and edema, and patchy skin discoloration and ecchymosis in the area of the bite. Extravasation of blood from the wound site is common in Russell’s and saw-scaled viper envenomations. The failure of the blood to clot is a valuable diagnostic finding. Bleeding from the gums, and the intestinal and urinary tracts is common in severe Russell’s and saw-scaled viper bites. Cobra envenomation is characterized by pain usually within 10 minutes of the bite, and this is followed by localized swelling of slow onset, drowsiness, weakness, excessive salivation, and paresis of the facial muscles, lips, tongue, and larynx. The pulse is often weak, blood pressure is reduced, respirations are labored, and there may be generalized muscular weakness or paraly- sis. Ptosis, blurring of vision, and headache may be present. Contrary to popular opinion, ne- crosis is not an uncommon consequence of cobra venom poisoning. In bites by the kraits a simi- lar clinical picture is usually seen, except that there is very little or no local swelling or severe pain. The systemic manifestations may often be more severe, and shock, marked respiratory de- pression and coma, may rapidly develop. Ab- dominal pain is often intense following poison- ing by the kraits, mambas, and taipans. Enven- omation by coral snakes may resemble krait venom poisoning. The bite is usually less pain- ful, and there is occasionally a sensation of numbness about the wound. Chest pain, parti- cularly on inspiration, is sometimes reported. Localized edema is minimal and necrosis is rare. Mamba venom poisoning is characterized by weakness, nausea and vomiting, blurred vision, slurred speech, excessive salivation, headache, and abdominal pain. These findings are often fol- lowed by hypotension, respiratory distress, and shock. Envenomation by most of the Australian- Papuan elapids produces drowsiness, visual dis- turbances, ptosis, nausea and vomiting, headache, abdominal pain, slurring of speech, respiratory distress, and generalized muscular weakness or paralysis. Hemoglobinuria may be found early in the course of the poisoning. How to Recognize Snake Venom Poisoning Sea snake venom poisoning is usually charac- terized by multiple pinhead-sized puncture wounds, little or no localized pain, oftentimes tenderness and some pain in the skeletal muscles and, in particular, the larger muscle masses and the neck. This pain is increased with motion. The tongue feels thick and its motion may be re- stricted. There may be paresthesia about the mouth. Sweating and thirst are common com- plaints, and the patient may complain of pain on swallowing. Trismus, extraocular weakness or paralysis, dilatation of the pupils, ptosis and generalized weakness may be present. Respiratory distress is common in severe cases. Myoglobi- nuria is diagnostic. Little is known about the problem of enveno- mation by rear-fanged colubrid snakes. The African boomslang and bird snake are known to produce severe poisoning, which on rare oc- casions may be fatal. (These snakes are described on pp. 90-91.) Other species of colubrids, some with enlarged grooved fangs and some with solid teeth, are known to bite and may be venomous. The manifestations of poisoning by known ven- omous colubrids, such as the mangrove snake (Boiga dendrophila) of southeast Asia, the West Indian racers (A/sophis), the “culebra de cola corta” (Tachymensis peruviana) of western South America, the parrot snakes (Leptophis) of tropical America and several other species are local pain and swelling, sometimes accompanied by localized skin discoloration and ecchymosis; and in the more severe envenomations, increased swelling and edema which may involve the entire injured extremity, general malaise and fever. The acute period of the poisoning may persist for 4 to 7 days. It is important to differentiate envenomation by colubrids from that by the more dangerous elapids and vipers. In summary, any snakebite associated with im- mediate (and sometimes intense) pain, and fol- lowed within several minutes by the appearance of swelling and subsequently edema is usually diagnostic of snake venom poisoning by a viper. Elapid envenomation, on the other hand, is not so easily diagnosed during the first 10 minutes fol- lowing the bite. Pain, usually of minor intensity, may appear within the first 10 minutes, although in some cases it is not reported for 30 minutes or even longer. Swelling usually appears 2 or 3 uh Poisonous Snakes of the World hours following the bite and tends to be limited to the area of the wound. ‘The first systemic sign of elapid venom poisoning is usually drowsiness. Chis is often apparent within 2 hours of the bite. Ptosis, blurring of vision, and difficulties in speech and swallowing may also appear within several hours of the bite. It can be seen how important it is in cobra, mamba, krait, taipan, tiger, and coral snake bites to determine the identity of the offending reptile as quickly as possible. A difference of 30 minutes to 1 hour in initiating treatment in elapid venom poisoning may make the difference between life and death. REFERENCES CAMPBELL, C. TH. 1964. Venomous Snake Bite in Papua and Its Treatment with Trache- otomy, Artificial Respiration and Antivenene. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 58 : 263-273. CHRISTENSEN, P. A. 1955. South African Snake Antivenoms. South African Institute Medical Research, Johan- nesburg, 142 p. EFRATI, P. and REIF, L. 1953. Clinical and Pathological Observation on Sixty-five Cases of Viper Bite in Israel. Amer. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2: 1085-1108. GENNARO, J. F., Jr. 1963. Observations on the Treatment of Snakebite in North Amer- ica, p. 427-46. In, H. L. Keegan and W. V. Macfarlane, Venomous and Poisonous Ani- mals and Noxious Plants of the Pacific Region. Pergamon, Oxford. HEATWOLE, H. and BANUCHI, I. B. 1966. Envenomation by the Colubrid Snake, A/so- phis Herpetologica 22: 132- 134. KAISER, E. and MICHL, M. 1958. Die Bio- chemie der Tierischen Gifte. F. Deuticke, Wien, 258 p. KLAUBER, L. M. 1956. Rattlesnakes, Their Habits, Life Histories, and Influence on Man- kind. University California Press, Berkeley. 2 vol. Venoms and portoricensis. MOLE, R. H. and EVERARD, A. 1947. Snake- bite by Hchis carinata. Quart. J. Med. 16: 991-303. REID, HH. A. 1961. Myoglobinuria and Sea- snake-bite Poisoning. Brit. Med. J. 1: 1284— 1289. REID, H. A., THEAN, P. C., CHAN, KE. and BAHARAM, A. R. 1963. Clinical Ef- fects of Bites by Malayan Viper (Ancistro- don rhodostoma). Wancet 1: 617-621. RUSSELL, F. E. 1962. Snake Venom Poison- ing, vol II, p. 197-210. In, G. M. Piersol, Cyclopedia of Medicine, Surgery and the Specialties. F. A. Davis, Philadelphia. SAWAT, Y., MAKINO, M., TATENO, L., OKO- NOGI, T. and MITSUHASHI, S. 1969. Studies on the Improvement of Treatment of Habu Snake (Z’rimeresurus flavoviridis) Bite. 3. Clinical Analysis and Medical Treat- ment of Habu Snake Bite on the Amami Islands. Jap. J. Exp. Med. 32: 17-138. SCHENONE, H. and REYES, H. 1965. Ani- males ponzonosos de Chile. Bol. Chileno de Parasitol. 20: 104-108. WALKER, C. W. 1945. (England and Wales). 14. Notes on Adder-bite Brit. Med. J. 2:13- Chapter IV FIRST AID INTRODUCTION medical emergency which requires immediate attention and the exercise of considerable judgment. De- layed or inadequate treatment for venomous snakebite may have tragic consequences. On the other hand, failure to differentiate between bites of venomous and nonvenomous snakes may lead Poisoning from snake venom is a to use of measures which bring not only discom- fort to the individual but may produce deleteri- ous results. It is essential that the one responsible for treatment establish whether or not envenoma- iton has occurred before treatment is started. As was pointed out in Chapter III, a venomous snake may bite and not inject venom. Also, some persons bitten by nonvenomous snakes become excited and even hysterical. These emotions may give rise to disorientation, faintness, dizziness, rapid hyperventilation, rapid pulse, and even primary shock—all symptoms and signs which may occur following envenoma- tion. The hospital corpsman should keep this syn- drome in mind when called wpon to treat a person bitten by an unidentified snake. respiration or Most cases of snake venom poisoning in Navy and Marine Corps personnel have occurred in the presence of other service personnel. In most in- stances hospital corpsmen have been able to render the necessary initial first aid measures. However, in an occasional case no medically trained person may be available or the victim may be alone. As the success or failure of treat- ment may depend on when first aid is started, this chapter has been prepared to acquaint all Navy and Marine Corps personnel with the prob- lem of snake venom poisoning and the first aid measures that need to be carried out in the event that poisoning occurs distant from a hospital, doctor, or medical corpsman. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Treatment, to be effective, must be instituted immediately following the bite and must in- clude measures: 1. To retard absorption of the venom: 2. To remove as much venom as possible from the wound; 3. To neutralize the venom; 4. To prevent or reduce the effects of the venom; and 5. To prevent complications, including second- ary infection. If a victim of snakebite finds himself alone, a He will need to determine whether or not the snake is venomous and, if venomous, the severity of the poisoning. He will need to consider how long it may be before help will reach him. Or, per- haps, he will need to weigh the advantages of walking to the nearest friendly troop facility, hospital, or town. If he decides to move he will need to determine how fast and for how long a period he may walk. make it difficult to give consistent advice on what to do under such circumstances. Each case must be considered separately. The victim should give sareful thought to all of these matters before making a decision as to the wisest procedure to follow. He should remember not to panic and not to overly exert himself. He should make every effort possible to obtain assistance, without jeopardizing his mission. With these things in mind the following con- siderations should be followed, in so far as pos- number of factors must be considered. These and other variables 13 Poisonous Snakes of the World tony other thing outcome of each case is dependent, , upon the kind of treatment ul ed ancl the Above all, ind consider each move thoroughly. speed with which it is initiated. the victim should remember to keep STEP ONE Apply a Constriction-band or a Tourniquet.—In cases of envenomation by most crotalids, a constriction- band should be placed above the first joint proxi- ) mal, or Y% to 4 inches proximal] to the bite, It should be applied tight enough to occlude the superficial whichever is appropriate (see fig. 2). venous and lymphatie return but not arterial flow. It should be released for 90 seconds every 10 minutes. The constriction-band can be moved in advance of the progressive swelling. It should be removed as soon as antivenin has been started. In no case of viper venom poisoning should a constriction-band be used for more than 4 hours. It is probably of little value if applied later than 30 minutes following the bite. FIGURE 2.—Correct tourniquet. It should be tight enough to impede the flow of lymph and blood in the superficial vessels, but not that of placement of a blood in the deeper vessels. Following envenomation by elapids, constric- tion-bands or tourniquets are of questionable However, in cases of severe envenomation by cobras, kraits, mambas, tiger snakes, death adders or taipans, a tight tourniquet should be applied immediately proximal to the bite and left in place until antivenin is given. It should be value. 14 released for 90 seconds every 10 minutes, and should not be used for more than 8 hours. STEP TWO Capture the Snake and Kill It—Most snakes will remain in the immediate area of the aecident and can be found without too much difficulty. If several persons are present, send one or two in search of the snake while the others are admin- istering first aid to the victim. Exercise extreme caution in hunting for the offending snake. A reptile that has bitten once is just as likely to bite again as not. The snake can be killed by a sharp blow on the neck. (An undamaged head is a great aid to identification). Do nof handle the snake. If it cannot be positively identified at the scene of the accident, carry it on a stick or in a cloth bag to the command post or hospital. STEP THREE Lie Down.—Remain at rest until the offending snake has been identified (see Chapters VI, VII, and VIII). If the snake is nonvenomous, clean and dress the wound and proceed with your mis- sion. Report to a medical officer as soon as possible. If the snake is identified as venomous, or if its identity cannot be determined, begin treatment as outlined below: STEP FOUR Unidentified Snake.—Immobilize the injured part (see below) then turn to page 16 for instructions. Identified Venomous Snake.—Immobilize the in- jured part. This can be done by splinting as for a broken arm or leg. The immobilized part should then be kept below the level of the heart, but not in a completely dependent position. If the wound is on the body, keep the victim in a sitting or lying position, depending on the location of the bite. The patient should always be kept warm. He should not be allowed to walk. He should not be given alcohol. He may, however, be given water, coffee, or tea. Any manifestations of fear or excitement. should be alleviated by reassurance. STEP FIVE Make Incision and Apply Suction.—Incision and suc- tion are of definite value when applied immedi- ately following bites by vipers, particularly pit vipers of North America. They are of lesser value following bites by the South American vipers and Asiatic vipers, and probably of little value following envenomation by elapids and sea snakes (see discussion of first aid measures, p. i) In viper bites, excluding those by small Euro- pean vipers and small North American copper- heads, make cross-shaped or longitudinal incisions 1% to % inches long through the fang marks (fig. 3), except in those cases where there is an abnormal amount of bleeding. The incisions should be made as deep as the fang penetration. The direction of the animal’s strike and the curvature of the fang should be borne in mind when determining the plane of incision. Suction should then be applied and continued for the first hour following the bite. To be effective, suction must be applied within the first few minutes following the biting. It is of little value if delayed for 30 minutes or more. Oral suction should not be used if other means of suction are available. Multiple incisions over the involved extremity or in advance of progressive edema are not advised. Note how Figure 8.—Incised fang marks of a_ viper. small the incisions through the wounds need to be. Photo by Findlay E. Russell. STEP SIX Administer Antivenin.—It is recommended that medical corpsmen, in the absence of a physician First Aid and after suitable training, be given permission to conduct sensitivity tests and to administer ap- propriate antivenin to victims of snake venom poisoning. This might be done in those cases where severe signs and symptoms develop early in the course of the illness, or where 4 hours or more following viper venom poisoning or 2 hours or more following elapid venom poisoning can be expected to elapse before professional care will be available. In such cases, following appropriate skin or eye tests (see Sensitivity Tests, page 16), the antivenin should be given intramuscularly at a site distant from the wound. Antivenin should never be injected into a finger or toe, and it should be administered intravenously only by qualified personnel. As the aniount of antivenin available in the field is limited, one unit (vial or package) will probably be all that is available for a corps- man to give. The earlier this is injected, the better the results. However, several units may be needed for full neutralization of the venom. NOTE: If the victim is in shock the antivenin will be absorbed slowly from an intramuscular site. No Antivenin Available.—If antivenin is not avail- able or if no qualified person is present to ad- minister it, then proceed with STEP SEVEN. STEP SEVEN Transport Victim to Doctor, Aid Station or Hospital.— This should be done by litter, if at all possible; if not, try to provide some other means of trans- portation. Do not let the victim walk if this can be avoided. Keep the victim warm, and the bit- ten part in a dependent position. STEP EIGHT Institute Supportive Measures.—Should any of the following sequelae to the bite develop during evacuation of the victim, consider these measures: Shock: 1. Place victim in recumbent or shock position (lying down on his back, head slightly lower than his feet). 2. Maintain an adequate airway. 3. Keep victim comfortably warm. 4. Control any severe pain. This can usually be done with salicylates or codeine. Do not give 15 Poisonous Snakes of the World morphine to an unconscious victim or one in respiratory clistress, 5. Allay apprehension by reassuring words and uctions. 6. Replace and maintain adequate blood vol- ume with saline, plasma, plasma expanders, or whole blood. (Items 6, 7, and 8 are recommended for use by medical officers or paramedical per- sonnel with appropriate qualifications). 7. Give vasopressor drugs if condition war- rants, 8. Give oxygen. Respiratory Distress: 1. Clear airway. 2. Apply artificial respiration. As long as the patient’s heart continues to beat, he has a chance to recover, and this may occur even after many hours of artificial respiration. Mouth-to-mouth breathing in rhythm is the method of choice in all cases of respiratory failure. However, when it cannot be applied, the rhythmie push-pull methods are generally effective. If a mechanical resuscitator is available, it also may be used by anyone qualified in its operation. 3. Respiratory stimulants are limited to use by a medical officer. Vomiting: Vomiting frequently occurs following certain types of snake venom poisoning. Precautions should be taken to see that the patient does not aspirate vomitus. Place him in a prone position, head slightly lowered and turned to one side. Excessive Salivation: Place head in a position to permit adequate drainage of saliva as described under Vomiting, Keep airway clear. Atropine or para- sympatholytic drugs may be administered only by a medical officer. Convulsions : No treatment should be given during the attack except that which will prevent the patient from injuring himself. above. STEP NINE Disposition of Patient.—At the aid station or hos- pital, inform the doctor of the identity of the snake involved (if known); or, turn the dead, unidentified snake over to the doctor. Give ap- proximate time between bite and arrival and point out any constriction-band or tourniquet left 16 in place. Give details on any antivenin or drugs given the patient. Report all unusual signs and symptoms, BITES BY UNIDENTIFIED SNAKES Every attempt should be made to capture and kill, or at least identify, the offending snake. As a rule, snakes remain in the vicinity of the ac- cident. A knowledge of the habits and habitats of the snakes peculiar to the area (see Chapters VI, VII, and VII) will assist in locating and identifying the snake. ut, when the bite occurs at night, capture of the snake may not be pos- sible, and management and treatment of the vic- tim will depend upon the clinical signs and symptoms. First, have the wietim lie down and remain at complete rest. Immobilize the bitten part and keep it in a dependent position. Tn this position the onset of pain, if it occurs, will be more rapid, thus assisting in an early diagnosis. Do not apply a tourniquet or incise the wound. These measures may produce effects which could make diagnosis more difficult. If no pain, swelling, edema, drowsiness, pares- thesia, weakness, or paresis of the muscles of the face and throat appear within 380 minutes, the bite was probably inflicted by a nonvenomous snake. However, if at all possible, the victim should remain at rest and be observed for an ad- ditional 2 hours. If symptoms or signs of venom poisoning de- velop during the observation period, the measures previously described under General Considera- tions, above, must be considered. The success of these measures will depend upon the time that has transpired between the bite, and their initia- tion. In those cases where the first aid measures have been deferred, the need for early admin- istration of antivenin becomes urgent. In such cases, greater consideration should be given to the intravenous use of antivenin, obviously fol- lowing the necessary sensitivity tests. SENSITIVITY TESTS A sensitivity test for horse serum must be car- ried out on all victims of snake venom poisoning before horse serum antivenin is administered. Directions for these tests will usually be found in the package containing the antivenin. In the absence of specific instructions follow these steps: 1. Inject 0.10 ml. of a 1: 10 dilution of the horse serum or antivenin intracutaneously on the inner surface of the forearm. Use the specific hypo- dermic needle provided for the test. If one is not provided, use a short 27-gauge needle. If the test is done correctly, a wheal will be raised at the site of the injection. The wheal is white at first but if the test is positive the area about the point of injection will become red within 10 to 15 minutes. festations develop within 20 minutes of the test, do not give antivenin. medical officer. If the victim develops a severe reaction to the test (restlessness, flushing, sneezing, urticaria, swelling of the eyelids and lips, respiratory dis- tress or cyanosis), inject 0.3 to 0.5 ml. of 1: 1,000 adrenalin subcutaneously, and observe the victim closely. Be prepared to administer artificial respiration. A cardiac stimulant may also be needed if shock develops. 2. An alternative to the skin test is the eye test. One or two drops of a 1: 10 solution of the horse serum or antivenin are placed on the con- junctiva of one eye. If the test is positive, red- ness of the conjunctiva will develop within a few minutes. If the reaction is very severe, it should be controlled by depositing a drop or two of 1: 1,000 adrenalin directly on the conjunctiva. 3. If a serum sensitivity test is positive, de- sensitization should be carried out before admin- istering antivenin. This should be done on/y by a doctor. Do not attempt to desensitize a victim unless the appropriate facilities and drugs are available. If any local or systemic allergic mani- Leave this decision to the DISCUSSION OF FIRST AID MEASURES It is not a purpose of this manual to discuss or evaluate all of the first aid treatments that have been suggested or advised for snake venom poisoning. This has been done in the medical literature. The reader is referred to the refer- ences at the end of this chapter for a more thor- ough consideration of this subject. It should be noted here, however, that there is no single thera- First Aid peutic standard of procedure for all cases of snake venom poisoning. Rest, immobilization of the injured part, and reassurance are indicated in every case, and in themselves are valuable thera- peutic measures, but beyond these, few measures can be recommended for all cases of snakebite. In the following sections some consideration will be given to several of the more commonly em- ployed first aid measures. CONSTRICTION-BAND AND TOURNIQUET Constriction-bands and tourniquets have long been used in the treatment of snakebite. The ra- tionale for their use is quite simple, that is, to re- tard the absorption and spread of the venom. Studies with North American rattlesnake venom labeled with radioactive iodine (I'*!) show that the spread of certain fractions of the venom can be retarded by pressure on the superficial lym- phatie channels proximal to the deposition of the toxin. It appears that the greater portion of rattlesnake venom is absorbed directly into lym- phatie structures. These studies support the clinical findings that in cases of North American rattlesnake bites, a constriction-band, applied early and effectively, can retard the spread of the toxin and thus decrease the area of localized necrosis. There is also some evidence to indicate that the constriction-band retards the develop- ment of systemic signs and symptoms. The use of a constriction-band or a tourniquet in cases where deep envenomation has occurred would appear to be of limited or no value, and indeed some clinical reports support this conten- tion. On the other hand, the incorrect applica- tion of constriction-bands and tourniquets, par- ticularly in Southeast Asia, makes it difficult to evaluate these measures solely from clinical ex- periences. It might be concluded that a properly applied censtriction-band is of definite value in poisoning by all North American crotalids and many of the small vipers from throughout the world. It is probably of lesser or no value follow- ing bites by the large vipers outside North Amer- ica. In spite of these findings and opinions, it seems advisable, in view of no substantial contra- indication, to recommend the use of a constric- tion-band in all cases of viper venom poisoning during the period when suction is being carried out. 17 Poisonous Snakes of the World The venoms of the elapids are considerably dif ferent in their chemical structure from those of the vipers, and the structural variations within the venoms of the family Elapidae are definitely more complex than those within the families Cro talidae and Viperidae. Present knowledge indi- cates that, in general, elapid venoms are absorbed in greater quantities through the blood vessels than through lymphatic vessels. Both experimental and clinical studies indicate that a constriction-band is of questionable value following envenomation by an elapid. ‘The value of a tight tourniquet is not so easily decided. The rationale for using a tight tourniquet to oc- elude both superficial and deep blood vessels is ~asily understood. However, it must be admitted that adequate supportive evidence is still lacking. Nevertheless, it seems best to advise placing a tight tourniquet proximal to wounds inflicted by large cobras, kraits, mambas, tiger snakes, death adders, and taipans. Tourniquets should be left in place only until antivenin is injected. Under no circumstances should they be used for more than 8 hours, and never without the usual precautions associated with the use of a tourniquet. INCISION AND SUCTION Few problems in the first aid treatment of snake yenom poisoning have elicited as much contro- versy as incision and suction. Recent experi- mental studies have shown that in the case of Crotalus envenomation, incision and suction at the fang puncture wounds instituted within sev- eral minutes of the bite, and suction continued for no less than 30 minutes, can remove a meas- urable portion of the venom. The exudate ob- tained from such incised wounds has been found to produce the typical fall in systemic arterial blood pressure, the increase in systemic venous and cisternal pressures, the changes in cardiac and respiratory rates, and the alterations in the electrocardiogram and electroencephalogram ob- served following injection of crude venom. The exudate has also been found to be lethal to mice in doses approaching that of the crude venom. Studies with I'%!-labeled Crotalus venom indicate that the toxin can be removed from properly in- cised wounds by suction. These various experi- mental studies strongly support the clinical im- 18 pressions of those physicians who have treated a suflicient number of rattlesnake bites to be in a position to evaluate this first aid measure crit- ically, Contrary to some opinion, few if any blood vessels, tendons, or other vital structures have been injured by properly executed cuts through North American rattlesnakes. There is no foundation for the condemnation of this procedure on the basis that vital structures have been damaged during the execution of cuts. There is also no support for the contention that such trivial incisions will produce neural and glandular activities which, in turn, increase the lethal effect of the venom. fang marks of According to some clinicians, incision and sue- tion through the fang wounds have not been found to be effective following the bites of vipers in Asia, Africa and parts of the Middle East. While they are advised and used by some physi- cians in these areas, others do not recommend their use. Adequately controlled studies on the depth of fang penetration by the Old World vipers have not been done, but clinical evidence would seem to indicate that these snakes bite deeper than their North American cousins. If this is true then incision and suction would be less effective than in North American crotalid bites. Where intramuscular envenomation occurs, inci- sion and suction are of no value and are not recommended. The time of instigation and the manner in which incisions have been made following bites by vipers in Asia and Africa have been so in- consistent that it is quite impossible to determine, solely on the basis of clinical reports, whether or not these measures are useful as first-aid measures in poisonings by the Old World vipers. It seems best at this time to advise incision and suction in most cases of viper venom poisoning. In no case, however, should incisions be made deeper than the subcutaneous tissues, and in those cases where it is obvious that the fangs have penetrated muscle tissue, no incisions should be made. Incision and suction through the fang marks produced by the elapid snakes have not been found useful. This may be because elapid ven- oms are absorbed more directly into the blood stream than into lymphatic channels. It is not possible from the clinical reports on elapid bites to determine whether or not the measures are use- ful, since the time of making the cuts and the duration of the suction are seldom recorded. A1- so, observations in Asia and Africa indicate that these procedures are seldom carried out in what one might assume to be an effective manner. It would seem best to avoid using incision and suc- tion for elapid venom poisoning until current experimental work on this problem has been com- pleted, or until a critical evaluation of clinical cases has been made. EXCISION Excision of the bite area is a rather heroic measure which might be of value in some en- venomations if it could be carried out within 2 or 3 minutes following the bite. It is a procedure carrying considerable risk. It might be consid- ered in those cases where envenomation by a large krait, mamba, taipan, death adder, or tiger snake has occurred, and where the victim is alone and isolated, and likely to remain so for 6 or more hours. Under such conditions it might be wise to excise the wound or amputate the toe or finger. This has been done by some courageous persons. OTHER MEASURES According to Russell and Scharffenburg, some 217 “cures” for snake yenom poisoning have been described in the literature. Some of the suggested first aid measures are: injecting potassium per- manganate, ammonia, vinegar or oil into the wound; wrapping the liver of the offending snake or of a freshly-killed chicken over the wound; setting fire to the wound after applying gasoline; eating various plants or raw meat; applying mud packs to the wound; soaking the injured part in excrement; washing the wound with plant juices; drinking whiskey; taking anti- histaminies, ef cetera. These and the other so- called cures are little more than historical curi- osities. Whatever the source, they are hazardous: first, because they often involve dangerous meth- ods; second, because they delay the use of effec- tive therapeutic procedures. They should not be used. Snake venom poisoning is an accident highly variable in the gravity of its results. It is one in which the most fantastic remedy may gain its reputation among credulous people by having First Aid “cured” a bite that required no treatment what- ever. Avoid using any first aid measure that has not been evaluated; remember, most of the “cures” you will hear about have been evaluated and found to be useless. REFERENCES BUCKLEY, E. and PORGES, N. 1956. Venoms. Amer. Assoc. Advancement Sci., Washington, D.C. 467 p. GENNARO, J. F., Jr. 1963. Observations on the Treatment of Snakebite in North Amer- ica, p. 427-46. In, H. L. Keegan and W. V. Macfarlane, Venomous and Poisonous Ani- mals and Noxious Plants of the Pacific Region. Pergamon, Oxford. KAISER, E. and MICHL, M. 1958. Die Bio- chemie der Tierischen Gifte. F. Deuticke, Wien, 258 p. KEEGAN, H. L. and MACFARLANE, W. V. (editors) 1963). Venomous and Poisonous Animals and Noxious Plants of the Pacific Region. Pergamon, Oxford. 456 p. MERRIAM, T. W., Jr. 1961. Current Concepts in the Management of Snakebite. Mil. Med. 126 : 526-531. NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, NA- TIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL, COM- MITTEE ON SNAKEBITE THERAPY. 1963. Statement on Snakebite Therapy. Toxicon 1: 81-87. PHISALIX, M. 1922. Animaux Venimeux et Venins. Masson, Paris, 2 vol. REID, H. A., THEAN, P. C., CHAN, D. FE. and BAHARAM, A. R. 1963. Clinical Effects of bites by Malayan viper (Ancistrodon rho- dostoma). Tancet 1: 617-621. RUSSELL, F. E. 1962. Snake Venom Poisoning, vol II, p. 197-210. In, G. M. Piersol, Cyclo- pedia of Medicine, Surgery and the Special- ties. F. A. Davis, Philadelphia. RUSSELL, F. E. and SCHARFFENBERG, R. Interim S. 1964. Snake Venoms and Venomous Snakes. Bibliographic Associates, West Covina, California. 220 p. 19 Chapter V MEDICAL TREATMENT GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS On arrival at the aid station or hospital, an immediate evaluation must be made of the pa- tient’s general condition. Snake venom poisoning is always a medical emergency requiring immedi- ate attention. A delay in instituting medical treatment can lead to far more tragic conse- quences than one following an ordinary traumatic injury. In most cases, first aid measures will already have been instituted by the corpsman. The physician will need to evaluate these meas- ures before determining the course of subsequent treatment. None of the first aid measures should be regarded as substitutes for antivenin, anti- biotic and antitetanus agents; nor should they be instituted at the possible expense of delaying ad- ministration of the antivenin. Needless to say, the physician will have to establish in his own mind whether or not the patient has been poisoned and, if so, to determine which therapeutic meas- ures he can use most effectively. Tf the patient arrives at the medical installation one hour or more following the bite and no first aid measures have been initiated, the physician should put him to bed, immobilize the affected part, clean the wounds thoroughly, and proceed with the measures outlined below. Incision and suction, excision, ef cetera. are of no value after such a delay and should not be attempted. Admission Procedures A routine history and physical examination should be done. The identity of the offending snake, its size, the time of the bite, and the details of all first aid measures employed, including the time lapse for each, should be recorded. Inquiry 20 should be made concerning previous bites, aller- gies, and whether or not the patient has previously been exposed to horse serum. If a skin test has already been done this should be checked. Blood should be drawn for typing, cross-matching, blood clotting, and clot retraction studies. A com- plete blood count, hematocrit, and urine analysis are essential. Determinations of the sedimenta- tion rate, prothrombin time, carbon dioxide com- bining power, urea nitrogen, sodium, potassium and chloride are advised, if within the limits of personnel, time, and equipment. In severe poison- ings, an electrocardiogram and a blood platelet count should be done. Serum bilirubin, red cell fragility tests, and renal function tests should be done if the condition warrants. Studies of the hematocrit, complete blood counts, and hemoglo- bin concentration should be carried out several times a day. Urinalyses should be done with par- ticular attention being given to the presence or absence of red cells. This is especially important in all cases of viper venom poisoning. Tn all patients, regardless of the snake involved, pulse, blood pressure, and respirations should be checked periodically. When available, central venous pressure monitoring devices may be used in order to determine need for and to evaluate response to anti-shock therapy. Facilities and drugs for shock must be readily available, and a tracheostomy set and positive pressure breath- ing apparatus should be held in readiness. A measurement of the circumference of the affected part 4 inches above the bite, and at an additional point proximal to the wound, should be recorded. The course of snake venom poisoning is some- times unpredictable, and patients showing steady recovery may on occasions take a turn for the worse. Continued close observation by physi- cians and nurses is essential during the entire hospitalization period. SPECIFIC THERAPY Antivenin The early administration of antivenin, particu- larly following a severe envenomation, cannot be overemphasized. A few minutes may mean the difference between life and death. The choice of antivenin, the route of injection and the amount to be given will depend upon a number of dif- ferent factors (see below). In most cases, the more species or genus specific the antivenin, the more effective it will be. However, at the present time there is a great deal of variation in the effectiveness of the commercially available anti- venins; some polyvalent types appear to be more useful than.some which are genus specific. Un- fortunately, there is no standardized process for the production of antivenin, and indeed there is no conformity in testing methods. Thus, the physician will need to depend on the specific in- formation supplhed with the antivenin, or upon more detailed data provided by a medical facility in the area. Ampoules of antivenin usually have an “expiration date” indicated. Though this is the limit of the producer’s period of potency, the antivenin does not suddenly become ineffective on that date. Some producers have indicated that the effectiveness of the antivenin is not greatly impaired until it has become cloudy or milky in appearance. . \e a Za a , ; = a *7 ha Figure 5. Skulls representative of various families of poisonous snakes, showing lengths of maxillary bones (shaded) and positions and lengths of fangs. A. Cobra (Elapidae), showing short fang in front part of maxillary bone; B. Pit viper (Crotalidae), showing long fang on short maxillary bone; C. Rear- fanged snake (Colubridae), showing short fang on rear part of long maxillary bone (Other parts of skull diagrammatic only). Recognition of Poisonous Snakes the top of the head is covered by large symmetri- eal shields, typically 9 in number (see fig. 6). More or less division of these shields into small scales is seen in many kinds of vipers, many boas and pythons, and in a few other kinds of snakes. Reduction of the number through fusion of shields is seen mostly in small burrowing snakes. ROSTRAL INTERNASALS PREFRONTALS Aa) MEN PARIETALS SUPRAOCULARS PREOCULAR POSTOCULARS LOREAL NASALS ROSTRAL — UPPER LABIALS Ficure 6.—Head of typical colubrid snake, illustrating arrangement of scales from dorsal and lateral views. Any of these scales may be modified in shape or ab- sent in various groups of poisonous snakes. If there are typical large shields on the crown and no pit between the eye and nostril, look at the side of the head in front of the eye. The loreal shield (see fig. 6) is absent in nearly all poisonous snakes of the Elapidae as well as the African mole vipers (Viperidae). This shield is also lacking in a good many nonpoisonous snakes, but many of these are small burrowers or strictly aquatic snakes which may be eliminated on other grounds. The size of the eye may be important (see GLOSSARY ). Eye Characteristics The shape of the pupil of the eye should be noted in live or freshly killed snakes. Most snakes have round pupils, some have vertically elliptical pupils, and a few have horizontally elliptical pupils. Vertically elliptical pupils are 27 Poisonous Snakes of the World characteristic of most Vipers but some nonpoison ous snakes also have this type. Most venomous elapids have round pupils. Dorsal Scale Characteristics The number of dorsal scale rows is sometimes The method of While it is quite possible to make this count on a snake “in the important in snake identification. counting is shown in figure 7. round” so to speak, the inexperienced individual may obtain better results by skinning out a sec- tion of the body and flattening the skin. It is seldom possible to take a satisfactory scale count of a live snake. It is often desirable to note if Figure 7.—Method of counting dorsal scale rows. Fig- ure drawn as though skin has been slit down belly and spread flat (V = ventral plates). the dorsal scales have a longitudinal raised ridge, heeled. or if they lack such ridges, smooth (see fio. 8). Ventral Scutes In the vast majority of snakes, large transverse scutes extend the full width of the belly. These are considerably reduced in size in boas and pythons, some freshwater and burrowing snakes, and in many sea snakes (see figure 9). They are completely absent in the burrowing blind snakes, and in some sea snakes. A complete count of the ventrals is routine procedure in systematic herpetology. It is easily done, but rather tedious, and is not required for most of the species identi- fications in this manual. Tail The tail of a snake begins at the anal plate which covers the opening of the cloaca. The 28 form of the tail is often important in identifica- tion—virtually diagnostic in sea snakes and rattlesnakes. The subeandal scutes are usually in a double row (paired) ; however, in some species, all or most may be in a single row (see figure 10). A count of the subcaudals is routine. Sex Sex of a snake can sometimes be determined readily by observing eggs or developing young in the oviducts. Pressure by fingers or injection of liquid at the base of the tail will usually evert the copulatory organs or hemipenes of a male The morphology of these organs is im- Usually they are snake. portant im snake taxonomy. Ficure 8.—Figures of dorsal scales showing major types of scale ornamentation: A. smooth scales. B. keeled scales. Recognition of Poisonous Snakes Ficure 9.—Appearance of ventral plates in various groups of snakes. A. Extending full width of belly (most snakes) ; B. Moderately reduced (boas, pythons, some aquatic snakes); C. Markedly reduced (many sea snakes). rather large fleshy structures bearing spines or other ornamentation, but they may be quite smooth, small, and slender. Color and Pattern Color and pattern are the most widely used but, unfortunately, are the most deceptive criteria for snake identification. Color and patterns in snakes have evolved primarily for purpose of concealment and, as a result, totally unrelated snakes may appear very much alike. Many tree snakes, for example, are green with a light line on the flank, and many snakes that live in the crevices of rock or under bark have dark heads with a hight collar at the nape. Real or apparent mimicry of venomous snakes by harmless species is very widespread and may involve similarities in behavior as well as appearance. Color and pattern vary greatly even within a species. In snakes of semiarid lands, it has been observed for centuries that there is often correspondence of general body color with the color of the soil. Abnormal increases of dark pigment (melanism) or its complete absence (albinism) can in rare cases give rise to black coral snakes or white rattlesnakes. Pattern is generally more constant than color, but several kinds of snakes may show both ringed and striped types of pattern. Pat- tern and colors of young snakes may be totally different from those of the adult. Sex differences in color and pattern are also seen. Figure 10.—Undersides of tails of representative snakes. Snake with ENTIRE anal plate and a SINGLE row of subcaudal scutes; snake with DIVIDED anal plate and PAIRED rows of subeaudal seutes (V = ventral plates). 29 Poisonous Snakes of the World THE FAMILIES OF SNAKES The keys given in Chapter VIT distinguish the various kinds of poisonous land snakes from one another; Chapter VIIT distinguishes the poison- ous sea snakes. Often, however, there are basic questions as to whether or not a snake 7s poison- ous, and to what family it belongs. Sometimes a family allocation will act as a double check on a tentative identification and also, occasionally, a family designation will be all that is possible be- cause of the condition of the snake. The following key has been designed to sort out many kinds of nonpoisonous snakes and snake- like animals before finally distinguishing between typical harmless snakes and poisonous ones by the only positive means of identification of a poison- ous kind—the presence of fangs in the upper jaw. To identify an animal by use of this key, the reader must begin with the first couplet (pair of statements), decide which one deseribes the ani- mal at hand, and then proceed to the couplet indicated at the end of the proper descriptive phrase. This procedure is followed with the next couplet and so on. Thus, an alternative decision is offered with each couplet until the reader finally determines the proper category for the animal. acteristics mentioned in the proper line of coup- lets—not just the final characteristic. Therefore, it is always necessary to start at the beginning of the key. The following key should always be used if there is any question as to whether or not the animal at hand is a poisonous snake: The animal must possess @// of the char- KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF SNAKES 1. A. Body elongate, but legs or fins present on NOT A fROMU ANG OL Te Mey ULUS Ol OC yee ee SNAKE Be bodyeelon mateo le oSnOr: pill see = ae =a se eee ene eee ee 2 2. A. Skin slimy, with or without bony (fish- NOT A like) “sealles-. 2 09 22. 2 Se) ete ene eee SNAKE 13s Seahow heyy, vyatiloy veloubor Nnvoyaohy/ ee Bs) 3. A. Skin formed into distinct broad rings that NOT A sxOTl Claret CO UIE CLI 10.0. Cl ty ee a ee SNAKE B. Skin formed into small overlapping or juxtaposed scales (not in rings), at leaistvio naa ck eet out gh es ee a Ee ee) eee 4 4. A. Kye with a movable lid_--_--- iB Nommovablewdidse— 2" 28 = a De ee ee 5 5. A. Tail round im cross-section; not oar-shaped=—____-------====-— === 7 Be Mal*compressediintoran oar-like® b] ac eee eee 6 6. A. Head covered with small granular scales; no large shields on crown; watersnakes ofSoutheast esi see ee eee COLUBRIDAE B. Some crown shields present; see fig. 6; seasnakes, Chapter VIII_.------------------- HYDROPHIDAE oe 7. A. A row of enlarged, transverse scutes (ven- trails) ad owmethies bell yaaa ae eo 11 1B: ‘Body, scales unitorm)abovetand below22s)2222s= === ne 8 30 Recognition of Poisonous Snakes 8. A. Tail with an enlarged and ornamented scute or with several spiny scales near tip (SE Asia only); Indian rough- Scaled snakesh= sae = == S=o.6 Be aa eee eS UROPELTIDAE B. No such specialized tail, a single spine or MON ONS Gp ea = = SES Ie Se eS he Se 9 9, A. Eye under a distinct round scale; most of head covered with small granular scaleswt lath 2 25s. SP he ee ashe bans Soon ee anes 16 B. Eye under irregularly-shaped head plate; head "covered swithvenlarced:scutesss= == a= eee ee 10 10. A. Seute containing nostril forms border of lip, 14 rows of scales around body; Slender iblindsnakes=s=s=====e=ere ae LEPTOTYPHLOPIDAE B. Seute containing nostril separated from lip by surrounding scales; more than 14 scale rows; typical blindsnakes______-_---_- TYPHLOPIDAE 11° A. Ventral scutes extend full width’ of belly__--__---_-_-_-__----_-- 15 B. Ventral scutes narrow, not extending Width, Of bellyc.2 eee = See sete Sa ae ee eee 12 12. A. Ventrals scarcely twice size of dorsals, or lessduaeate bos see eS ene 5 eS ea eee ee ee 15 B. Ventrals distinctly enlarged, more than 3 times width of dorsals; boas and Dy GH ONS Sees ee ee ee ee BOIDAE 3s AC) Eleadiamamiby, covered) with sma lNSchleS=o =e = ae = eee eee 16 B. Head covered with large scutes, though TNO CIE Levi FOUG eal erro st es ELD I (SEE LL oop) ees ee eee 14 14. A. A large median shield behind frontal; 15 scale rows (SE Asia only); sunbeam SIN BOR ees ae one Re ree ee. eh hare De XENOPELTIDAE B. No large median seute behind frontal; 17 scale rows or more (SE Asia and north- ern) South Amenicn)e)) Weipe snakese. = -=5 soos ay A NILIDAE 15. A. A spur-like hook on either side of vent (often hiddensinesmoalllidepressions) = 12 IBeeNozin dications Of Sp Uses rca ee ee 16 16. A. One or two large fangs near front of UP POL a] avvOUl CAChi SIC cae s ene See ee ee iif B. No sign of fangs at front of upper jaw. Typical harmless snakes; about 2,000 species, only 2 in ©. and S. Africa rem GAN CCTOUS= ee en ee ee ee COLUBRIDAE 17. A. Long fangs on short maxillary bone which can rotate to erect them; no other teeth (Osa: po aeaYy ell Ns a ee ee ey ee ee 18 31 Poisonous Snakes of the World 3. Short fangs on long maxillary bone which cannot rotate; usually teeth on maxil lary bone behind relatives Ik. A. A loreal pit, see fig. 4; (Sie europe, Asia, and Americans only); pit vipers-------------_- CROTALIDAT I. No loreal pit (Hurope, Asia, and Africa only); Old World vipers_- ba Oat Pumilies of dangerously polsonous species, PRESERVATION AND DISPOSITION OF UNIDENTIFIED SNAKES Snakes that cannot be identified should be pre- served in the manner given in the next paragraph and submitted to the nearest U.S. Naval Preven- tive Medicine Unit. Such units will provide identification service. If delivery to such a unit is not practicable, then contact the nearest natural history museum or other institution which might have a staff herpetologist and request help in iden- tification. The two best preservatives to prepare a speci- men for shipment or delivery to a herpetologist are: 1. Commercial formaldehyde diluted with 5 to 9 parts of water; 2. Grain alcohol diluted to 75 percent. However, animals as large as most snakes will decay if placed in a preservative without some prior preparation. An ideal specimen and one which will remain in a state of minimum decay may be prepared by thoroughly injecting the body cavity and base of the tail with the preservative. A large syringe is the best means to inject the fluid, but if one is not available, multiple slits should be cut into the belly and the base of the tail and this will enable the preservative to reach the 32 fang; cobras and ee ee ee VIPERIDAE SESS NIETO YS, Ke Xe ie deep tissues. Then put a wad of cotton or gauze into its mouth to hold it open. The specimen should then be neatly coiled, belly side up, in a container sufficiently large to cover the snake with the preservative. Do not crowd several speci- mens in a single container. Large snakes of 5 feet or more in length should be eviscerated or skinned out leaving only the head and tail intact before placing them in a container of preservative. An intact head will be sufficient to differentiate between poisonous and nonpoisonous species. After the specimen has hardened (5 to 7 days is usually required), it may be removed from the liquid, wrapped in damp rags, put in a plastic bag and shipped to the herpetologist for identifi- cation. A tag should always be included which gives the location where the specimen was col- lected in enough detail so that it can be located on a’ map in an ordinary atlas. If the name of a small native village is used then the name of the district, departinent, county or other political sub- division must be added. Other information to put on the tag which will greatly increase the sci- entific value of a specimen includes date of col- lection of specimen, approximate altitude, habitat, and the name and address of the collector. Use waterproof ink or a pencil in filling out the tag. Chapter VII DISTRIBUTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF POISONOUS LAND SNAKES OF THE WORLD INTRODUCTION To facilitate the identification of some 360 spe- cies of poisonous land snakes of the world, the land areas have been divided into 10 regions (see Map 1). This chapter has been divided into 10 sections to correspond. In each section has been included a definition of the region, a list of poi- sonous species which occur in it and their dis- tribution within the area and, importantly, a Key to the Genera of poisonous snakes inhabiting the region. The main body of the text of each sec- tion is separated into generic divisions (based upon the Key to Genera) and each division is headed by a description of the genus. Follow- ing thereafter are individual descriptions of the poisonous species which are responsible for the largest numbers of bites within the area, or are believed to be of serious danger to any adult human inhabiting or entering the region. Except in a few cases which are specifically in- dicated, the list of poisonous snakes of the world by Klemmer (1963) has been used as the basis for the nomenclature used in this chapter and elsewhere in the manual. The list of references appended to the end of each section is not in- tended to be comprehensive, but indicates the main sources of information utilized in preparing the accounts and may serve as an introduction to the literature on the poisonous snakes of the region. This same kind of information is given on sea snakes (Hydrophidae) in a separate chap- ter (Chapter VIII). Figures have been included for all of the dan- gerously poisonous species if photographs or drawings were available at the time of publica- tion. Missing photographs, or likely sources of such photographs, should be forwarded to the Preventive Medicine Division (Code 72), Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, Navy Department, Washington, D.C. for inclusion in future editions of this manual. 33 NOILIIS ‘ITA JoidvqO UL pasn SUOISIAIP O1ydBasoas SULMOYS p[IOM Jo dvy{—T dvjv ST 2120S una2Q yuiunzomw/ / 4 1 MD Hann Cito Now 2398 Ee ok E>, NOI IIS... YIP UPTTY NOILIDIS sear LEY BALLYAIMOMANY ATIMWREIDIN LON S) NOluwiNaeaMeay awvoNnO® up22Q I1J1IOd ol NOILIIS S2AvAs OFLIND \ FE 34 Section 1 NORTH AMERICA Definition of the Region: Continental United States and Canada TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Distribotion Ghent: ake sok eee ee es BS ae tS Eee ee 36 IntrodUction:.= S22 sc.) 2 Hise rs 2 As 2s 2 Se ee 37 KeyatoaGenerd&e =a: 49+ Jen ee eee ees eee ae ee oe ee ee 37 ELAPIDAE: MUG CHUT O10 Cite 6s se ee PRS en 2 ee ee 38 UCT INS RRIF a xed eee RU SRS ae Eh Be St ee oO CROTALIDAE: Ag histrodon=—=< 22. Be eee ee ee ee ee 38 Rabblesn ales 2 ra a a Eo oe a ae ee 39 ON DH a a pecs on eS 9 A Es (ire Pe ae SS ie 40 ISR ETT US ee a A ah I a ie i aD a 8 a ge ig ie 43 Reference sz a= = aS eg eh Nie gO eS es ee 45 35 Poisonous Snakes of the World TABLE 5.—DISTRIBUTION OF POISONOUS SNAKES OF NORTH AMERICA j dé g : Ag 5 ° . E: 4 6 g Ole & ~ : 3 S eR) z 3 z 3 ed Fs o > = aS : Peal 4 4 54 Ss % ¥ B Bo] & = 2 < iA -} a s x J = ry a | 4i5 rs g : < a 5 Saag 5 E ogee domilnbse [oR Ie Mee c aN ers Z = & 5 B Zz |= Pa L ee — —— ELAPIDAE Micruroides (éuryxanthus-p----= a= 222 ae eee }------}------} -----4-------} ------| 5S j------4------ SW Micrurus fulvius-=-=-.-.}--_.-}------- x >. Can Meee aes) eee D&S: | Ark. |_=---=--(2-_. 4-2 eee CROTALIDAE s Agkistrodon contortrix___]} S >< x N >. a! ae x x Iowa; |----==.|----=5) =e SE Neb. SE S. (Not Bee DIRCLY OLUS = = Sac 2aa eet Va x >: {peri bye hI ee E BD, |eccnca|2 ol ee ee or Ohio) Crotalus adamanteus____||--_-_}_~----__ Ss OK. | |p ee Soe ee eee de ee ee S Ok1; Cyatroxea= Sas sate ae ee eh Se a a el oa eee x Sw |.------) & |) “SH === Ark. Ce cerastes 2st ee ee eee eee a ee Ree Reread eae) RM I) i [bo -o S Wis; Ss @; horridus=-===5_-==2=2-- xX >.< >.< N x SE E BE! | lowa;|-—_--2)5= ae Minn SE Neb. @eilepidus292— = oa he oa a es ees SW /=-----Jbss-224) OS). | 5 eee Csemiteheliiize === 2 aE ee ea eee | ee Oe ee Ee eed Bee eee ny |) OS) [kee ee (Sebi (e} Feit) ee re! | eee Ce ee ee a ee eee W |f2-s25-b-=2 2! Xe eee eee @y prieei. 2-5 = ae Ee ee ase t ease eh See eu el a a ee ee |S @isruber! <8) Sa 25- ase eee ee be eee a oe ee ee ee ee eS G:scutulatusia-— 22223222 Se" ee eh | nae ee SE eS SW: |. =-----1-==22-4) | Wil S| =e Gostigris. =—--25-~---s2252 bee. 52h22 en oes ha el eee Eee aoe eS We @huvinidiss = 25 2.02 Sa Ie See a ed eee a | See eee SW WwW WwW x Minn Ge willardi=22s —= 2a ee sa ae ee ae Sa ea Se ee ee ee eS Neb; Sistrurus catenatus_____ W We “We= = see N x x x Towal| Sh) = N.Y. | Penn (Not E Col. in Ky. or Tenn.) SSomiliarius= sas | ee | ae x x Siw. i-==422 BE S) p22. eee eee Tenn & SW Ky. Certain groups of adjoining states are here treated as units. The symbol X indicates distribution of the species is widespread within the unit. Restriction of a species to a part of a unit is indicated appropriately (SW = Southwest, ete.). 36 INTRODUCTION North America has a comparatively small but well-known poisonous snake fauna. It includes 2 species of coral snakes, the closely related cop- perhead and cottonmouth, and 15 species of rat- tlesnakes. Most of these have been further di- vided into subspecies so that some 39 named forms are recognized. Poisonous snakes have been reported from all mainland states except Alaska, although they have been exterminated in Maine. Only the cop- perhead and 3 species of rattlesnakes have really extensive ranges. Poisonous snakes in Canada are restricted to comparatively small sections of southern British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatche- wan, and Ontario. Rattlesnakes are known from elevations up to 11,000 feet in the southern Sierra Nevada of California, to about 8,000 feet on dry, rocky slopes in Montana, and to the tops of the highest mountains in the southern Appalachians. In spite of this, poisonous snakes are rare in high mountains, in northern evergreen forests, and in heavily farmed or urban industrial areas. Some species survive unexpectedly well in sub- urban areas, especially in the southern United States. Areas with unusually large populations of poisonous snakes include parts of the Great Plains (rattlesnakes), the lower Mississippi North America Valley and Gulf Coast (rattlesnakes and cotton- mouths), and the southern Appalachians (rattle- snakes and copperheads). Snakebite is by no means rare in the southern and western United States. Incidence is highest in children in the 5 to 15 year age group, and most bites are sustained close to home whether in rural or suburban areas. Many bites result from deliberate handling of venomous snakes. Since 1950, there have been no more than 10 to 25 deaths annually in the United States. Arctic Ocean _—— = Mar 2.—Section 1, North America. KEY TO GENERA 1. A. Loreal pit absent (see fig. 6)__ B. Loreal pit present (see fig. 4) __ 2. A. Red, black and yellow or white rings encircle the body__----------- 3 1s Lieven Tenenneliinnersy NOLS NS) MON Cae ee NP* 3. A. Red and yellow or white body rings in contact; end of STOW DING ce ees ee re eee a B. Red and black rings in contact; end of snout red, white, yelloxForsbl acktes wee no a SS ee ee NP 4. A. Yellow headband followed by black ring___________________ Micrurus B. Yellow headband followed by red ring___-_-__-__________ Micruroides Ore cali on em cy piianrenttles eee oe eee Bd ee ee 6 BreNo rationals ss aie een ee ey Agkistrodon 6. A. Nine large shields on crown ep: ey ee ee ee ee Sistrurus B. Crown shields small or fragmented into scales_____-________ Crotalus * NP = Nonpolsonous 37 Poisonous Snakes of the World GENERIC AND SPECIES DESCRIPTIONS ELAPIDAE:; Genus Micruroides Schmidt, 1928. Arizona coral snake. A single species, M. euryranthus (Kennicott), is rec- ognized. It is found in the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico, It is a small snake but is considered dangerous (see p. 52). Definition: Head small, not distinct from neck; snout rounded, no distinct canthus. Body slender and elong- ate, not tapered; tail short. Eyes small; pupils round. Head scales: The usual 9 on the crown. Laterally, nasal in contact with single preocular. Ventrally, men- tal separated from anterior chin shields by first infrala- bials. Body scales: Dorsal smooth, in 15 nonoblique rows throughout body. Ventrals 206-242; anal plate divided; subcaudals paired, 19-32. Maxillary teeth: Two relatively large tubular fangs followed, after an interspace, by 1-2 small teeth. Remarks: Differs from nonpoisonous snakes as Mi- crurus does; differs from Micrurus in the solid black head color which ends in a straight line across the parietals, and in the teeth behind the fangs. ELAPIDAE: Genus Micrurus Wagler, 1824. American coral snakes. About 40 species are currently recognized. They range from North Carolina to Texas, and from Coahuila and Sonora, Mexico, southward through Central and South America to Bolivia and Argentina. Most are small species but some attain lengths in excess of 4 feet. All are dangerous. Definition: Head small, not distinct from neck; snout rounded, no distinct canthus. Body elongate, slender, not tapered; tail short. Eyes small; pupils round. Head scales: The usual 9 on the crown, Laterally, nasal in contact with single preocular. Ventrally, men- tal separated from anterior chin shields by first in- fralabials. Body scales: Dorsals smooth, in 15 nonoblique rows throughout body. Ventrals 177-412; anal plate divided or entire; subeaudals 16-62, usually paired but more than 50 percent single in some species. Maxillary teeth: Two relatively large tubular fangs with indistinct grooves; no other teeth on bone. Remarks: Nearly all coral snakes have color patterns made up of complete rings of yellow (or white), black, and usually red. Eastern Coral Snake, Micrwrus fulvius (Linna- eus). Identification: ead small; body slender with little taper; tail short; scales smooth with high gloss. End of snout black followed by broad yellow band 38 across base of head and wide, black, neck ring. Body completely encircled by black, yellow, and red rings— If the red and black rings touch each other, if the end of the snout is red, whitish, or speckled, and if the colors fail to en- circle the body, the snake is not a North American coral snake (see plate II, fig. 5). the red and yellow rings touching. These rules are not neces- In the small Arizona coral snake (Micruroides curyxanthus) the yellow head band is followed by a wide red neck ring (see fig. 25). Average length 23 to 32 inches; maximum 47 inches. Distribution: Southern United States from coastal North Carolina to west Texas and into northeastern Mexico at low elevations. Inhabits grassland and dry open woods; sometimes found along streams; occasion- ally in suburban areas. Remarks: Very secretive but sometimes found in the open during early or midmorning. Rather quick in its movements. When restrained it elevates the tail with the tip slightly curled and frequently tries to bite. Venom of this coral snake is very toxic but small in quantity. Many bites seem to be ineffective. In a recently reported series of 20 cases, 10 showed little or no evidence of poisoning. However, of 6 that showed definite signs of systemic envenomation, 4 died. A species specific antivenin soon will be available from Wyeth Laboratories. CROTALIDAE: Genus Agkistrodon Beauvois, 1799. Moccasins and Asian pit vipers. sarily true in tropical America. Twelve species are recognized. Three of these are in North and Central America; the others are in Asia, with one species, A. halys (Pallas) ranging westward to southeastern Europe. The American copperhead (A. contortriz) and the Eurasian mamushi and its relatives (A. halys) seldom inflict a serious bite but A. acutus and A. rhodostoma of southeastern Asia, as well as the ecottonmouth (A. piscivorus) of the southeastern United States, are dangerous species. Definition: Head broad, flattened, very distinct from narrow neck; a_sharply-distinguished canthus. Body eylindrical or depressed, tapered, moderately stout to stout; tail short to moderately long. Eyes moderate in size; pupils vertically elliptical. Head scales: The usual 9 on the crown in most species; internasals and prefrontals broken up into small scales in some Asian forms; a pointed nasal ap- pendage in some. Laterally, loreal pit separated from labials or its anterior border formed by second supra- labial. Loreal scale present or absent. Body scales: Dorsals smooth (in A. rhodostoma only) or keeled, with apical pits, in 17-27 nonoblique rows. Ventrals 125-174; subcaudals single anteriorly or paired throughout, 21-68. American Copperhead, Agkistrodon contortrix (Linnaeus). Identification: Head triangular; body moderately stout; facial pit present; pupil elliptical; most of sub- eaudals undivided. Pinkish-buff, russet, or orange brown with dark brown to reddish crossbands; belly pinkish white with large dark spots or mottling; top of head yellowish to cop- pery-red; sides paler; end of tail yellow in young, black to dark greenish or brown in adult. The cross- bands are narrow in the center of the back and wide on the sides in eastern specimens, only slightly nar- rowed in western ones (see plate I, fig. 5; plate III, fig. 6; plate IV, fig. 1). Average length 2 to 3 feet; maximum slightly over 4 feet; males larger than females. Distribution: The eastern United States (Massachu- setts to Kansas and southward exclusive of peninsular Florida), westward into trans-Pecos, Texas. Frequents wooded, hilly country in the north and west; lowlands in the south; sometimes plentiful in well populated areas. Remarks: Nocturnal in warm weather, diurnal in cool. In rocky country frequently hibernates in ledges with rattlesnakes and various nonpoisonous species. Usually remains coiled and quiet unless closely ap- proached or touched; vibrates tail when angry; often seems reluctant to strike, but some individuals are very irritable. Copperheads account for the great majority of snake bites seen in the eastern United States, exclusive of Florida and the Mississippi delta. Fatalities are almost unknown. Cottonmouth, Aghkistrodon piscivorus (Lacé- pede). Identification: A pit viper related to the copperhead but very widely confused with nonpoisonous semiaquatic snakes of the genus Natrir. For identification of dead specimens, note presence of facial pit, elliptical pupil, undivided subcaudals—all features lacking in non- poisonous snakes within the range of the cottonmouth. For field identification, head of cottonmouth is decidedly heavier and eyes less prominent than in the harmless water snakes. Behavior further distinguishes it (see Remarks). Olive or brown with wide blackish crossbands often FIGURE Photo by Isabelle Hunt Conant. fig. 6; plate III, fig. 5) 11.—Cottonmouth. Agkistrodon piscivorus. (See also plate I, North America enclosing lighter centers; belly is yellow and heavily marbled with black or dark gray; dark stripes behind eye; end of tail black. Large snakes, especially in the western part of the range, may be almest uniformly black above. Young have a more vivid pattern and a yellowish tail. Average length 30 to 45 inches; maximum about 6 feet. Distribution: Southeastern Virginia through south- ern lowlands and up Mississippi valley to southern Il- linois; west to central Texas, the southern third of Missouri, and extreme southeastern Kansas. Inhabits swamps, shallow lakes, and sluggish streams; usually absent from swift, deep, cool water. Remarks: Often seen basking by day on logs, stones, or branches near water; also active at night in warm weather. Frequently it is a belligerent snake that does not try to escape but throws back its head with mouth widely open showing the white interior and at the same time twitching or vibrating the tail. Nonpoisonous water snakes almost always swim or crawl away rapidly when alarmed. Bites by cottonmouths are fairly frequent in the lower Mississippi Valley and along the Gulf Coast. Fatalities are rare, but the venom has strong proteolytic activity. Tissue destruction may be severe. There is no species specific antivenin for the cottonmouth and copperhead. Polyvalent Crotalid Antivenin (Wyeth Ine., Philadel- phia) should be used. RATTLESNAKES Rattlesnakes are distinctively American ser- pents that can be almost always identified by the jointed rattle at the tip of the tail. The rattle is vestigial in a single rare species found on an island off the Mexican coast. It is too small to be a good field identification characteris- tic in the pigmy rattlesnakes (Sistrurus miliar- ius) and in young of some other small rattle- snakes. Although most of the rattle can easily be pulled or broken off, the base or matrix usually remains. Rarely the entire tail tip including the rattle matrix may be missing as a result of in- jury. Nine large crown shields are seen in rattle- snakes of the genus Sistrurus. In the genus Crotalus the crown shields are more or less ex- tensively fragmented. The facial pit is present in all rattlesnakes (see fig. 4 p. 26). Seales are keeled and subecaudals undivided. Species identification among rattlesnakes may be difficult, but it is often important. The venoms show significant differences that can in- fluence treatment and prognosis. Polyvalent Crotalid Antivenin (Wyeth, Inc., Philadelphia) 39 Poisonous Snakes of the World is specific for the venoms of the eastern and western diamondbacks (Creta/us adamanteus and ( ifvow). It is effective to some degree against all rattlesnake venoms. The larger species of rattlesnakes feed prin- cipally upon small mammals; the smaller species mostly upon lizards. Dore Be en ot ee oe ee eee 49 Distribution Cherteeeee sss ae oe ee eee ee ee eee 48, 50 KeystonGeneral22222- == 2 5 = ee eee 51 ELAPIDAE: MAGTAUO TO Cae as ot Son ee ee a eee 52 NWA 00 ry aes: Se CEES = ee ee ee ee a ee eee 52 CROTALIDAE: PAG RURUNO MOT Se went ka te 51Y oe SO ee 2 ee 53 SOU/UNOD See nas a SS ee ee Se eee 54 GORGE Cae ee ee ee ee 55 WICC OR UR ne re bee 1 Le 2 Ee ee ed | ee ee a eee 56 IS CSTNUMLS Hae ow Sa Cdn eR ee Sh eee eee 51 Referenceste: eee Pee. Ths eS ge ee Dit 47 Poisonous Snakes of the World (og ‘d wo panuyuo0)) Sa aT aT Aon Se eee SIPMTAOAS IU Se lp ee) ee | snjusvu oe | a ad eee Se pe aE tN ee ea snanue[eur |---------4---------}--~-~--~-} ---~-~---} -----~---4+------------------- ST[VI9}VI tae Se ero Ils.1oqsurvy] a a ata TuuvuIpos —---=----} ~~~ ~~~ -— 4 pn pn nnn nnn nal fee === juunp a en | re | ee | ee |e nn ee LOOT S| Le ed Bad ee ee ee eee SEM aire Set eee Tanoqarq a a ec xorqe sdorqjog ee SD}BIUT[IGq UOpoAstysy AVAITVLOYO nnK CAMA AMMM aA SY a aa aa aa a aay | I | (ata a ee ae ae ac stpeyonu “yr Poe SnpUbOASIU “TY a a ga et Och ah | Ca a ate snqqardiu “yy pa et Oe Ul ea aie el SNIBVDSVINLL “W aaa aad mate a ae ee a ni pea ee |e (ANS ge All(= canoe gor ee ee re STILTLOORL “TW Se a eae I TNINIE® ||| sa ate am an GR ica el SNIA[NJ “JT a ee a a eo a oe Me Palle apace ee Wesulzyy YW Se ee a ele Pama) | Gea ael|| eee Allactcieae a> a arayiddiydea “TT oper ara at ae en: Ee Mehl | a pear tari aac eg ana suvsoye “J a a ee eae ee ee ee el ee aa esl eA ee Se SUvISID “IW a a a at ba a Oe a ee SNONI[OSSIP “TW ae oe eo TE |e) © RN ee Were BUIAISVIP “TW SA | eas causa | ca ee ee ees Le al ee © leew. ee TYAVlO “TW Seeman as | Ragen a ee | ie oa tee | pee ee en CAM RN eg bor ea [tp MU air [Inne te gee me TUMOL, ‘W Ce are a ee ae aed ns gece 5i|y eAAE Wino ass vac Soo eas ee Ipvuleq “TT a a a ta a a ge ae a Dp ame [eg ae eee ig ae ST[RIOOUB “TL a ag | ne a ra ae recy [a gg at Ta] [VB SANA a Se oa ee = as al Lee eee Se. snyqjyuexdéine saploinsolyy AVAId VTA vweur, Boy Baso+y sesnpuo}y eyewaieny seinpuoy “g YOINIWY TVYLNID 8 ODIXAW 4O SAAVNS SNONOSIOd JO NOILNGILSIG—9 ATaVL 48 INTRODUCTION The poisonous snakes of northern Mexico and of the Mexican plateau southward to Mexico City are very similar to those of the United States. These high and arid regions are inhabited mainly (speaking in terms of poisonous snakes) by vari- ous species of rattlesnakes. However, the Ari- zona coral snake (Jfieruroides euryxanthus) also is found along the northern border of the western states of Chihuahua, Sinaloa, and Sonora, and the coral snake, Jicrurus fitzinger/, is found in the south. As one descends from the plateau to the coastal plain, however, even as far north as Tamaulipas and Nayarit, a strange tropical snake fauna is found. Included in this are many kinds of coral snakes, the cascabel (tropical rattlesnake), Cvrota- lus durissus, and various members of the Ameri- can lanceheads, the genus Bothrops. The coral snakes are a negligible source of danger although they are highly venomous and the case fatality rate is high (approaching 50 per- cent). Because they are such secretive animals, however, they are seldom encountered. Almost every coral snake bite is inflicted on a person that is attempting to catch or kill the reptile. If peo- ple would but leave the bright-colored snakes with red, black, and yellow (or whitish) rings alone, this group would offer little danger. It is the absence of a broad head and vertically ellipti- eal pupils (characteristic of pit vipers) that causes the unknowledgeable man to mistake a coral snake for a nonyvenomous species. The other poisonous species are all pit vipers and are easily identified by the loreal pit, the broad head, eyes with vertical pupils, and the rough-sealed body. Most of the species of rattle- snakes are northern and western in distribution. Those along the Mexican—United States border are the same as those which occur in the United States. However, the cascabel (Crotalus durissus) ranges through the grasslands and other dry and open areas of the tropical lowlands throughout the region as far north as southern Tamaulipas. It attains a length of 6 feet and has a large store of a very toxic venom. Apparently, too, its venom does not cause the formation of antibodies in horses to the extent that most venoms do; and, Mexico and Central America therefore, the antivenin is only weakly effective. This makes it one of the most dangerous snakes of the region and one of the most dangerous snakes on earth. Most of the bites through the tropical areas of Central America are inflicted by members of the American lanceheads (Bothrops). Many of the bites are by bush and tree vipers such as the eye- lash viper (Bothrops schlegelii). These often cause serious injury to the affected part but sel- dom cause death. The major killer of man throughout the region is the barba amarilla, Bothrops atrox (often miscalled fer-de-lance). This 5 to 8 foot snake has an unpredictable temperament; it is easily irritated to strike and carries a large supply of powerful venom. It causes a large number of deaths each year. The huge bushmaster (Zachesis mutus), on the other hand, which grows to a length of 9 to 12 feet, is seldom encountered due to its purely noc- turnal habits. It causes relatively few bites, and these appear to be no more serious than those of the barba amarilla. tretic Ocean =, r SA es * 7 GREENLANC 12 od Mar 3.—Section 2, Mexico and Central America. 49 Poisonous Snakes of the World }1UN aq} UIWITA Satvads wB JO adUaTINDD0 pazdadsns Se}voIpUl ~ [0G -unood vB JO Jivd 0} SaTvads B JO UOTQOIIVSAy ATWO “ST VINO T-¢ mts oq x x x x x x |e 25 5a = Lfeees 9 Zz = 5 2 ra & la) c es s RAZ RN A[UO ‘ST SOIpaj-; ATWO “ST VUITRIVD “VIS-r “QANAVAIITT PUVA JNOyITAL “(Je ‘seMqynos = AS) AJezeTIdoidde pej}vorpur sy Aq *£1]UNOd 9} UIQIIA pveidsepIa ST sefveds ey} JO UOTZNQII}SIP seyvoIpul X [oquids ayy ee ae ak are SNAVI SNANAISIS aaa Sn}vue}BO SUANAISTS aa: See le Ae SNJNU SISeyVyT St a ee ce IpABI[IM “OD eS See a SIPWIIA “D Rae ae oe ee SNYVMIASTI} /) aE ae ee Le a SNSIOASUBA] *f Be SSS ee SISUaSN}IO} “D a “ie kee eT Te SIIST] ‘OD a ae Teen Ileseuleys a gas snjyepnqnos “pH a ES eS Toqua —) = aa ei Oe lo a snqisud “9 SoG ea oe laomd “) a hatha snyoysdjod “p Se SSS SS aS SNSSO[OUL “(> an eee eh U[[eyo yu“) i Se> snpide] “p a eee oes a ae SNIpsuia}Ut —Y Se ee an Gaal sxe “p See Ss SS 4 ae osu “(—) SS a susstimp ") tec Se a a ee So]Stia “D ee one a SISUBUT[RIB) “—) SS SS a snosTIseq “) Sees SSS 5-55 XOIVB SN[VIOID Se Seg ro ta Sea shotunyRond “g See snyepnpun “_ a a isis saqdousyds “g Se SS IpasoeTYOS “EL oe snyepund “_ oS aes pate Toprol ‘¢ (penuyu0s) GVATTV.LOWO JOPEATES If eyewajeny sesnpuoy “g (panuyuo>) YOIYIWVY TWYLNID 8 ODIXAW JO SAAVNS SNONOSIOd 4O NOILNGILSIG—'9 318VL 50 KEY TO GENERA The poisonous snakes of this region belong to two families, the Elapidae, which is represented by two genera of coral snakes, and the Crotalidae, represented by five genera. The latter are easy enough to distinguish by the presence of the loreal pit on the side of the face (fig. 4), a broad head which is distinct from a narrow neck, and the eye with a vertically elliptical pupil. How- ever, there are several kinds of nonpoisonous snakes that look very much like the coral snakes and the latter have few easily visible features that absolutely distinguish them. Coral snakes have a relatively narrow, though often flattened, head that is not distinctly set off from the slender and cylindrical body. The eye is small and has a round pupil (as do most nonpoisonous snakes) Mexico and Central America and there is no distinctive pit on the side of the head. In general coral snakes have rings of red, black, and yellow, but in some species the yellow may be almost white, in others the red is absent except on the head and tail and one is black and red only (brown and white in preservative). In the tri- color species the black rmgs may occur singly, separated from one another by rings of yellow and red, or in groups of three (triads), each triad separated by broader rings of red. The harmless mimics of these coral’snakes, such as the tropical forms of the milksnake (Lampropeltis triangu- Jum) and the members of such tropical genera as Pliocercus tend to have the black rings of their patterns pa/red. They also tend to have longer tails than the short-tailed coral snakes. However, any brightly-ringed snake should be treated with respect until its identity as a harmless species is confirmed. 1, A. Dorsal scales at midbody distinctly keeled_-_---_________________ 7 18}, 1DYorespl Seeks flies weantol ofoye hy: sieoVofe) Noe 2 Dae Ae Etipilvotwevenverticalliy eliliqniiCel a= ne ee NPs Baebtimilvorieyesro undoes setae ee ee ee eee 3 3. A. A loreal scale present (3 scales between nostril and eye) —~--------- NP BiNomoreal scales 222 === sae eee ees ee + 4. A. Color pattern of body made up of alternating rings of red, yellow, and black (red and black in one species) ~--------- 5) Be Color pattern nob t0mnin ys uee ams sees ee eee ees eee ee NP 5. A. Black rings alternating with yellow; OR single, sepa- rated by broad bands of red and yellow; OR in triads separated by broad bands of red_--_--_---____-___--_- 6 JBI” LOM GWA evi MCAS |p alah ONT Se ae oo Doe ps ene ie he NP 6. A. Entire snout and main part of head black; first band eieye svEllKony i rotelts renee? Tiel Micruroides B. Usually some light color anterior to eyes; first band after red or yellow neck band black___________________ Micrurus iA PAs Joreallspit: presente: a. Sere ee ee eee 8 By Noiloréalpit-ee=_ = =) Sa eee ee ee eee NP Sheed von: eeu yeaa raj Omce cllearanti ti] eee eee oe 11 Bs Now rattlets 228 2a) oe eee es eee ee ee ee 9 9. A. Crown of head with nine regular plates________________ Agkistrodon B. Crown of head with small scales or irregular plates___----------- 10 10, A. Subcaudals near tip of tail divided and elongated to Una ‘Sjommayy lee (Msi, BY) Lachesis B. Scales near tip of tail not greatly different from those MC SUROT ae OR SOm ee ee een ee ee ee Bothrops 11. A. Crown of head with nine regular plates_____.____________ Sistrurus B. Crown of head with small scales or a few irregular plates__-_ Crotalus * NP = Nonpoisonous 51 Poisonous Snakes of the World GENERIC AND SPECIES DESCRIPTIONS ELAPIDAE: Genus Micruroides Schmidt, 1928. (Arizona coral snake. A single species, WV. euryranthus (Kennicott), is ree ognized It is found in the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. It is a small snake but is considered dangerous, Definition Head small, not distinct from neck; snout rounded, no distinet canthus. Body slender and elong- ate, not tapered; tail short. Eyes small; pupils round. Head scales: The usual 9 on the crown, Laterally, nasal in contact with single preocular. Ventrally, men- tal separated from anterior chin shields by first infrala- bials. Body scales: Dorsals smooth, in 15 nonoblique rows throughout body. Ventrals 206-242; anal plate divided ; subeaudals paired, 19-382. Maxillary teeth: followed, after an interspace, by 1-2 small teeth. Two relatively large tubular fangs Remarks: Differs from nonpoisonous snakes as Mi- crurus does; differs from Micrurus in the solid black head color which ends in a straight line across the parietals, and in the teeth behind the fangs. Arizona Coral Snake, Iicruroides euryxanthus (IXennicott). Identification: The elongate body, unmodified rostral, and black snout distinguish this species from the simi- larly-colored nonpoisonous sand snakes (Chilomeniscus) and shovel-nosed snakes (Chionactis) that inhabit the same region. The yellow- or white-bordered red rings distinguish it from the king snakes (Lampropeltis) which have black-bordered red bands. Adults average 12 to 16 inches in length; occasional individuals attain a length of 20 inches. Snout and anterior part of head black, ending in a straight line across posterior tips of parietals. A light % ‘ % Pees a “* ae Figure 25.—Arizona Coral Snake, Micruroides euryxran- thus. The straight line across the ends of the parie- tals and the red color of the first body ring are dis- tinctive. Photo by Charles M. Bogert. 52 (yellow or whitish) band on neck, followed by a red ring; remainder of body with alternating rings of black and red, each separated by light rings. Tail bands al- ternating black and light. Distribution: Semidesert areas from western Texas and western Chihuahua through southern New Mexico, Arizona, Island. Found at altitudes up to 5,000 feet (Portal, Arizona). Sonora, and Sinaloa; on Tiburon Remarks: This small and secretive snake is inoffen- sive and very few bites have been reported. However, it possesess a highly toxic venom and should not be treated carelessly. ELAPIDAE: Genus Micrurus Wagler, 1824. American coral snakes. About 40 species are currently recognized. They range from North Carolina to Texas, and from Mexico Central and South America to through southward we hy. r 1E eth it ed ms Figure 26.—Fitzinger’s Coral Snake, Micrurus fitzingeri (Jan). An unusual red, yellow. and black coral snake that ranges well onto the southern part of the Mexican plateau. Photo by Charles M. Bogert. Bolivia and Argentina. Most are small species but some attain lengths in excess of 4 feet. All are dan- gerous. Definition: Bead small, not distinct from neck; snout rounded, no distinct canthus. Body elongate, slender, not tapered; tail short. Eyes small; pupils round. Head scales: The usual 9 on the crown. Laterally, nasal in contact with single preocular. Ventrally, men- tal separated from anterior chin shields by first infrala- bials. Body scales: Dorsals smooth, in 15 nonoblique rows throughout body. Ventrals 177-412; anal plate divided or entire; subcaudals 16-62, usually paired but more than 50 percent single in some species. Maxillary teeth: Two relatively large tubular fangs with indistinct grooves; no other teeth on bone. Remarks: Nearly all coral snakes have color pat- terns made up of complete rings of yellow (or white), black, and usually red. They differ from their non- poisonous ‘‘mimics” in that the red color, when present, is usually bordered by the yellow or white; in the non- poisonous kinds it is usually bordered in black. Atlantic Coral Snake, Micrurus diastema (Dumé- ril, Bibron, and Duméril). Identification: A coral snake with numerous narrow black rings, which alternate with yellow and red rings. Black rings not narrowed laterally, usually complete below. Adults average 2 to 3 feet in length. Black rings narrowly edged with yellow, which is sometimes absent; red rings of approximately the same width; red scales tipped with black. Black rings not in triads, varying from 10 in Yucatan to as many as 60 on the body in the highlands of Guatemala. Ventrals 192-229; subcaudals 32-57; no supra-anal tubercles. Distribution: Eastern Mexico southward Guatemala and British Honduras to Honduras. Remarks: This remarkably variable coral snake is fairly constant in any one region and can usually be distinguished by the irregular black spots in the red rings. Broad-banded Coral (Kennicott). Identification : through Snake, JJicrurus distans A coral snake with broad red bands and single narrow black bands. The head is mainly black and the lips are yellow. Adults average 2 to 3 feet in length; maximum length 42 1/4 inches. The body color is mainly red, the red scales not black- tipped. There are 11-17 black rings on the body, the rings on the sides may be slightly narrower, and 3-6 black rings on the tail. The crown of the head is black back to the level of the eyes, but the lips are yellow (or white) and there are spots of the light color on the snout. Ventrals 208-2383; subcaudals 38-52. Distribution: Western Mexico from Sonora to Guer- rero. Remarks: This coral snake has a remarkable harm- less mimic which inhabits the same region. The neo- tropical milksnake, Lampropeltis triangulum nelsoni Blanchard, has the same broad red bands and narrow black bands. However, as in most coral snake mimics, the black bands occur in pairs—an occurrence never found in coral snakes. Black-ringed Coral Snake, IMicrurus mipartitus (Duméril, Bibron, and Duméril). Identification: A coral snake with broad black rings and numerous narrow white, yellow, or red (in Central America) rings between. Adults average about 24 in- ches in length; occasional individuals may exceed 3 feet. Snout black, a broad red band passing just behind eye and covering posterior part of head. Body with 34-81 black rings separated by narrow, (usually) yellow rings; tail with 3-5 black rings and 2-5 red rings. Mexico and Central America Ventrals 197-310; subcaudals 26-34. Distribution: Rain forest areas from Nicaragua to northern Venezuela and Peru. Remarks: The unusual coloration of this coral snake, a red ring on the head and 2-5 others on the tail, is distinctive. Black-banded Coral Snake, Wicrurus nigrocinctus (Girard). Identification: A coral snake with a black snout and broad red bands alternating with single uniform black rings, each separated from the other with relatively narrow yellow or whitish rings. Adults average 2 to 3 feet in length; occasional individuals may attain lengths of over 4 feet. One of the coral snakes with 12-20 single black rings on the body (3-7 on tail) which are narrowly edged with yellow or whitish. Alternating red rings usually much broader than black, but relative amounts of black, yellow and red vary geographically. Snout black with darker color extending back over frontal area in a point. A broad yellow band over posterior part of head and a black ring on neck. Scales of red area often tipped with black. Ventrals 188-240; subecaudals 31-60. pra-anal tubercles. Distribution: Lowland rain forest areas (up to an altitude of about 4,000 feet) from southern Mexico (Guerrero) southward through Central America to northwestern Colombia. This is one of the most com- mon species of coral snakes in the region. Remarks: Two fatal bites referrable to this species are known from Costa Rica (S. A. Minton). No anti- venin is produced for this species. Males have su- CROTALIDAE: Genus Agkistrodon Beauvois, 1799. Moccasins and Asian Pit vipers. Twelve species are recognized. Three of these are in North and Central America; the others are in Asia, halys (Pallas) ranging westward to southeastern Europe. The American copperhead (A. contortrir) and the Eurasian mamushi and its relatives (A. halys) seldom inflict a serious bite but A. acutus and A. rhodostoma of southeastern Asia, as well as the cottonmouth (A. piscivorus) of the southeastern United States, are dangerous species. Definition: Head broad, flattened; very distinct from narrow neck; a sharply-distinguished canthus. Body cylindrical or depressed, tapered, moderately stout to stout; tail short to moderately long. Eyes moderate in size; pupils vertically elliptical. Head scales: The usual 9 on the crown in most species; internasals and prefrontals broken up into small scales in some Asian forms; a pointed nasal appendage in some. Laterally, loreal pit separated from labials or its anterior border formed by second supralabial. Lo- real scale present or absent. Body scales: Dorsals smooth (in A. with one species, A. rhodostoma 53 Poisonous Snakes of the World only) or keeled, with apical pits, in 17-27 nonoblique rows, Ventrals 125-174; subcaudals single anteriorly or paired throughout, 21-68. Cantil, Aghkistreodon bilineatus Giinther. Identification A chocolate-brown to black pit viper with typical headplates and one thin light line along the ecanthus, continuing behind the eye, another along the upper part of the supralabials to the corner of the Adults average 2 1/2 to 3 feet; dividuals exceed 4 feet. mouth. occasional in- Juvenile individuals have broad light-edged crossbands on a lighter background; these disappear in adults ex- cept for traces of the white edging which persist as narrow irregular crossbars of white-edged scales. Ven- tral color dark brown with black-edged white markings. Figure 27.-—Cantil, Agkistrodon bilineatus. Photo by New York Zoological Society. (See also plate I, fig. 4.) Dorsals heavily keeled, in 23-25 rows at midbody, fewer posteriorly. Ventrals 129-144; subcaudals 59-68, the anterior 20 or so single, the posterior ones paired. Distribution: In swampy areas and along stream banks on both coasts of Mexico and Central America from Nuevo Leon and Sonora southward to the west coast of Guatemala and the east coast of Nicaragua. Remarks: This is the only snake within its range with the brown color and twin light stripes on the sides of the head. It is aquatic and is often found swimming. It is presumed to be a dangerous snake; it is reported to cause serious local lesions but seldom death. CROTALIDAE: Genus Bothrops Wagler, 1823. American lance-headed vipers. Between 40 and 50 species are currently recognized ; all are found in tropical America and southern South America. There are three general groups: 1. Large, long-tailed terrestrial species, usually with paired sub- caudals; 2. Small, short-tailed terrestrial species with single subecaudals; and 3. Small to moderate-sized ar- boreal species with prehensile tail, most of which have at least the anterior subcaudals single. The large ter- restrial species are very dangerous, the others less so. Definition: Head broad, flattened, very distinct from narrow neck; a sharply-distinguished canthus. Body 54 cylindrical or moderately compressed, moderately slender to stout; tail short to moderately long. yes small to moderate in size; pupils vertically el- liptical. Head scales: Supraoculars generally present, inter- nasals often distinct, sometimes separated by small scales; remainder of crown covered with small imbrieate Laterally, second supralabial may make up anterior border of loreal pit or may be separated from it. Loreal scales present or absent. Dorsals keeled, in 19-85 nonoblique Ventrals 121-253; subcaudals single scales; enlarged canthals sometimes present. Body scales: rows at midbody. or paired, 22-838. Barba Amarilla, Pothrops atrow (Linnaeus). Identification: An olive-green, gray, or brownish snake with a pattern of lateral darker (usually) black- edged triangles whose apices meet, or nearly meet, at the vertebral line. Adults average 4 to 6 feet; record lengths exceed 8 feet. Ground color brownish, olive, or tan, with a narrow dark postorbital stripe and a series of about 20-30 paired lateral triangles. Each marking is lighter in the center and often has a light edging to the dark- bordered triangle. Ventral surface light cream to yellow with dark blotches becoming more numerous posteriorly. Ventrals 180-220; subcaudals 46-73, all paired. Distribution: Forest areas from southern Tamauli- pas and southern Sonora, in Mexico, through all of Central America, and in South America southward to Peru and northern Brazil. A very widespread species that is common in banana, coffee, and cocoa plantations as well as in undisturbed forest regions; often found along streams. Ficure 28.—Barba Amarilla, Bothrops atrow (an indi- vidual from Trinidad). logical Society. Photo by New York Zoo- Remarks: This snake has long fangs and a highly toxic venom. It is probably responsible for more deaths in the Americas than any other snake. It will usually retreat if given the opportunity, but becomes aggressive if disturbed and will strike repeatedly. Polyvalent antivenins for the bite of this snake are produced by Laboratorio Behrens (Venezuela), Instituto Butantan (Brazil), and Wyeth, Inec., Philadelphia. Lansberg’s Hognose Viper, Gothrops lansbergii (Schlegel). Identification: A small brownish ground viper with upturned snout and a series of angular blotches down the back, separated into pairs by a light vertebral line. Body short and moderately stout; head broad. Adults average 18 to 24 inches in length. Ground color light brown, tan, or gray with a dorsal series of paired dark brown blotches separated from one another by a thin light line; broadly separated from low lateral series of spots. Canthus raised and sharp, snout raised and pointed. Eye separated from supralabials by 2-3 rows of small seales. Dorsals 25-27, heavily keeled. Ventrals 152- 159; subcaudals 29-35, all single. Distribution: In semiarid forest and brushy areas from Southern Mexico and Guatemala through Central America to Colombia and northern Venezuela. Remarks: This is one of several hognose vipers that inhabit the dryer areas of Central and northern South America. The similar B. nasutus Bocourt is found from Mexico over much the same region but generally in more moist situations. Jumping Viper, Bothrops nummifer (Ruppell). Identification: A short, thick-bodied viper with dark saddle-shaped blotches on a tan or gray background. Adults average 18 to 24 inches in length. Ground color tan, light brown or gray with about 20 dark brown or black rhomboid blotches down the back, these often connected with lateral spots to form narrow erossbands. Top of head dark with oblique postorbital band forming upper limit of light color on sides of head. Ventral color whitish, sometimes blotched with dark brown. ‘Snout rounded, canthus sharp. Body exceed- ingly stout; tail short. FIGuRE 29. its coarse scales and diamond-shaped markings, this snake is sometimes mistaken for a young bushmaster (Lachesis mutus). The nonspecialized tail tip (see Jumping Viper, Bothrops nummifer. With fig. 82) distinguishes it. logical Society. Photo by New York Zoo- Dorsals strongly keeled, tubercular in large indi- viduals, in 23-27 rows at midbody fewer (19) posteri- Mexico and Central America orly. Ventrals 121-135; subcaudals 26-36, all or mostly single. Eye separated from labials by 3-4 rows of small scales. Distribution: Low hilly rain forest and plantations from southern Mexico to Panama. Remarks: This is the largest of the smaller terres- trial tropical vipers. With its stout body it ean strike for a distance greater than its own body length. How- ever, it has relatively short fangs and its venom is not highly toxie. Eyelash Viper, Bothrops schlegelii (Berthold). Identification: A green, tan, or yellow tree viper with raised and pointed scales above the eye. Body moderately stout, with a prehensile tail; head broad and distinct. Ground color green, olive-green, tan or yellow with Adults average 16 to 24 inches in length. scattered black dots which may form irregular cross- bands. Green and tan individuals commonly have nar- row reddish and brown crossbands or a reticulated pat- tern of red. Belly green or yellow, spotted with black. Figure 30.—EByelash Viper, Bothrops schlegqelii. by New York Zoological Society. Photo Canthus sharp; a row of small scales above eye, 2-3 of them raised and pointed. keeled. Ventrals 138-162; Distribution: In trees and bushes through rain forest areas and cacao plantations from southern Mexico southward through Central America to Ecuador and Venezuela. Remarks: Dorsals 19-25, moderately subecaudals 47-62, all single. There are several green “palm vipers” but B. schegelii is the most commonly seen and is the only one with the raised scales above the eye. None appears to be highly dangerous and no specific antivenin is pro- duced for this group of lance-headed vipers. CROTALIDAE: Genus Crotalus Linnaeus, 1758. Rattlesnakes. About 25 species of rattlesnakes are currently recog- nized. Most species are in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. One species (C. durissus) ranges southward into southern South America, two are found east of the Mississippi River, and two as far north as Canada. A few of the very small species, and small individuals of large species (less than 2 feet) may 55 Poisonous Snakes of the World offer little danger, but most species do; some are highly dangerous. Several species range into this region (see p MO), Definition Head broad, very distinct from narrow neck, canuthus distinct to absent, tody cylindrical, de- pressed, or slightly compressed, moderately slender to stout; tail short with a horny segmented rattle. Eyes small; pupils vertically elliptical. Head seales: Supraoculars present, a pair of inter- nasals often distinet, occasionally a pair of prefrontals ; enlarged canthal scales often present; other parts of crown covered with small scales. Laterally, eye sepa- rated from supralabials by 1-5 rows of small scales. Dorsals keeled, with apical pits, in 19- 38 nonoblique rows at midbody. Ventrals 182-206; sub- caudals 13-45, all single or with some terminal ones Body scales: paired. Mexican West-coast Rattlesnake, Crotalus basiliscus (Cope). Identification: The only rattlesnake within its range with diamond-shaped dorsal markings. Body moder- ately stout and rather triangular in cross’ section. Adults average 4 to 5 feet; maximum length 6 feet, 9 3/4 inches (Klauber, 1956). Head uniform grayish brown or olive green except for dark postorbital bar and lighter labials; no distinct markings on crown or neck. Body brown or grayish olive with 26-41 dark light-edged, rhomb-shaped (dia- mond) blotches. Tail gray, darker-banded or almost unicolor without distinct markings. White or cream- colored below. Dorsals strongly keeled, in 25-29 rows at midbody, fewer posteriorly. Ventrals 174-206; subcaudals 18-36. The coastal plain and mountain slopes of western Mexico from southern Sonora to central Oaxaca. Mainly an inhabitant of thorn forest, but ranges upward into tropical rain forest in the south. Little has been reported on the effect of Distribution: Remarks: Ficure 31—Mexican West-coast Rattlesnake, Crotalus basiliscus. Photo by San Diego Zoo. 56 the bite of this species. 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© Pree er aealpamaiseen) emery Nees | Re Be ce lee. ol ge lm oe ay a a 3 5 a | & |- Ee eel) pe 3 g jorehe S| | = har | | S3IGNI LSIM 8 YOIMAWY HLNOS JO SAXVNS SNONOSIOd JO NOILNGIYLSId—Z AlaVL S South America and the West Indies “GOGT ‘az0y7 AQ YuvA sapoods UOALT A[JUIDOW ea» FOGT “T9ZUT Ses ‘az0Y “Y Sluve 0} Fuypsaooov py[eauy sueNn, ‘9INIRII}[ PHVA PNOGIA JUN 94} UTITA soyoeds vB Jo ddUeSoad poJoodsns sozvoIpuy 4 joquIds ag “(dja “YsoMyNOS = MS) Alou -jadoadd@ poyvorpur st Aajunod vw jo javd 0} sojveds UB Jo UOTO[IJsey “ArZUNOD 94} UPAITA peosdsapia sy sajoads ey} JO UOTING{AJSIp Sa}yvo|pul KX JOquIAS oT, (A[UO ‘s[ epuviy wprumyend)-; So | Po aa ae ee FRC taal Sell esse liao cull a cell Mab eg iN 35g 9 ||| 5 sell ee i ea SNINUL SISAOV'yT eas le ee AoToormn "OD a - IER TRL PI MULERE EAR) lanp snypeRyoay sean ig ae rae SNUIUMIBASOUJUVX “ET en ea ee or ale » OV[OUZIUGA “gq Se eel ee - ahs ated totaion (=F f2) AEC) aa L SR a eS ee Llasulpesod “¢ a a snyejound ‘gq | a le ea ae dayorud “q_ a a teleard “¢ tourjid “¢q se a i aa ee slijoid ‘¢ Rae mes ——==—snuviAnded “g Sg eo Seas heryiaiched Fae ee eS nae ae Slpoe[s0u “_T a te aa alain sijusvu “g a a aa SHUTPBYYdo.o1t “ey —-“RSUpOUL “¢ snuelol “g [tees ae ees snsoudstyr, “qT ei age ae ee a Is19qsurvl “g_ | Tae nonin ake Sd BLOODIE Tc. ee a te ussnoBslerel “_ Se Se Sas a Rourelrel “g a at OVSULUTedeyL “g¢ Sa eee SIIB[USUL “gq ps elected ea SSI SEIS (243) CE) fed Gas foes Pose ae an sna01dosy eee AS Oe ee Bee DOS UOT al ar een eet SBlsulOIy Aro haeaeaseena acon a edn at ten it BABTIJOO eae Gan Pata —-———Ipneula}sBo a ra ——-~4% SNIBQQIIvd RR SSS ee eee snyvoul[iq esos Se seo ===—-iiouaed Sacesee eae Sat don iy} | Sane ere —-~~snuBipue | [eo Gea mer saployApoulure Eek aa eal ah Nhl tate BlOOT[V (penutja09) MVAITVLOYO AAMAMMAMaAAa A 61 Poisonous Snakes of the World INTRODUCTION The poisonous snakes of South America belong to five genera, only one of which (Leptomiecrurus) All but the rattle- snake genus Crotalus, however, are restricted to the American South America. Although the bushmaster (Zachesis mutus) is the largest poisonous snake of the region, it is is restricted to this continent. tropics and temperate one of the minor hazards to human life since it is mainly of nocturnal habit and is sluggish or secretive during the day. The tropical rattle- snake (Crotalus durissus) and the large lance- headed vipers such as Bothrops atrox and related species account for most of the deaths in the region. Coral snakes (Mierurus and Leptomicrurus) are relatively common in tropical regions. About 30 species are found here. They are secretive during the day and cause relatively few cases of Ilowever, they secrete venom of a highly poisonous, neurotoxic variety which is re- sponsible for a very high percentage (almost 50 percent) of deaths in victims of their bites. The islands of the Caribbean with a few ex- ceptions are free of poisonous snakes. All of the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico) are free of poisonous kinds. Only Martinique and Santa Lucia, among the Lesser Antilles, have poisonous snakes, as do the continental islands of Margarita, Trinidad, and Tobago, and the offshore island of Aruba. On the mainland, only the highest of the Andes are free of poisonous snakes. At least one kind of poisonous snake ranges southward onto the pampas of southern Argentina, leaving only the southernmost tip of South America and the arid plains of Chile free of venomous snakes. snakebite. KEY TO GENERA ie PAC Dorsaliscales! at mudbody distmctly keeled === === 7 B. Dorsal scales at midbody smooth 2. A= Pupil of eye distinctly vertically elliptical=== === IN Bs Bupiliotieye:round == s=— 8-2 ee ee eee 3 3. A. A loreal scale present (3 scales between nostril and eye) ----------- NP iB. Noslorenlisscale== == ae= e oee Be eeee 4 4. A. Color pattern of body made up of alternating rings of red, yellow, and black (red restricted to head and Teall WRT GU ES°0 0055) Se le ea aS A ene es 5 iB Color pattermmot merino s® =e. 2 aes ee ee ee ee eee 6 5. A. Black rings alternating with yellow; OR single, sepa- rated by broad bands of red and yellow; OR in triads separated by broad bands of red___-__---------~- Micrurus B. Black rings in pairs or single, separated by broad rings OL Tede ee 222 = aie ee ee ee ee NP 6. A. A yellow band across back part of head; body black above, with numerous crossbands of red or yellow below which extend up sides as triangles__-------~~ Leptomicrurus Bw Batter notasi described aboves= === = ee NP te 2Acy Wathva loreail® pit. \(fio:t4)\ 22. = 2 82 See oe ene Bee ee eae ee eee ee 8 B-pNorloneal pit 2 2 =. 2 ee eee ee eee NP 8. A. With a segmented rattle at the end of the tai]_------------_- Crotalus IB. NO rattles 2.22 25 ao ee ee ee eee 9 9. A Terminal subeaudals divided into short spines, forming an burr (ig 332) Sos soe ee oe ee es Lachesis BS No suchsburtS2s 222 as 2 See ee eee Bothrops * NP = Nonpoisonous 62 GENERIC AND SPECIES DESCRIPTIONS ELAPIDAE: Genus Leptomicrurus Schmidt, 1937. Slender coral snakes. Two species are recognized* ; both are found in north- ern South America. These extremely elongate and slender snakes approach 3 feet in length. There are no reported bites but they are considered potentially dan- gerous. Definition: WHead small, not distinct from neck; snout rounded, no distinct canthus. Body extremely slender and elongate, not tapered; tail short. Eyes small; pupils round. Head scales: The usual 9 on the crown. Laterally, nasal in contact with single preocular. Ventrally, men- tal in contact with anterior chin shields. Body scales: Dorsals smooth, in 15 nonoblique rows throughout body. Ventrals 212-410; anal plate divided; subeaudals paired, 17-35. Maxillary teeth: Two relatively large tubular fangs; no other teeth on bone. Remarks: These snakes differ from Micrurus and Micruroides in that the yellow crossbands are incom- plete dorsally; they are best defined on the ventral surface and appear as triangles on the sides. The contact of mental and anterior chin shields also is distinetive. \eLANO UNITED aYATES cats wae Vilantss =< avcuma Map 4.—Section 3, South America and the West Indies. * A third has been described recently. South America and the West Indies Amazon Slender Coral Snake, Leptomicrurus nar- ducci (Jan). Identification: A very elongate black coral snake with a broad yellow band on the back of the head. Adults average 24 to 30 inches; occasional individuals approach 3 feet. Belly pattern of red (or yellow) and black cross- bands, some of the red bands extending onto the sides as triangular blotches. Dorsal part of body solid black. Ventrals 240-410; subcaudals 17-35. Distribution: The upper Amazon region, including northwestern Brazil, eastern Ecuador, Peru, and Bo- livia. Remarks: The snakes of this genus are the only coral snakes in which the light rings are incomplete dorsally. The other species, L. collaris (Schlegel), dif- fers in having fewer ventrals (212-230). Almost nothing is known of these rare snakes. How- ever, they attain a size that makes them a dangerous animal to pick up. No antivenin is produced for the snakes of this genus. ELAPIDAE: Genus Micrurus Wagler, 1824. American coral snakes. About 40 species are currently recognized. They range from North Carolina to Texas, and from Coa- huila and Sonora, Mexico, southward through Central and South America to Bolivia and Argentina. Most are small species but some attain lengths in excess of 4 feet. All are dangerous. Definition: Head small, not distinct from neck; snout rounded, no distinct canthus. Body elongate, slender, not tapered; tail short. Eyes small; pupils round. Head seales: The usual 9 on the crown, Laterally, nasal in contact with single preocular. Ventrally, men- tal separated from anterior chin shields by first infrala- bials. Body seales: Dorsals smooth, in 15 nonoblique rows throughout body. Ventrals 177-412; anal plate divided or entire; subcaudals 16-62, usually paired but more than 50 percent single in some species. Maxillary teeth: Two relatively large tubular fangs with indistinet grooves; no other teeth on bone. Remarks: Nearly all coral snakes have color patterns made up of complete rings of yellow (or white), black, and usually red. Annellated Coral (Peters). Identification: A usually black and yellow coral snake with a narrow yellow band across the parietal scutes. This is a small species, the largest specimen is a little less than 30 inches. Body with narrow yellow bands. Broad bands which are distinctly red in young become so darkened as to be black in most adults. This forms a pattern of alternat- ing broad black (originally red) rings with narrower Snake, JJicrurus annellatus 63 Poisonous Snakes of the World black ring Total dark rings ranges from S37-S8 on boudy, 5-f on tall The red is often visible on the belly. Ventrals 195-225; anal plate divided; subcaudals 26 IS Distribution River valleys of the mountain regions Pern, Bolivia, and Ecuador Reniarks This mountain species lives at altitudes of 1,500 to 6,000 feet No reports of the effects of its bite are known Southern Coral Snake, J/ierurus frontalis (Du- méril, Bibron, and Duméril). Tdentification: A coral snake with triads of black rings and broad red interspaces; head black with edges of plates red. Adults average 3 to 4 feet; exceptional individuals exceed 50 inches. Crown black to the posterior end of the parietals, labials and temporals spotted with yellow, crown scutes edged with red or yellow. sody with 6-15 sets of black triads, separated with broad bands of red. 2 FIGURE 35. The “triads” of three black and two yellow rings are characteristic of many South American coral snakes. Note that the red zones are bordered by black in these -Southern Coral Snake, Micrurus frontalis. coral snakes. Vhoto by New York Zoological Society. Ventrals; 26. Distribution: Southwestern Brazil, northern Argen- tina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Bolivia. 97-230; anal plate divided; subcaudals 15- Remarks: This is one of the larger species of coral snakes and is responsible for a number of deaths. An antivenin is prepared by the Instituto Butantan (Bra- zil) for this species and M. corallinius. Hemprich’s Coral Snake, Jicrurus hemprichii (Jan). Tdentification: red rings, and broad black triads. A coral snake with narrow yellow and Adults average 24 to 30 inches in length. Snout and tip of chin black, with this color extending back over crown as a “cap.” A red collar, narrowed 64 above, jody with 5-10 triads of broad black rings separated by narrow red rings, Ventrals 159-191; anal plate entire; subecaudals 23 30, Distribution: Rim of the Amazon basin: northeastern Brazil, the Guianas, Colombia, Heuador, and Peru. Remarks: This is the only species of coral snake that This and the triads of broad black rings make it a distinetive snake, normally has an entire anal plate. Amazonian Coral Snake, J//erwrus spiati Wagler. Identification: A coral snake with triads of black rings which are all about equal in width and narrower Adults average 3 to 4 feet; occasional individuals attain a length of 5 feet. than the yellow and red rings. Crown of head mainly black, often with shields edged and spotted with yellow; sides of head mostly light. Body with 4-9 complete triads of narrow and equal black rings separated by somewhat wider bands of yellow and red. Ventrals 203-275; 9)-= Often a black collar followed by a yellow ring. anal plate divided; subecaudals 16— Distribution: The Amazon region; Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Equador, Peru, and Bolivia. Remarks: This is one of the largest of the coral snakes, and it has been responsible for several deaths. A polyvalent coral snake antivenin is produced by the Instituto Butantan (Brazil). Surinam Coral Snake, JIficrurus surinamensis (Cuvier). Identification: A coral snake with a red head and triads of black rings, of which the middle one is dis- tinctly broader than the lateral ones. Adults average about 3 feet in length; occasional individuals attain a length of about 4 feet. Crown of head red, with each of the plates outlined in black. Body with 5-8 complete triads, each made / y Se |i Ficure 36.—Surinam Coral Snake, Micrurus surina- The red head and triad pattern are distinc- tive. Photo by Charles M. Bogert. mensis. up of a broad middle black band, with narrow bands laterally. Yellow rings narrowed dorsally. Dorsals 17— 19 anteriorly, 15 at midbody and posteriorly. Ventrals 162-206; anal plate divided (occasionally entire) ; subcaudals 30-40. Distribution: Apparently a semiaquatic snake (one specimen had eaten an eel) that inhabits the rim of the Amazon region; the Guianas, Brazil, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. Remarks: This is another of the large coral snakes. Its red head and the broad median band of the triad makes it distinctive. CROTALIDAE: Genus Bothrops Wagler, 1824. American lance-headed vipers. Between 40 and 50 species are currently recognized ; all are found in tropical America and southern South America. There are three general groups: 1. Large, long-tailed terrestrial species, usually with paired sub- eaudals: 2. Small, short-tailed terrestrial species with single subcaudals; and 3. Small to moderate-sized ar- boreal species with prehensile tail, most of which have at least the anterior subcaudals single. The large ter- restrial species are very dangerous, the others less so. Definition: Head broad, flattened, very distinct from narrow neck; a sharply-distinguished canthus. Body eylindrical or moderately compressed, moderately slender to stout; tail short to moderately long. Eyes small to moderate in size; pupils vertically el- liptical. Head scales: nasals often distinct, sometimes separated by small seales; remainder of crown covered with small imbricate scales; enlarged canthals sometimes present. Laterally, second supralabial may make up anterior border of loreal pit or may be separated from it. present or absent. Body scales: Dorsals keeled, in 19-85 nonoblique rows at midbody. Ventrals 121-253; or paired, 22-83. Supraoculars generally present, inter- Loreal scales subcaudals single Urutu, Bothrops alternatus (Duméril, Bibron, and Duméril). Identification: A brown lancehead with rounded blotches which are narrowly edged with yellow. Adults average 3 to 4 feet; occasional individuals exceed 5 feet. Head brown with a distinctive marking on the crown. About 20 pairs of rounded lateral markings shaped like a French telephone r=] whose apices nearly meet on the dorsal midline. Ground color brown, slightly lighter than blotches which have lighter centers. Belly white, spotted with brown or black. Dorsals strongly keeled, in 29-35 rows at midbody. Ventrals 167-181; subcaudals paired, 34—51. Distribution: Along watercourses through southern Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, and northern Argentina. Remarks: This is a dangerous snake and it causes a South America and the West Indies large number of bites each year. Ordinarily the bite is not lethal, but it causes severe local effects. FicureE 37.—Urutu, Bothrops alternatus. Photo by New York Zoological Society. (See also plate II, fig. 2.) A polyvalent antivenin “Antibotropico” is produced by the Instituto Butantan, and by the Instituto Pinhieros (Brazil). Amazonian Tree Viper, othrops bilineatus (Wied). Identification: A green tree viper with a _ yellow Adults average 24 to 80 inches; maxi- mum length about 3 feet. Uniform bright green above, speckled with black in lateral stripe. some individuals; a narrow yellow stripe or series of Tip of tail usually Belly white, without markings. yellow spots on first row of dorsals. red or red-brown. Snout rounded; canthus rostralis sharp and slightly raised. Internasals large and in contact with one another; canthals large; 5-8 rows of scales between Dorsals strongly keeled, in 27-35 nonoblique rows at midbody, fewer posteriorly. Ven- trals 198-218; subeaudals 59-71, all or nearly all paired. Distribution: The Amazonian regions of Brazil, Brit- large supraoculars. ish Guinea, Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and Venezuela. Remarks: This is one of the most widely distributed of the prehensile-tailed tree vipers of South America. However, it does not appear to be a serious hazard any- where and no specific antivenin is produced for the treatment of its bite. St. Lucia Serpent, Bothrops caribbaeus Garman. Identification: A pale gray or yellowish gray pit viper; the only venomous snake on the West Indian island of St. Lucia. Adults average 3 to 4 feet in length; oceasional individuals are recorded at about 7 feet. Head dark gray with a postorbital band that extends across the upper edge of the supralabials. Body blotches obscure, little darker than the ground color which is light gray, often with rust-red suffusion. Chin white or cream, belly yellowish with a few gray mark- ings. 65 Poisonous Snakes of the World Dorsals strongly keeled, in 25-20 rows at midbody, fewer (19) posteriorly, Ventrals 197-212; subcaudals paired, G&-70 Distributions Found in cacao and cocoanut planta- only on the island of St. Lucia, tions and damp forest; FIGURE 33. Photo by New York Zoological Society. St. Lucia Serpent, Bothrops caribbaeus. Remarks: This is a dangerous snake whose _ bite causes severe local tissue damage. For many years it was confused with the barba ama- rilla (B. atror) of the mainland and the fer-de-lance (B. lanceolatus) of Martinique. It is reported to have caused the death of several persons on the island. No specific antivenin is available for this species. Jararaca, Bothrops jajaraca (Wied). Identification: An olive-green, brown-blotched pit vi- per with a rather long, but short-snouted head. Adults average 3 to 4 feet; occasional individuals approach 6 feet in length. Crown of head dark olive, usually with some dark brown irregular markings which may be light-edged. A Photo by Bothrops jajaraca. New York Zoological Society. Figure 39.—Jararaca, 66 well-defined dark-brown postorbital stripe present; re- mainder of side of head light. About 25 pairs of lateral brown blotches on the body; they are well-defined lateral triangles anteriorly but become rounder toward midbody and quite irregular in shape posteriorly, Belly yellow- ish, blotched with gray, often entirely gray posteriorly. Prefrontals small, longer than broad, separated from Dorsals weakly keeled, keels extending entire length of scales, midbody. Ventrals 175-216; sub- eaudals 52-70, all or nearly all paired. Ground color olive, grayish or brownish. one another by 4-5 rows of small seales. in 20-27 rows at Distribution: Grasslands and open country through southern Brazil, northeastern Paraguay and northern Argentina. Remarks: This snake is easily confused with B. atror on the one hand and with B. jararacussu on the other. The color patterns and scales of the snout re- gion appear to distinguish them. B. jajaraca is one of the most common venomous snakes throughout its range. Probably for that reason, rather than because of its venom quantity and toxicity, it is second only to the cascabel (Crotalus durissus) as a source of deaths from snakebite in the region. Jararacussu, Lothrops jararacussu Lacerda. Identification: A dull-colored black and yellowish pit Figure 40.—Jararacussti, Bothrops jararacussu. Photo by New York Zoological Society. viper with a broad, lance-shaped head. Adults average 3 to 4 feet; maximum length about 5% feet (Amaral, 1925). Crown of head unicolor black and dark brown with dark-yellowish lines over the temporal regions which separate the black postorbital stripe from the dark color of the crown; side of head mostly yellowish. About 15 pairs of lateral upside-down U-shaped black body blotches may alternate with one another or oppose and connect across the back. Often much of back covered with irregular patches of dark pigment., leaving lateral blotches irregularly outlined with dark yellow. Belly yellow, irregularly blotched with dark brown or black. Prefrontals (canthals) broader than long, separated from one another by 1-2 rows of small scales. Dorsals strongly keeled, keels tending to be tuberculate along back, in 23-27 rows at midbody, fewer posteriorly. Ven- trals 170-186; subcaudals 44-66, all or nearly all paired. Distribution: Near rivers and lakes in southern Bra- zil, eastern Bolivia, Paraguay, and northern Argentina. Remarks: This is an amphibious species and may be found in the water. It is not a very common snake, but produces a very toxic venom in large amounts (averaging more than 100 mg. in a milking) ; it is one of four species of snakes which cause most fatalities from snakebite in Brazil. A common early symptom of its bite is blindness. Antivenins (polyvalent) using the venom of B. jarara- cussu are produced by Behringwerke of Germany, In- stituto Butantan and Instituto Pinheiros of Brazil, and the Instituto Nacional de Microbiologia of Argentina. Fer-de-Lance, Bothrops lanceolatus (Lacépéde). Identification: A lancehead recognized by its dark truncated lateral blotches and high numbers of dorsals and ventrals; the only venomous snake on Martinique. Adults average 4 to 5 feet; occasional individuals at- tain lengths of about 7 feet. Head brown with a sharply defined darker postorbital band that extends down to the corner of the mouth. Body gray, olive, or brown with an obscure series of 22-27 hour-glass-shaped blotches down the back. Ven- tral surface white or cream with a few grayish or brown stipple marks anteriorly, more posteriorly. Dorsals strongly keeled, in 31-88 rows at midbody, fewer (29) anteriorly and posteriorly (21-28). Ven- trals 215-230; subcaudals paired, 56-67. Ficure 41.—Fer-de-Lance, Bothrops lanceolatus. The snake to which the name, Fer-de-Lance, rightfully be- longs is found only on the island of Martinique. Photo by New York Zoological Society. Distribution: Found only on the West Indian island of Martinique; originally over the entire island but now restricted to the less inhabited forests. South America and the West Indies Jararaca pintada, Bothrops neuwiedi Wagler. Identification: A distinctly-patterned tan or grayish pit viper with a distinctive pattern on the crown. Adults average 2 to 3 feet in length. Crown of head light tan or brown with a series of distinct spots; often a U-shaped mark on the rear part of the head, the two arms of the “U” with the body pattern. sometimes connected Pattern geographically variable but basically a paired series of small triangular or rhomboidal black or dark brown dorsal blotches that alternate or fuse across the back to form small X-shaped markings. Rounded dark spots may fall between the main series on the midline and a lateral series of small spots alternates with the dorsal blotches. All of the Figure 42.—Jararaca pintada, Bothrops neuwiedi. The “U" mark on the rear of the head is distinctive. Photo by Isabelle Hunt Conant. Ground Belly yellowish, some ventrals markings may be outlined with bright yellow. color tan or light gray. edged with gray. Dorsals strongly keeled, in 21-27 rows at midbody. Ventrals 163-187; subcaudals 40-53, all paired. Distribution: Grasslands and open country on the plateau of southern Brazil, eastern Bolivia, Paraguay, and northern Argentina. Remarks: This is a rather small snake but it ranges over a large area of southern South America. It is one of the major sources of snakebite in Argentina. Polyvalent antivenins are produced by Behringwerke of Germany, and the Instituto Nacional de Microbiologia, Argentina. CROTALIDAE: Genus Crotalus Linnaeus, 1758. Rattlesnakes. About 25 species of rattlesnakes are currently recog- nized. Most species are in the southwestern United 67 Poisonous Snakes of the World States and northern Mexico; one species (C. durissus) ranges southward into southern South America, two are found east of the Mississippi River, and two as far north as Canada, = = nd ; ’ cy = ' a >» 7 S4 : i ; a ; 7 _ y = Section 4 EUROPE Definition of the Region: Entire continent of Europe, European Russia (Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic) and the Mediterranean islands, the Ukranian SSR and the Autonomous Soviet Republics north of the Caucasus and west of the Volga River. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Mapiofathe region = sees === === ee 73 Introductions es se2 eno a eee eee ee ee ee ee 73 Distributions Ghertec es Sse pe ee ee ee ee 72 Key to Genera: =_- ---- +. ----- = ---- 4-5 ae sae 73 VIPERIDAE: Wepenta= acs 12 oS a Se eS 74 CROTALIDAE: Aghistrodon= === 2-2 5-2 ee Ss ee 75 References te = eee ee ee eee eee ee 76 71 Poisonous Snakes of the World *(ojJa ‘Yseayjnos = MS) Alezvrdoidde pajvorpur st yrun v Jo Javd 0} Sotloads Vv JO UOTJOIIZS 24 UUM ey} UIQ]IA Pwedsepra st Sefdads eq} JO UOTZNQIQSIP SeyvoIpul X loquAs ey ‘S}UN SB paived} seq o1v SaduTAOId IO SuOT}VU Surtuyofpe Jo sdnoi3 ulejiIID, Sea a lacs | ae | Ls ee | ee ee a ee eae al ae et CeIn a Wt sA[evy WOporstysy AVaALIIVLOYWO soy oe de> ey ee a De ee ee tee Bop ee) eee ee ees ee Ee ey eee ee d . -Iny, Balodl A Bid} $s x > S| are ee a | exe Ga lea a as Xe “SUV (gm | seine || oP acta igs | ||| een HUSAIN BIOTA as Sole alee SSSI ee seca Guceet sas | esence| eeaaet| a| aeg |eeee llo eel aes lipe evlime el lla sar a eee Burjeqe, Baodr A rs ey | (SEF Sa Lae: | ee ae | (tan XLT ee ce | aca | eee | cre Sanaa aI SLT GLO AN RSS receates caaal ics | a lO | ae el en eT eins alte eee ce Se etal rae a TAOYVUZBY BIGUIA x Ne rae te tas x Ne AMIN | x x x se |) ose ol) seo lh) Se. ly ose) | peerereeem snieq varadt, ) eae = eet 2 Bl ee Poa eee N x N s AS EXGheid |icchcmeetay LOD lence clea alice oa ell stdsv vied A Bid s x se x N x CUNGE | iceperaena [cuca ee a ze SP ay a ee a Bele | raaalfes ees Il ote eee ae cee s ° e 9 z 5 ~ ; ® 2 > 2 3 ng Ee re = ee $ % a Z rs) & 4 ee A By i ime Dp S ® —~ = 2 a 5 >= ® 8 ra ms g = 2 z = g zt $ 8 BE id tgs: 5 : 2 | 3 z 2 = 2 S 2 = a] 3 2 y 5 Ly < & a | c al B ~ddOUNA NI SIAVNS SNONOSIOd 4O NOILNAILSIG—8 J1aVl 72 INTRODUCTION Europe has comparatively few species of native snakes. This reflects the generally cool, present- day climate, the scarcity of suitable habitats for snakes, and the geologic history of glaciation that eliminated all reptiles from much of the continent some 10,000 to 20,000 years ago. Poisonous snakes in Europe tend to be quite local and spotty in distribution, especially toward the north. The hardwood and evergreen forests that originally covered much of the continent were never good habitats for snakes. Centuries of intensive agri- culture and more recent industrialization have further reduced the suitable habitats. In spite of this, poisonous snakes may be locally plentiful. In Scandinavia and Finland, the European viper ranges slightly above the Arctic Cirele—farther north than any other known species of snake. In Finland during the summer of 1961, 163 snake- bites were reported. One physician in Corn- wall, England, saw 18 cases of adder bite be- tween 1952 and 1959. The eastern Mediterranean region has the greatest number of venomous snakes and the most dangerous species. All the European poisonous snakes are vipers and present a strikingly similar appearance. They are small to medium-sized snakes of mod- erately stout build with short tails. In distin- gushing them from nonpoisonous snakes, note that the eye is separated from the upper lip shields by one or more small scales (except in the single species of pit viper Agkistrodon halys) and the pupil is elliptical. In most European non- poisonous snakes the eye touches the upper lip shields and the pupil is round. The only excep- tions to both these rules are the little boas of the Europe genus Eryx; they are easily recognized by their small yentrals. In distinguishing one species of st RerusLics Map 5.—Section 4, Europe. viper from another, note particularly the shape of the snout and the presence or absence of en- Body seales are keeled in all the European vipers. The common vipers of Europe feed largely upon lizards and small mammals. They are all live-bearing. larged shields on the top of the head. Antivenins against venoms of the common vipers of Europe are produced by the Institut Pasteur, Paris; Behringwerke, Marburg-Lahn, Germany; Instituto Sieroterapico e Vaccinogeno Toscano, Siena, Italy; and the Institute for Im- munology, Zagreb, Yugoslavia (Vipera ammo- dytes only). KEY TO GENERA 1. A. Nine large crown shields (fig. 6); eye in contact with Upper lupyshiel ds 22= — Sls. 5 eee eee eee 2 B. Crown shields 6 or fewer or broken up into small scales; CCHS DMC MatrRoyeN Mnyp) SUNG ee ee 3 Hs INS ADONee Ul) joule, joreesternce (inion!) ee SEE ee Agkistrodon ibesloreul pilisubsentes- oes = =a ee 2 2 ee ee eee INIP= 3. A. Ventrals extend full width of belly (fig. 9A)_-----___--_____ Vipera B. Ventrals do not extend full width of belly (fig. 9B)-~------___- NP * NP = Nonpoisonous 73 Poisonous Snakes of the World GENERIC AND SPECIES DESCRIPTIONS VIPERIDAE: Genus Vipera Laurenti, 1768. True adders. Eleven species are recognized. This is an especially variable group, with some members that are small and berus) and others that are They are found from northern Eurasia throughout that con- relatively innocuous (e.g., V. extremely dangerous (V. lebetina, V. russelii). tinent and into north Africa. the East east Africa (see Remarks under V. Definition: Head broad, distinct from narrow neck; eanthus distinct. Body cylindrical, varying from moder- ately slender to stout; tail short. Eyes moderate in size to small; pupils vertically el- liptical. Head scales: One species ranges into Indies (V. russelii), and two are found in superciliaris). Variable: one species (V. uwrsinii) has all 9 crown scutes, most species have at least the su- praoculars, but even these are absent in one (V. lebe- tina): Later- ally, nasal in contact with rostral or separated by a single enlarged scale (the nasorostral), eye separated from supralabials by 1-4 rows of small scales. Body scales: Dorsals keeled, with apical pits, in 19- 31 nonoblique rows at midbody. Ventrals rounded, 120- 180; subcaudals paired, 20-64. head otherwise covered with small scales. European Viper, Vipera berus (Linnaeus). Identification: Head distinct from neck but ovoid rather than distinctly triangular; snout blunt, flat, not upturned; top of head with 5 large smooth shields. Ground color pale gray, olive or yellow to russet or brown, the darker colors generally in females. Down the entire length of the back runs a black or dark brown zigzag line rarely broken into spots for all or part of its length and even more rarely straight edged. Top of head behind eyes with a dark ‘“X”—or chevron —imark; belly pale gray with darker suffusion. Uni- formly black or very dark brown individuals are seen especially in some mountainous regions. Average length 19 to 24 inches, maximum 34 inches; females larger than males. Distribution: The only poisonous snake of northern Europe where it is widely distributed; in central and southern Europe largely confined to mountains where it occurs to at least 9,000 feet elevation. It ranges com- pletely across northern Asia to the Russian island of Sakhalin and northern Korea. In the north usually found in dry open sunny places—moors, old fields, brushy hillsides and openings in the forest. In the south more prevalent on rocky hillsides and about the edges of mountain forests. Remarks: Nocturnal during warm weather; diurnal in cool; has considerable tolerance for cold and may be seen basking near patches of snow. Disposition generally timid, but strikes quickly and repeatedly when eornered or suddenly alarmed. 74 Venom yield small but venom of fairly high toxicity. pf J Say SRY KRY ) vad ns \ BM DOW ri) ¢) RYO Ficure 45.—Head scales of European Viper, Vipera The broken-up crown shields on the snout are characteristic of this species. (See also plate II, fig. 1.) Redrawn from Maki, 1931. berus. Asp Viper, Vipera aspis (Linnaeus). Identification: Head more triangular than in Huro- pean viper, snout slightly but distinctly upturned at tip; shields on crown fragmented, usually only 2 or 3 en- larged. Color similar to European viper but generally more apt to be reddish or brown; pattern of dark spots more or less fused, sometimes forming zigzag band; dark head mark not well defined; belly dark gray with lighter flecks; underside of tail tip yellow or orange. Ficure 46.—Asp Viper, Vipera aspis. Photo by Isabelle Hunt Conant. Size about the same as European viper, 18 to 24 inches; males average larger than females. Distribution: The western part of southern Europe. Found mostly in hilly or mountainous country to an altitude of 7,800 feet in the Pyrenees. Remarks: Disposition generally more sluggish than European viper. Venom of about the same toxicity. Snub-nosed Viper, Vipera latasti Bosca. Identification: Similar to the asp viper but snout more upturned and pointed, its anterior surface formed only from the rostral; shields of crown much fragmented and usually not symmetrical. Color as in the other two species; zigzag dorsal line prominent and well defined. Size about the same as the European viper. Distribution: The Iberian Peninsula and northwest Africa. Found in lowlands and at moderate elevations usually in open sandy or rocky terrain. Remarks: Little known of the venom, but it is not believed to be a particularly dangerous species. Long-nosed Viper, Vipera ammodytes (Linnaeus). Identification: Most readily identified by the snout which terminates in a strongly upturned appendage, its anterior surface formed from several small scales; crown Figure 47.—Long-nosed Vipera Photo by New York Zoological Society. Viper, ammodytes. covered by small scales of irregular size and arrange- ment. Color ash-gray, yellow, pale orange, coppery or brown- ish; zig-zag dorsal line very prominent; pattern more vivid in male; head without distinct dorsal markings; belly yellow or brownish more or less heavily clouded with dark gray; tail tip orange or reddish. Average length 25 to 30 inches; maximum about 36 inches. Males are larger than females. Distribution: Southeastern Europe and Asia Minor. Inhabits dry hilly country for the most part between 2,000 and 5,500 feet elevation. It prefers rocky slopes particularly where there are outcrops of limestone. Remarks: Largely nocturnal but may be active by day in cool weather. Sometimes climbs onto bushes to bask in the sun. Rather sedentary and retiring in habits but quick to strike. It is generally thought to be the most dangerous of the European vipers. The venom is quite toxic and apparently varies considerably in composition over the range of the species. Two large vipers just enter European territory, the Ottoman viper (Vipera ranthina) near Istanbul and the Europe Levantine viper (Vipera lebetina) on some of the eastern Mediterranean islands. (For descriptions of these species, see page 111 and page 112.) CROTALIDAE: Genus Agkistrodon Beauvois, 1799. Moccasins and Asian pit vipers. Twelve species are recognized. Three of these are in North and Central America; the others are in Asia, with one species, A. lalys (Pallas) ranging westward to southeastern Europe. The American copperhead (A. contortriz) and the Eurasian mamushi and its relatives (A. halys) seldom inflict a serious bite, but A. acutus and A. rhodostoma of southeastern Asia, as well as the cottonmouth (A. piscivorus) of the southeastern United States are dangerous species. Definition: Head broad, flattened, very distinct from narrow neck; a sharply-distinguished canthus. Body eylindrical or depressed, tapered, moderately stout to stout; tail short to moderately long. Eyes moderate in size; pupils vertically elliptical. Head scales: The usual 9 on the crown in most species; internasals and prefrontals broken up into small scales in some Asian forms; a pointed nasal ap- pendage in some. Laterally, loreal pit separated from labials or its anterior border formed by second supra- labial. Loreal scale present or absent. Body scales: Dorsals smooth (in A. rhodostoma only) or keeled, with apical pits, in 17-27 nonoblique rows. Ventrals 125-174; subcaudals single anteriorly or paired throughout, 21-68. Pallas’ Viper, Agkistrodon halys (Pallas). Identification: The loreal pit distinguishes this spe- cies from all other snakes of Europe and central Asia. Presence of 9 large head shields and contact of at least one supralabial with the eye, distinguish it from other vipers of that region. The pit and generally viperine Figure 48.—Pallas’ Viper, Agkistrodon halys interme- dius. Specimen from Uzbek, U. S. S. R. Photo by Sherman A. Minton. (Preserved specimen) 75 Poisonous Snakes of the World body form distinguish it from the comparatively few nonpolsonous snakes within its range, Color yellowish, tan or grayish with many dark brown or gray crossbands alternating with spots on the sides or with crossbands and spots fusing to produce an ir- regular network; belly cream to yellow with fine black punctation especially toward the tail; top of head with dark spot above each eye and at nape; tip of tail yellow- ish. Average length 22 to 28 inches; maximum about 35 inches. A characteristic snake of the vast cen- tral Asian steppe where it occurs in grassland and desert; often abundant around rocky bluffs that prob- ably are hibernating dens. Range in Europe restricted to the region between the Volga and the Urals; found eastward to southern Siberia and Mongolia. Distribution: Remarks: Largely nocturnal; rests during day be- neath stones or shrubs. Bites by this snake are not infrequent, but fatalities are rare. This account deals chiefly with Agkistrodon h. halys, A.h. caraganus, and A.h. intermedius. The races of A. halys in the Far East are treated elsewhere. REFERENCES HELLMICH, Walter. 1956. Die Lureche und Kriechtiere Enropas. Carl Winter: Heidel- berg, pp. 1-166, pls. 1-68 (color), figs. 1-9. MERTENS, Robert and H. WERMUTH. 1960. Die Amphibien und Reptilien Europas. Drit- te Liste nach dem Stand vom 1. Januar 1960. Waldemar Kramer: Frankfurt-am-Main, xi + 264 pp., figs. 1-45. SCHWARZ, E. 1936. Untersuchungen uber Systematik und Verbreitung der europai- schen und mediterranen Ottern. Behring- werk-Mitteilung: Marburg-Lahn, vol. 7, pp. 159-362, pl. 1. TERENTJEY, P. V. and S. A. CERNOV. 1949. Apredelitelj Presmykajuschcichsja i Semno- wodnych. [Distribution of Reptiles and Amphibians] Third Ed. [in Russian] Gov- ernment Printing Office: Moscow, 339 pp., 123 figs., 37 maps. NOTES 76 Section 5 NORTH AFRICA Definition of the Region: Includes the nations of Mauritania, Spanish Sahara, Mali, Niger, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt (United Arab Republic). TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Maprof the. region- 22-552 eee ee Se ee ee 79 TCT CE COE ec eee 79 Distribution Ghaitaes 22 == ae oe oer er ee ee en ee 78 Keypiou Gen end ise aa ae ae ae ee ee ee See aoe eee ee 79 ELAPIDAE: PLOPSOUUCU. = mas te ee ee ee ae eee eo ee 80 UVC) Se a ee ee AS ee eee 80 Widitenunnestde =e ee a ee ee eS ee eee 81 VIPERIDAE: PAE NLCUUS OUR as wen oe ree ee oe eee See eee 81 VES Boe Naegp aia ices stu Vin «oo rare Sg ee Ries Be ls es A eg A ER tS 82 Gansus 5-2 eee a ee ee ee ee ee a te ee ee oe 82 COPA Log te ee ee ee Oe SCP Ce = Ue nee 82 ) HG i a Be ere elif ay as eee t Wena Sap re PIER E Ne Pees ese 83 Vieng So So Bae Seen ne ee ee ee eee 84 References*5= 2 < -- a bo te ee ee eee 84 77 Poisonous Snakes of the World *@INJVIIT PITBA No -(2IM TUN eq} UL Safeds B JO aDUaTINDVO pajOadsns sajvoIpUT g [oquIAS ay, “(03 “YsaAq}n0s = MS) Ala}vtidoidde pazvoipur st 413 -unod B JO Jivd 0} sajoeds v Jo UOTOJAJsSeyY “ATJUNOD ay} ULYIA PBeIdsepIA ST Sefoeds ey} JO UOLNGIAySIP Sezvotpul X [oquIAS aT N Poco N x See psa ac | aa a BOlUBYINVUL BIBT A ~-----} ------} ------4------} ------ x No openssl eee ae ROS EIUL BIOdTA it 2.4 Eee | ee as | ae | I | ee | ae Se ee one eee acer mms S11) 3.1 O| OOM STU OT é x x Xe xX AS S$ aX SXcq |||! Meeken | ||maaaal a at ae ee SN}BVUIIBI STOR = N N x x x s x x ere nea ere ee a BOTAN NO] SETA) é N N x xX x | i) xX D: Gia gh| Pe. < Sal) fee mica be ce ea i S9JSB190 SaqySBIID é Ss S$ |S ONS Ties a a || meee I Se an] | I | Loe || eae Ee ce oe snjveqmioyl snsnepg é x x Ss x S| eel NG” | ack Tl lee ceo! | eae Sa a eran a a SUBJOIv SIT é Ss i Shot lig a eae | aa a ‘lies iris | Ma oneal BOpIde[o1oIu STdsvjOVApy Si aaa [s seas Mibewee Melis Sat oe ca airs en eat ------=--------s]suappesue stdsvjoriyy G€VdaIuddlL 72> pal (Stee ae | occa eel S cles) a areas || a aa TT TTT TF55-====-BYAkZ9B BISOUULIOI[B AA é S Ss Ss |e lb ceane |e owen a] | flShyatr| | age ee ee oF a a syoolsiu vlan é x x $s xs Ss x N Xn) | (MP OXG an lines cet a ware ae eer oe ooo ofeq Blen BAe Pee Ss Sle | oan a hc eee ae at ee a TTT H=====—==—-111]BAVpuUNS Baplosds[q aVdaldvV1a — = == —_ — + 7 Z sz = g x a > E e 3 = 8 5 S (= =} n i > 2 J 1s, ry 5 5 o 8 Z bo i) uv Cc S E ms g fe Volds¥ HLYON NI SAAVNS SNONOSIOd JO NOILNGILSIG—6 F19VL 78 INTRODUCTION Africa from the southern edge of the Sahara northward is a vast region where the dominant theme is heat and aridity. This is mitigated only along the Mediterranean coast, in high mountains such as the Atlas range, and along the great river valleys and oases. The snake fauna contains few species partly because of the rigors of the climate, and partly because most of the desert is new and there has been insufficient time for the evolution and spread of a specialized desert snake fauna. The distri- bution of snake species in northern Africa is not well known. There are probably a number of tropical African species that invade locally along the large rivers in the southern part of the re- gion. Only a few of the species are found pri- marily in the desert; the majority occur around zones of irrigation or natural water supply. This increases the hazard of snakebite to the rural North Africa people; however, the incidence of such accidents is unknown. Egypt in the years 1944-48 reported 2 UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPU Mar 6.—Section 5, North Africa. KEY TO GENERA 1. A. Crown of head covered with small irregular scales; pPupilsoteerve: vertically, celliro ty cer] eee eee ene ( B. Crown of head covered with large shields; pupil round or elliptical____----_ Dre. Worealeplatewpresent== = +5 - - ee ee a 3 iBealorealgplatexabsentes so ss 2 = oe ee ee eee 4 3. A. Lateral scales rectangular and oblique; top of head with dark chevron marking (plate VIII, fig. 4) Causus rhombeatus B. Without the above combination of characters___--------------- INS 4. A. Eye very smali, snout pointed, all subcaudals pane bigats iol Ss Sees ee ee eee Atractaspis B. Without the above combination of characters__------------------ 5 5uVA" All ‘dorsallyscalestsmooth- <= =- aan as sae eee 6 B. Posterior dorsal scales keeled; anal plate divided____-- Walterinnesia 6. A. Scale rows at midbody more than 15; hood seen Wis 1a Pein Boe epee Ss a sn Naja B. Scale rows at midbody usually 13; no hood__------------ Elapsoidea “. A.. Lateral scales oblique with serrated keels____-_---------=-===-=-- 8 ipwLateralyscalesmikemdorsals#e==- 2-2 se he ee eee ee 9 8. A. Subcaudals single; ventrals not keeled_______________________ Echis B. Subcaudals paired; ventrals keeled______------------------ Cerastes @), ANS Wem Gxareinlnovee savilll watchin Oye lol hy 10 B. Ventrals not extending full width of belly_-____-_-___-_-__-_--_ NP 10. A. Body pattern of chevron-shaped crossbands; MOSORIIS dO Re) ee meee Seen we Meee Bene eee Bitis B. Body pattern not as above; nostrils lateral_____-____________ Vipera * NP = Nonpoisonous 79 Poisonous Snakes of the World 26 to 46 snakebite deaths annually; the true figure is probably higher, The most Important poisonous snakes of north Africa are vipers; cobras occur but apparently play a minor role in snakebite accidents. GENERIC AND SPECIES DESCRIPTIONS ELAPIDAE: Genus Elapsoidea Bocage, 1866. African garter snakes. A single species (FB. suudevallii) with 11 geographic races is currently recognized (See p. 94). It ranges over most of tropical and southern Africa except for the Cape region. It attains a length of 3 to 4 feet and is potentially dangerous. However, it is sluggish and in- offensive and bites only in self-defense. This species enters the southern part of this region (see plate VIII, fig. 3). Definition: Head of moderate size, not distinet from neck; an indistinct canthus. 30ody moderately slender, eylindrical; tail very short. Eyes small; pupils round. Head scales: The usual 9 on the crown; rostral en- larged, obtusely pointed; internasals short. Laterally, nasal in narrow contact with single preocular. Body scales: Dorsals smooth and rounded, in 13 rows at midbody. Ventrals 138-184; anal plate entire; sub- caudals paired (a few sometimes single) 13-29. Maxillary teeth: Two large tubular fangs with ex- ternal groove followed, after an interspace, by 2-4 small teeth. ELAPIDAE: Genus Naja Laurenti, 1768. Cobras. Six species are recognized; all are African except the Asiatic cobra, Naja naja, and range throughout the African continent except for the drifting sand areas of the Sahara region. They are snakes of moderate (4 feet) to large (8 feet) size, with large fangs and toxic venom. The species N. nigricollis “spits” its venom at the eyes of an aggressor; it is found in the southern part of the region of north Africa. The Egyptian cobra (Naja haje) and the western subspecies of the Asiatic cobra (Naja naja oriana) are found in the Near and Middle East region. Definition: Head rather broad, flattened, only slightly distinet from neck; snout rounded, a distinct canthus. Body moderately slender, slightly depressed, tapered, neck capable of expansion into hood; tail of moderate length. Eyes moderate in size; pupils round. Head scales: The usual 9 on the crown; frontal short; rostral rounded. Laterally, nasal in contact with the one or two preoculars. Body scales: Dorsals smooth, in 17-25 oblique rows 80 at midbody, usually more on the neck, fewer posteriorly. Ventrals 159-282; anal plate entire; subcaudals 42-88, mostly paired. Maxillary teeth: Two rather large tubular fangs with external grooves followed, after an interspace, by 0-3 small teeth, Egyptian Cobra, Vuja haje (Linnaeus). Identification: Body form typically cobra like—short wide head, not distinet from neck; body moderately stout but graceful with even taper and moderately long tail; scales smooth with dull sheen, scale rows strongly oblique especially on forebody; anal plate entire; sub- eaudals paired. A useful point in identification of cobras and cobra- like yenomous snakes (elapids) is the absence of the loreal shield so that the shield bordering or enclosing the nostril touches the shield that borders the eye anteriorly (the preocular). The loreal is present in most nonpoisonous snakes, and absent most often in The Egyptian cobra may be distinguished from other African cobras by the presence of small subocular scales separating the eye from the upper labials. Color extremely variable. small burrowing or secretive types. Adult snakes from Egypt and Libya may be brownish yellow, dark brown, or almost black: the head and neck are almost always a little darker; below yellowish becoming suffused with Figure 49. belle Hunt Conant. Egyptian Cobra, Naja haje. Photo by Isa- (See also plate VIII, fig. 7.) brown; dark bars across neck at level of hood. Young yellowish; head and neck black; body crossed by wide dark bands. Adult snakes from southern Morocco are black above; purplish red with black bars and mottling below. A large cobra, maximum length about 8 feet; average 5 to 6 feet. Distribution: Occurs throughout the northern three- quarters of Africa exclusive of the rain forest; also found in the western and southern parts of the Arabian Peninsula. Found in a great variety of habitats such as flat land with scrubby bushes and grass clumps; irrigated fields, rocky hillsides, old ruins and in the vicinity of villages. It avoids extreme desert situations and also permanently moist ones. Like many snakes it often makes its home in abandoned rodent burrows. Remarks: While there are reports of aggressive be- havior by Egyptian cobras, this is exceptional. They seem to be rather timid snakes and often make little effort to defend themselves. The hood is not so wide as in the Indian cobra. The cobra type of defense with the body raised high off the ground and neck spread is impressive and help- ful in recognition of these snakes when they are alive. It is important to remember, however, that cobras may bite without spreading the hood and occasionally may spread the hood without rearing up the forebody. It should also be noted that many unrelated nonpoisonous snakes in various parts of the world spread the neck and forebody. The venom is of about the same degree of toxicity as that of the Indian cobra. If Cleopatra really used one of Egypt’s snakes as an instrument of suicide, this species would have been a wise choice. Antivenin against venom of this cobra is produced by the Institut Pasteur, Paris, and Behringwerke, Marburg-Lahn, Ger- many. This cobra is the sacred snake (Uraeus) of ancient Egypt and is probably the snake known as asp to the classical writers of Greece and Rome. ELAPIDAE: Genus Walterinnesia Lataste, 1887. Desert black snake. A single species, W. acgyptia, is known from the desert regions of Egypt to Iran. It is relatively large, 3 to 4 feet, and is probably a dangerous species. Definition: Head relatively broad, flattened, distinct from neck; snout broad, a distinct canthus. Body eylin- drical and tapered, moderately slender; tail short. Eyes moderate in size; pupils round. Head scales: The usual 9 on the crown; rostral broad. lLaterally, nasal in contact with single elongate preocular. Body scales: Dorsals smooth at midbody, feebly keeled posteriorly, in 23 rows at midbody, more (27) anteriorly. Ventrals 189-197; anal plate divided; sub- eaudals 45-48, first 2-8 single, remainder paired. Maxillary teeth: Two large tubular fangs with ex- ternal grooves followed, after an interspace, by 0-2 small teeth. Desert Black Snake, Wa/terinnesia aegyptia La- taste. Identification: A moderately stout snake with short tail and small head not distinct from neck; crown with large shields. The following combination of scale char- acters is useful in distinguishing this species from non- poisonous snakes and cobras: 1. Loreal plate absent; 2. Dorsal scales smooth anteriorly, keeled posteriorly ; 3. Anal plate divided; 4. Some single subcaudals, al- though most are paired. Adults uniformly black or very dark brown or gray North Africa above, a little paler ventrally. Young, in Iran at least, have narrow light crossbands. Average length 3 to 314 feet; maximum a little over 4 feet. Distribution: Egypt and the nations of the Near and Middle East. Reported most frequently from gardens, oases and irrigated areas; also inhabits barren rocky mountain hillsides and sandy desert with sparse bushes. A rather rare snake. Remarks: Does not rear up or spread hood but when annoyed may strike more than half its length. The high gloss of its scales helps to distinguish this species from the duller Egyptian cobra. Toxicity of the venom for experimental animals is about the same as that of the Indian cobra but quantity is considerably less (about 20 mg. vs. 50 to 100 mg.). There is no antivenin available. Figure 50.—Desert Black Snake, Walterinnesia aegyptia. The highly glossy scales help to differentiate this snake from other dark species within its range. Photo courtesy Standard Oil Company. VIPERIDAE: Genus Atractaspis Smith, 1949. Mole vipers. Sixteen species are currently recognized. All are Afri- can except for A. engaddensis Haas (which ranges from Egypt to Israel) and A. microlepidota (which is found 81 Poisonous Snakes of the World in the southern part of the Arablan Peninsula as well as I All are Hlowever, they through much of northern and central Africa). small suakes, less than 8 feet in length, have large fangs (which look enormous in their small mouths) and are capable of inflicting serious bites to those picking them up or stepping on them with bare feet (see p, 09). Definitions ead short and conical, not distinet from neck, no canthus; snout broad, flattened, often pointed. Body cylindrical, slender in small individuals, stout in large ones; tail short, ending in a distinct spine. Eyes very small; pupils round. Head scales: The usual 9 crown scales, rostral en- larged, extending between internasals to some degree, often pointed; frontal large and broad, supraoculars Laterally, nasal in contact with single preocular (no loreal), usually one postoeular. Dorsals smooth without apical pits, in 19-37 nonoblique rows at midbody. Ventrals 178-370; anal plate entire or divided (the only viperid snake with divided anal plates) ; subcaudals single or paired, 18-39. small. Body scales: VIPERIDAE: Genus Bitis Gray, 1842. African vipers. Ten species are found in tropical and southern Africa. They include the largest of the true vipers (Viperidae) as well as some small and moderately sized ones; all of the members of the genus are dangerous, some of them exeremly so. The puff adder, Bitis arictans, is found widely through the region (see p. 101). Definition: Head broad and very distinet from nar- row neck; snout short, a distinct canthus. Body some- what depressed, moderately to extremely stout; tail short. Eyes small; pupils vertically elliptical. Head scales: No enlarged plates on crown, covered with small scales. Some species have enlarged and erect seales on snout or above eye. Laterally, rostral sepa- rated from nasal by O (in B. worthingtoni) to 6 (in some B. nasicornis) rows of small scales, eye separated from supralabials by 2—5 rows of small scales. Body scales: Dorsals keeled with apical pits, in 21—- 46 nonoblique or slightly oblique rows at midbody, fewer anteriorly and posteriorly. Ventrals rounded or with faint lateral keels, 112-153; subcaudals paired, laterally keeled in some species, 16-37. VIPERIDAE: Genus Causus Wagler, 1830. Night adders. Four species are found in tropical and southern Africa. None attains a length of over 3 feet. The fangs are relatively small, and the venom is rather mildly toxic. They look surprisingly like nonpoisonous snakes. Night adders are not considered dangerous to life but their bite is painful and venomous. The rhombic night ad- der, C. rhombeatus, enters the southern part of this re- gion (p. 102). 82 Definition: Wead moderate in size, fairly distinet from neck, an obtuse canthus. Body cylindrical or slightly depressed, moderately slender; tail short, Eyes moderate in size; pupils round, Hlead scales: The usual 9 crown scales; rostral broad, sometimes pointed and upturned; frontal long, supraoculars large. Laterally, a loreal present, separat- ing nasal and preoculars; suboculars present, separating eye from labials. Body scales: Dorsals smooth or weakly keeled, with apical pits, in 15-22 oblique rows at midbody, fewer (11-14) posteriorly. Ventrals rounded, 109-155; sub- caudals single or paired, 10-33. VIPERIDAE: Genus Cerastes Laurenti, 1768. Horned vipers. Two species are recognized; both are restricted to the desert regions of northern Africa and western Asia. Neither is a large species; the bite is painful but usually not serious. Definition: Head broad, flattened, very distinct from neck; snout very short and broad, canthus indistinct. Body depressed, tapered, moderately slender to stout; tail short. Eyes small to moderate in size; pupils vertically el- liptieal. Head scales: Head covered with small irregular, tubercularly-keeled scales; a large erect, ribbed horn- like scale often present above the eye; no other enlarged scales on crown. Laterally, nasal separated from rostral by 1-8 rows of small scales; eye separated from supra- labials by 8-5 rows of small scales. Body scales: Dorsals with apical pits, large and heavily keeled on back, smaller laterally, oblique, with serrated keels, in 23-35 rows at midbody. Ventrals with lateral keel, 102-165; subcaudals keeled posteriorly, all paired, 18-42. African Desert Horned Viper, Cerastes cerastes (Linnaeus). Identification: Many individuals of this species have Ficure 51.—African Desert Horned Viper, Cerastes cerastes. Photo by Zoological Society of San Diego. a long spinelike horn above the eye; in some, however, this is short or absent. Body form is typically viperine with wide triangular head, thick body, and short tail tapering abruptly behind vent. Top of head covered with small scales; subcaudals paired; ventrals feebly keeled ; 15 or more scales across top of head; more than 130 ventrals. Ground color yellowish, pale gray, pinkish or pale brown with rows of dark brown, blackish or bluish spots that may fuse into crossbars; below whitish, tip of tail black. Average length 20 to 25 inches; maximum about 30 inches. Distribution: The Sahara region and Arabian Penin- sula; parts of the Middle East. Inhabits deserts where there are rock outcroppings and fine sand, often in very arid places; however, oases are not avoided. It usually hides in rodent holes and under stones. Remarks: Chiefly active at night. Like many desert snakes, it often uses the sidewinding type of locomo- tion. When angered it rubs inflated loops of its body together to make a rasping hiss as does the saw-scaled viper (Echis). It is not a particularly bad tempered or dangerous snake, although it is inclined to stand its ground if disturbed. It causes some snakebite accidents, but fa- talities are rare. Antivenin is produced by the Institut Pasteur, Paris, and the Institut Pasteur d’Algerie, Al- giers. Sahara Sand Viper, Cerastes vipera (Linnaeus). Identification: Very similar in appearance to the desert horned viper except that the horns are absent; 9-13 scales across top of head; fewer than 130 ventrals. Color much as in the horned viper but tending to be more faded with spots less well defined; tip of tail black in female, light in male. Average length 13 to 18 inches; maximum about 22 inches; females larger than males. Distribution: Wastern and central Sahara to Israel in sandy desert. Remarks: Found only in tracts of fine loose sand into which it buries itself when alarmed; usually spends the day buried in sand at the base of a shrub; active at night. In places where this viper is common, the horned viper is rare or absent and vice versa. Care should be taken to differentiate this snake from Echis carinatus, 4 much more dangerous snake. It is not a very dangerous snake; the venom is small in amount and not highly toxic. Antivenin is produced by the Institut Pasteur, Paris, and by Behringwerke (Polyvalent). VIPERIDAE: Genus Echis Merrem, 1820. Saw-scaled vipers. Two species are recognized. One (EH. coloratus) is restricted to eastern Egypt, the Arabian Peninsula, and North Africa Israel. The other (E. carinatus) ranges from Ceylon and southern India across western Asia and north Africa southward into tropical Africa. Although neither at- tains a length of 3 feet, they posses a highly toxic venom and are responsible for many deaths. When disturbed they characteristically inflate the body and produce a hissing sound by rubbing the saw-edged laternal scales against one another. This same pattern of behavior is shown by the nonpoisonous egg-eating snakes Dasypeltis. Definition: Head broad, very distinct from narrow neck; canthus indistinct. Body cylindrical, moderately slender; tail short. Eyes moderate in size; pupils vertically elliptical. Head scales: A narrow supraocular sometimes pres- ent; otherwise crown covered with small scales, which may be smooth or keeled. Rostral and nasals distinct. Laterally, eye separated from labials by 1-4 rows of small scales; nasal in contact with rostral or separated from it by a row of small scales. Body scales: Dorsals keeled, with apical pits, lateral scales smaller, with serrate keels, in 27-37 oblique rows at midbody. Ventrals rounded, 132-205; subcaudals sin- gle, 21-52. Saw-scaled Viper, H’chis carinatus (Schneider). Identification: Head short and wide, snout blunt; body moderately stout; scales on top of head small, keeled; scales on side of body strongly oblique, the keels with minute serrations; subcaudals single. Color pale buff or tan to olive brown, chestnut or reddish; midline row of whitish spots; sides with nar- row undulating white line; top of head usually shows light trident or arrowhead mark with 3 prongs directed posteriorly and one anteriorly; belly white to pinkish brown stippled with dark gray. Average length 15 to 20 inches; maximum about 32 inches; sexes of about equal size. Typical Photo by New York Zoological Society. Figure 52.—Saw-scaled Viper, Echis carinatus. defensive pose. Distribution: Almost the entire Afro-Asian desert belt from Morocco and Ghana to the southern provinces of Russian Asia and drier parts of India and Ceylon. 83 Poisonous Snakes of the World Very adaptable, found from almost barren rocky or sandy desert to dry scrub forest and from seacoast to elevations of about 6,000 feet. Very abundant over much of its range. Almost nocturnal in dry hot weather; occasionally diurnal in cool weather; during Usually tries to escape when encountered, but is very alert and irritable. Assumes characteristic figure-S coil, rubbing inflated loops of body together to make a distinctive sizzling Strikes quickly and repeatedly with considerable reach for a small snake, This little viper is an important cause of snakebite accidents and fatalities almost everywhere that it is found. and death has been recorded following the bite of a Hemorrhages, internal and Remarks: wholly rainy season often climbs into bushes. noise. The venom seems to be unusually toxic for man, snake 10% inches long. external, are a prominent part of the clinical picture. Serious late complications are frequent, and death may occur 12 to 16 days after the bite. Saw-scaled viper antivenins are produced by the Institut Pasteur, Paris; Behringwerke, Marburg-Lahn, Germany; Central Research Institute, Kasauli, India; Haffkine Institute, Bombay, India; Tashkent Institute, Moscow; State Razi Institute, Tehran, Iran; and the South African Institute for Medical Research, Johan- nesburg. VIPERIDAE: Genus Vipera Laurenti, 1768. True adders. Eleven species are recognized. This is an especially variable group, with some members that are small and relatively innocuous (e.g., V. beruws) and others that are extremely dangerous (V. lebetina, V. russelii). They are found from northern Eurasia throughout that con- tinent and into north Africa. One species ranges into the East Indies (V. russelii), and two are found in east Africa (see Remarks under V. superciliaris). Both the sunbnosed viper. V. latasti, and V. mauritanica are found in this region (see p. 74). Definitions ead broad, distinet from narrow neck; canthus distinet. Body eylindrical, varying from moder- ately slender to stout; tail short, Eyes moderate in size to small; pupils vertically el- liptical. Hlead scales: Variable; one species (V. wrsinii) has all 9 crown seutes, most species have at least the supraoculars, but even these are absent in one (V. lebe- Later- ally, nasal in contaet with rostral or separated by a single enlarged scale (the nasorostral), eye separated from supralabials by 1—4 rows of small scales. Body scales: Dorsals keeled, with apical pits, in 19-31 nonoblique rows at midbody. Ventrals rounded, 120-180; subcaudals paired, 20-64. tind); head otherwise covered with small scales. Sahara Rock Viper, Vipera mauritanica (Gray). Identification: Closely related to V. lebetina of the Near and Middle East. Absence of serrated keels on the lateral scales or keeled ventrals distinguishes it from Cerastes; paired subcaudals and lack of serrated keels distinguishes it from Mchis; a blunt rather than upturned snout distinguishes it from Viperu latasti; the lateral position of the nostrils, more slender body and fewer than 27 scale rows at midbody distinguishes it from the puff adder (Bitis arictans). Ground color grayish, reddish, or brown with series of oval or rectangular dark blotches that tend to fuse forming the zigzag stripe of many European and Asian vipers; belly pale extensively clouded with dark gray. Its pattern is much like that of the Palestine (V. @. palaestinae) viper (see page 112). Average length 35 to 45 inches. Distribution: The northwestern part of the Sahara region from Spanish Sahara to Tripolitania (northwest Libya). Found on hillsides with scrubby vegetation and large flat stones. Remarks: Wides by day in rock crevices and mine tunnels; most active about twilight. It is considered a dangerous species. Specific anti- venin is produced by the Institut Pasteur d’Algerie, Algiers. REFERENCES BONS, J. and B. GIROT. 1962. Cle Illustree des Reptiles du Maroc. Trav. Inst. Sci. Cherifien Ser. Zool. No. 26, p. 1-62, figs. 1-15. KRAMER, Eugen and H. SCHNURRENBER- GER. 1963. Systematik, Verbreitung und Okologie der Libyschen Schlangen. Rev. Suisse de Zool., vol. 70, pp. 453-568, pls. 1-4, figs. 1-13. MARX, Hymen. 1956. Keys to the Lizards and 84 Snakes of Egypt. Research Rpt. NM 005 050.39.45, NAMRU-3, Cairo pp. 1-8. SAINT-GIRONS, H. 1956. Les Serpents du Maroc. Var. Scient. Soc. Sci. Nat. Psyc. Maroc, vol. 8, pp. 1-29, pls. 1-3, figs. 1-9. VILLIERS, Andre. 1950. Contribution a l’etude du peuplement de la Mauritanie. Ophidiens. Bull. Inst. Francais d’Afrique Noire, vol. 12, pp- 984-998, figs. 1-2, tables. Section 6 CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN AFRICA Definition of the Region: All of Africa south of the Sahara Desert region. The northern border of this huge area coincides with the southern boundaries of Mauritania, Mali, Niger and Chad; and with the northern boundary of the Sudan. Madagascar, off the east coast. has no venomous snakes. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Map lof) the region=tes=*s=-- 5. =. oe. ee, ASE Le 8 ee 87 Infroduction = essere ate et eee oe ree Oe Se 87 Distribution Chintz ees = en oe ee a ee eae 86, 88 ETO CONC he ke Se eS 89 COLUBRIDAE: (OLY NLTIOI Te ay ee SEES Ese eee SS eee Ree eee ee 90 SE OUCIOU OP ces ee ee ee eee 91 ELAPIDAE: DANS UO/) 8 ee a Se 91 BOUL CTU CTR ae i ee 91 DC TUL TO C1810 3 et re eee a Shs ee ee pe 92 Elaps PIE ci sy 2s: 2 6 So5 eRe ne ee Bee Ne WR a ee ek bs 94 Bilan sovdeg= seer eee ae Ss Ls den ee he a ee 94 EL CVU. G TUCUE UES oe em ee ect ae eo ee 94 Nh (ae eee Se ES Ee eS ee ee ee eee eee 95 LERGIIGN Ne hf pte a Se oe et eI A BE EE ee eee a7 (PSOUQONG1O= <5 ee ere is — ee BB RO ee ee 97 VIPERIDAE: FAL IU OT UT UO Se ae a cE pt 98 WA HUCTUS aren ok Re ee ee eee Dek eh a 98 WANETLCLOS )1Se ae ae en Be ne OS ee 99 BETS eee ee 1 ee See ee ed ee dg 100 CUES iS a a dre ee Se ee 102 KAS = fa SS eS 2 Ss ee eee eee 103 AGC E S eee S e eee ee eee 103 Reterencess ee eee a ee ee ee ee ee 103 85 Poisonous Snakes of the World (gs ofud uo panurju0p) Toman paca aa a lead ee ad (aida! [am maa 7.44 é DI€ é MK x Tae e >: 4) fF el ieee: BELL) (ae, 1 f asa] Ue |= aaa sl amen [cea] | Semi] cam: | aes ad | [eens ml vaasturenDds OV Sy enh a ay ary [Se ce | ee ae fe TNS Pe [Nite ee a fe ce che ce ba eee ae] (og ae a ||, ele Gs aa Loos TCs Vi > San pea ee Re Ae SISUISUBIRY Nef =< Gate at SS a suprdsiq ‘Vv ite Tia) eal ae pay pene (apt emt eat Uae mae amet Vedic Hiern > Gu | WAC Fas ol Ie cama] [emo] mec ae ||. Gal [e-Gol an | |e |e rosie {Sanh a) (pee ESLAOSOLOTTOL Avi a SSG cess ssecs I easel nea cae | ul nen | a | el SS | Das |e] ae ee |e al ea | ll SnaoydoyR100 STIeqTy Wnoqieq SoulyAouepy AVaGINadIA feces ay eg sy fy a ed a Dd ice eel ee ne GF x | é 52 al al| Sele ae (esa a ae acter ae BISIU “qd sey ea ae ee ie ‘34 Rte i Vamsi Pie] 7a] ama UP? Sd a SP (Re Sa THEA é é é >: | feta | ae ee [paoenie:| eosae eal eel ake [Scale alee Peal ices TIpjos ofvypopnesg 6 6 3200S mse | pea PE] ba | a P| eae Kecss eal emilee Xo ae Sis ale irs eae dics wilcaeateo ole ical: 10 ee eee vleurivd +----+-- Xs Sa) a [wale wa lecalckele Tle lc. lee Sf Pc a a eo SS Se tes aiicsecilecal | SSES TSE SSSss=s=F a BOAT “N psa Na Sl IB 4 >: Gy >. om [>.< Nigel [GSO] RS NAS Sal HS Sg a Pa yal Pace Gl essen) Picawael [ieee 4 é Dai >. 8) oa I ea | aS || >:S al |: 4el| awa ee ST[OOMISIU “N a x x Woncalsslls cae Be ofey vltn a ¢---4---4---4---- a a a Fr | pe a rel fe foe 9 a a ta t---4-— AT snyeyoBUleBy SNyVyoRUeyT 4 S53 oss lle Xol| Alfie A Ne Ru raed Sc rea NSIS) |) 526 | re WTBaepuns voprosduyg x x Ke pe ye en |i | ee eka || Ke lela Ale acles ie | Solna oe > Bissallesuli@ pillzalllce ae eee vonefouLaur “N x or EN neal ie tale lie sel ace a | Seal N ' i ' 4 ' ' ' ' ' ' ‘ ' ' ' x =e =| [een [eal Weeacl Gea Aw|| se) se |e le Sal Pe ee Wa BN GG a re a Ir Tuosomul “ql | a Vie pate ae Sead sessed eae ells alec ce lea tile eilacalenale lve ica ee q---sdeoysnsuv sidsvoipusd 4 Deeg Say ae) Ga a ee ae ed he ol a IMO ao oalpemleae il [cecal | PN Sead ae Ee ieee aoe —f Sale ae ae TAs “gd [ ae pe Eo a a 5 FF a a fe | eal (al | a snqyeynos “VW | ere a = hae Siete teal snotqny, sdvjeprdsy | GVdIdv1a x | Bee feces) ec ea oe a coe | Ce a lice te oleae ale a lh lee Kon | eke ear = ail aa ifoea (Atl pae eae i eT IHIpuBpjAy STUIOJO[OUL SS] So) Boh) el a Rs at a] Rc Bg] ef -g |Bie al (Re a] Ta aie oy cae | (in| (seca (ete (ante [eae Doel (o>: Ga emia (mento Dat Hace at PAA a [is cee | Mees I ee snd} snprpoydsiqd | aVaINadn too a + + —————————— = — — - T —= —- a + + H. + + +: a + i . es ae) a a ASA) ea led Site tl ral fen ey tele tay teh tall fal al et st Se ol ey a eT ee tee Use a eo é a ie 3 ois 5 3 5| 3s S1sBlaosnB lol] 2] 8] &®] => |e] oo 2 oie | ees —&. | 2 | 3 iB | Ts sec il é — 4 5 > x & = Ss 2 =p | Rp = ° o b a s 5 5 ® is D ei=ia Sic] : a 5 3 S| 6 @ ° ® 5 al fet R 3 Ee z 5 Fs Py Ps a So|/So/]5 Fy 5 rar 5 = co] 5 SOE S Pe) sel Bae ie | 8 BP) Sla-|38 (i call eto | eas z Ze 43) 9 |) ois MW Esl ee |] et ——_7 | 8 oe Sine = = ) ; = So ~ | Tl a/2/- ei SeiSe |e) &| ° > Z| Oo] 8 3 p I L Sai | 5 : x 5" > = b 4 se pl ee ? | ee) te ol 3 8 9 fal leae |e ks == & | 5 as 5s= Z ig n 2s > = c af re || 2 > 8 = g z= s | = Balke > 5/4 4 2 5 g => 2 | : — e fal xz 5 5 > L = ° oa a = es 5 312 5 7 F] : | = | EB) |e eI: yoIdws¥ NYZHLNOS ¥ 1VYLNID JO SIAVNS SNONOSIOd JO NOILNGILSIG—OL 318VL — — 86 INTRODUCTION The poisonous snake fauna of central and southern Africa is a large and diverse one. There are no venomous terrestrial snakes on Madagascar, off the east coast, and only oc- casionally does a lone sea snake (Pe/amis) wash ashore there or along the eastern coast of the mainland. However, there are records of sea snakes from as far south and west as Capetown, although there appear to be no reports of any person having been bitten in African waters by sea snakes. Other than the sea snakes, the African poison- ous snakes belong to three families, the Colubri- dae, the Elapidae, and the Viperidae. Africa is the only region where colubrid snakes are con- sidered dangerously venomous, but here there are two tree snakes, the boomslang (Déspholidus) and the bird snake (Zhelotornis), that have proven to be capable of inflicting lethal bites. The elapids include burrowing snakes, some of which (e.¢., Z/aps) are so small as to be of little concern. However, there are many dangerous terrestrial species as well as a number of spe- cialized arboreal kinds (Pseudohaje, Dendroas- pis). The most terrestrial of the mambas, en- droaspis polylepis, the black mamba, attains a leneth of about 14 feet and is one of the most dangerous snakes in existence. Other especially dangerous terrestrial species are the Egyptian cobra (Naja haje), which has a wide range through central Africa, the spitting cobra (Vaja nigricollis), also with a wide range, and the yel- low cobra (V. névea) and ringhals (/Zemachatus) of southern Africa. The vipers are an equally diverse group. A genus of burrowing mole vipers (Afractaspis) is found throughout the region. Even though most of these do not exceed 2 feet in length, they are capable of inflicting dangerous bites. Some of the central African terrestrial vipers are the largest members of their family: the massive Ga- boon viper (Bitis gabonica) exceptionally attains a length of 6 feet, with fangs almost 2 inches long. Tn addition there are relatively small desert vipers in the temperate south. However, the most wide- spread, the most commonly seen, and probably the greatest killer of man is the common puff adder (Bitis arietans). The bush vipers (A the- ris) do not appear to be an important danger. Central and Southern Africa With such a wealth of dangerously venomous snakes, one would expect snakebite to be an im- portant cause of death in Africa. However, the few statistics available do not give this impres- sion. The reported incidence of death from Map 7.—Section 6, Central and Southern Africa. snakebite is much lower than in the tropical coun- tries of the Asian mainland. Whether this is a true picture or if it is distorted by poor reporting is as yet unknown. The vipers of the genera Bitis, Echis, Atheris, and Vipera have the common attributes of veno- mous snakes—broad distinct head and eyes with vertically elliptical pupils. However, this is not true of the night adders (Causus), the mole vipers (Atractaspis), or the various elapid and danger- ous colubrid species. These have no general char- acteristics that set them off from harmless snakes. However, poisonous snakes make up less than a quarter of the snake fauna throughout the region and it is not too difficult to learn the venomous kinds in any one area. Many of the elapid species are cobras (Naja) or cobra-like kinds, and while a cobra minding its own business looks very much like any other snake, a disturbed cobra will quickly spread a hood—which is a plain and distinctive warning. Even some of the elapids without well-developed hoods (e.g., the mambas, Dendroaspis) will flatten the neck if disturbed, and some which do not re- semble cobras in any way (e.g., Aspidelaps) will flatten the neck and raise the anterior part of the body in the familiar cobra stance. 87 Poisonous Snakes of the World ‘AINJVIOIL PUVA JNOYIEM JLUN oy} ULYITA Soatoeds VT JO ddUVIINDDO podjoadsns Sayvorpul Z loqmss aq “(oye Ysouyguog = MS) AporVTdosiddy popyvorpuL st pun Uv Jo Band 0} sotveds Vv Jo UOod]IQSeyy “VOL of} UNPIM puerdsopra st sefods oq} Jo UOLNQLYySIpP seyvorpul xX joquids eq, acs (aca (ea) ena beat nicaraig [in 0 0 | co) Recreemi a (inion (laa Ft at ig og Uae (RP ae prim rc ea cine | roe | mca em Fae | (ge Reo [oars (Re dl | roma a ea Slvlplosedns ‘A | aa te + eis "pur Barodr, D Gil | ea ae od SNVUIAB) STOOL DSi | Poa a Sao ea snjvequioya "p >*4i| (Cae ee ae te oe snuIsal “9 Fie || ees all ae | ee ee TUte}sue}qory “OD eA a aaa ee [aa cag a ak uddtjyep susnw) Se a ta a es atta atta TUOJSUIYIAOM “ET a> SF iz PT NCS De ES ot peat eer er a | ev ao ea oo em a cet Ue ase) cere (mace eae === p===----=-----1 gon Sutsod ‘a iw sy ae em ES | ay em) ee pre [b> fl acta Vb fa Ga Fs yaa VB Nae a> >i a ag V1 eins 1006 (0) ¥ “SS pce j-——4———-} 4} ___}___ 4} yp ppt 8 P= P= = =P = = po = penn nnn nnn nnn nn vy eusO0Ur =e 5 Tak yf am A Getic Ja em ea = eee vOIpTeIO “EL |p gy SIS Es | RE Ss PP IE | aa cae | Slo ope ee fea hee a vorwoqus “€ Sig) (oat Se A | (aa) Waa (Pca PSScalcat [eset (Tsaneatae |] (Pascal | Seta | eta [MIRON | cmnal (Tle (acca Ss a ae a al Pe DE Saal ed (GE DE Bll Si cee EES hae oe BINUIOI “ET ‘ad be Sellen Mead pele athe ede te el aaa stjupneo x A aie) | ST (ae 8 Ne ee Das ee pec Incas | ace amie ces ncn are AD wesc 0 (cl [me Se eee em [atm | (mance | aa | gee cet ina sodoaye “eq Er | Sea ea) escon| pes Ten | rca | rca | ce Recall ar can arcu rch | eclectic e SUBJOE SUT a] 2s a a oa | cae | Leal = ees ee eal cca | cee aca Fac cee cde J | Peps ae | |e ae ee al TI0098}100S “VW cmt] alae tied macoricans | ME SROOD Nucor d SSK Npraaca | (SRO eccatrame | (omen (cbc | cal | ic a aey | Pap span aL (eons | al Levee | Ia eae ea BIV[DOYor “y eS ae Fe) AN aa eA a We PS = eeee vjopidoyororat “Vy xsi "2 i= r a ee a ra yaesa| fees (Pe Pe a ol tye [poo ace ee SBpeUIOOne] “VW ae ae) aa We be oe es theaesed Oe Sage Ue aE eae ea] eee ee Np gle lea ome ae PURE ; ae ee ee ees ee S| Cee Oe Ce ee eee ee ee ee s SSS Rey pose TTyULpsue “y = }---$---4--- ~=-} -~-} ---}---4---J----} --_} ff ppp fff 8p pf pon nnn nnn nnn nnn lueplenp “V a a nn nnn mommy og x st x lx | eg |e | Nilsseatoccoe teen stsuasomoyep “Vy 6 é oC é ME xa 2A rae eT a Oa FG ae LO | ec ee vyUue[Nd109 “Vy I [ee S| [ee Same ae pate ea) fea i mis Pom aa teen Fee (aaa | i ae CMR a BOISUOD “V eee Taras a ee ak | cata | cae | | ee ea cl ce eee lt linen Me eee SUBDSV[BOO “VY 8 ee ee en i lesueTnog “y ee ee | eee ieee ce | ie bebe Tie th i eee quorqrd “"V 1 -b------} ---} ---+--- Sg wales SS ag SEL Se I a a a pe ae] 1Aqsi0}jyeq °V eae (Goh (ieee (>< é 3:6 é >: (Cel pam |p ee ae |e Sa | eS || PR [ae | cme | becca [| cea Se | china ame [lice ae BUIIII0}V STUSvJvIVV | (penurju00) MVAINadlA $ $ + + $ t + ee — —— —— == ee ———— =} = ——————— + }----++--+4----}--- -4--- N eiuay o3s0], eraqrys say) Houyy yinosg jo ywyqQndey erepouy BoyIV “A wquez puvpesesny “s] Jeqizuez wruezury, uoosawEr) ersagr sowmoyeq eOA JaddyQ ISEOD AIOAT auoay es131¢ “Ig—eidonpy (puetitems “W0g—rauINy jo “day ‘owvu0y) (oFuey youssy mauucy ) Ipuning 3y epuray aqnday oFu0D yon ON{—uoqey (aseoD “) Bury eIquieyy—|edauas ipurjoonseg a qnday Ba1zy [PUA eauinsy (poeyeueqonog) rueanog PUETITEWOS (oFueD uridsjag s9WI0;) | Eat i | -— aN ee (panuyuos) YOIYIY NYFHLINOS 8 IVYLNID JO SAXYVNS SNONOSIOd dO NOILNEILSIG— OL JIVL 88 or 6. Ti 10. ibk 16. ie Central and Southern Africa KEY TO GENERA . A. Crown of head covered with small irregular scales; Pupiltotreyesventicalllyselllinntice| === === am = een eee eens 15 B. Crown of head with nine large regular plates; pupil of PCE IRUIIOUS GAMES: 55 ee eS eee eee eee et 2 A. Loreal scale absent; preoculars in contact with nasal or separated by downward extension of prefrontal_____-----_-_- 6 B. Loreal scale(s) present, separating preoculars from |S) Mess ee Ce a Dk es ee ee 3 ACH upllloeye horzontallyse lip tical as ee ee Thelotornis Be upilKohweyesround == See ae ee t A. Eye separated from supralabials by row of subocular Sen) (igh i ae ee ee ee ee eee Causus 6... Eye,an\ contach, with. supralabials®=: <=" ee 5 A. Dorsals distinctly keeled, in 17-21 rows at midbody_-_--~- Dispholidus B. Dorsals smooth, in 13-15 rows at midbody__----__------_ Pseudohaje A. Preoculars (3) widely separated from nasal; prefrontals expanded laterally to touch labials_______-_-_-______ Dendroaspis Beumereocularsn dor) sinicontach with nasale === ees sss eee ff A. Rostral very large, concave below, separated from other SGallGsmOnM SIC si emmrmnn a ee Aspidelaps B. Rostral not concave below, not separated from other $2) Gc meee eee ee a ee ee a ee ee 8 ‘AC Wonsalsedishinctly keeled == == — 9-2) 52-2 = See ee Hemachatus Ip, Dorsaiseperieetly “SmOOtheeer 2 ee er 9 A. Eye very small; frontal more than twice as broad as SU UOCUL RG ae eee ee eee ee Atractaspis B. Eye small to very large; frontal not twice as broad as SUPULOCULAUS = ee eer Te ea ee 10 A. Tail moderate to long; more than 41 subcaudals__---------------- 13 Bs Pailsshort= tewer than4?)subcaudals--_-- -- 5 11 A. Rostral enlarged, obtusely pointed; dorsals in 13 rows Sir Acanitall ofofs Nw ee ee ee ot Elapsoidea B. Rostral normal, rounded; dorsals 15-17 rows at midbody__-------- 12 A. Anal plate divided; dorsals 15 throughout___________--________ Elaps B. Anal plate entire; dorsals 15-17 at midbody, more on NGG: TWALOP. HOS std hy ee ee Se ee Paranaja A. Eye very large; dorsals 13-15 rows at midbody ---------- Pseudohaje B. Eye small to moderate; dorsals 17 or more at midbody___--------—- 14 A. Dorsal pattern of 3-24 distinct dark crossbars on lighter ground color; 3-4 small teeth on maxillary bone_--_ Boulengerina B. No such pattern; 0-2 (rarely 3) small teeth on maxillary | Soy ep es ee ones A Se Se Se Pe eae ee eee Naja AW atenaleseales witht serraterkcecls: seas ee ee oe ee 18 B.. Lateral! scales not “serrately keeleds2_ aes 2 _ ss et 16 HAE SUC ACS map aee ee» wees ee ets ot a Ss SEE ee 19 dB hel HO SSEUTIORG FDS Se kG ae a, A el le i le i ae la I iff A. Fewer than 30 subeaudals; fewer than 130 ventrals______ Adenorhinos B. More than 30 subeaudals; more than 130 ventrals___--_______ Atheris 89 P ysOnNoOUS QNakes of the World KEY TO GENERA (Continued) IS. A. Ventrals with lateral keel; subeaudals paired 3. Ventrals rounded; subcaudals single A 19. A. Rostral in contact with nasal, or separated from it by a single large scale B. Rostral separated from nasal by 1 or more rows of small scales yrthingtoni, with the nasal in contact with rostral, single subcaudals, and the ventral will not key out properly GENERIC AND SPECIES DESCRIPTIONS COLUBRIDAE: Genus Dispholidus Duvernoy, 1832. pending on dorsal color. No Distribution: Open savannah and brushy country Boomslane. A single species, D. typus Smith. This snake, found only in tropical and southern Africa, is the most dan- serous member of the family Colubridae. Definition: Wead oval but distinet from slender neck; crown of head convex. Snout short with a distinct eanthus. Body slender and elongate, moderately com- pressed; tail long and slender. Eyes very large; pupils round. Head scales: The usual 9 on the crown. Laterally, a single loreal scale separates the nasal from the one or two preoculars. sody scales: Dorsals narrow, distinctly keeled, and With apical pits; in 17-21 oblique rows at midbody, more (21-25) anteriorly, fewer (13) posteriorly. Ven- trals of normal size, obtusely angulate laterally, 164-201 ; anal plate divided (Like most “present or absent” seale characteristics, this is not true 100 percent of the time; the anal plate is rarely entire. The question of identification of a boomslang with an entire anal plate caused the death of a noted herpetologist, Karl P. Schmidt, in 1957. See Pope, 1958); subcaudals paired, 87-131. Maxillary teeth: => © = +— e ® Section 8 SOUTHEAST ASIA Definition of the Region: Includes the Indian Subcontinent; Tibet and other Himalayan States; the Chinese provinces of Sinkiang, Tsinghai, Szechwan, Yunnan, Kweichow, Kwangsi, Kwangtung, Hunan, Kiangsi, Fukien, Chekiang, and Hainan Is- land, Burma; Thailand; the Malay Peninsula; Laos; Cambodia; Viet Nam; Ceylon; Andaman and Nicobar Islands; Sumatra, Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands; Borneo and Celebes. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Mapiofathesregions=—~s2= 2.2 eee oe 117 Infroduction== 2" =. = =... -= 2 See eee ees a ee See eee 117 Distribution Gharts=-== == <= Sos Ses aes ee ee ee eee 116, 118 KeyatorGenerd===2. 2 2 en eee 119 ELAPIDAE: MING eG =e ae a Se ee ee 117 USING CUS = ae oe eee eB i ee 120 Coral Snakes: GOW OD RIS 228 Se a8 8 8s BE ein a ee ae 121 WV CUGORG ene 8 oe eee ee ee ee See 122 (Cobraste Saas)! 8 cc oe ee ees ee ot 123 M090 ae ohn oe Secs See es ee Sa os oe ees 124 OpRiopha Ques == 22 a ee 125 VIPERIDAE: ABOMLO pS saan Soo et Ne eee ee eee eee oe epee oe eae ee 126 VERO a a a a a a 126 TEASTLCOD NB ae ar ie he ne ee Ee ee ae eee ean ie ee 126 WES CUCOCOTOSLCS <= 2 2 25.8 a Sas ee ee ee Sa ee ee ee 127 Vepengs =e 2S SSA a 2 oh a ee 127 CROTALIDAE: YAU GI ONO KT ee ee a EE See ee ee eee 128 INGOT ROS Uae ae OS ee ee ee ee ee 129 References-sce-ls Se | 5 Sk Ce eee De ee ee ee eee 130 115 Poisonous Snakes of the World bo ee x x }---- ----| yy b-----t---- ew é é é (SIT esvd uo panuyuo)) AVAITVLOY) SERED Tae IlJOSSNI A aes a ile Buljeqe] BIodT A —--snotsied sajsBvie00pnesq —““TmoyRuovu STydoorjsmg a a aa a SnyeVUldBd sIqoq Seo ee ta eee avay Sdormezy @VAINaAdIA ae jae: x Ee lise | wos xe Xs se ae xX axe xX >: Callas ote | ------yruury snsvydorydo aa eek x | Seliger ai ok x aX Xe x Bx Xe Xe we S ECL CUACHON Tawi [ae ¢ eal oe x BG DS ENG [eevee silicic Ba panini eae V hztad SS af LE cs | we nae || De ST[VUT}SOJUL “TT See eS > OF) i Bias ees |e. ¢ € oF [pear |p SX ‘4 oT cae sas casa caemil|a | R | T|S| | |COSLTALCeLOOLLEING Ey | are (ie SE) — Pas oneal a A he ae Sas ee (his a St ag AN aca aaa eee a eT (ia Exe Sand | ae cS a eo susdosei1slu 59) SS Ga a) ee] oe | > al ieee ee | Si | (= eae Daas] areca (. omaeaieal = ee | ae | oe SEE ato ieciemad | axe Xe Sel | | ee a SNANUBIIUI “~—) = n= 5 Ss } es fe: Pca 1 F iil DRS = N S px NE x >" Gall] ie al [ee ae | | ee | ao el bp a | ae a | (ee a ees sdaolTnovur 49) aimed Re arilienl ceed cost Halal e= [eee N N Ela |e Xn lia al | |S ial ac AN 777770777 puryepovm “OD eae fae ray | a ae aes es akg Nall INGe lec @ian||* caaalleaea| 5'¢.illfaa eae aes ae | Soomaali Gece oe a HSS0]]9Y “D ak Sl (Spear Wo | oa thee SOE sess eel SS lian |e paaliae ea calm elle tala Bailes eae SU ht FO) Sr (ean | Ge ae I ee ee oe == 9 1-5 rie lata aal (ae all eae |S ce ae ealtea we igen ae |p RP Samal Gi iscaelliaas ae Sa aee juorqiq “O Se re 5 a isaac a a a a a ae (aia i ee eel fee a] | eet as | | OCLO DDO stydorp[ep Pray | eg) hy a) BS eae rca! KG aaa] Seaeneaa| | lial | eee tse Se ee aes | ae mame | ew CALL SS ee NHS SESE 3 eo aay | (Sn Cae] Be 8 OS i al a mt et | aes] eee ne ie eae coe aoa sasypaese 4 GUNG ime silat a 19st “q aa Neral | ST aan | 2==se ees az lias 3 oan ae ha hak aoe] = peda | a>'G x (S| ae ee fae ace W[22=== iota es ee a ee snjouroyynu “g asa tare (oe ae aa ae] ae ae ae |e Geen) Sates | ern] (Pence te] ESM ios sae cai | Rea su || | el eee ar ates | fase a eT SN] B[NOVUITUS BUT ‘al a aa | Caan mica shi ee pe a a ae | | aaa yen nee Tt. nook Jee een SUPTIATL “@ aol. wh isan linesea! forse it er Vice ae fee a Visescataaal| reteiccat a | S lihasscalam (Toa Ieee amc | ae | lace | aaa oY | ea a SnomBvanl “q feaceg) ao aga lee x x ete Gee hs | em aa ta a | eoas lastest Se | gee cae a Pe EE sdootary “a = esl > gl Pate Page) ree: 4 x s6 x Be y6 xe Xe | les ee eal ome | XE licen ||| Caan | om eS IOS CU set Rae FER] PAGS Se ee eee ee a eae a |temen |e men Nh ae Tal ams | GD meat ell om alia ay esl LO TAO mel fara es Gs aa | 5 al ee: | x é é Soe i caesar |e eas elle al em sie et | = 5-4 || sear es a SupTpuURBd “< TIE Mea 3 -- aed et aan pots ae Siler ate h atone d sl lS ee a lt tat le tented rieigel deta! (aaa al ( eae Sain | Exe xe bel ||| See pe Sno[nilevo ‘aA a | pecaeeoaes Wacraaioean asatc fmieraads (ake aa ean fai) ie) ro i) ica Sa tar a | | Pars Seas Cann panes ee | aaa saploresung snivsung | avdldvia > + - — t — - — — — | — —— - si | eer ee (es = n o dal a = y = < 5; 9 4 ie a L A || ts ia) z Oi te ee Ie eee week Be oBey) serail GaniPaun iors web ga | oe) ah a | zr 3 ae 5 * 3 7 ma = 3 ; Eee )255) 22 B 9 \- ad 3 3 8 | 33 5 . Z ee 2 Q | B22 |aS5| 3. Beal mar = 3 ve | 2 . 5 = a = | BOB |Se5) Bul 8 e F ne] 2 Bisel baller e [ z “< * - a B VISV ISWAHLNOS NI SAXYVNS SNONOSIOd JO NOILNAILSIG—ZL ATaVL 116 INTRODUCTION In number and variety of species the snake fauna of southeast Asia is undoubtedly the rich- est in the world. It is the only region where virtually all major groups of snakes are repre- sented. The richness of the fauna reflects partly the great variety of serpent habitats which range from semiarid slopes to fresh and salt water marshes, from alpine meadows to tropical rain forest. The region has been a major center of serpent evolution as well as one where some prim- itive types have survived. Southeast Asia has also maintained for cen- turies a dense human population organized into a Arctic Ocean UNION OF BOVIET BOCIALIBT REPUBLICS Map 9.—Section 8, Southeast Asia succession of complex cultures and subcultures. Over this time span many kinds of snakes, in- cluding several venomous species, have developed a pattern of coexistence with man. Nowhere else do dangerous snakes and humans live in closer proximity in such numbers. This is the chief reason why southeast Asia has the world’s highest Southeast Asia incidence of snakebites and snakebite deaths. This does not mean that snakes are everywhere apparent. Americans and Europeans visiting tropical Asia or living in its cities may never see a snake other than those exhibited by snake charmers. Extreme secretiveness is part of the snake’s scheme for survival. But sometimes man and poisonous snake confront each other suddenly and unexpectedly to the everlasting disadvantage of one or both parties. Vipers, cobras and their elapid allies, and sea snakes are all well represented in southeast Asia and all contribute to the snakebite problem. While few careful studies have been made, there is evidence that vipers, including pit vipers, are responsible for the greater number of snakebite eases while elapids are credited with fewer bites but a higher percentage of deaths. Sea snake bites are not uncommon in coastal villages. GENERIC AND SPECIES DESCRIPTIONS THE KRAITS (Bungarus) The name krait (of Hindhi origin) has been associated by English speaking peoples with a small venomous Indian snake. Actually there are several species of kraits and none of them are small; in fact, two reach lengths of about 7 feet. Kraits resemble many nonpoisonous snakes in general appearance. They have short rather flat heads only slightly wider than the neck. The eyes are small and dark, the pupils almost in- visible in life. They are smooth scaled and glossy; most have a vivid pattern of crossbands. Three features of scutellation help distinguish kraits from other Asian snakes—a combination of all is diagnostic: 1. The vertebral row of scales is strongly en- larged, except in one rare species. 2. At least some of the subcaudals are undi- vided; in most species all are undivided. 3. The loreal shield is absent. Kraits are strongly nocturnal, and their alert disposition by night differs from their quiet, al- most stupid behavior by day. They cause few snakebites but the case fatality rate is very high. Kraits lay eggs that are attended by the fe- male. Their food consists largely of other snakes. 117 Poisonous Snakes of the World peit aq} UIQ}IM Safeds JO aoueriN920 pejoadsns sajvorpur ~ joqmAs eT Ian eq) UII PBedsepIa St Seeds ey} JO UOTNQII}SIP SezvoIpul X oquAs eT -2u ‘anuIvy JO puRIs! ey} pu SeduTAOId SuvryeyO ‘UsTyNY, ‘Wwsuvpy ‘uvUuNy ‘Sun SuvMy ‘ISFUVMY,y “gANyVIAIT] PHBA PNOYITA “(aja Qseaqjnog = AAS) Aleyvradoidde pazRoipur st }iun v Jo jaud 0} Sopoeds v Jo UOTJOTI}S “S}IUN S¥ pa}ved} eJey a1 seduTAO’d JO suOI}vU Sutulofpe Jo sdnois upeyla) s9q2)/2D So) (aaa | enna Oe iismacs OR ee) a meee | (iin ata (ccc amr ol (cciemiiel (tar maou! |e ae ae ieee onal ea Bol Wap SVM VL aa 1 eats (esa Sa ee ee snjeydeoou0sta} L, SS i | er eel ea aan lees Ci SST Ca ae en ot ol eer mae a cea | ea SISUBUTYUO} “L Sse | ea ee Se Ss 31 cae eee | Ra [ae | eel enoaalloeaan cae a ee snueBijeums ee fe Sao ailis sa || ee Sa a RN Bo LL Sly ise | hr ad t as N x Sa rai heiks itch 0 6 caeatane |iacarmaasee | REM cael x Xai |inenean ——-snqyetnovmovindand ‘J, fates eats Pal SESS RSeo hee SSS Sinem qedayol ap, =o |e mag a ae d<¢ BC5 ae ae aaa [a a | ea LUNGS aeons ake SE tmnaoedod *y, N N Be pa oal N 5 || S| eames |e eel ee a | amy NIE, | | Rca IPS Re snjemenbsoionur “, a xX XS xX >.¢ SX-4|| eX | inaeeanea |S tata tae TI UNG rage ora BlOoTJUOU * aaa eae eal Rael ee a Fawn wae SROLIVGR BOL vi SSS Sol ae > lee ee SS eel ara SR IST HOGI (COR GANESH mx ail oe it le | | oes | DSHS TUE ot Saey ae |i eal NIC | emmeae Sea OU [LLG Taal aoe Pk aa ea (oe See Po -------—-sIsuelinquey iL Nek (Pesan coon cae 8 N 5 ee eo ec heal eee ea || 1G ON lel teem eee ane a tiuopasel YL aly (etait tected BSSS== HSPs SF onlihahe, Sah; Sy ey aged pied hatin BO ag | aaah pial rea SSS taal eo SS CH SUG) a a ae iite as Sees STO TLE nT Fe tay ee | pe lg Ag OSD ar Sa SUNY eg ey pe at om a iN a a aaa eas N ROSH Si a aoe ee SINT UT AMON nT / pa eS ele ae Sie aca cee alee ee eal ade ee PI Fa SS PO SSS) FUby a By el TT 8 SG a Sg a a a ee eS IO LALO mil a I I a i ES a a aaa a a ee OSG UD MT a eee ar Li eed Irae ocean | ieee CALS Sa a eee ee ae See clo Ee Fac ak Ieee el emcee | ee pes Sean eters! CLO) LLCO mar eae Xs N Ke aX XG >: | ae can | GR -Sliqejog[v SNanse1oUILLy, et le ey I i ea SE a a et a ace UT KL LT Sa es x Xo XK Me) | see oe alee a ee Pee ieee al Se la oe [GB UOT SOPOU Lm Vi Sa Oa eg I oll pa hat ===-4-----} --==4- ~~~ F=f nnn] Pos scpocm anna ao == ede “V Se ae ah Nie aes A eee Lee eg a eet | Ree ia oe le S| ee | eae eek ee oe aan] eon | ECD eee | ae ea a nena | OO L) LO UL if nae ax eesa oe ana |e en Le eee ee Ie ee ae Sa eee cel mea weil a ae alee oe Ss ----~-}----9]Budséy WOporysTysy (penutu0)) MalTVLOwo = > 9 - a z < i 4 wo n wn 7d isa fe) iF e foseele @ | ce lh Bole pale oe | 5 Fe ee web ee) |) tor || SS < 155] °% = 2 Z Sones FH © lSSZ BRB] oe | & 8 = S $s wo 3 = S a 5 = Bae laee| 3 a a. 23 e B A B |8S5/55° | an Fy 2 = 5 = B per iae 4 5 ry —? | & pote 5 5 Ea * 3 5 iy ‘ = g) 8 | (penuuor) YIS¥Y LSWAHLNOS NI S3YVNS SNONOSIOd JO NOILNGILSIG— ZL FTaVL 118 to J 10. iG 12. Southeast Asia KEY TO GENERA JN MUGig20Il Faria SSS 2 18, oneal joni Hosen ee 3 AC Noenlarcoed eroywnysiiel cs eee a ee eee ne Trimeresurus B. Five to nine enlarged crown shields_---_---___-____ Agkistrodon JN Chon yaa, Cht LENG] vad tlh gece fel owelko se = — = 4 B.Crown of head swith ‘small scales. 2229-5 -*=5..5- = 2-5 se 12 AC Rail paddle-shaped=2 = so= 262 2— ose ee a eee Sea snake (See Chapter VIIT) Bee anliem oteac dll esl ay ec ees eee ee 5 AC Woreall scales presents === = ee ee 6 Beslsoreall sscalemabsent= =a a ee ee ee 7 AG Miovalble)stanes ese nts asses ee ee ee Azemiops TEIN Koy savers} ons on eee ee EE BAe SS ee ee NE* A. Vertebral scale row enlarged and at least some subcaudals, undrvided= a= === eae Ser ae an a Bungarus B. Without the above combination of characters___----------------- 8 A. Occipital shields present; anterior subcaudals (bua late (oy ee eS ee ae ae Ophiophaqus IBRUN Otiasiabo ves =a ree na ee eee a oe 9 APD orsall scales: smoothese=s ==. eae eee ke 10 ipa) orsal scales keeled eee =e ee See ee ee NP A. Hood seen in life; body scales in 19 or more rows SMLGR OL ye = — = ee ne oe ee ee een Naja B. No hood; slender snakes with no more than 15 Scalesrows hamuenlOnl yao =a een eee ae a ae 11 A. Venom glands in normal position; anal shield usuallliveidivided = s2eeaeee. 2.2 Ae ee OSS Me een Calliophis B. Elongate venom glands extending well into body; wanele shieldsentire = sess aes Ses ee Maticora AUMVentralsrextendimeaflllew uni Or belly! === === eee 13 B. Ventrals not extending full width of belly or STSCI aaa en ee oe ee ee eee NP AU Subcaudal smunedividede seem 2 28S AS a ee Echis Bes Subcaudals divideds-s-sssee = 2 - Nee see tS SS 14 Av ornilikeyprocess: wo vere ene ne eee Pseudocerastes 135 INO Inorialhilies) jorReSsSS NON Qn So Se SS 15 A. Rostral flanked by enlarged scales; ventrals with latersltrid cee 20 7=eee See et ee ee Eristicophis B. Rostral not flanked by enlarged scales; ventrals withoutwlaterallirid@est=-. —2= eek 2 ee ee Vipera * NP = Nonpoisonous 119 Poisonous Snakes of the World ELAPIDAE: Genus Bungarus Daudin, 1803. Kraits. Twelve species are recognized; all inhabit the region of southeast Asia. Occasional individuals of B. fascia- tus attain lengths of 7 feet. Most species are of mod- erate (4 to 5 feet) length, but all are considered ex- tremely dangerous. Definition: Head small, flattened, slightly distinct Ficure 79.—Head Seales of Krait (Bungarus). Note the small eye and the nasal in broad contact with the Redrawn from Maki, 1931. single preocular. from neck; no distinct canthus. slender, cylindrical; tail short. Eyes small; pupils round or vertically subelliptical. Head scales: The usual 9 on the crown; frontal broad. Laterally, nasal in broad contact with single preocular. Body scales: Dorsals smooth, vertebral row enlarged and hexagonal (strongly so except in B. lividus), in 13-17 oblique rows at midbody. Vertrals 193-237; anal plate entire; subecaudals single or paired (all paired only in some specimens of B. bungaroides), 23-56. Maxillary teeth: Two large tubular fangs with ex- ternal grooves followed, after an interspace, by 1-4 small, feebly-grooved teeth. Body moderately Indian Krait, Bungarus caeruleus (Schneider). Identification: Body cylindrical with slight even taper; tail with pointed tip. All subcaudals undivided. Jet black to dark brown with a series of narrow white or yellow crossbands that tend to be in pairs and often fade out or break up on the anterior quarter of the body; upper lip white or yellow; belly an immaculate white (see plate VI, fig. 5). Average adult length 3 to 4 feet; maximum slightly over 5 feet. Distribution: Essentially restricted to India and parts of West Pakistan. Found in a variety of habitats at low and moderate elevations preferring rather dry open country. Often found near human habitations and 120 frequently enters poorly constructed or buildings. delapidated Remarks; Indian kraits usually prowl on hot humid nights and are quite agile in their movements. When alarmed they coil loosely with the body slightly flattened and head concealed. They make jerky movements and They do not strike but often make a quick snapping bite. During the day they are much may elevate the tail. more lethargic. This is the most dangerous of the kraits for it has a venom of very high toxicity for man—the lethal dose is estimated at about 4 mg. Bites are rare but the fatality rate in one series of 35 cases was 77 percent. Antivenin is produced by the Central Research Institute, Kasauli, India; and the Haffkine Institute, Bombay, India. Ceylon Krait, 2. ceylonicus (Giinther). and > Malayan Krait, 2. candidus (Linnaeus). Description: These two kraits are very similar to the Indian krait in general appearance, but have fewer crossbands (15-25 versus 35-55 for caeruleus). The bands are wide in candidus, narrow and often broken in ceylonicus. Many-banded Krait, B. multicinetus Blyth. Identification: Very similar to the Indian krait but the light crossbands are not in pairs and the underside may show dark mottling. It is a little smaller than caeruleus having an average length of 85 to 45 inches and maximum of less than 5 feet. Ficure 80.—Many-banded Krait, Bungarus multicinctus. From a painting. (See also plate V, figure 2). Distribution: Burma through southern China to Hai- nan and Taiwan. It frequents wooded or grassy places near water and may be found in villages and suburban areas. It is common in rice paddies. Remarks: Active on damp or rainy nights; inoffen- sive in disposition as a rule. Toxicity of the venom for animals is extremely high (LD-, about 0.1 mg. per kilo). Bites by this krait are seen regularly in Taiwan, but the case fatality rates are less than half those re- ported for India. Antivenin is produced by the Taiwan Serum Vaccine Laboratory, Taipei. Banded Krait, Bungarus fasciatus (Schneider). Identification: A marked vertebral ridge giving a permanently emaciated appearance, and a_ distinctly blunt tail are characteristic of this species. Pattern of alternating light and dark bands encircling the body and of almost equal width. The light bands are usually bright yellow, occasionally white, pale brown or orange; the dark bands are black. Average length 4 to 5 feet; maximum about 7 feet. Distribution: Eastern India to southern China and south through much of Malaysia and Indonesia. Occurs in rather open country to elevations of about 5,000 feet, often found near water. Remarks: This is such a surprisingly quiet, inoffen- sive snake that it is believed harmless over much of the territory where it is found. When annoyed it curls up, Ficure 81.—Banded Krait, Bungarus fasciatus. The blunt tail is typical. Photo by New York Zoological Society. hides its head beneath its coils, and makes jerky flinch- ing movements but does not bite except in rare instances. Cases of snakebite due to the banded krait are almost unknown. Its venom is of lower toxicity for animals than that of some other kraits. Antivenin is produced by the Institut Pasteur, Paris; the Institut Pasteur Bandung, Indonesia and the Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute, Bangkok. Red-headed Krait, Bungarus flaviceps Reinhardt. Identification: General appearance like the banded krait, but tail only slightly blunt; anterior subeaudals entire, posterior ones divided. Very striking and distinctive coloring—head and tail Southeast Asia bright red, body black with narrow bluish white stripe low on side, and sometimes a narrow orange stripe or row of dots down middle of back. Size about the same as the banded krait. FIGURE 82.—Red-headed Both the head and the tail are bright red in this Photo by D. Dwight Davis. Krait, Bungarus flaviceps. species. Southern Burma to Viet Nam and south through Malaysia and larger islands of Indonesia. In- habits jungle mostly in hilly or mountainous country. A rare snake. Remarks: Distribution: Apparently much like the banded krait in behavior. No study of its venom has been done nor are there records of its biting man. duced by Institut Pasteur, Paris. Antivenin is pro- ELAPIDAE: Genus Calliophis Gray, 1834. Oriental coral snakes. Thirteen species are recognized; all inhabit the region of southeastern Asia. Most are small species but a few exceed 3 feet in length. At least the larger individuals are considered dangerous. Definition: cylindrical, slender and elongated; tail short. Head small, not distinct from body. Body FIGURE 83.—Head Scales of Oriental Coral Snake, Cal- liophis. Redrawn from Maki, 1931. 121 Poisonous Snakes of the World Eyes small noderate in size; pupils round lead scales The normal 9 on the crown; rostral broad and rounded, no canthus Laterally, nasal in ntact with single preocular or separated from it by prefrontal; preocular absent in C, bibroni Dorsals smooth, in 18-17 nonoblique Ventrals 190-3820; anal plate Body scales rows throughout body subcaudals usually paired, occasion- macelellandii, 12-44. Maxillary teeth Two large tubular fangs with ex- entire or divided aily single in ¢ ternal grooves followed, after an interspace, by 0-3 small teeth Oriental Coral Snakes, Cu//iophis. Identification: This generally small snakes ineludes the species formerly in the genus genus of Hemibungarus. They all have a small head which is barely or not distinct from the neck; a long body which is slim and eylindrical with little taper; 13 or 15 scale rows at midbody, rarely 17; a short tail; and a smooth polished appearance. Like the American coral snakes, they are difficult to distinguish from some nonpoisonous snakes. Absence of the loreal shield in the coral snakes helps, but similar nonpoisonous snakes may lack this shield. Divided subcaudals and the absence of enlarged vertebral scales distinguish them from kraits. Cobras are larger and have a quite different body build. Color and pattern show marked individual and species variation. Representative patterns are exemplified by Calliophis macelellandii which is russet to pink with narrow, widely separated black crossbands and a wide cream band across the base of the head, and by C. sau- teri which is brown to crimson with 3 longitudinal black stripes and a narrow cream headband. (See plate V, fig. 6; plate VI, fig. 1.) Distribution: The genus occurs throughout southeast Asia including the Philippines, Malaysia, and Taiwan. They are snakes of forest country ranging well into the mountains but they avoid dry terrain. Occasionally they have been collected in suburban areas. Remarks: The Oriental coral snakes are generally considered rare, but this may only reflect their very secretive nature. They have been found under logs or ground litter and occasionally in the open at night. They are quiet reptiles apparently very reluctant to bite. Some authorities consider them essentially harm- less, but it may be recalled that the North American coral snake once had this reputation. ELAPIDAE: Genus Maticora Gray, 1834. Long-glanded coral snakes. Two species are found in the region of southeastern Asia: from Thailand and the Philippines to Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Celebes. These snakes are relatively small and slender but individuals of one species (M. bivirgata) occasionally approach 5 feet in length; such individuals are believed to be capable of inflicting a dangerous bite. 122 Definitions lead small and not distinet from body. Body eylindrical, slender and elongated; tail short, Eyes small to moderate; pupils round. Head seales: The usual 9 on the crown; no canthus; rostral broad and rounded, Laterally, nasal in broad contact with single preocular; eye in contact with supra- labial row. jody scales: Dorsals smooth, in 13 nonoblique rows throughout body. Ventrals 197-293; anal plate entire; subcaudals paired, 15-50. Maxillary teeth: teeth on the bone. Two large tubular fangs; no other Remarks; The only consistant difference between these snakes and those of the genus Calliophis is that Maticora has elongated venom glands that extend posteriorly for about one-third of the body length. The heart has been pushed back to the middle third of the body, where it can be felt (in preserved specimens) as a hard object, thus identifying the genus. In general they are dark brown to blue black above with narrow light stripes of yellow, red, pale blue, violet, or white. The belly of the common long-glanded snake (Maticora intestinalis) is black and white; the tail red barred with black. In the red-bellied long-glanded snake (M. bivirgata) the entire head, tail and belly are bright red. Color and pattern exhibit much variation. Figure 84.—Long-glanded Snake, Maticora bivirgata. Photo by D. Dwight Davis These are secretive, inoffensive snakes. When dis- turbed they squirm about violently often curling and elevating the tail to display their bright color. The behavior is characteristic of some Asian and Ameri- ean coral snakes and may occasionally be seen in kraits. It is likewise demonstrated by several unrelated kinds of nonpoisonous snakes. Although they rarely bite, the long-glanded snakes must be considered potentially dangerous. Serious poi- soning has resulted from the bite of IM. intestinalis and death from the bite of MW. bivirgata. No antivenins are produced against venoms of long-glanded snakes or Oriental coral snakes. COBRAS The cobras are at once the best and most poorly known of Asia’s poisonous snakes. Except for the very distinct king cobra, all central and south Asian populations are regarded as subspecies of Naja naja. There are, however, some significant differences in fang type, pattern, color, behavior, and venom composition among these forms, hence they will be considered separately. The Asian cobras are at home in many types of terrain, only desert and dense rain forest being generally avoided. Flat country with high grass and scattered groves of trees is an optimum habi- tat. Rice fields and other sorts of agricultural FIGURE 85.—Indian Cobra, Naja naja naja. The hood pattern of two spots is distinctive. Photo by Erich Sochurek. Southeast Asia land may support many cobras, and they are often common around villages and cities. Here they may be found in crumbling walls, old build- ings, and gardens. In western India and Pakistan cobras are more active by day—usually in the evening and early morning—while in the countries to the east they show a greater tendency to be nocturnal. They are timid when encountered in the open and seek to escape. When cornered they rear up and spread their hoods, but biting seems to be almost a last resort. The snakes frequently strike with the mouth closed. They are most dangerous when surprised at close quarters. In biting, they tend to hold on, chewing savagely. Although the fangs of Malayan, Indonesian, and Philippine cobras are modified for spraying venom at the eyes, this behavior seems to be uncommon, at least when the snake is confronted by a human foe. The hood identifies a living cobra. Although some nonpoisonous Asian snakes flatten the neck slightly when alarmed, none do so to such a The hood Identifica- Among the more useful scale characteristics are absence of the loreal shield and the presence of a large third supralabial which touches both the eye and the nasal shield. ‘This combination is seen elsewhere only in some of the Oriental coral snakes. Color and pattern are extremely variable and will be discussed in the following paragraphs; however, marked degree as do the Asian Vaja. of the king cobra is much narrower. tion of dead cobras is more difficult. most Asian .Vaja have conspicious dark bars or spots on the underside of the neck at about the This is not seen in many non- poisonous snakes that might be confused with cobras. level of the hood. Large cobras may have a great quantity of venom—sometimes 500 to 600 mg.—and the lethal dose for man is estimated at not more than 20 mg. In spite of this, many persons recover from bites without effective treatment. Evidently the snakes may inject little venom when biting defensively. Some cobra bites are accompanied by extensive necrosis with little systemic effect. Such bites have been reported in Malaya and elsewhere in southeast Asia and also in west Africa. The strongly lethal component of cobra venom can be separated from that component producing local necrosis, and it appears that venom of some pop- 123 Poisonous Snakes of the World ulations or individual snakes is high in necrotiz ing factor but low in neurotoxin. Asian cobras feed upon almost any kind of Their fondness for rats helps explain their abundance vertebrate small enough to be swallowed. near human habitations. Cobras lay eggs, 10 to 20 being an average clutch. The female and oc- casionally the male remain with the eggs and may defend them. Antivenin sources: Antivenin against venom of Asian cobras is produced by the Behringwerke, Marburg-Lahn, Germany; Central Research In- stitute, Kasauli, India; Hatfkine Institute, Bom- bay, India; Tashkent Institute, Moscow (Naja n. oviana): Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute, Bangkok, Thailand; Commonwealth Serum Lab- oratories, Victoria, Australia (Malay Naja) ; Tai- wan Serum Vaccine Laboratory, Taipei (Vaja n. atra); State Razi Institute, Tehran, Iran (Naja n. owiana); Department of Health, Manila, Phil- ippines (Naja n. philippinensis) ; Institut Pas- teur, Bandung, Indonesia (Naja n. sputatrix). ELAPIDAE: Genus Naja Laurenti, 1768. Cobras. Six species are recognized; all are African except the Asiatic cobra, Naja naja, and range throughout the Afri- can continent except for the drifting sand areas of ‘the They are snakes of moderate (4 feet) to large (S feet) size, with large fangs and toxic venom. The species, NV. nigricollis, “spits” its venom at the eyes of an aggressor; it is found in the southern part of the region of north Africa. The Egyptian cobra (Naja haje) and the western subspecies of the Asiatic cobra (Naja naja oviana) are found in the Near and Middle East The Asiatic cobra, V. in this region. Definition: Head rather broad, flattened, only slightly distinct from neck; snout rounded, a distinct canthus. Body moderately slender, slightly depressed, tapered ; neck capable of expansion into hood; tail of moderate length. Eyes moderate in size; pupils round. Head scales: The usual 9 on the crown; frontal short; rostral rounded. Laterally, nasal in contact with the one or two preoculars. Sahara region. region. naja, is the only species 30dy scales: Dorsals smooth, in 17-25 oblique rows at midbody, usually more on the neck, fewer posteriorly. Ventrals 159-232; anal plate entire; subcaudals 42-88, mostly paired. Maxillary teeth: Two rather large tubular fangs with external grooves followed, after an interspace, by 0-3 small teeth. 124 Indian Cobra, Vaja naja naja (Linnaeus). Identification: Adults brown or black, uniform or with variegation produced by rows of dappled or bi- There is a “spectacle” type hood mark present, except in black individuals where it is ap- Belly is light ante- riorly becoming clouded posteriorly, or generally dark with light areas on neck. Young paler and more varie- gated. In populations where the adults are uniform black, the young show a hood mark. colored-scales, parently obscured by pigment. Average length 4 to 5 feet, maximum about 61% feet. Sexes of about equal size. Distribution: Most of the Indian Subcontinent exclu- sive of the extreme northwest and region east of the Ganges delta; Ceylon. Oxus Cobra, Vaja naja oviana (Kichwald). Tdentification: Adults brown, sometimes with traces of wide dark crossbands; hood mark never present; belly pale with dark bars on neck. Young tan or buff with regular dark crossbands; no hood mark. The hood in this form is noticeably narrower than in other Asian Naja. Length about the same as the Indian cobra. Figure 86. Oxus Cobra, Naja naja oviana. This west- ern representative of the Asiatic Cobra occurs in northeastern Iran and in Afghanistan. Photo by Allan Roberts. Distribution: Northern frontier of West Pakistan across Afghanistan and into eastern Iran and southern parts of Russian Asia. Avoids desert areas; occurs in mountains to about 7,500 feet. Monocellate Cobra, Vaja naja kaouthia Lesson. Identification: Brown or black usually speckled or variegated with white or pale yellow and often showing alternate wide and narrow transverse dark bands; dorsal hood mark a pale circle edged with black and enclosing 1 to 3 dark spots; ventral hood mark a pair of dark spots or a wide dark band. Young darker than adults and with more vivid crossbands. Distribution: West Bengal, East Pakistan, Assam and Burma; Thailand; Malaya and southwest China, mostly in lowlands. Chinese Cobra, Vaja naja atra Cantor. Identification: Adults grayish brown, olive or black- ish with widely spaced narrow light bands sometimes in pairs; hood marks variable but usually similar to the monocellate cobra; belly pale sometimes with brown mottling. Young black with distinct whitish crossbands. Slightly smaller than the Indian cobra; maximum length about 514 feet. (See plate VI, fig. 2). Distribution: Thailand and south China east to Viet Nam, Hainan and Taiwan. Malay Cobra, Naja naja sputatriz Boie. Identification: Brown, gray or black without definite pattern on body; hood marks as in the monocellate cobra or dorsal mark absent; belly dark sometimes with white blotches on the throat. In this race of the Asian cobra, the discharge orfice of the fang is small and well short of the tip. This type of fang is associated with the habit of spraying or “spitting’’ venom, and such behavior has been reported for the Malayan cobra. Average length 40 to 50 inches; maximum about 60 inches. Distribution: The Malay peninsula and most of the larger islands of Indonesia. Borneo Cobra, Naja naja miolepis Boulenger. Tdentification: Black or very dark brown above with- out a dorsal hood marking; belly yellow to dark gray. Young with widely spaced white or yellow crossbands and a chevron-shaped light mark behind the head. The maximum length is about 55 inches. Distribution: Borneo, Palawan (Philippines). Naj@ naja samarensis of the Visayan Islands of the Philip- pines is very similar. Philippine Cobra, Vaja naja philippinensis Tay- lor. Identification: Light brown or olive above without hood marking; cream to light brown below. Young darker with reticulate pattern of light lines. Size about the same as the Borneo cobra. Distribution: Luzon and Mindoro, Philippines. ELAPIDAE: Genus Ophiophagus Ginther, 1864. King cobra. A single species, O. hannah, is found in southeastern Asia and the Philippines. It attains a length of 16 to 18 feet, and is considered one of the world’s most dan- gerous snakes. Definition: Head relatively short, flattened, moder- ately distinct from neck; snout broad, rounded, canthus indistinct. Body slender, tapering, neck region capable of expanding into small hood; tail long. Eyes moderate in size; pupils round. Southeast Asia Head scales: The usual 9 on the crown, plus a pair of large occipitals in contact with one another behind the parietals. Laterally, nasal in narrow contact with elongate preocular. FIGURE 87.—Head Scales of King Cobra, Ophiophagus hannah. The large scutes (occipitals) behind the parietal scutes identify this genus. Redrawn from Maki, 1931. Body seales: Dorsals smooth, in 15 oblique rows at midbody and posteriorly, more (17-19) on neck. Ven- trals 240-254; subcaudals 84-104, the anterior ones single, the remainder paired. Maxillary teeth: 1% inch in a large specimen) with external grooves fol- lowed, after an interspace, by 3 small teeth. Two relatively short fangs (about King Cobra, Hamadryad, Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor). Identification: The great size is an important recog- nition feature. Adults in most parts of the range meas- ure 7 to 13 feet and are larger than any Asian snakes except the pythons and exceptional specimens of the nonpoisonous keeled rat snake (Zaocys) which may reach 12 feet. Smaller king cobras may be recognized by the presence of large occipital shields, a unique fea- ture of the species. The hood is proportionally narrower than in Asian Naja. Adults olive, brown or greenish yellow becoming darker on the tail; head scales edged with black; throat yellow or orange sometimes with black markings. Young black with buff, white or yellow chevron-shaped narrow crossbands. Adult snakes from East Bengal, Burma and Thailand retain the crossbands especially on the posterior half of the body. Distribution: Peninsular India to the Himalayan foothills thence eastward across southeastern China and regions to the south; the Philippines and larger islands of Indonesia. In the western and northern part of its range largely confined to hilly jungle to elevations of 6,000 feet. In Malaya and Thailand found in fairly open country and in cultivated areas. Nowhere is it very plentiful. 125 Poisonous Snakes of the World Remarks King cobras are active diurnal snakes They are primarily terrestrial, but are sometimes found in trees and in the water. While they have been re ported to make unprovoked attacks, such behavior is extremely unusual If cornered or injured they can be very dangerous, but they frequently give little evi- When angry they vive a deep resonant hiss similar to the growl of a dence of hostility when encountered. small dog. FIGURE 88.—King Cobra, hannah. The Ophiophagus hood is much smaller than in the Asiatic Cobra, Naja naja. Photo by San Diego Zoo, The king cobra is unique among snakes in construct- ing an elaborate nest of dead leaves and other decaying vegetation. There are two chambers, one for the eggs, the other occupied by the female snake. The male may also remain nearby. Nesting cobras frequently but not invariably defend their eggs. King cobra bites in man appear to be most infrequent ; indeed there seems to be no adequate account of the symptoms of envenomation. Venom of the king cobra shows marked antigenic differences from Naja venom and is not well neutralized by Naja antivenin. Its toxicity for mammals is less than that of Asiatic Naja venoms. King cobra antivenin is produced by Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute, Bangkok. 126 VIPERIDAE: Genus Azemiops Boulenger, 1888. Fea’s viper. A single species, A. feae Boulenger, is known from the mountains of southeastern Asia. It is a small species, less than 8 feet in length, and its danger to man is unknown, Definition: Wead somewhat flattened, distinet from neck; snout broad and short, canthus obtuse. Body evlindrical, moderately slender; tail short. Iyes moderate in size; pupils vertically elliptical. Head scales: The usual 9 scutes on the crown; Laterally, eye in contact with supralabial row; nasal separated from preoculars rostral broad, frontal broad. by small squarish loreal. Dorsals smooth, in 17 nonoblique rows at midbody, fewer (15) posteriorly. Ventrals rounded, 180-189; subcaudals paired throughout or a few anterior ones single, 42-53. 3ody scales: VIPERIDAE: Genus Echis Merrem, 1820. Saw-sealed vipers. Two species are recognized. One (H. coloratus) is restricted to eastern Egypt and the Arabian peninsula. The other (H. carinatus) ranges from Ceylon and southern India across western Asia and north Africa southward into tropical Africa. Although neither attains a length of 3 feet, they possess a highly toxic venom and are responsible for many deaths. When dis- turbed they characteristically inflate the body and pro- duce a hissing sound by rubbing the saw-eged lateral seales against one another. (see p. 83, fig. 52). This same pattern of behavior is shown by the nonpoisonous egg-eating snakes Dasypeltis. Definition: ead broad, very distinct from narrow neck; canthus indistinct. Body cylindrical, moderately slender; tail short. Eyes moderate in size; pupils vertically elliptical. Head seales: A narrow supraocular sometimes pres- ent; otherwise crown covered with small scales, which may be smooth or keeled. Rostral and nasals distinct. Laterally eye separated from labials by 1-4 rows of small scales; nasal in contact with rostral or separated from it by a row of small scales. Body scales: Dorsals keeled, with apical pits, lateral seales smaller, with serrate keels, in 27-387 oblique rows at midbody. Ventrals rounded, 132-205; subcaudals single, 21-52. VIPERIDAE: Genus Eristicophis Alcock and Finn, 1897. A single species, H. macmahonii Alcock and Finn, is known from the desert areas of southeastern Iran, Af- ghanistan, and West Pakistan. It is a rather small shake, less than 3 feet in length. However, fatal cases attributed to this species (Shaw, 1925) and a recent serious bite indicate that it is a dangerous snake with venom similar to that of Hchis (see p. 110, fig. 75). Definition: Head broad and flattened, very distinct from neck; snout broad and short, canthus not distinct. Body slightly depressed, moderately to markedly stout; tail short. Eyes moderate in size; pupils vertically elliptical. Head seales: Crown covered by small scales; rostral broad, bordered dorsally and laterally by greatly en- larged nasorostral scales. Laterally, eye separated from labials by 3-4 rows of small scales; nasal separated from rostral by nasorostral scale. Body scales: Dorsals keeled, short, in 23-26 vertical rows at midbody. Ventrals with lateral keels, 140-148; subeaudals paired, without keels, 29-36. VIPERIDAE: Genus Pseudocerastes Boulenger, 1896. False-horned viper. A single species is recognized (see Remarks, pp. 110- 111). It ranges from Sinai and the Arabian Peninsula eastward to West Pakistan. It attains a length of 3 feet and is considered dangerous. Definition: Bead broad, very distinct from neck; snout short and broadly rounded; nostrils dorsolateral, valves present. Eyes small to moderate; pupils vertically elliptical. Head scales: Crown covered with small imbricate seales; an erect hornlike projection covered with imbri- cate scales above eye. Laterally, nasals separated from rostral by small scales; eye separated from labials by 3-4 rows of small scales. Body scales: Dorsals weakly to moderately keeled, in 21-25 nonoblique rows at midbody. Ventrals 134- 158; subeaudals paired, 35-48. VIPERIDAE: Genus Vipera Laurenti, 1768. True adders. Eleven species are recognized. This is an especially variable group, with some members that are small and relatively innocuous (e.g., V. berus) and others that are extremely dangerous (V. lebetina, V. russelii). They are found from northern Eurasia throughout that con- tinent and into north Africa. One species ranges into the East Indies (V. russelii), and two are found in east Africa (see Remarks under V. superciliaris). Rus- sell’s viper and the Leyantine viper (p. 111) are the only members of this genus in the region. Definition: Head broad, distinct from narrow neck; eanthus distinct. Body cylindrical, varying from mod- erately slender to stout; tail short. Eyes moderate in size to small; pupils vertically el- liptical. Head scales: Variable: one species (V. wrsinii) has all 9 crown scutes, most species have at least the supra- oculars, but even these are absent in one (V. lebetina) ; head otherwise covered with small scales. Laterally, nasal in contact with rostral or separated by a single Southeast Asia enlarged scale (the nasorostral), eye separated from supralabials by 1—4 rows of small scales. Body scales: Dorsals keeled, with apical pits, in 19-31 nonoblique rows at midbody. Ventrals rounded, 120-180; subcaudals paired, 20-64. Russell’s Viper, Vipera russelii (Shaw). Identification: Head wide, rather long; no enlarged plates on crown; no loreal pit; scales keeled. These features and the bold distinctive pattern readily dis- tinguish this reptile from most other Asian snakes. It may be closely imitated by the harmless Russell’s sand boa (Eryx conicus), however this species has narrow ventrals (less than the width of the belly) and a very short tail. Color deep yellow, tan, or light brown with 3 rows of large oval dark black-ringed spots which may be nar- rowly edged with white; the spots of the middle row often fuse on the latter half of the body; light V or X shaped mark on top of the head; belly pinkish brown to white with black spots. Populations of this viper from Indonesia, Taiwan, China and Thailand are more grayish or olive; there are small spots between the rows of large spots and the belly is suffused with gray posteriorly. Average length 40 to 50 inches; maximum 65 inches; males larger than females. The island races average smaller. The oval Ficure 89.—Russell’s Viper, Vipera russelii. Photo by R. (See also plate VI, figure 3.) black-bordered markings are typical. Van Nostrand. Distribution: Fastern West Pakistan, most of India, Burma, and Ceylon; parts of Thailand, southeast China, Taiwan, and a few islands of Indonesia. Over most of its range, a snake of open grassy or brushy country often common around cultivated fields and villages. Occurs in lowlands, but avoids permanently marshy areas. Pri- marily a hill or mountain snake in some places and has been recorded at 7000 feet elevation. Remarks: Mainly nocturnal. but occasionally active by day in cool weather. Crawls slowly and is rather phlegmatic in disposition. Hisses loudly when disturbed and strikes with great force and speed. 127 Poisonous Snakes of the World Russell's viper is very prolific giving birth to 20 to 60 young. As is true of many snakes, the young are more irritable than the adults, Russell's viper is a leading cause of snakebite accl- dents in India and Burma, but the case fatality rate is lower than in bites by kraits, cobras and saw-scaled vipers. The lethal dose of Russell’s viper venom for man is estimated at 40-70 mg.; a large snake yields 150 250 mg. Antivenins are produced by the Behringwerke, Marburg-Lahn, Germany; Central Research Institute, Kasauli, India; Haffkine India ; Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute, Bangkok. Institute, Bombay, CROTALIDAE: Genus Agkistrodon Beauvois, 1799. Moccasins and Asian pit vipers. Three of these are in North and Central America; the others are in Asia, with one species. A. Halys (Pallas) ranging westward to copperhead (A. contortriz) and the Eurasian mamushi and its relatives (A. halys) seldom inflict a serious bite but A. acutus and A. rhodostoma of southeastern Asia, as well as the Twelve species are recognized. southeastern Europe. The American cottonmouth (A. piscivorus) of the southeastern United States, are dangerous species (see p. 136 for description of A. acutus). Definition: Head broad, flattened, very distinct from narrow neck; a sharply-distinguished canthus. Body cylindrical or depressed, tapered, moderately stout to stout; tail short to moderately long. Eyes moderate in size; pupils vertically elliptical. Head scales: The usual 9 on the crown in most species; internasals and prefrontals broken up into small seales in some Asian forms; a pointed nasal ap- pendage in some. Laterally, loreal pit separated from labials or its anterior border formed by second supra- labial. Loreal scale present or absent. Body seales: Dorsals smooth (in A. rhodostoma only) or keeled, with apical pits, in 17-27 nonoblique rows. Ventrals 125-174; subcaudals single anteriorly or paired throughout, 21-68. Malayan Pit Viper, Agkistrodon rhodostoma (Boie). Identification: Head triangular, snout pointed, facial pit present. The only Asian pit viper with large scales on the crown and smooth body scales. Middle of back reddish or purplish brown, sides paler with dark speckling; series of dark brown crossbands, narrow in midline, wider on sides, edged with white or buff; belly pinkish white mottled with brown; top of head dark brown, sides light pinkish brown, the colors separated by a white stripe that passes just above the eye. Average length 23 to 32 inches; maximum about 40 inches. Distribution: Thailand, northern Malaysia, Cambo- dia, Laos, Viet Nam, Java, Sumatra—apparently re- quires climate with well-marked wet and dry seasons. Frequents forests generally at low elevations; common on rubber plantations. 128 Remarks: A bad tempered snake, quick to strike if Malaysia it causes approxi- disturbed. In northern Figure 90.—Malayan Pit stoma. Viper, Agkistrodon rhodo- This smooth-scaled pit viper is the source of many bites in southeast Asia. Photo by New York Zoological Society. mately 700 snakebites annually with a death rate of about 2 percent. Weeders and tappers on rubber es- tates are most frequently bitten. The snake is remark- ably sedentary and has often been found at the site of an accident after several hours. This is another of the oviparous vipers. are guarded by the female. Antivenin is produced by the Institut Pasteur, Paris; the Institut Pasteur, Ban- dung, Indonesia; and Queen Saovabha Memorial Insti- tute, Bangkok. Hump-nosed Viper, Agkistrodon hypnale (Mer- rem). Identification: Of typical viperine build with stout body and wide head with facial pit; snout pointed and turned up; large frontal and parietal shields but shields of snout small and irregular. Grayish, heavily powdered or mottled with brown; double row of large dark spots; belly yellowish or brownish with dark mottling; tip of tail reddish or yellow. Average length 12 to 18 inches. The eggs «- Peal = p £8 A ee Pa: % 78 “se ew ered ; ty ’ *, CP H feat yids, eae ke ogee ; SR , a ; wy ¥ “4, Ce ye ch Pra is Mt Figure 91.Hump-nosed Viper, Agkistrodon hypnale. Photo by Edward H. Taylor (Preserved specimen). Distribution: Southern India and Ceylon. Inhabits dense jungle and coffee plantations in hilly country. Remarks: Often found by day coiled in bushes. It is irritable and vibrates the tail when annoyed. Bites by this snake are seen fairly frequently, but serious poisoning has not been reported. There is no antivenin. ASIAN LANCE-HEADED VIPERS (Trimeresurus) This large genus, containing some 30 species, is closely related to tropical American lanceheads (Bothrops). All have large triangular heads much wider than the neck. Presence of the facial pit and absence of large plates* on the top of the head (fig. 96) distinguish them from most other snakes within their range. The pupils of the eye are elliptical; the subeaudals may be divided or undivided. Bites by these snakes are quite frequent; how- ever, the fatality rate is very low. The American polyvalent Crotalid Antivenin (Wyeth, Inc., Philadelphia) shows neutralizing activity against venoms of several Asian lanceheads. It should be used if specific antivenin is not available. CROTALIDAE: Genus Trimeresurus Lacépéde, 1804. Asian lance-headed vipers. About 30 species are currently recognized. All are found in southeast Asia and the adjacent island chains. The large species are dangerous; many of the smaller kinds can deliver a venomous bite which is very painful, but seldom if ever fatal (see pp. 137-138 for description of other species that enter this region). There are 3 general groups of these snakes: 1. Large, long-bodied and long-tailed terrestrial snakes that are often brightly-colored with contrasting pat- terns; 2. Small short-bodied and_ short-tailed terrestrial snakes, commonly with dull patterns of brown blotches; 3. Small, moderately long-bodied arboreal snakes with prehensile tail, body coloration tending toward unicolor greens, light browns, or light speckles. Definition: Head broad, flattened, very distinet from narrow neck; canthus obtuse to sharp. Body cylindrical to moderately compressed, moderately slender to stout; tail short to moderately long. Eyes small to moderate in size; pupils vertically el- liptical. Head scales: Supraoculars present, a pair of inter- nasals often present; remainder of crown covered with small scales. Laterally, a nasal pore in prenasal, 2 en- larged preoculars, eye separated from supralabials by 14 rows of small scales. *Present in 7. macrolepis of south India. Southeast Asia Body scales: Dorsals feebly to strongly keeled, in 13-87 nonoblique rows. Ventrals 129-231; subcaudals paired, 21-92. Chinese Green Tree Viper, 7rimeresurus stejnegeri Schmidt. Identification: One of a group of very similar ar- boreal pit vipers found throughout much of tropical Asia. All are slender to moderately stout snakes with prehensile tails. In this species the first upper lip shield is not fused with nasal shield and the dorsal scales are keeled. Body bright green to chartreuse above, yellow to pale green ventrally; white or yellow line on side of body edged with reddish in male; upper lip yellow or green; iris of eye orange to coppery; end of tail reddish Average length about 20 inches. FicurE 92.—Chinese Green Tree Viper, Trimeresurus Photo by Isabelle Hunt Conant. (See also plate IV, figure 2.) stejnegeri. Central and southeastern China includ- Oceurs chiefly in mountainous country Frequents woodland, scrub and _ semi- Distribution: ing Taiwan. near streams. cultivated land. Pope’s Tree Viper, Zrimeresurus popeorum Smith. Identification: Separated from T. stejnegeri pri- marily by the structure of the male sexual organs; how- ever, the following additional points of difference are noteworthy : 1. Iris yellow rather than reddish; 2. Size larger, reaching about 3 feet; 3. Lateral stripe indistinct in adult. Distribution: Assam and Burma east to Cambodia and south through Malaysia and Indonesia. Inhabits hills between 3,000 and 5,000 feet for the most part. Common on tea plantations. White-lipped Tree Viper, 7 7imeresurus albolabris Gray. Identification: First upper lip shield fused with nasal shield; white lateral line in males only; upper lip pale green, yellow or white; green of body generally some- what paler than in 7. stejnegeri; iris of eye yellow; end of tail dark red. Average length 15 to 25 inches, maximum 36 inches; females considerably larger than males. 129 Poisonous Snakes of the World Distribution Northeastern Indian to southeastern China, including Taiwan and Hainan, thence south lightly common on hillsides but rare through the Sunda Archipelago Frequents wooded or brushy arenas; above 1,500 feet; often found about human habitations including suburban gardens Indian Green Tree Viper, 7) /meresurus gramineus (Shaw). Identification: Differs from the other Asian green pit vipers in that most of the dorsal scales are smooth, keels being present only on a few posterior rows, Green usually with darker flecking; light lateral line irregular; end of tail greenish; iris of eve yellow (see plate IV, fig. 3). Average length 25 to 30 inches; maximum 40 inches. Distribution: Peninsular India, chiefly in hilly coun- try with dense undergrowth. The habits of these arboreal green vipers All are chiefly active at night remaining coiled in vegetation or hidden under They usually re- main quiet when approached, but often strike if touched Remarks: appear to be much the same. bark or other cover during the day. or otherwise threatened. They are reported to be a leading cause of snakebite accidents in Taiwan, Java, and Thailand. Persons picking tea, cutting bamboo, or Fatalities are unknown among adults, but have been reported in children. An antivenin clearing undergrowth are most often injured. against “Trimeresurus gramineus” venom was produced by the Taiwan Serum Vaccine La- Since true T. occur on Taiwan, the antivenin was probably for use against the venom of T. stejnegeri, the common green tree viper of the island. So far as known, the tree vipers are live-bearing; there are 6 to 25 young in a litter. boratory, Taipei. gramineus does not Mangrove Viper, Trimeresurus purpureomacula- fus (Gray). Tdentification: General body build about the same as that of the green tree vipers; usually 25 or 27 scale rows at midbody vs. 19 or 21 in the green vipers. Color variable with or without a whitish lateral line and with or with- out green spots. Another color phase is olive or gray irregularly spotted with brown. Tail uniformly brown or spotted gray and brown; belly white more or less one common variety purplish brown clouded with brown. Average length 30 to 35 inches, maximum about 40 inches. Distribution: Fast Bengal, southern Burma, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Andaman islands. Largely re- stricted to the seacoast and to islands; particularly com- mon in mangrove swamps. Usually found in low vegetation or among A fairly common cause of snakebite in coastal There Remarks: rocks. Malaya, but fatalities have not been recorded. is no antivenin against the venom of this snake. Sea snakes present in this region are discussed in Chapter VIII. 130 REFERENCES BOURRET, Rene. 1936. chine. Les Serpents de l’Indo- Hf. Basuyau: Toulouse, 2 vols. vol. I, 141 pp., 14 figs.; vol. TI, 505 pp., 189 figs. DERANIYAGALA, P. E. P. 1960. The Taxon- omy of the Cobras of Southeastern Asia. Spolia Zeylanica, vol. 29, pp. 41-63, fig. 1, pls. l-+. 1961. The Taxonomy of the Cobras of Southeastern Asia, Part 2. 7bid., vol. 29, part 2, pp. 205-232, figs. 1-3, pls. 1-2. HAAS, C. P. J. De. 1950. Checklist of the Snakes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago. Treubia, vol. 20, pp. 511-625. HATLE, N.S. 1958. The Snakes of Borneo with a Key to the Species. Sarawak Mus. Jour., vol. 8 (12 ns.), pp. 748-771, pls. 22-23, figs. a—h. MINTON, Sherman A. Jr. 1966. A Contribution to the Herpetology of West Pakistan. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 134, art. 2, pp. 97-184, figs. 1-2, pls. 9-36. ROMER, J. D. 1961. Annotated Checklist with Keys to the Snakes of Hong Kong. Mem. Hong Kong Nat. Hist. Soc. (5): pp. 1-14. ROOTJ, Nelly De. 1917. The Reptiles of the Indo-Australian Archipelago, vol. II, Ophi- dia. E. J. Brill; Leiden. 334 pp., 117 figs. SMITH, Malcolm A. 1948. The Fauna of Brit- ish India including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia, vol. 3, Serpentes. Taylor and Francis: London. 583 pp., 166 figs., map. SWAN, Lawrence W. and Alan E. LEVITON. 1962. The Herpetology of Nepal: a History, Checklist and Zoogeographical Analysis of the Herpetofauna. Proc. California Acad. Sci., ser. 4, vol. 32, pp. 103-147, 4 figs. TWEEDIE, M. W. F. 1954. The Snakes of Malaya. Government Printing Office: Sing- apore. 139 pp., 12 pls. 27 figs. TAYLOR, Edward H. 1965. The Serpents of Thailand and Adjacent Waters. Univ. Kan- sas Sci. Bull., vol. 45, no. 9, pp. 609-1096, figs. 1-125, map. WALL, Frank. 1928.. The Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes of our British Indian Dominions (including Ceylon) and How to Recognize Them. Diocesan Press: Bombay. 173 pp. Section 9 THE FAR EAST Definition of the Region: Includes the Philippines; Taiwan, the Ryukyu and Bonin Islands; Japan; Korea; Mongolia; Siberia; Russian Far East Asia and the Chinese provinces of Heilungkiang, Kirin, Inner Mongolia, Liaoning, Hopeh, Shantung, Shansi. Shensi. Ningsia Tui. Kansu. Hupeh. Anhiwei. and Kiangsu. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Map sot the region’ = 2= see ae ene 2 ee eae ee ee ree 133 IntrodUCH On 8.25 — =e eee ee Se eS ee ee ee ae 133 Bvistrib ution Gy cates eee ae i a ee 132 Keyeton Gen eras == == ee een Se Sie eee ee ee 13 ELAPIDAE: TB NING CIN Ga eee ok. bn See ee eR ee eee 133 Calkion lise sass a eee LSS es ee ee ee 133 NCC ORG = a ee eh IS es ee ee ee 134 NO ee a ae SO ok ee > oe Oe a ee ee ee 135 Opiopiagus==== ae a ee ee eS ee 135 VIPERIDAE: Linen So = = eee en Sis FS kt ae ER 135 CROTALIDAE: ANCIGES CROC. OT)» =e amen eee mee eet Se Oe A ee re ee 135 LEPRURCRESNUINS Senn ee ee 8 ee 136 References=-5 = 2 “Ree eed a eS oe 138 131 Poisonous Snakes of the World egL “(938 Ysemqjnos = AS) AjazBladordde pazvorpur sy; yun vw Jo jied 0} safoeds B Jo UOTOIAZSAyY sf Sejoads aq] JO UOTINGIaqSIp selvoIpuL X JoqMAS ay *9INJVIAI{] PVA JNOYITA Vorv 9y} UpyIA Sejoeds B Jo voUeIINDDO0 pajyoadsns saBoIpuT ~ [oquIds eas — oo Tuo0piel ‘JyUN 9q} UTYIIA pverdsepra ‘S}UL SB pe}Ved} eloy a1B SadTTAOId IO SUOLU SuluTOfpe Jo sdnois urvzioD “RIOSuoy Jed “Ul pub SuLpAsSaN[ley ‘UNTYy ‘INA VISSUIN ‘Nsuey ‘SuluoRlry ‘qedoH ‘Sunjuvyg ‘uvuoy ‘suvyg ‘sueqg ‘nsSurry ‘eaquy ‘qedny. -------------------- Wo[SBA a a eee ee Wieseuleys (yL ==--------------~, SISUGABUIYO {YL iL GL snjeuenbsoronu * SS SS es ae BlOoTjUOUT * -------------------- st]Pvis + att SIPIMIAOARE VL, ------------- SNJV[NIOVUIOART, WL, -------------------- suvseyo BESTS SS SSS SS HSS == TIOSSNaI “A pune ee eae a snuieq vaedt, AVAINAd TA os ae Soe yeuury snseydorydg Shr Bie aS he a vfvu vltn peas =a ao ST[VUTJSAIUL BIOOT VIL eae aa ae aaa T19Nes “OH ge eg aera ae HpuUR][ePoVUL “(> eS a eee IDTUSBAT “OD OF ae ee IIISVST[BI “HD eget era l1a8}Ja90q STydoT[VpD aoe snjouDy{nUu snavsung aValdV1a visy aseq seq ULISSNY ZW eIqIs Blpoduow L ~ PUIYD “A 1 urdef | sy Ayn ‘sy a sourddryryd isvdi avd JHL NI SAAVNS SNONOSIOd JO NOILNGILSIG— el AVL 132 INTRODUCTION Zoogeographically, it is difficult to delimit or characterize the Far East. Insofar as the snake fauna goes, the southern part of this region closely resembles southeast Asia. There are archipelagoes (Philippines, Ryukyu) with more or less remote and diverse connections with the mainland. These have acted as secondary centers of evolution fostering development of distinctive island races of many snakes. Most of these races are sufficiently similar to mainland forms that they are not considered separately in this manual. The moist tropical climate that characterizes the southern part of the Far East excludes snakes re- quiring an arid or semiarid environment. To- ward the north and inland, the snake fauna rap- idly diminishes to a very few species because of the increasingly cold and dry climate. Many areas in the Far East are densely popu- lated and people live under conditions which ex- pose them to snakebite. Many are engaged in farming and related occupations which may take ee sO eine sauol ARABIA Indian - AUSTRALIA \ Map. 10.—Section 9, the Far East. them into the habitats of snakes. The incidence of snakebite is high in some localities, however the mortality is well below that reported in parts The Far East of India and Burma. The reasons for this are not altogether understood. The most important venomous snakes of the Far East are pit vipers, especially those of the genus TZ7imeresurus. Cobras are important toward the south. Sea snakes are numerous, but cases of serious sea snake bite are rare. GENERIC AND SPECIES DESCRIPTIONS ELAPIDAE: Genus Bungarus Daudin, 1803. Kraits. Twelve species are recognized; all inhabit the region of southeast Asia. Occasional individuals of B. fascia- tus attain lengths of 7 feet. Most species are of mod- erate (4 to 5 feet) length, but all are considered ex- tremely dangerous. File | Bruewse jeasny SPUR[s[ SresIS sseg vl (ZFT asud uo panuruo)) K ee a at STIJSOITNOB BISUBUTAd SS Se ae oe ee Usvuolpoom * SS ae Ss OS La ae OLIBAM * = Sas. Se SNJVIOSBIIUIGS * SSS See ee 11odo CSS ae gh eT Dae snsojuurenbs “yw Ra a a aa ee ee Upese[qos V y ---------------------- snjnurut “yw r ----------------------- Wea VW = oU}JoMAvy “VW ---------------------- BUOpVRIp “VW PaSoSs snuveljstiyo suydiowopidsy ------------------------ Wyead “yw ------------------------ OVLIOL “WV |-——-~—-~-~--~----~-- Ils19quuso]l “VW -------------------- TUOJSUTIVE “WV PRS SSS es STpuLIsS SnUIL[Roo\sIdy ~--------------------- suyaidd oy ShoToaRjue stydoyjuRy AVaIdvV'To IAP yiapasy oH ypu uaInoyos SGNY1SI DIdIDVd JHL 8 VIIVYLSNY JO SAAVNS SNONOSIOd JO NOILNGILSIG—'FL v4 ° 2 9) c 5 3 (3neyT Jowry) soquiuey aavl 140 INTRODUCTION Most of the islands of the Pacific Ocean have no poisonous land snakes, although those in equa- torial waters are likely to have poisonous sea snakes just offshore (See Chapter VIII). In addition, some of the poisonous snakes that do occur on islands are so small that they cannot be considered a hazard to man. Australia and New Guinea have large numbers of dangerously poisonous snakes but of the is- lands east of New Guinea only the Solomons have poisonous snakes which can eyen remotely be considered dangerous. The Fiji Islands, for example, have a poisonous snake (OQOgmodon vitianus) but it is so small (15 inches) that its killing power is limited to the small animals on which it feeds. Further, it is so rare that most island residents have never seen it! Australia, on the other hand, is the only con- tinent which has more kinds of poisonous than nonpoisonous snakes. More than 60 percent of Australian snakes are poisonous and some are highly dangerous. Yet of the 60 species of poisonous land snakes that inhabit Australia, only about 16 are considered to be dangerous to an adult man. Several of these have rather re- stricted ranges and are not found in areas of high human population. For a country with such a high number of poisonous snakes, Australia has amazingly few deaths from snakebite—the annual rate being estimated at 1 in 2,000,000. In New Guinea, just to the north, fewer than 25 percent of its snakes are poisonous. Of the 16 species of poisonous snakes, only 6 are con- sidered highly dangerous and 4 of these are re- stricted to the southeastern coast adjacent to Aus- tralia. Thus, only 2 species, the death adder and the ikaheka snake, are of concern elsewhere on the island. The remainder of the poisonous species outside eastern New Guinea is made up of small burrowing snakes or species resembling whip snakes whose bites are of minor consequence. Aside from sea snakes which are found off- shore and in some of the rivers and lakes (see Chapter VIIT), the poisonous snake fauna of this region is made up entirely of members of the cobra family (Elapidae). Although they are all elapids, none is a ¢rwe cobra; none has a cobra- type hood (though several flatten the neck—or Australia and the Pacific Islands even the whole body) and none stands up straight in cobra fashion as a threat. Many of the dangerous snakes of this region resemble North American whip snakes and since they lack any special physical characteristic (such as the rattle of the rattlesnake or the facial pit of the pit viper) or any unusual behavioral features, they Aretic Ocean UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST MEPUBLICS china Indian Mar 11.—Section 10, Australia and Pacific Islands. (Includes the Pacific Ocean eastward to the coasts of the Americas. ) are particularly difficult to distinguish from non- poisonous species. True, the dangerous death adder has the ap- pearance of a viper (which it isn’t), but other dangerous species look like harmless racers, rat snakes, or king snakes. About the only way to identify a poisonous snake from this region is to kill it and look for fangs. (Chapter IIT, fig. 5). Even this is not a foolproof method because some 141 Poisonous Snakes of the World x —-~= ae So 53 eR! | ee ee! he ee eS | ===== ost al Pe aoe a oe 4+-------}-----+-------}------ eso (oo = a ee ene | aA Le ho ees eerie | ee a ee (ee ee eee a ee a eee) Pet's eS q------4------{ yf ------ ceraatioed 4—+----4------4~-----4_----- = + +— = ——+ = ee > 4 > = = 2 e 5 bee . B =] = io S 2 5 3 2) B. 5 Ea s A = 8. > > 5 2 a a J = erpesisny PTAPW niy uaInoyrs yIpuaH-Aspasy iL >. f PaUIND MONT (Qney] jowry,) Jaquiuey oe a eee es | ot aa Tp ae Ue Tr aN eminka wil \caaei= sar Seca [Po EAD STpDId OITA Waa i oS Wome tnet. ge ceays eu Uuce ‘H a= lc oe oe [Pee ee Oa ‘H a Sd snjenbi0j1q supeydooo[doy 72 She : Saran te ee ena) apace lt eats cae [ea eee 9) ne al ae | —----=————1pievureqg wopoydsty Baro att so ere aoa | ------"--—-JOUTUI SnywUsOdelA ae Se | a aa eo eee OILS) SCE i ae Sas a ae oe ee ‘a Sot p= — St aa ae Se eee Ee ae vIVUSIS "CG a aaa , esa oi ee emer CANS UCN Lams (it = Sal eee |PEeeee eis ‘a ae (erect Secs er ee ‘a gS) ae ee SHED HHH EL VOL a a a a | fet ee te BIVLISOISIU “CT S552 SS ! Mon GT rae +---------- Rat ae ITD [LOSING SS a SS ee : eee ULL [O08 ran Cl ats | pesca ae | Sees ere eee ‘a ae 4---------- les ee aig Rees ene ‘a a a ISTAep “q@ Pa SS HpouRp “| ------ | OL COODY LAT Ges ee ||| a ee BIVUOIOD “GG BS SS pS dBLIvUedIB) “| eee ee a ee ee vouuniq “qd =a 7 een | an ee TRU UO SOC EG TOOS UOC (penuyu0)) AVAIdV1a IE ® | g B (panuyuor) SGNYISI DIdIDVd FHL 8 VIIVYLSNY 4O SAXYVNS SNONOSIOd JO NOILNGILSIG~ VL AIaVL 142 Australia and the Pacific Islands [1911044 0} AZuppsio099" vyojnuup “4 JO wiAuoudsS Vg ‘siyjodiispg jo vsamijoeds payljuep{sta uo peseq oq 0} UMOYS, ‘444p4d snupjpo0zsidpy jo wAuoUAS aq 0} Siveddy ¢ ‘snupinfiizQ JO S[unprlaAtpuy Zunod uo pasuq eq 0} UMOYS A[pUBDeY z *[[91I0M4 0} Suypsi090e nquadns ‘gq atjyueanf uo paseg ; ‘@INJVII}IT PT[TeA JOYA. vaIe oq} UTqIIA sefoads v JO voUeSeId pojOadsns sazUO;puy ~ oquIAS ayy, “Bev 94} UjYIIA Sayoads ay} JO UOPNgIIySIp pveddsepyM Soyvorpuy X [oquds eyT ee ae 5 B}BINUUB Bl[[IOTUIIA A ae ae Issneid SNUIB_BI01}[ a , SIsusunp aa ao ae snjeulied stqoeptdoay, Baa Se Bee's snuvdo[ue}s “7 ~>-"“SNUIISSISUOT SUUTB[RIOOTXOT, rece a Ta ee Iploy}seq “Az -—---suvurxoidde sdejaoqoud yy ke ae & 1ojoo1q snyeydsoo|douryqy Sea sat cee ae snovmsyqdiod “gq eae ae snuvnded ‘gq | a aa. ee eee 1491199 “d Sa ae SI[BIJSNB SIqoapnesq , WuRIMIsU SNUTRTRoOISTdepnos —---l1e3Ipsy Snure[Boojstdesed ~_ BJOpIde[O1oTU1 BISUBTTOpRIB Pa ete snjeyjejnos snuvimAéAxgO SS eee SNUBI}IA TOPOMIZO eae See a SN}BINIS SIYIIION (penuyjao9) AVAIdV1a 143 Poisonous Snakes of the World species have very short fangs that may be difficult to distinguish from the other teeth unless a micro- scope is at hand. Elapid snakes typically lack a scale on the side of the face (loreal) which most colubrid snakes have. This means that only 2 scales lie between the nostril and the eye instead of the 3 that are seen in most harmless snakes. (A few kinds, e.g., G/yphodon, on rare occasions have a vertical suture through the preocular, forming a “loreal.”) Any snake that lacks this scale should be viewed with suspicion. Fortunately, too, a rather large proportion of the harmless snakes of this region are pythons, boas, blind snakes, or These are much easier to distinguish from elapids than are the highly specialized water snakes. colubrids, which are the most common snakes elsewhere (See Chapter VI). It is worth remembering, too, that almost all of the dangerously poisonous kinds of snakes in this region live on the ground. Only the Aus- tralian (Toplocephalus), among poisonous species, ave adapted for life in the trees and they are not considered highly dangerous. Otherwise, only the tiger snake of southern Australia has been reported to climb into low bushes. There are no highly specialized dangerous tree snakes such as the mambas of Africa or the tree vipers of southeast Asia and tropical America. There are many species of burrowing elapids in Australia, but none appears to be highly dangerous. broad-headed snakes KEY TO GENERA 1. 2A... Pail paddle:shaped:..-2-s22..2=2s252..02 2. Fo sa See 2 Be Fail notspaddle-shapeds:- -2-- = ee eae ee ee 3 Dee Ae Nolen arsed: crow sniel ds aaa =e ee Np* B. At least some enlarged crown shields__------------------- Sea snakes (see Chapter VIIT) 520A. Worsalyscales/smooth-mo; tracerofia keel2====ss= = saa nee eee 6 BS) Dorsaliscalesnwithia distinct) kee] ==sss as ee ee ee 4 4. A. Eye separated from upper labials by a row of small subocular seales; pupil elliptical_-_--------___ Acanthophis B. Eye touching upper labials; pupil round___-----------__----_--- 5 5. A. Dorsal scales roughly keeled; fewer than 220 Ver Grea See, ates Bh aaa ch ne phir ae ho IS ee Tropidechis B. Dorsal scales with a low keel; more than 220 Venta Sense wee ee es Se ee eee Oxyuranus 62-Aa Vientralsiextend sfull widthiof belliy=2s== == === === ees 7 B. Ventrals extend half the width of the belly or less____----------- NP (. A. Ventrals with a lateral keel and notch_=---=-=-=-4-2=— Hoplocephalus iB: \Vientralsroundedmo)keel (ormotches =a eee 8 8. 7AS Eye withsa roundepupil 2 sss aes ene ee ee eee 12 BS Byewith anelliptical| pup == ee 9 9. A. Only six lower Jabials__------- Sk) Be fORS eee A pistocalamus Bs Seven OL Mores ower ale) see ene eee ee 10 10. A. Anal plate divided; subcaudals paired throughout__-_ Aspidomorphus B. Anal plate entire; at least some subeaudals single_---------------- 11 11. A. More than 18 rows of dorsals, slightly oblique at midbody 22.2 368.0 =) 0s cba en STONE ae Brachyaspis B. Fewer than 18 rows of dorsals, not oblique at midbodys222 assess eee Se a ee eee Denisonia *NP—Nonpoisonous 144 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. lve 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 2M. Den pS Australia and the Pacific Islands KEY TO GENERA (continued) . Eye small; its length considerably less than its dis- {SUC 105 0) 0 6s a 5 ey a et 18 B. Eye moderate to large, its length about equal to or > HD POP O Pee D> Db tb ted Be > we bP moresihangdistanceytovlips-a-= sss ee ee | ee 13 . First row of dorsals conspicuously broader than adjacent row; dorsal count 17 posteriorly, 17 or 19tatpmid bodyts ose = =. wae eee Sea Pseudechis . First row not conspicuously broader; if dorsal count 17 posteriorly, more than 19 at midbody___-_-_--______- 14 SpAt@leastesome olesubcaudalsi paired ssa sae eee eee ae 7) we AlFotrsubcaudalsssingleme~aes= ae ee ee ne ee 15 . Body very short (fewer than 150 ventrals) and TUG MCLE SLO U be ae eee ee eee ee ee Elapognathus . Body moderately long (more than 150 ventrals) andierather*slenderss2s__! 30 soo se ae et Bee 16 . Frontal long, 1.5 to 2 times longer than broad; dorsals;mot Culgue=ses =. 5c). seen se eee eee Denisonia . Frontal short, almost as wide as long; dorsals dis- timeb lye big wen sess ees = pend ee ee Notechis Senlonotinant22 0 mveUn Taisen ee oe pe) ke Oxyuranus “Newer than 225 ventrals=.5 9. . SOs Nero ke eae Demansia Body moderate to slender (fewer than 227 ventrals)______________ 21 . Body exceedingly long and slender (more than 226 VON ETAL S)) See ae tee ae ee ee ee ee ee 19 . A preocular present; 2 to 3 small teeth following fangs after an interspace (Australia) -______________ Vermicella No preocular; 4 to 5 teeth of decreasing size follow- ing fang without an interspace (New Guinea)_--__--___-______ 20 . A long terminal spine which is keeled above; inter- Masa SiGIShiNn Ch: sea ae Se ie Toxicocalamus . Terminal spine obtuse, not keeled ; internasals fused WLUNG PReACOM Uy Sees cekee ee en ree Lee atrice anes Ultrocalamus «¢ Nasal.in contact iwith preacular__229 se) ee 24 . Nasal separated from preocular (if present) by prefrontales presse he? ha ee eae 22 Fewer than. 156 ventrals’(Piji)___--_.-.--_ Ogmodon More than 155 ventrals (Australia, Solomons)____________-_______ 23 Nasal barely touches 2nd! Jabial_.-______-_-______.________ Glyphodon . Nasal extends well over 2nd labial________________ Parapistocalamus . Rostral broad and free at sides; subcaudals single-_ Rhinoplocephalus . Rostral not free at sides; subeaudals paired___-_---------------_- 25 . Tail very short, fewer than 31 subeaudals (Aus- drab ae ie {le ee ees. ee og ee See ee 26 . Tail longer, more than 30 subeaudals (New Guinea and) the Solomontlslands)=22 === 22s nen Micropechis . Rostral large and shovel-shaped, with a sharp edge__-- Brachyurophis s Rostralinwithoutaysharpyedgen== == se ss =) eee 27 . Nasal in contact with first three upper labials___--__- Phynchoelaps . Nasal in contact with first two labials only_-------------- Vermicella 145 Poisonous Snakes of the World GENERIC AND SPECIES DESCRIPTIONS ELAPIDAE: Genus Acanthophis Daudin, 1803. Death adders. Two species are currently recognized. One of these, \. antarcticus, ranges widely over the region; the other, t. pyrrhus, is little known and is restricted to the desert areas of central and western Australia, A. an- tarcticus is one of the most deadly as well as one of the most widespread snakes of the region. Head broad, flattened, and distinct from neck; a distinct canthus rostralis. Body thick and Definition: depressed; tail short with a long terminal spine. Eyes moderate in size; pupils vertically elliptical. Head scales: The usual 9 on crown, somewhat roughened with raised edges: supraoculars broad, over- hanging eye. Eye separated from supralabials by a row of small suboculars. Dorsals distinctly keeled and pointed, Ventrals 118-135; anal plate entire; subcaudals mostly single, some terminal ones Body scales: in 21-23 rows at midbody. paired, 40-52; a terminal spine made up of several seales. Maxillary teeth: after an interspace, by 2-3 small teeth. Death Adder, Acanthophis antarcticus (Shaw). Tdentification: Average length 18 to 24 inches; 30dy color gray, brown, reddish, or yellowish with a more or less distinct pattern of irregular narrow dark crossbands. A pair of diverging dark markings on The long spine at the end of the tail is Two long recurved fangs followed, Extremely viperlike in appearance. record is 36 inches. top of head. light yellowish or flesh-colored. Distribution: Found throughout Australia except for the central desert regions, on Melville Island and New antarcticus. The most viperlike of all Australian elapid snakes. Photo by W. A. Pluemer, National Audubon Society. Ficure 101.—Death Adder, Acanthophis 146 Guinea, and on the nearby islands of Aru, Ceram, Haruku, Kei, Obl, the Southern Islands, and Tanimbar, In Australia it usually inhabits dry serub areas but has been found also in rain forest regions in Ceram and New Guinea, Remarks: The death adder is active mainly at night and tends to be sluggish during the day. It often con- ceals itself in sand or dust and generally defends itself When dis- turbed it flattens the entire body and strikes out with rather than retreat from such concealment. viperlike speed. Although its fangs are short as com- pared with those of a viper, they are quite long for an elapid. It is an extremely dangerous snake and without treatment with specific antivenin the mortality rate has averaged about 50 percent. Antivenin (“Death Adder”) is produced only by the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories of Australia. ELAPIDAE: Genus Apistocalamus Boulenger, 1898. Five species are recognized, all in New Guinea. They are small burrowing snakes with poorly-defined fangs. Only one (A. grandis) attains a length of over 2 feet; it is known to grow to 37 inches. None is believed to be highly dangerous, though any elapid more than 2 feet long should be treated with respect. Definition: Wead small, somewhat flattened, and not distinct from body; body slender; tail short with distinct terminal spine which has a dorsal keel. Eyes very small; pupils vertically elliptical. Head scales: The usual 9 on crown, supraoculars short, parietals long. Single preocular in contact with nasal or narrowly separated from it by second supra- labial. 30dy scales: Dorsals smooth in 15 rows throughout body. Ventrals 178-226; anal divided (entire in one species, A. lamingtoni) ; subcaudals usually paired (a few or all occasionally single), 22-59. Maxillary teeth: Two small fangs followed, without an interspace. by 3-4 teeth that gradually decrease in length. ELAPIDAE: Genus Aspidomorphus Fitzinger, 1843. Crowned snakes. Bight species are known. Two of these inhabit New Guinea and neighboring islands, the others are restricted to Australia. All are small; the largest attains a length of about 30 inches. None is considered dangerous to man. Definition: Wead flattened and distinct from neck; body moderately slender to stout; tail relatively short, without an elongated spine. Eyes small; pupils vertically elliptical in most; round in A. muellerii (Schlegel). Head scales: The usual 9 on crown, supraoculars long; preocular generally in contact with nasal. Body scales: Dorsals smooth, in 15 rows through- out body or in 17 rows which may be reduced to 15 poste- riorly. Ventrals 139-203; anal plate divided; subcau- dals paired throughout, 25-62. Maxillary teeth: Two large fangs followed, after a wide interspace, by 7-10 small teeth. ELAPIDAE: Genus Brachyaspis Boulenger, 1896. Bardick. The single, little-known species (B. curta) is found in southwestern Australia. It is small, attaining a length of about 20 inches, and is capable of delivering a very painful, though not a lethal, bite. Definition: Head large and distinct from the neck; an obtuse canthus rostralis. Body short and relatively stout; tail short. Eyes small; pupils vertically elliptical. Head scales: The usual 9 on the crown; frontal long and broader than supraoculars. Nasal usually in contact with preocular, but may be narrowly separated from it by prefrontal. Body scales: Dorsals smooth in 19 slightly oblique rows at midbody reduced to 15 or 18 posteriorly. Ven- trals, 128-138; anal plate entire; subcaudals single, 30— 35. Maxillary teeth: Two large fangs followed, after an interspace, by 2-5 small teeth. ELAPIDAE: Genus Brachyurophis Gunther, 1863. Girdled snakes. Seven species are currently recognized. They inhabit most of Australia except for the humid southeastern coastal regions. All are small sand-dwelling, burrowing species and are not believed to be dangerous. Definition: Head short and not distinet from neck; snout distinctly pointed; no canthus rostralis. Body moderately slender with little taper; tail short. Eyes small; pupils round. Head scales: The usual 9 on the crown; rostral shovel-like with sharp anterior edge and with an angu- late rear edge that partly divides internasals. Later- ally, nasal in contact with preocular. Body scales: Dorsals smooth, in 15-17 nonoblique rows at midbody. Ventrals 133-170; anal plate divided; subeaudals paired, 17-27. Maxillary teeth: Two moderately large fangs with external groove followed, after an interspace, by a single small tooth. ELAPIDAE: Genus Demansia Gray, 1842. Brown snakes and whip snakes. Six species are currently recognized, two of which are highly dangerous to man. Both D. tevtilis and D. Australia and the Pacific Islands olivacea are found in southeastern New Guinea as well as on mainland Australia; the latter occurs also on Melville Island. The other species are restricted to mainland Australia. Definition: Head elongate with a distinct canthus rostralis, only slightly distinct from neck. Body slender and racerlike; tail long and tapering. Eyes large; pupils round. Head scales: The usual 9 on the crown; frontal long and narrow. Laterally, nasal in contact with single preocular. Body scales: Dorsals smooth, in 15-21 rows at mid- body, more anteriorly and fewer posteriorly. Ventrals 167-225; anal plate divided; subcaudals paired through- out, 44-92. Maxillary teeth: Two relatively short fangs followed, after an interspace, by 8-13 small teeth. Black Whip Snake, Demansia olivacea (Gray). Identification: This snake superficially resembles the harmless racers and whip snakes of North America and Eurasia. However, the short snout, with only two scales between nostril and eye, warns of its elapid rela- tionship. Adults average 4 to 5 feet; oceasional indi- viduals exceed 6 feet. Rich brown above, fading to a greenish-blue under- neath. Each body scale edged with black; skin between scales with many irregular light stipple marks. A dark collar sometimes present; the entire coloration becomes darker toward the tail. Head sometimes spotted, with or without light markings on sides. Dorsals in 15 rows at midbody; ventrals 180-200; subeaudals 69-105. Distribution: Found in open sandy areas of northern Australia, southeastern New Guinea, and on Melville Island. Remarks: The black whip snake is active during the day. It is fast-moving and normally inoffensive. Or- dinarily it will flee if able. However, if injured or cor- nered it will defend itself fiercely and may inflict several bites in rapid succession. The bite of a large individual is presumed to be dangerous. A polyvalent antivenin (“Brown Snake’) is made for this group of snakes by the Commonwealth Serum La- boratories of Australia. Australian Brown Snake, Demansia textilis (Du- méril, Bibron and Duméril). Identification: Head narrow and deep, slightly dis- tinct from neck. Adult snakes average 5 to 6 feet; record length about 7 feet. Body color almost any shade of brown, ranging from light grayish tan, through reddish brown, to dark brown. Juveniles may have a series of distinct narrow cross- bands (about 35 on body, 15 on tail) plus a dark collar. Most adults almost unicolor above. Many have con- spicuous dark spots or blotches on the cream, gray, or yellowish belly. Dorsals in 17-19 rows at midbody; ventrals 184-225; subcaudals 45-75. 147 Poisonous Snakes of the World Distribution Widely distributed through the drier Found in wheat tlelds and rice fields, and in some of the irri areas of Australia, and in eastern New Guinea gated lands Y » @! mY Ficure 102.—Australian Brown Snake, Demansia tez- tilis. This fast-moving snake is probably responsible for more deaths in Australia than any other snake. Photo by Erie Worrell. Remarks: This is a fast-moving and agile snake that becomes aggressive if disturbed. When aroused it flat- tens its neck and raises it from the ground in an S- shaped loop. Large individuals should be treated with respect. Due to its common occurrence and toxic venom, it may be responsible for more deaths than any other Australian snake. It will strike repeatedly if antagon- ized. An antivenin for this group of snakes (“Brown Snake’) is produced by the Commonwealth Serum La- boratories of Australia. “Taipan” antivenin, also pro- duced by Commonwealth, may be used also. ELAPIDAE: Genus Denisonia Krefft, 1869. Australian copperheads and ornamental snakes. Nineteen species are recognized by Klemmer (1963: 290-294) ; except for a single species, they are all Au- stralian. The interrelations of the snakes of this genus are not clear and Worrell (1963: 190, 192) does not believe that all belong to the same genus. Only 2 of the species appear to be highly dangerous. One of these is found in southeastern Australia and Tasmania (D. superba), the other (D. par) in the Solomon Islands. 148 Definition: Head small to moderate in size and not distinet or only slightly distinct from the neck, <) | a io ea] (amon fe | ama lerepuvuue stydodpoyy Gigi (rie [ra (tg =| (ce hic Se | ee || Fie cae a] |e Peas al | (sa) [met Sa] UID= S| BS et | Ska (ene een Tuopsef BI[L1o | eat i if I et | may ae (> “ce ( ell acc onlin oy] Pee Bi ane le I a ee ee CR alae ee wel OX leo I deo me ce snanosqo "{ apie aes Ee aileoed I a ee tg a Pa Ta py Se a LT | Uke ed acl Qa cae ig ema snjoupoistu "FT Se sio ae a a a eT aa TUL OULU a aaa ee rca nes cera | Deer] NC (ice rT | a Te | ae || eee COS OULU TO Ula STO Od DAES = + | | penul}u0d ) AV AIHdOUudxH ela El ele e( el Fle lol 21 fl sl el el Sl ele el & eioif) (ele ele) eo iF a) | Flee elgl el fe |B fl 3 | ne z : f g e f (penuiyuo>) SIYVWNS VIS JO NOILNGILSIG—Sl J1gVL 160 Distribution and Identification of Poisonous Sea Snakes KEY TO GENERA (continued) 2. A. Nostrils lateral; nasal shields separated by inter- nasals (fig. 111A), 4 species; widely distributed from Bay of Bengal to central Pacific. Laticauda B. Nostrils dorsal; nasal shields in contact with each old nea \ Csr Me hod a a 3 eae a ea eee Bee ere ees 3 8. A. Tail distinctly paddle-shaped; head shields entire Or bigkeu ips = Severn ne Meee. Onell t)) (bee SD © 4 B. Tail but slightly paddle-shaped, almost round: head shields entire (single species, small and eh) Pome An et ae A 1a Cee, Wa Ce ee Ephalophis 4. A. Snout smoothly rounded; fangs followed by sev- eral small teeth on maxillary bone (Six or 7 species of moderate to large size; found from Gulf of Siam to Coral Sea but mostly in Aus- tralian and New Guinea waters. Larger species potentially dangerous but nothing known of VCUOWS) Seon eae as See. eee ee Aipysurus B. Snout has blunt spine directed forward: fangs very small, no other maxillary teeth (single species ranging from Ryukyus to Australia; inefficient biter; probably not dangerous; venom un- Ene wit ere eee Se ee Emydocephalus 5. A. Ventrals distinct on at least the posterior half of the body, not normally split, usually a little lergectthuntadjieent: senles ! 2 ve ee 6 B. Ventrals, except quite anteriorly, divided by a fis- sure or very small and not well differentiated fromssdyadeninscaless <.S ee 13 6. A. Mental shield elongated and concealed in cleft (fig. 111C) ; ventrals often not well differentiated on NASALS INTERNASAL MENTAL 17 {FIRST LOWER LABIAL r i ANTERIOR CHIN SHIELD Figure 111.—A. Top of head of sea krait (Laticauda) showing separation of nasals by internasals; B. Top of head of sea snake showing nasals in contact with each other; C. Lower jaw of beaked sea snake showing elongate mental in cleft between chin shields. 161 Poisonous Snakes of the World a 10. Iie 12. 14. 15. 162 KEY TO GENERA (continued) anterior half of body. Widely distributed, abundant species—most dangerous of sea snakes sa = See oe el ee eS NM OOM B. Mental shield normal; ventrals well differentiated theientare lenoth ofthe bodys=-2 2-222 Se ee 7 A. Tlead shields entire; nasal shields in contact with @ROh OGNGRS Ss eae ee ee eee ee 8 Ba blend Smields moreron less Quy eda a ee Se 11 A. Preocular shield absent; tail not strongly paddle- shaped; ventrals almost one fourth width of belly. Single, small, brightly colored species; nor believadudanseronSsee= 2s eae eee ee ee ee TTydrelaps B. Preocular shield present; tail distinctly paddle- like; ventrals smaller, at least on posterior half Ot rbelll yo se Saas See ey SS Se ee 2 eee ) A. Seale rows around middle of body 19-23. Single species found in Indo-Malaysian waters and locally plentiful. Bites have been reported, but ATE Ob SOLIOUSs a ere es ee a ee nee ae ee Kerilia B. Scale rows around middle of body 25 or more_---_-------__--___- 10 A. Ventrals decidedly large on anterior quarter of body, much smaller posteriorly. Single species, widely distributed, venom unknown__-------------~- Praescutata B. Ventrals more or less same size entire length of the body. ‘Twenty-two species widely distributed ; in several species bite produces death____------------- Hydrophis A. Nasals contact each other. Scales around eye with spiny projections; body scales with pointed keels. Single rare species; large and consid- eredid an cero lc er eee ee Acalyptophis B. Nasals separated by internasals; no spines on head; body scales swithout pomted! keelsi=2 =) == 12 A. Dorsal scales in 31-35 regular rows at midbody. imclonspecies == BS ee a eee Thalassophis B. Dorsal scales very small, in 75-93 irregular rows Aig oualororshys fSwvaells) Spee Kolpophis A. Head very small, neck long and slender. Two species, one widely distributed___-_-__-----___- Microcephalophis BS Body-ctormenothasicalove mes = a= meen ee = nl eee ee 14 A. Dorsal scales overlapping (imbricate). Single largedspecies= 2222 oss Ae eee eee eee Astrotia 15}, JDtorsinll weno; qidiy os@Cl re eee 15 A. Head elongated, flat; all body scales quadrangular, generally equal in size. Single species with widest distribution of any sea snake__-________------__- Pelamis Distribution and Identification of Poisonous Sea Snakes KEY TO GENERA (continued) B. Head short, chunky; 3 or 4+ rows of larger scales on flanks; anterior ventrals often enlarged. Two species range Japan and south to Australia. (ancerouss== === SPECIES DESCRIPTIONS Yellow-lipped Sea Krait, Laticauda colubrina (Schneider). Identification: Species of this genus are less flattened and more like conventional land snakes than are other members of the family. by the combination of flattened tail, enlarged ventral scutes, and laterally placed nostrils. pattern consists of black or dark brown bands encircling They can be readily identified In this species the body and separated by interspaces of pale blue or blue gray ground color; these are about as wide as the bands; snout and upper lip yellow; dark stripes through eye and on lower lip; belly yellow. FicureE 112.—Yellow-lipped Sea Krait, Laticauda colu- brina. Photo by Robert E. Kuntz. Maximum length about 4% feet, Females are larger than males. Remarks: average 3 to 3% feet. One of the few sea snakes that regularly water to climb onto rocks and pilings. Ter- restrial activity usually takes place at night. Eggs are deposited in caves and crevices. leaves Very mild disposition— no report of bite in man although the snakes are freely handled by many natives. Venom of fairly high tox- icity but very small in quantity. Beaked Sea Snake, H’nhydrina schistosa (Dau- din). Identification: The distinctive feature of this sea snake is the form of the lower jaw. The shield at the tip of the chin (the mental) which is comparatively wide and large in most snakes is, in Hnhydrina, reduced to a splinterlike shield buried in a cleft between the first pair of lower labials (fig. 111C). This gives greater flexi- bility to the lower jaw and widens the gape thus permit- ting the snake to seize and swallow large prey. The down from Gulf to Considered Persian ee Lape Vi is curved tip of the rostral is unusually prominent in this Head shields large, symmetrical; head rather small, very little wider than neck; pressed ; keeled ; differentiated, guishable on anterior part of body. Adults uniformly dull greenish gray with dark crossbands that anteriorly ; snake giving it a characteristic beaked profile. body moderately stout, strongly com- skin especially on neck rather loose; scales ventrals poorly often indistin- olive green above or pale tend to fuse cream to dirty white on sides and belly; head greenish above without marking; tled with black. tail usually mot- New born young are milk white with crossbands that almost encircle the body; top of head dark olive, tail black. 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‘moueA snosojomoy eq] Jo “sul $0 eZ] Bajyneu [ILM surueA -ue aseq}] Jo [UI vuO ‘sived ¢ Jo potred Aouajod vB ITA suinies e[ogM peziiqydosy “(LO6T) Se8SSeIppB UBMIB, 0} AjUO peljddng ‘sinef Z SI potied Adus}0g *‘peleijgde0009 JON ‘SUITGATIUR pINbdI]T aie vse “queixe pollu] B O] WIOUVA TOpOrSIysSy eZ1[B1]nau 0} peodei St ulUeA -ue JueTBAd[Od olseyss0mloYy pue WoueA nqeyq sseuIqD 8ZI[ bine OF peaqioder st ulueA “Hue JUe[BAOUOU UOpossTysy ‘Mmi0y pinby ul urpnqols se peyddng ‘sdaousnbun sidspospugg Jo wWouds az Bijneu oO} pajs0dey (pavoD) SLNAWWO?D) (aedta qid uBdévyleyy) DWOJSOPOYL UOPOAS YOR (aedTA s,[[essny) Mjassns DAIALA (B1qoo Sur) youuny snboydorvydo (aedta 901) s,edog) UNLOIGOd SNANSILIWALT (B1g09. 91 B[[eD0U0TL ) piyjnony “u DIDNT (qreiy pepurg ) snqpispf{ snunbung (aedIA 901} U9v0I3 eseuly)) wmabaulays “7 ‘(nqey eseulyy) snzou -DNDSOLONUL SNANSILIUWALT, (B1q00 asoulyy) Dayo -u DIDNT “(qivay pepuvq-Auryq ) snjouriyynu snavbung (aedta jd pesou -dinyg) sijnop uopo.siyop (B1qoo eseulq)) Dayo -u DID ({ie1y pepurq-Auvyy) sngowoyymu snuvbung (a0dTAa mwoogey) vowmoqgnt sig *(speqsuryy) SNIDYODUIDY SNYDYO -pua FT *(B1qoo ade) pauut DIDN ‘lappR Ud) suvnjaruo sig (PauoD) NOLLV4Vdaud NI dasf) (S)WONTA «JT0dtA Wd,, WnIeg sUIUeATIUy .A0dIA 8,188, Wnieg vulUeAUy «PBIQO) SULM,, wnieg suTUeAUY «ld A Wd UeV1y,, WNIeg sUuIUeATIUW «BIGOD,, wnieg VulUeAUy «ely pepueg,, WnIag VUINeATJUW JUdTBAATOG OLsvyIs0Wleyy JUs[BAA[OG IIXO}OINEN JUITBAOUOJY Uoporstysy jueTBAOUOTY BUEN JUs|BAOUOTY Snivsung UulNeATIUW MA YPAVUS SdVO (PauoD ) Londoud JO IWVN (4,495) SADYNOS NINJAILNV yoysueg ‘oS AT Burley ‘aynqysuy [Blows BYyqBAORg uUuven~) Todiey, ‘suvy Suen ‘Joo UlYS-3u0T, TST ‘AIOJRIOGVT 9uLovA Y WNIOG UBATBIT, AINQSTTBS “6LZG X0d ‘O'd ‘SdVO (P3u0D ) agonaoud lig alt ape a GONVTIVHL a or Sohne Seay NVMIViL = ae eae VISHGOHY (P.au0D ) AYLNNOD 178 Antivenin Sources ‘SUIMAATJUB aso} jo uoljyeardeid Jo szguueut 10 UOTPBAJUBDUOD Vy} 0} SB O[QV[IBAB ST UOT}BUTIOJUL ON ‘UBISSHY Vy) JO SuoTJeUTXOAddE A[uo o1v sourBu Jonpoad ot, ‘suvadk G SI potied Aoue}Og *(ayBus [R100 BUOZIATY ) SnyjUprhina saplodnsorv]y 10 (oYBVUS [R100 posuls -yOVI) snprjwmdiue ‘yy Jo wioueAa 9} 8Z1[VAjneU JOU SeOp IT *(9YBUS [B1OD0 PepuBd-you[gq ) SnpOUOLOVU “JY JO WOUWA oy} JO JuNOUIB vUTBS oY} ATO} vUT -Ixo1ddv pur uloueA SsnosofouloY oq} jo ‘sul oz Ajayeurrxoidde OZI[BAJNU T[IM ‘JuenTIp JO “]U OT WIM payniysuodes Udy ‘[BIA Yove Jo s}ue}u0. OUD ‘(@ABVAresord YIM 19} BK PETIHSIP) JUeNTIp JO spe1a ¢ puev ULUBATJUB JO S[RIA G Jo Sesvyord ul pajeyivul ‘UTUeA -1JUv UWINdes vs10y pezt[TydosyT ‘peuyed ‘pe}yVijueU0D B ST ‘aInjny Ivsu Vy} UL square oq 0} pajoedxe ‘Jonpoid stqyy “suTpnqo[s peztiqdos, pojeajue.u0) 9a}ey[NS wniuowme sv pat[ddns st 37 ‘s1odtA jid jsour Jo smiousa oq} SOZI[VIJNVU UIUBATJUB SIV (Biqecd SUXQ) DUDLTO ‘u Dion ‘(a0dtA popBos -MUS) SNIDUIADI S1YOKT (Biqood SnYO) pupico “u plon *(10dta ouTjUBAGT) DU1J0Q9] D4adi{ (aadta dUTJUBAVT) DU1ZaqQa] Dodi} (a0d1A patos -MBQ) SNYDULIDO STyOm (Baiqoo SUXQ) DUuDLTO “u DID (ayBUS [R100 uleyseq) sniajgnf SMAIN{ SNANAIVIT (Ga pgeadiad Beqieg) ©7010 sdosyjog “(Jeqvosegn) snoyi4t13} snssiinp *“9 ‘(eyBusey}je1 YouqpuourVIp U1I}S9 AA ) ©0140 “9 *(ayxBuUSseT}} VI yorqpuoulvip useyseq ) SNIJUDUDPD §$N]D}OL) ulneaATUy JUe[BAATOG SIO ulMeAlUy jJua[BAA[OG BzZINAY UlleATJUY BZInA ulUeATIUW SIyogy ulUeATJUY BAqgoD (uTNeATJUY ayeug [B109) (sntatny SMINII) UMeAyUy UlUeATJUW PI[BJOI) uBdIIeILy YNOg pue YON MOODSOJ ‘WaweH Jo AIqS UL ‘aINgysuy JUeyYSBL ‘Bd ‘BielIeyy “oul ‘Sol1oyeroqey Wes M SDSS awes'a SGLVLIS GHLIND 179 Poisonous Snakes of the World ‘o1ey[uS uINTuomuUIR TIM peleidimeid pur uisded qjIM pelsesip umnasg “‘PpeIB1I] 090000 I0 io peleuonoBiy jou TInIIS ‘ulejo1d usta10j jo junome 38) dpe 07 Pol8el] 91B SUIUAATJUB vse, ‘UIDAANUB aq] Jo uoleardeid Ul PeSN ST WOUeA sateds TOIYM IBalD Jou ST JI pur “Bjenzena A Ul sdosyjog jo Sapeds OM} Isve] 1B 0} peT[dde S} ,,BSod|eyy Bisiy,, vueu oy (pauoD) SLNAWHWOD “peurezqo aq Use UL WoUeA [UN papuadsns s]JavI0dM9} worjONpoig-s ‘a1QU[Vav UaqM papnyouy-; Qe1sez ‘Z BAorTIay (19dtA pesou -eyooy ‘AsSojounuuy -BU0T) sajfipowupn paadr, wmnuledayjuy wna OJ O] 119118 Ufisnen cee VIAVISODOAX (@9YBUS BES S,ayIMpaey) SUvIL, VON NYLMNpADY sviuadvT ,UTUeATIUW vyRUg Beg anejseq INjWsup ss -------- WYN DLOIA (JeqRoseD) ‘dss snssiunp snjpjo1g “(, Bsodiivyy Basty,,) ‘ds sdowyjog ‘(viarue 9}UITBAT[Og eqitgd) ©roujn sdosyjog oolpyonuy orang (Jaqvosey ) ‘dss snssiinp njpj049 OOTBIOIYUY O1eNg ‘A ‘dd ‘sBovieyp ‘z (,,BSOdIIv]y Basty,,) opejiedy ‘urfjedeyg ‘ds sdoayjog ‘(elarure op [Bey eTRO uqitg) 20.1440 sdosyjog oodoajoqruuay o1ang ‘Suelqeg O110}V10qey~-------- VIGCONZANHA (PpauoD) (PavoD) (Pao ) (Ppu0D) NOILV4Vddad tondoud JO AWYN Dndord AYLNNOD NI das, (S)WONTA (4,405) SIDUNOS NINIAILNV 180 GLOSSARY Anal plate: The large scute covering the vent. It marks the division between body and tail. It may be entire, or divided by an oblique suture (fig. 10). Anaphylaxis: A severe hypersensitivity reaction which may cause circulatory, respiratory and neurological symptoms. Often fatal if un- treated. Antivenin: An antitoxie serum which neutral- izes & venom. Antivenom: == 2. = See eee 105-18 Adenorlinos = 2 2-22 eee 89, 98 aegyptia, Walterinnesia______--___---___ 79, 81, 106, 108 afee (See Hchis carinatus.) AT Shanistan eee) = = ee ee ee 105-13 Africa, Centrale= == a a= saan emer 6, 18, 85-103, 108, 126 Atiricas Norihee=-=2 == 6, 18, 74, 75, 77-84, 108, 126, 134 ALDI CHES OULD ae ae eee eee eS 6, 18, 80, 82, 85-103 Agkistrodona ==. 2. = SS polos ie —o eo LO ae kes Agkistrodon in Asia_~________ 6-8, 75, 118, 128, 134, 169 Agkistrodon in Central and North PNG) 9 (Gf eee ee i Sols oon DL. 53. os 169 aguason (See Naja naja.) aipomiro (See Bitis arietans.) FANT SUT ALG ESD ea ee a 158, 161, 164 akipom (See Bitis arietans.) ANMEGG 2 52 a er eee ee 71-6 REDOING HIE es MACTIUS == —— == 2 ee 60 GUO COUNRGULS BB OLLT ODS == = ee ee eee 60 auolauris., Drimeresurus_— 118, 129, 132 PA Ctl ee em Se ee ee 74-84, 169 CUE, JERE = ee ee oe ee eee se Se 48 alnawana (See Bitis arietans.) EAE LE = aT aa SS EON SO AS, A ee ER 11 MUCHAS) WB OLUTODS= = 2 ee ee el 60, 65, 169 RM COLUMDOUNNODS= ——=— === ee ee ee ee 61 alupong (See Naja naja.) amac-asa-hebi (See Bungarus multicinctus.) America Gentnale === es 6, 7, 47-58, 68, 112, 135 America, North__6, 8, 18, 35-45, 49, 75, 112, 135. 136, 169 America South________ 6-8, 38-9, 52, 54, 55, 59-69, 169 ammodytes, Vipera.—-=--=-—_--_=— 72, 75, 106, 114, 169 QynonULoies | Bothrops. = 2 eee ene sae bee 61 UA platen aes soso! = 2s see ee Se ee eee8 ay IS SUD LV Sek See a ee Sees 2 ee 181 CORA EH MACTAUT UGS Mere 5S ee Sed STE SS ee 48, 60 PASTIG ANT SU Seen eee = Rk See ee en 115-30 PSTG MRS OB ee 2 en a ae dT andianus, Bothrops NR 003 a ae 4 angusticeps, Dendroaspis____-___—------____ 6, 86, 92, 169 Cncnaalen, TKolpilopnis. 2-222 ea ee 160 ANMCLLCCUSHRMACT LT UGS 2 = ee eee eS ee 60, 63 CTU ONLENG CVNet ee 86, 92 CELLU ETUC CLG ee a ee Se ee ee ne 148 annuloris, Bnuydocephatus_---—===—— 158 CRONOUS ROlassophis—.. = = =o Be ee 160 antarcticus, Acanthopiseu---———- = ane 140, 146, 169 ALG VE UU ELON TLS LN GOT ee ee ee ee 5-16, 21-2 AGEN eX PUT AtONMOAteH=—s—— oe ee ee 21 AMGIENIN ESCUSLULVItY, LeSt=-— === ee ee oe ee 16-7 anuiveninE SOULCOS2=—=— = =— => Ne eee 169 antivenom (See antivenin. ) UD LCE MeL See ee = Se ee ee eee 181 A ISOCON A Das ee 139, 140, 144, 146 Qpprocimanss Melynenoelap seas ee 1438 auraefrontalis: Aipysurnis 158 OCU ENT O52 2 eee _ Se Se ee ae eee 181 ALT ADI OMEN CARS se Aw s4 Soh Ee ee ee 157-67 PNT AUIS COs iS 1 A. SE et in pe re a 157-67 aT ONC RSs Sees. SS ow 5 ee ee et 181 PATON Gin] Veen toe og) ee Be 38, 52, 59-69, 169 arietans, Bitis______6, 9, 78, 82, 87-8, 101, 106, 109, 169 UAT eee epee SB Ae ON ag Sag ati Ss ae 140-55 PAG ULL sia Geet 5 ee tet ei Eads ak 2. ee 2 IO 69 AUS 1a ae Se Si oe ge ee 82; 95, c112) ASlagisoOucheast:==-6-4 2-5 = ee 6, 115-80 asigirikolongo (See Bitis arietans; Naja haje.) asp (See Cerastes vipera.) asp. Cleopatra’s (See Cerastes vipera.) asp, European (See Vipera aspis.) AISDUMLGLADS 255 - Pas Sa = Se 87, 89, 91 AR DILOMOTN NUS 2-0 ee Oe ee 140, 144, 146 (ESUES MV OR Sn ee ee ee eS 72, 74, 169 FARO ee a Sn ee ee ee’ 158, 162, 165 Gter;, gNOteChifa =< == Soe ee 150 adterrima, Atractaspis.—=-—-—- === > APT Ot gS ss ete Sr ee Atractaspis=25 22" 2 ee 79, 81-2, 87 Girvnbs; JBIHS) 3+ <3 ee ee &S8 atror, Botirvops= = ee 6, 26, 48-9, 54, 61-2, 66, 169 ator: Crotaliya = sees eee ee a 6, 36, 39-41, 50, 169 Australia s2-se5 ee ee 6, 189-155, 166 australis, i\Brachyurophis.-~—---——- = 140 Mistralis,, Preubechis=—= 3 148, 152, 169 Astra = Shs te ee es. ee Pe 71-6, 169 autopharmacological substances__________________5, 181 aqveryt, SRCHINNS 23-2 o- = Se 60 Azemions 8-2 — 2 2 et ee 119, 126 back-fanged snake (See Dispholidus tyupus.) balaiwona (See Atractaspis microlepidota.) balewol (See Atractaspis microlepidota.) balor (See Naja naja.) balzandp a Aitertongs = === es Be ee 60 bamboo snake (See Trimeresurus gramineus; Trimere- surus stejnegeri; Trimeresurus wagleri.) Bands; S0ssos.3 Ss te ee oe ee ee 157-67 banded snake (See Micropechis elapoides.) banded snake: desert (See Rhynchoelaps bertholdi.) Jan's (See Rhynchoelaps bertholdi.) Stephen’s (See Hoplocephalus stephensii.) bandy-bandy (See Rhynchoelaps bertholdi; Vermicella annulata.) bandy-bandy, northern (See Rhynchoelaps bertholdi.) barba amarilla (See Bothrops atrox.) Varvouri. Adenorhinos-———- ae eee 86, 98 var vor -BOtrons 3 = $e oe ee ee ee 48 bardick (See Brachyaspis curta.) bargil (See Walterinnesia aegyptia.) Barnard snake (See Glyphodon barnardi.) barniardi, Giypllodon. — ee ee eee 142 UUTRELE, DROTUNODe se 2 = = = ae ee oe 61 bartezgooremil (See Acanthophis antarcticus.) basiluiscuss Crotalise2 -—— =. 50, 56, 169 Basntoland 22-22 ~ ees Se ee ee ee 85-103 Bass sStraits: [stands= 4 ees be ee ee 140-55 battersbyi, Atractaspis Bay Ot ene se ee a eee i bead snake (See MVicrurus fulvius.) DEACOMer TCAliODNtS =e eee 116 belalang (See Ophiophagus hannah.) Deleon Huyarophic: 2.325 eee 158, 166 DEN ay ee Fro i ee es 71-6 bergotter (See Vipera wanthina,) bernadi, Micrurus Is bertholdi, Rhynchoelaps Lis berus, Vipera 6, 9, 72, 74, 84, 108, 106, 111, 127, 182, 185, 169 bespectacled snake (See Naja naja.) Bechuanaland (See Botswana.) Bhutan : 115-30 bibroni, Calliophis 116, 122, 133 bibronti, Atractaspis sett pase =e eee 8S, 99 bicolor, Bothrops ae : E 1S bicolor, Rhinoplocephalus ebepee esse 148° 9153 bilineatus, Agkistrodon : E _._.6, 48, 54 indi, Bormroies So ee ean iS 61, 65 bimaculata, Vermicella__—_—~ .-143 bird snake (See Thelotornis kirtlandii.) birit tiu (See Trimeresurus sumatranus.) Bismark: Island =.= ~~ .--2-=- Bene os 140-05 bite (See fangs, mortality from bites, symptoms, treatment, venom.) Ditinim nec anism 5 2 2 ee eee ee eee 4 Bilis Wasco ee 79, 82, 87, 89, 100-3, 107, 109, 169 bitorquatus, Hoplocephalus__—~-—_~ = el Ae ee 142 tituverculatus, Hiydroplis-=- == a=. ee 158 Huirgata, Maticoreg.—2— == 2 = == 2 116, 122, 134 black-bellied snake (See Denisonia pallidiceps ; Denisonia signata.) black-headed snake (See Denisonia gouldii.) black-naped snake (See Denisonia gouldii; Vermicella bimaculata.) black-striped snake (See Denisonia nigrostriata; Ver- micella calonota.) blacksnake (See Dispholidus typus of Africa; Pseudechis porphyriacus of Australia.) blacksnake : desert (See Walterinnesia aegyptia.) Egyptian (See Walterinnesia aegyptia.) Papuan (See Pseudechis papuanus.) red-bellied (See Pseudechis porphyriacus.) spotted (See Pseudechis colletti.) tlomhosfi, Aghkistrodon halys_—-—-—_= ___- = 2-2 ==-=25 136 bocaraca (See Bothrops schlegelii.) DOCOUETI TRL ACTUULU GS oe ees Ras re ee ee. 60 pactiger+ Caliieniis—-_-- 2 ee 132 boiciuinga (See Crotalus durissus.) boipeva (See Bothrops itapetiningae.) Bolivia= 25.32 Se eee a 38, 52, 56, 59-69 boma (See Bitis arietans.) boomslang (See Dispholidus typus.) BOTN CO 28 2s oe ee Se ee ese ere ee 115-30 borquira (See Crotalus durissus.) DOSCKMaAt OD enisOnids === ee eee 42 bosré (See Elapsoidea sundevallii.) Boerons- 2 === 6-8, 49, 51, 54, 65, 129, 169 Botswana 5 Sa= St ee ee ee ee ee 85-103 uomlengert.Atractaspis--=5 2 se eee oe 88 BOULCNG CHING —— a ee e eee 89, 91 Brachyaspis ss 2-2 225 =3 <5 ee ee 14, 147 BRECIY UO DIS ee 139, 148, 145, 147 braza de piedra (See Bothrops nummifer.) Bra ih see ah eee 8 9 ee Se a ee re 59-69, 169 188 brevicaudus, Agkistrodon halys. Seer brillenschlange (See Naja naja.) British Guiana : 5-69 British Honduras s ATE British Isles (except Ireland) 71-6 broad-headed snake (See Moplocephalus bungaroides.) 158, 166 brown snake (See Demansia tertilis of Australia; Dispholidus typus of Africa.) brown-banded snake (See Notechis scutatus.) brown-headed snake (See Glyphodon tristis.) brookei, Mydrophis brown, IMionuniss.i-snan ssn ean eee Rae eee 48 brownsnake : collared (See Demansia texrtilis.) common (See Demansia texrtilis.) giant (See Ovryuranus scutellatus.) king (See Pseudechis australis.) little (See Blapognathus minor.) Port Darwin (See Pseudechis australis.) spotted (See Demansia texrtilis.) bruinkapel (See Naja nivea.) brunnea, Denisoniad.-—..<---2s-2sa5 =e ee 142 bukizi (See Dendroaspis jamesoni.) bulabundoo (See Bitis arietans.) Bulcariai. Sos 2 ee SS eee 71-6 bululu (See Bitis arietans.) OUND GROLCESHEBAUUY CUS ae 116, 120, 183 bungaroides, Hoplocephalus__________---_---_-- 142, 149 Bungarug_—__------ 6, 10, 11, 117, 119, 120, 133, 134, 169 BULbMa= 22.252 =ss 2 ea eee eee 115-30, 133 burrek (See Acanthophis antarcticus.) burrowing snake, Roper (See Brachyurophis roperi.) Burundi= 23-4 s-==-=- 2. 85-103 bushmaster (See Lachesis mutus.) caerulescens» Hgjdnopisa === ee 158, 166 eaeruleus, Bungorus 222 a a 6, 116, 120, 169 caicaca (See Bothrops atrox.) ealabucab (See Hydrophis ornatus.) calligaster, Calliophis Calliophi§uss==-= s2- 4-55-25. Ee Callophis (See Calliophis.) calonotia, Vermicella=— == ee eee 148 camamala (See Naja naja.) Cambodia=. 2-2-2 =- =<=--- 222 eee 115-30 Cameroon=+2)=---->—-- 22-22. = 2 eee 85-103 campbelli. Brachyunoplis=——————— = = eee 140 Canada-_ == 28. 2 8 - = ee eee -aAnaliculateds=—==<~=~==—--2=2+.==,--=5-=-3) candidus, Bungarus canesnake, brown (See Oxryuranus scutellatus.) canthal scales: = =+-2<=--~~ >= 5 eS eee 181 CanthuS=2=-=2--2-e=-s-5222 4 4555S e ate eee 181 eantil (See Agkistrodon bilineatus.) cantori, Trimenesurws=s---4- = ee 118 ecantoris., Microcephalophis—__ 160 Cape snake (See Dispholidus typus.) canaganus, Agkistrodon halys=——— = 76 CATGIOtOXIN=-—22=4.- ee et eee 118 COLO CAEUS BOLT ODS = 61, 65 carinatus, Echis sensed 6, 9, 78, 83-4, 88, 103, 106, 110, 116, 126, 169 COMINGS, UE ODIMC CHAS a 143, 154 COIL COAL CLC) VL CLALIT 8 ee ee 60 carpentaride sD enisoniagn. se a ee 142 caseabel (See Crotalus durissus; Lachesis mutus.) eascabela (See Crotalus durissus.) cascabela muda (See Lachesis mutus.) easecavel (See Crotalus durissus; Lachesis mutus,) COSLEIN CUCM BOLNNODS n= =e a an eae 61 COUETINEN SIS IO TOLUNLE oe = ae a ee 50 cCitenatus, Sisirurus—.—-——~-—==---s-== 36, 48, 44, 50, 57 CLO QUIS MN DALUR: == ea ea hae ee 88, 100, 103 Ciencias ae a = Ue 5S 3 oe ea ee 50 Chih =e ee ae ee Lee ee 79, 82, 87, 89, 102 WelebeSsa2< 5 + = pa aa ee ke toe eee ee 115-30 @elebessSeas—- Sa 2 oe eo San ok. oe eee 157-67 CentralmAtrica Republici = =.= se ee 85-103 Gentralpeaciic® sos ssa5 2. 6. 2 ee 157-67 (COHN 3. a eee ee eee) 140-155 Cengsties== = 79, 82, 84, 89, 107, 109, 110, 169 cerastes, (Cerastes.=2-—- == =< 78, 82, 106, 109, 110, 169 GONGRtES:) ONOLAUIO=- 2) oe oe eee ee 6, 36, 45, 50, 86 ceratophorus, Atheris________ 2A ot are ae glee = Ee ote! 86 Caylon mes. O84 Fie en es eae ee 83, 115-30 CCVLONICUS) (BUNGOINS—-- == be 116, 120 (Oil. a eee een ee T7-S4 chain snake (See Vipera russelii.) chandra bora (See Vipera russelii.) CHASCNI EULER CBUTNS — or as ee 118 chatilla (See Bothrops lansbergii.) chikorviri (See Bitis arictans.) (ile 3 5302) ee es eee eee 19-69 CHINmSHIelO sie e = =~ 3 on be oe eee eee ae 181 (CHIE, LOE M| Ail a oe oo! Seen oes es 131-8 ChinaseSonuthedst=-- 22 > 52 =e ee 115-30 chinigani (See Causus.) chipukupaku (See Bitis caudalis.) chi-tsun-tsze (See Agkistrodon halys.) chitti (See Bungarus cacruleus.) chittul (See Hydrophis cyanocinctus.) chiva (See Bitis arictans.) onlonouchisy Althenis.—s..-—- = see ee 86, 99 choichodo (See Bitis arietans; Causus rhombeatus.) Christieanus, Aspidomorphus_____-_-.—_____________- 140 Chntstyi WBOUleng ering = =~ 2 eee ee Se 86 chummar (See Naja naja.) CULOINDLU CAM LCT UN U8 a wee Se eS ee eee Bee 60 GINA A ACTALN ALS = re eR ee Pee 48 clothing: Sprotectiviescst s2..-¢ = ee se eee eee coalescenswAtractaspip==——- ==. a eee 88 cobra : African black (See Naja melanoleuca.) Anchita’s (See Naja anchietae.) banded (See Naja haje.) banded water (See Boulengerina annulata.) black (See Naja haje; Naja melanoleuca; Pseudo- haje goldii.) black and white-lipped (See Naja melanoleuca.) black-collared (See Naja nigricollis.) black forest (See Pseudohaje goldii.) black-lipped (See Naja melanoleuca.) black-necked (See Naja nigricollis.) black-necked spitting (See Naja nigricollis.) Borneo (See Naja naja.) brown (See Naja haje.) burrowing (See Paranaja multifasciata.) Cape (See Naja nivea.) Central Asiatic (See Naja naja.) Chinese (See Naja naja atra.) coral (See Micrurus corallinus; Micrurus frontalis.) de Capello (See Naja naja.) desert (See Walterinnesia aegyptia.) Egyptian (See Naja haje.) forest (See Naja melanoleuca.) Gold’s (See Pseudohaje goldii; Pseudohaje nigra.) Gold’s tree (See Pseudohaje goldii.) Giinther’s (See Elapsoidea sundevallii.) hoodless (See Walterinnesia aegyptia.) Indian (See Naja naja.) king (See Ophiophagus hannah.) Malay (See Naja naja.) monocellate (See Naja naja.) monocled (See Naja naja.) Morgan’s (See Walterinnesia aegyptia.) oxus (See Naja naja.) Pakistanian (See Naja naja.) ring-necked spitting (See Hemachatus haemacha- tus.) rock (See Naja haje.) South African spitting (See Hemachatus haemacha- tus.) spitting (See Hemachatus; Naja; Naja naja sputa- trir; Naja nigricollis.) Storm’s water (See Boulengerina annulata.) swartnek (See Naja nigricollis.) tree (See Dendroaspis.) water (See Boulengerina.) coffin snake (See Vipera lebetina.) colgadora (See Bothrops schlegelii.) collared snake, Australian (See Glyphodon.) collared snake, double- (See Hoplocephalus bitorquatus.) collaris, Leptomicrurus_____----------------------=--- 60 colletti. "Pseudechis. = ae SS eee 1438 Colombia... eee eee EE 5 90 —Gon oo coloratus, Hchis___-—_-__- 78, 83, 103, 106, 110, 126, 169 @olubrida¢= === =s2o5 5 ——2 = ee 11, 31, 85-7, 90-1 colwbrina, oaticatda.- 2-2 = 160, 163 COMPLOSse0 ee = se see a ee SosseesesseSS=s¢ 181 COUNGICOALELTT GCLOSDNS ae ee 88 Gong Osi) 4 tee. ees 85-103 Congo, Democratic Republic of__----_----_-__-__— 85-103 constriction. bande =— === eee 14, 17, 181 contortriz, Agkistrodon__6, 36, 38-9, 53, 75, 112, 128, 135 conuictus. “Trimeresurus. = == ee 118 copper snake (See Pseudechis australis.) copperhead (See Agkistrodon contortrivx.) copperhead : American (See Agkistrodon contortriz.) Australian (See Denisonia superba.) Northern (See Agkistrodon contortrix mokeson.) 189 Trans-Pecos (See Agkistrodon contortriv pictigas- ter.) Solomons (See Denisonia par.) Southern (See Agkistrodon contortriaz.) coral (See MVierurus sp.) eoral, gargantilla (See Miecrurus mipartitus.) coralillo (See Vierurus sp.) Coral Sea 157-67 coral snake: African (See Aspidelaps lubricus.) Amazon slender (See Leptomicrurus narduccii.) Amazonian (See Micrurus spirii.) American (See Leptomicrurus; Micruroides ; Mieru- rus.) annellated (See Micrurus annellatus.) Arizona (See Micruroides euryranthus.) Asian (See Calliophis japonicus; Calliophis sauteri.) Australian (See Brachyurophis australis.) banded (See Calliophis macclellandii.) banded Malaysian (See Maticora intestinalis.) beautiful (See Calliophis calligaster.) black-banded (See Micrurus nigrocinctus.) black-ringed (See Micrurus mipartitus.) blue Malaysian (See Maticora bivirgata.) broad-banded (See Micrurus distans.) Fitzinger’s (See Micrurus fitzingeri.) giant (See Micrurus spirii.) graceful (See Calliophis gracilis.) Hemprich’s (See Micrurus hemprichii.) Jan's Mexican (See Micrurus affinis.) long-glanded (See Maticora.) Kellogg’s (See Calliophis kelloggi.) Macclelland’s (See Calliophis macclellandii.) Me Clung (See Calliophis calligaster.) oriental (See Calliophis; Hemibungarus ; Maticora.) Pacific (See Micropechis.) Rio de Janiero (See Micrurus corallinus.) slender (See Calliophis melanurus ; Leptomicrurus.) small-spotted (See Calliophis maculiceps.) Sonoran (See Micruroides euryranthus.) Southern (See Micrurus frontalis.) spotted (See Calliophis gracilis.) striped (See Calliophis japonicus.) Surinam (See Micrurus surinamensis.) Taiwan (See Calliophis macclellandii.) tropical (See Micrurus frontalis.) corallinus, Micrurus CORTON G Bi = ee ae eee “8 COPMUTUS A ERIMElCSULUG a8 ee a aes a 118 COTONGTE DD CNIS ON re aa 142 coronated snake (See Denisonia coronata.) COFONO AES: -Denisonia— = eee 142 COLPULENEG, ALT ACLASD Ise as ae ee ee 88, 100 Costa Rica sets 2 Se idee en eS AT COUT Ob OthT Ops See ee 61, 169 cotiarinha (See Bothrops itapetiningae.) cottonmouth (See Agkistrodon piscivorus.) cracheur (See Naja nigricollis.) crockert. (Laticaide.= SS ee eS SS 16 Crotalidae__26, 31, 38, 51, 53-7, 60-1, 65-9, 72, 75, 106, 121 128-9, 135-7, 169 190 erotalids 14, 181 Crotalus 6-8, 18, 87, 39, 43, 51, 55, 57, 61-2, 67, 169 crown ey (yi ls)! crowned snake (See Denisonia coronata.) crowned snake: dwarf (See Aspidomorphus Irefftii.) golden (See Aspidomorphus squamalosus.) white (See Aspidomorphus harriettae.) cuatro narices (See Bothrops atrox; Bothrops castel- naudi.) Cuba ee Shee ee = cure (See treatment.) curta, Brachyaspis__——- ; bat Jeoe curtus.- Lanes =-25. 5s eo aseene cyanocinctus, Hydrophis_——— ee iiatsy, Kats, eyanosist2=-=-=--s.---- See 181 @zechoslovakiazs—---=— === s $522 See dab kwingu (See Naja nigricollis.) daboia (See Vipera russelii.) dagar (See Bitis arictans.) Dahomey seo = 2 eee 85-108 dahomeyensis, Atractaspis———- ee 88 damelii, Denisonia darpa (See Pseudechis australis.) darwiniensis, Hydrelaps——_-____ won SS. = 158 Dasypeltiges 2) 2-25 2 eet es eee 83, 110, 143 decoratus, Micruris__-__ =. --_ 2-2 eee 60 dejilippti, Causes. __--_2 2s ee eee &8 Denansig-ss ae ee eee 140, 145, 147, 169 DCNGrOGSDLS ee 6, 10-11, 87, 89, 90, 92, 169 dendrophila, Boiga=2__-22 ==. 2 3. eee 11 Denisonia- ee eee 142, 144-5, 148 depressed === s=====22=-+--- = ee eee 181 desert snake (See Brachyaspis curta.) desert snake, little (See EHlapognathus minor.) devisi; “Denisonia_--_-_+- ===. =*=.-2 2 eee 142 diadem snake (See Aspidomorphus diadema.) diademas Aispidononplis=e === 140 diamond snake (See Denisonia superba.) diastema, Micrurus®- 2 S e eee 48, 53 diriora (See Oryuranus scutellatus.) disi (See Naja nigricollis.) dissolteucus, Micniriss=—— == distal 28 ease es ol eee distans; Micrurusaa2a2 2222225222522 22 eee distribution charts of poisonous snakes___36, 48, 60, 72, 78, 86, 88, 106, 116, 118, 132, 140, 142-3, 158, 160 @iurn alee a ee Oe eee 41, 181 djalimoo (See Trimeresurus wagleri.) Diamped: Usiet s+ <242e52 = eee 115-30 dorsalis Hlaps] = —EE——E——E— eee 86 dorsals.4 =U 22 Se ee eee 28, 181 double-collared snake (See Hoplocephalus bitorquatus.) dreieckskopfe (See Agkistrodon.) duboisi, Aipysurus== = eee 158 dudbe (See Acanthophis antarcticus.) QWer deni AU GCl@sS Dts me a 88 dugite (See Demansia tevtilis.) dukaitch (See Pseudechis porphyriacus.) dumerilit; Micrurus-=—2 22 eee 60 dundugu (See Naja nigricollis.) GUnensis ly ODideChisen = ee ee ee ee es 148 qunmali Glyphodon==-=——=—— ee 142 aun Bothrops. 4- St ee ee 48 dunu karawala (See Bungarus ceylonicus.) durissus, Crotalus__6-7, 39, 49, 50, 55, 61-2, 66, 68, 69, 169 dwarf snake, Krefft’s (See Aspidomorphus Irefftii.) aigyeris Densonia=—- === = = a2 See eee a se 142 LOE NE) eG) 0 ee 131-8 JOR (e (OL Wh ES) a a re 157-67 RCE IVIMOSIS == so a= a oe ee oe eee 7-8, 11, 181 echide carénée (See Echis carinatus.) Echis___11, 79, 83, 84, 87, 89, 103, 107, 110, 119, 126, 169 PS GUS OT ee ae he Se ee 659-69. UNI ee ee ee ee ee ee ee 7-9, 181 (MOY AL 0 2 eae ae ae eee ee ee 23 efa (See Hchis carinatus.) efectsiotssna ke Venom: — 4 4 8 4o8k ee eae SR ef’eh (See Hechis coloratus.) ehé (See Thelotornis kirtlandii.) Egypt (See United Arab Republic) PSMA OTA a a oe se a re ae 8 ee 47 Plapidae__27, 31, 38, 51-3, 60, 63-5, 78, 80-1, 86-7, 91- 8, 106, 108, 117-25, 133-5, 140-55, 169 Gluplid sees 22 See eee eee 80, 87, 108, 144, 181 elapid snakes, amount of venom ejected_ ~~ --__~ 6, 38 elnpid@snakes ,ibitess)< 24254 <2=55* Sees 10-12, 18, 38 elaplomsnakesiangss=2=5*. 25 ae Se 5, 26-7, 141 elapoiaes, Micropecitis._--.---_.. 5 =.= 142, 148, 150 TAM OONGLVUS aaa la 139, 142, 145, 149 COA a ae ee ee eS 87, 89, 94 DOUAC STEKO RT RS Es oe eres ST 79, 80, 89, 94 CUCL TTL ACS 1 1, a eS ee en ek, Sie A RE 158 MAHOU TANTO ee Sens ee Sb SS 48 CLCOUNS: “LYNE eESUrns. =. ee 132, 137 elongate snake (See Toxicocalamus longissimus.) embalasasa (See Causus rhombeatus.) PUG CCDIN 6a == = eee 158, 161 engaddensis, Atractaspis_———-_--___ 78, 81, 99, 106, 108-9 RRUUIEILLA CAL CF ECLOUS DUS n= ee ee ee ee SS SIRAOS Aa ma en eS Se 6, 158, 168, 167, 169 ROL OY Go ot Ane ee ee ee tae el 159 envenomation. - 2 <== S25 8 ke ee ee ee 181 ERUO OTOL G 9 ae ee eS os 50 LW OU DN eS ee ee oe Re ek 158, 161 BHD DUCA LCT US a ee ee ee See 48 equis (See Bothrops atrow.) erabu-unagi (See Laticauda semifasciata.) EUSTUCOD INS Sen eee ae Se 107, 110, 119, 126 GhULTOnLel as. BOCNTOpS———— = =. 61 CHytAruriss DVIMeresurus x. 2 eee 118 Frye 8 2 8 eae eee ee ee 73, 127 esau (See Trimeresurus gramincus: Trimeresurus popeorum.) essalambwa (See Bitis arietans.) ESE DLO Paes eee me 8 eee See A ke ee 85-103 UTOP Cte ee we ee Se 6, 38, 53, T1-6, 112. 135 euryranthus, Micruroides________36, 38, 48-9, 51, 52, 169 CLS OT OURS =e eae eee ee ee eee 50 extravasation. 323205. sf 2 oe oe aes 181 CY COU ANY Sur s se ee ee ee ee 158 BY RW SIZGR) 9 5-9. oe a a 26-7, 181 eyelash snake (See Bothrops schlegelii.) fang: -fonctionsilis aoe see e ss east ee eee 182 TAN PIRATES --=--- = = 158, 162 Fiaydnopnidae-- == == ees 157-67, 169 Hy dropliss== === a 2 SS 158, 162, 164-5 hyoprorus: Botlivdpss sen ee 61 layprale., Aghist0don == ee 118, 128 ibiboboca (See Mierurus lemniscatus.) ‘biboka., Micruriuse.. =... -=- --- 5 2 eee 60 iBululu (See Bitis arietans.) Wining 2 6 4 eee 77-84 IGlLEStASt; BOLO DS ee 61 ikaleka., Wicronechiss---—- == = 9 ee 142, 150 iloyi (See Naja haje.) TM DTiCh Cs ee 182 imfezi (See Naja nigricollis.) iNambezulu (See Dispholidus typus.) incision.==— = =e a eee 14-5 Indi se-= 22-2. ee ee 83, 115-30, 133, 169 inDlonlo (See Bitis caudalis.) Indonesia s233— =s eeeee 115-30, 169 infralabialse--2-—- 2 == 182 inhlanhlo (See Dispholidus typus.) INOTNGLGA DVIS = a ee 88 INSULTS RB OLNIODS! === aa ee ee ee 61 intermedius, Agkistrodon halys__------------------ 75-6 intermedius:, (Crotalus. _=2.=-2--- ee) AOternasalll('s)) a0 sere = ee ek PS a 182 imMiestinais Maticord.-- 22-2 ee 116, 122, 132 Hinds) yee (Ro) oe a en ee a 182 iNyushu (See Dispholidus typus.) ipHimpi (See Hemachatus haemachatus; Naja nigricollis. ) ING SSS eS ee a 105-13, 169 LEY hs SN ee See ee ee See ay eee 105-13 irrbartbart (See Pseudechis australis.) UCU S wATRACLAS Di geee——aeeee eee es 88 isikhotsholo (See Naja nivea.) PRO ZOTAUR PMI CHU NUG oy a a Se Bt a eas 50 Sto tiL 9423s Se ee eee 81, 99, 103, 105-13, 169 Ui 223s —— ee a a a a ae aaa 71-6, 169 itapetiningae, Bothrops______________ Se ere 61 ivorver@ OA St== ss See ee cee 85-103 VE OSU wOCUIODIN Se. SS 132 HOAGL OCH PB OUNLOD GQ 22 eee 61, 66, 169 SOUR EL Od a te a eh Pie §2 OUT ONE MDG IOUS ae oe ee ee 86, 93 Une ntl a ie eee 131-8, 169 jararaca (See Bothrops jajaraca; Bothrops neuwiedi.) jararaca pintada (See Bothrops neuwiedi.) jararacusstt (See Bothrops jararacussu.) VOMULGCURGI MBOLILOD Sa. == eee 61, 66, 169 jarlong (See Pseudechis australis.) NSU Aree eee ee Pee 115-30 RUS A Cee Ses co ee 2 ee lL ele 157-67 POCUMICHS, MOUND OPUS = - s eae 116 (CNCONU NCTA C= === 0 eae ee EE ae 160 SEndOntil™ Drimenceurus._-_- —- 2 === 118, 132 MOTOR pereen = eyo meh 2 Sk eae ee Ss ts 105-13 jumping. snake (See Bothrops nummifer.) JFUMCAMOSCO LI ISCAIGS) 2 a ee ae 30, 182 kaapse geelslang (See Naja nivea.) kadel nagam (See Hydrophis spiralis.) kadel pambu (See Hydrophis spiralis.) kake (See Hemachatus haemachatus; Naja nigricollis.) kale shootursun (See Hydrophis obscurus.) kalelea (See Causus rhombeatus.) kalilelala (See Dispholidus typus.) Kanvuriensis, Trimeresurus..--.------_--=-_--_--___ 118 kannadi virian (See Vipera russelii.) Kapcobra (See Naja nivea.) karawala (See Bungarus ceylonicus.) karsotter (See Vipera ursinii.) kasambwe (See Causus rhombeatus.) Ra SOIT re ee a ee 5 ee ee 115-380 kassa (See Bitis arictans.) IKGLONG CNIS. ACMCHIGS. = 8 et se OULD ACIC,. DIUM CT ESM Saas = se ee 118 kauryala (See Vipera russclii.) kawon (See Enhydrina schistosa.) kawosia (See Naja nigricollis. ) kawriya (See Bungarus caeruleus.) KON OICO LL VAD CTOs ae ge ee es 72, 106 keautia (See Naja naja.) keisau (See Trimeresurus gramineus.) KellogumCatlicnhiso =< = <- Seeeeee? eo a a 116 kendawang (See Maticora bivirgata.) Gath: ee eee ee Ae ae OL eee so Pe ee 85-103 Kerilia kerril patte (See Hydrophis nigricinctus.) khangala (See Dispholidus typus.) khuppur (See Hchis carinatus.) kigau (See Naja nigricollis.) kiiri (See Bitis arietans.) kikanga (See Naja nigricollis.) kinangananga (See Causus defilippii.) HUG LY OT OD NAS S22 oes ee ee Oe ee 158 kipara nunga (See Naja haje.) kipili (See Bitis ariectans.) kipiri (See Bitis arietans.) kirtlandti, Tiieolotornis._......_..--=-==.=3 86-7, 89, 91 kisigosogo (See Atheris squamigera.) kissadi (See Bitis nasicornus.) klapperschlange, prairie (See Crotalus viridis.) 160, 162 klapperschlangen (See Crotalus.) Kloss, sHydrophis- = ee eee 158, 166 kobra (See Naja.) kokodiou (See Hchis carinatus.) kokokeyamulinga (See Dispholidus typus.) Ropopnie 6330 eek ae ee 160, 162 komourtiou (See Naja nigricollis.) konigskobra (See Ophiophagus hannah.) koning-pofadder (See Bitis gabonica.) konkati (See Thelotornis kirtlandii.) kondband slang (See Blapsoidea sundevallii.) koperkapel (See Naja nivea.) kopi virian (See Trimeresurus trigonocephalus.) Korallenottern : Arizona (See Micruroides curyranthus.) Echte (See Micrurus.) Harlekin (See Micrurus fulvius.) Riesen (See Micrurus spicii.) Schlank (See Leptomicrurus.) Korallenschlange, Africanische (See Plaps lacteus.) TRON CBR ic ne a a 74, 131-8 koufi (See Vipera lebetina.) krait : banded (See Bungarus fasciatus.) black (See Bungarus niger.) blue (See Bungarus candidus.) Ceylon (See Bungarus ceylonicus.) common (See Bungarus candidus.) common Indian (See Bungarus caecruleus.) Javan (See Bungarus javonicus.) lesser black (See Bungarus lividus.) Linne’s sea (See Laticauda laticaudata.) Malayan (See Bungarus candidus.) many-banded (See Bungarus multicinetus.) red-headed (See Bungarus flaviceps.) Taiwan (See Bungarus multicinetus.) Taiwan banded (See Bungarus multicinctus.) Wall’s (See Bungarus walli.) yellow-headed (See Bungarus flaviceps.) kranawang (See Maticora bivirgata.) Krenrit,. Aspigomorpnis = —— ee 140 kreuzotter (See Vipera berus.) krotenvipern (See Canusus,) kuchibami (See Agkistrodon halys,) kufah (See Trimeresurus okinavensis.) kunn katuva (See Agkistrodon hypnate,) kunuadl vyrien (See Vipera russelii.) kusari hebi (See Vipera russelii.) kuturee pamhoo (See Vipera russelii.) Kuwait 106 Kweichow : Sf ea 115-380 kyozima (See Atheris squamigera.) 118 Sl end pa het 51, 56, 61-2, 69, 169 lachesis, Bitis (See Bitis arictans.) labialis, Trimeresurus Lachesis (OGG e nO 10 i ee a ee eter Vagus. whinveltris.—.) — soe ae eae 8 64 lafaa (See Cerastes cerastes; Cerastes vipera; Echis carinatus.) lamingtoni, Apistocalanus a 140, 146 PICT TE LU. SE Ie ete re Sr ee ae D1 lanceheads, American (See Bothrops.) lanceheads, Asias (See Trimeresurius,) lanceheads, Weid’s (See Bothrops neniviedi.) 61, 66, 67 TERIA TTR EN GY TB he Se a 60 lanceolatus, Bothrops—— lansbergii, Bothrops lanzenotter, Pope’s (See Trimercsurus popeorum.) znzenottern, Amerikanische (See Bothrops.) Lanzenottern, Asiatische (See Trimercsuris.) Lanzenottern, Griefschwanz (See Bothrops schlegelii.) | FCC pee el ie! a a 8 2 ee en te 115-80 LG@pemig-a oe = 2 os aoe a eee 160, 162-8, 166, 169 ODEO es. TENG NOD ts ee 158 large-scaled snake (See Denisonia superba.) latasti. Wiper. ee 72, T4-5, 78, 84 1Gt@VQliss, BOLLTOpS2 ean 2 ee ee eee 4 HOCH = 2-2 ee See ee laticaudata, Laticauda____ (QtICOMAEIS ARliChiungts a= = oe oe eee ae POMC REL, SCC UGS = ee oe eRe Se ere latirostris, Pseudocerastes (See Bristicophis macmahonii.) Lebanon lebctina, Vipera___4, 72, 74-5, 84, 103, 106, 111, 116, 127, 135, 169 lebolobolo (See Bitis arietans.) lefa bin kurun (See Cerastes cerastes.) lezgwere (See Dispholidus typus.) lemniseatus, Micrurus 60 lepidus, Crotalus_ Leptonticrurus TEnlOp isan en se ee ee ee See lerabe (See Bitis arictans.) uessers Sunda islandseees = = See ee eee 115-30 lencomelas, Atractaspis aberia = = 2-2 = ee eee ee eee, liboma (See Bitis arictans.) Bibya- == ee ee ee ee 77-84 ncehenosis, Bothrops. -————_ = — — 2 ee ee eee 6 hclitenstemiu. Causits-— 2 eee 88 194 likwétéma (See Thelotornia hirtlandii) lipirl (See Bitis arietans,) liteo (See Naja melanolewead,) lividus, Biungarus 116, 120 locnnbergii, Apistocalamus 140 logwere (See Dispholidus typis.) lojanus, Bothrops Sols f long-glanded snake: common (See Maticora intestinalis.) Philippine (See Maticora intestinalis.) red-bellied (See MVaticora bivirgata.) long-glanded snakes (See Maticora.) longissimus: Tovicdcatanus-.-.-----—- =e eee 1438 Loreal? So soe he shoe ee Pe Se se, 27, 182 loriac, Apistocalamus— eee ee 140 hibricus, Aspidelaps._.._.--..--. es S6 lukukuru (See Dispholidus typus; Thelotornis hirtlandii.) luwando (See Cansus rhombeatus.) lyophilization == 2=— 22-2 4-265 a28 5252 sn coe ee ere macclellandii, Calliophis_—— macemahonii, Eristicophis 106, 110, 116, 126 macabrel (See Bothrops castclnaudi.) macaurel (See Bothrops castelnaudi.) a. eee 118, 129 macilata, Denisonit_is2-2 2233. Se SS eee 142 maciliceps: \C aliopiise=—= === = Madagascar: 222... =-25- ==24=22.2--- = eee magnimaculatus, Bungarus Mejor, Anyjaroplhis=.-. = os eee Malavaricis, BTAMCresuniso_- = malabasahan (See Hydrophis ornatus.) macrolepis, Trimercesurus— Malawil_ 223-2222. 22322.. SS eee 85-108 Malayass-* 2239252202 ee 115-30 Maliz2ss_-. 222-2 ei-.24--_-- == eee T7-84+ malle snake (See Deniansia texrtilis.) mamba (See Dendroaspis; Dispholidus typus; Naja melanoleuca.) mamba : black (See Dendroaspis polylepis.) black-mouthed (See Dendroaspis polylepis.) brown (See Dendroaspis polylepis.) common (See Dendroaspis polylepis. ) East African Jameson's (See Dendroaspis jamesoni.) eastern green (See Deudroaspis angusticeps.) green (See Dendroaspis angusticeps ; Dendroaspis jamesoni; Dendroaspis polylepis ; Dendroaspis viridis.) green tree (See Dendroaspis viridis.) grune (See Dendroaspis viridis.) Hallowell’s (See Dendroaspis viridis.) Jameson's (See Dendroaspis jamesoni.) pale-mouthed (See Dendroaspis angusticeps.) schwarzem (See Dendroaspis polylepis. ) South African (See Dendroaspis angusticeps.) Traill’s green (See Dendroaspis jamesoni.) West African (See Dendroaspis viridis.) western green (See Dendroaspis viridis.) mamba vert (See Dendroaspis jamesoni; Dendroaspis viridis.) TIL OUTUULOU FS METI) CLI, DLS eee ee 158 mamushi (See Agkistrodon halys.) mamushi, Japanese (See Aghkistrodon halys.) mamushi, Korean (See Agkistrodon halys.) manapare (See Bothrops atror.) manda-dalag (See Trimeresurus flavomaculatus.) mangrove snake (See Boiga dendrophila.) mano de piedra (See Bothrops nummifer.) many-ringed snake (See Vermicella multifasciata.) mapana (See Lachesis mutus.) mapanare cejuda (See Bothrops schlegelii.) mapipire (See Lachesis mutus.) mapipire zAuana (See Lachesis niutus.) marabe (See Bitis arictans.) maracaboia (See Crotalus d. terrificus.) march snake (See Denisonia signata.) AVISU EU TLE o nes a a ont oS SA Ae ee 62 SURG ULI ee ee wate Bee ie ee a-69 massasauga (See Sistrurus catenatus.) UW ELGO). 0 2 ee ees ee ee ee ee eee 119, 122, 134 NARITA Nia- ==. See ee eee Sas T7-S4 LCI LUCILC Os MODE @ 2 es ee ee Re eee 78, 84, 169 PEGHIRO MUO CLT D DO eon oo et ee ee ees See 61 LORIE, NAO JES = ee ae ee Se ees 86, 96 WICIANOSOMG LLYVATODNIS. Aa) Se oe ee Se eee ee ee 160 TRUTATT AUS AO OCU O DG een a ae aS eee ee 48 TRELOMRUS COOUMLOD INS. 22 = 2 ee ee ee 116 AICI Ce eee nee ces sek eee 140-55 ELS Te ee re ah SA ee a oat hk EO 182 PLGNEGI SE ULRCT AT Gs <2 ee 2 eee 60, 160 HICREG ie LH OTODI Ge = me eee Es Tee ee ee 160 métyi (See Cerastes cerastes.) NICK C ORE ee Ree een 2B ost oe 38-41, 48, 48-58, 68, 169 m'fesi (See Naja nigricollis.) mhiri (See Bitis arietans.) WURCKOGEDINGLO Disa aa eee ena ee 160, 162, 166 microlepidota, Atractaspis__78, 81, 88, 99, 100, 106, 108-9 MUCTOLCAOLG, PANAdCMangida-—-)- 148 WINE Rey KA ANI a a ee microphthatmus, Bothrops LUC TUN GUUS eet aaa ne On ee EE 37-8, 51-2, 169 FW AK USES ae 6, 10, 11, 37, 38, 51, 52, 62, 63, 165 Middle East (See Near and Middle Fast.) milagy kadiyan (See HWydrophis fasciatus: Micro- eephalophis gracilis.) POSTEO pt SOUR UES a 36, 39, 44 DUCE GHULCCLLO = eee ee oe ee 143 PUL OTE LO OO MUL UNS ete ee ee 142, 149 PUM S AAS PULONLOUD WSa an ee ee 140 LUD OAC Se ICIS ae ere ee ee 48, 53, 60, 169 NOMIC, KORO MOUS 5 = = ee a Ee 36, 50 moccasin, Mexican (See Agkistrodon bilineatus.) moceasins (See Agiistrodon.) PLO UCSUONPTDGNLGNS Un see es es ee ee ee 140 mokassinschlange, Mexikanische (See Agkistrodon bilineatus.) MUOLOSOIS aI COLON Ss a ee ee 36, 50 NIOMICCAMS Chess aa eee ee eee ee ee 157-67 moma (See Bitis arictans; Bitis gabonica.) aA . age . monemé (See Bitis gabonica.) NEGO) ee ae 2 2 ae Ses Se ewe. RR Peet 131-8 MOCO, VAGKIStT0G0n- =. === = SS eee 118 MONCH, rimeresurnsaa= 9 118, 132, 138 IMoTOCCOS= aan ee ee Se ee ee T7-S4 mortality__37-9, 41. 43-4, 49, 52, 54. 62. 66, 83, 87, 89, 112, 117, 146 Mount Lamington snake (See Apistocalamus lamingtoni.) Mount Stanley snake (See Tovricocalamus stanleyanus.) Roza bigs: Sa eee ee ees oe ee eee 85-103 mpili (See Naja haje.) mpiri (See Naja haje.) mpoma (See Bitis arictans.) mucrosquamatus, Trimeresurus_———__ 118, 132, 137, 169 mn ellerti,, ASpigononplitGia =e oe a eee 140, 146 mulga snake (See Demansia tertilis; Pseudechis australis.) mulga snake, Australian (See Pseudechis australis.) mulga snake, New Guinea (See Psendechis papuanus.) Muller’s snake (See Aspidomorphus muellerii; Rhinophlocephatus bicolor.) miulticinetus, Bungarus__———~—-__— 116, 120, 132, 133, 169 milafasciate, Porengje.. = Se eee 86, 97 miulhifastiata, Fermicetlas<-~ so eee 145 MuUsCatAse aes 2H Le ety eee ee EL 105-1 6, 49, 50, 55, 56, 61-2, 69, 169 muyirima (See Naja melanoleuca.) mutus, Lachesis__ --___ mwe bwe (See Vipera russelii.) Sh ere eet 11, 182 nachiku (See Naja nigricollis.) nag (See Naja naja.) naga pambu (See Naja naja.) nahuyaca (See Bothrops nasutus: Bothrops sehlegelii.) Naja___6, 10-1. 79, 80, 87, 89, 95-7, 106-7, 108, 119, 124, 134, 169 naja, Naja____6, 80, 95, 106, 108, 116, 123-5, 132, 134, 169 nalla pambu (See Naja naja.) nalukonge (See Atheris squamigera.) namahamba (See Dendroaspis: Dispholidus: also applied to non-poisonous snakes.) NARGUCCH MLEDEOINACT UPS ee 60, 63 narrow-banded snake (See Brachyurophis fasciolatus.) yo): ht (ee Se eS 182 Masel Waly G22 S00 22 2 oe ee eee eee eee 182 nashornviper (See Bitis nasicornis.) nasicornis Bitig___.--- =a 82, 88, 102, 109, 169 masorosiralea 325" eee ee Eee eee 182 NAST: BOUTOPS = aon = eee 48, 55, 61 GUI eo! 2 2 Se ee ete J rhe sn ES 389 nawama (See Bitis arietans.) nehuweira (See Naja haje.) ndemalunyayo (See Dendroaspis polylepis.) Neariand shiddlesbastj— == 83, 95, 105-13 necklace snake, African (See Elapsoidea sundevallii.) necklace snake, Australian (See Brachyurophis australis.) NECLOSISE = 2 See ee ee ee ee eS 8-11, 182 neglects, Bothropse-—— === TED eta ICUS ETO LOT sete eee ee eae eee Nepal 115-380 Netherlands 71-6 neuromuscular transmission 182 neurotoxin 5, 182 nenwiedi, Bothrops 61, 67, 160 New Guinea T1055 ngole (See Dispholidus typus.) neu sam tiem (See Bungarus fasciatus.) Nicaragua 7-58 nicefori, Micrurus ee _t Si eciepnp niet PRO Bese SN! Nicobar Island 115-30 Niger is ’ ...-17-84 niger, Biungarus ioe Be eee Pe li Cg fe ens ee ee a 85-1038 night adder, African (See Cansus rhombeatus.) night adder, rhombic (See Causus rhombeatus.) nigra, Pseudohaje__---___-_- ae Ee a YY nigrescens, Calliophis_. --__— : Se Pe ee ee 116 nigricollis, Naja_____- 78, 80, 86-7, 95, 96, 108, 134, 169 Morocinctes,, Wudronie_.- . ee = 160 nigrocinctus, Micrurus_____-- nigrostriata, Denisonia_____ Se ee ee: MOUGUISIGta: OL NhODS 4 2 ee ee see ee 48 TAGES OTC AURIS 2 = ee 86, 98 GUC Oi Ge ae ee = Se 86-7, 96, 169 njoka ishanga (See Plapsoidea sundevalilii.) NOCUREN DG o= oo Se ae ee ee as eS 182 nonemé (See Bitis nasicornis.) norne (See Notechis seutatus.) WOLGCTIEG = =~ 2s 22 = tee ee 139, 148, 145, 150, 169 nouroediou (See Atractaspis microlepidota.) nsuweila (See Naja haje.) nsuweira (See Naja haje.) TUCK GIRS Merrit s= =e St oe Se eg en 48 TUM ET IB OtNT ONS — == = = ae ee 48, 55 nyamwiro (See Naja nigricollis.) nyarukededi (See Dispholidus typus.) Vass lan GS a Se ew Te 85-103 numanni, Pseudapistocajanus—__ _ = =~ 5 = 148 Nyman’s snake (See Psendapistocalamus nymanni.) nyoka bwana (See Naja nigricollis.) (0) See eee ot es oe eee ee 140-55 obiya (See Dendroaspis angusticeps.) GUSCURUS DUOC OD I Ss ooo == 2 = oe ee ae 160 GYASN AAO Ok RS ES Sy tS Oe Se eee ee 182 ochkovaya zmeya (See Naja naja.) oelar (See oraj.) oelar idjo (See Trimeresurus gramineus; Trimeresurus popeorum.) OTN ew ee ne ees 141, 143, 145, 151 oharko (See Oxryuranus scutellatus.) Okinavensis, Trimeresurus = = == se 132, 137 Old World vipers (See Viperidae.) OUCaCcam DeMansiag = — 2 ee ee 140, 147 olwero (See Bitis arietans.) Onian <= eee 115-30 Pakistan. West= 222" soe: -- eeee 110, 115-380 pala polonga (See Trimeresurus trigonocephalus.) pallidicens, Demsoniag-—-—— ee 142 pama (See Bungarus fasciatus.) Panama}. -s22252=2622 25222222 eee 47-58 papala (See Trimeresurus wagleri.) papyuanis, Pseudechis__-=——--- == 2 ses 143, 152-3, 169 nar; (Denisonvia=——_ === == Se eee 142, 148 Paraguay 2-2... be ss ee eee eee 56, 59-69 POFOURO) Ga22 32 -e~ en rh ee oe ee eee 86, 89, 97 Parapistocalamusa-==2 === 139, 143, 145, 148, 152 Daresisss-- + === eee a 82 paresthesia 2’ + 2. == ++ 8 ee eee 11, 182 parietals==2— >:-s22 22) - SS = See 182 parrot snakes (See Leptophis.) parviceps) Hyadropliis= == === ee 160 patoca (See Bothrops lansbergii.) pee-un (See Bungarus caeruleus.) pegali (See Bitis nasicornis.) Pelamigco==~ ieee ee 87, 159, 160, 162, 166 Percy Island snake (See Demansia psammophis.) peringueyi,. -Bilis=.--=2-20-25.--*3 =. 2 eee 88 Denon. AGA ptODIis==—— ee 158 Persian. Gulf-s22-2_ 4 _ eSee e eeeee 108, 157-67 persicus, Pseudocerastes__________---_ 106, 111, 116, 169 persicus, Vipera (See Pseudocerastes persicus. ) 584, 56, 59-69 DETWVIANUSs (BOUNODS= === en 61 DETUDIONUS MACTUT NS =a =e ee ee eee te 60 DpeLechi aces == ee ee ee eS 7, 182 petia (See Hemachatus haemachatus.) phakhuphakhu (See Naja nigricollis.) Philippine cobra (See Naja naja.) Philippines Seals == ce ee eee 157-67 Piiiippines=2=sasssa Ss ee eo 131-8, 169 LOTION UNAS Bae ee Re pe RD ee 90, 93 phoorsa (See Echis carinatus.) COO OVIN OD 8a a eee ee 5 PiCtUs) BOMMOD8==— == === DU CROUBBOUR OD 8a e a ee ae ee Se ee pigmy rattlers (See Sistrurus.) pineapple snake (See Lachesis mutus.) DING) Cie OUIU OD Ssa2 = eka ee ee eee 61 piri (See Bitis arietans.) piscivorus, Agkistrodon____—__— 6; 86; 39: pak wo, da 13h a eee ee en ee ee ee eee ee 26, 169 pito (See Maticora bivirgata.) pit viper: ashy (See Trimeresurus punicenus.) bamboo (See Trimeresurus gramineus.) Chasen’s (See Trimeresurus chaseni.) Chinese (See Trimeresurus monticola.) crossed (See Bothrops alternatus.) elegant (See Trimeresurus elegans.) flat-nosed (See Trimeresurus puniceus.) Godman’s (See Bothrops godmani.) green (See Trimeresurus trigonocephalus. ) Hagen’s (See Trimeresurus hageni.) Himalayan (See Agkistrodon himalayanus.) jumping (See Bothrops nummifer.) Korean (See Agkistrodon halys.) Lansberg’s (See Bothrops lansbergii.) long-nosed (See Agkistrodon acutus.) Me Gregor’s (See Trimeresurus flavomaculatus.) Malayan (See Agkistrodon rhodostoma.) Maximilian’s (See Bothrops newviedi.) Mongolian (See Agkistrodon halys.) Monticelli’s (See Bothrops monticelli.) mountain (See Trimeresurus monticola.) Okinawa (See’Trimeresurus okinavensis.) Pallas (See Agkistrodon halys.) Patagonian (See Bothrops ammodytoides.) Polillo (See Trimeresurus flavomaculatus.) pointed-scaled (See Trimeresurus mucrosquamatus. ) Pope’s (See Trimeresurus popeorum.) purple spotted (See Trimeresurus purpureomaculatus. ) Schultze’s (See Trimeresurus flavomaculatus.) sharp-nosed (See Agkistrodon acutus.) shore (See Trimeresurus purpureomaculatus. ) speckled (See Trimeresurus wagleri.) spotted (See Trimeresurus monticola.) Sumatran (See Trimeresurus sumatranus.) Wagler’s (See Trimeresurus wagleri.) white-lipped (See Trimeresurus albolabris.) yellow-spotted (See Trimeresurus flavomaculatus.) pit vipers (See Agkistrodon; Trimeresurus.) pit vipers, Central and South America (See Agkistrodon ; Bothrops; Crotalus; Lachesis.) pit vipers, United States (See Agkistrodon; Crotalus: Sistrurus.) Dales = sa eee eee ee ee eee eee 182 pictinis: “Pelamie.-=--—- ee eee) 160, 166 PROCeRCUsES S25 See ee Se 51 pofadder (See Bitis arietans.) Poland = oe = ee SS a ee ee eae 71-6 polon thelissa (See Agkistrodon hypnatle.) polylepts, Dendroaspis=2_---- = 86-7, 93, 96, 169 DOUsSuichs; CTOtanise = sso - 28 5 ee ek 2 eee 50 polyvalent. *5 2. o2 os Ee ee ee 182 pomnica (See Acanthropis axtarcticus.) popeorum,. Trimeresurus————— —— = 118, 129 porphyriacus, Pseudechis___-__-______ 143, 153 Portugese 23 eat eS ee ee ee eee 71-6 Rortuenese. Guinean 22 a6 2 ese a eae eee 85-103 postocular potai pambu (See Lapemis curtis.) Praesiciiates ee ee 160, 162 prairie rattlesnake (See Crotalus viridis.) ora; Aptstocalamis 22223 ee 140 Pratt’s snake (See Apistocalamus pratti.) precautions to avoid snakebite._._.-.-=-.-------=-_- 2-3 prefrontalss 2-5 Se ee eS ee 27, 183 prehensile: 23s Bee ee ee ee ee eee 183 preocwlar--4i sents ee ee eee 27, 183 preusst, Ollr0Ccalanitles=~—5-2 =p So ee 148 price ‘Orgran 2c see ea he ea 36, 50 Proximal’ a ee ee ee ee eS PsammMopnrs, \D emanhas wes es eee 140 pshissapa (See Naja melanoleuca.) PRCUGCUNNG ace veco 3252 eS 139, 148, 145, 152, 169 Pseudocerusiess. 2 = Se 107, 110, 119, 127 Pseudocerastes bicornis (See Pseudocerastes persicus.) Pseudocerastes latirostris (See Eristicophis macmahonii) PSCUdDILGI G22 ee ee eee 87, 89, 97 peyches; MicNninis2 toot ee eee 60 DLOsIS==s- =- 2 Se ae Se eee 8, 10-1, 183 Puerto Ricos icc hess oe ee 62 puff adders (See Bitis.) pul surattai (See Echis carinatus.) puicherBotrone t= =.=). > eee eee eee 6 punctate. Denisouas-- ==> «= ee 142 DUNCIACIS: BOLT ODSee-=— oe eee DO, G1 OUNicens: —Trimeraivigee.— 2 = 2 se 118 DUpil a(eye) eset ee Fe eee eee 183 purpureomaculatus, Trimeresurus_————--_--— ATS 130) Oustlins Crore. 22 ee SA ae eee 50 puLmmayenss, Micruriga. oo ee A eee 60 pwéré (See Causus rhombeatus; Echis carinatus.) pyrrhocryptas: Icgris=. 22 a ee 6 DYTTIVUS, ACANMODNIS ae re ee 140, 146 qualitative difference in chemistry of venoms__.---~~—~ 7 rabo de chuncha (See Bothrops punctatus.) rabo de raton (See Bothrops neglectus.) racers, West Indian( See Alsophis.) raj nag (See Ophiophagus hannah.) TAMSAUN: DENTSONA Ce re Bae ee 142 rattler, swamp (See Sistrurus catenatus,) rattlesnake Arizona ridge-nosed (See Crotalus willardi.) Aruba (See Crotalus unicolor,) Mexican blotched (See Crotalus polystictus.) Mexican plemy (See Sistrurus ravus.) Mexican West Coast (See Crotalus basiliseus.) Mitchell's (See Crotalus mitehellii.) Mojave (See Crotalus senutulatus.) neotropical (See Crotalus durissus.) Pacitic (See Crotalus viridis.) pigmy (See Sistrurus catenatus; Sistrurius miliarius,) red (See Crotalus ruber.) red diamond (See Crotalus ruber.) rock (See Crotalus lepidus.) South American (See Crotalus durissus.) Southern (See Sistrurus miliaris.) Southern Pacific (See Crotalus viridis.) tiger (See Crotalus tigris.) timber (See Crotalus horridus.) tropical (See Crotalus durissus.) velvet-tail (See Crotalus horridus.) Western diamond (See Crotalus atrow.) Western pigmy (See Sistrurus miliarins.) Riuttlegnnkess] = i S=5 223 Ss Ss eee 3 red snake, striped (See Calliophis sauteri.) red-bellied snake (See Aspidomorphus squamulosus.) red-naped snake (See Aspidomorphus diadema ; Pseudclaps diadema.) red-ringed snake (See Calliophis macclellandii.) red tail snake (See Trimeresurus stejnegeri.) references____12, 19, 24, 69, 76, 84, 1083-4, 113, 180, 138, 155, 184-5 regions, definitions of__35, 47, 59, 71, 77. 85, 105, 115, 131, 139. 157 remedies (See treatment of snakebite.) Republic of South Atrical—2— === 22 TOSELV Cutan ee eas eS Sa ere Ss RESINS COUSIG = a a ee ee ee ee eee nt Tat Tencuiaie. AMactaspis.-=- =~ 22 35 = RNINOploOcepHaUis——— = 139, 143, 145, 153 RUN CHOCLaD Sea ae ee 139, 148, 145, 153 Rehodesiges == 2 = 5 ee a 85-103 rhodostoma, Agkistrodon__6, 7, 38, 58, 75, 112, 118, 128, 135, 169 mhomucatus. Gausus.-— --- 2-32 - 78-9, 82, 88, 102 ringed snake (See Vermicella annulata.,) ringhals (See Hemachatus haemachatus.) rinkals (See Hemachatus haemachatus.) Rio Muni REVUE Se Be 8 eS ee a a 131-8 river jack (See Bitis nasicornis.) river snake, Clarence (See Tropidechis carinatus.) TOCCINGETT. -BOWUTODS == — 25 252s Ss ee 2 ee 61 TER OYUN SRT aa so eee Be 71-6 LODELE. BEAChUUrOp Visas es ee ee ee ee 140 Rosen's snake (See Denisonia fasciata.) LOSERS Seats SE 8 0 pe we ae A RE PAG itsB} 198 rough-sealed snake (See Tropidechis carinatus.) ruatanus, Mierurus 1s ruber, Crotalus 6, 36, 41, 50 rugondo (See Atheris nitschei.) russclii, Vipera__6, 9, 11, 74, 84, 108, 111, 135, 169 Russia e ‘ =- Russia, European Ean Russian Par Mast Asia Rwanda. 22 116, 127, 182 are 105-18, 169 .-11-6 .-131-8 85-108 saaman’ (See Naja nigricollis.) saindé (See Causus rhombeatus.) Saint. Lucila Is.s.22262005 28... 55 225565 eee 59-69 Santa Catalina, Is.- 22622. 22242552222 eee 50 sakamala (See Naja haje.) saltbush snake (See Demansia psammophis.) sand natter (See Vipera ammodytes.) sandrasselotter (See Hehis carinatus.) sandrasselotter, Agyptische (See HNehis carinatus.) sangchul (See Bungarus caeruleus.) Sautert, Calliopliss———-.2 === == ~ oot elie Saudi. Arabia=: - s22255-6222. 5.3. 5- === eee 105-138 sawah tadung (See Trimeresurus puniceus. ) saw-scaled viper (See Helis.) Scandinavia==—--==-—.—====-=- == ee 71-6 schistosa, Hnhydrina_____-_--_--_______ 6, 158, 163, 169 schitomordnik (See Agkistrodon halys.) schlegelti, Aspidomorplhius_-__- eS eee 140 SCIULCG CULL OLLI OS ere 49, 50, 55, 61 Schlegel’s snake (See Aspidomorphus sehlegelii.) schmuckottern (See Calliophis.) Schouten. <=. 2-022 22224..-- SS eee 140-55 scissors snake (See Vipera russelii.) scorteccii, Atractaspisa = —— = ee &8 scutatus- Aspidelaps=_—- = 86, 91 SOULS EN CLECIILS ae ee 6, 148, 150, 169 scutellatus, Owryuranus—————------~ 10-1, 148, 151, 169 ScUtési 225 - Se e os e eee 183 SCLUTLCUUS MO OUCLICS ee 6, 36, 41-2, 50 sea krait, Schneider's (See Laticauda colubrina.) sea krait, yellow-lipped (See Laticauda colubrina.) sea serpent, common (See Hydrophis cyanocinctus ; Laticauda semifasciata.) sea snakes (See Hydrophidace.) sea snake: amphibious (See Laticauda colubrina.) Annandale’s (See Nolpophis annandelei.) annulated (See Hydrophis cyanocinctus.) banded (See Laticauda colubrina.) banded small-headed (See Hydrophis fasciatus.) banded yellow-lipped (See Laticauda colubrina.) beaked (See Hnhydrina schistosa.) black-banded (See Laticauda laticaudata.) blue-banded (See Hydrophis cyanocinetus.) bluish small-headed (See Hydrophis caerulescens.) Boie’s (See Enhydrina valakadyn.) broad-banded (See Hydrophis mamillaris.) broad-banded blue (See Laticauda semifasciata.) Brook’s smallheaded (See Hydrophis brookei.) brown (See Aipysurus sp.) Cantor's (See Microcephalophis cantoris.) common (See Enhydrina schistosa.) Crocker’s (See Laticauda crockeri.) Daudin’s (See Hydrophis nigrocinctus.) Darwin's (See Hydrelaps dariiniensis.) Dubois (See Aipysurus duboisii.) elegant (See Hydrophis elegans.) graceful small-headed (See Microcephalophis gracilis.) gray (See Hydrophis torquatus.) Gray’s (See Hydrophis ornatus.) Grey’s (See Ephalophis greyi.) Giinther’s (See Hydrophis torquatus.) Hardwick's (See Lapemis hardivickii.) hook-nosed (See Pnhydrina schistosa.) Tjima (See Bimydocephalus annulatus.) Jerdon’s (See Kerilia jerdonii.) Jew’s nosed (See Enhydrina valakadyn.) John’s (See Vicrocephalophis gracilis.) King’s (See Hydrophis kingii.) Merrem’s (See Hydrophis cacrulescens.) narrow-banded (See Hydrophis spiralis.) narrow-headed (See Microcephalophis gracilis.) olive brown (See Aipysurus laevis.) parti-coloured (See Pelamis platuris.) pelagic (See Pelamis platurus.) Peron’s (See Acalyptophis peronii.) Peters (See Hydrophis bituberculatus.) Port Darwin (See Hydrelaps dariinicnsis.) reef (See Hydrophis ornatus.) ringed (See Hmydocephalus annulatus.) Russell’s (See Hydrophis obseurus.) Samoan (See Laticauda semifasciata,) Schmidt's (See Pracscutata viperina,) Semper’s (See //ydrophis semperi.) Shaw’s (See Lapemis curtus.) Smith’s small-headed (See Hydrophis parviceps.) spine-tailed (See Aipysurus eydouri.) spotted (See Hydrophis ornatus.) Stoke’s (See Astrotia stolesii.) Viet Nam (See Lapemis hardicickii.) viperine (See Pracscutata viperina.) wandering (See Laticauda laticaudata.) yellow (See Hydrophis spiralis.) yellow-bellied (See Pelamis platurus.) ReaNSN Ke UDIt@s = 29 = ee a ee 4+, 11. 157-67 seeschlangen, plattchen (See Pelamis platurus.) semelo (See Trimeresurus gramineus.) Semipasciaia, maticauda-—_—_ == ee 160 REMUIASCLALIUS: SB UAC UTODUAG = a eee 140 SEMDENt, EY arOpliS.=——- = = = a re 160 Sana ee = Soe eee, See ee eee 85-103 serpent du bananier (See Dendroaspis jamesoni; Dendroaspis viridis.) seven pacer (See Vipera russelii.) shaushawane (See Bitis caudalis.) shchitomordnik (See Aghkistrodon halys.) sheushewane (See Bitis caudalis.) shfifon (See Cerastes ccrastes: Pseudocerastes fieldii.) shiddil (See Kerilia jerdonii.) Shieldea 2 Sean ee oes ne ee 27, 183 shield-nosed snake. African (See Aspidclaps scutatus.) shield-nosed snakes (See Aspidelaps.) shield snake (See Aspidclaps scutatus.) shock. position == - ==2-— 5 a ee 183 shootur sun (See Hydrophis obscurus.) short-fanged snake (See U/trocalamus preussi.) short-tailed snake (See Rhiynchoclaps bertholdi.) siana (See Dispholidus typus.) sidewinder (See Crotalus cerastes.) Sierra eon ee = oe en ee ee eee 85-103 signata, Deniiovias2e a 5 esa Sh ee 142 SIkKim. = o= 2 = 2—= =e eee oe ee ee ee ee 115-30 Sinks 5 2S osen Soe ne eee ee 115-30 sirocuecn (See Lachesis mutus.) IETS a ee ee eee 37, 89; 43; 51, 57 sleeping gough (See Bothrops schlegelii.) snakebite: ==> = en a ne ee 2, 41, 183 snakebite, Cases. <3.2 2 eek Se ee 39, 41 snakebite, firstaid for 2-222 ee Se 7, 13-19 snakebite. first-aid kit: for. =.-- = <--—-+ == = a 2 snakebite, medical treatment of__-_------------ 7, 13-24 snakebite, symptoms and signs of___-7-12, 41, 48-4, 838 snake of hundred design (See Agkistrodon acutus.) snake venom: @lassification. 0f- 2. a a ee 5 effect of... ee ne eS) enzymatic action) of = a ee lethality: of. 2 3 eee ee Ono protein: portion, ofo—. o2 = Ses ee ee snake venom poisoning, recognition of ~__--------~- 4-12 SolomoniiI8. 32 Sot ee es See ee ee a poh Somalia... 2 Se ee R103 songo (See Dendroaspis angusticeps; Dendroaspis polylepis.) songwe (See Dendroaspis polylepis.) South Ghing (Nene ses) eee 157-67 South: West Aftica-=.—- 222452355). yee Se S103 Southwest Pacifie...--—- 2 = eS 157-67 Spam a ee ee 71-6 Spanish: Sahara h-< 222. eee ee a Se ephenophrys, Bothrops... nan eee eae 0 Spirals: Aqdropiigis 323) 5a ae ee 160, 164 spitzkopfotter (See Vipera ursinii.) Spit: ALICTAI GS. == == Se ek ee ee ee Sa 60, 64 spotted-headed snake (See Demansia olivacea; Denisonia psammophis.) spotted snake (See Denisonia punctata.) spotted snake, little (See Denisonia punctata.) spuugslang (See Hemachatus haemachatus; Naja nigricollis.) ieee) hie RU eee — eo ee ee ee ea 6 SMUAMULOSUS, ASDICOMOTDIN Sane eee oe 140 SNGMIGCT A. AUCniR== === ye see FRR SS Se ee 86, 99 stanleyanus, Toricocalamus_——_— ee ee 1438 stejnegeri; Crotalis=_—= = ee Se 50 stejnegeri, Trimeresurus___________-_=--—- 118, 129, 169 stepiienstt, oplocenntauie= a= = an 142 SERGI, CIRCE 8 - © = 2 Se ee ee 48 SUL Ua AHA) ee eS eS eee 158, 164 RIG GUGIR OA ORS EP ONO a= ean a ee eee 118 SERICHCOLMS HY GTODIGS. =e eee ee eee 160 strigatus, Trimeresurus 118 subcaudals 28, 183 subocular 18S subterranean ae Sudan 85-108 Sulu Sea 157-67 115-80 sumatranus, Trimeresurus 118 Sumatra sunbeam snakes (See Maticora.) sundevallii, Blapsoidea 78, 80, 86, 94 sungahuni (See Thelotornis kirtlandii,) superb snake (See Denisonia superba.) superba, Denisonia ee ae eer eee meee |e kt superciliaris, Vipera SSA 84 88-03! 27 SUDTE-Guar Tonercless. 8 eee eee Pee eS 188 qupralahigls=<—-ee oss tee ae ee eee ee 183 supraoculars a eee te es eT 88 surattai pambu (See Hehis carinatus.) SAU a es 2 oo = ee eS pee 59-69 WUTENGINETIANS:- NEIOTUS R 9 58 hee ee ee 60 surucucu patiabo (See Bothrops bilineatus.) eter Dentsonia=. 2 =e ee ee 8 eet ee ee 142 RUCUR Gee ee See ee Sere SSE 183 swartnek koperkapel (See Naja nigricollis.) WZ eae eS Se oe a eee 85-108 sweela (See Naja nigricollis.) Swelling: So ee 23 2 5 ee naan See 7-9, 183 Siweitzerlan des aaa ee ee eee 71-6 symptoms and after effects of : crotalid bites.______-4, 7, 8, 14, 17, 22-3, 54, 67-8 elapid bites____-___ A, 0, LO; 2) 14) 18) 21, 62; 123 Sete snake bitess= 5. == ae 4, 11, 157-67 Viper bites! See sos 4, 7, 9, 11-2, 18, 22-3, 83, 109 Nyhan suede. S. eee ae ee ee RI Pia 105-1¢ SEG (bes ee ee Ee ee oe 115-30 tachilett (See Hehis carinatus.) tachilt (See Cerastes cerastes.) tadioko (See Naja naja.) tadung munggu (See Maticora intestinalis.) ROCKY MOCNIS DEnUindn@==2=2—2 == eS 11 taipan (See Oryuranus scutellatus.) Matwarisss S25 eee we el ee ee 131-8, 169 Taiwan-hai (See Calliophis sauteri.) tamaga (See Bothrops lansbergii.) tandaruma (See Vipera superciliaris.) Tanimber:((Climoraaut) sos ea ee. Se 140-55 Panza ee ee a ee 2S Be ee 85-1038 Resmianige ee See Saas 2. ee 140-55 Pasmanised== 5-2 25 Sas ee ee ee 157-67 tchissapa (See Pseudohaje goldii.) tedong naga (See Naja naja.) tedong selar (See Ophiophagus hannah.) tel-karawala (See Bungarus ceylonicus.) temple snake (See Trimeresurus wagleri.) ESmpors)|so= eet ee a ae Pee ee 1838 FCEreSstrid] == Ss oS ee eee 183 LEDGES CINONSTC pe ae = ee 140, 147, 169 iailan d 2850 ee ee 115-30, 169 ERGUOS6D ISS 2 os ee SO EE aS. 160, 162 thamaha (See Bitis arietans.) 200 thamaha-dinkotsane (See Bitis arietans.) thatta pam (See /ydrophis mamillaris.) thiéby (See Bitis arictans.) Tibet tic-polonga (See Vipera russelii.) 115-380 tigersnake (See Moplocephalus stephensii; Notechis scutatus,) Australian (See Notechis seutatus.) black (See Notechis scutatus.) Krefft’s (See Notechis seutatus.) tigra mariposa (See Bothrops venezuclae.) tons, Orotahise:2 =) 222 ee eee 30, 50 timba (See Bothrops nummifer.) Timor Seaa sees 2-2 ees ee eee 157-67 Tobagos. 3 oe) 822 oe 2S eS eee 59-69 toboba chingu (See Bothrops nummifer.) toboba de pestana (See Bothrops schlegelii.) tofoni (See Hchis carinatus.) TOROLL 2 LBS se. 2 Ee a eee 85-103 toka (See Dendroaspis jamesoni.) tomigoff (See Bothrops atror.) LOnKiNensis™ MrimMenrestU saan 118 torciopelo (See Bothrops atrov.) torquatis, Hydropnis_ = ee 160 Tortuga Is:tit oo see wee ee Ea 50 tortugensis: Crotalis=_- === eee 50 toulou (See Bitis nasicornis.) toumou (See Bitis nasicornis.) POM COCALQINILS ee 139, 143, 145, 154 toxini- 3... 92232222. ee ee eee 183 transversus; Crotatiss2:-2-) 2 ee 5 treatment 22-2 S84 ose ee eee 13-24 tree snake (See Dispholidus typus.) tree snake: black (See Dispholidus typus.) large brown (See Dispholidus typus.) large green (See Dispholidus typus.) tree viper (See Atheris squamigera.) tiriangunim, GANPT.Op Cis = il Do trigonocéphale (See Bitis arietans.) TG ONOCEDNAUSS HUNG SUTUSa eae ee 118 Trimeresurus____---_-— 7, 8, 118-9, 129, 133-4, 136, 169 Trinidad=... == ae SS eee 59-69 triseriatus, Crotalus trismus! =. 22 See eee 11, 183 tristise Gly phOd ON 2a-2 ee eee 142, 149 TPropidechignsa: 22a es 2S ee eee 14344, 154 true vipers (See Viperidae.) techs Whicninns. === SS Eee 60 Tsinghaiees! ie _ fou) 2 a Fie eee 115-30 Manisiais bes {4s = 3. eS eee 77-84 Turkey; vAsian-2 52 Se eee 105-13 Turkey, ‘Huropeans=-=-- +22 = = eee 71-6 turtle-designed snake (See Trimeresurus mucrosquamatus. ) twig snake (See Thelotornis kirtlandii.) typiiss Dispnoudises ee 86-7, 89, 90, 169 uao-uao (See Laticauda colubrina.) udlezinya (See Naja nivea.) W ganda. > as at ee ee eee 85-1038 itrocalanis. == 139, 143, 145, 154 ukhokhothi (See Thelotornis kirtlandii.) ular anang (See Ophiophagus hannah.) ular bakaw (See Trimeresurus wagleri.) ular bandotan bedor (See Agkistrodon rhodostoma.) ular biludak (See Naja naja: Agkistrodon rhodostoma.) ular bedul (See Naja naja.) ular bisa (See Trimeresurus sumatranus ; Trimeresurus gramineus; Trimeresurus popeorum.) ular chabe (See Waticora intestinalis.) ular gebuk (See Agkistrodon rhodostoma: Trimeresurus puniceus.) ular kapae daun (See Agkistrodon rhodostoma.) war kapala dua (See Maticora intestinalis.) ular katam tabu (See Bungarus fasciatus.) ular kunyett terus (See Ophiophagus hannah.) ular matahari (See Maticora bivirgata.) ular nanti bulau (See Trimeresurus wagleri.) ular puckuk (See Trimeresurus wagleri.) ular sina (See Maticora bivirgata.) ular tanah (See Agkistrodon rhodostoma.) ular tandjon api (See Bungarus flaviceps.) ular tedong sendok (See Naja naja.) ular tjabeh (See Maticora intestinalis; Maticora bivirgata.) ular welang (See Bungarus fasciatus.) ular weling (See Bungarus candidus.) wlupung (See Naja naja.) um jenaib (See Hehis carinatus.) umbrella snake (See Bungarus multicinetus.) umdlezinye (See Naja nivea.) wumi hebi (See Pelamis platurus.) TOLONUEU LR DS OLILDOD Se =~ = ee ee ee ee eee 50 CAO COROT 61, 68 United Arab Republic (Egypt) -----------77-84, 99, 108 United States (See America, North) unmoonarbomma (See Pseudechis australis.) unobhiya (See Hemachatus haemachatus.) unobibi (See Hemachatus haemachatus.) WRperAAVOltas-= 2-42 se See ee ee ae 85-103 urausschlange (See Naja haje.) ursinu, Vipera__.___—-_- = 72) 84, 103, 106, 111, 127. 135 mur uay sas —-=— -.- 2S Ae eee eee 59-69 TG CHE = == ee es ee Se ee ee ASS ee 183 U.S.S.R. (See Russia.) urutu (See Bothrops alternatus; Bothrops neuwiedi.) valakachiyan (See Hnhydrina schistosa.) valakadyen (See Hnhydrina schistosa.) valakadyn, Enhydrina (See Enhydrina schistosa.) WENO DTESSOT ee eee ss Sk on ie Eee 183 NGI ONOLQI Sa a= aa 28 ee eee 6 WENGZUG] O22 22 ane ee ae Se ee 53, 55, 59-69, 169 DENCZUCLLC: BOULTON G =e ee ee ee ee 61, 169 VENOM ADP AT VS = See ee ee ae ne eS 4, 183 venom duct VeNGs === — Ventrale ss <1 57025 2 ee ee re eee 28, 183 ennviceliguse: 2 te 6 eee VEE ee 143, 145, 155 verrugosa (See Lachesis mutus.) vesiculation Viet Nam vine snake (See Thelotornis kirtlandii.) viper : African desert horned (See Cerastes cerastes.) African lowland (See Vipera superciliaris.) Amazonian tree (See Bothrops bilineatus.) Armenian sand (See Vipera ammodytes.) Asian lance-headed (See Trimeresurus.) Asian sand (See EFristicophis macmahonii.) Avicenna (See Cerastes vipera.) Avicenna’s sand (See Cerastes vipera.) bamboo (See Trimeresurus albolabris ; Trimeresurus gramineus: Trimeresurus stejnegeri.) Bibron’s (See Atractaspis bibronii.) black burrowing (See Atractaspis bibronii.) black-spotted palm (See Bothrops nigroviridis.) Burton’s carpet (See Echis coloratus.) Buschelbrauen (See Bitis caudalis.) bush (See Atheris nitschei; Atheris squamigera.) cape (See Causus rhombeatus.) carpet (See Echis carinatus.) Central African jumping (See Bothrops nummifer. Ceylon hump-nosed (See Agkistrodon nepa.) chain (See Vipera russelii.) Chinese bamboo (See Trimeresurus stejnegeri.) Chinese green tree (See Trimeresurus stejnegeri.) common (See Vipera berus.) domino (See Vipera superciliaris.) Egyptian saw-scaled (See Echis carinatus.) European (See Vipera berus.) eye-horned (See Pseudocerastes persicus.) eyelash (See Bothrops schlegelii.) Fea’s (See Azemiops feae.) Field’s horned (See Pseudoccrastes fieldii.) Gaboon (See Bitis gabonica.) Gabun (See Bitis gabonica.) glass (See Vipera russelii.) Great Lakes bush (See Atheris nitschei.) greater cerastes (See Cerastes cerastes.) green (See Atheris nitschei: Causus resimus.) green bush (See Atheris squamigera.) green tree (See Trimeresurus gramineus.) hognosed (See Bothrops lansbergii; Bothrops nasutus.) horn (See Cerastes cerastes.) horned (See Bitis caudalis; Cerastes cerastes.) horned hog-nosed (See Bothrops nasutus.) horned palm (See Bothrops schlegelii.) horned tree (See Atheris ceratophorus ; Trimeresurus cornutus.) Hugy’s (See Vipera aspis.) hump-nosed (See Agkistrodon hypnate.) Indian green tree (See Trimeresurus gramineis.) island (See Bothrops insularis.) Jerdon’s (See Trimeresurus jerdonii.) jumping (See Bothrops niummifer.) Jura (See Vipera aspis.) Kenya horned (See Bitis worthingtoni.) Ketten (See Vipera russelii.) ) 201 Lansberg'’s hog-nosed (See Bothrops lansbergii.) leaf (See Atheria squamigera,) leaf-nosed (See Hristicophis macmahonii,) lesser cerastes (See Cerastes vipera.) Levante (See Vipera lebetina,) long-nosed (See Vipera ammodytes.) mangrove (See Trimeresurus purpureomaculatus, ) McMahon's (See FEristicophis macmahonii.) Maximilian’s (See Bothrops neuwiedi.) Montane (See Vipera hindii,) mountain (See Trimeresurus monticola ; Vipera lebetina.) Near East (See Vipera vanthina.) Nitsche’s tree (See Atheris nitschei.) North African horned (See Cerastes cerastes.) Northern mole (See Atractaspis microlepidota.) nose-horned (See Bitis nasicornis.) olive-green (See Causus lichtensteinii.) Ottoman (See Vipera vxanthina.) Palestinian (See Vipera canthina palaestinae.) Pallas’s (See Agkistrodon halys.) palm (See Bothrops newwviedi.) paper (See Trimeresurus gramineus.) Persian horned (See Pseudocerastes persicus.) Pope’s tree (See Trimeresurus popeorum.) Rauhschuppige brush (See Atheris squamigera.) Renard’s (See Vipera ursinii.) rhinoceros horned (See Bitis nasicornis.) rhinocerous (See Bitis nasicornis.) Russell’s (See Vipera russelii.) Sahara (See Vipera lebetina.) Saint Lucia (See Bothrops caribbaeus.) sand (See Vipera ammodytes.) saw-scaled (See Echis carinatus.) Schlegel’s palm (See Bothrops sehlegelii.) sedge (See Atheris nitschei.) snub-nosed (See Vipera latasti.) Southern mole (See Atractaspis bibronii.) Stejneger’s palm (See Trimeresurus stejnegeri.) Ursini’s (See Vipera ursinii.) West African tree (See Atheris chlorechis.) Western hog-nosed (See Bothrops lansbergit.) Western mole (See Atractaspis corpulenta.) white-lipped bamboo (See Trimeresurus albolabris.) white-lipped tree (See Trimeresurus albolabris.) worm-eating (See Adenorhinos barbouri.) yellow-lined palm (See Bothrops lateralis.) yellow-spotted palm (See Bothrops nigroviridis. ) Vipera____6, 72, 79, 84, 87, 89, 103, 160-7, Ut ais) are 131-5, 169 Diner. CCR USheS a 78, 83, 106, 169 vipera cu corn (See Vipera ammodytes.) vipére i cornes (See Bitis gabonica; Bitis nasicornis ; Cerastes cerastes.) darbre (See Atheris chlorechis.) -démon (See Causus rhombeatus.) vipére de Lataste (See Vipera latasti.) vipere de Erg (See Cerastes vipera.) vipére des pyramides (See Echis carinatus.) vipére du Cap (See Bitis arietans.) yipére hébraique (See Bitis arietans.) 202 vipére heurtante (See Bitis arictans,) vipére lébétine (See Vipera lebetina.) vipére rhinocéros (See Bitis nasicornis.) Viperidae__27, 31, 72, 74-5, 78, 81-4, 86-8, 98-103, 106, 108-12, 126-7, 169 viperina, Praescutata_____- wit inca LAUT vipers: burrowing (See Atractaspis.) bush (See Atheris.) false horned (See Pseudocerastes.) hog-nosed (See Bothrops.) horned desert (See Pseudocerastes.) mole (See Atractaspis.) palm (See Bothrops.) viridis, CRO Masasano) = oes ee ee 6, 36, 41-3, 50 viridis, Dendroaspigiic2-6 2525555225 5eene—e 86, 94, 169 witianus: Ogmodon ss --a---—-—22-55-=seee" 141, 143, 151 vuluvulu (See Bitis arietans.) wachneriorum, Micrurus_...._..--..--=-------_---== 60 wagleri, Trimereswuss_ =~ - =) eee 118, 138 wakabi (See Naja melanoleuca.) WA. BUNG OTUS nee eee 116 walo-walo (See Lapemis hardwickii.) Walter Innes’s snake (See Walterinnesia aegyptia.) Walterinnesia= a 2222 ee 79, 81, 106-7, 108 wamon-beni-hebi (See Calliophis macclellandii.) ACOTTO. (BT GCHY UNO D Ut ee a ee 140 wasserkobras (See Boulengerina.) wassermokassinschlange (See Agkistrodon piscivorus.) watersnake, black (See Hlapsoidea sundevallii.) werr (See Denisonia coronata.) Westilndics=s2=2"-- = 59-69 whip snake (See Demansia psammophis.) whip snake: black (See Demansia olivacea.) Carpentaria (See Denisonia carpentariac.) little (See Denisonia flagellum; Denisonia gouldii.) yellow-faced (See Demansia psammophis.) white-lipped snake (See Denisonia coronoides.) white-nosed snake (See Pseudechis australis.) wiesenotter (See Vipera ursinii.) willardi, Crotalus woodjonesii, Brachyurophis__—-_.------------------- 140 OTN LON. BUS === 82, 88, 100, 109 wistenkobra (See Walterinnesia aegyptia.) wutu (See Bothrops alternatus.) wyree (See Demansia psammophis.) ganthina, Vipera____-------------- 72, 75, 106, 112, 169 vanthogrammus, Bothrops__—------.------------------ 61 yamuhando (See Dispholidus typus.) yangalukwe (See Dispholidus typus; Thelotornis kirtlandii.) yarara (See Bothrops jajaraca.) yarara nata (See Bothrops ammodytoides. ) yararaguassu (See Bothrops jararacussu.) yellow-banded snake (See Hoplocephalus stephensii. ) yellow-headed snake (See Bungarus flaviceps.) yellow-naped snake (See Aspidomorphus christieanus. ) Yellow: Seas-o-- =-— 2 ee ee See ey ee ee 157-67 yellow-spotted snake (See Hoplocephalus bungaroides.) iG Cl sete ae ee eens ine 105-13 yennai viriyan (See Bungarus caeruleus.) yettadi viriyan (See Bungarus caeruleus.) VUCHLOMICUS MB OWMNODS =) = =e ee a 50 Win OS) Biv Ae ee ee Sek ee 71-6, 169 zakra (See Causus rhombeatus.) CAS AY 1 GY ee a pees et eee Se ns a 85-103 Ciievat ey ed hee ee oe Ee ne eee 85-103 LILO CYS See ae ce ae ee eS 125 zeilen-seeschlange (See Laticauda laticaudata.) zokalugwagu (See Dispholidus typus.) zwerg-klapperschlangen (See Sistrurus.) yr U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1978 O—282-759 203 PLATE I Representative American Pit Vipers (CROTALIDAE) fas = Fiaure 1. Rock Rattlesnake, Crotalus lepidus. Figure 2. Massasauga, Sistrurus catenatus. Photo by Hal B. Harrison: National Audubon. Photo by Charles Hackenbrock and Staten (See pp. 36, 50) Island Zoo. (See p. 44) Ficure 3. Cascabel, Crotalus durissus. Photo by Ficure 4. Cantil, Agkistrodon bilineatus. Photo Roy Pinney and Staten Island Zoo. (See by Hal B. Harrison: National Audubon. (See p. 68) p. 54) Figure 5. Broad-banded American Copperhead, Agkistrodon contortrizx subspecies laticinctus. Photo by J. Markham. (See p. 39) Photo by J. Markham. (See p. 389) 205 PLATE II Representatives of Some Poisonous Snake Families Fiaure 2. Urutu, Bothrops alternatus (CROTALI- DAE). Photoby J. Markham. (Seep, 65) Fieurs 1. European Viper, Vipera berus (VIPERIDAE). Photo by J. Markham. (See ; p. T4) ’ .- lie os | Se ec: = Ficure 3. River Jack, Bitis nasicornis (VIPERI- DAE). Photo by J. Markham. (See p. 102) F} ot ae tty Rus {re eS ¥ : wr : F Bx er ene S a ® pit Ficure 4. Puff Adder, Bitis arietans (VIPER- : IDAE). Photo by J. Markham. (See 7 : p. 101) ; , 4 ¥ . Fieure 5. Eastern Coral Snake, Micrurus fulvius (ELAPIDAE). Photo by Allan D. Cruick- shank: National Audubon. (See p. 38) 206 PLATE III Representatives of Some Poisonous Snake Families Fieure 1. Black Mamba, Dendroaspis polylepis (ELAPIDAE). Photo by J. Markham. (See p. 938) Figure 2. Western Diamondback Rattlesnake, Crotalus atror (CROTALIDAE). Navy photo, courtesy U.S. National Zoological Park. (See p. 40) Ficure 3. Prairie Rattlesnake, Crotalus v. viridis Ficure 4. Timber Rattlesnake, Crotalus horridus (CROTALIDAE). Navy photo, courtesy U.S. (CROTALIDAE). Navy photo, courtesy U.S. National Zoological Park. (See p. 42) National Zoological Park. (See p. 43) =e os, Fieure 5. Cottonmouth, Agkistrodon piscivorus Ficure 6. American Copperhead, Agkistrodon (CROTALIDAE). Navy photo, courtesy U.S. contortrix (CROTALIDAE). Navy photo, National Zoological Park. (See p. 39) courtesy U.S. National Zoological Park. (See p. 39) PLATE IV Representative Pit Vipers (CROTALIDAE) Fiaure 1. American Copperhead, ¥ 2 A, >, Fahe> a ye : Pe = S - — aials > 7 q t > a a . <4 # it _5 Ss Ba d ~<—» haters Mie tit ie }} i ne nat th Hi 1 f Pee oe ee eee SE San oe ES