POND LIFE

EDWARD CASH, M.R.AX

THE-PEOPLFS -BOOK

presented to

Xibrar?

of tbc

of Toronto

Bertram 1R. Bavia

from tbe boofcs of

tbe late Xionel 2>avfs, 1k.C<

B

POND LIFE

BY EDWARD C. ASH, M.R.A.C., F.R.M.S.

LONDON: T. C. & E. C. JACK

67 LONG ACRE, W.C., AND EDINBURGH
NEW YORK; DODGE PUBLISHING CO.

CONTENTS

CHAP. PAGB

INTBODUCTION . . . . . ./ . v

I. MICROSCOPIC WONDERS 9

II. AQUATIC CRUSTACEANS , . .28

III. INSECTS ...... -.. . 33

IV. INSECTS (continual) . . . . . .42

V. WATER SPIDERS AND MITES . . . .69

VI. INHABITANTS OF THE WATER-FILM . . . 65

VII. AQUATIC WORMS 70

VIII. THE HYDRA . . . . . . .84

IX. SNAILS . . . . , . . . .86

X. FROGS . . . . . . . .87

INDEX 93

INTRODUCTION

THERE are large numbers of people, who unfortunately miss a
great many of the good things of this world. They live their
lives without knowing anything of the wonders that surround
them. There are some keen searchers after knowledge, alive to
the fact that time is precious, and there is much to learn — but
there are also countless numbers who are so ignorant that they
do not realise that there is anything beneath the surface, and
they simply live to make the best of their positions, and take
interest in nothing in particular. And there are yet a few —
one meets such occasionally — that scoff at everything which does
not concern them personally.

The reader will, I hope, peruse this introduction carefully, as
it may add to his or her pleasure, for a little elementary know-
ledge is required if the intention is to take an intelligent interest
in what follows.

Every living thing, whether plant or animal, whether it be
the leaves, flowers, or fruit of the former, or flesh and muscle of
the latter, is made of many single cells, and each cell essen-
tially consists of a wall that surrounds it, protoplasm, and a
nucleus.

Protoplasm without nucleus cannot exist, nor can the
nucleus without protoplasm. And each cell is typically alive —
that is to say, it is able to multiply, to make more of its kind.
Thus an animal grows larger year by year — the ovule forms the
plant.

Living things are roughly divided into (1) single-celled, (2)
many-celled things. The single- celled animals are known as
Protozoa — many-celled as Metazoa.

When a cell multiplies, the nucleus divides and its parts take

vi INTRODUCTION

up a position at opposite sides of the cell, a wall is formed, and
two cells result. These cells are known as daughter cells.

A single cell may have permanent projections known as cilia
(hairs), and may be able to change its shape, by means of tem-
porary elongations — known scientifically as Pseudopodia, or
temporary feet. It is wise to remember that single cells are
not imperfect, in fact they are far more adapted to their life
than some of the many-celled creatures. Nor is there any
justification in labelling amoeba and other Protozoa as the
beginning of life ; for we find that the amoeba, simple as it may
be, is dependent for food on organic matter. The organic matter
consists of living plants and the remains of decomposed plants
and animals.

We can roughly divide pond life into —

large
small

' microscopically large
„ small

„ minute

and plants into similar divisions.

For example : the newt would be amongst the large, the
water-beetle amongst the small, whilst the water-mite, a
creature only just visible, would be classed as the very small.
With the aid of the microscope comparatively large animals will
be easily examined (such as vorticella), a higher power shows us
the amoeba, and a still higher power would give us a clear
picture of the smaller diatoms, &c.

Just as the pond inhabitants vary in size so likewise does
their habitat. Some live in the mud at the bottom of the pond,
others on the lower branches of water-weeds, and many others,
again, are usually "at home" nearer to the surface. Our
equipment, therefore, must be such that we are able to collect
our creatures from any ordinary situation. The pond-hunter
needs no expensive appliances for his work ; all he requires he
can easily procure or make for himself, and if he should wish to
save time a very little outlay will buy the necessary equipment.

Of course, just as in every other matter, if the pond-hunter
wishes to spend more on his appliances, he can always do so,

INTRODUCTION vii

but to the writer's mind, the simpler the outfit, " the more the
fun.'' The appliances essentially consist of :

(1) a drag-net,

(2) a hand-net,

(3) several jam jars.

The Hand-net should be made of strong canvas of a small
mesh, and should be carefully sewn on to a ring of wire or cane.
The sewing is of importance, and as I do not profess to be an
expert on needlework, all that I am able to advise, is that it
should be done so as to allow no chance of fraying. The
finished net should be fastened on to a fairly strong but not
too heavy stick.

The Drag-net is a metal or wood frame triangular in shape
The net required is rather larger than for the hand-net. The
wooden frame is perhaps of the most use, as by means of holes
bored at suitable distances it allows for the attachment of
weights when necessary.

Hunting the stag amongst the hills of Somersetshire, or the
fox on the level lands of the Midlands, are both arts. Likewise
the hunting of a pond with success requires experience, although
it may often happen that the first attempts may give good
results. But it is only by collecting that the pond-hunter
learns where to find the various creatures he requires.

Water is heavy — a gallon weighs 10 Ibs. — and foolish is he who
must carry a gallon of water several miles to his home in order
to procure some minute creatures, which would be equally safe,
if not safer, in half a pint or even less.

A very simple way to save carrying water, is by means of a
filtering tin or bottle.

A tin with holes punched through the sides, a piece of very
fine muslin tightly fastened round the holes, has been found by
the writer to be more or less satisfactory.

A still simpler idea is to have a cylinder of copper wire gauze
of very fine texture. The latter is so easily carried that it is
perhaps one of the best methods to advocate.

It seems hardly necessary to give any details as to methods
of using nets. Suffice it to say that the drag-net should be
weighted or lightened depending on pond conditions. The net

viii INTRODUCTION

should be drawn through the water with considerable speed-
consideration must be allowed for obstacles, as a net can be
very easily destroyed by submerged wood, rocks, &c. On lifting
it out care must be taken to allow some of the water to escape,
or else the strain occasioned may lead to the tearing of the net ;
a very sad occurrence, when one is ardent with much work to do.
It is advisable when lifting out the net to seize it as near to its
contents as possible. The net should then be opened and
turned gradually inside out, the contents placed in various
bottles in just enough water to allow free movement.

Small pieces of decaying wood, unhealthy discoloured weeds
should be placed in other jars (in water), for these are certain
to be the homes of various creatures, specially rotifers, and
other animalcules that seem to have a depraved taste for decom-
posing vegetable matter.

Any creature of particular interest should be put with others
of a kindly disposition, or the collector may have a similar ex-
perience to the writer, who having caught a very large and
comparatively rare larva, unfortunately placed it with various
smaller creatures, under the mistaken idea that the weakest
goes to the wall. But on reaching home, he found his rarity
" hanging up by its neck," in the jaws of the larva of a small
water-beetle, less than half the size of its victim.

The larvae of water-beetles, when placed in close quarters, are
only too ready to make the most of their opportunities, and the
other inhabitants are very soon reduced in numbers — care
therefore must be taken to place ferocious animals in special
jars, and allow them to wreak their vengeance on things for
which you have no particular interest. On reaching home, the
various creatures should be separated

POND LIFE

»
CHAPTER I

MICROSCOPIC WONDERS

THE world as we know it without inquiring below the surface
is certainly wonderful, but with the application of scientific
knowledge, aided by microscope and hand lens, the whole as-
pect of " the world " alters ; it becomes even vaster.

The owner of a low-power hand lens finds himself in a fresh
world. The small wild flowers of our hedge-rows reveal little-
known beauty, and turn into blooms that would eclipse many
of our most prized varieties. But the use of a microscope has
even a greater effect, and the mycologist enters into a kingdom
never even dreamt of by the non-initiated. The low-power
lens reveals countless numbers of most beautifully formed
animals and plants, very different to those we are accustomed
to see. When first using a microscope the thinking man ex-
periences a sensation as if he were committing a sacrilege, for
he feels that he is prying into things never meant for human
eyes to behold.

One is liable to think that plants are green structures which
have nothing else to do than to be eaten by lower animals, or
plucked and put into a vase by the higher. Some more en-
lightened realise that plants are one enormous branch of life,
and that those we see every day, and are most familiar with,
represent but a very few of the different kinds.

On one occasion, after a lecture on Plant Life, I was asked
by a young member of my audience whether plants had
brains, and if not how was it that they could do such wonder-
ful things that seemingly require thought.

I mention this incident because it shows that the vegetable
kingdom contains large numbers of interesting species, some
of which behave in a highly intelligent manner.

9

10 POND LIFE

As this book is not one dealing with marvels of plant life,
excepting those few that live in ponds and streams, we must
be satisfied with these, which are none the less interesting
because they belong to the microscopic kingdom.

What are plants ? and how do they differ from animals ?
The reader will find that many of the pond life plants have
one or more animal characters, while certain animals have
plant-like characteristics. Plants and animals vary from each
other as follows : —

Plant Animal

Has greatest surface and least Greatest bulk and least surface.

bulk.

Has no digestive system. Has a complex digestive system.

Is unable to move. Has free movement.

Has an external skeleton (cellu- Has an internal skeleton.

lose).
Lives on simple but highly oxi- Lives on complex compounds.

dised compounds.
Contains chlorophyll (green Does not contain chlorophyll.

colouring matter).

In the case of the "higher" plants very few have animal
characteristics, but many of the algae and certain microscopic
plants behave in a very similar way to animals.

Unfortunately for man, the three kingdoms, animal, vege-
table, and mineral, were allotted before science had made much
headway, and so it stands to reason that there are many things
typically members of none of the above kingdoms. When
such are classified as plants a feeling of utter astonishment is
experienced by those uninitiated in the peculiarities of scien-
tific nomenclature.

To the average mind the majority of these dubious plants
are more characteristically animals, but it must be remembered
that the ordinary non-scientist does not usually value all the
points, but forms his opinion by the things which are most
noticeable. It is interesting to know that the appearance of
a Desmid moving gracefully, as if drawn by some powerful
magnet, across the slide, gives even the average mycologist an
impression of animal, although he is fully aware that what he
sees is really a plant. Little can it be wondered at, therefore,
that the non-hardened mycologist is fully convinced that many
plants are " animals," and that the scientist who named them
plants was utterly mistaken.

A single-celled plant, so minute that several hundreds could
be placed in a pin-prick without crushing ; an architect and

MICROSCOPIC WONDERS 11

craftsman able to build a case from chemical matter held in
solution in water — cases of most gorgeous designs, some even
able to move by what means no one knows — such is the
diatom, one of the most interesting inhabitants of every
pond and stream. The owner of a microscope may spend
his life studying the cases of these minute plants, for their
numbers are legion, and the patterns revealed by the micro-
scope become most interesting, and more beautiful the higher
the power of the lenses used.

Each minute plant, the largest being ^\jth of an inch in
diameter (the average vary from y^ of an inch to less), builds
its siliceous case in the form of a pill-box and lid. And in the
security between the two valves (frustules) the tiny plant
lives a perfectly secure life — for the cases are so hard that no
crushing can damage them. And these strongly-built cases
are deeply engraved, so as to form most exquisite designs,
unequalled by anything man has devised.

And when one considers that the owner and maker of the
case is firstly ^^ of an inch in diameter, secondly a single
cell, and lastly a plant, one wonders at the marvels of the
universe, and how wonderful even the most insignificant
object may be.

Apart from how the plant should be able to make the case,
the question arises, How is it that each little cell of the same
kind should build a case similar in every detail to others of
the same family ? Thus we have the round case of the Heleo-
pelta, the triangular cases of Triceratium, the boat-shaped of
Naviculae, and countless more.

The diatom, like everything else that lives, has one main
object in life, and that is that its species will survive.

Diatoms increase as follows : the pill-box forms a new lid,
and the lid a new box, but the new part is not so large as the
former, and hence the diatom becomes smaller and smaller
as the age increases. But a time comes when this minute
organism realises that there is even a limit to smallness, and
then, guided by some uncommon sense (for we can hardly place
reasoning power in one cell, and that a plant), it changes its
methods of reproducing, and joining on to another of its
species, it becomes surrounded by jelly. Then the two dia-
toms, by a process into which we will not inquire, fuse
together to form an individual of sensible proportions.

Some diatoms live singly, and, as before mentioned, can move
about at their " own free will." It must be left to the owner
of the microscope to feel the sensation occasioned by the move-
ments of these extraordinary plants. Suffice to say, that

12

POND LIFE

seemingly inert diamond or oval-shaped objects, as if prompted
by some unseen force, glide out of the field of view, and should
they meet with an obstacle, such as another of the same
species, the encumbrance and the visitors will often move
together, side by side, until one or other alters its direction.
Some species of diatoms live in colonies, a very interesting

7.

DIATOMS

1. Pleurosigmaattenuatum. 2. Navicula cuspidata. 3. Diatoma vulgare.
4. Arachnoidiscua. 5. Triceratium. 6. Gomphonema geminatum.
7. Heliopelta.

example being Diatoma vulgare. The members of this colony
form a chain, whilst the diatoms Asterionella formosa join
together so as to represent the " spokes of a wheel."

Another group of great interest is the stalked diatoms, a
good example being G. geminatum, which reminds one of a
wedge fastened on to a stalk by the narrow end.

The wedge secretes a thin stream of gelatinous substance,
which soon becomes solid, and acts as the stalk of the organism.

MICROSCOPIC WONDERS 13

Most beautiful colour effects are often obtained uninten-
tionally. The light is decomposed by the surface of the
frustules, and the cases are seen to be iridescent. A diatom
slide usually shows similar effects.

Desmids resemble diatoms in the fact that they are single-
celled plants, But they have not the same wish, or perhaps
power, to build cases. But although lacking in this respect
yet they are most beautiful little objects, and any time spent
in their study is amply repaid.

" Minute green plants " is perhaps the best description one
could give of them, for they contain chlorophyll, the green
colouring matter which we know so well in the higher plants.
And, as if aware of this fact, Desmids in fine weather are found
on the surface of the pond, forming a green film, whilst should
the weather be less bright they retire to the bottom, chloro-
phyll being essential in the decomposition of carbon dioxide
for the production of sugar and starch in the presence of sun-
light.

During our usual fine hot summer weather, so characteristic
of our climate, these little plants appear in such large numbers
as to make the water appear green.

Desmids are of all shapes, partly due to the fact that their
method of reproduction leads to great alterations in their
" physique," and partly due to the large number of species that
are in existence.

Perhaps, if one asked the mycologist what he found interest-
ing in Desmids, he would reply, the study of "Cyclosis."
Cyclosis is the movement of protoplasm, and this may be most
easily studied under the microscope.

But to the average person their methods of reproduction
are probably of more interest.

The Desmid, when the instinct prompts it, gradually divides
the protoplasm and leaves a vacant space in the centre : a break
occurs and two Desmids result. This is not the only way that
Desmids increase. The other method is sexual, the former
asexual (fission).

In the sexual method, known as conjugation, two Desmids
meet, the cell contents mix, and a spore is formed. This
spore then forms several Desmids of the same species.

Closterium lunula is one of the most interesting, being
comparatively common, and especially easy to study.

The phenomenon of Cyclosis can be easily followed.

Another Desmid of peculiar interest is Cosmarium botrytis.

Cosmarium botritis is noticeable for having on its surface
many nobbles ; these are arranged in rows. The Desmid is

14

POND LIFE

divided into two halves by a waist. When reproduction takes
place the " waist " becomes narrower and narrower, and even-
tually breaks. At the same time another plant undergoes
similar changes. A most remarkable phenomenon now takes
place. The contents of the half cells of the first Desmid leave
their cell walls, and simultaneously the cell walls of the second
Desmid are evacuated. The cell contents meet, and very soon
are surrounded by a thick wall, covered with peculiar spines.
This structure is the spore case, and in it the spores are formed,

DESMIDS

1. Hyalotheca dissiliens. 2. Cosmariurn botrytis, multiplying.
3. Closterium lunula, dividing.

and remain dormant until the following spring, depending on
when the conjugation took place.

Another most interesting Desmid is Hyalotheca dissiliens.
In this case we find several Desmids living fastened together
in a colony surrounded by gelatinous matter. When conjuga-
tion takes place the contents of two neighbouring cells fuse,
and a spore case is formed.

Desmids can be easily kept for study. If placed in a watch-
glass in water obtained from their natural home, they will not
only live, but increase rapidly. Before leaving Desmids, men-
tion must be made of their power of movement. Similar to
diatoms, they are able to travel freely, and, so far, no means of

MICROSCOPIC WONDERS 15

movement have been discovered ; even the highest power lens
and the most carefully arranged light effects give no clue to
this mystery ; and one can only imagine that it is by means
of some most minute hairs, so fine and so transparent that
they are ultra-microscopic, or else by some other physical or
chemical means, unless we take it for granted that these most
interesting " plants " have a means of movement that has no
similarity in the higher world.

Volvox globator may be said to resemble a tennis ball -g^jth
of an inch in diameter ; in fact its behaviour is so much like that
off an animal, that it is a moot point as to whether it should
not be classified as such.

It is not a single-celled plant as a Desmid, but a colony of
cells joined together by strands of protoplasm, in the form of
a round net, the knots being the individual cells.

Each little cell is furnished with a pair of minute hairs,
known as cilia, which are most energetically waved.

It may strike the reader as extraordinary that the volvox
should move in any direction whatsoever, as we can hardly
imagine that each of these minute cells co-operates with the re-
mainder, but it is probably due to their independent action
that the volvox rolls through the water in such an original
way.

Strangely enough, one often notices that inside the volvox
itself some other creature is living a perfectly free life, seem-
ingly indifferent to its destiny. This rather goes to show that
the volvox either contains water, or comparatively non-viscid
material.

Volvox multiplies by both asexual and sexual methods.

In the case of the asexual, daughter cells are formed similar
to the parent, and the juveniles roll over and over inside the
parent in a most unfilial manner, and when the adult volvox
thinks that the joke has gone far enough it breaks open in the
gentlest way, and the daughter volvoxes, leaving their parent,
start on an independent existence.

The second method is rather more interesting. Some of the
cells become changed in shape, and form respectively anthero-
zoids and oospheres, and then after a short time the antherozoid
opens, and a large number of animal-like objects swim out and
find their way towards an oogonium, into which they hurry.
A spore case is then formed, and, as usual, ends the following
year in a fresh generation of these most interesting plants.

If there should be doubt that each little cell forming the
net is an independent object, one has only to crush a volvox
under a cover glass to see that such is the case ; for each little

16 POND LIFE

cell will swim independently, as if it were quite an ordinary
event to be separated from its relations.

To the amateur mycologist one might say, " Find a volvox
and be happy " ; for it may be said that there are very few things
more beautiful, more original, and more extraordinary than
this little plant.

Another of great interest, a member of the family, is Pan-
dorina morum. It is very common in many districts, and is

4.

VOLVOCINEAB
1. Volvox globator, showing daughters inside parent. 2. Pandorina morum.

CYANOPHYCEAE

- 3. Oscillatoria tenuis. 4. Nostoc.

often mistaken for Volvox globator by the amateur. It is com-
posed of a few large green cells, noticeable for a red spot
nearest to the broad side. Each cell has a pair of long cilia,
and the entire colony is surrounded by a gelatinous envelope,
through which the cilia protrude. Their method of reproduc-
tion is rather different to that of volvox. The cells break out
of their envelope, and swim freely until two of them meet ;
these then join together and spores are formed.

MICROSCOPIC WONDERS 17

Things are not always what they seem, and many ardent
pond-hunters have thrown Nostoc back into the pond without
more than a cursory glance. A little lump of greenish-blue
jelly is all one finds. This minute lump of jelly, likened by
some to partially boiled tapioca, is the bulwarks of a colony of
Nostoc securely hidden in the centre. Under the microscope
the jelly is seen to be occupied by long chain-like objects, the
links of which are of various sizes and shapes. Some of the
chains are composed of small round cells, others of large square-
shaped cells. The former are the young Nostocs, the latter the
mature. The chains may increase in length, or else portions
of the threads break away and swim slowly until, finding a
suitable spot, they settle and secrete a gelatinous substance
that entirely covers them ; thus fresh colonies are formed. But
Nostoc has yet another method of propagating its species — by
spores.

One of the most fascinating micro-plants is Oscillatoria
tenuis — not because its conduct is of great interest, but on
account of its peculiar manner of swinging to and fro like a
pendulum. This oscillation is most captivating, and the writer
has found it a most difficult matter to leave the microscope,
even at meal times, when Oscillatoria tenuis is under focus.
For this plant sways backwards and forwards untiringly, as if
there was nothing else to do but to swing itself to sleep.

When the feeling prompts it, Oscillatoria tenuis swims very
slowly to a fresh situation, and there, anchoring, continues its
pendulum behaviour. Sometimes two or more of these plants
will remain close together, and then the effect is even more
surprising, for they interfere with each other's free movements,
and seem to push and struggle more like animals than plants.

Perhaps the most popular aquatic plant is Spirogyra, one
of the most beautiful objects to be found abundantly every-
where. Its size makes it particularly easy to study, and the
vividly green spirals, so rich in colour, when properly lighted,
form a picture that once seen is not readily forgotten. At first
sight it is so typically an ordinary plant, that its subsequent
behaviour produces a feeling of great astonishment. One
examines it carefully, and comes to the conclusion that it is
a most beautiful filamentous weed. On placing some in the
live box, and examining it at intervals, the mycologist begins
to doubt his powers of observation, and wonders whether the
heat from the reflector is the cause of what he sees. For lo
and behold ! two pieces of the weed are seen to be approaching
each other, and then each begins to swell at a particular point,
forming lateral protuberances, which increase in size until that

B

18 POND LIFE

from the one and that from the other meet. In the meantime the
contents of the cells have altered, have massed together into
a smaller space. Then the walls of two touching protuberances
break, and the contents of the one cell passes across and joins
that of the other. The " spore " thus formed eventually
elaborates a fresh filament. Spirogyra is visible to the naked
eye ; it will be seen as a fine green thread-like weed often on
the surface of the water.

This book is not intended to deal with plants alone, or else
we might have made further inquiries into the life histories of
many more interesting species. The reader will doubtless
come to the conclusion that plants are greatly misunder-
stood, and that they are not so hopelessly inert as one might
expect.

We are still in a world of Lilliputians: amongst the ex-
traordinary plants, so very different to those we are familiar
with, equally original animals live their lives, uninterrupted
by modern civilisation. The motor, electric tram, and other
complicated machines have made no difference to their lives,
and except for circumstances of pond interest, they have
altered little as time passed on.

The higher animals have been affected by modern con-
ditions : the lion and tiger, the rook, and other wild birds have
learnt what man is, have realised his danger, they have become
accustomed to his manners and habits.

But the microscopic inhabitants of the pond have never seen
man, and they can have no idea of his appearance, for their
world is so vast that one shudders with the idea of what it
must be. For the merest spot of water is a veritable lake to
these minute creatures, which swim to and fro, passing over
each other, and becoming lost in the depth of a " sheet of
water " practically non-existing on a microscopic slide.

And man ignorantly wanders about, all-important in himself,
and only too willing to form the opinion that everything was
made for his particular benefit, and that all animals work by
instinct, and have no hopes, no ideas — in fact nothing but the
power to live.

And the mycologist, as he watches these little specks of life,
vibrating with energetic movement, hurrying and scurrying to
and fro, so busy in their lives, so eager to accomplish some
object of which he has no knowledge, thinks perhaps of many
a man, living a life of nothings — doing nothing, finishing
nothing, never eager, never agile, except when it comes to a
matter of games.

And then the humour of the situation comes to him, for he

MICROSCOPIC WONDERS 19

is looking into a world of such small creatures that they are
invisible except by the aid of the microscope, and these minute
specks are perfectly equipped for their existence, and do not
even know of this all-important semi-artificial product, which
lives in the bliss of " Top of the Tree."

" Oh ! '' I can hear the reader remark. "What ! does this pond-
hunting enthusiast consider a microscopic quantity above man ?''
And the answer is " No." But to the writer's mind man is only
one of the many fine creatures in this world, but he, unfor-
tunately, owing to ignorance of his surroundings, thinks he
is " the only one." And oh, for the pathos of such ignorance,
for even a pond contains countless numbers of perfect
creatures, and the largest pond is only a minute speck
compared with the universe.

And as all the actions of the most intelligent creatures are
labelled with that hopelessly inaccurate and childish title
" Instinct,'' what can the actions of the Lilliputians into
whose lives we are now to inquire be put down to? A
nothingness? For we find that certain minute animalcules
hunt in pairs — single-celled creatures for all that. Why
should we think that the Deity has only given man the power
to make the best of his surroundings (which he so seldom does),
whilst all other things should exist, and no more ?

As time goes on, and we become more enlightened, such
ideas will be ridiculed by everyone, and we will learn that it is
part of our duty to try and understand things, and not
to imagine that all the wonders of this world were made for
the particular purpose of being destroyed in the most ex-
peditious manner.

So, returning to our pond life, we will study a few of the
wonderfully adapted creatures known as Infusoria.

If we place a small quantity of hay in a jar of water certain
small animals make their appearance after a very few days.

One of the first to appear is the amoeba. Amoeba Proteus
is ^th to ^&(jth of an inch in diameter.

Under the microscope this minute lump of jelly-like sub-
stance will be seen to wander aimlessly this way and that by
producing temporary projections. Should, however, a current
be produced the amoeba will be seen to work its way against
it, and show every sign of unwillingness to float with the
stream.

Although mouthless, and free from a digestive system, yet
the amoeba feeds like every other living thing. It is inter-
esting to see one obtaining a meal. The weird little cell, by
altering its shape, wanders about until it touches a Desmid or

20 POND LIFE

other speck of organic matter. Gradually the sides of the
amoeba elongate until the prey is literally engulfed, the Desmid
being deposited in the centre of a lump of protoplasm. When
the victim has been digested, the amoeba opens and wanders
away, leaving the remains of its meal behind it.

A time comes when the amoeba, having lived a happy life,
becomes fat, and then the single-celled creature forms a waist,
which becomes more fashionable until, having reached a mini-
mum, it breaks, and two amoebas crawl in different directions.

The amoeba reacts to certain stimuli ; electric currents, &c.,
show various effects.

It is most active in temperatures of about 100° F., and may be
killed by poisons or excessive heating.

The famous Leucocyte or Phagocyte (white blood corpuscle),
which inhabits the veins and arteries of the higher animals, is
similar to the amoeba, wandering along when emergency calls,
by means of " temporary feet." The amoeba may be found
inhabiting the mud at the bottom of the pond, and can usually
be easily discovered under a fairly low-power lens.

Under adverse conditions, such as when the pond dries up
during a drought, the amoeba forms a case or cyst, and thus
encysted remains dormant until conditions are again favour-
able. It may happen that the encysted amoeba is carried by
the wind to another pond. Thus micro-life appears in fresh
situations.

Certain of the Infusoria have cilia, and are known as Ciliata.

Stylonychia mytilus is a comparatively large protozoon, and
will be seen swimming about in a most characteristic manner.
It is a broadly oval organism with cilia along its sides. The
mouth is very large, and the cilia with which it is furnished
are most energetically waved, proving that at all events
Stylonychia has an appreciable appetite.

This little creature, like many others, deserves that its name
should be inscribed upon marble, as an example of energy, for
the animalcule seems to be well stored with this quality, and
free from any signs of fatigue. It is continually darting to
and fro, as if the forward or backward movement resulted in
the stretching of an elastic band, which suddenly becoming taut
drew the creature back, whether it wished to come or not.
Sometimes it crawls, at other times it travels by leaps and
bounds, but usually the dart-like movement is its mode of
progression.

It is most interesting to study Stylonychia, although it needs
much patience, as it continually leaves the field of focus at the
critical moment.

MICROSCOPIC WONDERS 21

One of the largest of the Ciliata is Paramecium. It is just
visible to the naked eye, as a minute white speck.

Like many others of the Protozoa, it is able to change its
shape when occasion needs, but it does so only temporarily,
for it very soon regains its usual form when it has passed the
obstacle. Its body is covered with short, hair-like cilia, which
it uses in swimming. Its mouth, known as the vestibule, is
a cone-shaped depression, furnished with long cilia, by means
of which very minute particles of organic matter are washed
in. When Paramecium is interfered with or wishes to obtain
living food, it shoots out long threads, from certain special
organs known as " trichocysts." These threads, in some way
or other, have a paralysing effect upon the victim.

Multiplication occurs by conjugation. Two individuals
fasten together, and their protoplasm becomes continuous
through their mouths. The nuclei then undergo changes,
after which the creatures separate. And curiously enough, no
sooner has this occurred than both Paramecium divide into
two, thereby forming four young ones of the same kind.

Paramecium is popularly known as the Slipper Animalcule,
because it to some extent resembles such an article. A bed-
room slipper, that has seen much wear, and is thereby out of
shape, is perhaps rather like the creature.

Trachclocerca Olor, or the Swan Animalcule, is one of the
most charming of all the Protozoa to be found in a pond.

Its title it certainly well deserves, for it has the extra-
ordinary power of forming a swan-like neck of surprising
flexity when required, or I might better say of reducing its
neck to a short, stumpy growth when occasion needs.

At times it will rest in one spot, its neck writhing so grace-
fully that it reminds one of the artistic arm play of the well-
known Maud Allan style of dancing, except that the minute
creature is the essence of gracefulness, each movement rounded
off with a perfectness that the dancer can never attain.

And if we have the opportunity of watching this minute
animal at play, gracefully twisting its neck into all sorts of
inconceivable evolutions, we begin to wonder if there is any-
thing new in this world of ours.

It is hard to describe the movement of that neck, so supple,
and so lithe, that one expects any moment that it will break
with the effort to form the necessary curve, and when Trach-
clocerca Olor becomes active in search of food one realises the
value of the play. We are all aware that unless in practice
we soon become unfit, and to be an expert at rapid and yet
comfortable movement every muscle must be exercised. And

22

POND LIFE

the minute animal, although "a single cell, seems to understand
that this rule also applies to it. When searching for food its
neck moves with wonderful rapidity, darting in and out, twist-
ing here and there, shortening, lengthening, just like the

INFUSORIA

1. Swan-necked Animalcule. 2. Coleps hirtua, or Barrel Animalcule
3. Paramecium. 4. Choetonotus larus. 5. Stylonychia mytilus.

imaginary snake should do, and then suddenly its body becomes
lengthened, and it swims rapidly to another spot.

Strangely enough, we find that Trachclocerca Olor believes in
co-operation, and so usually has a companion. But whether
this is really a matter of agreement, or whether it is the result
of mere chance, it is difficult to say.

From personal experience I have never seen two of these

MICROSCOPIC WONDERS 23

strange little creatures in any way assisting one another,
although usually if the mycologist has the good fortune to find
one, a second soon makes its appearance.

It is interesting to know that Trachclocerca Olor was one of
the first Protozoa to be discovered.

Coleps hirtus — known as the Barrel Animalcule — is not only
interesting but highly useful. For it is one of the micro-
scavengers, and spends most of its life clearing away the dead
and decomposing remains of the unfortunate inhabitants of
ponds and streams.

Coleps hirtus sometimes rolls along in a characteristically
barrel-like fashion, but usually it swims to and fro, resting for
a considerable time between each movement. •

It multiplies by producing a waist until it resembles a
diabolo. Fission takes place, and two Coleps hirtus are
produced.

Choetonotus larus is always in a hurry, and characteristically
minds its own business. This is the impression it leaves on
one's mind, as it bustles along, stops for nothing, and seems to
have every intention of reaching its destination wherever it
may be. Should it meet an obstacle, and find its effort to
push through unsuccessful, it turns and hurries off again,
possibly in exactly the opposite direction, but seemingly with
the same determination of eventually getting " there."

It is a queer-looking little creature, partly on account of the
cilia just behind the head, that resemble to some extent side
whiskers.

Choetonotus larus is a member of a family known as
Gastroricha, of which there are very many species. Some have
eyes, others as far as can be seen are eyeless. Their food
usually consists of decaying organic matter, but occasionally
they attack creatures larger than themselves, and once having
made a wound savagely feast on the escaping cell contents
(protoplasm).

Choetonotus larus is probably a hermaphrodite (male and
female in one), but so far only one sex has been determined.
Females carrying eggs have been seen to lay them amongst
aquatic weeds, where they remain, prevented from slipping
off by the roughness of their deeply engraved shells.

The Gastroricha, although to some extent resembling
Infusoria, are classified with the rotifers amongst the worms.

24 POND LIFE

THE BELL ANIMALCULES

Some of the queerest little animals are members of this
family. The best known is the " Vorticella." Each little
creature consists of a cup, or bell, and a stalk, the latter able
to contract and expand in the manner of a coiled spring.

The movement is aided by a muscle fibre, which passes
down the stalk. The mouth of the bell is surrounded by
cilia, and these producing aquatic currents, all sorts and
conditions of things are washed into the cavity.

Similarly to most of the microscopic pond inhabitants,
vorticella are always busy. They uncoil, rising slowly until
their stalks are fully stretched ; for some few seconds the
cilia wave lustily, and then with a suddenness and surprising
rapidity they recoil.

It would seem that the vorticella practically immediately
regret their action, for the very next moment they very
gradually unwind, the bell opens, and the cilia are very soon
most actively engaged. When they recoil the cilia are with-
drawn, and the bell takes the form of a ball.

Vorticella multiplies by dividing longitudinally, and on
examining a colony several individuals are certain to be in
different stages of this function. When fission is complete
one of the individuals remains in the stalk, whilst the other
swims away and starts life " on its own."

Vorticella also multiplies by conjugation. When this is
about to occur, one or more of the individual bells divides
rapidly into many small vorticella, and these, breaking away
from the stalk, swim to a mature individual.

The smaller vorticella is absorbed by the larger. It is
interesting to know that if different parentage is prevented
(that is to say, the vorticella is forced to multiply with
relations), after a short while they become degenerated.

It is really most surprising how rapidly colonies of vorticella
appear, become numerous, and disappear.

One may find that the aquarium is well stocked with these
creatures — in fact that weeds, broken sticks, and even snails
are covered with them, and within a very few days one may
search high and low, and not find a single colony.

In the aquarium a colony of vorticella can be seen with the
naked eye, as white fur, on stems of weeds, &c.

There are many kinds of bell animalcules — some grow as
bunches on one stalk, others are in a tree-like colony with

MICROSCOPIC WONDERS 25

many branches, each ending in a single bell; and their
behaviour is characteristic of their kind.

In some cases the whole colony is fastened on one single
stalk, and contracts in sections when occasion needs, for
each part of the colony acts in conjunction with any single
member of that particular group. In others the main stalk
contracts, so that all the branches are drawn down together,

BELL ANIMALCULES

1. Stentor polymorphus. 1 (6 ) and (c). Free swimming and multiplying.

2. Ophrydium versatile. 3. Cortnurnia imberis. 4. Vagincola. 5. Vorticella.

SUCTORIA
6. Acineta.

whilst in the case of Epistylis the main stalk does not alter,
but each individual contracts singly.

Sometimes a blundering free swimming rot?fer, or the most
exasperating nematode worm, is the cause of the sudden
retirement of a single member, a part or the entire colony
depending on the kind, but it often happens that these bell
animalcules seem totally indifferent to interruption, for the
writer has frequently seen a colony of vorticella pushed into
a different position by some unscrupulous interloper, and

26 POND LIFE

yet continuing to feed, seemingly totally indifferent to their
visitor.

But usually, they are most sensitive to touch, and will
remain in retirement some little time, if very violently inter-
fered with.

Whilst some bell animalcules live more or less inde-
pendently, others again are surrounded by a jelly-like
substance.

Ophrydium is often found as a lump of jelly Jth of an inch
in diameter. Under the microscope it will be seen to be the
home of many hundreds of vorticella-like creatures. Each
minute animal is able to withdraw or extend in search of
food, whenever it may wish to, perfectly independent of the
remaining colonists.

Although most of the bell animalcules seem to prefer a
social life to a solitary one, a few species are the exceptions,
and live quite independently, the most beautiful of these
being Cothurnia, Umbellula, Vaginicola, and others.

Two very interesting experiments may be performed with
these little creatures. If a solution of iodine be added to the
slide of living vorticella, the nuclei of the cells will im-
mediately take the stain.

Vorticella feeding may be watched, and the course of the
food followed, by allowing a very small quantity of Indian ink
to run under the cover glass.

The little specks of black will be caught in the vortex, and
taken in by the animalcule, but after some attempt to digest
them, the Indian ink particles are returned to the water.

SUCTORIA

The Suctoria contain some most curious little animals — a
good example being the Acineta, Each little creature, less than
Y^th of an inch in length, stands on a hardened stalk, which
terminates in a triangular cup -like structure. Out of the
corner of the cup, arms are thrust, each arm ending in a little
knob. In some species the arms are able to open into tubes,
through which the food is drawn.

Should an unfortunate creature, such as a small rotifer,
come into contact with one of these tentacles, its doom is
sealed, for the other suckers bend over towards the victim.
Gradually the fluid portions of the rotifer are sucked out,
until nothing but the solid portions remain.

By what power the Acineta is able to hold its prey, is

MICROSCOPIC WONDERS 27

difficult to say. The life history is of interest on account
of the fact that the members of the Suctoria start life as
free swimmers, resembling the Ciliata.

Gradually the young mature, until eventually they become
similar fixed objects to their parents. Hence we may say
the Acinetaria were probably evolved from the Ciliata some
far bygone day.

A little animal, fastened to a stem or leaf, resembling a
model post-horn, swinging gently from side to side, will
often be found, when searching for microscopic pond creatures.
Or a green, pear-shaped animal may swim with a peculiar roll
across the slide, turning over and over until it passes out of
the field of view. Perchance two such creatures, fastened one
above the other, may make an appearance.

Stentors, like most other micro-pond animals, multiply, and
so should one be found it is more than likely that others will
shortly be discovered.

Stentor Polymorphus is a green little creature, and although
able to swim often settles on a favourable spot and produces a
temporary foot.

Thus a colony is founded, which increases until a large
number of individuals are closely packed on the same weed.
Occasionally a member of the colony will liberate itself and
swim by means of the cilia with which its body is covered to
a fresh spot, and there start a new colony. From the writer's
personal experience it would seem that Stentor Polymorphus
is free swimming during certain seasons, and usually sedentary
during others.

The animal itself will be easily recognised by the illus-
trations. Illustration No. 1(6) shows Stentor Polymorphus
multiplying by division, but it is interesting to know that
sexual reproduction also takes place, in which case two stentors
join together. Strangely enough, whilst in the act of dividing,
the stentor swims actively, changing its shape, contracting and
expanding, as if perfecting normal.

The trumpet shape of the individual, the peculiar twist of
the opening of the funnel, and the size of the creature does
not allow any confusion in its identity ; for it in no way
resembles vorticella, nor can it be mistaken for a rotifer.

Free-swimming stentors, especially whilst engaged in division,
are most interesting to watch, whilst a group of settled
stentors, viewed with a dark background, is certainly a beauti-
ful picture.

Stentor Niger or the Black Stentor is a free swimmer. It
is a smaller creature than Polymorphus, and not so well dis-

28 POND LIFE

tributed as the latter. Stentor Niger does not surround itself
with a case. Stentor Coeruleus is scarlet in colour, Stentor
Igneus blue.

The stentors are the largest of the Ciliata. The colouring
pigment in the Blue Stentor has been named by Lancaster
blue stentorin.

CHAPTER II

AQUATIC CRUSTACEANS

" GIVE a dog a bad name and hang him '' is very true in the
world in which we live, and the reader, particularly if a
member of the gentler sex, will probably leave this chapter
unread. For the flea is an animal barred from conversation.

Its existence is ignored by those free from its presence,
whilst he or she chosen by the interesting little animal as a
food supply is belabelled as uncleanly.

But the water-flea is no relation to " the flea we don't know."
It is a harmless, interesting little creature, far too busy in
its own sphere of life to interfere indirectly or directly with
the all- important man and his subordinates.

One may notice occasionally, particularly on a warm summer
day, that certain parts of the pond are reddish or whitish
colour. This colour on closer examination will be found to
be the result of large numbers of water-fleas congregated in
that particular district. These creatures are members of
Cladocera, a sub-order of the Branchiopoda, a division of the
crustaceans, and are characterised in that their breathing organs
are attached to their limbs (Branchius poda = leaf-footed).
There are several species of water-fleas, some small, others
comparatively large. Some live in running water, others prefer
the most stagnant pool, whilst yet another species inhabits
water so saturated with salt that no other creature could
possibly live there. A few that live at a great depth or in
underground water are eyeless.

The British Cladocera are divided into eight families, all
more or less resembling the Daphnia.

Each little creature is surrounded by a case, known as the
carapace, which varies both in size and in shape in different
families. In some the carapace is large and entirely encloses
the creature ; in others it is small, and in the case of Gym-
nomora it is large when the creature is carrying its eggs, but

AQUATIC CRUSTACEANS 29

shrinks when not required for this purpose. The headpiece
of the carapace often forms a prominent curved beak, giving
the animal a most curious appearance.

The food of these little crustaceans is various; usually it
consists of decomposing organic matter. Apus, a species of
Phyllopoda now thought to be extinct, has been seen to
attack tadpoles, whilst Daphnia, being less of a gourmand, is
satisfied with a diet of mud.

The limbs, of which there are never more than four pairs in
the Cladocera, are in certain species most beautiful objects,
those of the female Simocephalus being adorned with hairs,
resembling the most perfect feathers, of microscopic size. When
the creature is swimming the carapace is usually open, but
should the water-flea wish to rest the " shell " acts as an
anchor by gripping the weed.

Leptodora hyalina and Daphina Pulex are two of the largest
British species, and are therefore of particular interest as they
afford examples for study.

Daphnia Pulex can be readily recognised by its size and pro-
minent beak. Owing to the transparency of both carapace and
body, one is able to watch natural functions with perfect ease.
The heart, a peculiar cleft organ, will be seen to be actively
"beating." The digestive tract can be examined from end to
end (not a very great distance) and in certain species the young,
which remain inside the maternal carapace until mature, can be
seen to have inside their little carapaces a yet younger gene-
ration.

Fortunately for the water-flea and its admirers, asexual
reproduction is constant. The male is a very rare creature,
and only appears in meagre numbers at particular times. In
fact hejmay be labelled as a rarity. He resembles the female,
but is much smaller. Water-fleas produce two kinds of eggs,
winter and summer eggs. The former, which are fertilised
eggs, are produced on the approach of cold weather or other
critical periods.

The carapace of the female becomes thickened, and the eggs,
either one or two, are enclosed therein. The creature then
moults, and the discarded carapace containing the eggs rests
on the mud until conditions are more favourable. These winter
eggs are most hardy in structure, and can resist freezing and
drying with impunity.

The carapace and eggs, which are very light, may be blown
by the wind from a dried-up pond, or carried by birds or other
animals to fresh water. Hence water-fleas often make a sudden
appearance in water where they have not previously been found.

30 POND LIFE

When food is plentiful and other conditions favourable, large
numbers of unfertilised eggs are produced, which hatch shortly
after being laid.

Before we leave the water-fleas mention must be made of
their characteristic single eye. At a very early period in the
babyhood of the creature two eyes were present, but these
before long fused together, and were surrounded by special
tissue. Certain species of the Phyllopoda have two eyes,
whilst in others the eye resembles that of the Cladocera (water-
fleas)

CYCLOPS

Cyclops, the one-eyed giant of Greek mythology, has a worthy
namesake in the personality of Cyclops, the one-eyed crus"-
tacean. In size the latter is far from being a giant, but on the
contrary is a tiny pear-shaped, creature. Its one eye, the result
of two fused together, is the only thing that bears any resem-
blance whatsoever to the mythological character.

There are several species of cyclops, similar in appearance but
differing in size and colour. They are all pear-shaped with long
antennae, and a single medial eye. They have four pairs of
legs, each pair being fastened together by a transverse muscle, so
that the leg on one side and its fellow on the other move to-
gether. Hence the creature is driven through the water in a
peculiar dart-like manner.

The male, which is rarer and smaller than the female, is easily
differentiated frem the gentler sex by the absence of encum-
brances. The female cyclops carries one or two egg-bags,
fastened to her abdomen ; each bag contains fifty or sixty eggs.
The young ,when hatched, in no way resembles its parents. It
is a peculiar little creature, typically a larva of the crustacean.
As soon as it enters the world it leads an independent life,
driving itself through the water by an occasional powerful
stroke. It is so minute that it is practically invisible, and
could be mistaken for a tiny speck of dust.

The larva undergoes a series of changes, and eventually takes
the form of the adult cyclops. On one occasion I found a black
cyclops carrying her egg-bags. In two days her colour bad
noticeably changed — was in fact lees dark — and on the seventh
day the eggs hatched.

The female's colour, which at the beginning of the week had
been black, was now of lightest brown. She was swimming to
and fro in a most weird manner, head downwards, antennae
spread out as if intently searching the neighbourhood for her

AQUATIC CRUSTACEANS 31

youngsters. After much trouble, several members of the
family and the mother were placed in the live box. But un-
fortunately before the writer had the opportunity of witnessing
a meeting, an accident occurred, and her ladyship had dis-
appeared.

How the change of colour had occured was easily explained
when the water in which the cyclops had been living was exam-
ined. Two skins, one dark coloured, and the other lighter,
were found ; on the former were the remains of the egg-bags.

The life of the cyclops is not all pleasure. Many inhabitants

CRUSTACEANS

1. Cyclops, the one-eyed crustacean. 1 (a). Young cyclops. 2. Water flea.
2 (a). Egg-bag of water-flea. 3. Cypris. 4. Asellus aquaticus.

of the pond, especially the larva of dragon-flies, are partial to
a diet of "shell-fish." The cyclops are also infested with
colonies of bell animalcules — sometimes completely covered with
numbers of these creatures — while certain rotifers, knowing
cyclops to be a capable carrier, may nearly always be found

32 POND LIFE

busily at work perched on various parts of the crustacean's
body.

The eggs of cyclops are not dependent on the body heat of
the mother in order to hatch, for eggs separated from the
parent hatch in due course.

Another crustacean that frequently falls victim to the pond-
hunter is Cypris. It resembles a minute brown mussel about
the size of a clover seed. On a close examination the likeness
to the mollusc increases. For Cypris lives in a bivalve shell —
a shell that opens on one side only in the prescribed manner.
And when the little brown shell opens two long antennae
adorned with hairs are projected, and without further ado
away goes the little creature with surprising rapidity.

Strange as it may seem, the male Cypris has never/been found,
and so reproduction must nearly always be parthenogenicaL
Cypris lays her eggs on aquatic plants. Weisman was success-
ful in keeping females of Cypris for eight years, and during
that time they produced eggs continually. An animal similar
to Cypris is Condona reptans, which is characterised by a longer
and more curved shell, lighter in colour, and also by its an-
tennae, which are minus the hair appendages so noticable in
Cypris. A glass jar containing a teeming population of these
little creatures as well as Daphnia and Cyclops is indeed a "thing
worth having."

Every pond-hunter, every eater of watercress, knows Gam-
marus pulex — the fresh-water shrimp. This little animal, a
giant if compared with cyclops, a Lilliputian when placed side
by side with a lobster, is common in every stream. Leaves,
dead and decomposing, decaying animal matter, in fact all
refuse, is its happy hunting-ground, and there Pulex plays to
its heart's content. But hunger, or at least the satisfying of
it, is the reason for its presence amongst the decomposing
matter. For Pulex is a scavenger, and is only too glad to
clear away by the destructive process of eating anything that
is suitable. The water-shrimp is not a fad, and is only too
pleased to eat healthy and fresh weeds when occasion needs.

The males and females at certain seasons will be found
swimming together, the male holding his spouse by the neck,
by an enormous claw. The eggs are carried by the mother in
her front legs, which form a brood-pouch. The young, which
resemble their parents, but are redder in colour, on hatching
remain with the mother until dispersed.

Asellus aquaticus — the water hog or louse — is far less active
than Pulex, in fact it will be found creeping sluggishly on the
mud or weeds, slowly as if fearing danger. Like the latter, it

INSECTS 35

is a good scavenger, and should be useful in a badly-managed
aquarium.

Unfortunately both Gammarus pulex and Asellus aquaticus
find a stagnant-water aquarium unpleasant, and soon die. It
is difficult to understand the cause of death, for the writer kept
a large number of freshwater shrimps in a jam jar with few
casualties, whilst those in the aquarium have died in a very
short time. The depth of water cannot be the cause. Asellus
aquaticus was found to inhabit the abysmal regions of Lake
Geneva at a depth of 130 feet.

CHAPTER III

INSECTS

ALL insects have what is termed a " life cycle," that is, they
usually undergo various transformations ere they become like
their parents. Everyone is familiar with the caterpillar, the
queer and sometimes beautiful creature found enjoying life in
the vegetable kingdom, and most people have seen a chrysalis at
some time or other. Well ! These are two stages in the life
cycle of the butterfly or moth, which consists of :

The egg,

The caterpillar or larva,

The chrysalis or pupa,

And the adult butterfly or moth as the case may be.

These transformations are what all self-respecting insects
ought to go through, but some do not. We find that several
kinds hatch into larva (caterpillar) and subsequently change
into the adults without becoming a pupa (chrysalis); whilst
again the young springtail is similar on hatching to the parent
practically in all respects, except size, thus missing the larva
and pupa stages. The above points are of importance, or else
the reader will be less able to understand what follows. In
short, if the life history is " complete," an insect egg hatches
into a larva. The larva feeds and eventually changes into a
pupa ; in the meanwhile it eats and sleeps, but gradually altera-
tions are taking place in its form and structure, and eventually
the pupa case is torn open and the perfectly-formed insect
makes its debut.

Some species of the following families spend their entire lives

34 POND LIFE

or often their younger days in water, and can be recognised by
the points mentioned :

(1) The Neuroptera (dragon-flies, Two pairs of membraneous wings

may-flies, caddis-flies, &c.) (lacelike).

(2) The Lepidoptera (moths) . . Two pairs of wings covered with

scales.

(3) The Diptera (gnats, corethra, One pair of membraneous wings,

&c.) one pair of degenerate wings

(halters, little rods with knob-
bed ends).

<4) The Coieoptera (beetles) . . One pair of membraneous wings,

one pair of hardened wings
known as elytra.

(5) The Hemiptera (bugs) . . . One pair of membraneous wings,

one pair of wings partly hard-
ened.

(6) Aptera (springtails) .... No wings at all.

WATER-BEETLES

Water-beetles are common inhabitants of all ponds and
streams. How contaminated and foul the water, or how large
or small the pond may be, makes little difference to the aquatic
Coieoptera as long as they are able to find the food they require.
The eggs are laid under water., the young larva hatch and live
in the same environment, but the pupa stage is nearly always
passed out of water.

The aquatic beetles belong to three main groups :

Characteristics Habits

Hydradephaga, long antennae . Carnivorous and vegetarian.
Hydrophilidae, shorter antennae. Vegetarian and seldom carnivorous.
Oyrinidae, very short, broad an- Carnivorous and vegetarian,
tennae (live on water surface)

THE HYDRADEPHAGA

The largest of this family is the well-known Dytiscus, the
giant amongst British beetles. Although very savage, Dytiscus
only kills when it actually requires food. It swims slowly,
searching systematically for some unwary creature. A tadpole
may be resting amongst the weeds, and disturbed, blunder into
the beetle's "arms.5' In a moment it is seized; swim how it
may, there is no chance to escape, although the victim, if large
.and strong, may drag its captor some distance. If Dytiscua

INSECTS 35

should be hungry it will hang on, to its victim with a tenacity
worthy of a bulldog. In fact the beetle can be lifted out of
the aquarium and swung round and round without relinquishing
its hold.

The male and female Dytiscus, though of the same size, are
readily distinguished from each other : the former having two
disc-like structures on its front legs, which are absent in the
female. These discs secrete a sticky, gummy material, with
which the male holds the female. This sticky substance is
sometimes the cause of a most unenviable position, as the male
beetle finds itself otuck to stones, and other objects. The un-

Young Corixa (one hour old). Larva of Ascilius sulcatus.

fortunate creature takes some time to get free, and no sooner
is this done than it resettles, and the trouble starts again.
Thus a beetle may be continually sticking to various objects,
much against its wish. The wing-cases — elytra — which are the
first pair of wings hardened, not only protect the membraneous
wings, but also act as an air reservoir. For the water-beetle is
unable to live on aerated water, and depends entirely on the
atmosphere for its supply, and so we will notice that the insect
comes to the surface at frequent intervals, and extrudes the end
of its abdomen, drawing back the elytra, so as to facilitate the
entrance of air, and then, with a supply imprisoned beneath the
wing-cases, it swims slowly away and remains below until the
store is exhausted. Dytiscus lays her eggs in clefts made in

36 POND LIFE

the stems of water-weeds. The eggs hatch into peculiar larvae
very different to the parents. The body is brown and segmented,
and the usual three pairs of legs are present : the head, joined
to the body by a narrow neck, is broad and flat with cruel curved
fangs (mandibles), and on the last segment of the creature's
body two fringed tubes are borne, which contain the spiracles
and supply the larva with air.

Similarly to the adult, it must rise to the surface to extrude
the end of its abdomen. The creature is well adapted to the
life it leads, for its colour makes it difficult to notice, especially
when resting on the mud. It obtains food not by chase but
by stealth, and concealed by its colour waits until a tadpole or
other creature touches it. Then its prey is savagely seized
and held in the sickle jaws, through the fine canals of which
the liquid portions are drawn up, for the larva, although pos-
sessing a mouth, is unable to use it. The young Dytiscus
has an insatiable appetite, and so has no sooner dispensed with
one victim than it is ready and eager for another. Worms,
tadpoles, fishes, newts, larva of its own kind, large or small,
full-grown water-beetles, all are slaughtered. For some time
the youngster kills and grows, having frequently to change
its skin as its size increases, until it reaches the maximum
of 1^ inches.

Although no longer so agile, its savagery has by no means
diminished. The hand of the owner, so bravely lowered into
the aquarium, if it should be placed within seeing distance of
the larva, is not there on a future occasion. For the Dytiscus
is a mass of ferocity, eager for the blood of anything that
comes its way : nor is it afraid to protect itself by any means.
Eventually it becomes less active, and slowly swims to the side
of the pond, in order to leave the water for pupating. It
buries itself in the mud, and here, in a sanctuary safe from its
enemies, rests whilst the wonderful changes that are to make
it into the beetle are undergone.

And one fine day the pupa case is ruptured, and the perfect
insect brushes the earth aside, and finds its way back into the
pond where its larvahood was spent. The adult, although a
carnivorous beast, dearly loving a tadpole or worm, can if neces-
sary live happily on vegetable matter, and being by no means
a faddist, enjoys freshly dead or living creatures, or even de-
composing organic matter. In habits it is much altered. As
larva it waited ready to pounce on some unfortunate visitor —
but when adult it swims sedately until it finds what it re-
quires.

Ascilius sulcatus is a beetle very similar to Dytiscus. Its

INSECTS 37

larva might also be mistaken for that of the latter, except for
its long, tapering neck. It has the habit of slowly approaching
its victim until near enough to make an attack. Then with
indomitable spirit the larva clings on to its capture, large
though it may be, hard though it may struggle, and shakes it
in a similar manner as a terrier does a rat. Very soon the
victim becomes less active, and death approaches. During the
struggle the blood of the unfortunate has been gradually, but
continually, passing up the sickle-shaped mandibles into the
ever-ready stomach.

Whilst the members of the Hydradephaga lay their eggs in
the stems and on the leaves of water- weeds, the Hydrophilides
nearly always make an egg cocoon, in which the precious eggs
are safely deposited. Hydrophilus Piceus is the largest of
this family. The female forms a ball-shaped cocoon of closely
woven silk, anchors it to some well-submerged object by a
tiny silken rope, and eventually the eggs, which number about
fifty or so, hatch into minute larvae. Although, as previously
mentioned, the adult is practicallya vegetarian, yet her larvae are
as voracious as the young of Dytiscus, and savagely slaughter
the unfortunate inhabitants of the pond irrespective of size
and kind. When so engaged they have the peculiarity of
bending over in order to use their own backs as a table on
which to demolish their victim.

Their life history is similar to that of the Dytiscus, the
larva eventually pupating into the adult, a beautiful large
bronze-coloured beetle of a harmless disposition. Helochares,
another member of the Hydrophilidae, although forming a
cocoon, does not leave the eggs to hatch as H. Piceus, but
fastens the egg-bag to her abdomen, and carries it about until
the eggs hatch. Each little egg is white, and the eyes of the
future larva can be clearly seen within. The mother uses her
hind legs to hold the bag, taking all care to prevent injuring
it, or losing her family. The eggs hatch into very minute
larvae of exceedingly savage dispositions, that bite and snap
from the very moment of hatching.

As in the case of all other young water-beetles, cannibalism
is not only thought of but runs rampant, and the minute
beetles slaughter one another with perfect indifference. The
contrast between the parents and the offspring is extraordinary,
particularly in this case, for the adult Helochares is of a
gentle and quiet disposition, wandering over the leaves of
water-plants, partially surrounded by an air-bubble that
gives it a silver-like appearance, whilst her children are as
savage as the parents are docile — in fact, so much so that

38 POND LIFE

they open and close their mandibles from the very moment of
birth.

The " whirligigs " are members of the Gyrinidae. They are
metallic-like little beetles of shiny appearance and oval in
shape. Their name implies their habits, for they are always
whirling about on the surface of the water — rushing round and
round at a great pace, often as if engaged in a game of catch
with others of their kind : should danger threaten, the Gyri-
nidae dart beneath the water and hide in the mud until
satisfied that all is safe, and then reappearing continue their
interrupted pastime.

Nature has treated few creatures more kindly than the
Gyrinidae : their shape, the well,-rounded elytra, the peculiar
arrangement of their eyes, that allows perfect vision of the
air above and the water below, give them a superiority over
most other creatures. When the sun is shining these fine
little beetles skimming to and fro on the water-film resemble
highly-polished steel bullets.

In the spring the females lay their eggs on water-plants.
After a few days the eggs hatch into very curious little
creatures of charming appearance. Although so fragile they,
like the larva of Dytiscus and Hydrophilus, are carnivorous,
and spend their youth destroying and feeding upon all that
comes their way. Eventually they climb out of the water
and wrap themselves in a cocoon to pupate. After three or
four weeks the little metallic beetles make their appearance
and re-enter the water. Needless to mention, the Gyrinidae
are good fliers, and during the summer, attracted by the light,
often enter open windows, and mistaking the tablecloth with
its cups and plates for a pond, fly down, landing in all sorts of
unconventional positions, often on their backs, on which they
rapidly spin round and round in a most astonishing manner.

In its natural element, either on the surface of or in the
water below, Gyrinus has few if any equals : but on land its
powers of progression are sadly at fault. During our child-
hood two short words were constantly used — " Don't touch " ;
and the gentle reader will, I am sure, forgive me for repeating
the old adage, for water-beetles when frightened are able to
produce a foetid-smelling liquid so nauseating that one more
than regrets having fingered the creatures.

Although water-bugs are not the obnoxious animals their
name would imply, yet we cannot be surprised that bugs are
universally disliked, for no other family of insects has played
or will play such havoc to man's crops as the bugs. The water-
Hemiptera (Hydrocorisa) are, however, perfectly harmless,

INSECTS 39

except to the other pond inhabitants, but to these unfortunates
they are a cause of continual anxiety.

Firstly, the scorpions lie concealed in the mud or amongst
the vegetation, and make sudden unexpected snatches — then
Corixa, and Notonecta, the water-boatman, spend their time
hunting all that comes their way.

Nepa Cinerea, the water-scorpion, is the largest aquatic bug
found in our country. The creature, if judged by its appear-
ance, would be considered decidedly uninteresting. In colour
and shape it resembles a small brown leaf, and to make this
similarity yet more complete, its thinness is such that, until it
strolls majestically from amongst the weeds, it is difficult to
believe that it is really an animal. Its flattened body is ter-
minated by a thin tube which divides readily into two parts
longitudinally. When air is required the insect pushes it
through the water-film, but sometimes Nepa will save itself
a journey by utilising the bubbles of oxygen produced by
plants beneath the surface.

Nepa, like all other insects, has three pairs of legs : the front
pair are not used for walking as one might suppose, and except
for brushing aside the weeds through which the insect is pro-
gressing, they are only used for capturing its prey. We might
roughly say that the front pair of legs serve as hands, and
good ones too. The unfortunate tadpole that incautiously
approaches is seized, and without more ado is drawn towards
the ever-ready beak, however violently it may struggle.

Even the caddis-worm, so well protected from enemies, falls
a prey to Nepa. The latter seizes the caddis case and holds it
in the most affectionate manner, and then by carefully moving
it along until the small end is in a convenient position, forces
one of those most useful front legs into the case, similarly as
the fisherman uses a blunt pin. Then gradually the unfor-
tunate caddis-worm nears the entrance of its case, but the
scorpion knows its work too well, and cautiously shifting the
case the leg is pushed in and the larva driven from its shelter.
No sooner has its head appeared, than Nepa slowly but care-
fully drives its sharp beak into the soft portion of its victim,
just behind the head. The case falls on to the mud below, and
Nepa holds the owner in its embrace, and gradually sucks out
the juices. The coal-black eyes of the murderer, so prominent
and yet so small, are typically cruel.

The female Nepa lays her eggs on water-plants : each egg is
adorned with seven filaments, which are thought to collect air
for the embryo inside. The larvae are similar to the adult in
appearance, but have neither the long breathing-tube nor

40 POND LIFE

wings. The latter gradually make an appearance as the age
of the larva increases, whilst the small stumpy tail is replaced
by the tube as in the adult.

When Nepa's " elytra " are expanded, and the membraneous
wings beneath exposed, it seems no longer so repulsive a
creature : the sides of its abdomen are brightly coloured.

Water-scorpions seldom remain long in the aquarium unless
it be covered : on the approach of winter they hibernate, and
only return to " active " life the following spring.

Although Ranatra Linearis lives a life very similar to Nepa,
yet its appearance is vastly different : its body is long and
very slender. The head, similarly to Nepa, has a prominent
sharp beak, and the bead-like eyes are conspicuously placed on
the sides of its head. If these two water-scorpions were com-

Eared K Linearis would receive premier honours for agility,
ragility, and savage disposition, but all the same it is practi-
cally as sluggish as sluggish can be.

When walking B. Linearis lifts itself up on its long legs,
thus giving the appearance of walking on stilts. Should it
leave the water it experiences a great deal of difficulty in
breaking the water-film. Its efforts are most amusing to the
biped onlooker, for the water-film is no easy thing to crack,
and the insect is so light and fragile, that everything seems to
be against the success of the undertaking.

But water-bugs are not all of so sluggish a disposition as
Nepa and Ranatra. Notonecta or the water-boatman is very
common in certain districts and equally rare in others. Its
size depends on its age, but its appearance is similar whether
old or young, and as one might expect from its astonishing
name it resembles a boat, for its back is deeply keeled whilst
the underside of its body is flat. Thus Notonecta adds to the
similarity by swimming continually on its back. Its front legs,
which are never used for swimming, are held beneath its head,
ready to seize any little or large creature that it may meet
with; for size has no dimming effect on Notonecta's courage
should it be hungry. The front pair are also useful to hold on
to the weeds on which Notonecta is settled. The third pair
are used for swimming only, and are very long and fringed
with hairs.

By means of well-timed, powerful strokes the little miniature
vivant boat is driven through the water. The second or
middle pair seem to be useful either to aid Notonecta whilst
swimming or to assist in holding on to the weeds when rest-
ing. But Notonecta, although settled, is far from asleep. In
fact the oars, held well out, are gently paddling, and its sharp,

INSECTS 41

prominent eyes keep careful watch. The water-boatman has
a very low specific gravity, and therefore must cling on to
weeds or sticks in order to remain below. Sometimes the little
creature will be seen to dart down into the mud, and often
seizing a quantity rise through the water for a moment, and
then after dropping the mud dart down again. This behaviour
may be repeated for some time. Notonecta is not feeding, nor
is it attempting to alter the bed of the pond, but the fact is
that it wished to remain below, and seizing some loose or light
matter of low specific gravity rises with it. For a moment the
water-boatman does not realise that it is rising, but on doing
so wastes little time in throwing away the encumbrance.

At intervals, when its air supply is exhausted, Notonecta rises
to the surface, and extrudes its abdomen. Sometimes on
reaching the water-film the little creature will actually walk
on the underside without breaking it in a most curious manner.
On fine days it will rest just beneath the water-film, as if en-
joying the warmth of the sun.

The boatman seizes its prey with its front legs, and holding
it thus above it sucks out its juices by means of its sharp beak
until nothing but the skin and solid parts remain.

This sharp beak the creature is an adept master of, as the
following incident will show.

An ardent pond-hunter on one memorable occasion placed a
matchbox containing a large water-boatman in his pocket.
Later, having to resort to his handkerchief, he placed his hand
in his pocket. But Notonecta, which had escaped from the
matchbox, probably mistaking the action, " pinched " him. The
sudden pain was too much for the pond-hunter's feelings or
language. In a moment off came his coat and out came Mr.
Notonecta.

The Corixidae are often mistaken by the novice for Noton-
ecta, but it can easily be seen that they only bear a very casual
likeness to each other. The adults are brown or green marked
with yellow spots. The back is flat, not keeled as in Noton-
ecta, and Corixa swims back uppermost. The female lays her
eggs singly on water-plants. The young hatch into queer little
creatures very similar in appearance to their parents, except
that the wings are only rudimentary.

Like Notonecta, Corixa is exceedingly savage. The female,
some eight days after conjugation, lays her eggs, which are
brown cased structures in shape resembling turnips, and each
one is fastened separately by a minute stalk to the stem of a
weed : gradually these eggs become more swollen, until four
weeks later the top of the case cleaves open, and the young

42 POND LIFE

Corixa makes its escape. At first they are practically trans-
parent, except for their yolk-bag and their eyes.

Gradually the little creatures become more and more opaque,
and darker in colour : their wings appear, and they mature.

CHAPTER IV

INSECTS (continued)

THE may-fly has many admirers. To the fisherman it is the
only Diptera worth thinking about, to the naturalist it stands
pre-eminently as one of the most beautiful if not the finest
fly of our country. But probably it is best known to the
majority of people, neither fisherman nor naturalists, as a
pathetic example of the seemingly unfairness of nature to
some of her children.

Swammerdam tells that one species, "Palingenia longicauda,"
lives only for five hours, and that " the flies may be seen in
the air for three days together. Those which appear on the
first day die the same evening, and the same thing happens
on the second and third days." Also that "the eggs are
passed into the water, and are there fertilised by the male " (a
mildly incorrect statement). He continues "that the eggs
hatch into a crowd of minute worms, each with six legs."
Certainly, to say the least, very queer creatures. Reaumur is
more accurate ; he gives us a vivid picture of a rise of flies in
1738.

Be Geer's observations are more reliable. Taking the
trouble to watch may-fly under natural conditions, he saw
what everyone may see, if patience allows, the fertilisation of
the female, thus totally upsetting the " fishy " theory advanced
by Swammerdam.

The Ephemera are partly pitied without cause, as they are
not shorter-lived than the average insect. Let us rather be
sorry that so beautiful a creation is seen for so short a time
and by so few.

The adult may-flies, especially those termed by fishermen
"drakes" (E. danica and E. vulgata), are some of the most
fairy-like little objects to be imagined.

May-flies have usually two pairs of wings, one pair large,
the second pair verylsmall indeed, or totally absent, depending
on the species. Like the other members of their family, the
venation of the lace wings is most delicate and graceful. The

INSECTS 43

slender body of the insect is terminated by two or three very
fine tails. The body of the female is usually thicker than that
of the male. The legs are long, the front pair being so carried
as to resemble antennae. In certain species the legs of the
male are more than usually long, and often very original in
shape. In most varieties we find that the female is by far the
stronger (if size means strength), and seems more adapted to
"this work-a-day world" than her mate, who is by far the
more beautiful creature of the two.

The eyes of the male are larger than those of the females,

MAY-FLIES

1. Adult. 2. Nymph.

and in certain species (Cloeon) the compound eyes of the former
are most extraordinary structures, being divided into two
kinds, one pair situated on pillars, the other pair placed on
the side of the head in the normal position. As if not satisfied
with two sets of compound eyes, Cloeon has also three single
eyes, thus making a total of seven. Some naturalists believe
that the compound eyes are especially adapted for observing
movement. If this be so, we can hardly imagine what the
may-fly with two sets of compound eyes must see, especially
during the dance of which further mention will be made.

The male insect differs from the female in having a pair of
claspers at the end of its body.

44, POND LIFE

Although the mature may-flies have a well-developed digestive
tract, yet unfortunately they have no mouth, and are therefore
totally unable to obtain food of any description from the
moment of leaving the water until they die. That an animal
should be so perfect in every detail, and lack so essential a
thing as a mouth, is most surprising.

As the may-fly is more generally known as the adult, and
seldom in the form of the larva, we will study the life cycle of
the insect from maturity. One of the original and most fas-
cinating sights is a swarm of may-flies dancing : rising by
means of their wings to a certain height, soaring downwards
with tails outspread, rising and sinking over and over again.
Occasionally a larger may-fly makes an appearance, but not
stopping to join the dancing males, flies rapidly, as if on
urgent business, through the dancing throng. But she has
not passed unnoticed, for some of the dancers have seen her.
An exciting chase follows, the hunters and hunted dodging
and twisting in the air with surprising agility, until one of the
pursuers manages to seize her by means of his front legs and
the claspers terminating his abdomen, and thus fastened to-
gether the couple fly to a convenient wall, and after some few
minutes separate, the male to return to the dance, the female
to find a suitable spot to lay her eggs. She flies along until
she reaches a stream and settles on the water. There on the
water-film she rests, quivering gently ; and gradually the eggs
sink, some in groups and some singly, until hundreds and
hundreds of eggs are laid. The work is now complete, and
as if aware of this fact, she makes little attempt to rise, but
lies on the water-film until death intervenes. Often the
females fly in a wrong direction, and are forced to lay their
eggs in places totally unsuitable for that purpose. It is said
that some species of may-fly creep down the stems of water-
plants, and lay their eggs on stones and sticks beneath the
surface. The young when first hatched are as larvules, and
are similar to the nymphs or " adult larvae " except in that the
gills are not so fully formed, nor are the rudimentary wings in
existence. Gradually the wings become more and more com-
plete. Sir John Lubbock tells us that the metamorphosis in
the case of Cloeon is one of twenty or more moults, each pro-
ducing a slight difference in the appearances and structures of
the larvule.

The may-fly nymph is certainly a strange little creature, and
although not beautiful is most fascinating, especially when seen
vibrating its leaf-like gills in order to produce changes of
water, and thus assist respiration. Similarly to the adult

INSECTS 45

may-fly the larva has two or three tails known as " caudal
setae." In the adult these seem to be merely ornamental,
but in the larva they assist in breathing, and are important
organs.

Under the microscope the setae will be found to be fringed
with minute hairs, and if the creature is alive the blood circu-
lation will be seen. Strangely enough, the blood is allowed
to escape from the vessel into the setae through small holes
in the former.

The larvae of some species of may-fly live in ponds, others
prefer fast-running streams, and rest tightly pressed against
the stones, thus escaping the full force of the current. Some,
again, dig holes into the banks, and thus obtain shelter.

Beatis fluminum is perhaps one of the commonest of the
may-flies that inhabit the fast-running, clear streams so
typical of hilly districts. It is a strange little creature, so
curiously shaped as to resemble a small but flattened lobster.
The gills are not fastened on to its back as in most other
species, but are attached to its sides. The limbs are broad,
the head large and semicircular. Pressed closely against
the stone, Beatis fluminum vibrates its leaf-like gills and
shows a great unwillingness to move unless forced to do
so. Then, with a suddenness that easily baffles its would-be
captor, the larva rises and runs rapidly, and taking advantage
of the nearest cover disappears. Beatis is carnivorous, and
preys upon smaller aquatic creatures.

Another species very often found in fast-running streams
is Ephemerella. This little animal has the common sense or
common instinct to cover its body with mud, thus deluding
both its enemies and the small creatures on which it feeds.
It will be interesting to followers of Isaac Walton that the
larvae of the " drakes " Ephemera vulgata and E. danica live
in burrows in the banks of rivers and streams. Their food
consists of finely-divided organic debris. They seem to prefer
streams in which clay forms a noticeable part of the banks.
May-fly larvae, as far as it is known, all live a life similar in
general details, although differing to some extent in their
habits.

The day eventually comes when the larvae which have
escaped their numerous enemies — fishes, water-beetles, and
carnivorous members of their own order — leave the water. It
may have been one, two, or perhaps three years since the
larvule first made its appearance, and now the day has come
when hundreds of thousands of larvae rises slowly towards the
surface. Each skin opens along the back, the head gradually

46 POND LIFE

pushes its way through the opening, and then the insect
rapidly draws its body out of the case and flies into the air.
Although the fly seems perfectly mature, yet it has one more
transformation to accomplish, for it is still shrouded in a thin,
transparent skin. But the insect seems to have little
patience for this operation, and often whilst casting this skin
flies into the air, carrying remnants of its garment with it.
It is a time of great excitement ; each little insect is only too
eager to escape into the air above. The warmth of the day,
the sun and blue sky, all add to the pleasure of the moment.
The adventures of their long life in the cool waters below are
forgotten, and now they are soaring in the free air, seemingly
overjoyed at the beauty of their surroundings. One wonders
that the may-flies do not hesitate, or stop to try their
wings before trusting to the element they have no know-
ledge of.

Poor little may-fly ! apart from the shortness of your life
your lot is not a happy one, for everything eats you. To the
fish you are the food of all foods, the meal of the year. Birds,
bats, mice, and even snails are only too willing to digest your
frail body. Seagulls and terns join the swallows and other
insectivorous birds in your downfall. And it is a wonder that
you are not long ago a thing of the past, a thing remembered
but as an emblem of beauty.

Those most responsible for the future of the race have by
far the greater risks to run. They fly to the water to lay their
«ggs: a " phewop " and one is gone: phewop — another vanishes,
and the nsh feed and feed, until they are gorged with fly.
And not far distant the males dance to and fro in the
twilight, soaring and kiting, unaware of the fate overtaking
their mates and of the doom awaiting them. Gradually they
"become weaker and weaker.

A few days later the scene of so much beauty and grace
is horribly blank. The lover of nature stands at the spot
where he has witnessed the may-fly dance, and feels as if he
were in the city of the dead. For they are all gone — not a
single one remains — he may search for miles without success.
Yet only a short while ago the air was full of these beautiful
insects, and all along for miles the males were dancing above
the hedges. No wonder that the story of the may-fly
impressed both Greeks and Romans, and that even to-day in
these highly artificial times the poor little may-fly obtains
sympathy.

Taking into consideration all the facts of the case, the
frailty and short life of the adult, the paucity of the females,

INSECTS 47

the countless enemies that surround them, one wonders more
and more that may-flies were not long ago extinct. Strangely
enough, the may-fly in prehistoric times, long before man
started to break in the world, was similar in appearance to
the present creature. For in the Devonian and Carboniferous
rocks splendid fossil may-flies have been found, certainly
astonishing when one considers the frailty of the creature.

CADDIS-FLIES

Perhaps one of the most curious and interesting Diptera
that spend part of their life in water are Caddis-flies. The
adult insect so much resembles a moth that it is often
mistaken for such and passed unnoticed. Caddis-flies are not
only common in numbers but also numerous in species ; for
in Great Britain some 150 different species have been found,
and it is more than likely that there a-e still many more to
be discovered.

The adults are characterised in that their wings are covered
to a greater or less extent with hair, and that the second
pair of wings, which were so diminutive in the may-fly, are in
their case larger than the front pair. The antennae, which in
the may-fly were short, are usually conspiciously long. In
fact it in no way resembles the Ephemera, either in its
appearance when adult, or as a larva, or during its life history.
Yet strangely enough many a fly-fisherman thinks that the
caddis larva is the young of the may-fly.

The female lays her eggs in the water, whilst resting on the
surface. It is, however, said that she will occasionally go
beneath the surface, so as to fasten them to chosen spots.
She has sometimes been seen carrying the eggs before laying
them. The eggs, which number over a hundred, are surrounded
by a jelly-like substance, which swells by taking in water.
The young after hatching remain for a few days in their " jelly
home," and have no sooner left it than they seek what instinct
prompts, in the way of building material — it may be grains
of sand, sticks, leaves, or even the shells of molluscs with their
living occupants.

The case may be built of stones, and supports in the form of
long sticks afterwards added. The caddis-worm may choose
to build its case so as to resemble a basket-like structure — or
perhaps, better still, to resemble, as Butler remarks, a number
of needles in a partly finished stocking. Some species cut

48 POND LIFE

leaves into long, narrow pieces and entwine these spirally in
a similar manner to a puttie.

Some tusk-shaped cases are made of most minute grains of
sand. So carefully are these tiny grains of silica chosen, and so
accurately are they fastened together, that it is hard to believe
the mosaic can be the work of an insect. Some larvae prefer
well-soaked, partly-decayed leaves, and arrange them so as to
produce a huge structure of flattened appearance. In fact
caddis-worms, depending on the species, use practically every-
thing of suitable specific gravity. Cases composed entirely of
seeds, sticks, leaves, stones, stems of plants are frequently
found. In fact, as the reader will notice, each species of caddis-
worm has its particular dress, which does not depend entirely
on its surroundings. That is to say, one species prefers to use
the shells of Planorbis — the flat-shelled mollusc so common in
ditches — and will never, if possible, use anything else ; yet
should these molluscs be absent, the larva of Limnophilus
flavicornis does not give up in despair, and having made a
thorough but uusuccessful search for what it requires, sets to
and builds a case of the most suitable material it is able to
find. It then seems to lose all idea of making use of any one
material in particular, but chooses the most suitable that it
comes across — sticks, stones, leaves, and even barley and wheat
grains.

The building of the case is by no means plain sailing, even
should the desired material be in abundance. For each little
larva has to reckon with ninety or more brothers and sisters, not
including distant relations and perfect strangers, who are
equally keen on making a home in the shortest possible time.
And so, no sooner has one caddis-worm deftly chosen a suitable
object for its personal decoration and started weaving it to
the others of its choice, than it is rudely interrupted by a
relation or acquaintance.

Caddis-worms engaged in building fight continually, in a
very similar manner as a large number of dogs would over
a meagre supply of bones. The owner of a case just started
is seized, and during the subsequent struggle loses the result
of its labour — the various parts being instantly utilised by its
friends and relations ; so one can imagine that the completion
of a case is no easy matter should the necessary material be
scarce.

The reader may wonder how, considering this excitement
and trouble, it is possible to build a case resembling mosaic.
It happens that there is usually no scarcity of sand in most
places, and so those using this material can each build their

INSECTS 49

case without interrupting one another, But those dependent
on the seeds of the water-mallow, and other rarities, have
certainly a difficult matter to perform. It must, however, be
remembered that in the struggle the strongest usually wins,
and therefore its case is continually becoming longer and
larger until finally completed. • So that in an order of succes-
sion of strength all the cases are gradually finished, and the
weakest, presuming that it has not been eaten by fishes, water-
beetles, or other enemies in the meanwhile, is at length able to
accomplish its purpose.

Under suitable conditions a caddis-worm will take between
four and eight hours to build and complete a case. Each stick
or stone, or whatever it may be, is woven by silk to the next
piece, so that when the case is finished the caddis-worm lives
in a silk-lined structure. Each stick is carefully cut to the
right length before use, or sometimes is used and the non-
required part is subsequently cut off. The cases are usually of
a larger diameter at the head end.

The larva, which is a most voracious feeder, must necessarily
grow, and as it does so the case naturally becomes too small
for the tenant. The little creature shows evidence of common
sense, for it neither bursts the case by remaining in too long,
nor evacuates it and builds another, but systematically adds a
fresh part to the front, and cuts off a portion towards the end.

That the larva should be so eager to build a case is little to
be wondered at, for every fisherman knows that the caddis
minus its case is a most pleasant sight to all fish. The wily
trout and the lowly perch forget their social positions, and bite
without more than a glance, for the caddis-worm larva has
a soft whitish or greenish body of so tempting an appearance
that few things of a carnivorous disposition could refrain from
attacking it. Although the head and thorax are protected by
chintinous material, yet it is only by frequently and rapidly
dodging into the case, which allows nothing large to enter,
that the much-chased " worm " contrives to reach its pupa
stage. That the caddis is fully aware of its danger is evident
to those who have studied it, for it shows the greatest
concern in keeping its body in the safety of the case.

Caddis-worms wander slowly over the bed of the pond or
stream and climb up amongst the vegetation. Their diet
depends on species and circumstances ; they are mostly vege-
tarian— a few varieties are carnivorous ; but should, however,
food be scarce the vegetarian forgets the morals of the case so
far as to turn into a cannibal, tearing open the cases of its
victims, and demolishing the owner without remorse.

D

50 POND LIFE

But a day comes when the much-harrowed larva, who has
spent most of its life in escaping, by dint of continual pre-
cautions, from its very numerous enemies, feels that it must
rest and sleep. It is approaching the pupa stage, a time when
it is to change from the caterpillar to the perfect insect. So
the thoughtful little creature fastens its case to larger stones
so as to prevent its being carried away by the stream, and
seals up the entrance with silken threads, or weaves pieces of
weed across, so that no enemy may attack it during the period
of rest that is now to come.

One species on this occasion builds a special case of stones,
using large pebbles very many times greater than itself, and
fastens these to a rock beneath the water level ; and here,
protected from everything — for these stone cases are even
difficult for man to open — the caddis rests quietly whilst the
changes that will ultimately make it a moth-like creature
take place. The appearance of the caddis pupa is somewhat
ridiculous, for the little creature is enveloped in a transparent
envelope, resembling an elongated capsule, and can be clearly
seen within, bearing an appearance of sanctity. The little
creature rests with folded arms, sometimes moving gently, as
if the position was not altogether comfortable. Eventually
the time comes when it is ready to leave the water. Then it
tears open its celluloid-like capsule, bites through the silk
holding the stones together, and swims to a convenient plant,
by means of which it climbs to the surface.

The larvae of the caddis-fly are most interesting pets, and
live well in an aquarium well stocked with vegetable life.
The little creatures, if taken out of their cases, are only too
eager to build fresh ones, and for this purpose will make use
of any suitable material. The writer has had cases made of
glass beads, matches, sealing-wax (chips), &c. In one case
a certain artistic worm, although supplied with sealing-wax at
the commencement, made its case entirely of sticks, grass, &c.,
and then actually completed it with a red sealing-wax collar.

To persuade the owner to leave its habitat, guile but not
violence must be used. Should you seize its head, a none too
easy matter, you may pull until the poor little creature comes
in twain, for it is able to hold on inside its case by means of
two small hooks situated on the end of its abdomen. But if
you attack the larva from the rear, the creature is only too
willing to quit. So a piece of fine straw, or the head of a pin,
will serve to drive the caddis-worm out of its home without
trouble or injury.

Dragon-flies, the hawks of the insect world, are built so as to

INSECTS

51

allow of rapidity of movement coupled with accuracy of aim,
and hence no creature can compare with them for neatness in
capturing winged prey. They are beautiful creatures — their
long, slender bodies often exquisitely coloured. As one might
expect, the eyes play no small part in the physiognomy of the
dragon-fly. They practically take up the entire head, and
consist of two large compound eyes, often brilliantly coloured,

CADDIS-FLIES

1. Caddis-fly. 2. Caddis larva. 3. Caddis cases. 4. Pupa.
4 (a). Submerged cases on a rock.

DRAGON-FLIES

5. Dragon-fly. 6. Larva. 7, Larva showing mask.

and in addition three simple eyes situated on the front of the
head. The prominent compound eyes assure the insect of a
large field of view, and that such is the case is proved by the
surprising dexterity with which a dragon-fly will twist and
turn in order to capture its prey, dodging and darting after
the unfortunate flies with that judgment that comes from
expert vision and perfect muscular control. The dragon-fly
has also the advantage of a singularly movable head, which is

52 POND LIFE

able to rotate in a most original manner. The legs, which
play an important part in the seizing of its prey, are veritable
steel traps, fringed with hair-like spines ; they are brought
together at the critical moment, in this way imprisoning the
victim. The wings, though so light and graceful, are yet
perfectly adapted to the creature's wants. Sometimes they
are coloured, but more often so transparent that they would
be totally invisible when the insect was engaged in flying, if it
were not for their remarkable polish.

Dragon-flies have a habit of choosing a particular district :
it may be a glade in a wood, a length of road, or a cottage
garden, but whichever it is the insects keep to the boundaries
with astonishing exactitude, seldom varying the route, unless
in pursuit of an insect. Perhaps the extraordinary fact as to
dragon-flies is their dependency on sunlight. It would seem
that they rely on the sun for their energy. In the brilliant
light of a real summer's day, when clouds are conspicuous by
their absence, when the air is clear as if purified, the dragon-
flies are at their best. To and fro along their chosen paths,
soaring upwards towards the sky, or swooping down, until one
expects the creature to dash itself against the earth ; darting
round trees, turning at surprising angles, or chasing insects
that have crossed its path, thus the dragon-fly spends its time,
the embodiment of energy.

But should a cloud appear, and but for a single moment veil
the sun, the wild life of the dragon-fly seems to be gone. It
settles on a convenient twig, folds its wings, and appears as if
life was one of worries and sorrows. But as soon as the sun
once more breaks from behind the clouds and shines in all its
glory, the insect's life rapidly returns, and away it flies, as
active as ever.

Can anyone imagine a stranger contrast than that between
the young and the adult dragon-fly ? We know that there is an
old saying that persuades fond parents that the uglier the
children the better-looking adults they will be, and contrawise ;
and the dragon-fly's history seems to not only prove the
theory, but to do so to a remarkable extent, for the young
creature is the embodiment of sluggishness and ugliness, so fat
and slothful that we can hardly believe that it will ever be
anything even passable in these two qualities.

The female deposits her eggs on the water or on the leaves of
aquatic plants. The young when first hatched have no signs of
wings, but after several moults the rudimentary wings make an
appearance. The larva, being totally incapable of active move-
ment, would soon die of starvation were it not for a curious

INSECTS 53

arrangement attached to the head, known as the mask. To
understand the use of this appliance, let us imagine that the
dragon-fly larva, well hidden by its protective colouring, which
facilitates concealment, is resting in the lowest weeds. Should
some unwary creature approach, although seemingly at a safe
distance from the waiting larva, yet its doom is sealed, for
suddenly the young dragon-fly projects its mask, which is armed
with teeth, its prey is seized and drawn towards its mouth. So
successful, indeed, is this manoeuvre, that the voracious larva
seldom fails to obtain a sufficiency of food. As its age
increases, its agility decreases, until one day it climbs slowly
up a convenient reed. Then the case splits and the perfect
dragon-fly emerges, and rests awhile until its wings are dry.

Dragon-flies have so savage an appearance that it is hardly
surprising that, in an age when it was customary to give every-
thing a -character on mere superficial evidence, they should [have
been labelled with a bad reputation, although harmless and
useful. It is thought by the ignorant to be a highly dangerous
beast, stories of how horses and cattle have been maimed and
killed are often believed ; but fortunately for the dragon-fly it
has been generally understood that however wicked the insect
might be, if left alone it would do no harm, hence a peculiar
neutrality between the man and the insect was gradually
evolved.

The abdominal appendage, thought by many to be its sting,
is, of course, nothing of the kind. It is used by the male for
the sole and special purpose of capturing a wife. Holding her by
the neck, he is able to take her with him, whether she wishes to
come or not.

The lovers of our country-side and its wild life will learn
with regret that the dragon-fly, like many other beautiful
objects, is becoming rarer, in particular certain species. And
those interested in the economy and balances of nature will
understand that, apart from the pity of losing so interesting
and beautiful an animal, there is also to take into account the
countless numbers of flies, detrimental to man, which will thus
be saved to produce their species— ad libertum.

THE GNAT

Even the name of this creature produces a sensation of
horror, for although the so-called bite or sting, as some people
will have it, is by no means dangerous, yet the " buzz " of the
insect and its blood-thirsty persistence to obtain a meal at all

54 POND LIFE

costs, even though its " wouldn't be " prey be flourishing a
tennis-racquet in one hand and a hair-brush in the other,
imbibes such a feeling of inferiority, that it is not surprising
that human beings greatly dislike it. Although the fact is
not generally realised, there are ten or more species of mos-
quitoes in our delightful country. In fact the common gnat
— " the biter " — is a mosquito pure and simple. Fortunately
no parasite detrimental to the health of human beings is
carried by the British species ; although their relations of the
tropics are well-known carriers of many very serious diseases.

To make the gnat even more objectionable we are told the
high-pitched buzz is a sign of great happiness and means
"high expectations." In fact the gnat might be said to be
licking its lips, in preparation for the enormous meal await-
ing it.

It may come as some relief to the reader to know that only
one sex has a taste for human blood. The female head is
equipped with a set of surgical instruments, a pair of lancets,
wedges, saws, and lastly a drinking tube. Settling, may be
on the ear, or some other particularly tender spot of its victim,
it deftly makes an incision, and finding that the hole is not
large enough to allow the drinking tube to enter, enlarges it
by means of the saw or wedge. Then having made matters
satisfactory, in goes the tube, and out goes the " aqua of life."
•Out of fairness to the operator it must be remarked that the
pain and swelling is not due to any poison, maliciously in-
jected, but is the result of the irritation produced by the
operation. It is therefore clear to those who read the above,
that gnats neither bite nor sting, but that the obtaining of
the meal is a surgical operation. The male is perfectly harm-
less, and is a pretty little insect, on account of the well-
fringed antennae, which resemble egret plumes. The male
gnats on hatching spend most of their time dancing, sometimes
in such numbers as to form huge crowds of insects. The
females fly away in search of a suitable spot for egg-laying,
and it is possible that it is for this purpose that they often
enter our dwellings.

It can only be surmised that the sight of man has a demoral-
ising effect, for we seldom, if ever, find gnats' eggs in our
wash basins or jugs, yet we often experience a painful swell-
ing, the result of her ladyship's attentions during the early
hours of the morning. If this book were devoted to gnats, or
to Diptera, we might spend much time in the study of these
interesting insects. For their habits, peculiarities, and histories
are intensely interesting.

INSECTS 55

The female gnat, when laying her eggs, stands on a con-
venient leaf or stick, and carefully builds an egg raft, by
means of her hind legs. This little craft, wliich is composed
of 100 to 300 eggs, is so perfectly arranged that it defies the
elements, and remains upright even when the miniature pond
becomes a storm-driven ocean. Each egg is cigar-shaped, the
submerged end being capped. When the eggs hatch the cap
or lid opens, and the young gnat, a most original little
creature, drops into the water beneath. The larva spends its
life feeding, washing into an ever waiting mouth, by means of
a small brush, small creatures or organic matter. Nature has
kindly arranged that the breathing tubes should be at one
end of the larva, and the mouth at the other, and so it is
able to breathe at the surface, and feed beneath the water at
one and the same time.

The gnat larva is dependent on atmospheric air, and there-
fore is not perfectly adapted to aquatic conditions, few if any
of the water-flies are, for it would seem that in some bygone
days the flies with aquatic larva of to-day found life in the
air not over pleasant, and hence preferred aquatic to aerial
conditions. The larva of the gnat, being heavier than the
water it displaces, relies on the water film to hold it whilst
obtaining air from the atmosphere. Several moults are
undergone during the three or four months before the larva
turns into a pupa. For several days the pupa swims by
means of a peculiar jerking motion, and although unable to
feed is sensitive to its surroundings, and exhibits clear
visionary powers. The pupa case splits, and the Imago, draw-
ing itself out, stands on the empty skin, which is utilised as
a raft, and after stretching its wings flies away, either to join
the dance or to lay eggs, and possibly torment some unfortu-
nate biped.

Many a Corethra, innocent though it be, falls a victim to
the hands of man, on account of the striking resemblance it
bears to the much-hated mosquito. It is only during the
larva stage that the two insects are in any way alike. The
young corethra is known as the phantom larva, a name little
to be wondered at, for no sooner is a specimen noticed than it
as mysteriously vanishes, only to re-appear the very next
moment, possibly half an inch from its previous position — for
some moments the larva rests contented and motionless near
the surface, until suddenly with lightning velocity it changes
its direction and faces the other way. It is a long narrow
creature of extraordinary transparency, resembling clear glass ;
in fact hundreds of these creatures may be in the pond under

56 POND LIFE

examination, large numbers practically on the surface, and
yet they cannot be discerned, until one notices their air sacs,
which are coloured. These sacs, of which there are four ar-
ranged in two pairs, act as floats, and possibly also play some
part in respiration. Why they should be coloured is not
understood, but possibly, as Professor Miall remarks, the pig-
ment may f unctionise in the production of gases.

Corethra is predaceous, and its transparency assists it in
the capturing of its prey. It is also possible that the pig-
mented air-sacs draw attention, and thus attracted by the
coloured spots its victims are less able to make out the
motionless creature's form, until it is too late. For the next
moment the Daphne or Cyclops, as the case may be, is roughly
seized and held in the larva's mouth, from which it is pre-
vented from making its escape by strong hairs. In the mouth
of its captor the victim is acted upon by digestive juices, until
little except the indigestible parts remain. Thus the prey
of the young Corethra is not swallowed, but only its juices
extracted.

The larva is so transparent that under the microscope the
digestive canal, heart, &c., can be as clearly seen as if they
had been dissected out. Peristalsis, the extraordinary in-
voluntary movement of the alimentary canal, can be clearly
watched. The heart, which is tubular, can be seen " beating,"
driving the blood along the various canals.

It is interesting to know that Livingstone mentions a cake
(Kungucake) eaten by the natives in Central Africa, which is
made of the bodies of gnat-like insects, and from comparison
it appears that the appetising sweetmeat is composed of a
species of Corethra.

A little red ' ' worm-like " creature lashing its way through
the water, twisting itself into the figure 8, and yet always
keeping in the same direction, such is the larva of Chironomous,
another gnat-like insect. The larva will be found of all sizes,
the largest being three-quarters of an inch long, whilst the
younger members will be smaller and smaller, as their ages
decrease, until some will be found very minute indeed, but they
are all characterised by their method of swimming. The
larger and therefore older " blood worms " will be noticed
to testify to their increase in age by swimming less violently,
as if no longer able to twist and turn as nimbly as the younger
members of the family.

Each little worm, as soon as it settles after a swim, builds
for itself a case of decaying vegetable matter, mud, &c. In
fact, it chooses anything suitable, and each piece is rapidly woven

NSECTS

57

to the others, and so little time is wasted in the building of the
home.

At times Chironomous ventures out, and swims rapidly
towards the surface, possibly in order to obtain air, for the

9.

GNATS

1. Larva of gnat. 2. Pupa of gnat. 3. Gnat. 4. Surgical instruments.

CORETHRA
5. Larva of Corethra. 6. Pupa of Corethra. 7. Corethra.

CHIRONOMOUS

8. LarTa of Chironomous. 9. Pupa of Chironomous.

habitat of these little creatures is usually a stagnant pond,
well supplied with decaying vegetable matter and poor in
oxygen, on which the larva depends. And this may make
one wonder how these little creatures manage to live at a
considerable depth in stagnant water. It so happens that

58 POND LIFE

each little worm is able to store up some of the oxygen it
obtains by means of the red substance — Haemoglobin — to
which its colour is due. Life among these little worms is one
of activity, for some of the members are always either making
or leaving a home. It often happens that a larva settles near
to a burrow tenanted by another member of its family. Then
a most amusing incident occurs, the new comer gradually
makes its way in, whilst the owner most unwillingly makes its
way out, and probably fearing that the visitor is purely on
business bent, hesitates not but swims away to a fresh spot,
where it either plays the same game on some other unfortunate
larva, or else rapidly weaves a few pieces of mud and decaying
leaves together to form a fresh home. If a large number
of these larvae are present in a small pool they will gradually
arrange the mud in so many little heaps, that gives a most
curious effect. Whilst at home they are by no means sleeping,
but are continually undulating so as to produce a constant
stream of water through their habitat, and at times they vary
the monotony by pushing their tail-end out and waving it
to and fro, in order to obtain any free oxygen that is present
in the surrounding water. Every now and again the head end
makes its appearance, and after making a quiet survey of the
neighbourhood and having collected any mud that it may
require, by means of its clawed feet, withdraws again. Its feet,
which are furnished with several claws, are well suited for
collecting debris. The head is supplied with a most complex
set of hooks, spines, teeth, &c., some of which are probably used
whilst engaged in the weaving operations. The Chironomous
larva, like all other larva, not only lives, but lives well, until it
changes into the pupa, which remains in the mud at the bottom
of the pond. The pupa of Chironomous bears a slight super-
ficial resemblance to the pupa of Culex (gnat)and Corethra, but
is black in colour, and has curious tufts of " hair " on the head
portion. These tufts, which take the place of the pair of
" horns " in Culex, are respiratory tubes. The changing from
the pupa to the imago is a thing of surprising rapidity. Firstly
the pupa rises without effort to the surface, owing to the fact
that its skin has become well filled with air, which it extracted
from the water towards the end of the pupa stage. In fact so
low is its specific gravity, owing to the collected air, that the
pupa is totally unable to sink, even if it wishes to. Within a
few seconds from the moment it reaches the surface the case
begins to split, and the adult fly gradually comes farther and
farther out. There is no hitch of any kind, no struggle, but
simply a continual movement. No sooner are the head and

WATER SPIDERS AND MITES 69

thorax of the adult free, than the wings, legs and abdomen
appear, and are rapidly drawn out of the case, and practically
the same moment the insect flies away, the whole transforma-
tion taking but one minute or even less to be completed. To
sit by a water-butt or pool and see hundreds of these pupas
changing into flies, is most fascinating. No sooner is one gone
than another is ready to follow, and so it goes on, and in the
meanwhile pupa after pupa floats towards the surface. A few
days later nothing but the empty black skins with their queer
white breathing filaments remain. The adult Chironomous in
appearance may certainly resemble Culex, but it is interesting
to know that it has not an operating set like that of the
gnat, in fact it is probable that neither male nor female feed
after their larva stage is completed. For the stomachs of dis-
sected specimens have always been found empty. The females
lay their eggs in a gelatinous envelope usually in strings.
These are moored to stones, &c., near to the surface of the
pond.

We must now regretfully leave these graceful and interest-
ing Diptera, whose lives are partly spent in water, and partly in
the air above.

CHAPTER V

WATER SPIDERS AND MITES

PERHAPS one of the most remarkable things about spiders, is
that they have not become extinct long ago. Their enemies
are numerous, both four and two-legged, and in addition
their numbers are much reduced owing to their cannibalistic
instincts.

In fact entire families are frequently destroyed by the un-
natural parent, whose maternal feelings are already forgotten,
when her stomach craves. Later we will see that it is not
only the youngsters that fall a prey to the gentler sexed in-
dividuals, but that the male is often a victim, and pays dearly
for his impertinence and other faults.

To our minds such unnatural cannibalistic instincts seem
heinous offences. But whatever their fanlts may be, or how
often he or she may break the rules of civilisation and friend-
ship, yet nevertheless spiders are most interest ing animals,
and well repay any time spent on their study.

Unfortunately childish fables, stories of virulent poisons,
savage attacks on human beings, and other non-scientific

60 POND LIFE

anecdotes, have led to much unwarranted persecution. In
fact many people consider it little less than a duty to destroy
spiders on sight.

Their economic importance certainly is not great. It is
recorded that one ardent worker made a pair of stockings
and mittens out of spiders' silk ; and when one considers that
it takes over 27,000 female spiders to produce a single pound
of silk, and that each thread-maker must necessarily have a
separate home, else chaos follows and cannibalism runs riot,
the project of a spider silk industry is not very bright.

Nature, who so tenderly looks after her children and helps
them to be efficient, has not by any means forgotten the
spider. For each little creature has a splendid set of eyes, a
most important matter, as they rely largely on their eye-
sight.

Some have six simple eyes, others eight, arranged in a
systematic manner ; and it is interesting to note that the
number of eyes and their position is used as a means of
classification.

Having now made an examination of spiders as a class, we
will refer to those particular species that are to be found in
ponds and streams.

Several species are semi-aquatic — that is to say, will take to
water when necessary, living the remainder of their time on
the banks — one species is totally aquatic.

Lycosidae or wolf -spiders (Lucus = wolf), so-called because
they hunt their prey, instead of building a web, contains two
examples — Lycosa piratica and Dolomedes fimbriatus. The
former is a brownish-yellow spider with a characteristically
long body.

The females are about one-third of an inch long, whilst the
males are smaller, a general rule amongst spiders.

Lucus piraticus preys to a great extent on aquatic insects,
and will follow its victim on to the surface of the water with-
out fear. Occasionally in case of sudden emergency it will
dive beneath the surface, but usually prefers to escape to the
bank.

Dolomedes, however, does not rely to the same extent as
Lucus piratica on the safety of the water-film, and will be
seen to use the leaves of water-plants as stepping-stones when
on a hunting expedition.

In case of danger Dolomedes curls up in the characteristic
spider attitude, or else runs towards the bank, but never
even at the most critical moment does it attempt to make its
escape by diving.

WATER SPIDERS AND MITES 61

In appearance Dolomedes differs from Lucus piratiea, firstly
in size, the female being three-quarters of an inch long, and
secondly as to its general appearance. For Dolomedes is a
brown hairy spider with noticeable yellow markings, which
readily indicate its genus.

The females of both the above genera weave egg bags, which
are fastened and carried on the under side of their abdomen.

In the case of Dolomedes fimbriatus the egg cocoon is
large, brown and round in shape, whilst the cocoon of Lycosa
piratica is much smaller and white in colour.

Warburton, in his excellent little handbook on spiders,
mentions several interesting experiments on wolf-spiders and
their egg cocoons. From some of the results Mr. Warburton
seems to think that spiders are unable to reason. To my
mind the experiments do not show this.

I consider that under ordinary normal conditions a spider
is able to reason, but is naturally at a loss to understand
complicated arrangements entirely out of its sphere of life.

But to return. The female of the Lycosidae, of which the
Lycosa and Dolomedes\ are two genera, carry their egg bags
beneath their bodies. When the eggs hatch the youngsters
immediately climb on to their mother's back, where they
remain until old enough to start life on their own.

Seemingly aware of the fact that an accident to the " bus "
would mean a misfortune to themselves, the young spiders are
most careful not to cover their mother's eyes, even when
resting on her head.

But the life of the passengers is far from being dull and
uninteresting ; sometimes thick grass dislodges them, or the
mother may meet another of her own sex engaged similarly in
carrying her family. The result of the meeting, friendly as
it well might be, considering that both are occupied in the
same manner, is seldom so. They have no wish to compare
notes on their family histories. But, on the contrary, no
time seems to be wasted in idle compliments, but hardly
having met, a fierce conflict takes place.

The youngsters are dispersed as their respective mothers
fight furiously with only one object, and that to kill. And
when the battle is over the offspring of the slain and those of
the victor re-assemble, and climb up the legs of the survivor,
who meanders off little aware that her family has increased to
such an extent.

The Lycosidae, as the reader will no doubt notice when
attempting to capture a specimen, are strong and fast runners,
and the weight of a family, whether in the form of eggs or of

62 POND LIFE

youngsters, seems to make little difference to the agility of the
parent.

Wolf-spiders, although often found together, do not hunt in
packs. Each relies on its own power of hunting, and tracks
its prey down by stealth and speed. When searching for food
every inch of water or land is most carefully scrutinised. The
spider makes a short run, and halts, and seems to be most
minutely examining its surroundings At last its prey is
viewed — a sudden rush on the water-film, and the unfortunate
pond-skater is seized and carried triumphantly to terra firma.

Argyroneta aquatica it a totally aquatic spider. If the
pond-hunter is fortunate to be in a district where it is plenti-
ful, the first pond or stream may result in the capture of
several of these beautiful little creatures. Contrary to the
general rule, the male is larger than the female in this family.

"Wait and watch," and if one has patience enough and
fortune favours, "the water-spider'5 may be seen to rise to
the surface of the pond, resembling to all extent a globule of
quicksilver with eight blackish legs. It rises head downwards,
and on reaching the surface extrudes the end of its abdomen,
through the water-film. If undisturbed it will remain in this
position several seconds, until with a sudden pull, as if the
water-film resisted its departure, it swims down to the bottom
of the pond, carrying with it a fresh quantity of air. The
watcher, if he is unaware of the habits of Argyroneta aquatica,
may continue to wait and watch, hour after hour, in the hope
that it may make a reappearance.

But the water-spider does not return unless perchance it is
filling its air store. Carefully concealed amongst the weeds
is a thimble-shaped structure of closely woven web.

The diving bell has an aperture at the base, through which
the water-spider passes when entering or leaving. The dome
takes several hours to build, for it is not so simple as it looks,
and apart from the structure itself threads are stretching in
various directions in order to capture small creatures.

The spider having formed its home rises to the surface for
a supply of air. Its abdomen is covered with fine hair closely
packed, thus preventing the water from wetting its body,
hence the imprisoned air forms the bubble.

On reaching the dome the spider by a sudden movement, or
by rubbing against the sides of the dome or the leaf, to which
its home is anchored, liberates a part of the air, which rises to
the apex of the store-house. It then visits the surface for a
further supply, and continues to do so till the home is complete.

Unaware of the danger that lurks beneath the leaf, small

WATER SPIDERS AND MITES 63

crustaceans and other animals swim past. A pair of legs
suddenly appear, a wild attempt is made to seize the visitor.
It may prove successful, and next moment the victim is held
by a pair of forceps. But frequently the spider is unsuccessful,
and wildly grabs at its would-be victim, which makes off as fast
as nature allows it. The disappointed spider withdraws inside
its dome, and waits for another opportunity.

It is really a most interesting sight to see Argyroneta
aquatica attempt to seize an adult freshwater hog. The
latter appears totally at a loss as to where the enemy is
concealed, and will often blunder into the " arms " of the
spider several times before finally making its escape.

Sometimes, if the spider seizes its victim a great struggle
takes place. The water-hog wildly attempts to break away
from its captor, whilst the spider evinces great unwillingness
to leave its retreat, and often, after the water-shrimp has
escaped, the spider's ruffled feelings are such that it will
continue its ferocious behaviour in a most childlike manner.

" Love-making " in spiderland is fraught with grave dangers,
and the proverb that " none but the brave deserve the fair " is
certainly true.

Her ladyship believes in business before pleasure, and realises
that food without a home is preferable to a home and an empty
larder. So the suitor makes his appearance, and does his ut-
most to look " nice," often unfortunately with so much success
that he is promptly eaten by the object of his affections. And
the next suitor fares no better, nor even those that may follow,
until the creature's hunger is appeased. Then with so much
love inside her, her thoughts turn to ethereal matters.

In the case of the water-spider the male builds a cell next
to that of his " heart's " desire, and having filled his home by
the usual methods, he cautiously bites through the dividing
wall.

As the reader will understand, it all depends on the lady's
temper what the result of his entry may be ; if pleasant, all is
well, but if not the suitor probably has much to regret.

In the resulting conflict the entire home is uprooted and
demolished. As the male is fortunate in being larger he often
comes off victorious. But should the female be in the right
mood, when her lover bites his way into her dwelling, an egg
case is woven and between seventy and one hundred eggs
are laid.

The young spiders on hatching have each a bubble of air and
lead an independent existence.

Argyroneta aquatica is of particular interest to the pond-

64 POND LIFE

hunter, because it will build its dome and live to all intents a
natural life, even in so small a pond as a glass jar full of water.
The entire process of weaving its dome, love-making, the
forming of the egg-bag, and the subsequent hatching of the
young can be watched at leisure.

Before turning to water-mites, mention must be made of
the extraordinary power that water-spiders have to remain in
a trance resembling death. The writer on one occasion found
his water-spiders " dead " at the bottom of the aquarium.
He took them out and placed them on glass slips in order to
make an examination. They seemed peculiarly slimy — several
days elapsed, and no signs of life were noticed, nor were any-
looked for — in fact, the writer was engaged dissecting one of
the specimens when his attention was called to another of these
" dead " spiders, that was distinctly moving a fore-leg.

The glass plates were placed in the cooler part of an oven.
Within a very short time the spiders not only were perfectly
restored to health, but were more than usually alive. When
returned to the aquarium, they dived beneath the water as if
nothing had happened. A few days later the spiders were
again in a death-like condition. After allowing them to
remain for two days beneath the water, the oven was char-
tered once more, but this time it acted not.

Water-spiders sleep during the winter in their sub-aquatic
homes and re-emerge as soon as the water has been warmed by
the return of summer.

The age to which a spider may live is not exactly known.
Some have lived to the age of four years in captivity.

Water-mites belong to the Hydrachnidae. They differ from
spiders in that their bodies are in one piece and lack the
characteristic waist of the latter.

Their sizes vary— some are three-quarters of an inch in
diameter, whilst others are only just visible to the naked eye
without the aid of a lens or microscope.

The water-mites are beautifully coloured. Some are crimson,
green, and blue ; others are spotted either with white or
various colours.

Their shapes are most varied. Some are characteristically
ball-shaped ; others resemble " king crabs," whilst a few are
so curious that they are difficult so describe.

Water-mites are noticeable for their exceedingly long legs,
covered with closely set hair, often of a different colour to the
body. One very frequent example has a red and brown body
and light green legs.

They are all as far as we know egg-layers, the eggs being

INHABITANTS OF THE WATER-FILM 65

deposited on various objects to be found in every pond and
stream, on stones, leaves, stems, and roots of water-plants, &c.

The young on hatching have six legs. They are often para-
sites, and live the first part of their lives on higher animals
such as water-beetles. They attach themselves to their host
by their mouths, and hang there until they reach maturity.
Strangely enough during this period their legs fall off, and the
creatures remain fastened to their host by the mouth organs
Eventually they mature, and start a free existence, with the
proper number of legs, which is eight. One more moult takes
place before the creature is fully grown.

Their eyes are simple in structure, similar to those of the
spider. In some cases they are very large and prominent.

The species most often met with is a comparatively large
mite of a crimson hue, which when seen against a dark back-
ground attracts the attention of even the most unobservant.

Water-mites are found in most parts of the world, and the
number of species is enormous. They are extremely hardy
and thrive in the aquarium, and are most charming little
creatures to keep, owing to their beautiful and varied colours.

CHAPTER VI

INHABITANTS OF THE WATER-FILM

To the naturalist a pond would lose half its charm if none of
the Gerridae were present. For who does not admire those
graceful little insects skating on the surface of the water with-
out the slightest fear of drowning ? The water-film is capable
of resisting far greater weights, and their feet only produce
aquatic dimples where each leg rests.

Although known as pond-skaters, the word skating does not
in any way describe the insect's movements, for a few powerful
strokes of the second pair of legs produces the necessary im-
petus, and the insect slides, rather than skates, along the water-
film.

At times, especially when alarmed, the pond-skaters leap into
the air in the most astonishing fashion. The intrusion of a
whirligig beetle is often the cause, for although the beetle
shows no wish to interfere, yet in its rapid and erratic journey
it often collides with the pond-skaters, much to their horror,
causing the nervous little insects to spring up into the air
until the intruder has departed. During this acrobatic per-

E

66 POND LIFE

formance, some will occasionally fall on to their backs, and
then will be seen the advantage of long legs. For by carefully
manipulating various joints the creature is able to lever itself
back to a normal position.

Like all insects, the Gerridae have three pairs of legs. The
first pair are placed on the thorax just below the head, and are
held in front with only the first joint resting on the water-
film. The second pair are stretched out to the greatest advan-
tage, and in this case more than half rests on the water. These
legs, which are the oars of the insect, are attached to the lower
end of the thorax, and are remarkable for their distance from
the fore legs. The third or last pair act as rudders, and are
very seldom used in any other way. It is most remarkable
that each pair of legs does its particular work only. The last
pair, the rudders, steer the course, and are never used for
swimming ; and even, when the insect is attempting to escape
capture, remain stretched in their usual position. The insect
has perfect control of all its legs, but the habit of only using
the second pair as swimming organs is so customary that the
idea of employing these for any other purpose does not seem to
occur, even at the most critical moments, when their use would
be of great assistance.

The pond-skater's head is terminated by a trunk-like organ
known as the beak. The under side of its body is covered with
close velvety hairs, which, should the insect be submerged, pre-
vent the water from reaching its body. But under normal
conditions this very seldom occurs, for the healthy insect
is most particular to keep its body distant from the water
surface.

Occasionally a pond-skater will take advantage of the wind
or of the prevailing current, and will drift without effort for
some distance. They seem to have a great liking for herbage, and
are only too glad to rest amongst the partly submerged grass.
Should they be disturbed they escape on the water-film, and as
soon as the cause of the trouble has departed hurry back to
their favourite haunts.

Their eyesight is certainly remarkably keen, and they notice
every movement of the clumsy biped, man, even when he
is several feet away, and dodge the net with surprising
dexterity.

Pond-skaters spend much of their " free time " brushing their
legs and beaks in a somewhat similar manner to a carver
sharpening a knife, first doing one side and then the other.

Their food consists of dead and living insects. Should an
unfortunate non-aquatic fly tumble into the water, near to a

INHABITANTS OF THE WATER-FILM 67

waiting skater, the latter turns sharply towards it, and after
carefully polishing its beak makes an attack. On one occa-
sion an adult skater was seen to advance towards a struggling
fly, but before seizing its prey it very carefully cleaned and
brushed its beak with both its fore legs. Whilst so engaged in
preparation for the feast, a young and eager pond-skater turned
and saw the fly, and without more ado rushed forward and
captured it. Whether the adult realised the humour of the
situation it is difficult to say.

The Gerridae seize their prey in a most interesting manner.
They place their front legs over the victim, and then elevating
their bodies, lift it well into their embrace. Now the beak
comes into action, and, as in the case of the gnat, a surgical
operation is rapidly performed, and the blood of the victim
extracted.

Once having made a capture, Gerris is most unwilling, or
unable, to relinquish its hold, and will even leap as much as
an inch into the air, without dropping its victim.

The ten British freshwater species are all very similar in
general appearance, but differ in size, and in the length of their
leg joints. Captured species often differ in the size of their
wings, because they are dimorphic — that is to say, some of
the adults have two pairs of long wings, whilst others have
short wings ; but although the size may differ, one pair is always
leathery, whilst the other pair is membraneous.

In summer pond-skaters congregate in large numbers, seem-
ingly socially inclined. On the approach of winter they hiber-
nate, and, in order to do so, wander some distance from their
usual habitat ; in fact it is recounted that a Gerris lacustris
was found sleeping under a fussbush in moss, half a mile from
the nearest pond.

Although pond-skaters are very timid little beasts, yet they
are easily tamed, and, if looked after, will live and do well in
an aquarium.

Velia currens, popularly known as the freshwater cricket, is
a more beautiful creature than the Gerris, but, similarly to the
latter, it lives on the water-film. Velia currens is a dark brown
insect, with two orange ridges along its back. Its movements
are noticeably different to those of Gerris, for whilst the latter,
as we have already seen, skates, Velia currens runs along the
water-film, and seems to find it difficult to make headway. In
certain localities are found minute black pond-skaters }% of
an inch in length. They are very interesting little creatures,
but unfortunately do not thrive in an aquarium.

Mention must be made of Hydrometra stagnorum, which

68 POND LIFE

rejoices in being the only British example of that genus. It
is a most astonishing insect, so thin indeed that the pond-skater
seems over-nourished in comparison. Its body, ^ of an inch
in diameter, is elongated, and forms a surprisingly long head
terminating in a beak. The head, which is longer than the
thorax, becomes narrower until it reaches the antennae, where
it again thickens.

The eyes, which are small and very prominent, are situated on
the sides of the head, near the middle.

But the most surprising thing about the creature is its limbs,
for each leg resembles a hair in fineness. The entire insect is
so fragile that one wonders that it can exist at all. Owing to
its extraordinary thinness, the water-gnat is very difficult
to find, and constantly causes much surprise when it slowly
emerges from amongst the weeds, which have been most care-
fully examined.

Similar to its relatives the pond-skaters, Hydrometra stag-
norum preys upon any unfortunate insects that may come in
its way.

SPRINGTAILS

Although springtails frequent practically all ponds and
streams, yet very few people have ever seen one of these queer
little insects. They are so small that they readily escape ob-
servation, unless particularly looked for. There are several
British species. Podura aquatica, one of the commonest, is a
blue-coloured insect strangely clumsy in shape, with three pairs
of legs, each furnished with a sharp claw. The antennae are
short and thick and the eyes prominent. Wings it has none,
although it is a member of the Insecta.

They usually congregate in large numbers and appear as a
little patch of blue dust on the surface of the water. Should
we by means of a stick disturb such an assembly, the little
creatures very soon show that they are far less inanimate than
they appear to be, for without a moment's delay they disperse
in all directions. The rapidity with which they escape and the
distance they travel compared with their size is certainly most
astonishing, until one of these small insects is carefully ex-
amined. Under the microscope a peculiar forked arrangement
will be noticed. It is attached to the end of the abdomen and
is held when walking tightly pressed against the body. This
appendage is called the spring, and is used for the purpose its
name implies.

By taking advantage of the elasticity of the water-film, and

INHABITANTS OF THE WATER-FILM 69

by suddenly releasing the spring, it is projected to an enor-
mous distance. A jump of 40 times its own length is by no
means breaking the record, and should we compare a 6-ft. man
with this little creature we would come to the astonishing re-
sult that he would be able to leap 240 ft., and not only do this
once, but practically continually, if he were as agile as Podura.
Yet Podura has by no means the grace of an athlete, but is on
the contrary a badly built little creature, the essence of un-
gainliness. The spring is held by the insect in the correct
position, and does not remain so on the death of the creature,
thus proving that it requires muscular power to hold it in its
place. The manipulation of the spring before and after jump-
ing causes some inconvenience, and so we find that springtails
prefer to walk unless the occasion necessitates more rapid pro-
gression. Apart from the trouble involved, a jump often ends
in the creature landing on its back, instead of in the normal
position, and once so placed the unfortunate insect finds it no
easy matter to regain its legs.

Springtails have one great advantage over most birds and
beasts that roam our world, for they cannot break the water-
film however much they may leap and frolic on the " element "
so treacherous. But the springtail, like many others, is far
from being satisfied as matters are, and so occasionally wanders
down the stem of a plant, holding on the support by means of
its sharp little claws. This enterprise sometimes ends in dis-
aster : for should a storm arise and the weed be violently
shaken, the investigator losing its foothold rises to the surface,
and there, unable to break the film, must remain beneath it and
die eventually. It so happens that Podura is well clothed with
fine hairs, and so remains dry although immersed.

The young springtails are as agile as their parents, but
naturally smaller and lighter in colour. They are full of fun,
only too willing to leap on to an adult's broad back, and to
cling there however much the latter may try to dislodge them.
At times two or more youngsters will play a game worthy of
boy scouts, a regular rough and tumble. They are certainly
pugilistic even when mere babies, and savage fights are con-
tinually taking place. When two adults meet they will often
salute each other by violently agitating one of their antennae,
and sometimes without more than a moment's hesitation seize
each other by the head.

Life amongst the springtails is not all jump and fight.
Hygiene also plays a part ; in fact when time allows old and
young, children and babies, wash their faces and comb their
backs. The little animal licking one of its front legs, as it is

70 POND LIFE

unable to break the water-film, carefully washes its face like
some diminutive cat.

The eggs are laid on or in the leaves of water-plants, and
when about to hatch are transparent. The young are very
similar to their parents in appearance. During the winter,
springtails hibernate in the mud.

The following incident is of interest. On the surface of the
aquarium some peculiarly long springtails were noticed, which
on examination turned out to be two springtails, one leading
the other by the hand. By means of a dissecting needle the
leader was persuaded to relinquish hold. The other, left to its
own devices, seemed perfectly incapable and at a loss as ta
direction. The microscope revealed no trace of eyes, and it
can only be surmised that the creature was blind.

CHAPTER VII

AQUATIC WORMS

THE members of the " Vermes " inhabiting our ponds and
streams are usually very different to what one imagines a worm
to be.

All the vermes are soft-bodied animals, and in this respect
no one breaks the rule.

When examining weeds under the microscope, minute trans-
parent slug-like creatures may often be seen. They glide
along, altering their shape on meeting obstacles : swelling,
elongating, and behaving altogether in a quite unique manner.
These little creatures are members of a family of worms known
as Rhabdocoelida, a branch of the Turbellaria, of which there
are many and various kinds. They all bear a ferocious expres-
sion, and one is little surprised to learn that they are car-
nivorous.

On first seeing these Turbellaria, one is liable to mistake
them for members of the Protozoa, owing to their minute size
and general appearance. Members of the Tricladida, another
sub-order of the Turbellaria, are very common in every pond
and stream. In fact in some districts, depending on the
season, their numbers are legion. These little black shining
animals, known as Planarians, are familiar objects on the leaves
of watercress and other plants, and may also be seen wander-
ing slowly over the mud and stones at the bottom of the
stream. When at rest their shape is not constant, sometimes

AQUATIC WORMS 71

resembling a minute drop of black sealing-wax, but when on
the move they elongate and glide slowly and gracefully. Their
black eyes, so characteristically cruel, are protected between
two thin membranes, so that the creature is probably able to
see both above and beneath it at the same time. Similarly to
the Rhabdocoelida, the Planarians are carnivorous, feeding
upon both living and dead insects, molluscs, &c. Their skin is
furnished with rods, some resembling needles, whilst others are
hook-shaped. These constitute the Planarian's protective
weapons, and are fired out in case of emergency. These darts,
although only visible under high-power lenses, are certainly
formidable weapons to the various micro-pond inhabitants.

The mouth is not on the head, as one might expect, but is
situated on the underside of the body, towards the centre of
the creature, so that we might roughly say that an opening in
the abdomen "acts as a mouth." Therefore, when eating, the
Planarian must cover its victim. The animal certainly does
not bolt its food, but eats slowly, taking several hours to finish
a meal. On one occasion the writer placed a small may-fly
larva near to a Planarian. The latter rose up in a very
peculiar manner and curled up the sides of its head, and then
advanced slowly towards its victim and covered it. After an
hour the Planarian glided away, leaving nothing but the skin
of the unfortunate insect. On another occasion a dead snail
was placed in a saucer containing two Planarians ; one of these
creatures, as if scenting the snail, lifted itself, and slowly
turned back the edges of its head. It then glided towards the
snail, and was on the point of touching it when, as if changing
its mind, it rose and passed to the left. The very next moment
the Planarian again turned and came towards its prey, rubbing
up against it (simulating a purring cat), rubbing and twisting
as if it enjoyed the sensation, occasionally allowing one side of
its body to glide over the obstacle and then the other. After
behaving in this manner for a considerable time, the Planarian
wandered away. The next day the snail was no longer there,
and it can only be concluded on circumstantial evidence that
it had been eaten, although neither of the Planarians showed
any signs of a heavy meal.

On one occasion two Planarians were seemingly at logger-
heads. They raised themselves on the posterior end of their
bodies and, entwined about each other, were swaying to and
fro. On being separated the cause of the trouble was revealed
in the personage of a small worm, well covered with some sticky
slime-like substance (probably digestive juices).

Planarians multiply both sexually and asexually. In the latter

72 POND LIFE

case the creature divides into more than one part, each of which
ultimately becomes a fresh individual. Planarians seem to be
highly intelligent, but many more experiments must be carried
out before this can be definitely stated. Comparatively little
is known as to their habits and life histories, and so a large
field of research is open to the ardent pond-hunter.

Wishing the Planarians the best of luck, we must unwillingly
turn to the Nematode worms, which are the cause of very many
serious illnesses to higher animals, man included.

Thread-worms, as they are popularly known, frequent ponds
and ditches. Some are minute, others large.

In Ascaris lumbricoides the male is 4" to 6" long, whilst the
female is 10" to 14". It is said that in Finland very few people
are free from the companionship of this unwelcome stranger. As
if to add insult to injury, even the examination of Ascaris lum-
bricoides is not unf raught with danger, for it is able to give off
an odour of surprising power, so irritating, indeed, that it
produces catarrhal symptoms.

Rhabdonema nigrovenosum, another thread-worm, inhabits
the excreta of frogs. After a very short time the male and
female worms meet and pair. The fertilised eggs eventually
hatch and the youngsters with practical filial devotion devour
the internal organs of the mother, thereby causing her death.
The offspring then hurriedly decamp, and wait patiently until
some frog appears and foolishly swallows them. Thus having
made an entry into their host, they waste little time in making
their way to the lungs : here they live happily and comfortably,
mature and fertilise each other, resulting in a fresh generation
of embryos. These eventually escape into the water and find
their way to frogs' excrements. Male and female worms again
meet, and the story is repeated.

Nematomorpha are very similar in appearance to the nema-
tode worms, in fact up to quite recently they were classified as
members of this family. We need not waste much time in
describing the creature, for we are all familiar with the thread-
like little worms seen in every pond.

The life history of one member of the Gordius is so unique
that it deserves some notice. The Gordius is the only fresh-
water family of the Nematomorpha. The male is distinguished
from the female by its forked tail, and by its colour. In April
the males and females meet and fertilisation takes place.
Subsequently the eggs are laid in long threads, and after some
weeks the larvae appear. These little creatures are furnished
with boring appliances, which they deftly use in order to
obtain an entry into the body of a young (larva) of an alderfly.

AQUATIC WORMS 73

The worm now rests contentedly, hiding in the muscles so as to
prevent injuring its host. For it is of the greatest importance
to the worm that its host should live to maturity. The alder-
fly larva, when the time comes, changes into the mature insect.
It so happens that many of the mature alderflies fall a prey to
a black beetle known as Pterocheilus niger, and this is seem-
ingly what the worm expected, for the unfortunate beetle
must necessarily subsequently play its part in the life history
of this lowly worm. No sooner has the alderfly been de-
molished by its captor, the beetle, than the latter suffers the
penalty. The young Gordius now attacks its fresh host, eating
both organs and the fat body. Again the worm's future is far
fr*om a security, for the beetle must fall into the water or else
the worms will be unable to make their escape. It so happens
that some of the beetles meet with this accident. Then the
worms bore their way through the body of their host and
escape into the water, where they mature.

Bristle-worms are members of the Polychaeta, and are often
found in the aquarium ; Ophryotrocha is an example. Several
of the Aeolosoma representatives of the Oligochaeta are usually
common in streams, and are most lovely creatures when ex-
amined under the microscope. Their body is transparent, and
contains beautifully coloured gold, orange, brown and green
globules, the colour depending on the species.

Large numbers of worms belonging to the Naidomorpha are
frequently met with in the aquarium. Nais is found amongst
the roots of aquatic weeds ; its body is adorned with several
groups of bristles. It is of peculiar interest because of the
manner in which it buds. The bud is produced between two
segments of its body. This bud gradually grows to form a
worm, while the head and tail portion of the parent, thus
divided, forms a new tail anteriorly, and a fresh head pos-
teriorly. Further buds are produced until a long chain of
worms is in existence. The humour of the situation lies in
the fact that the head of the parent is responsible for the
food of the entire family, until they disperse. Dero, another
worm similar in appearance to Nais, has ciliated projections at
the posterior end of its body.

Tubifex rivulorum is a common inhabitant of most of our
rivers and ponds ; it is a little red worm, and loves to burrow
in the mud. It does so in such a manner as to allow the tail
part of its body to project. Subsequently, constantly waving
to and fro, a continual change of water is produced. For the
worm breathes by obtaining air from the water and returning
to it the waste gases it no longer requires.

74

POND LIFE

The word leech brings back memories of the good old times,
when the cure for all ills was blood-letting, and in those
beneficent days the worthy little creature, the medical leech,
was imported from the Continent, and spent the rest of its
life on British blood.

Hirudo medicinalis, although the fact is not generally
known, is to be found in our country. It is about 3 inches
long, but is able to extend to 5 or 6 inches when it so wishes.
There are severa* British leeches, the most common being

s.

WORMS

1. Gordius, conjugating. 2. Ophryotrocha puerilis. 3. Aelosoma. 4. Horse-
leech. 5. Hirudo medicinalis. 6. Young Clepsine. 7 Planarian. 8. Micro-
scopic worm.

Aulastomum, the horse-leech. It is of a reddish colour, with
tranverse marking. Often fastened to a stone, Aulastomum
undulates in a very original manner, and continues this be-
haviour hour by hour. But it is only when swimming that
the horse-leech is really at its best. Lengthening out into
a thin ribbon, it swims by most graceful undulations. When
not in such a hurry the leech wanders by dragging itself along
by means of its sucking discs (looping).

Every stream contains leeches, but in some districts they
are much more common than in others. The general appear-

AQUATIC WORMS 75

cane of the leech needs little description ; it is a typical worm-
like animal, except that its body, which is convex, has the
under side flattened.

The horse-leech, similarly to the medical, is a blood-
sucker, attacking tadpoles, frogs, worms, and other soft-bodied
creatures.

Leeches are able to secrete slime and thus escape from their
enemies. Even the most carnivorous water-beetle, unless
starvation be imminent, leaves the leech severely alone. Al-
though the Hirudinia are hermaphrodites (both sexes in one),
yet self-fertilisation never takes place. The horse-leech lays
her eggs in a case made of saliva, and leaves them to hatch.

Members of the family Clepsine behave differently ; in this
species the eggs are not left to their fate, but are carried
with the mother until they hatch ; the young then fasten
themselves to the under side of their parent and thus accom-
pany her on her travels. In case of violent accident the
young Clepsines may be dispersed ; should this occur, having
lost their parent, they loop along in a perfectly up-to-date
manner; but are, nevertheless, only too willing to regain
their former position at the first opportunity.

The parent's maternal feelings are certainly most acute, for,
on meeting one of her offspring, she will twist the anterior
portion of her body round it, probably in order to facilitate
its regaining its former domicile. It is a most fascinating
picture to see a female Clepsine carrying her family, the
youngsters undulating from their maternal home, the mother
showing every sign of careful movement, so as not to dislodge
or injure those dependent on her. In fact many a human
mother might take a lesson from Clepsine and her large
family, for in her case no single heir enters the world, but
eight to ten sturdy miniature Clepsines arrive to be looked
after ; and instinct or no instinct, whatever it may be, tells
the mother that when she loops she must be careful, and even
when she undulates caution is required.

Clepsine is said to have a partiality for snails, in fact to
suck these unfortunate molluscs. To our minds this seems a
very nasty habit. Fortunately Clepsine has not seen an
oyster-swallower !

There are several more species of British leeches, some very
worm-like and some very small. They all live happily in the
aquarium, thriving to all appearance on nothing, loving to
wander over the glass, which, owing to their transparency,
allows an easy examination of their internal organs.

The first Wheel Animalcule or Rotifer was discovered in

76 POND LIFE

1696. The finder described the creature as "an animal like
a large maggot, on the tail of which appeared forceps like
that of an earwig."

Some years later, in 1703, Leewenhoch noticed a rotifer,
which he depicted as "an animal with two wheels thickset
with teeth resembling the wheels of a watch."

Strangely enough, these two old-fashioned descriptions,
when taken together, are accurate enough to help the beginner
in recognising rotifers from other micro-organisms.

All the members of the Rotifera are minute, the giants
amongst them being |th of an inch in length, whilst the
majority are ^^th of an inch or even less. Before describing
the species or their habits, a cursory examination must be
made of the little creatures themselves.

We may roughly divide the rotifer into head, body, and
foot. The head consists of the " disc," which bears little hairs
known as cilia. These cilia wash the food into the mouth,
and from there it passes into the oesophagus (throat). The
oesophagus, which is similarly lined with cilia, leads into the
gizzard. The gizzard, or mas tax, is an organ especially
adapted for crushing. The food then passes into the stomach,
an organ also lined with cilia, where digestion takes place.
The head contains the brain. Two or more eyes are often
present, usually red, and sometimes violet in colour. Certain
species, however, are eyeless. The body, which is of such
transparency that it allows perfect inspection of the internal
organs, is variously shaped. In Synchaeta it is peg-shaped,
whilst in Hydatina senta it is wedge-shaped, oval in the
Asplanchnaceae, and so forth. In certain species the body is
enclosed in a case known as the lorica. Others, again, build
cases of pellets, or are surrounded by a tube of gelatinous
material.

The foot in some species is absent, but in the majority it
is well developed. It may be retractile or telescopic, and is
usually furnished with two or three toes and a special gland,
known as the cement gland, which secretes a sticky material,
in order to " anchor" the creature, when it so requires.

In the Bdelloida (leech-like) the foot is telescopic, and re-
tracts into the body : like a true foot, it is used for the
purpose of walking. When so doing one toe is expanded
telescopically and the cement gland comes into action ; the
rotifer then " closes the telescope " but does not liberate the
foot to do so. Hence the body is drawn towards the toes.
The foot is then released, and is again stretched to its full
length. Sometimes the movement is contrariwise, that is to

AQUATIC WORMS 77

say the rotifer fastens its foot, stretches to its full length,
and after attaching itself by the head, liberates the foot. But
both these are slow movements, and seem to be contrary to
the liking of the rotifer, for usually, after walking a few
seconds, it opens its disc, and by means of the cilia swims
rapidly away.

(Bdelloida) Rotifer vulgaris, J^th of an inch long, is a member
of this family. It is of special interest, not only because it
has given the name to the Phyllum, but also as it is peculiarly
able to resist drying by secreting a gelatinous covering, which
becomes durable when exposed to the atmosphere.

Some of the Rotifera are roamers, and seem never happy
unless on the move ; others, however, are only too willing to
remain in one spot for at least part of their time.

The Ploima, but for a few parasitic members, are nearly all
free swimmers. They seem so characteristically happy, so
very interested in their work, as they dash here and there,
dodging obstructions, occasionally resting, but only for a brief
moment, before hurrying off again. The Ploima are divided
into two sub-orders, comprising those enclosed in a case and
those without :

(a) Without lorica — Illoricata.
(6) With lorica — Loricata.

Amongst the Illoricata we find the Synchaeta — a family
notable for the beauty of its members, all characteristically
active. Branchionus (sub-order Loricata) is familiarly known
as the Pitcher Animalcule. The lorica (case) resembles a box
open at both ends. The foot, which is projected out of the
lorica, can be drawn inside, and is a surprisingly elastic and
flexible structure, being able to bend in a most extraordinary
manner. In fact sometimes Branchionus will fasten itself by
its foot and whirl round at right angles, revolving at a
tremendous pace. Then off it will go until it settles on some
chosen spot and repeats the extraordinary behaviour.

The Schirtopoda are queer little creatures, very different to
the ordinary type of rotifer ; in fact they resemble young
crustaceans to such an extent that they have often been re-
turned to the aquarium as members of this Phyllum.

Padalion Mirum, one of the Schirtopoda, is about §^th of
an inch long. The body is drawn into long, peculiar " limbs,"
which terminate in fanlike adornments. The head is fur-
nished with two eyes. The rotifer, when viewed in a certain
position, resembles to some extent the head and shoulders of
a diminutive old man, with a prominent bulbous nose.

78 POND LIFE

Parasitic rotifers will be frequently found happily rotifering
on the caudal fork appendages of Cyclops, also on the backs of
water-beetles, &c. Nematode worms occasionally show some
evidence of uneasiness, and on examination several parasitic
rotifers will be discovered, causing the trouble. Many species
of sedentary rotifers live on the stems and leaves of water-
weeds, and there, fastened by the foot, work away merrily. If
an intruder should blunder against it, the rotifer ceases work
and immediately withdraws the discs, and takes refuge behind
the weed. But as soon as quiet is restored it regains its
normal position, gradually opens the disc, and continues its
work.

The Flosculariaceae contain Floscularia'cornuta, a common
freshwater species. Even ditches are inhabited by colonies of
this most beautiful creature. Each little animal is enclosed hi
a glassy gelatinous case. The head end is prolongated into
five finger-like processes, adorned with very fine hairs, which
are thought to act as a net in preventing the escape of organic
particles, and thus facilitating their capture.

But the jewel of the Floscularia is Stephanoceros, the Crown
Animalcule. In this case the finger-like projections are elon-
gated, and are fringed along their entire length with cilia.

The Melicertaceae build cases of bricks which are formed of
waste food. It is interesting to watch one of the Melicerta at
work. Each brick can be seen in the making, and when it is
ready, the rotifer suddenly bends backwards and neatly places
it on the top of the last layer. There is no hesitation nor
measuring, nor is a plumb-line used, and yet each brick remains
where it is placed. Gradually the case becomes larger and
larger until complete. The bricks, which are always made of
the same size and shape by the builder, are reddish-brown in
colour : for some time this colour was thought to be due to
iron, but it is now well known that the bricks, made of waste
food, are stained during the process of digestion in the rotifer's
stomach by a brownish fluid — hence their colour.

It is interesting to know that each species of Melicerta
makes its bricks of a particular shape. That the cases are
occasionally most curiously built structures will be seen if the
reader will refer to Hudgson and Goss's famous work on the
Rotifer.

It so happens that, if one specimen be discovered, many will
soon be found, as the Melicertaceae /are of a social, or perhaps
better-termed gregarious persuasion, and owing to the size of
the case and the angle at which it is fastened to the stalk or
leaf, its discovery is simple, even without the aid of a lens.

AQUATIC WORMS

Each case is practically ^th of an inch in length, and to the
naked eye resembles a tiny brown rod. There are several
species of the Melicertaceae that do not build cases of pellets,
but are yet most original in that they love a social life.

The Conochilus volvox are not satisfied to live independent
lives, but fasten themselves to a centre mass of jelly, so as to
form a ball. The number of colonists continually increases,
for the young are no sooner hatched than they fasten them-

7.

WORMS (ROTIFERS)

1. Hydatina senta. 2. Synchoeta mordax. 3. Asplanachna. 4. Rotifer
vulgaris. 5. Melicerta ringens. 6. Stephanoceros. 7. Floscularia cornnta.

selves amongst the adults, often with the result that the jelly
gives way, and is broken into many separate colonies, each of
which increases in a similar way.

Perhaps the most original matter is their manner of pro-
gression, for the living ball rolls through the water in a similar
manner to volvox. There are several species of colonists
similar in appearance to the latter. Lacinularia is often found
fastened to stems of aquatic weeds, but occasionally is met
with behaving in a similar manner to Conochilus — that is to

80 POND LIFE

say, free swimming. But it seldom does so, and prefers to
fasten to some support.

The Rotif era are characterised by one general rule, and that is
that the females preponderate, whilst the all-important " man "
is noticeable by his absence. In this kingdom the gentler sex
has no need to break down cell tissue for " their rights," for
the male is not only rare, but, in addition, lacks digestive
organs, and so is therefore much handicapped. In fact he
only appears when he is wanted, and never shows his face
otherwise. Owing to the rarity of the males, the production
of unfertilised (known as summer) eggs is usual. These eggs
frequently hatch within the parent. Rotifers also produce
fertilised winter eggs, so called as they are able to resist
adverse conditions. It need not be remarked that the male is
essential for the production of these winter eggs.

We now come upon a most curious but wonderful scheme,
showing how Nature looks after her children, although they
may be microscopical. As the summer wears on, and the pond
becomes depleted of its water, the unfertilised females produce
special eggs, which hatch into males only. Winter eggs are
wanted to resist the coming drought, and these can only be
produced by union with the male. So numbers of males are
produced so as to fertilise the females, and thus lead to the
production of the required winter eggs.

The Rotifera are not examples of longevity, at least from
man's point of view, for the males die in two or three days,
whilst the females have the good fortune to live to the ripe
old age of a fortnight. But during this short lifetime no
valuable seconds are wasted. Sleep probably plays no part.

Maupas has found that in thirteen days the female rotifer is
able to produce about fifty eggs, and it is therefore hardly
surprising that rotifers are found in enormous numbers in all
ponds and streams.

The earthworm, owing to its abundance, is so well known that
man is liable to imagine that it is " the '' type of the worm
family, and that every worm should necessarily resemble
Lumbricus Terrestris to at least a noticeable extent. But it
is not so : L. Terristris is only a type of one kind of worm, and
there are very many kinds vastly different in appearance, and
totally unlike in their habits.

The Polyzoa, known by some as Moss Polypes, bear little, if
any, resemblance to the earthworm. In fact for several years
they were classified as members of the jelly-fish family, which
is not surprising, as their appearance is certainly similar. When
the matter was carefully inquired into, although the creature

AQUATIC WORMS 81

bore a striking resemblance to the Hydrozoa, yet their general
characteristics labelled them definitely as worms.

The Polyzoa are chiefly marine, but several freshwater
species are to be found, in large numbers, more especially
towards the end of summer. Every species of the Polyzoa has
its views as to the best position for its home. Some species
live on the under side of leaves, others choose stones and
sticks, whilst a few prefer the submerged roots of willows.
Although differing in the choice of situations, in one point
they all agree, except Cristatella, for they all dislike sunshine,
and prefer shady conditions. Cristatella probably thinks itself
more up to date, believing, as it does, in the value of the sun.
So, except for Cristatella, we may search for these interesting
little animals beneath stones, under the banks, and amongst
well-hidden roots — in fact, in every conceivable shady place.
If luck favours the searcher, a peculiar little colony of Polyzoa,
resembling a small mass of jelly, will be found hidden among
the dead sticks and leaves. The search is frequently succesful,
for although the colonists love shade, yet they have no wish to
live at any great depth beneath the surface.

If we place the captives under a low-power lens, such as the
1 inch, and use a 1 or 0 eyepiece, we can not only make out the
entire structure, but also see well into the creature. In
appearance each little animal resembles a bent tube swollen at
one place to form a stomach, whilst the end broadens into a
table-like structure, known as the lophophore, on which ten-
tacles are borne. The tentacles are fringed with cilia (hairs) on
both sides, and each one is able to move independently of the
others. The shape of the lophophore, and the number of the
tentacles present, is characteristic of the species. Each little
animal consists, as we have seen, of a bent tube, one end broad-
ened and adorned with tentacles. It is enclosed in a bag-like
structure containing a liquid. The contraction of the outside
bag forces the liquid into the tentacles, with the result that
the creature must necessarily protrude. A muscle fastened to
the base of the sack, and to the top, helps somewhat in the
movements, more so in those of contraction. The outside case
is usually gelatinous and colourless, and so the Polype can be
clearly seen within.

It is most remarkable how rapidly the number of Polyzoa
increases. A single specimen in the aquarium at the beginning
of the week will probably mean a multitude of colonies before
the end of the same week. And this can be easily understood
when one inquires into the various means these animals have
of reproducing their kind. Firstly there is the sexual method.

ff

82 POND LIFE

About August spermatozoa appear, and fertilise the ovules in
that same individual, for Polyzoa are hermaphrodites (both male
and female in one). The next method is by the production of
statoblasts, formerly thought to be winter eggs, but to-day
considered to be buds. These structures are formed inside the
creature by a particular part known as the Funiculus. Each
statoblast is surrounded by a layer of aircells, so as to make it
lighter, and thus able to float more easily. The shapes are
various ; some are round, others egg-shaped, and yet others are
adorned with hook-like projections. In fact each species has
its typical statoblast. After resting for a certain time the
statoblast germinates, and on the case splitting a young colony,
containing at least ono fully grown member, makes its appear-
ance. The number of statoblasts produced by a single indi-
vidual is probably very great indeed. Under the microscope
it is often quite easy to count thirty or so of these structures,
in various stages of development. Certain species are able to
form winter buds known as " hibernacula."

On the approach of cold weather the parent colony loses its
vitality, and produces these winter buds. Subsequently to
their death the buds rise to the surface, where, should the
winter be severe, they are frozen. Strangely enough, this
drastic treatment, contrary to being detrimental, as one might
expect, acts as a tonic.

The following spring the outside case bursts, and the young
colony makes its appearance, ready to continue the good or bad
work left undone by its predecessors.

Lastly the Polyzoa breed by fission ; spontaneous division of
the colony often occurs, and the daughter parts thus produced
increase by budding. There are six British freshwater
genera :

Plumatella Alcyonella

Cristatella Fredericella

Lophopus Paludicella.

Those most commonly found are members of the Plumatella,
a branched family, the colonists of which spread into long,
thin, branch-like forms covering the stems of aquatic weeds.
Each polype lives an independent life in its own sack, appear-
ing at intervals to wave its tentacles, so as to obtain some of
the various good things floating in its neighbourhood, for the
food of the Polyzoa mainly consists of decomposing organic
matter. The Plumatella have a crescent-shaped lophophore, fur-
nished with between forty and sixty tentacles. Perhaps it is not

AQUATIC WORMS 83

remarkable that this family is more in evidence than any other,
for we can only presume that the more the arms the more the
food. Plumatella repens, the most common variety of this
family, has egg-shaped stato blasts. Lophophore, although not
so common, rejoices in the fact that it is the only species of
its kind. The Polypides are enclosed in a jelly-like glassy
case.

As the colony increases in age it alters, becomes segmented,
the holes more deeply cleft, until, as one would expect, separa-
tion takes place. The divided part floats away to lay the
foundations of a subsequent colony.

Lophophore has the power of movement, and is able to
wander to its " heart's " desire. Compared with the immobile
condition of Plumatella and many others, such freedom seems
" too good to be true/' Lophophore is no lover of excessive
exercise, and its travels, although of long duration, are not of
great distance — half an inch is usually the maximum. The
undertaking of so great an enterprise takes twenty-four or more
hours to accomplish.

Cristatella Mucedo is the great traveller amongst the
Polyzoa ; in fact it is especially equipped for a wandering life.
The outer' case has a flattened sole, on which the creature
moves. On the upper surface the colonists protrude their
plumes, seemingly perfectly contented in whatsoever direction
the foot is taking them.

It is interesting to know that the base of the colony pro-
duces a thin film that oils the surface on which the creatures
are moving. Thus friction is minimised, and should the
direction lead downhill, and the colonists at the same time be
energetically waving, it is quite easy to follow what must
necessarily occur. On levels and uphill, if Cristatella does
walk uphill, matters are different. If the foot oils the surface,
it is doubtful whether the creature would be able to advance
in the latter case, but on the level, by reason of certain altera-
tions of the under surface of the sole, a slow movement would
easily result. It is peculiar that the movement is always in
the direction of the longer axis, and never sideways. This
fact would seem to denote that some of the creatures are
responsible for the steering, so that the direction is not a
matter of mere chance, as one is given to suppose. Colonies
of Cristatella mucedo are often as much as 4 to 5 inches long,
but very narrow, as although the colony is continually increas-
ing in length, yet the breadth does not. As time goes on
some of the community die, but no alterations are made, so
that the living and the dead remain together. In fact it

84 POND LIFE

seems that a colony once started continues until not a single
individual is left. Mucedo when carefully examined bears a
similarity to a mass of greenish jelly. On the appearance of
the Polipedes, it is now no longer so uninteresting an object,
but somewhat resembles a woolly caterpillar, a creature so
original and beautiful that, if once seen, it will not readily be
forgotten, for the effect of these minute graceful plumes,
waving in all directions, is certainly most astonishing.

CHAPTER VIII

HYDRA

THIS little animal, containing chlorophyll, a substance usually
only found in plants, has the honour to have an order practi-
cally produced for its particular benefit. It is a member of
the " Eleutheroblastea," a tongue-twisting name with an
ending that is a nasty word to some minds.

The Hydra is one of the few Coelenterates to occur in fresh
water, but it is by no means exclusively British, nor even
European, occurring as it does in so many parts of the
world.

At certain seasons, particularly towards the end of summer,
hydras increase enormously ; on every stick, plant, stone, &c.,
hundreds of these beautiful little creatures will be discovered,
some fat and short, others thin and long, some with " little
hydras " projecting from their sides (buds), others with swell-
ings which on examination prove to be egg-bags, but in one
respect they are all alike — each one ends in a number of
tentacles. Perhaps while we are watching we may have the
fortune to see a small "cyclops" brush against a tentacle,
and then it will be noticed that the accident, which hardly
seemed severe, was certainly so, for the cyclops is gradually
drawn towards the hydra's mouth. One wonders why the
victim does not at least make an attempt to escape. A
microscope would have revealed that when the unfortunate
crustacean touched the hydra numbers of long threads were
instantly shot out, and these threads in some way or other
paralysed the victim.

The mouth, which would better be named the stomach — for
in the case of the hydra it is one and the same thing, and
resembles the latter more than the former — can expand to

THE HYDRA

85

swallow large victims. Occasionally this curious animal
wanders off, and may do so either by sliding along on its foot,
or by continual somersaults, each one making some alteration
in its position. When so engaged the hydra at every revo-
lution stands once on its tentacles, foot upwards, and in this
position reminds one forcibly of the days when little vulgar
boys took up a similar position for the price of a copper coin.

The word foot, it must be explained, is merely a name for the
end distant from the tentacles.

The hydra is altogether a mystery ; firstly one and the same
creature will occasionally turn into a female, and lay eggs in
the right and proper manner. And then should food become

HYDRA

1. Group of hydra. 1 Thread capsule not in use (lash curled up).
3. Thread capsule in use.

a matter of " Wait and be patient and be thankful for what you
receive," the females " that were " quietly change into herma-
phrodites (male and female in one). It may happen that times
get worse, when it is a matter of wait without receiving, and
on this auspicious occasion the hermaphrodites, possibly
ignorantly thinking that " two sexes in one may mean more
food required," sedately change once more into males. But
this is not all ; the hydra, if it were large enough, would be
termed " the vivisectcrs' ideal," for cut off a piece, and the
"cut off" grows the missing part, whilst the "cut from" be-
comes complete. And a hydra can be cut into very many
pieces and each piece will grow into a perfect specimen.

There are three British species ; H. viridis is probably the
commonest. It is green owing to the chlorophyll it contains,

86 POND LIFE

and has eight short tentacles. Hydra vulgaris is orange-brown
in colour, with six tentacles as long as its body. A hydra
often found with six remarkably long tentacles is H. Oligactis.
All these live and multiply at an enormous rate in an aquarium.
They make excellent living slides, and if a drop of a weak
solution of ordinary salt is added beneath the cover glass, the
hydra will oblige by firing a regular broadside of its thread-
like weapons.

CHAPTER IX

SNAILS

WATER- SNAILS do not usually meet with much interest, partly
because their life histories are little understood. However,
the study of the freshwater molluscs is not so dull as one
might think.

Water-snails are perhaps of most concern to the agricultur-
ists, who have suffered heavy losses by the death of sheep. Not
that the snail has any evil intentions, but a parasite known as
Distomum hepaticum uses certain snails as hosts during part of
its life history. The host, unaware of the damage it is thereby
doing, leaves the water and wanders over the grass-land. The
liver fluke then escapes and encysts itself on the grass, to
eventually be swallowed by some unfortunate sheep.

But even if an agriculturist, care must be used not to give
all water-molluscs a bad name, because it happens that only
two of the many species of snails so common in ponds and
streams are guilty — Limnaea peregra and Truncatula.

The pond-hunter will often find specimens of a spiral but
flat snail, members of the Planorbis. These snails are par-
ticularly charming whilst young — in fact the appearance of
their diminutive flat spiral shells is most original. Sometimes
the Planorbis will walk along carrying its shell at practically
right angles to its body, and seemingly requires to make some
effort to draw its encumbrance with it.

Members of the Ancylus are very similar in appearance to
limpets. Ancylus fluviatilis is common in some fast-running
streams, Ancylus lacustris prefers still or slowly flowing water.
The former with its peculiarly beaked shell is a very fascinat-
ing little object. The freshwater mussels — the Sphaeridae,
Unionidae, and Dreissenidae — are very frequently found. The
last-named has only one British species, and is thought to have
been imported many years ago in timber.

FROGS 87

Anodonta, the freshwater mussel, has a peculiar life history.
The larvae hatch inside the parent, and remain there until the
end of the summer. They are then ejected, or perhaps leave
on their own account, and swim about until they happen
to meet a member of the pisces (fish) ; no sooner have they
touched their unlucky host than they hold on to the best of
their abilities, and remain until mature. Strangely enough,
not only are they carried about by the fish, but also its skin
grows so as to cover the parasitic mollusc, thus preventing it
from dropping off should an accident occur.

Snails' eggs are so frequently found that they deserve men-
tion. Molluscs are hermaphrodites — that is to say, both male
and female in the same individual. On two snails meeting a
peculiar battle takes place. In a sac kept for the sole and
special purpose a number of darts are kept, and on this aus-
picious occasion they are fired at each other by the molluscs.
What the use of this conduct may be is difficult to say, as it
hardly seems affectionate to hurl darts on such a trivial pre-
text ; when this preliminary battle is over the two snails join
together. It is interesting to know that one snail is tem-
porarily male, whilst the other is temporarily female. The eggs
are laid on sticks, stones, weeds, or the glass of the aquarium,
in long jelly-like masses. The u time being " male, his work
accomplished, now changes into a temporary female, and sub-
sequently meets some other snail of the opposite sex, which
will later in the season become a female.

CHAPTER X

FROGS

A BOOK on pond life would hardly be complete unless some
pages were devoted to frogs and newts. Few people care to
keep frogs except in a conservatory. Their incessant croaking,
especially during the night, is far from pleasant, and owing to
their surprising agility, sooner or later one or more frogs are
certain to evacuate their home and perambulate the house,
much to the horror of the gentler members of the household.
How they have managed to escape is often a difficult question
to solve.

The life history of the frog is of particular interest, because
the young are so very different to the adult. It is hard to

88 POND LIFE

believe that the one-day-old tadpole, a creature more fish-like
than frog-like, should turn into the stately and dignified Rana
temporaria.

During March and June, depending on the weather, frogs
congregate at suitable ponds, often in hundreds. They come
from all ways, sometimes travelling several miles. All the paths
and ruts leading to the meeting-place are alive with frogs,
wandering slowly towards their destination. And the pond,
which but yesterday contained only a few frogs, has now a
teeming population, even the banks being covered. We will
notice the male, which often seems ridiculously small, fastened
upon the female, holding her under the arms. When once
settled he has no wish to leave go, and seems to lose the power
of liberating himself, even if he so wishes. For accidents do
happen. In one case a pair so united fell a distance of four
feet, and even that experience made no difference to the male,
who remained calmly where he was. In the pond the female
swims to and fro, carrying with her her inactive mate, who
occasionally varies the monotony of the proceedings by uttering
croaks. The eggs, which are fertilised by the female after they
have left her body, are laid in a continuous string. Each egg

ub-

is about j^th of an inch in diameter, and is covered by a su
stance that by absorbing water swells to form the well-known

jelly.

No sooner have the eggs been fertilised than they show signs
of life. In fact, the alterations in the embryo during the first
few hours are remarkable. The owner of a microscope, if in-
terested in embryology, may watch the changes taking place
hour by hour.

Six or seven days later the young tadpoles are no longer
round but oval in shape, and very gradually, as time goes on,
the oval becomes indented to form a head, body, and tail.
Then two pairs of minute external gills, the eyes, a large ear,
and a peculiar sucker beneath the head, makes an appearance.
The embryo is now becoming tadpole-like, and is nearing the
day when it will enter the world to start a life "on its own." The
young tadpole now shows signs of active life ; it no longer rests
in the egg motionless, but moves occasionally. For a few more
days it remains within its gelatinous sphere, becoming longer
in shape and more active in disposition, until the day comes
when it forces its way through the surrounding case, and
escapes into the world.

At first the young tadpoles, having no mouth, are unable to
eat, but live on the remains of the yolk, as a chicken does for
the first twenty-four hours after hatching. Two days later the

FROGS 89

mouth opens, and the little creature now feeds on water-
plants. The external gills become less evident, and even-
tually vanish. In the meanwhile internal gills have been
formed, and these gill slits are covered by a thin skin.

In appearance the creature has made great changes. The
tail is now " a thing to be proud of," very different to that of
the young tadpole, and during this period, which is roughly
six weeks, the internal arrangements are very similar to those
of a fish.

Up to this time the tadpoles seldom trouble to come to the
surface; the blood in the gills and the water containing air
meet, except for fine membranes, and thus an interchange of
gases takes place. But now the tadpole's habits alter ; it will
be seen to frequently swim to the surface in order to breathe,
for the lungs are being formed, and although the gills still
remain yet they no longer function as previously. Gradually
the gills atrophy, the eyes become larger, the lungs more
powerful, the digestive organs completely changed, the tail
becomes shorter and shorter, the feet webbed, and the little
creature with a stump of a tail evinces great eagerness to
escape out of the water.

Occasionally tadpoles grow very large before forming their
limbs, or it may happen that the creature remains small
although maturing.

Tadpoles are queer little creatures. They are very gre-
garious, loving to crowd together for no obvious reason.
Sometimes they are only too pleased to swim singly, but
occasionally nothing can be too crowded. Then they behave
in a similar manner to a crowd attempting to board a tramcar,
on the way to a football match. In fact, they rush and push
until one wonders that they do not injure themselves in their
violent struggles. Tadpoles evince some intelligence, and are
most expert dodgers when occasion needs. The poor little
creatures are always in trouble. Firstly, the enormous num-
bers means a possible shortage of food, and, in addition, they
have many enemies ; water-beetles, even the smallest, destroy
large numbers, the larva of Dytiscus will kill a score or more a
day. Even leeches will seize them, and more than one Nema-
tode worm passes part of its life history within the body of the
tadpole.

The adult Rana becomes active early in the morning and
towards evening. During the day it hides away either in the
water, beneath stones, or under banks. Its food consists of
insects, which it captures by means of its tongue, used with
great rapidity. The body is enclothed in a loose skin, which

90 POND LIFE

contains a great number of special glands for the purpose of
keeping it moist.

That so many people should dislike frogs is really surprising,
and only leads to show how blind we civilised beings are to
God's great work. For the frog is no coarse or ugly creature,
nothing repulsive, but much to the contrary, and there is no
justifiable reason to dislike a harmless animal, which was
created for a good purpose.

The newts or elfts, similarly to the frogs, are greatly dis-
liked and feared by people who ought to know better. What
there is to fear nobody exactly knows. In some places the
idea seems to be that the poor, quiet, inoffensive, timid, little
newt is an evil spirit. Civilisation certainly makes slow pro-
gress. Well — we must leave the creatures more timid than
the newt to their own reflections and return to the latter.

The female newt lays each egg on a leaf which she bends
over, so as to protect it from predaceous fish, and other
dangers. The eggs hatch into most charming little creatures,
delicate, graceful, and beautifully coloured. Gradually the
young newt grows more like the adult; the large external gills
which give it so original an appearance disappear.

If the young newt be placed under the microscope the
blood can be watched circulating in the gills, a most fascinat-
ing spectacle. When the young newts are mature they leave
the water and do not return until a year or two later.

There are three British species, two common and the other
rare.

The great Warty Newt (Molge cristata).

The skin of this species is rough, hence its name. In colour
it is almost black, with a light orange throat and abdomen,
the latter marked with dark lines ; in addition the tail of the
male bears a conspicuous white streak.

During the breeding season, bot*h the male and the female
become even more highly coloured. The former now bears a
crest along its back, and the white streak on its tail becomes
even more clearly defined.

Molge cristata is the largest British newt, often measuring
as much as 5 inches when mature. Both male and female
bear a stolid but peculiarly savage expression, yet are per-
fectly harmless.

Towards winter the newts wander from the pond, and hide
in any convenient spot. Sometimes they will enter houses in
search of a suitable spot, much to the terror of the original
inhabitants.

Molge vulgaris, which is smaller than Molge cristata, is

FROGS 91

more generally found, and cannot be mistaken for the latter.
During the breeding season especially it is a very pretty little
creature, some 4 inches long, the skin differing from M. cristata
in that it is perfectly smooth.

Newts thrive in an aquarium if fed, but should this be
forgotten they gradually become smaller and smaller until
they eventually die. Their food consists mainly of worms,
which are swallowed whole.

It is a most interesting experiment to drop a tempting
morsel in the shape of a worm between two newts. They wake
very slowly to the fact that the wriggling thing is a worm,
and gradually their interest becomes more acute. Then slowly
and very judiciously, step by step, they advance towards it,
and even then they seem hardly able to realise their good
fortune. But when Molge does wake up, no time is lost ; the
worm is suddenly seized, probably somewhere near the middle,
the newt gulps and gulps, vainly attempting to swallow its
capture. Shaking the worm violently at intervals, it tries and
tries again, but without success. Eventually it drops it and
after some hesitation seizes the end, and now its efforts are
met with greater success. Gradually the worm becomes
shorter and shorter. But during this time the other newt has
also awakened, and is slowly, as if hurry were out of the ques-
tion, nearing the fast-disappearing meal. Then with a sudden
rush the new comer seizes the free end and starts to swallow
in haste, as if to make up for lost time. Little by little the
nose of the one and the nose of the other amphibian come
closer and closer together, until they meet nose to nose. In
this position they rest ; nothing happens, but each newt looks
at the other in evident disgust. Suddenly one of them starts
to pull and struggle, and the unfortunate worm is as rapidly
disgorged by the one as swallowed by the other. But all at
once the loser of the meal seems to realise what is occurring,
and makes up its mind on " no surrender." After some violent
struggles the cause of the trouble comes in two, and each
Molge gulps down its own particular share. Newts shake the
worm in a similar manner as a terrier does a rat. If really
hungry, Molge becomes more active, but if well fed, not even
the most appetising worm will alter its expression or cause it
to change its position.

Newts periodically cast their skins, and those who believe in
ghosts might easily be deceived ; for after the newt has
changed, the empty skin remains floating in the water, the
feet resembling little tiny gloves. Very often the creature de-
vours its old skin, as soon as cast — in fact this seems to be

92 POND LIFE

customary. Space forbids us to go further into the life history
of these original little creatures, on which several chapters
could be easily written. It must be remarked, however, that
newts are easy to keep as long as they are allowed to escape
from the aquarium towards the end of summer ; they should
then be placed in a spacious box, containing moss and
a miniature pond. Here they will remain safely until
the following spring, when they may be returned to the
aquarium.

INDEX

Acineta, 26
Aeolosoma, 73
Alcyonella, 82
Amoeba, 19
Ancylus, 86
Anodonta, 87
Antherozoids, 15
Aptera, 34
Apus, 29

Argroneta aquaticus, 62
Ascaris lumbricoides, 72
Aacilius sulcatus, 36
Asellus aquaticus, 32, 33
Asplanchnaceae, 76
Asterionella formosa, 12
Bdelloida, 76
Beatis flurainum, 45
Bell animalcules, 24 (31)
Black Stentors, 27
Branchiopoda, 28
Branshionus, 77
Brick builders, 78
Bristle worms, 73
Caddis cases, 48
Caddis " worms," 39
Carapace, 28
Caudal setae, 45
Cells, daughter, vi
Chaetonotus larua, 23
Chironomous, 56
Cilia, 15, 20, 76
Cladocera, 28
Clepsine, 75
Closterium lunula, 13
Coelenterates, 84
Coleps hirtus, 23
Condona reptans, 32
Corethra, 55
Corixa, 39

Cosmarium botritis, 13
Cothurnia, 26
Cristatella, 81
Crown animalcule, 78
Cyclops, (78, 84) 30
Cyclosis, 13
Cypris, 32
Dancing flies, 21
Daphnia, 28
Dero, 73
Desmids, 10, U
Diatoms, 11

Diptera, 34

Distoma hepaticum, 86

Dolomedea flmbriatus, 60

Dragon flies, 50

Dreissehidse, 86

Dytiscus, (34) 37, (89)

Egg cocoon, 37

Eleutheroblastes, 84

Elfts, 90

E. danica, 42

E. vulgaris, 42
Ephemerella, 45
Epistylis, 25

F. Cornuta, 78
Fission, 13
Flea, 28

Flosculariaceae, 78
Fossil May flies, 47
Fredericella, 82
Frogs, 87
Frustules, 13
Funiculus, 82
Gastroricha, 23
Geneva, lake of, 33
Gerridae, 65
Gerria, 67

Gomphonema geminatum, 12
Gordius, 72
Gymnomera, 28
Gyrinidae, 34
Haemoglobin, 58
Heliopelta, 11
Helochares, 37
Hemiptera, 34
Hermaphrodites, 82
Hibernacula, 82

Hirudo medicinalis, 74
Horse leech, 74
Hyalotheca dissiliens, 14
Hydatina senta, 76
Hydra, 84
Hydrachnidae, 64
Hydradephaga. 34
Hydrocerisa, 38
Hydrometa stagnorum, 67
Hydrophilidae, 34
Hydrophilus, 37
Igneus, 28
Infusoria, 20
King crab, 64
Lacinularia, 79

INDEX

Lancaster blue stentorin, 28

Larva, 34

Leeches, 74

Leptodora hyalina, 89

Leucosyte, 29

Lilliputians, 20

Limnae peregera, 18

Lophophore, 82, 86

Lorica, 76

Lucus piratica, 60

Lumbricus terrestris, 80

Lycosidae, 60

May fly, 42

Medical leech, 74

Melicertaceae, 78

Metazoa, v

Mites, 64

Molge cristata, 90

Molge vulgaris, 90

Moss polypes, 80

Nais, 73

Navicular, 11

Nematode worms, (25, 89), 72

Nepa Cineras, 39

Nets, vii

Newts, 90

Nostoc, 17

Notonecta, 39

Oogonium, 15

Oospores, 15

Ophryotrecha, 75

Ophrytium, 26

Oscillatoria tenuis, 17

Padalion mirum, 77

Paludicella, 82

Pandorina morum, 16

Paramecium, 21

Phagocyte, 20

Phyllopoda, 29

Piceus, 37

Pitcher animalcule, 77

Planarians, 71

Planorbis, 48, 86

Ploima, 77

Plumatella, 82

Podura, 69

Polychaeta, 73

Polyzoa, 80

Pond-skaters, 65

Protoplasm, v

Protozoa, v

Psuedopodia, vi
Pulex, 29
Rana, 89

Kanatra linearis, 40
Rhabdocoelida, 70
Rotifers, (25, 31), 75
Schirtopoda, 77
Scorpion, water, 39
Simicephalus, 39
Slipper animalcule, 21
Sphaeridae, 86
Spider, water, 62
Spider, wolf, 60
Spiders' silk, 60
Spirogyra, 18
Springtails, (34) 68
Statoblasts, 82
Stentors, 27
Stephanoceros, 78
Stylouchia mytolis, 20
Suctoria, 26
Swan animalcule, 21
Synchaeta, 76
Tadpoles, 88
Temporary feet, 20
Trachclocerca Olor, 21
Thread worms, 72
Triceratum, 11
Trichodysts, 21
Tricladida, 70
Truncatula, 86
Tubifex rivulorum, 73
Turbellaria, 70
Umbellula, 26
Unionidse, 86
Vaginiceala, 26
Velia currens, 67
Vermes, 70
Viridis, 85
Volvox globator, 15
Volvox conochilus, 79
Vorticella, 24
Water beetles, (78), 34
Water bugs, 38
Water mites, 64
Water scorpions, 39
Water spiders, 62
Whirligig beetles, (65),
Wolf spiders, 60
Worms, 89

I/I3

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