m
■
POPERl
r
JUDGED BY ITS FRUITS:
AS liUOUCillT TO VIEW IX THE DIARY OF TWO DISTINGUISHED SCHOLARS AND rHILANTHROPISTS.
JOHN AND ANTHONY ULLOA,
DURiyO A SOJOURy OF SEVERAL TEARS /Y THE STATES OF COLOMBIA AXD PERU.
Translated from the Spanish by a Member of the Principia Club.
BOSTON:
ALBERT J. WKIGIIT, PRINTER,
>'o. 79 Mii-K Stkeet.
1878
3i
NOTE.
Tho following explanations may be found useful : —
The Spanish -word curd, translated curate, properly signifies rector, or one who is subject only to the bishop of his diocese, or to the provincial of his Order. The curates or rectors receive no fixed salary, but oulj' a contingent revenue, estimated by the number of masses, responses, and fees for baptisms, marriages, and interments.
Meta, or Afita, signifies an annual conscription of Indians, ■who are drawn by lot, to be placed under the absolute control of the proprietor of a mine.
Metaijo is the ludiau who performs the meta service.
Alcabala is an excise duty on goods despatched into the in- terior provinces.
The courts, or the tribunals of justice, in Peru, are called " Audiences; " and the members of them, or the judges, are called oydors.
The term Provincial is applied to the superior of a metropolitan convent, who has under his jurisdiction all tlio minor convents of his order, comprehended within tho limits of a particular state or province.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
Cruelty of the Magistra,tes and Clergy to the Indians. — Miserable Condition to vrliich the latter are rednced. — Jlethod used in auditing the Accounts of the Governors and Corregidors, 7
CHAPTER II. The same Subject continued, 33
CHAPTER III.
The same Subject continued. — Sequestration of Lands be- longing to the Indians, 56
CHAPTER IV.
Extortions which the Indians suffer from the Parish Priests. — Corrupt Morals and Scandalous Life of the Clergy, hoth secular and regular, 71
CHAPTER V.
Showing that the Unwillingness of the Gentile Indians to receive tiic Gospel and to submit to the Authority of tlio Kings of Spain, is to be attributed to the extreme Suf- ferings of the Civilized Indians, as will appear from the Limited Influence and Partial Success of the Catholic Missions, 01
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CHAPTER VI.
PAGE
Prevalence of Party Spirit between Europeans and Creoles. — Its chief Source, and the Evils resulting from it in the Cities and large Tov^us, 114
CHAPTEE VII.
Gross Licentiousness of the Clergy in general, and particu- larly of the Monks. — Tumults attending the Capitulary Elections. — Their Principal Cause, .... 129
POPERY IN COLOMBIA AND PERU.
CHAPTER I.
Cruelty of the Magistrates and Clergy to the Indians. — Misera- ble Condition to wbicli the latter are reduced. — Method used in auditing the Accounts of the Governors and Corregidors
Subjects of speculation become interesting to the mind in proportion as it contemplates them, especially when genius and industr}' lend their aid to render them more luminous and fascinating ; but they appear, and not without reason, to possess peculiar attractions for those who devote themselves to the pursuit of knowledge as a means of rational entertainment. Of the truth of this we can furnish the best evidence, inasmuch as it has been the result of our own experience. After we had collected in one volume the astronomical and physical observations made in the kingdom of Peru, illustrating the figure and magnitude of the earth, and had published in two others historical notices of those countries, it seemed as if all the satisfaction we had experienced in writing those works was exceedingly augmented when we came to draw up this Report ; and the mind, absorbed in its speculations, now enters upon the subject, not with fatigue, but rather alacrity, as it reaches this point of its inquiries, enabling us to present a more animated picture of wluit has been ah-eady brought to view in those works : and, if our readers have been inclined to attribute any- thing to neglect or omission, it should be regarded as the dictate of prudence on our part, that we may now have an opportunity to speak with more freedom, reserv ing for this place what it would have been inexpedient to introduce in the history of our travels.
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Having conclucled our remarks relative to the marine, the fortifications, and the commerce of Peru, we shall now proceed to discuss a subject of a more delicate nature, and which relates almost exclusively to the moral and religious condition of the civilized Indians of Peru, and the character and conduct of their rulers, both civil and ecclesiastical. Unbiased by prejudice or by any personal consideration whatever, we have made the most diligent inquiry in respect to everything suggested in the instructions of his Majesty's secretaries, and we now lay before them the result of our observations ; and as the details embodied in this part of our Report are communicated for the Information of those whose duty it is to know them, and not as pastime for the idle, nor to afford matter of scandal to the mischievous, they are brought to light with entire frankness, in order that the}'' may be duly considered, and the best means of reform devised.
The subject to be discussed in this chapter is of such a nature that we cannot enter upon it without emotions of sorrow ; much less can we pause to reflect upon the circumstances of its details, without heartfelt pity for the miseries of a race of men who, for no other crime than their simplicity, and for no other pretext than their nat- ural ignorance, have become the victims of a kind of bondage so oppressive that, in view of the sufferings in- flicted upon them, the colonial negro slaves may be regarded as comparatively happy — the state of servi- tude to which the latter are brought being justl}^ envied by those who are nominally free, and whom our sover- eigns have taught us to regard as such ; for the condition of the Indian is far more degraded and miserable than that of the African slave.
Our first object will be to describe the kind of tyranny exercised by the corregidors over the Indians ; and, although it is difficult to find a beginning, we shall avail ourselves of a division in the departments of Peru which has existed from the time of the conquest. These de- partments are of two kinds : the first are those in which the distribution system is not established ; and
the second, those iu which it ma}' hiwfall}' be prac- tised.
The oppression "which the Indians suffer arises from the insatiable thirst for wealth, which is characteristic of those who go over to govern them ; and, as they have no means of etfecting their object except b}- a S3'stem of tyranny, they never fail to practise it in every shape ; and, by goading the Indians on every side with the utmost cruelty, they exact more service from them than the}' would be able to do from the meanest slave. It is true that the distribution sj'stem is unknown in Quito ; but, although it is the good fortune of the Indians of that province to be exempted from that species of oppression, they are not the less subject to burdens so intolerable as to reduce them to the lowest degree of wretchedness that can be imagined.
A great variety of expedients are adopted by the cor- regidors to enrich themselves at the expense of the In- dians. The first to be mentioned is the mode of collect- ing the tribute mone}', — an iniquitous S3'stem carried on in contempt of the principles of justice and the dictates of humanity. The fees for collection are enumerated b}' the corregidors among the perquisites of their office ; and, if they were actuated by a sense of justice in the discharge of their duty, the}^ would neither aggrandize themselves, nor wrong the Indian, nor defraud the treas- urj' : but tlieir unprincipled conduct begets all these evils ; for they have such an inordinate love of wealth that they spare no pains to accumulate it, and have recourse to the most oppressive measures, in entire confidence that, when their term of office expires, they shall be absolved from ever}' charge, by holding out the offer of a bribe to the judge oa whom it devolves to audit their accounts.
With a view to collect this tax, the corregidor makes two ar.iiual visits to all the villages and estates comprised within his jurisdiction. 8t. John's day and Christmas day are appropriated to this object, — a judicious meas- ure, if, in carrying it into effect, the avarice of the col- lector did not overstep all bounds in oppressing that un- fortunate race, whom our sovereign regards with so much
10
pity that he has issued a decree in order to hghten their burdens as much as possible ; enjoining the magistrates not to collect tribute from them until they have com- pleted their eighteenth year, and to exempt them from paj-ment after the age of fift3"-five, on the ground that, as their strength fails, they are incapable of sustaining any other exertion than that which is necessary for their own maintenance. The greater part of the tribute money was designed to be expended for their own bene- fit. Out of it they are required to pay not only the curate's fees, but the charges of the fiscal protector who defends their suits. The chief, by right of the chiefship, as well as the Indian governors, are exempt from every kind of impost ; so also are the crippled, the blind, the demented, and the deformed, of which last two there are great numbers among the Indians ; neither is the obliga- tion to pay tribute binding upon the eldest sons of the chiefs, nor upon those who hold the office of sextons in the churches, or who belong to the choir of music, nor upon any Indian magistrate who holds an office in the Indian towns and villages. Under such a system, it appears as if the tribute of the Indians cannot be more moderate, unless we exempt them from contributions of every kind. But what matters it that it should appear so, when viewed from a distance, if the best laws are trampled upon in practice, and rendered inoperative b}" a system of cruelty and injustice? The corregidors not only oblige the young to pay tribute before the time specified, but exact it of those who are exempt by law, having attained the age of fift^'-five ; and, although the}' are so far advanced in 3'ears as to beg, for want of strength to labor, their names are not erased from the list of the collector ; and, as the Indians are remarkable for longevit}', they fre- quentl}' pa}' tribute till they have passed the age of sev- enty. The same practice obtains in respect to all, when they are not wholly disabled from work by infirmity ; so that none are exempt except such as are incapable of earning a livelihood. If the chiefs, the governors, and sextons escape the contagion of miser}', it is because they are beyond the reach of the arbitrary power of the
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coiTcgicIors ; for, in case the}^ were as defenceless as the rest, the same thing would happen to them.
It might appear that the injustice done the Indians by the corregidors, in obliging them to pa}' when they are exempted by roj'al favor, is not so great as our last re- mark would impl}', because it falls exclusivel}' on those who are nominall}- a privileged class, and not upon the whole community of Indians. This conclusion, however, is incorrect, for the injury- is felt by all : by some, in being compelled to pay tribute, b}' the mere caprice of the corregidor, prior to the competent age, as is the case with the greater part of them, who contribute two or three years before the}' are bound to ; and b}^ others, in continuing to pay after having passed the age prescribed by law. It also happens that, the young not having cnjo^'ed a season of repose sufficient to enable them to labor with the requisite assiduity, being made subject to tribute illegall}-, fathers and elder brothers are bound, if they would not see a son or brother punished with the whip, to unite their efforts to help him earn the tribute money ; and, if the}' fail to do so, daughters and wives must put their hands to the work, in order to make up the deliciency in the amount due : hence it is that the age in which they have a right to enjoy some repose is that in which their burdens are heaviest. The same takes place in respect to idiots, deformed persons, and other unfortunate creatures, who ought to be of the priv- ileged class ; but, so far from it, the burden is made to fall upon the rest, who, in addition to the labor necessary to pay their own contribution, have to perform a twofold task to pa}' the tribute of tliose who are unable to work. The Indian women, especially, are obliged to task them- selves the whole year round, in order to meet, by unre- mitting toil, the unjust demands of the corregidor.
Nor is the rapacity of the corregidor content with obliging those to pay tribute who arc exempted by law ; but it is often can-ied to such an extreme as to enforce the payment of a twoloM contribution. This is practised towards the field Indians, which are those who neither perform the meta service nor live in the Indian villages.
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These poor laborers pay the tribute to the corregidor or his suljnltcrns, who are numerous, and who give them a receipt for the monc}^ ; but, as the Indians are an un- taught race, and have not sagacit}- to foresee the conse- quences of neglect, besides not having in their huts either box or shelf where to place an}' thing for security, it sometunes happens that the receipt is lost, and pa}'- ment is demanded a second time ; and when another collector, or perhaps the same, comes to enforce the demand, the Indian goes to look for the receipt, and, as he is unable to read, he brings the first paper that comes to hand, or perhaps an old receipt, and presents it without fear of being suspected. The collector is not satisfied with it ; and, although the Indian weary himself in con- vincing him that he has paid his portion of the tribute, he charges him with fraudulent designs, and, after abus- ing him, carries off whatever he can find in his hut, and, if there is nothing there of any value, he puts him into a factory (which is the usual method), where he is kept at work until the debt is paid. The wi'etched Indian, finding himself grievously oppressed, and siii!i;ing under the weight of want and of a sense of injustice, dies in a short time : unless his wife or daughters have been able to raise the amount required, or unless some individual, more compassionate than the rest, comes forward to advance the money, on condition of recovering it by hiring the Indian out to service. The meta Indians do not pay tribute personally ; but the masters whom they serve pay for them, and collect and preserve receipts for all those who are under their charge, and b}^ this means they arc shielded from injustice. Those who live in small villages pay the cacique, who delivers the whole amount, when collected, to the corregidor.
Besides the privilege granted to those who are ex- empted from tribute, another not less reasonable has been conceded in favor of those Indians who have been absent for a certain term, perhaps for one or two j'ears, without having paid tribute in the department to which they belong; which is, that, on their return, they are liable for only one-third of the contribution — a very
13
merciful provision in behalf of that race, and which has iu its support two important arguments — one that, as all the eorreo;idors collect tribute of transient Indians in the same waj- as they do of those who reside iu the vil- lages, it is to be supposed that, although the Indian may not have paid the corregidor of his district, he has paid some other ; the second reason is, that, although the In- dian should have paid no corregidor in two or three years, and although in the lapse of this period he may have earned a great deal, at the close of it he has no more stock or estate than that which was left him after having made his last payment ; so that, being insolvent, he is naturallly discharged from the debt. But this is not the case in practice ; for, as soon as the Indian appears, he is made debtor for all the time that has elapsed since the corregidor came into office for which he cannot show receipts. Hence he is treated in the manner above mentioned ; if he possess anything of value, it is deducted on account of the debt ; but he is not discharged from the factory until the whole amount has been paid.
All these acts of extortion, which are committed under a false pretence of zeal in the service of the Icing and of the royal exchequer, are in reality nothing but artifices used to augment the revenue of the corregidors themselves ; who basely assume this mask to justif}' their iniquity, which, however it may be disguised under one form of 0[)pressiou, never fails to come to light by means of another.
The Indians of those countries are in reality slaves, and happy Avould it be for them had the}' onlj- one master to whom to contribute the avails of their hard earnings ; liut these are so numerous, that, in view of the obligations they are under to all of them, they can- not claim as their own the smallest portion of all they have acquired with so much care and industry. But, this chapter having for its subject the extortions of the corregidors, we sliall afterwards treat of those which are practised upon them by other classes of magistrates, both civil and ecclesiastical.
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The departments of the Province of Quito are of vari- ous kinds : some of trade, others of husbandry, and others of manufactures. In them all, a large portion of the revenue reverts to the corregidors. In the trading districts, they absorb the greater part : for they take into their own service the very Indians whom they deprive during the whole year. The only individuals excepted of the benefit of trade ; and, by giving them what is barely necessary for their support, they secure to themselves the profits which they have usurped from them ; and, bj'' requiring them to labor on alternate clays, they keep them always emplo3'ed in their service. In these dis- tricts, where all the Indians included in their precincts are weavers, thej^ compel them to manufacture differend articles ; and, by giving them the materials only, and ver}^ reduced wages, they keep them constantly em- ploj'cd for their benefit, as they would do if they were slaves. Should they, in return for so hard labor, remit to them their tribute monej^ the burden might be made tolerable ; but, far from doing them this kindness (and it would be only an act of justice), they exact it with as much severity as if they had rendered them no service from this service are those who live in districts where there are estates for agriculture or grazing ; and if, to their sorrow, the case should occur that the corregidor has an estate of his own, or a hired one, it comes to be the rendezvous of all the Indians who have not paid their tribute promptly ; and thus, on every hand, that people have no more freedom than the corregidor pleases to grant them, nor any more fruit of their labor than what is conceded to them as a mere gratuity.
Still greater iniquity is practised in suits at law ; for their judges desii'e nothing so much as some occasion of dispute or difference to complete their ruin : so that, be the motive what it will, it is always sufficient to secure their object ; for, what with fines, and what with costs of suit, they lay hold of a mule, cow, or any animal the Indian may jdos- sess, and which constitutes the whole estate of the richest among them. These acts of extortion, which have no limit, have reduced them to a condition so deplorable
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that the state of the most miserable beings that can be conceived is not to be compared with that of these In- dians. Let us now take a view of what obtains in the districts in which the distributions are made ; and we shall witness greater enormities, although of a different nature.
It is from the department of Loja that the distribution sj-stem {reparlimieyitos) commences, — a sj'stem so ini- quitous that it appears to have been imposed upon that race b}' way of punishment, for nothing more oppressive can be imagined. It must be admitted that, if it were properly managed, as it appears to have been intended in its origin, no evil would result ; for with a view to the greater convenience of the Indians, and that they might not be destitute of the means of clothing themselves and of carrying on their husbandry or trade, corregidors were allowed to purchase a quantity of such articles as were suited to each department, and to distribute them among the Indians at moderate prices, in order that, having im- plements for labor, the}* might shake off the apathy which is innate in their constitution, and use the exertion re- quisite for paying their tribute and earning a livelihood. Were it continued on this principle, and were the cor- regidor content with moderate profits, it would be a judi cious S3'stem ; but, as it is now practised, it deserves no other epithet but that of the most dreadful tyi'anny that could be invented.
Tlie articles of distribution are chiefly mules, foreign and domestic goods, and produce ; and, as this S3'stem was commenced at an early period, it is already under- stood what articles are suited to each department. The corregidors who are attached to the vicero3'alty of Lima must necessarily go to that city to take out a license, and to receive their despatch from the vicero3% in order* to be inducted into office ; and, as Lima is the grand depot of the trade of Peru, it is in that cit3^ that an assortment of artiflcs for distribution is to l»e made, and for this pur- pose the3' taiie the goods required fruui the shop of soma merchant or trader on credit, at an exorbitant price ; and, as the traders are aware of the enormous profits the cor-
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regidors make in the sale, they raise the prices of the goods, in order to have a share in the speculation. The corregidors have no money before they come into office ; and, being unable to purchase for a ready sum, they are obliged to submit to any terms which the creditor may prescribe, as they are in duty bound, on account of the money which the merchant is to lend him for the pur- chase of the mules required for transportation.
As soon as the corregidor comes within his jurisdiction, the first act of his administration is to take a census of the Indians, according to their towns and villages. Pro- ceeding to this duty in person, and taking with him the articles of merchandise to be distributed, he goes on, ap- portioning the quantity and kind he selects for every In- dian, and affixing to each article its price, just as suits his caprice ; the poor Indians being wholly ignorant of what is to fall to their lot, or how much it is to cost them. As soon as he has finished distributing in one village, he transfers the whole assortment to the cacique, with an exact inventory of the articles belonging to each individual, from the cacique himself to the most humble of all those who are to pay tribute ; and the corregidor proceeds to another village, in order to continue the dis- tribution. It is a time of anguish, both to the cacique and the Indians, when they look at the quantity, quality, and prices of the goods. In vain does the cacique re- monstrate, and to no purpose do the Indians raise their clamors. On the one hand, they maintain that their means are not adequate to such a quantity of merchan- dise as is assigned them, being absolutely unable to pay for it; again, they urge that goods of such a description are utterly useless to them, and that the prices are so exorbitant as to exceed any thing they had ever paid be- fore. The corregidor remains inexorable, and the In- dians are obliged to take wliatever has l)een allotted them, however repugnant it may be to their wishes, and however straitened they are for want of means to make the payments ; for these payments become due simul- taneously with the tribute money, and a failure to meet one or the other with promptness makes them liable to a
17
pcualt}' equally severe. The whole cost of the first dis- tribution must be paid within two years and a half, to malce room ibr the second, which commences at the close of that period, but which does not contain so great an assortment as the first.
In addition to these supphes, which are usually the most important, whenever the corrcgidor make a Aisit to collect debts (and he never does it for any other motive) , he takes with him an assortment of goods, to apportion an additional (luantit}' to those who have made their pay- ments most promptly' ; and, as the Indians have received in the first division those articles which are of least value to them (such as are of absolute necessity being kept back for this occasion) , all who are in want are obhgcd to take them under the denomination of a voluntary sale ; and, although they are at liberty on this occasiun to select such articles as they lake, they are not so as to the bar- gain : to set the price is a prerogative reserved to the cor- rcgidor ; which is so well understood that the poor In- dians no longer think it strange that they must submit to it without nun-muring.
It is not left to the choice of the Indians to supply themselves elsewhere, even, with the necessary articles furnished by the coiTcgidor : hence they are obliged to purchase them at his hands ; for, in the towns that are exclusivel}' Indian, they do not license any shop but their own, and they have one in every village, to which all must of necessity go to purchase. The latter obtains Likewise in the departments of the Province of Quito, where goods are also sold at exorbitant prices ; but not so much so as in the rest of Peru, where the distribution system prevails. Nor can the Indian decline receiving the goods at the price stipulated l)y the corrcgidor, even though he pa}' in ready money, it IjcLng left to his choice to pay or buy on credit ; and, when he offers tlic money in advance, no a])atemeut is made, as would be equi- table.
Among the tyrannical acts practised by means of the distribution, some of which we shall present to view, that which prevails in apportioning mules ou^ht to have the
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first i)lace. Of these auimals, the greatest number are iutroduccd into those departments which cany on some other trade than that which is required for the transport of their own produce, being thoroughfares for the com- merce of the interior. The corregidors of these districts purchase droves of mules, consisting of five or six hun- dred each, according to the demand for them, and have them driven from the pastures where they ai-e bred. Each mule placed in his department costs him from fourteen to sixteen dollars, and when they are most in demand they do not exceed eighteen ; and to bring this price they must be very scarce, or of a superior qualit}'. The cor- regidor afterwards distributes them among the Indians ; allotting to some four, to others six, and to all more or less, according to the supposed abilit}' of each one to pay for them : and the usual price at wliich they are chaj'ged to them is from forty to fort3'-four dollars, and even more if they are good, the cost of which must be paid within a prescribed term. The Indians who receive these mules are not permitted to make use of them as they please ; for they are strictly prohibited from hiring them out, unless it be y.'ith the consent of the corregidor liims(,'lf, who adopts this course under pretext of avoiding contraband trade, when the only ground of this injustice is that they shaU not'hire them out without allowing him a por- tion of the profits, and the privilege of takuig the re- mainder to his own account in payment of the mules.
As soon as travellers reach these departments, the first thing to be done is to apply to the corregidor for mules, and to make known to him the number they require. The latter looks at his list to see which of the Indians is most indebted to him on account of the mules apportioned them, and sends for them to come frpm their villages to perform the journey. The corregidor himself collects the amount of freight, keeps back one-half on account of the debt, delivers a quarter part to the owner of the mides to pay what ma}- be needed for the purchase of hay to feed the animals On the I'oad, and with the remaining fourth part he pays the peons, whose office is to drive and lade the mules ; so that, in consequence of this arbitrary dis-
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tribution, the owner is left not only without any profit, but even without the means of paying his expenses on the journe}'. In this distribution we ma}^ notice another circumstance, which shows the care taken b}- these cor- regidors not to lose any part of what they extort from the Indians ; for, although the wages of the peons are at such a low rate, the}- deduct one-half for account of what the}' owe for the supply of the articles of clothing they have received, though the term allowed for payment has not 3-et expired.
The Indian sets out on his journey with his drove, and, as travelling in those countries is attended with hardship, it frequentl}- happens that the mules tire on the wa}', and that one or more of them die ; but, as the drivers are obliged to prosecute their journe}', and have no money to hire another mule, the owner is obliged to sell one at a ver}- low price, in order to hire two others with the proceeds, at a high price, to make up the deficiency of the mule that died, as well as of that which was sold. Hence, when the owner reaches his journey's end, he finds he has two mules less than before, and has received no indem- nity for the loss ; but is more indebted than ever, and without the means of pa3-ing for his own maintenance. A single circumstance might enable him to bear his disap- pointment, and that is, the finding some return freight in the village to wliich he is going, — a thing which is ver}' rare ; and even in this case he can take onl}- a light load for the mules which he has left, and at a reduced freight, esteeming himself very fortunate if he can make up his loss with the avails of the return freight, although he should have realized no profit after a journey of many months.
Cruel as are the details of wrong exercised in the ap- portioning of mules 1)3' the corregidors of Peru, others still more oppressive are practised towards the Indians. When, b}' dint of journeyings and hard labor, the pur- chaser has paid the full amount duo for the mules allotted to him, the corregidor never thinks it worth a thought to give him excursions on which he might realize a profit ; nor docs it avail him to seek for them himself, inasmuch
20
as he is not at liberty to hire out his mules to an}' one. The rigor practised in this respect is so extreme that, al- though the purchaser of mules may be indebted to the corregidor for other articles which he has allotted him, this is not deemed a sufficient reason why he should have an opportunity to work out the debt with his drove of mules ; for this debt is to be paid by another species of labor, such as the produce of his garden, the earnings of his wife at the loom, the cattle which he has reared, or something equivalent. At other times, the corregidor assigns a new supply of mules to the Indians who have paid for the first, even when they do not need them, in order to have a pretext for emplo^'ing them continually in a trade the entire benefit of which remains for his account.
In view of all this, it will not be denied that the Indians are in a more pitiable condition than African slaves ; for the most that can be done with the latter is to give them a task in some department of labor, that they may work for the benefit of the master, the latter incurring the risk of loss or gain ; but this is not the case with the Indians, for they must bear the loss of the mules that die, from the moment they are delivered to them, while the cor- regidor claims the earnings of them all : thus leaving the Indians a useless possession after having paid for it three times over ; for they are not at liberty to use them, nor can they be of an}' service to them, except by enabling them to pay for others which the corregidor is to furnish them in the following distribution. A slave is employed in one branch of labor, and, when his task is done, another is given him ; each slave has his particular trade or work, and, if necessity should require him to suspend it, it is the master who loses his hire. But it is otherwise Avith the Indians ; for, while they pursue one steady occupa- tion, their wives and children must busy themselves in as many more to fulfil the obligations imposed upon them by the corregidors.
The repartition of mules is attended with so much rigor that it seems as if one must be forsaken of God to be capable of such flagrant injustice ; and, to make this still
21
more evident, we shall cite one of those examples which occur continuall}-, having been ourselves witnesses of it. In the year 1 742, while on our way a second time to Lima, at the request of the viceroy, we arrived at a village in which the distribution had been completed the day pre- vious, and of this distribution four mules had been allot- ted to the owner of the house where we had taken up our quarters. The latter would not receive them, neither by dint of entreaties nor threats made by the corregidor ; for he apprehended from their bad condition that they would die without having rendered him any service. He differed with the corregidor, not on account of their high price, although they were charged at forty-four dollars each, but on account of their extreme leanness : begging him to give him good mules, and he would not refuse to take them ; but that they were in a dying condition, and that it was only their slcin that would be of any value. Having made these complaints, he returned home, con- fident that he should obtain others in their stead : but he was quite mistaken in this ; for that same niglit the^Mvere tied to his gate by a sheriff, who told him from without that he had left the mules there by order of the corregi- dor. His dooi's being closed, he did not take the pre- caution to go and bring them in, and the next morning he found one dead. He was obliged, however, to pay for all four. This occurs frequently', owing to the fact that the animals are taken from the pastures where they are bred wliile they are 3-oimg, and, in passing over the dis- tance of a hundred and more leagues, to reach the differ- ent departments, they travel through climates to which they are not accustomed, and, m consequence of chang- ing their pastures, many of them become sick and die ;, and, that tlie loss ma}' not fall upon the corregidor, he makes the distribution as soon as they arrive in the province, and compels the Indians to receive them in that state. Were this purchase voluntary on the i)art of the Indians, or even were they content with what is allot- ted them, there would be no ground of complaint ; but that they should be compelled to take what is neither useful nor to their liking, and pa}' for it so exorbitantly,
22
appears to be the highest point to which oppression can be carried.
Passing now from the distribution of mules, we shall proceed to that of manufactures and produce, which will occasion no less surprise than the preceding. "We have- already remarked that articles of manufacture are distri- buted to the Indians at prices so exorbitant as to exceed any idea that could be formed of it by any other than an ej-e-witness ; and this will be corroborated by an occur- rence which took place in a town not far distant from Lima, in the j'ear 1743. The corregidor took home, among other articles, some woollen stuffs, manufactured in Quito, which are sold by retail, in the Lima shops, from twenty-eight to thirty reals, when they are of a very superior quality ; but the ordinary woollens, which are purchased for the supply of the interior, seldom bring twent3'-four reals, and the usual price by wholesale is from eighteen to twenty. This corregidor had them transported forty leagues or n>ore from Lima ; and charged them to the Indians at such enormous prices that, if the fact were not notorious, it would be thought incredible. Although the goods had been purchased at very advanced prices, on a credit of two years and a half, the whole value of the articles distributed amounted to sevent}^ thousand dollars ; and, after all the returns had been made by the Indians, the amount which the corregidor had realized from them exceeded three hmidred thousand dollars.
The Indians of this department, finding themselves more cruelly oppressed by this corregidor than they had been by his predecessor, entered a complaint before the viceroy ; taking to him samples of the distribution, with a list of the prices affixed to each article. We do not re- late this as a matter of hearsay, for we happened to be present when the Indians entered their protest. The viceroy listened to them, and directed them to lay the subject before the audience ; and the result was, that a writ was executed to have the Indians taken and pun- ished as seditious persons. The fact was, that as soon as the mayor learned that those Indians had disappeai-ed from within his jurisdiction, entertaining no doubt that
2
f»
llie}' had gone to enter a complaint against him, he in- dicted them for sedition, and set forth in the indictment that they had absented themselves from fear of punish- ment. This summary he immediate!}' remitted to the audience, at the same time seeking to interest the friends he had in that city in the business ; and through their in- fluence he succeeded in acquitting himself of the charges made ao-ainst him, becoming in his turn the accuser, in order not only to rob the Indians of their rights, but also to intimidate them, that they might not venture to make a complaint against him in future.
The cruelty of the system of distribution is not confined to the enormous prices at which the Indians are obliged to purchase, but is even much greater in respect to the articles distributed, which usually consist of goods that are of no use to the purchaser. In Spain, we arc wont to speak of this as partaking more of fiction than of truth ; nor are we accurately informed of what takes place there, as the communications reach us in a dimin- ished shape, and the fear of having them regarded as im- probable curtails them, and gives them another coloring, Idv confining them to generalities ; but to make it evi- dent, that Avhat the corregidors do there exceeds what we have an^' account of here, it will be proper to de- scribe in detail the method used by them to furnish them- selves with the goods which thc}'^ need for distribution. It is well known that a corregidor who goes to the shop of a tradesman, whom he does not know except b}'^ hav- ing heard his name (while the latter does not know the former, except as corregidor of such a department, who is going to purchase on credit, for want of money), is compelled to receive whatever is given him ; which is usually the most unsalable part of his slock, and it is perhaps with a view to rid himself of such trash that he runs the risk of letting him take it on credit : but, al- though the dealer offer him the goods as he would on condition of payment in ready money, he is still obhged to receive an assortment of all he has in his shop, as it does not stand the dealer in account to have him pur- chase onl}' the most salable articles, and it has hence be-
24
come customary, in making large purchases, to take an assortment of the whole stock.
80 much being premised, the corregidor receives a part of all which the dealer has for sale, takes it to his depart- ment, and distributes it collectively, as it is not to be sup- posed he would lose those things which are useless to the Indians. Of what possible service can three quarters or a yard of velvet, at forty or fifty dollars, be to one of those serfs, who might be compared to the most clownish and wretched peasants of Spain, and who is employed in dig- ging the ground, or travelling on foot behind his master's mule to earn a da3-'s wages, which scarcely suffice for his bare wants ? And of what value to him would be a simi- lar amount of sillt or satin ? What use could he make of a pair of silk stockings, when he would thank God if he could be allowed woollen ones, even of the coarsest text- ure ? What occasion has an Indian for mirrors, whose hut is the abode of poverty, and in which nothing but smoke is visible ? How can he be in want of a padlock, if, even when all his family are absent, by simply turning a door made of reeds or skins, he protects a habitation whose jewels are safe, because they^ are of no value? But even this could be passed over, in comparison of what is more worthy of notice. The Indians, by their peculiar constitution, are wholly destitute of beard, nor do thej' ever shaAC their hair ; and yet they are furnished with razors, for which they pay a very handsome price". Surely this looks like making sport of that unfortunate race. And what shall we say of the practice of compell- ing them to buy pens and blank paper, Avhen the greater part do not understand Spanish, and when their own lan- guage has never been reduced to writing ? Playing-cards, likewise, are distributed for their use, when they do not even know their figures, nor has that people any inclina- tion for gambling ; as also cases for toljacco, when the instance is not known of any one who has ever used them. Not to burden the narrative with details, we shall pass over the combs, rings, buttons, books, pla3's, lace, ribbon, and such like, as useless for them as the foregoing ; and it will suffice to say that the only things
25
which are of service to them are confined to the cotton cloth, niannfiic'tured in Quito, woollen stuffs, or trousers, baize, ami hats, all of domestic manufacture. All the rest, whether the}' be fabrics, hardware, or other com- modities of Europe, are utterly valueless to them, al- thougii they are made to pay for them at exorbitant prices.
There are some districts where domestic produce is distrilnited, and this is done in those which afford the greatest facilities for it. The articles furnished them are demijohns of wine, brandy, olives, and oil, most of which the Indians never consume, nor even taste of; hence, when they receive a bottle of brandy, which is charged to them at the rate of seventy or eighty dollars, they go in search of some mestizo or grocer, who will bu}' it of them, and they think themselves fortunate if the}' can get ten or twelve dollars for it. The_y do the same with every other article, when despair and indigna- tion are mitigated by a sense of sorrow, and they are restrained from throwing it down and dashing it to pieces.
This oppressive treatment of the Indians b}^ the cor- regidors was the occasion of the insurrection of the Chunchos, who renounced their allegiance to the king, and, possessing themselves of the tract of country in the vicinity of Tarma and Jauja, east of the chain of the Andes, have made war upon the Spaniards ever since the year 1712, nor have they been able as yet entirely to quell the insurrection ; and these are the tyrannical measures wliich their leader assured them he would re- form, by withdrawing them from under the Spanish 3'oke. It was this which so much alarmed the viceroy, who was apprehensive lest the whole Province of Tarma should take part with the rebels, to extricate themselves from a state of bondage which was becoming every da}^ more intcjlerable ; and it was full}' ascertained that many In- dian families deserted their villages, and retired to the grounds occu^jied by the Chunchos, to follow a party which had made a beginning under such favorable au- spices, having become the terror of their oppressors.
3
26
Another instance occurred in tliose provinces very much hke the preceding ; and, although distinct in its results, it serves to show how little their complaints are regarded, and how much they suffer from tyranny'. In' one of the provinces, not yet burdened with the distribution S3'stem, inasmuch as it had but recently &nbmitted to the Spanish authorities, the inhabitants, acquainted with what was taking place in towns where it was practised, had refused to admit it, although some corregidors had attempted to introduce it. It fell at kngth into the hands of a more determined and advent- urous individual than an}' of his predecessors had been, owing perhaps to the favor of the principal magistrates in the capital. This man, together with the curate, — whose interest it was to bargain with the corrcgidor, — determined to introduce the S3'stem into his district ; and, being aware that the Indians would make resistance, in- vented a scheme fitted to secure his object. A number of Spaniards used to pass through his district, to whom, for selfish ends, he had made himself very obsequious ; and, having detained in his house those whom he needed for the occasion, under pretence of enjoying their society', he summoned the chiefs and magistrates of the villages to meet him on a day appointed, with a view to adopt some more expeditious method of collecting the tribute money of the Indians, intimating that it was his wish to render their burdens as light as possible. The chiefs entertained no suspicion, and met accordingly in the principal village, where the corrcgidor had the Spaniards, his guests, in readiness ; to whom he had made a false accusation concerning these Indians, stating that they were so fierce and incorrigible that, besides having at- tempted an insurrection on various occasions, the}- had formed an extensive conspiracy to take away his life, and the lives of all the curates and Spaniards they could meet with. The guests listened to him with credulit}', and promised to assist him with their persons and arms.
The hour of summons being come, the corrcgidor gave notice to the Spaniards to conceal themselves in the most remote corner of the house ; apprising them that, at a
27
preconcerted signal, the}' should sally forth and fall upon the Indians, and make them prisoners. The chiefs, alcaldes, and other magistrates of that district pi-esented themselves at the corregidor's with great promptness and obedience ; and, when the latter observed them all assem- bled, he gave the signal, and instantly the Spaniards, their servants, and some mestizoes of that village, rushed forth and made them all prisoners, without meeting the slightest resistance, as they were confounded by this sudden and unlooked-for occnrrence. After they had been properly- secured, he entered a suit against them as disturbers of the peace ; and alleged that, being the mag- istrates of the towns, they had stirred up the Indians to mutiny, b}' persuading them to revolt and refuse obedi- ence to the king ; and he despatched them very soon after to Lima, loaded with irons. The Audience investigated the case ; and, although it was universally known that every article contained in the indictment was false, the chief's, and those who had been taken with them, were sentenced to hard labor in the king's quarries, — some on the Island of St. Lawrence, others at Callao, and others in Valdivia. This unjust exile and chastisement of the most respectable individuals of that district filled the remaining Indians with fear and terror ; and the corregi- dor, able now to effect whatever his caprice suggested, entered upon the distriliution, which was at once the ob'°ct of his desire and the reward of his iniquity'.
This circumstance was so well known in Lima that no reasonalile man could fail to express his horror of it ; and, although the notoriety of the fact and the opinion of impartial persons were suflicicnt to warrant its perfect credibilit}', we should not venture to record it, had it not been communicated to us l)y an individual personally known to us, and a man of undoubted verac^it}', and who was present in the house, lending aid to the corregidor, and whose account agrees in every particular witli that which we heard from the V\\)S of the unfortunate chiefs, at the time we were superintending tlie pul)Iic works of that fortress, where we saw them emploj'cd as galley slaves.
28
The individual who gave us the information, and who was an e^'e-witness of the occurrence, was a Frenchman, engaged in commerce in that district, and, as he had made many journeys thereabouts, and was well ac- quainted with the corregidor, he was fully aware that the pretext used for seizing the Indians was false, and that the result was unwarrantable as well as villanous. But, as he has said himself, he had occasion to humor him, lest, by seeking a quarrel against him, he should throw obstacles in ids way whenever he had occasion to travel in that direction. This made it necessary for him to unite with the Spaniards who were present on that occa- sion ; although no one was ignorant that the whole process was utterly false, and was contrived b}' the cor- regidor for no other purpose than to drive the Indian chiefs from his district, that the rest might not resist the ne\t impost, as the mestizoes themselves and other in- habitants of the town had intimated to him.
No sooner had the corregidor commenced the distribu- tions than he destined a part of the Indians to labor in the gold washings of that province, that they might pay the cost of the articles distributed in that metal. These gold washings had never been thought valuable, from the fact that they were situated in barren heaths, remote from any town or village, and exposed to embarrassments arising from excessive cold and extreme moisture ; and, what is more than all, the quantity of gold obtained at the cost of so much labor was very inconsiderable. At the same time, he had others emplo3'ed in supplying him with large and small cattle for the consumption of a neigh- boring city, where he had entered into contracts ; and, to comply with them, he took the cattle from the Indians at a paltry price ; therebj'^ depriving them of an opportunity to sell them on their own account, either in the city or without leaving their houses, to pui-chasers who might go in search of them, and who would pay the price they had usually demanded : by these means he began to straiten them to such a degree that they were reduced to the most deplorable condition.
This is the kind of government maintained by the
29
corregidors in those kingdoms ; to this end all their efforts are directed ; nor has their S3'stem of economy any other object than to secnre the greatest possible in- come from their office. Even if these statements were not presented in proof of their avarice, it might be inferred from the consideration, that all of them go from Spain to the Indies so destitute that, instead of carrying anything tliither, the}' are in debt on account of obliga- tions contracted from the time they leave Spain until thej' reach the district allotted to them ; and that, during their brief term of office, which is limited to five years, the}' mnke a gain of at least seventy thousand dollars, and sometimes accumulate even more than two hundred thousand. This is to be understood of the net profits, after having paid their previous debts and fees of settle- ment, and after having spent and squandered be3'ond all bounds during the whole term of their administration ; for the salar}- and emoluments of their office are so scanty as to be almost inadequate for their current expenses. There are, indeed, corregidors whose salary, including the collection of the tribute, amounts to four or five thousand dollars a 3'ear ; 3'et the greater part do not realize more than two thousand : and, although it were based u[)on an allowance of four thousand dollars annu- all}', this salar}' would only suffice for a decent mainten- ance, allowing a surplus of one-half by living with econ- omy. It is true they have occasion to pass from one settlement to another ; but this is at the expense of the Indians themselves, who furnish them mules, and pay their travelUng expenses during the time they are dela3'ed in each village.
Having closed our observations on the cruel treatment of the Indians by their corregidors, we shall describe in- cidentally the manner in which tlie latter render an account of their administi-ation at the expiation of its term ; clearly showing th;it this (nifortunate race are left without appeal, and even without a hope that justice should ever enter their doors to plead in their ])ehalf.
The office of corregidor is sometimes in the gift of the Council of the Indies, and sometimes in that of the
30
viceroy's : but it is the exclusive perogative of the vice- roy's to nominate notaries when the term of adminis- tration has expired, and no successor to the office has been elected in Spain ; and even in this event the notary named by the council must present his despatches to the vicero}', in order to obtain his passport. As soon as the appointment of a notary comes to the ears of the corre- gidor, he avails himself of his friends in Lima to pay court to him in liis name, and to give him the necessary instructions, that, when he should leave the city, he should come, alread}' gained over, and without any motive for delay. It should be observed that, in addition to the iisual pay allowed the notary', at the expense of the cor- regidor for a term of three months, although only forty days are required to audit the accounts, the amount to be paid is in proportion to the revenue of the district, or more properly to that of the amnesty or bribe which the cor- regidor gives the notary to acquit him of all charges which may be alleged against him. This is so notorious and so s^'stematized in practice that everybody knows what it costs to audit the accounts of this or that district. At the same time, if the corregidor has offended his Spanish neighbors, or if any suspicion is entertained that they might bring in evidence against him, the price is raised for extra costs ; but the settlement is alwa^'s brought about, and the corregidor acquitted, although at a some- what increased expense.
As soon as the notary arrives in the principal town of his district, he gives public notice of his business, goes through the usual forms, receiving testimony from the friends and domestics of the corregidor that he has ruled well, that he has injured no man, that he has treated the Indians kindly ; and in this wa}' he collects all the evidence which may redound to his interest. But, lest such a de- gree of rectitude and benevolence might excite surprise, three or four persons are employed to present charges against him of a trivial nature, which are magnified by summoning witnesses to testify to their truth ; and the accused, being brought in guilty, is fined in an amount proportioned to the nature of the offence. In the course
31
of these proceedings, an immense mass of writs and docnraents is collected : and the time prescribed for auditing the accounts graduall}^ slips awaj', when they are closed and presented to the Audience for approba- tion, and the corregidor is as legall}^ innocent of the charges as he was at the time his administration com- menced, and the notary- who audited the accounts is a gainer to the amount of what the settlement has been worth to him. These bargains are made with such ctirontery, and the costs of settlement of accounts are so reduced to sj'stem, that, in the jurisdiction of Valdi- via, a district remote from all intercourse with those kingdoms, the newlj'-appointed governors audit the accounts of their predecessors ; and, as the gratuity bestowed is transmitted from one to another in succes- sion, the governors had the precaution to reserve and conceal under the bed on which they slept four bags of monej', containing each one thousand dollars, — an amount which none of them had occasion to use. The acting governor, on the arrival of a successor, invited him ver\- politely to occupy his own apartment, and, on showing him to his room, he directed his attention to the bags of money ; assuring him that no mistake could occur in the amount, as he had not opened the bags : he stated, moreover, that his predecessor had received his discharge for that sum, and that he would transfer it to him on the same terms. This mode was practised until after we had left that kingdom, as was said by the residents there ; but we do not know if it still continues. "Whether the four bags remain untouched or not, after having changed owners so frequently, is of little impor- tance, provided their nominal value remains unchanged. If, at the time the judge is investigating the proceed- ings of the corregidors, any one of the Indians should allege against them acts of tyranny and injustice which they have committed, the judges either repel the charge, b\' advising them not to involve themselves in lawsuits, which will bring on them disagreeable results, Ijccause the corregidor has proved the reverse of all they have alleged ; or the corregidor, by giving them a trilling sura
32
of money, just as we would hush a troublesome child, induces them to withdraw the complaint : but if the In- dians refuse to receive mone}', and insist on demanding justice, the judge reproves them with severity, intimating to them that he has shown them too much lenity in not having inflicted chastisement upon them for the crimes alleged against them by the corregidor ; and the judges themselves, assuming the office of mediators, persuade them, after having suffered such complicated abuse, that they are indebted to them for having escaped the punish- ment they deserve : so that it is the same to the Indians whether the corregidors are required or not to give an account of their administration.
If the charges are adduced by the Spaniards relative to other matters, tlie judge seeks to act as umpire, and urges them to settle their differences amicabl}', and forget injuries that are past ; but, if this method fails, the suit goes on, and, as the judge is biased in favor of the cor- regidor, he alwa3-s labors to acquit him ; and, if he can- not do it by himself, he appeals to the Audience ; and, as all his investigations are so arranged as to present the best evidence in his favor, a little exertion on his part is quite sufficient to have the corregidor acquitted, and his accounts settled agreeably to his wishes. In proof of this we have only to examine the penalties inflicted for such long-continued excesses, and scarcely one will be found : hence the conclusion is inevitable, that no occa- sion for imposing them exists, according to the accounts rendered ; while there is so much to warrant them in the conduct of those corregidors, as has alread}- been shown and as will further appear in the following ci^apter.
OO
CHAPTER II.
The same Subject continued.
TViTnouT supposing facts not well ascertained, or ex- aggerating statements which might place our narrative beyond tlie bounds of truth, we may assert, without fear of contradiction, that all the wealth produced by the In- dies, and even their very colonial existence, is due to the sweat and toil of the natives. It is by them the gold and silver mines are wrought, by them the soil is tilled, and liy them the cattle are reared and tended; in a word, there is no servile labor in which they are not tasked. And such is the recompense awarded to them b}^ the Spaniards, that, should we investigate the natm-e of it, it would be found to be nothing more than a protracted and unrelenting punishment, less restrained by j)ity than that inflicted ui)on a galley slave. The gold and silver acquired b}' their hardships and labor never lodges in their hands ; rarely does the day come round which allows them to partake of the fruits the earth yields l)y dint of their etlbrts, or of the meat of the animals they rear and keep ; and never does the occasion offer when the}' might use the warm clothing or couvenicMit articles of manufacture introduced from Spain; since their whole maintenance consists of maize, and herbs which grow wild, and their whole scant}' wardrobe is limited to the coarse fal)rics woven b}- their wives, and wliich are not superior to such as they wore in their uncivilizi'd condi- tion. Religion itself, as we shall afterwards show, is made a plausible jjretext for strii)piiig them of the poor remnant of their Ibrtune, which has escaped the rapa- ciousness of their masters and magistrates; in return for which they have; imi)arted to them no spiritual l)i'nelit, iuasmuch as it is not the spirit of religion which is taught
2»
34
them, nor is anything of Christian applicable to them but the empty name. In short, it is evident, wherever we turn, that the whole produce of the Indies is the fruit of their labor, being contributed by them : while it is they who least enjoy it, and who derive the least consid- erable benefit from their incessant toil.
In order to form a correct judgment both of what we have already stated and of what remains to be said, it is necessary to observe, that the mode of life and the labors of the Indians are adapted to the nature of the districts : for in those where there are mines to be worked, and not plantations, a portion of the Indians perform the meta service ; and in those which embrace both plantations and mines, a part of the Indians are reserved alternately for each species of labor. The meta Indians are drawn by lot for both purposes ; the one to bring the minerals from the veins, and the other to plough and till the ground. The districts which comprise only plantations and work- shops (by which are meant cotton manufactories) are those in which all the meta Indians are emploj'ed ; and there are some districts where the Indians do not per- form the service of the meta, because the plantations are cultivated by negro slaves.
The meta service prescribes that all the villages are to furnish the estates withiu their precincts a certain num- ber of Indians, to be employed in cultivating them, and that another company be destined for the mines, when their owners find, on examination, that they can be worked more conveniently by adopting the method pre- scribed by the meta. These Indians were bound to per- form this service for one j^ear only ; and at the close of it are allowed to return to their villages, where, their places being filled by others, thej^ are to remain at liberty until their turn comes again in course. But this precedent, so wisely established by the laws, has ceased to be observed : on which account it is indifferent to the Indian whether he labor iu the meta service, for the benefit of the miner, or as nominally free for that of the corregidor ; for in each species of labor the bondage is the same. All the districts of Quito, and those which extend to the other
35
mountainoiis provinces of Peru, towards the south, prac- tise the meta : and all those comprehended in the Yalle3's, as far as the jurisdictions of Pisco and Nasca, do not adopt it ; because no miners are found there, and all or nearly all the plantations situated in the valleys are cultivated b}' negro slaves ; but those which rise from the valleys are tilled exclusively by Indians subject to the meta. Having premised so much, we will relate what occurs in Quito, from which we may deduce by compar- ison what takes place in all the others in which the same system obtains ; and, to do it more method icall}', we shall divide the estates into four different classes : 1 . The plantations for growing breadstuffs ; 2. The grazing estates; '6. The wool-growing estates ; 4. The manufact- ories.
On the estates of the first class, a meta Indian earns from fourteen to eighteen dollars a 3'ear, according to the nature of his emploj-ment ; and, besides this, the estate allows him a piece of ground from twenty to thirty j-ards square, to make a garden for himself. On these conditions, the Indian is bound to labor three hundred days in the j'ear, completing his full daily task ; and is exempted from labor the remaining sixty-five, on account of Sundays, holidays, illness, or any other casualty which may prevent him from working ; the overseers of the plantations taking care to mark, every week, the number of daj-s which each Indian has labored, in order to settle his account at the end of the 3'ear.
The tribute of eight dollars, paid by the owner of the estate, is to be deducted from the salary of the Indian ; and estimating this at eighteen dollars, which is the maximum, there are ten dollars remaining. From this sum, two dollars and two reals are to be deducted, to ])uy three yards of baize, at six reals a yard, that he may make a shirt for himself, as decency requires ; and he will have remaining seven dollars six reals, to maintain himself and his wife and children, if he have any, l)esides clothing them, and paying such contributions as the curate may levy upon him. Nor is this all : for the piece of ground allowed him is so confined that it becomes im-
36
possMe for him to raise all the corn required for the scanty support of his family-, and he is obliged to receive of the owner of the estate half a bushel of corn monthly, which is charged to him at six reals (which is double the usual price) , because the Indian cannot purchase of any one else ; thus twelve times six reals make nine dollars, which is one dollar and six reals more than the Indian can earn. So that the wretched serf, after toiling three hundred days in the 3'ear, besides cultivating a garden of vegetables in the remaining sixt^'-five, having received only a coarse baize shirt and six bushels of corn, becomes indebted to his master one dollar and six reals, on ac- count of the labor he has to perform the following 3-ear. Were it no more than this, the patient Indian would endure it all ; but his sufferings are j-et greater. It fre- quentl}' happens (as we have witnessed) that an animal dies in the paramo, or heath ; the master has it brought to the farm, and, in order not to lose its value, has it cut in pieces, and distributes it to the Indians at so much a pound, — a price w^hich, however reasonable, an Indian cannot pa}' ; and hence his debt is augmented by being forced to receive meat which is unfit to be eaten, owing to its bad condition, and which he is consequently obliged to throw to the dogs.
If, as the climax of misfortune, the unfortunate mitaj'o should lose his wife, or one of his children, his cup of anguish is full, when he reflects how he shall pa}' the in- exorable fee of interment ; and he is driven to enter into a new contract with the owner of the estate, to furnish him the money extorted by the church. If he escapes the anguish of losing any of his family, the curate orders him to celebrate a church festival in honor of the Virgin, or one of the saints, and he is obliged on this account to contract a new debt ; so that, at the close of the year, his debts exceed his earnings, while he has neither han- dled money nor got in his possession an}' articles of value whatever. His master claims the right of his person, obliges him to continue in his service until the debt is paid ; and, as payment can never be made by the poor Indian, he becomes a slave for life ; and, in defiance of
37
all natural and national law, children are required to pay, b}' their personal service, the unavoidable debts of their parents.
There are some Indians who pay a heavier tribute than others ; and, in this respect, those who belong to the encomiendas are least burdened : but this does in no way redound to the advantage of the Indians, as it should, but to the benefit of their masters ; for they pay them less for the mcta service, on the ground that they are parlially exempted from paying tribute, in direct opposi- tion to the royal grant, in which this privilege is conceded to the patrons, with a view of lightening the burden of the impost levied upon the Indians.
Another species of cruelty is inflicted upon that race, which would be deemed barbarous if practised upon the brute creation. AVhen an unfruitful season occurs, and corn is valued at three or four dollars, all produce rises in the same proportion, but the mitayo is not entitled to higher wages : and, although he subsists exclusively upon maize, the landholders will not furnish it to him at twelve reals, which is the regular price, although it sometimes produces more ; and the wages of the Indians not being adequate to pay for it at so high a price, and having no means of purchasing it except such as they derive from their personal labor, they are deprived of sustenance, because their masters sell all the maize in the villages, to convert it into mone}' — a cruel expedient, which leaves the helpless Indian, who labors in their houses and for them, al)andoned without mercy to perish with hunger. This occurred in the Province of Quito in the years 1743 and 174-1, during our residence there. The scarcity of maize was unprecedented, and such was the unfeeling barljarity of the masters towards the Indians, that they cut otf the usual supply of their only sustenance, for the purpose of selling it at exorbitant prices : from hence resulted a fearful mortality of Indians on all the estates, besides that which itrevailed in all the villages, many of which were nearl}' depopulated.
The produce of the vegetable gardens cultivated by the Indians is limited to a little corn and a few potatoes,
38
and is so inconsiderable that they are consumed during the process of ripening. The only occasion in the year when they are allowed to taste meat is when some animal dies, and is taken up before the condors and vultures have devoured it. We may conjecture what its quality must be ; since, besides the circumstance of the animal having died in the field, it has usually so bad an odor as to render it intolerable ; and in this case the arbitrary rule of the master is carried to such an extreme as to force it upon the Indian, under the penalty of chastise- ment if he refuse to receive it.
The Indians who perform the meta service on the grazing estates, which are those of the second class, usually earn somewhat more than the da}^ laborer ; l)ut their labor is also greater. On these estates, an Indian has assigned to him a certain number of cows, that he may take care of them and of their milk. He is to make the number of cheeses usually required for each cow ; and on the last day of every week they are deliv- ered to the overseer, who receives them by weight, and with such rigid scrupulousness that the least deficienc}' in the weight required is charged to the account of the In- dian, — a manifestl}' unjust course of proceeding ; for, if the failure of milk might occasionally be attributed to the Indian, it proceeds in general from the quantity and quality given by the cows, which is not alwa^'s uniform, or some neglect might occur, allowing the calves to take more than their usual portion. Exclusive of these causes, which are independent of the will of the Indians, the charges against them augment so rapidly, that, at the close of the 3'ear, when they have worked out the term of the meta, and are to be released, they find them- selves in greater bondage than before ; for, as they have not the means of paying that fictitious debt, they are compelled to bind themselves to protracted service on the estate, which, in these circumstances, is their last resource.
It may be argued that the debts incurred b}' the Ind- ians, whether in one species of labor or another, are merely imaginary, as the whole race is insolvent, and
30
that no injury results from them. In solitary instances it miti'ht be so ; but in general it is otherwise. It is prej- udicial to the Indian to be indebted to the estate, because the owner of it deducts, on account of the debt, all that he has been able to earn b}- dint of care and toil during his hours of repose ; and, if pa3'ment be made grudgingly, the task is augmented, even when no hope is entertained that the debt will be paid in full. It is true that, in the hopeless condition of the Indian, to be reduced to sla- ver}- on the estates where they live is no additional burden ; for, in case they should be restored to their villages, they would be no less oppressed by the imposts of the cor- regidors. "Were it otherwise, it would be gross injustice not to alternate their labor annually ; for while living in their villages they would enjoj" their freedom, and would earn enough to maintain themselves comfortabl3-, whether by working as da}- laborers, or busying themselves in the same tasks in which they would be employed if they remained in them : and there is no doubt that tlieir gains would be sufficient to bear, without too much hard- ship, both the impost of the tribute and the meta ; but the}' ai'e deprived of this consolation by the insatiable avarice of those who rule over them.
On the wool-growing estates, which compose those of the fluid order, every Indian earns eighteen dollars, when he has the care of an entire flock ; and if he has two he earns something more, — but not twice the amount, as would seem equitable. Those Indians who are apparently the most fortunate, are not less subject to oppression than othei's ; fur they are made responsible for the flock, and are accounted debtors for all the sheep that are missing at the end of the month, unless they deliver them dead. At first sight tliis condition appears reasonable ; but, in realitv, local as well as other causes, not depending on the Indian, render it impossible for him to put it in prac- tice. The tracts where the Indians pasture and live with their flocks are situated in the heart of the wilderness, among tiie ravines formed by the mountains, which are wholly uninhabited, and at a distance of three or four leagues from the principal farm-house. On these estates,
40
wheat fields are also cultivated, and for this purpose the same Indians are employed who have the care of the sheep ; and, being under the necessity of tilling the soil for the benefit of their masters, the sheep are intrusted to the care of a woman, who is sometimes nursing, or to that of children five or six years old ; for, as soon as the latter are capable of doing service, they are obliged to labor for the benefit of the master. Hence it sometimes happens that a sheep sickens or goes astray over the wild, uncultivated extent of those paramos ; and, should he be so unlucky as not to be able to find it, as soon as it is missing, it is charged to his account at the close of the month, when the flock is counted.
Even if the owner should not require him to intrust the sheep to his wife's keeping, it would be unjust to make the loss fall upon him ; for it is only one who tends the sheep ; and such is the nature of that broken surface that it would be impossible to trace the sheep by the e3-e, as they wander over ravines, morasses, and de- chvities of the mountains, nor is it in the power of the keeper to rescue them from tlie talons of the condors. What passed under my own observation frequently takes place : for, on one occasion, while descending a precipice, I saw a condor pounce upon a flock, and earryotfa lamb in his claws, and, rising to a certain height, let go his hold, as if to kill it b}' the fall ; and, seizing it a second time, he carried off his pre^', while neither the cries of the shepherd boy, nor the barking of the dogs, could avail any thing to prevent it.
In order to point out more clearly the injustice prac- tised towards the Indians, we may be permitted to draw a comparison between the Indian and the Spanish shep- herd, and the contrast between them will serve to cor- rol)orate v>'hat we have asserted.
In Spain, a flock of sheep usually contains about five hundred head ; and to tend it the owner maintains a shep- herd and a swain, who are both males. In Andalusia, the shepherd earns twenty-four dollars a year, and the swain sixteen dollars, amounting in all to forty dollars. Besides their wages, the owner is bound to furnish thera
41
bread, oil, vinegar, and salt, besides what the dogs eat ; he is also to furnish them an ass to drive the herd, and, when the number is augmented to three flocks, an over- seer is appointed to keep watch over them all, who earns higher wages than the shepherd, and the master provides him with a horse. In Peru, a flock usually consists of eight hundred or a thousand head, and is tended by a single individual, who bears in that country the name of sheep-keeper. This man earns only eighteen dollars a j'ear ; from which sum, after deducting the tribute, only ten dollars remain ; and with these he is to provide for himself, for liis wife and children, and for the dogs which are to aid him in taking cai'e of the flock, because his master allows him nothing more. The low rate of wages should not be attributed to the cheapness of provisions ; for, on the contrary, every thing there is incomparablj' dearer than it is in Spain. The same is true of other branches of industry ; and it is difficult to imagine how those people subsist, until we become acquainted with their frugal mode of living. The hut the^^ inhabit has scared}' space sufficient for them to stretch themselves, although it contains not an article of furniture ; their bed is a raw sheepskin, one being provided for each mem- ber of the famil}-, and they never use a pillow ; their food consists of two or three spoonfuls of oatmeal, which the}' force into their mouths, and, after stirring it with the tongue, they swallow it and instantly drink a large quan- tity of water or c/u"c7ia, which is a kind of malt liquor, whenever the}- can get it ; occasionally they substitute for oatmeal a handful of maize, boiled in water until the gi-ain swells and l)ursts. This constitutes the whole of an Indian's sustenance.
It is in the fourth and last department of industry, namely, the '■'■ obrages" or factories, — that it appears as if all the scourges that afflict humanity were concen- trated.-All these sufferings are accumulated upon the head of the wretched Indian ; and bitter lamentations are heard on every side under tlu! inflictions of the rod of oppression. Several of his Majesty's ministers have been fully aware of this, and have endeavored to take
42
veiy decisive measures in respect to it ; but it must be confessed that the regulations of government in regard to the colonies are seldom enforced, as will appear in the sequel.
The workshops are a combination of the other three classes of estates : they are the factories where the cloths, baizes, and woollen stuffs known in Peru by the name of home fabrics, are woven by the hand-loom. In former .years, the woollen manufactory was confined to the Province of Quito : but, it has been recently intro- duced into other districts ; although the articles manufact- ured in the provinces south of Quito are nothing but coarse cloths, of very ordinary texture. In Cajamarca, there are looms for the manufacture of cotton goods.
To form an accurate idea of these factories, the}' might be compared to a galley, always in motion, being con- stantly propelled by the oars ; while the harbor is so re- mote that it can never be reached, how hard soever the seaman toil in anticipation of rest. The management of those factories, the labors performed in them b}' the Ind- ians, to whose unhappy lot this service falls, and the merciless punishment inflicted upon those miserable ob- jects, surpass every thing which it is possible for us to describe.
The labor of the workhouses commences before the day dawns, at which time every Indian takes his place at the piece which is in process of weaving, and the tasks of the day are distributed as may be expedient ; and, when this process is concluded, the owner of the house closes the door, and leaves them immured as in a prison. At mid-da}' the door is opened for the women to go in with their scant allowance of food, which is soon partaken, and they are again locked up. When the darkness of night no longer permits them to labor, the owner goes round to gather up the stints : those who have not been able to finish, in spite of apologies or reasonings, are punished with indescribable cruelty ; and those unfeeling men, as if transformed into merci- less savages, inflict upon the wretched Indians lashes by hundreds, for they use no other method of counting ; and,
43
to complete the punishment, thcj- remand them again to the workshop ; and, although the whole bnilding is a prison-house, a portion of it is reserved for fetters, and instruments of torture, where they are punished- with greater indignity than could be practised towards the most delinquent slaves.
During the day, every apartment is visited by the owner, his assistant, and his overseer, and the Indian who is chargeable with any neglect is chastised at the time with the whip ; and afterwards goes on with his work, until the time an-ives to put away his work, when the punishment is frequently repeated.
This process is carried on every day, in respect to the meta Indians ; and the punishment inflicted is so much the more cruel as it does b}' no means exempt them from the obligation of completing the task ; for all their delinquencies are noted in a register, to be charged to their account at the close of the year : and thus the debt incurred is augmenting from year to 3'ear, until, finding it impossible to make up their arrears, the master ac- quires a right, however unfounded, to reduce to slavery not only the meta Indian, but all his sons. The treat- ment of these Indians will appear to be gentle in com- parison with that experienced by those who are sen- tenced by the corregidors to the same work-houses, for having failed to pay the tribute at the time it was de- manded, and frequently (as we have said) when they were not under any obligation to pa}' it. These Indians earn a real a day : one-half is kept back to pay the cor- regidor, and the remaining half is applied to their main- tenance, which is inade(|uate for a man who labors incessantly the whole day ; and, in proof of it, imagine if any article could be bought, that would suflice for his nourishnient, for half a real, when it is not enough to supply him with chicha, — a beverage to which the Indians are strongly addicted, and which lias become so nuich a part of their nature that it nourishes and strengthens them as much as what they eat. Besides, as the Indian is unal)le to escape from that bondage, he is obliged to take what his master will give him for that half real.
44
The inhnman owner of the factory, in order to lose noth- ing by waste, turns to account for their use the maize or barley which has been damaged by keeping, or the cattle which die and contaminate the atmosphere, as well as all the worst and most worthless of his produce.
As a result of this course of treatment, these Indians fall sick, after remaining a short time in that condition; and their constitutions being exhausted partly for want of nourishment, partly by repeated punishment, as well as by diseases contracted from the bad quality of their food, they die before they have been able to pay the trib- ute with tlie avails of their labor. The Indian loses his life, and the country that one inhabitant, whence proceeds the great diminution which is observed to be taking place in that kingdom. Such is the spectacle exhibited when they are taken out dead that it would excite compassion in the most unfeeling heart. Only a mere skeleton remains of them to publish the cause which doomed them to per- ish ; and the greater part of these die in the very facto- ries, witli their tasks in their hands ; for although the ynay be indisposed, as the countenance would indicate, that is no inducement to their cruel taskmaster to ex- empt them from labor or to seek their remedy. Ac- customed to look upon them with utter aversion, they do not imagine a sick Indian to be a worthy inmate of a hos- pital until his strength is so far exhausted that he dies before reaching the charitable asylum, and those are for- tunate who have suflicient power of resistance left to go and die within the hospital. To be condemned to the factories occasions to the Indian greater consternation than all other punishments that malice can invent. The married Indian women and aged mothers begin to bewail the death of their husbands or their children from the moment the}' are sentenced to this punishment. Children do the same in respect to their parents, nor is there any method the latter will not devise to rescue their children from the labor of the workshop ; and tlieir sorrow is ex- treme when all expedients fail to produce the desired effect. The anguish which, with so much reason, over- whelms them, finds vent, in view of the place of punish-
45
mcnt, as they raise to Heaven their cries ; since all on earth combine against tliora, and, restrained by no tri- bunal of justice, abandon them to such hopeless raiserj-.
Some will maintain that it is necessary to put the In- dians into the workshops, if they do not pay the triliute, in order to compensate the loss ; hence it is that the governors or other individuals are allowed to do it, in order to collect the debt. But neither the laws of the Indians, nor the express commands of our sovereigns, permit the Indians to be treated with such cruelty as is practised there ; but, on the contrary-, they inculcate compassion and kindness towards these inoffensive sub- jects. We ma^- readily suppose that the statements which gained their assent to the low rate of wages given were either false or inaccurate, inasmuch as the king and his council were led to believe that the pay allowed the Ind- ians in the workshop was sufficient for their mainten- ance, besides leaving a surplus for the pa3'ment of the tribute. Under the S3'stem now adopted, neither object is obtained.
The expedient of condemning the Indians to these fear- ful places has become so general as to render them the gi'ave of their freedom for a great variety of delinquen- cies. A trifling debt, even to a private individual, is suf- ficient ground for any one invested with authority to inflict this punishment upon them. AYe frequently meet Indians on the highway, tied b}' the hair to the tail of a horse, on which a mestizo is mounted, who is conveying them to the workshops, and perhaps for the trivial offence of having evaded the tyranny of the overseer from fear of punishment. Let what will be said of the cruelty prac- tised by the patrons towards the Indians at the com- mencement of the conquest, we cannot persuade our- selves, after what we have witnessed, that it could ever have been carried to the extent it now is by the Span- iards and mestizoes. And, if at that period tliey were re- garded as slaves, the}' had but one master in the patron ; but now they are subject to the governors, the owners of workshops, the proprietors of estates, the overseers of the cattle, and, what is most scandalous of all, the very
46
ministers of the altar: all these, including the priest- hood, treat the defenceless Indians with more cruelty than they exercise towards African slaves.
Not onl}^ the meta Indians are employed in the cultiva- tion of the estates, but also their wives and children, when they are capable of doing any thing, who are treated with as much severit}' as if they were all subject to the meta service. They keep the women and children employed in planting corn, potatoes, and other seeds, in weeding the beds of vegetables, in gathering the harvest and shell- ing the corn, and in the various occupations pertaining to the farm ; so that it is no small convenience to masters to have, with an Indian so badly paid, so many to labor obsequiously in his service.
It is a prevailing opinion in all those countries, and especially in the mountainous districts, that if the Ind- ians were not subject to the meta, they would become idle, and the plantations would cease to be cultivated ; but this is a mistaken notion, as we shall presently show. But what ma}' we suppose will not be urged by those whose interest it is to defend the meta? They say that the Indies could not be held by us without it ; that, were it not for this restraint, the Indians would revolt ; and that the fact that they have not done so is chiefly owing to the oppressed condition in which the}' are held by the Spaniards. These and other like calumnies are invented b}' malice, as an apology for cruelty ; and, even admitting what they assert to be true, can there exist any law or reason why they should be deprived of what is necessary for their support, if they are forced to labor with unparal- leled rigor? We cannot imagine a S3'stem of discipline so barbarous as to authorize such a degree of oppression. The truth being concealed under the disguise of erroneous statements (some of which we have detected) , measures are adopted on the supposition that these statements ai'e true, and that they have in view the common welfare and preservation of those kingdoms.
In order to expose more clearly the malignant charac- ter of the communications which come to us from tlience, exaggerating the indolence and dilatorj^ habits of the Ind-
47
ians, let iis direct our attention to tliose plantations which do not have the benefit of the meta, or in which the number of meta Indians is comparatively small. Do they on this account fail to be cultivated ? By no means ; for, at a small additional expense, they have as many Ind- ians as are required, and with no other difference than that of hiring them on wages ; and although tlie rate does not exceed one real a daj", — a sum scarcely ade- quate to their daily wants, — they do not despise it, be- cause they avail themselves of the assistance of their ■wives ; and, when they have no work in hand for their own account and benefit, they are prompt to labor for a real a da}'. This makes it evident that they would labor even were the}- not compelled to it by the cruel expedient of the meta. But the fact is that the Indian, being em- plo3"ed on the plantations at a real a day, even at this re- duced rate of wages, the three huxidred da^'s of the year would require thirtj'-seven dollars and a half, and with this sum the owner of the plantation would have but one person to work for him ; while under the meta s^'stem, which allows only one-half this sum, estimating the wages at eighteen dollars a 3"ear, they have, besides the re- duction of wages, which is so considerable, the advan- tage of securing the services of a whole familj-.
What we have just remarked is not at variance with the statement made in the first volume of the history of our tour, respecting the nature, peculiarities, and cus- toms of the Indians ; for there can be no doubt that they are phlegmatic, and that it requires exertion to make them labor ; but this proceeds in a great measure from the fact that all that tribe are so irritated and aggrieved by the treatment they receive from the Spaniards that it is no wonder if whatever they do should be done rcluc- tantl}'. Let us suppose a system to be established in Spain, by which the rich should oblige the poor to labor for their l)enefit without an}' equivalent, — would they be disposed to do so? Let iis reflect, then, how much less inclined to lal>or those unlbrtunate Indians would be, who are rendered mart3-rs by incessant punishment, such as would not be endured bj- any but a simple race of men.
48
or by those who wear their chains as a matter of neces- sity, and as the penalty which their crimes have merited.
It cannot be denied that the Indians of the present day discover very little inclination to labor, for they are nat- urally sluggish and dilatory ; but it is likewise true that, when their own interest is at stake, natural indolence presents no obstacle to exertion. The system of econ- omy and government adopted in those countries is based upon so bad a footing, that, whether the Indian labor or not, the result is the same as regards his own benefit ; hence it is not strange that his love of ease should make him lean to the side of indolence, rather than to that of activity. Nor is this a weakness exclusively Indian : it is inherent in all men. Look at the most civilized na- tions on the globe, and none will be found among them all who are disposed to exert their skill and strength with- out the incentive of gain, and their activity is in propor- tion to the benefit which is to I'esult from it. But it is the same to the Indian whether he earn money at the cost of sweat and toil, or not, for the gain is so transient in passing through his hands that he never knows what it is to enjoy it : the more he labors and strives, the more rapidlj' it passes from his possession to that of the cor- regidors, curates, and owners of the plantations. In view of this, who will tax the Indian with sloth, and not rather the Spaniard with impiety, avarice, and oppression?
It might seem to be carrying the defence of the Indians too far to exculpate them entirely, and to attribute to the Spaniards the cause of their want ofindustrj' ; but the examples furnished by antiquityjustify such a conclusion, and testimonies of modern date corroborate it with every possible degree of conviction. If we turn our e^-es to the period prior to their conversion, we shall be astonished at the grandeur of their public works, which deserve our admiration to such a degree that we are at a loss to com- prehend how such wonders could have been accomplished. Let us throw out of the account those which are described in histor}^, lest their very magnificence should lead to a suspicion of falsehood or exaggeration, and take as our model what even now the eye can trace in the ruins of
49
those Tvorks which still remain ; and we shall find ma- terials sufficient not onl^- to disprove the injurious opinion in which the}- are held, but to furnish evidence of extraor- dinarj' activity and exertion. Is not this apparent in the patient industry' b}' which they have constructed a multi- tude of aqueducts ? They have brought under cultivation a piece of ground which was useless without the benefit of irrigation : by opening a w^ater-course from a remote source, and continuing it along the declivities of the towering Andes, to escape the fearful ravines which im- peded its course in a right line, they caused the water to run a circuit of more than thirty leagues, as the nature of the soil required, until they had attained their original purpose of cultivating that piece of ground and rendering it fruitful. These works, which are truly grand, re- mained from that period in such perfection as to be ser- viceable to the Spaniards in a later age ; nor can we omit what it shames us to sa}^ that the Spaniards themselves of that countr}' have suffered man}^ of them to go into decay, by their lamentable neglect ; and, much as they feel the want of them now, they are unable to repair them, nor is there a single undertaking of the kind which has been attempted since the conquest.
The bridges, the causeways, and the roads of all Peru were constructed by Gentile Indians, with astonishing perseverance ; of which, however, the greater part have been ruined by the neglect of the new colonists. AVhere but in Peru, without excepting even the most celebrated kingdoms, are to be seen roads more than four hundred leagues long, of a solid foundation, of uniform breadth, and their sides protected throughout by walls of suflicient breadth and thickness ? Vestiges remain to announce the immensity of this work ; and its decay will always bear witness to the neglect of the Spaniards who settled in the empire of the Incas. Arc not the Tambos, or spacious inns, which still exist through the whole extent of the Province of C^uito, as well as in all the mountain- ous countr}', infallible indications that the Indians did not live so abandoned to indolence that they could not
3
50
shake it off for the accomplishment of any object which might minister to their convenience? The palaces, the temples, and the other works mentioned in the first part of the history of our travels, do not permit us the injustice of imputing to that people the love of ease, when they all bear evidence to the contrary. Let us now examine their manner of life at the present time, and we shall find that they are not indisposed to labor.
All the free Indians cultivate the lands belonging to them with so much care that they leave no portion of them fallow. It is true that their arable lands are circum- scribed ; but it is because they are not allowed to possess more, and not for want of care and toil to render them productive. The caciques, who have a larger portion assigned them, lay out extensive planting-grounds, rear cattle according to their means and opportunities, and husband all they can, without being compelled by force, and without using compulsion towards those w'ho labor for them.
When the Indians who are not employed in the work- houses have any leisure time, and have finished the heavy task assigned them by their overseers, the}'' labor at home on their own account. All the Indian women do the same, when opportunit}^ offers. This is not con- sistent with the charge alleged against them, that they are idle ; for any other people whatever would detest la- bor, could they once know that the avails of it were to be applied, not to their own benefit, but to the benefit of others.
The facts adduced are sufficient to show that the Span- iards of those counti'ies have exaggerated the indolence of the Indians, in order to render the use of the meta in- dispensable, applying it to their own emolument, — a measure which tends directl}' to the injury of the Indians, and to the exhaustion of the royal treasury ; because a vast number perish under a system beyond measure rig- orous, as well as from want of sustenance, and the total neglect of the aged and infirm. In proportion as the number of the Indians decreases, the amount of tribute
51
falls short, and the towns become depopulated. These results are so palpable that they are felt and acknowl- edged even l\y those who are blinded by prejudice.
Notwithstanding what we have said of the punishment inflicted upon the Indians in the workhouses, it is not sufficient to give an exact idea of the sj^stem as it is practised in them ; and hence we are obliged to present some further particulars.
As there are in the workhouses three taskmasters, who have the constant supervision of the Indian weavers, so there are three emploj-ed on the plantations, which are the overseer, his assistant, and second ; but, as the latter is alwa3-s an Indian, he is not accustomed to inflict blows on the rest. He is permitted, however, to carry a whip, like the rest, to make his authority respected. Each one holds his own scourge, without letting it fall from his hand the whole dav long. This instrument of torture resembles a rope's end, about a yard long, and a little less than a finger in thickness, and is made of cow's hide twisted like cord. In case the Indian has been guilt}^ of any wrong or neglect, he is required to lie flat on his face, when his thin drawers, which make up his whole dress, are taken off, and he is scourged with the rod ; be- ing himself obliged to count the lashes that are inflicted upon him, until the number prescribed in the sentence has been completed. He then gets up, and is required to kneel in presence of the man with the whip, and, kiss- ing his hand, to say to him, " May God bless you ! " the trembling lips of the wretched Indian thus giving thanks in the name of God for the stripes inflicted upon liim, al- most alwa^-s unjustl}'. Nor are vien alone subject to punishment, but their wives and children, and even the caciques, whose rank and dignit}^ entitle them to consid- eration.
The practice of scourging the Indians so unmercifully is not confined to the workhouses, plantations, and racta Indians ; l)ut the priests cliastisc their parishioners, and exact any service from them whatever by dint of blows. For, if the Indian should not do promptly what is required
52
of him, it is deemed sufficient motive to make him lie down, and to inflict stripes upon him with a whip, or with the reins of the horse, until his strength is exhausted. This enormity reaches such a pass that even negro slaves and the vilest sort of persons practise it continually on their own responsibility, with no other reason or pretext than their own caprice. Nor is the suffering mcrcl,y causal, nor confined to this or that individual ; but it is the lot of the whole family of Indians, as an evidence of which we shall mention what took place during our residence in some villages, and even in our own house.
In the city of Cuenca, we took a house in company with the French gentlemen associated with us ; and some of the servants employed by the latter were Europeans, others mestizoes, and others negro slaves, which the French company had brought with them from St. Do- mingo. When it became requisite to clean the 3'ard and outhouses, — a service belonging to the mestizoes and ne- groes,— the latter, to rid themselves of it, passed to the street, and compelled the Indians who were travelling by to enter the houses, and then obliged them to perfoi'm all the labor. We reprimanded the former, and ordered the slaves to be punished ; but, as they were corrupted by the precedent which had been introduced in other houses, they waited till we had gone out of doors, in order to ac- complish their purpose. HowcA^er, the fear which the servants entertain towards their masters restrained them from treating the Indians with cruelty, and at length they gave them the leavings of the kitchen, which in some de- gree compensated their labor. But their being whipped by negro slaves, or made to run bound to the tail of a horse, as is practised by mestizoes and Spaniards, is so common an occurrence as scarcely to attract notice.
The punishments already described are those which are usually inflicted upon the Indians ; but when the rage of the master or overseer is not appeased, they scald them likewise, as is done in the negro colonies, although by a different method. Their mode is to take two pieces of the spunk of maguey, which is the light pith of the stalk
53
of the agave plant, and, after having been set on fire, they strike them together, that the sparks may fall on the flesh simultaneously with the inflietion of the rod.
The patient Indian submits without murmuring to im- prisonment, hunger, stripes, and every species of torture ; but an alfront is to him intolerable. The greatest degree of ignominy is that of having the head shaved by way of chastisement ; and, as the disgrace of this punishment is more permanent than that of bodil^^ suffering, the abashed Indian seeks in Aain for consolation under this misfor- tune ; notwithstanding, whenever his crime is one of an aggravated nature, and the wrath of the master is im- placable, he is shorn of his hair, and left to inconsolable grief and anguish.* In a word, the most insatiable spirit of revenge has never been able to invent an}' spe- cies of punishment which the Indian does not receive at the hand of the Spaniards.
It is a common remark of the most sober and thought- ful men of those countries, that if the Indians suffer for God's sake the hardships through which the}' pass dariug their whole lives, they would be worth}', at the moment of their death, to have their names inscribed in the cal- endar. The perpetual hunger, and nakedness, and pov- ert}', as well as the interminable oppression and barbarous chastisements which they suffer, from the period of their birth to their death, are penances more than sufficient to make amends in this life for all the sins which can be im- puted to them.
The natives have become so accustomed to chastise- ment that they not only cease to fear it, but even regard an occasional truce from it with apprehension and alarm. The Indian boys (choUtos) who wait upon the curates and other individuals are w'ont to look sad, and even to flee awa}', after a long interval of exemption from punish- ment ; and, if questioned as to the cause of their sadness
* This punishment was inflicted upon an Indian man and wo- man wliilc, I was at Cliillo, in 1857. The ownor of the ostato on which till! Indians lived jravo the order; but liis conduct was severely reprobated. — Tu.
54
or fliglit, they reply, in their simpheit}', that their masters do not appear to love them, because they no longer chastise them. The source of this error is not to be looked for in their simplicity, nor in any partialit}' the mature Indian may have to chastisement in itself; but, having been accustomed to ill-treatment ever since the conquest, they have conceived the idea that the Spaniards are a class of people whose very caresses and fond- nesses are stripes and blows ; and this is either no mis- take, or, if it be one, it is pardonable in the Indians ; for their masters, after having chastised them with merci- less cruelt}', alwaj's say to them that they punish them becaijse they love them, and the simple Indian has learned to give to this barbarous expression its literal import. Parents teach it to their children, and the un- suspecting innocence of the latter is easily made to believe that it is doing them a kindness to make them weep and bathe themselves in tears of anguish. Hence it is that they are accustomed to give thanks to their tormentor, kneeling before him and kissing his hand, although it be that of a negro, with expressions of gratitude for an act of cruelty, as if it had been the dictate of mercj'^.
Such is the terror occasioned by the very name of Spaniard, or Viracocha (a term comprehending all who are not Indian) , that when mothers woukl frighten their little ones, or make them hush when they cr}^, or hide themselves in the corner of their clay huts, by merely saying to them that the Viracocha is going to catch them, they are struck with horror, and run without knowing where to find a place of refuge. We have our- selves experienced this continually ; and, although it be- came necessary on some occasions to speak to them to make inquiries concerning the road, it was impossible to do so, as we could not get them to stop and hear the question put to them. So timid are they, that, when one of them begins to run, all the rest who can see him, however remote they may be, do the same ; and, should they be accidentally impeded by any ravine, they prefer
55
to throw themselves down, at the hazard of their lives, rather than expose themselves to the more imminent danger of the approach of the Viracocha. All this has no other source or pretext than the uuheard-of cruelt}' with which all, Avithout exception, are treated. But we have entered into more minute details than we intended, as it is a subject of which no important particular should be left unnoticed.
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CHAPTER III.
The same Subject continued. — Sequestration of Lands belong- ing to the Indians.
So various are the expedients invented by malice to nmltiply the means used to oppress the Indians, that we find materials on every hand for entering into further details of their extreme sufferings ; and, although the particulars brought to view in the preceding chapters might suffice to show the tyranny practised towards that unfortunate people, we cannot omit what we have to re- late in this, as the subject is one of great importance. The advantages resulting to all classes, at the expense of the care and personal labor of the Indians, have already been mentioned : we are now to speak of the power which the spirit of avarice exercises in stripping them not only of the means necessary for their own support, but even of acquiring a sufficient sum to pay the tribute money, — the only impost to which they are subject, agreeably to the considerate policy of our sovereigns ; and which is so just and reasonable, that, if nothing else were exacted, this burden would not fall heavily upon them. Such is the opinion of the Indians them- selves, as we have heard them say on various occasions ; and not of their caciques onl}', but of others who were present with us in the uninhabited deserts where we abode ; on which account, in addition to the circum- stance of having taken up our quarters sometimes in their very houses or huts, at others on the different plantations, and at other times in their villages, we had sufficient opportunit}' to become witnesses of their com- plaints, and to hear them recount the acts of violence and injustice with which they are harassed.
The king's envoys, bearing a commission from him to
57
those parts, have given these subjects only a superficial examination : some because they wanted opportunity^ ; and others because their attention was directed exclu- sively to their own interest, as they were intent only on discovering new methods of amassing a fortime. These circumstances did not obtain in us, inasmuch as our ambition did not reach beyond acquiring a treasure of useful information, nor had we any other end in view than to investigate the truth, to render our report as ac- curate as possible, so that we may say with confidence that we have secured our object to our entire satisfoc- tion. Our small and unimposing suite did not inspire such terror among the Indians that the sight of it should make them shun the familiar intercourse we desired and sought ; but the affability of our manner, indicating a disposition to regard them as beings of our own species, set them at liberty-, and inspired courage in their timid, pusillanimous hearts to communicate their sentiments to us freely. The kindness with whicli we treated them (as did also the French gentlemen, our companions) embol- dened thorn to make known to us their complaints. The conscientious strictness with which we paid the hire of those who waited upon us gave them occasion to speak of the different manner in which their services were usually recompensed ; in a word, the constant routine of passing from one province to another furnished us occa- sions more than sufficient to confirm whatever thej'' had disclosed to us, and even to observe many things of which we had been ignorant.
One circumstance which, more than any other, awakens our s^'mpathy for that unfortunate people, is to see them entirely stripped of their lands ; for although, at the period of the conquest and of the laying out of town- ships, certain portions had been reserved for the purpose of being allotted to the caciques and Indians belonging to the township, avarice has gradually curtailed them to such a degree that the tracts wliich remain to them are circumscribed within narrow limits, and the greater part has been wrested from fliem altogether. Some Indians have been despoiled of their lands by violence ; others,
K
8
because the owners of the neighboring estates have com- pelled them to sell at any price they may choose to give ; and others, because they have been induced to surrender them under false pretences.
The first cacique whose acquaintance we made in the Province of Quito was of the town of Mulalo, in the district of La Tacunga. His name was Sanipatin, a very worthy individual, and so much attached to the king that he could not disguise his sentiments of loyalt}*. On one of the many occasions we had to pass through his village, always taking lodgings at his house, the subject of the " repartimientos," or division of lands, was intro- duced, and, among other grounds of complaint, he in- formed us that having two lots of ground which belonged to him, and in which he sowed his wheat fields, a neigh- boring Spaniard, owner of an estate, wishing to enlarge his own by usurping what belonged to another, entered his name before the Audience of Quito as purchaser of one of those lots ; and, although the cacique immediately presented himself in support of his claim, he could not substantiate it, but was afterwards stripped of his plan- tation, in spite of entreaties, remonstrances, representa- tions, and urgent appeals to his patron to undertake his defence. It is in this way that the lands of the Indians are alienated every daj^, in case the claim should be per- sisted in with resolution. The illegality proceeds from the fact that, as the Indians have no other title to them than the right of possession (for, even were documents in existence, they are incapable of pointing out tlie oflflce or archives where they are deposited) , they are claimed as unoccupied lands, and sold as such ; injustice shelter- ing itself iinder this false pretext. In this way, the greater part of the estates owned b}' the Spaniards indi- vidually, or in a corporate capacity, have been gradually augmenting ; while the cultivated grounds which belonged to the Indians have proportionally diminished, and the number of inhabitants has decreased in the same pro- portion.
On the estate of Guachala, we were eye-witnesses of another of those instances of usurpation to which the
59
Indians of that country are alwa3's exposed, "We happened to arrive on the plantation at the time the pro- prietor was there ; and, not long after we came into the house, he sent for an Indian who possessed lands in his vicinit}'. and, inventing a ridiculous stor}^ relative to the motive of our arrival, induced him to abandon his lands in his favor for a very trifling consideration ; and as he entered at once into possession, having concluded the bargain with the Indian, he himself gave us an account of the transaction. It appears that the Spaniard had been pressing the Indian for a long time to part with his lands, but he would not consent ; and not being in favor with the Audience, so as to get them adjudged to him as unoccupied lands, he was eagerl}^ pursuing other measures to secure his object, when his malicious heart suggested to him that he would intimate to the Indian that we, in company with the French gentlemen, had arrived with orders from the king to reconnoitre all the lands which the Indians had usurped from the Spaniards, to wrest them from their hands, and to restore them to their law- ful owners. He then informed him that the lands which he claimed did not belong to him ; for there could be no doubt the}' were usurped, situated as they were in the immediate vicinity of his estate. lie advised him to give them up of his own accord, and he would bestow on him some trifling charit}' in consideration of their value ; but if he refused to listen to his advice, as we were there on his estate, and as this was the express object of our tour, he would present a complaint against liim, by means of wliich he would not only be deprived of his lands by a legal process, but would be punished as a usurper of another man's property. The Indian, whose siraplicit}' (whicli is natural to the whole race) could not penetrate the depraved design of tlie man who deceived him, supposing that artfully contrived falsehood to be true, did not liesitate to abandon them, and leave them free from encumbrance ; and in order to make it im- possible tliat they should revert to him, should he dis- cover the fraud, the Spaniard purchased the seeds which had already been sown.
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Others avail themselves of measures still more iniqui- tous than the preceding : instigating the overseers of their estates to persecute them ; stirring them up to anger, in order to find an occasion for oppressing them ; and inducing them by these means (driven as they are to desperation by the proximity of the Spaniards) to sell their lands for any thing they are wilUng to give them, and to retire to some more remote district, where they may enjoy repose.
The owners of estates secure to themselves two im- portant ends in despoiling the Indians of their lands : the first is, that they enlarge thereby their own estates, as we have just seen ; and the second, that those Ind- ians who have been thus disabled from working on their own account may be compelled to perform a volun- tary meta service. On the other hand, it is scarcely known to the governor and curates that the Indian has received the proceeds of a forced and profitless sale, than they devise means — the former by fomenting quarrels, and the latter by celebrating saints' days — to get that mone^- into their own hands ; the poor Indian beitig stripped of his lands, as well as of the paltry price he had received for them. The persecuted wretch, find- ing himself destitute of means to support his family and pay the tribute money when it becomes due, to escape famishing in a factory, is compelled to sell himself on an estate, that his master may assume the debt ; hence has resulted the unpeopling of the whole country, inas- much as poverty, anguish, and unremitting toil waste away the health of Avhole families, until they die worn out with fatigue and hunger.
In the same way as the Indians are stripped of their lands when they are weak and defenceless, they are also deprived of whatever pertains to them in the form of an inheritance ; an evidence of which may be found in what is actuall}^ taking place in Quito. Among the nunneries erected in that city, there is one of St. Clair, a royal foundation, which was instituted in behalf of the daugh- ters of the caciques, that the}' might take the veil in it ; for, although noble by birth, the}' were refused admittance
61
into the other corporations until their eomphiiuts came to the knowledge of his Majest}', when he decreed that this should be built for their benefit. Few Indian women were inclined to take the veil ; and, to augment the num- ber of the nuns, it was proposed to receive those who belonged to Spanish families ; but, as the number of the latter gradually augmented, thej' took the control of the convent, and refused to receive, in the character of nuns, any more inmates of Indian extraction ; and it is only in case of great importunity that they condescend to receive them as laics, that is, as maid-servants, with the privilege of wearing the habit of the order. Several caciques (and among them one who would not consent that his daughter should take the habit of a laic, instead of the black veil, and who met with opposition from the other nuns) presented their complaints to the Audience, entreating the protector to defend their suit ; but they failed to obtain redress, not being able to find either in the courts or in the protector the justice and protection they desired. In this way they lost the privilege of ha^ing their daughters admitted as nuns in the only convent that had been constructed for their benefit. The result is the same in everything relative to their privileges and immunities, for the disadvantage is always on their side ; this infringement of their rights depending on the want of patronage on the part of the protector.
In proof of our assertion that it Ls against the Indian that the persecution is directed, and upon him that the weight of injustice falls most heavilj', although we regard the statements already made as quite sufficient to con- vince ever}' one of the facts in question, we think it proper to add what took place in respect to the Indians under our own observation.
In 1741, when Vice- Admiral Anson laid waste Pa^'ta, with a view to defend the port of Atacames and to pro- tect the road just opened to Esmeraldas, felons and cul- prits were released from prison, and sent thither from Quito; and, l)eing divided into several companies, some were destined for Guayaquil, and others for Atacames
62
aixT Esmeraldfls.* In order to transport these troops and carry the necessary supphes, the mules were seized, with their drivers, for this purpose ; and, as the end pro- posed was the service of the king and the common cause of the country, it was determined that no compensation should be made to the owners. This measure would not have been ill judged, if, as it comprised the Indians, it had been made to extend equally to all the inhabitants of Quito and other wealthy towns, where large droA'es are pastured on the estates to carry the produce to market : but, although it might have been so intended, it was not executed in that equitable manner ; for not only the clerg}' , but those of the laity who had a greater interest than other classes in the defence and safety of their country and wealth, resisted the order, and excused themselves, — some alleging their immunities as ecclesi- astics, and others the dignity of their rank, the whole burden falling ultimately upon the Indian, to aggravate his misery. These poor men, whose whole stock con- sists of four or six mules distributed to them b}' the cor- regidor, and whose service furnishes them a support, as well as the means of paying the tribute, were by these measures deprived of this trifling source of profit. They were compelled to perform the journey; and, owing to the roughnesses of the road, the mules Ijecame exhausted and incapable of travelling. To this result the change of
* It is still customary to employ the mules of the Indians at a reduced price iu the service of the government. When Mr. Pickett, late commii^siouer to Quito, arrived at Babahoyo, in 1838, he applied to the governor for pack-mules to facilitate his journey to Quito. The same evening, he observed that the number he had asked for were placed in an enclosure near his lodgings; but, having noticed the muleteers standing at the gate, ho vront out to ascertain the cause of it. He was told that they had sokl their vegetables in the port, and were to take in exchange a quantity of salt, — an article which some in the inte- rior never taste, on account of its scarcity. The commissioner, moved with pity, informed the governor that he should not accept the mules on such conditions, but should restore them to their owners. The result was that they were immediately laid hold of for the benefit of a less scrupulous traveller. Even unsuccessful efibrts to do justice are worth recording. — Tr.
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climate contributed not a little, for those animals, being accustomed to tlie cold paramos, or heaths, of the Prov- ince of Quito, had to undergo the heat and continual moisture of the forests which lay on their route. So great was the destruction of mules on that occasion, that not a twentieth part of those who set out on their jour- ney reached their destination ; and those which returned from the coast perished in passing through the forests of Esmeraldas, some before and others after they had reached the paramo : so that the loss to the owners was total, and without any indemnit}' for their hire, or for the expense of the journe}'. It is easy to imagine in what conditiou these wretched men were left ; for, as they have no other occupation than that of mule-drivers, and possess no other resources than the hire of their mules, they were deprived even of the hope either of recovering their loss, of supporting their families, or of paj'ing their annual contribution.
The existence of these evils being admitted, it remains to be seen whether any remedy can be devised ; and, as it is undcnial)le that they originate in the xuifaithful- ness of the Indian protectors, we shall consider the two causes from which, in our opinion, this want of fidelity proceeds. The first is, the fixed determination of all who go to America, holding pubhc stations, to amass a fortune, witliout scruple as to the means used ; for the Indian advocates are not in general less eager than others in their desires to accumulate wealth. The second cause is, that these functionaries are not ordinarily acquainted with the language of those tribes in whose behalf they are employed, — an acquisition quite as necessary to them as it is to the parish priests ; nor will a superficial knowl- edge l)e suflieient, for, as the language of the Indians abounds in figures and allegory', in order to the right understanding of these a thorough knowledge of their idiom is indispensable. Such being the case, only one resource occurs to us, which will excite surprise, merely because it has never been reduced to practice ; and this is, tliat the vacancies of the fiscal advocates, together with the titles, authority, and privileges annexed
64
to them, should he filled by the eldest sons of the ca- ciques. This idea, which at first view may appear mon- strous, as it has never before been suggested, and as it is apparently liable to serious objections, will, when viewed more nearl}", be stripped of its imaginary teiTors ; for, after mature reflection, it will be found to have so much weight as not onl}- to remove ever}' objection, but to recommend itself as the onl}' effectual means of secur- ing the due accomplishment of the laws so wisely enacted by our sovereigns in favor of the Indians. By this means only would they be protected against the unrestrained warfare now carried on against them by their corregidors, as well as from the lawless impositions of the parish priests, and the inhuman outrages committed upon them by landholders, mestizoes, and other petty t^-rants. We shall be met at once with the first objection and the most powerful one which the avarice of their oppressors has to advance against so admirable a provision ; for, as it in no wise tends to their emolument, they would be eager to assail it with atrocious falsehoods, in order to perpet- uate their tyranny.
The first measure employed to displace these protect- ors would be, to allege that the Indians, availing them- selves of the authority and protection conceded to them, would cast off" fear, and rise in rebellion, constituting to themselves a king of their own nation. Tliis is the phantom invented to intimidate, in order that no innova- tions should be made in the government which they have so iniquitously instituted ; but these imaginary fears would have no influence in the minds of the secretaries in Spain, if they had an accurate idea of the peculiari- ties, the nature, and genius of the Indians, who are by no means predisposed to riots or insurrections. Nothing proves this assertion more clearly than a view of the imposts heaped upon them b}^ caprice, to which they submit without having their minds irritated, or affected by any other emotion than that of grief, which is inher- ent in beings of a mild and childlike disposition. True it is that, when once got into the fray, — as the phrase is there, — they are not intimidated by chastisement or
G5
death ; all means of reconciliation are unavailing, nntil thc}- are exterminated : but this arises from the fact that, when the}' are driven to these desperate resolutions, they count it a greater happiness to die in the onset than to return again to a state of bondage. Hence it is that those who once rebel, and abandon their villages, cannot be reconquered or held again in subordination ; the truth of which we experience in the Araucanian Indians of Chih, the inhabitants of Quixos and Macas, frontiers of the Province of Quito, and, lastly, in the Chunchos, — all of whom have thrown off their allegiance to their sover-
^o*-
eign.
In order to ascertain the firm basis on which this opin- ion is founded, we have only to look back to the last rebellion of the Indians of the modern missions, bordering on the Provinces of Ja^ija and Tarma. Although it had been in contemplation for forty 3'ears, it was confined at its commencement to two thousand Indians, and the grand motive which induced them to throw off their allegiance was to rid themselves of the vexations and persecutions of the parish priests ; for, not having been as yet subject to tribute, the argument employed b}^ their chief to entice them was, that he wished only to rescue them from the oppression of the Spaniards. Had they been a people inclined to revolt, not an Indian would have remained in all the settlements of Peru ; but they would all have gone over to tlie rebel party, so much have they to undergo, and such is the cruelty and contempt with which the}' are treated. Should an}' doubt still remain on this point, let the masses of that nation be compared with those in Europe, where there is scarcely a demagogue who raises a cry in any province but he is instantly joined by a greater part of the population ; and we shall see how diverse from this is the spirit of the Indians, in spite of the oppres- sion they are made to suffer. But to form a more accu- rate idea of what we have just advanced, we shall relate an occurrence which took place during our residence in (^uito, and which will be sulllcient to confirm the truth of it.
In the jurisdiction of Ibarra, in the town of Mira,
6
(j6
there lived a parish priest, with whom we had some de- gree of friendly intercourse. lie was also one of the many in whom the passion of avarice predominates with unbridled excess ; and, although recently presented to the benefice, he sought to oppress the Indians by attempting to strip them of all their lands, and to make them over to himself. His aml)ition appears to have had no bounds, inasmuch as he obliged the owners of the lands to cultivate them, by converting their per- sonal labor to his own emolument. The Indians became so straitened by these and man}' other acts of extortion, and the cacique, finding that the tyranny of the priest had driven the people to desperation, went to Quito to present a complaint to the bishop. It appeared to that prelate, who had a sense of justice, that a severe admo- nition would suffice to put a stop to the encroachments of the priest : but quite the contrary took place ; for, being enraged at the rebuke, he hurled his vengeance upon the cacique, and accused him of a project of re- bellion, with a view to proceed with other Indians to the mountains, and thus depopulate the village. He sent up this false summary to the Audience ; and, hoping to provoke the cacique to some imprudent act which would justify the measure, he laid hold of his eldest son, and made him a servant, sending him out to do the office of stable-bo}^ The cacique was exceedingly wounded by this insult, but did not vent his anger in the way the curate supposed he would ; but, anxious to avenge his honor b}' a legal process, he proceeded to Quito, pre- sented himself before the Audience, taking with him some Indians as witnesses, and acquitted himself of the charge so maliciously preferred against him by the priest. He complained before the tribunal of the dread- ful outrages committed by the priest, not only against him, but against all the Indians of his chiefdom, and of that which ho had just been guilty of in degrading his eldest son to such a low station. The Audience referred these just complaints to the bishop, that he might enter a suit against the priest. The bishop summoned him to appear, and rebuked him with still greater severity ; com-
G7
manding him to give satisfaction to the offended cacique, and to reform his conduct. The revengeful priest prom- ised so to do ; and the bishop, behe\ing his feigned show of repentance to be sincere, gave him a license, after some days, to return to his curac}'.
The priest set out to go to his village, and had scarcely arrived when he sent for the cacique to execute upon him his premeditated vengeance. The cacique promptly appeared before him ; and the priest, bursting with rage, ordered him to lie down on the floor, as he would a slave whom he was going to punish, — insulting, by such vile treatment, the person, the dignit}', and the advanced age of the cacique, — telUng him afterwards that he did all that to let him know the consequences of having pre- sented complaints against the priesthood. The abashed cacique removed from that town to another of the same department, and despatched several Indians to Quito to lay before the Audience the inefficacy of the measures they had adopted. About this time we arrived at Mira, and the Indians of the town communicated to us all that had taken place : but nothing wounded the cacique more deeply than having had imputed to him, falsely, the charge of rebellion, thereby fastening upon him the infamous blot of treason ; and he inquired with great discretion for what cause he was to offend his lord the king by an act of rebellion, when he had received such favors from his ro3-al clemenc}', and when it was the curate only who did the Avrong ; or how he could commit a base act to compx-oraise his honor and fidelity, that the curate might triumph at the expense of his reputation and good con- duct. This he repeated to us again ; and uniformly held the same language to his townsmen, as we have heard them frequently sa}'. In view of the last complaint made b}' the injured cacique, and of others presented b}'- the Spaniards and mestizoes of the town, the Audience named a judge to make an investigation and substantiate what had there occurred, the bishop having previously named a sul)stitute for that curacy. The attorney came to reside at the farm-house where we had taken u^j our quarters, and the proceedings were in-
68
stituted with great formality, inasmnch as the whole vicinity were comprised in the aggressions of the curate ; for, had the Indians alone been the sufferers, there is no doubt but injustice would have triumphed. We returned to Quito ; and, as we enjoyed the confidence and esteem of the bishop, he begged us, when we visited him, to acquaint us with the truth. We did so, and that prelate was deeply affected with the extreme sufferings of the Indians ; assuring us that, while he held the office, that priest should return neither to the curacy of Mira nor to any other, notwithstanding many proofs of consideration which the bishop had shown him previous to that un- righteous act. In fine, the cacique and the Indians owed their acquittal to the accidental visit we made there, having been ourselves eye-witnesses of his bad conduct,
— a circumstance without which, notwithstanding the excess to which he carried his tyranny, the priest would have repelled all the charges alleged against him, the Indians would have remained in a worse condition than before, and the cacique under the odious imputation of treasonable designs.
Let us reflect, now, whether the suffering undei'gone by this cacique and his Indians would not have been sufficient, in any other tiT.be less unresisting and more warlike and turbulent, to stir them up to insurrection, and to take vengeance on the priest for themselves ; and, the more so, when there was no one in that village who could withstand them ; and, should not this be the case, would it be possible to impede their penetrating as far as the Andes, had they wished to do so, especially as this chain of mountains is so contiguous to that village, that, within four hours' time, they could have made their escape to a free country, inhabited by Gentile Indians,
— a distance which would be to those natives only what it is to us to cross a street ? No doubt can remain that their not having done it at that time was the effect of their passiveness and loyalty. Being then no longer able to submit to such injustice and cruelt}^ they aban- doned their villages and wretched huts, and spread them- selves over others belonging to the same jurisdiction,
69
allowing time for the fearful tempest which had been raised against them to subside. lu view of this, we cannot entertain the belief that the}^ would be guilty of treason under a less rigorous S3'stem of government, when we find the}' are not so in spite of so many in- juries and provocations ; for how can we believe that cruelty or severity should inspire them with sentiments of loyalty' and love to their king, and that kind treat- ment should transform them into rebels : above all, when thc3' are so fond of attention and caresses that they account it an excess of kindness on the part of a master when he throws them the fragments of what he has partaken of himself; esteeming as they do a morsel of bread bitten b^- his mouth, or the licking of a plate from which he has eaten, more than a handful of viands which he has not touched ? It is regarded by them as a mark of esteem, on the part of those whom they serve, to have assigned them a place near to themselves, to enjoy the privilege of lying upon the floor, near to the foot of their master's bed : even any circumstance, how- ever trivial, which argues a feeling of regard, is to them a matter of satisfaction and boasting.
If, on the other hand, we turn our attention to their loj-alty, we shall find no nation in the world who speak of their sovereign with more respect and veneration. The}' never take his name into their mouths without pre- fixing the title of Lord, as we have already observed : at the same time uncovering their heads, — a ceremon}' which neither the parish priests nor the governors have taught them ; for these do not put it in practice, nor have they seen the example in an}' Spaniard, and yet they never fail to be scrupulous in the observance of it. Their usual mode of address is, "the Lord King," and some- times, agreeably to the subject, "our Lord the King," as if it were irreverent to speak of the soA'ereign in any other manner. Doubtless this is owing to the fact, that, liaAing heard the titles. Lord Viceroy, Lord President, Lord Bishop (this being an established usage in those countries), they have persuaded themselves, and not without reason, that, if such respect is due to subjects, it
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is much more becoming to observe it towards a sovereign. All this manifests the veneration, esteem, and love with which they treat his Majesty ; and it is a thing worthy of admiration in a tribe so rude and so destitute of mental culture, and who have come to know only by informa- tion from a distant soui'ce that they have a king ; and hence it is that they become more entitled to have their loj'alty and love to their prince rewarded by kind and humane treatment, as well as by marks of esteem, when they have not rendered themselves unworthy of it by any improper behavior.
Should any apprehension of a rebellion exist on the part of any of the inhabitants of the southern countries, it ought to fall on the Creoles or mestizoes, who are the chief cause of tumults, addicted as they are to idleness, and wholly abandoned to vice ; but, as we are to treat of this subject more in detail, we shall leave it for the chapter to which it corresponds.
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CHAPTER IV.
Extortions which the Indians snffer from the Parish Priests. — Corrupt Morals and Scandalous Life of the Clergy, both sec- ular and regular.
In view of all that has been said relative to the rapac- ity of the corregidors in their unjust rej^artlmientos, the barbarity of the meta, the sequestration of landed prop- erty, want of protection in the courts of justice, and the rapid diminution of the Indians, occasioned by unrejnit- ted toil while they are in health, and in the utter want of resource in time of sickness, it appears as if a greater degree of wretchedness could not fall to the lot of this people, or that the burdens under which they already groan would be sufficient to crush them. But as they are found to have strength to suffer in necessity, and a disposition, owing to the simplicity of their nature, to submit to authority, the resources of avarice are never exhausted, and the desire of domineering is never satis- fied ; and the result is, that even those from whom they ought to receive consolation, and to whom they are to look for redress, impose upon them still heavier burdens, render their sufferings more acute, and drive them to the very verge of despair.
AH these calamities are brought upon the Indians by their parish priests ; who, while they should be their spiritual fathers and their i)rotectors against the unright- eous extortions of the corregidors, do themselves go hand in hand with the latter to wrest from the poor Indian the fruit of his incessant toil, even at the cost of the blood and sweat of a tribe whose condition is so deplorable that, while they have abundant means to enrich and aggrandize others, are destitute of a scanty allowance of bread for their own meagre sustenance. In the preceding chapter
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we mentioned incidental!}' the avarice of that unfeeling priest who not onl}- oppressed his parishioners initil his tyrann}' became insupportable, obliging them to abandon their wretched hovels as soon as he learned the complaints which the chief had modestly laid before the bishop and Court of Audience, but forged to this prelate, for mali- cious purposes, a heap of charges, the very idea of which made that noble and respectable Indian shudder. This is the reason why the corregidors accuse the chiefs with impunity, when they endeavor to resist the endless ex- tortions made upon their villages ; namel}', that the cu- rates cannot confront them at the tribunal, because they are even more guilty than they, by using artifices no less iniquitous, and imposing taxes no less unjust.
The curacies of Peru are of two sorts — some of them being superintended by a bishop, and others by the pro- vincial of one of the religious orders. In the former, appointments are made by wrangling or a public dispu- tation, and the disputants are required to undergo an examination in the language of the Inca, by which is meant the language of all the Indians of Peru. The wrangling for presentation to vacant curacies being con- cluded, the proceedings of which are h. Id in the palace of the bishop, in presence of the dignitaries of the church, who sit as Judges, the votes are taken, and the bishop makes a list of those who have most distinguished them- selves ; of which number he selects three for each curacy, one of whom is afterwards nominated by the viceroy or president, who delivers him the credentials or despatches to which he is entitled.
As soon as the parish priests are promoted to their cures, they usualh' bend all their efforts to amassing wealth ; and for this purpose they have devised various measures, by which the}^ appropriate to themselves the pittance which may have remained to the Indian, and which has escaped the rapacity of the corregidor. One of their devices is that of the fraternities ; and they have formed such a number of them in every village that every corner of the churches is filled with images, and each of these has its corresponding fraternity ; and, in order not
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to withdraw the Indians from their tasks, the celebration of those saints' days which occur during week-time is postponed to the following Sunda_y.
The Sunday at length arrives on which a saint's festi- val is to be celebrated : and the sum of four dollars and a half is to be collected b}- the OA-erseers, which is the fee for high mass ; and an equal amount for the sermon, which consists in merel}' repeating four words in praise of the saint, without any other labor or study than enunciating in the Peruvian language the first thing that suggests itself to the mind ; and, when this is over, the Indians are required to defray the expense of the procession, the w^ax, and the incense. All this is to be paid in ready money, as soon as the festival is over (for church fees are al- wa3-s to be paid instantl}') . To this is to be added the customar}^ ofi'ering which the overseers are compelled to make to the curate on every saint's festival ; w^hich con- sists of two or three dozen hens, as man}' chickens, guinea- pigs, eggs, sheep, and a hog if thej' happen to have an}' ; so that, when the saint's day arrives, the curate sweeps off all that the Indian has been able to collect in money during the whole 3'ear, and also all the fowls and animals which his wife and children have reared in their huts : so that his family are left wholly destitute of food, or have no other aliment than wild roots, or plants which they cultivate in their small gardens. The Indian who has not been able to rear a sufiicient number of animals for the customary offei-ing is bound of necessity to purchase them ; and should he not have the money, as is usually the case, he is to take it upon a pledge, or hire it for the time required, in order to obtain it and pay it without de- lay. As soon as the sermon of the day is concluded, the curate reads a paper on which he has inscribed the names of those who arc to be masters of ceremonies for the fes- tival of the following year, and, if anyone docs not accept it of his free-will, he is forced to give his consent by dint of blows ; and, when his da}' comes, there is no apology that can exonerate him from having the money ready ; for, until it is all collected and delivered to the curate, mass is not saitl, the sermon is not preached, and the
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whole service is deferred until three or four in the after- noon, if necessary, to allow time to collect the amount, as we have had occasion to observe repeatedly.
In order to be more thoroughl}' acquainted with the excess to which this is carried, and the enormous profits made by the curates at these festivals, it seems proper to mention here what a curate of the Province of Quito told us as we were passing through his curacy ; which was, that, including the festivals and the commemoration of departed souls, he collected every j'car more than two hundred sheep, six thousand hens and chickens, four thousand guinea-pigs, and fifty thousand eggs, the record of which is preserved as it was originally written in our manuscript. It should be remarked that this curacy was not one of the most lucrative. Let an estimate, then, be made on these data of the amount of money that might be obtained, and on the supposition that the w^hole is raised from a nation or tribe who have no other means of gain than their personal labor, or a very reduced salary when they labor for others, — how is it possible that such stipends should be paid to the curates ? We are forced to the conclusion, that such contributions could be sustained in no way but by tasking to the utmost not onh' men and women, but a whole famil}^ in order to exact the pay- ment of the sum total of their earnings during the whole year.*
Besides the feast of the fraternity (for some saint's fes- tival never fails to be celebrated every Sunday and hol-
* The same custom prevails still throughout the Proviuce of Quito. Wliile 1 was at Otavalo, a gentlemau informed me that the parish priest of tliat town had sold the otferings for the dead (collected iu November) for three hundred dollars.
Being on a tour in the country iu the year 1835, I observed that the offerings of bread and various articles of food (sucli as had been most to the taste of the d(,'ceased) were deposited near the grave. On further inquiry, I learned that they were after- wards collect(Hl and sold by the curate, although the deceased was supposed to have partaken of the substance of them. A gentleman informed me that ho had seen a bull tied near the grave of a man who had distinguished himself at bull-lighting, as if such a testimony of remembrance would solace his departed spirit. — Til.
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iday), they bave that of All-Souls' month, -when it is required of every Indian to carr^' his offering to the church, which consists of the same articles as those of the ordi- nary'feasts ; and, after they are placed on the graves, the curate passes round to sa}' a response over each of them^ while his servants collect the offerings. This continues the whole month of November ; and, in order to have no "daj' omitted, the curate divides them among the estates and villages annexed to his curacy ; the Indians of such estates or villages meet on the day allotted them, and, besides the offerings, they are to pa}' the alms gift usual at mass. What takes place with regard to the wine de- serves more particular mention, wine being one of the customary offerings for the dead ; but that climate does not produce it, and it is ver}' difficult to obtain it in those provinces which are so remote from the coast. Ingenuity, however, has devised means of supplying the want of it. For the purpose in question, the curate orders a portion of that which is used at mass to be put in one or two bottles ; and it is hired out, at two or three reals (ac- cording to the quantity), to the first Indian woman who stands waiting with her offering to have a response said ; and, when this is done, the offering is collected in bas- kets : but the wine (being again hired out) passes to another grave, and so continues to make the whole cir- cuit of the church, earning as many fees as there are gi'aves, this process going on every day during the whole month of November.
On all the 8unda3's on which the " doctrine " is pre- scribed to be read to the people prior to mass, every Ind- ian woman is to carry an egg to the curate, as the statutes require, or something equivalent : but in addition to this, which is the whole extent of their obligation, the curates compel the Indians to bring to them each a bundle of sticks ; while the Indian boys and girls, who come every afternoon to the " clodriiie" are to bring a truss of haj', according to the measure of their feeble abilit}^, to feed the horses and cattle which belong to the parish priest. By having recourse to such methods, they have no occasion to spend money for anything : and, while
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tliey are maintained by the Indians, they become rich at their expense ; for all the offerings they can accumulate are sent to market to the neighboring cities, hamlets, and mining towns, and are converted into money. By these means they augment the revenue of a curacy to such a degree, that, although the customary fees might not ex- ceed seven or eight hundred dollars, it gives them an income of five or six thousand dollars annually ; and there are many which greatly exceed that amount. But all which has been said hitherto scarce deserves to be named in comparison of what takes place in curacies held by monks ; for it appears as if in these the spirit of oppres- sion had been carried to its utmost bounds. This arises in part from the fact that, as these priests are subject to be removed, they endeavor to raise in the mean time the greatest amount possible, having no other object in view than to retire upon an estate, after their term of office has expired.
As it respects rotation in office, two methods are adopted : one is practised in the province of Quito, which is that of declaring vacancies and filUug them up_ at the meeting of every chapter ; the other obtains in all the rest of Peru, where the curates are allowed to hold their office as long as they wish, unless some good reason be as- signed which may make it necessary to depose one and substitute another. To supply these vacancies, ^no ex- amination is requisite, but merely the form of presenting the names of three candidates to the provincial, who makes choice of one, as he does in the case of the secular clergy ; but, in what way soever the vacancy be filled, the curate who comes into office, or who continues in office, must always contribute to the provincial of his order the amount stipulated for each curacy ; and, should any one come forward and offer more, the resident curate is obliged to make up the amount, or otherwise the vacancy will be filled by his competitor. The sum given for each curacy is so enormous as to exceed all credilnlity. At present it will suffice to say that this is based upon the rev- enue that it can be made to yield. This tax falls directly upon the Indians ; for, in addition to what the curate
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expects to raise for his own benefit, he ninst likewise raise the amount to be contributed to the provincial ; and as this is repeated at the meeting of eA^ery chapter, it is impossible to giva an adequate idea of the burdened con- dition of the Indians ; for the monks are more cruel and oppressive than the secular clerg}'. The measures which they resort to in order to accumulate wealth, and which, however painful the task, we are about to describe, may offend the ear, and exceed the bounds of credibility, so diflicult is it to yield our assent to them. We do therefore protest, that, in regard to every statement we have to make, nothing has been added, and nothing has been exaggerated ; and we have always scrupulously ob- served a distinction between what we have ourselves seen and what we have learned b}' report.
It is natural to suppose, that, after the curates have availed themselves as far as possible of the service of the Indians, the}' would do the same with the Indian women and children ; for which purpose, while the priest on his part keeps the ' ' mill at work " (this is another phrase for tjTanny, as used b}' the curates), he instructs his concubine to do the same on her part. This woman, who is known as such, and without exciting surprise, because it is everj'where so common, takes under her charge all the Indian women and children ; and, converting the whole Aillage into a manufactory, she assigns to some tasks in spinning wool or cotton, and to others, pieces for weav- ing ; and to the aged, and to those who are incapable of performing this service, she gives hens, and imposes on them the obligation of delivering to her, within a definite time, ten or twelve chickens for each one ; it being their duty to feed them at their own expense, and, if the}^ should die, to replace them with others : and by these means no one is exempted from contributing something to the revenue of the curate.
His own farm is to be cultivated on Sundays and hol- ida3's, and for this purpose some one of the Indians must be present with his cattle, and those who have none must appear in person ; and they perform the operations of sowing, harrowing, and reaping, at no greater cost than
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a mere word of command. Thus, on those days which God requh-es to be whollj^ devoted to his service and adoration, that all may rest from the labors of the week, the curate relaxes the obligation of a solemn precept for his own emolument, or for the benefit of a concubine ; and, because these things are so repugnant to reason as to become incredible, we shall cite an example, of which one of us was an eye-witness, in order that the state- ments which follow may not be regarded with distrust.* It is customary, in all the curacies, to apportion the days of Lent among all the estates in the district, in order that they may send their Indians to confession at the time prescribed by the church. In the year 1744, one of our companj^ was residing on the estate of Colim- buela, near to a mountain-pass where we had to make observations in the Province of Quito, and not far from a curac}^ to which its spiritual jurisdiction belonged ; and on this account he went to that village to hear mass on a feast day, where he found assembled a number of Indians of the same estate, to make confession ; but the priest, instead of administering to them this sacrament, kept both the men and women in constant employment, — the latter in the corridors of the yard, where they were weaving the tasks of cotton and wool, which had been as- signed them by the ladij of the curate ; and the former, in ploughing and sowing the fields, so that they had been at work the whole day, mass having been said at a very early hour, in order to gain time. The overseer of the estate, who happened to be in the village that da^', remarked that after they had concluded their tasks they went home, but that he did not know the manner or time in which the curate confessed them, assuring him that this practice
* lu tlao year 1836, I spent a few days in Cotocollo, a beautiful country town in the vicinity of Quito. On Sunday morning, I observed a number of Indians working silently in the neighbor- hood of a farm-house. On expressing my surprise that no day of rest should be allowed to the Indians, I was told that the field belonged to the curate, who claimed the right to set aside the divine precept, when any service was to bo performed for the good of the church. — Tr.
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was general!}' adopted in respect to the Indians of the other estates ; and thus, during the whole period of Lent, and for a month and a half following, the priest enjo3-ed the same advantage, having at his disposal as many Indians as he required.
What occasioned greater scandal was, that those who made up the choir of the church were busy at weaving ; nor did they suspend their work during the time that mass was saying, so that it is easy to imagine what a degree of irreverence was occasioned by the bustle of the hand-looms. After mass had been said, and the people were gone out, the church was closed, and the Indians were shut in, just as they are in the mills ; and their occupation could not be disguised, because the noise of the frames or wea^^ng-rods could he distinctly heard from without.
The unfeeling manner in which they are treated after their death corresponds with the conduct oliserved tow- ards them while they are living ; for they would con- sent to have their carcasses exposed on the highwaj", to be mangled by dogs and devoured by vultures, rather than give them burial or show any semblance of pity, until the charity of survivors has collected and paid the whole amount of the church fees. Of this there are pal- pable instances, at almost every step, in journeying from one farm to another : but, if the deceased has left aught behind, the curate becomes universal heir ; collecting together utensils and live-stock, and stripping his wife and children of every thing they possessed. The method of doing it, as well as the mode of legalizing the fraud, is very peculiar. It consists in making for the deceased a sumptuous fiuieral, however repugnant it may l)e to the views of the interested parties ; and tliis furnishes pretext enough for the curate to engross it all to himself. In vain do the heirs enter a complaint ; in vain does the protector domnnd satisfaction; for the curate presents his account of I'urial expenses, — the tolUng of the bell, the masses and prayers said over the body, — and, as the whole is in conformity with the tariff, he maintains his ground, and is finally acquitted.
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The wretched state of the Indian is to be attributed to the vices of the priests, the extortions of the corregidors, and the bad treatment which they generall}^ receive from all Spaniards. Unable to endure their hardships, and longing to escape from bondage, man^^ of them have risen in rebellion, and found their wa}^ to unconquered districts, there to continue in the barbarous practices of their idolatrous neighbors ; and, in view of the foregoing, what conclusions are thej^ to form from the scandalous lives of their parish priests ; especially when we reflect that the Indian is but partially civilized, and taught rather b}^ example than by precept? Religious instruction can make no impression upon them, if they witness just the reverse of what is taught in the conduct of their spiritual guides ; for although they are enjoined to love God with all the heart, and their neighbors as them- selves, if they find neither the one precept nor the other exhibited in the lives of those who are to point out to them the way, it is not strauge that they should slight religion, and treat it with contempt, regarding it as a thing so superficial and external as to make it consist only in words, and not in faith or works.
The village of Pimampiro, attached to the department of the city of Miguel in Ibarra, presents a melancholy ex- ample of the evils resulting from the unjust extortions of the parish priests. Agreeably to records which are still existing, that town consisted of more than five thousand souls, all Indians, and it was a flourishing settlement. The behavior of the curate drove them to desperation. Uniting in one body, they rose in rebellion, and pro- ceeded by night to the Cordilleras, where they merged themselves with the Gentile Indians, with whom they have continued until the present time. The site they now occuj^y is so near to the limits of that department that the smoke of their huts may be seen by merely taking the trouble to ascend the neighboring summits. Some of these Indians have occasionally appeared in the town of Mira, the nearest settlement to their villages, and have disappeared again with the greatest pi'ccipitation.
Examples of the same nature maj- be found in the loss
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of the fiimous city of Logrono and the village of Guari- boya, r,-hich constituted the chief part of the jurisdiction of Quixos and Macas ; whose capital, Seville (Sevilla del Oro) , now reduced to ruins, exists only as a sad memorial of the ruin that befell them. This country is so rich in gold that the capital derived its name from the abun- dance of that metal which it yielded ; and its inhabitants still preserve the scales in which the amount of one-fifth was weighed, to l)e deposited in the king's exchequer; but the corregidors on the one hand, and the curates on the other, reduced the Indians to such straits, by com- pelling them to labor for their benefit, that they were driven to the necessity of rising in rebellion ; and, in imi- tation of what was executed upon Pedro Valdivia by the natives of Arauco, Tucapel, and others, they melted a great quantity of gold, and poured it into the ears and nostrils of the Spaniards ; they put all the men to death, reserving the women, whom they took with them in their retreat to the wilderness of Macas, after having laid waste that city aud other neighboring towns. Seville and Zuha were the only settlements that escaped the vengeance of the Indians ; but they have become so depopulated by frequent incursions of hostile tribes, that the township is so reduced and impoverished that no money circulates among them. But to show how unfriendly the scandal- ous conduct of the parish priests is, not only to the pres- ervation of the villages originally conquered, but to the conversion of Gentile tribes, we shall present a case which occurred of late j-ears, and which proves our assertion be3'ond a doubt.
An Indian, who appeared clandestinely in the town of Riobamba, left the site where once stood the village of Goamboya, and proceeded immediately to the house of a clergyman who resided there, aud whose integrity was unquestionable, to whom he observed that he came in behalf of liis own tribe and of several others of the same neighborhood, to notiiy him that they would like to have him for their curate, to baptize them and say mass ; and tliat they would give liim his maintenan(!e in return, and, if the terms were agreed to, they would furnish him as
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much gold as lie required, and as many wives as were to his liking ; but that he must go alone, accompanied neither by Spaniards nor mestizoes, nor any other priest what- ever ; and concluded by saying that the reason why they were so favorably inclined towards him was, the good re- port they had had of his conduct, having learned that his avarice was not so insatiable as was that of his associates. The clergyman, jealous of the barbarity common to Ind- ians, replied that he could not then answer him, but would do so within a stated time. The Indian showed signs of disappointment ; but, having named a day when he should receive the reply, he pointed out a pass among the paramos, to which the said clergpuan only should repair, and would there be received by him in company with others of his tribe, that they might escort him to their territory, in case he should accept the proposal, but under the indispensable condition that no one should ac- company him. The Indian again disappeared, and the ecclesiastic, confounded by the occurrence, proceeded to Quito to communicate it to the bishop of that city, Sr. Paredes, who had been promoted to that office a short time previous to our arrival in the province. This pre- late inspired him with Christian boldness to go and undertake the conversion of as many unbelievers as were disposed through his instrumentality to embrace the gospel. The clerg3'man, being fully resolved to do so, under the first impulse of the fervor inspired by the arguments and persuasions of the bishop, returned to Riobamba ; but the pusillanimity of his irresolute mind wrought such an effect upon him, that, becoming wholly disheartened, he had not sufficient resolution to go to the place appointed, when the period agreed upon had arrived. The Indian resorted thither, accompanied by others of his tribe, and lay hid several days ; but, finding that the priest did not appear, he returned to Riobamba by night, and visited his favor- ite curate, who, although he offered to accede to his re- quest, added the condition that he was to go in company with a few Spaniards for security — a thing which was extremely repugnant to the Indians. The messenger, finding that he could not secure his object by dint of en-
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treaty, nor b}' giving bim such coarse expressions of con- fidence as his Hmitecl capacit}' dictated, absented himself the same night from the town, overwhehned with disap- pointment. The priest immediately' spread the news of the Indian's second visit ; and, naming the place where he had told him he would wait for him, with others of his tribe, several persons went to reconnoitre it, and found manifest indications of people having been there ; but, although thej' endeavored to penetrate farther, for the purpose of discovering the paths through which, the Ind- ians had made their retreat, the^' were unable to do so, ever}' vestige of them having disappeared after they had proceeded a short distance.
This occurrence occasioned great sensation in that province ; and, although it might seem strange that they should appl}' to that priest, and should be acquainted with his character, when thej' have no intercourse with those Indians, it will not appear so if we reflect, that many Indians of those villages, harassed by their curates, oppressed b}- the corregidors, and grieved at the cruel treatment the}' receive on the plantations, disappear, and retire to those unconquered wilds to live with the Gentile Indians, to whom the}' communicate in detail every thing that occurs in the conquered territor}' and settlements, making them so disaffected towards the Spaniards that their reduction is rendered more diflicult than ever. There is no doubt that the individual who came twice to Rioljamlja was one of this class ; for, besides the cir- cumstance of knowing the priest, and going directl}' to his house, he spoke with accurac}' the language of the Incas, which is not in use among those tribes of Gentile Indians.
We find in this example sufficient evidence, both of the extreme avarice and scandalous lives of the priests, as well as of the opinion the Indians must necessarily enter- tain of them l)y what the}' see in them, and by what they experience from them : which may be clearly inferred from the declaration of the Indian messenger to the priest, tliat they would iiave none but himself to instruct and govern them ; lor the}' believed that he would not
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enslave them, as the rest of the Spaniards do, nor would he consent that others should go with him, lest, the road being discovered, they should enter in great numbers, seize their grounds, and enslave their i)ersons.
The most amusing characteristic of that simple people, and which most contributes to make them known to us, is the offer made to furnish the curate as many wives as he Ts ould like : for the Indians, having observed that the priests are accompanied by a female, as the married laity are, and by a family of children in her train, they are persuaded that this horrible sacrilege is a lawful act ; while they, as well as everybody else, are eye-witnesses of such licentious practices, that it is enough to make the most fearless tremble to see with what unconcern and self-complacency those priests rise from the couch of criminal indulgence to celebrate the holiest sacrifice that the imagination can conceive. Although the subject is one to be deplored in silence, rather than to be inscribed on paper, an earnest desire that such accursed licen- tiousness may be reformed obliges us not to dissemlile or palliate it ; and, in further proof of the unrestrained lewdness of those ecclesiastics, we must be permitted to mention an instance very generally reported in the whole Province of Quito, although it tooJc place some time pre- vious .to our arrival in that country-.
In a village belonging to the jurisdiction of Cuenca, the curacy of which pertains to one of the orders, a friar was serving as curate at a time that the cacique of the town had a young daughter, who, for an Indian girl, possessed no ordinary share of beauty. The curate had used every artifice to accomplish her destruction ; but her own firmness, as well as the estimable character of her father, had saved her from falling into the fatal snare. The curate could not tolerate the contempt of the Indian woman, and had the impudence to malvc known his designs to her father ; but the latter prided himself so much on the rank of his family, as well as on the circum- stance of his daughter's being the only heiress of the chiefship, that he rejected with scorn the wicked and shameful proposal. The curate, discovering that the
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cacique was unfavorable to his designs, invented a false- hood (to set aside the difficulty) as perverse as could be dictated by the infernal spirit himself. He went to the cacique to ask her in marriage ; and, with a view to overcome the repugnance which such a novel occurrence might excite, he told him that he would obtain a license from his bishop, in which case he would be allowed to marry. He further attempted to remove all the doubts which might suggest themselves to the mind of the cacique on the subject, by informing him that, although this practice was not a common one, such licenses were general!}' refused only on the ground that they could not be burdened with the expense of maintaining the wi.lows and children which might become dependent upon them ; but that this circumstance did not obtain in him, inas- much as he possessed an estate adequate to the support of a famih, not to mention the terms of intimacy in which he had always lived with the bishop. Finality, he cited to him false precedents and lictitious documents, by which the cacique was convinced of his sincerity, and promised him his daugliter in marriage as soon as he should obtain the requisite permission. In order to deceive the cacique, he immediately sent an express, although for a very different purpose, to the provincial of his order in Quito ; and, while awaiting his return, he drew up, Avith the aid of his assistant, a false patent, in which he set forth that that prelate had granted him a license to marry. The messenger returned ; and, when the cacique called at the curate's to know the result, he showed him the document, and the cacique, with evident marks of satisfaction, congratulated him on the favor- able result. The mock nuptials were celebrated that very night, and the curate's assistant officiated as priest, without the presence of witnesses, or any regard to the usual forms ; for the priest maliciously insinuated to him that these were not re([uisitc in cases of that kind. The ceremony was performed, and from that day they con- tinned to lead a married life. The Indians of the village spread the report of the curate's having married the cacique's daughter ; but no one could persuade himself to
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believe that it could have been so in realit}-, but sup- posed he had taken her as a concubine, it being so com- mon to have such. The occurrence did not attract much notice at first ; and they continued living together for man}' 3'ears, until, after having had a numerous family, the fraud was discovered, and the priest suspended for a time from the duties of the priestly office. The unfor- tunate Indian woman was burdened with children ; and the cacique, grieved for the reproach he had suffered, died soon after, — the heaviest part of the punishment ultimately falling on those who had been guilty of no other crime than that of having listened with credulity to the protestations of a priest.-
The credibihty of this circumstance rests on its gen- eral notoriet}^ in those countries : elsewhere, it might be regarded in the light of a fable ; but, in a country where a licentious life is so common, anj'thing may admit of belief. We cannot assert it as a positive fact ; but, from what we have experienced, it is by no means difficult to believe it. During our travels we used to beguile the tediousness of the way by entering into conversation with our Indian guides ; and the first information they gaxe us related to the family of the curate of the village to which we were going, it being quite enough to ask after the health of the loife of the curate, that they might acquaint us with the number of those whom he had known in that character, the sons and daughters belonging to each of them, their lineage, and even the most trivial circumstances connected with the ordinary occurrences of the village.
From what we have witnessed in respect to these curacies, we may infer that the -^hole aim of those monks in soliciting such preferments is to straiten the Indians, in order to enrich themselves at their expense, and to live with entire freedom from restraint. Hence there is not one among them who covets the rural cura- cies, which consist of the modern missions ; for, as those Indians are not subject to church contributions, the curates are not at liberty to impose them, and to enforce the payment of them, as is the case in other districts ;
&
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and although the Indians of their own accord cultivate cue of their farms for the benefit of the curate, yet, as its produce is merely sufiicient to supply their necessities, and not to accumulate, it is not enough to satisfy the cravings of avarice. Hence those who go to them do so as a penance, or from caprice, or to make a merit of it, in order to secure some benefice in an old settlement, rather than from the single desire of employing them- selves in the instruction of the Indians ; and for this reason the few who accept these curacies spend the greater part or almost the whole year in the villages or cities, which the}' prefer, and reside on their curacy only during the annual celebration of the church festivals, which are all comprised within the short term of fifteen or twenty days, and they take their departure from them as soon as the ceremony is finished.
The name of rural parishes is given to those which lie on the spurs of the lofty chain of the Andes, through the whole tract of country', which extends easterl}^ on this side, and westerly on that which belongs to the other side. The climate of those latitudes is hot and moist, and on that account not well adapted to those who are accustomed to the hill country. It is this which renders them little to be coveted, and which furnishes a pretext for the curates who accept them not to take up their residence in them. But were they animated with zeal to promote the cause of religion, or stimulated by a desire lor the salvation of those souls, they would not stop at dilliculties, nor find fault with a change of temper- ature ; but as their zeal is directed only to the increase of their revenue, and not to the propagation of the faith, every thing is difficult and repugnant, except it be to live after the licentious customs which have become inveter- ate in the older settlements.
Having descril)ed the tyrannical policy of the curates towards tlie Indians, their atrocious conduct, and their dissolute habits, it remains to examine the method adopted for the education of the Indians, and their in- struction in the (h^gmas of religion ; on which sul)ject we have already observed that on ISundays the Christian
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doctrine is rehearsed a short, time previous to saving mass. At this ceremony all the Indians, male and female, great and small, are to present themselves ; and, gathering in the cemetery or square, in front of the church, they sit upon the ground, arranged according to age and sex, and the catechizing or doctrine commences in the following manner : —
Each curate employs a blind Indian, whose duty it is to repeat the doctrine to the rest. The latter is stationed in the centre of them all ; and, with a kind of recitative, which is neither singing nor prayer, he repeats the col- lects or offices word for word, and the audience responds in the form of dialogue. The doctrine is sometimes rehearsed in the language of the Inca (which is that of the Indians), and sometimes in Spanish, which is not intelligible to any of them. This saying of pi'ayers lasts somewhat more than half an hour, and it comprises all the religious instruction which is given to the Indians, — a method from which they derive so little benefit that old men of seventy know no more than the little Indian bo3'S {cholitos) of the age of six, and neither these nor those have an}" further instruction than parrots would obtain if they were so taught ; for they are neither ques- tioned personally', nor are the mysteries of faith ex- plained to them with the needful simplicity, nor are they examined to see if they understand what thej say, nor do they endeavor to make it more intelligible to those who are dull of comprehension, — a duty so much the more obligatory- in proportion to the degree of their in- sensibility or lukewarmness in the concerns of religion. As the whole instruction is confined rather to the tone of the recitative than to the sense of the words, it is only by singing that they are able to rehearse detached por- tions ; for, when the}- are questioned upon any distinct point, the}' cannot join two words together, and they possess so imperfect an idea of the little they do know, that, when they are asked who the most Holy Trinity is, they sometimes answer, "The priest," and sometimes, " The Virgin Mary ; " and when they are urged seriously to listen to the question, they change the answer, being
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always inclined to admit whatever ma}' be said to them, even if it were the most ridiculous jargon. The curate has no other object in view than to make every one bring the little presents required ; and when he has collected these (which consist of v.'hat they ma}' happen to have), and has taken a note of those ^ho have failed to bring anj', in order afterwards to call them to account, he thinks he is discharged from any farther obligation. This method of teaching the Indians is so common in all the villages, that, even in those whose curates are the most exemplary, no other is practised.
In like manner, there is upon every plantation another blind Indian, who is supported by the charity of the planter for the same object. The Indians are collected two or three daN's in the week in the farm-3-ard, usually at three in the morning, so as not to lose time from the ■work the}- have to perform through the day. They repeat the same pra3-ers, precisel}' as is observed in the church ; but the ceremony is accompanied neither by preaching, nor by any effort whatever to explain the mysteries of the faith.
The eagerness of the curate to celebrate all the church festivals is attended with consequences of a most perni- cious character, as we have often had occasion to jvitness ; for, at the close of the church festivity, that of the "masters of ceremonies" comes in course, and, being made to consist of their common orgies, which are to intoxicate themselves with the drink of chicha, the}' not only effect their own ruin, by consuming the scanty allowance of maize on which they depend for their sup- port, but, being deprived of sense and reason, fathers are crowded together with daughters, brothers with sisters, without distinction of sex, and without respect to relationship or regard to age. The curates do not re- buke the disorder, on account of the gain resulting to them from the celebration ; and, as it is the}' who furnish the occasion of scandal, it is necessary for them to toler- ate it, or to pretend (as they do) not to be aware of it. In view of their heinous conduct in fomenting and multiplying occasions of oflence among the Indians, their
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religion does not resemble the Christian any more than it resembles that which thej^ had while they were in a state of paganism ; for, if we examine the subject with care, it will be found that, notwithstanding the nominal conversion of these tribes, the progress they have made in knowledge is so inconsiderable that it will be difficult to discover any difference between the condition in which they now live and that in which they were found at the period of the conquest.
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CHAPTER V.
Showing that the Unwillinguess of the Gentile Indians to receivo the Gospel and to submit to the Authority of the Kings of Spiiiti is to be attributed to the Extreme .Sufferings of the Civilized Indians, as will appear from the Limited Inliueuce and Par- tial Success of the Catholic Missions.
By examining attentively all that lias been said in the four preceding eliapters, we shall see the reason why the unconverted Indians abhor the dominion of the Span- iards, and the motives which incline them to regard with contempt the Catholic faith, in which it is proposed to indoctrine them, inasmuch as they look upon religion, as the}' are taught it, as the instrument used to bring them under the cruel yoke of despotism. Under this convic- tion, it is not strange thatthe^- should appear so obstinate and unwilling to receive it, when they have before them the melancholy spectacle of what takes place in respect to the converted Indians of their own tribe ; nor can we wonder that, in the enjo3'ment of freedom, they should prefer a wandering, uncertain, and barbarous life to the comforts of a social condition which brings them to the very doors of servitude.
It was one of the principal points contained in our in- structions that we should inform ourselves of the places still in possession of savage Indians, their pi'oximity to our settlements, the tribes which compose them, and the difficulties and facilities arising from their genius and habits in effecting their civilization. In the present chapter we shall merely present a history of the missions sustained by the religious orders among the unconverted Indians of the Province of C^uito, of which we possess sufTicient knowledge to be aljle to do it witli the accuracy which the suljject demands, giving an account both of
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the places and individuals connected with each of the several stations.
We ma}' safely affirm that, of the whole extent of South America, the only portion peopled by the Span- iards, and in which there are towns that recognize the government of the king, is the tract comprised between the two principal chains of the Andes and that which reaches from tlie western chain to the coast of the South Sea ; and it should be observed, that in these there are immense tracts which are entirely uninhabited, — either because the}' form spacious pampas, where no facilities exist for colonizing, or because they are occupied by savage hoards, which have never been conquered. This is the case along the coast from Arica to Valparaiso, and from Conception to Valdivia, although not in an unbro- ken line, but in most of the principal thoroughfares of the interior.
The Spanish settlements of the hill country reach eastwardly as far as the western declivities of the eastern chain of the Andes, as has been already observed in the description of the Province of Quito, in the first volume of our travels ; and from the eastern declivities of the same chain (a wooded, moist, and hot country), onward towards the east, the settlements of the savage Indians have their commencement, and they are situated at so short a distance from those of the Spaniards, that, by merel}' ascending the mountain summits (as deer hunters are wont to do) , we may see distinctl}' the smoke of the Indian huts. From this point their territory extends east- wardly till it meets the coasts of Brazil, over a surface of more than six hundred leagues.
The tribes which inhabit all those tracts, of such im- mense length and breadth, are very numerous ; and every village has a distinct language, unlike that of the neigh- boring ones ; and, although in general there may not be a marked difference in their manners and customs, some diversity may bo noticed among them, whether it be in the absurd rites of their idolatrous worship, or in the sys- tem of theii' government, or in their general character- istics.
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Very few of these tribes receive missionaries, and the most unyielding are those who are situated nearest to the Si)anish settlements. There are none, however, so obstinate in this respect as those who have been guilty of insurrection and murder ; for, as the}' live in appre- hension of deserved punishment, there are no means ad- equate for their complete subjugation. The same takes place with the insurrectionists of the Spanish settlements ; and in these an additional circumstance obtains, which is that of esca[)ing from the ill-treatment they have suffered ; hence follows the immense mischief they occasion, by making it known to the tribes in whom they are merged, and to those in their neighborhood, that they may learn to abhor even the name of Spaniard, and obstinately re- sist the introduction of the Catholic faith.
We cannot deny that the Indians, being naturally in- clined to indolence, to idolatr}', and to everything which accords with the brutish state in which they live, — for among all the nations of the earth it is natural, as well as a matter of experience, that each one esteems those customs, manners, and religion in which he was born as the best, and any other whatever as foreign to them, — we cannot deny, we sa^', that the}' are averse to it, and will not accede to it without repugnance. In this view it not only ceases to be strange that the Indians are made to receive customs so distinct from those to which they are inured, inasmuch as labor stands opposed to indo- lence, and civilization to the savage state ; but it is worth}' of admiration that, without encountering great obstacles, some tribes should be found of so docile dis- positions as to receive missionaries and adopt the rites and precepts of a religion which obliges them to abandon their false gods, to lay aside their ancient and almost con- naturalized hal)its, and to tear themselves av/ay from the superstition and sorcery with which the infernal s[)irit has beguiled tlicm, the more effectually to reduce them to hope- less bondage.
Inasmuch as hatred and opposition to any other laws, human or divine, diverse from those established among them, are characteristic of all nations, as is also a fixed
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purpose not to abandon their ancient customs, we shall lay it down as granted, that, of the two circumstances which render the reduction of the Indians difficult, this holds the first place, and we are to regard it as natural and general among them, and not as being limited to any one tribe ; the second is, the ill-treatment they are ex- posed to by becoming subject to the Spaniards, after they have been conquered. Even without this circum- stance, that of forcing them out of a loitering, idle, and easy life, to inure them to another which is laborious and constrained, would of itself suffice to create repugnance on their part to the exchange, although they should suffer no ill-treatment from the Spaniards. All these circum- stances together conspire to render the instruction of the Indians difficult ; and to make them regard the Christian religion with little esteem, and even with aversion, it being the first step in the ladder by which they ascend to the theatre, of their labors and sufferings.
It is not to be inferred that the reason why all the tribes of Gentile Indians have not had missionaries is, that they have refused to receive them ; b\it it is also be- cause no effort has been made to introduce them. In some portions, the cause may be found in the great dis- tance of those parts from the mountain-chain, which keeps the Spaniards in ignorance of them ; in others, it is owing to the fact that the brokenness of the country and unhealthiness of the climate make it undesirable ex- cept to those who are brought up from infancy in those latitudes. At the same time, we have no doubt that missions might be undertaken and sustained, should a settlement be once commenced ; and that such articles might be raised as are adapted to the climate, as is the case in others which are as warm and moist as those which have continued unknown until the present time. The only districts where missions are found even now are those which are best known on account of their proximity to the mountain-chain, or to the banks of the largest rivers, as we find to be the case on the Marauon ; and there are very few even of these that have mission- aries, the Indians not being willing to receive them, be-
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cause they entertain a strong prejudice against civiliza- tion, in consequence of what tliey liave heard of the sufferings of the conquered tribes.
The Gentile tribes bordering on the Province of Quito are so numerous that the missions there established are proportionally- few, and the religious orders who conse- crate themselves to them with evangelic zeal are still fewer ; for, with the exception of the Jesuits' order, who have for nianj' years sustained the mission of May- nas, all the others either have no missions, or keep np a station here and there, which is barely enough to serve as an apology for calling over missionaries, the latter being afterwards employed for the private ends and emolument of the order itself; for it is never known that thc}^ go to preach and spread the gospel among the heathen. This is so general, that there is no religious order which does not adopt the same course, for it is also the practice of the Jesuits ; so that, of every twenty indiAiduals who go from Spain, there is scarce^ one, or at most two, who join the mission, because the order it- self does not appropriate a greater number for this ser- vice. It is true that the order of Jesuits sustains a greater number of stations among the Gentile Indians than any other order : but the number it retains per- manently in the colleges is not less on this account than those retained by the former ; but, on the contrarj^ far exceeds that of the others, — which arises from the fact that they send for missionai'ies more frequently, and re- ceive a greater number of them by every arrival from Spain.
In Spain, it is generally supposed (and the same opin- ion obtains in the convents themselves) that the mission- aries who go to the Indies are to proceed immediately to the conversion of tlie natives : and many of them, full of zeal for the propagation of the faith, offer to go and con- nect themselves with the missions ; but, as this does not take place, they are disappointed when they arrive there, finding how different tlieir situation is from what they had anticipated, and that it is impossible ever to get back again. The case with the missionaries who
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are sent is, that, immediately on their arrival there, they are distributed, if Jesuits, in the colleges, or, if of other orders, which use rotation, in the convents of all the prov- inces : and some devoting themselves to professorships, others to the pulpit, others to attorneyships, and others to the management of the farms, precisely' as is practised in Spain, they keep them employed in these functions, or exchange them, by transferring them from some to othei's, but always for the benefit of the convents. Hence it ap- pears that the only proper object of missionaries and mis- sions is that which is least thought of; for, when the lim- ited number of stations which compose the mission is fimaished with curates, it is only when one dies, or an- other wishes to retire, burdened with the weight of years, that a substitute is appointed in his place, and a long period frequently elapses without the occurrence of either event.
Preaching to the heathen not being the object of the appeal made by the orders to send missionaries to the Indies, they must necessarily have some other in view, which will result in some advantage ; for, if it were not so, they would not run into the expense incurred on their own account (besides what is contributed from the royal exchequer) if they could avail it, and this is the point which we are going to elucidate.
The orders which practise rotation in all the offices be- longing to them must necessarily avail themselves of emi- grants from Europe ; for otherwise they would be liable to lose their immunities : and, having no other pretext for bringing them over, they lay hold of that of the missions as the most plausible ; but as this measure has no refer- ence to Creoles, agents are always sent to invite missiona- ries, when the office devolves in course upon a European ; and, as a small number of emigrants suffice for this object the orders limit themselves to these, with the exception of the Jesuits, whose objects are distinct, being entirely con- fined to their own order. These are to preserve an equili- brium in all the colleges between Europeans and Creoles, and to make the good habits and education of the former to predominate over the bad ones acquired from childhood
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b}^ the latter, in order that the colleges may not decline from that high standard of discipline which is peculiar to the Jesuits, botli in Spain and in all Catholic kingdoms, or wherever their order extends : and that they may em- ploy Europeans to manage the revenue of the colleges with proper diligence, fidelit}', and econom}', as there are few Creoles in whom these circumstances concur ; hence they are unfit for offices of trust, neither can the}^ be em- plo3'ed in the missions, their conduct not being of a nature to qualify them for such a charge.
In the j-ear 1744, when we are about taking leave of those countries, one of the Jesuit missions arrived at Quito, having lately come from Spain ; and it was com- posed of a large number of individuals. The}^ were persuaded that, immediately on their arrival, they should be appointed to go among the Gentile Indians, to engage in preaching the gospel ; and, finding that no such measures were adopted, the}' soon began to make known their dissatisfaction, which had reached such a degree, that, if they had had means of returning to Spain, scarcely one would have consented to remain. They said, that in case the^' were to continue in the colleges, it would be more agreeable and advantageous to them to do so in Spain ; so great was their disappointment on discovering how far they were from securing the object proposed to them when they resolved to proceed to the Indies ; and the same may be affirmed of all the rest, until, in the lapse of time, the^' become accustomed to the country-, and lose their zeal for the conversion of the Indians.
All the missions scattered over the vast Province of Quito are confined to those of the Jesuits on the river Maranon, and five settlements belonging to the order of St. Francis, about the head-waters of the river lea in Sucumbios ; but neither those of the Jesuits, nor of the Seraphic ordei", have priests in all tlie settlements, as they ought to have. But tliat this statement may be made more circumstantial, we sliall avail ourselves of a report drawn up by Dr. James Peralta, curate of the parish of St. IJarbara, in the year 1745, which is the
6
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most complete and accurate that has been made since the origin of those missions, and the most instructive, as it makes us acquainted with their present condition.
The Seraphic order have only five towns in tiie mis- sions of Sucumbios ; namely, St. Michael, St. Joseph, St. James of the Palmars, Yaunque, and Nariguera ; and these missions belong to the department of Pasto, although dependent on the government of the Audience of Quito.
Tlie missions of the company commence from the city of Archidona, whose curacy belonged to the clergy, and was exchanged by them for one owned by the company in the forests of the Province of Guayaquil.*
* 1. The cnracy of Archidona has three others annexed to it, each at the distance of six or seven leagues from that city : and they are Misagualli, inhabited by Siiauiards, mestizoes, and negroes ; Teua and Xapo, both inhabited by Indians.
2. Mission of St. Michael of Siecoyas. The Indians of this town rose upon thefatlier missionary ; and, on the 9tli of Janu- ary, 1745, put him to death, and afterwards burued him, with two other youths which he had associated with him. The name of this priest was Francis Eeal ; and he had under his charge, besides the i)rincipal village, in which he constantly resided, six other towns, the names of which are, St. Bartholomew, of Moya, St. Peter, St. Estanislaus, St. Luis, St. Croix, and Emma- nuel de Aguarico. All these towns take their name from the river Aguarico, on the banks of which they are situated. la these six annexed towns there were only 2,063 persons, of both sexes, and of every age; 1,628 converts and 43.5 catechumens: and, although they were acquainted with the atrocious crime committed by the inhabitants of the j)rincipal village, they would not imitate their bad example ; but, on the contrary, waited quietly in their villages until a new missionary should be sent to them, intimating that they regarded with horror the sacrilegious deed of the other Indians. This missionary was one of those who had arrived at Quito with the last mission, which had come from Spain ; and being ignorant of tlie genius, habits, and pectiliarities of the Indians, was wanting in that kind of authority which that tribe demands, in order not to ex- asperate by reproof, nor to be too severe in endeavoring to rescue them from the barbarous customs and vices which have become to them a second nature.
3. Mission of St. Joseph of Guajoya. Its rector, Father Pie- tragrosa, had under his charge, besides the principal village, named Mary, three others of St. Xavier de Icahuates, St. John the Baptist, and the Queen of the Angels, in which, as the
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The result of our inquiries is, that the missions of Maynas and Quixos, which are under the charge of the company, consist of 40 settlements, and employ in them 18 missionaries, 17 priests and 1 assistant; comprising in all 12,853 souls, — 9,858 baptized, and 2,931) cate- chumens. It is certain that many of these towns, which are annexed to one diocese, might need a separate
settlements had been recently formed, a brother of the company resided, whoso namo was Salvador Sanchez, to teach the Indians to pray, and to instruct them in Christian doctrine.
4. Mission under the chai'ge of Perez — St. Xavier de Ura- rines, likewise a settlement recently formed. The following are the old stations of Maynas on the Kiver Maraiion : —
5. Mission of St. Francis de Borja, capital of the government of Maynas, so depopulated as to consist of only 143 souls, of both sexes, and of every age, and 65 Spaniards besides. It has annexed to it the towns of St. Ignatius, of Maynas, and the upper Andoas. Father Magnori is the curate.
6. Mission of St. Thomas of Andoa, under the charge of Father Fransen, with the towns of Semigaes and St. Joseph, of Pinches.
7. Mission of Concepcion of Cahuapanas, under the care of Father Francis Hem.
8. Mission of the Presentacion of Chayavitas and the Encar- nacion de Paranapuas, under the charge of Father Ignatius Falcon.
9. Mission of the Concepcion de Xibaros, under the parochial charge of Fatlier Michael.
10. Mission of St. Jago de Laguna, under the care of Father Schcftcn, who had for his associate William Gremez. Tliis town, being the head-quarters of the mission, contains 1,107 souls.
11. Mission of St. Xavier of Chamicuros and St. Anthony Abad d« Aguanos. both under the care of Father Bamonte.
\2. Mission of our Lady de las Nieves do Juriniagas, St. Anthony de Padua de Nainiches, and St. Francis Kexis del Paradero, nndrr the care of Leonard Deubler.
1$. Mission of St. Joaquin de Laqueran Homagua ; missionary, Adam Widman.
14. Missicm of St. Paul of Napanos; missionary. Father Iriarte.
U). Mission of St. Philip of Amaona; missionary, Father Ilcrraez.
16. Mission of St. Simon of Nahuapo; missionary, Father Aranjo.
17. Mission of St. Ignatius of Pcvas and Caumares ; mis- eiouary. Father Falcombeli.
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missionary for their support and greater advancement : but, notwithstanding this want of missionaries, tliese stations are in a better condition, beyond comparison, than those of vSt. Francis ; for the persons destined for these missions by the companj^ constantly reside in the benefices, and frequently A'isit those that are annexed ; their churches and chapels are in good order, and the decorations, although not of much value, are neat and well-made. There we see displayed Christian zeal and diligence, and great solemnit}' in the celebration of public worship. It is not so in the mission villages of Sucnm- bios, belonging to the Seraphic order ; for the priests reside there but a short period, the churches are wholly out of repair, and in a dilapidated condition ; their priests do not minister to the spiritual wants of the Ind- ians, and, owing to the entire absence of religious fervor, instead of making progress, they are in a retrograde condition.
Having spoken already of the missions of Ma3'nas, it would be unjust to overlook their origin, and the progress the company has made in them, especially as the history of them will confirm what we have said on this subject.
A Portuguese fleet, consisting of fort3'-seven large guns, commanded by Captain Texcira, having ascended the Maranon, the Audience of Quito determined that, on their return to Para, whence the}' had proceeded for the purpose of discovering the course of that river, two of the father Jesuits should go down with them, in order to examine those territories more minutely, ascertain by what tril3es they are inhabited, and notice other partic- ulars which should contribute to a better knowledge of their condition. The company, whose attention had been for many years directed to the discovery of that vast countrj-, with a view to extend the religion of Jesus Christ among the many barbarous tribes which inhabit it, accepted the charge with great satisfaction, and named Fathers Acuua and Artieda for this object.
It was on the 18th of October. 1G37, that the Portu- guese fleet left the neighborhood of Para, and it employed eight months in reaching the port of Payamino, which
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was their first stopping-place, in the Province of Quixos. Captain Texeira, leaving his crew there, with the greater part of the naval force, proceeded to Quito with some of his oflici^rs, and there gave an account of his vo^-age ; and, as soon as the fathers appointed b}' the conipan}', and approved by the Audience, could get ready, ihoy all left Quito on the IGth of February, 1G39, and, taking the roa'l through Archidona, went to join the fleet at the port of Payamino, where it had remained.
Jesuit missionaries had already been stationed on the Marauon, — only, however, in the vicinit}' of its head- waters ; for the Prince of Esquilache being then Viceroy of Peru, the administration of Ma^'uas was given to Don Diego Vaca during his lifetime, and afterwards to his eldest son, Don Pedro Vaca. This gentleman had solic- ited and effected the conquest of those countries at his own expense ; and, after having subdued the tribe of Maynas, and founded the cit}' of St. Francis de Boya, in the 3-ear IGoi, making it the capital of his domain, he was induced b}^ such an auspicious commencement to implore the company and the Audience of Quito to nomi- nate persons of that order to enter upon the mission ; which was granted him with great pleasure, both bj' the court as well as by the company, and Fathers Cuxia and Cueva were immediately ap'pointed to found a missionary station. The missionaries arrived at Maynas in the 3'ear 1G37, b}- the way of Patate ; and, as soon as the}' reached the city of Borja, they took charge of that curacy, and began to exercise their functions b}' instructing the Ind- ians alread}' reduced, and endeavoring to reduce all the rest of the tribe who were not 3'et civilized.
After suffering great hardships. Fathers Acuna and Artieda arrived safely at the port where the Portuguese fleet was waiting for them ; and reached that city the same 3'ear, in December, 1G30, after ten months' journc}' 1)3' land and by water. After having rested from the fatigue they had undergone, the3^ set sail for Spain, in order to inform his Majesty of cver3'thing that had occurrcfl in tlie discovery, and of all the observations tbc')^ had made. In 10 10 the}' readied the court of
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JNIadrid ; and, having made a representation of what they had seen, and having waited there more than a year to sohcit supphes for that extensive conquest, the}- could not secure their object, because the state of anarchy in Spain, which had resulted from riots connected with the rebellion of the kingdom of Portugal, naturally occupied the thought and demanded the attention of the monarch and his ministers. The Jesuit fathers, finding how diffi- cult it was to obtain what they wished on an occasion so critical that it allowed no time for anything but to pre- pare an army to check the encroachments of the rebels, Father Artieda determined to leave the court, and to re- turn to his Province of Quito, there to give impulse to the mission, through the Audience and his college, in whom he confided all his hopes. In the year 1643 he re- turned to Quito. He gained the attention of the college ; and, with a view to inspire greater fervor in the work, he again made a tour to the Maranon, and, passing through the capital of Maynas, took with him Father Cueva, his assistant Borja, and several soldiers, with whom he pene- trated among the tribe of Omaguas, and took legal possession of all that province and river in the name of the Catholic king, Phihp IV., as is stated in the report of Father Francis Figueroa, a member of the Jesuit order. Father Acuiaa thought it proper to continue some time at court, to see if haply the insurrections might be quelled, and his solicitations and appeals might produce a favorable result: but finding that the tumults were augmenting more and more, and the progress of the rebels was giving the court still greater anxiety, he resolved to follow his companion in the galleys which sailed soon after ; and, having proceeded from Panama to Lima, to which city he was called by business of a different nature, he died there.
As the first missionaries who penetrated into Maynas, for the purpose of preaching to the Indians, found so much fruit in the conversion of those tribes that their strength was not adequate to such a conquest, the Ind- ians having received the gospel without repugnance, they applied to Quito to have new associates named to
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aid them to gather in such a harvest as was likelv to result from the doeiUty of those Indians, and the readiness the}' manifested to become Christians. Their petition was so reasonable that it could not fail to be heard ; and, in consequence of it, the College of Quito named Fathers Perez and Figueroa ; but this re-enforcement not sullicing for the great harvest produced in those countries from the seed of the gospel. Father Cnxia was compelled to proceed in person to Quito, in the 3'ear 1650, to ask for new laborers. The College of Quito granted him three in addition, and he returned with them to his station ; where, being in all seven in number, and spreading themselves over those provinces of Gentile Indians, it was admirable to witness the vast number of souls brought to the knowledge of the true God by dint of their labor, and the fatigue and inconveniences of their travels, and the dangers to which they were every moment exposed in attempting to rescue them from such ignorance and blindness.
In the year IGGG they had already formed thirteen large settlements, well peopled with Indians who had been converted ; and for this purpose they brought together several of those wandering tribes, on whose account they gave to the settlements the names of the most numerous.*
These thirteen towns, large and populous as they were, had onl}' seven missionaries ; and it was natural that each one should have its special missionary', to be constantly resident in it: but, as they were destitute of them, besides being distant from each other six, eight, and even more leagues, we cannot fail to perceive the sim})lieity and sinceritj' of those Indians, and the facilit}' with which they are induced to com[)ly with whatever may be required of them, when once we discover the method best adapted to their genius to introduce them to the rites of the Christian religion and the customs of
*Tli(; names of tho 8ettlem<;iits arc as follows: Xcveros, Para- l)a(l(!(iu<'s, Ata;fiiatcs, Ciitinanas, ({iia!la,i;a, Loroto do Paraiia- pnras, Ucayale, IJaibudos, Agiiaiios, Koa-xMuyuas, ISau Autouio, Zapas, Coronados.
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civilized life by channels which are best suited to their ideas. The old Christian settlements require to have each a special parish priest for the spiritual nourishment of those who compose them ; and with far more reason is this measure necessary in the new, because these are more exposed to perish in inconstancy and unbelief, their own imagination perhaps bringing to mind the in- dependence of which they had deprived themselves to receive the gospel, — their ancient rites, and the freedom in which thc}^ lived, without submitting either to divine or human law ; the restraints of civilized life, the pre- cepts of religion, and the observance of laws and customs wholly opposed to those which are natural to them, pre- senting themselves to the minds of these Indians as un- congenial and burdensome. The want of missionaries in these new conversions of the Marauon should not be attributed to the Jesuits ; for all that this order did previ- ously was at its own expense, having no other resources but those of their own revenue to defray the expenses incurred by these missions ; and, besides this, there were very few missionaries sent over from Spain until that time, either because this order had no occasion to do it, and because the supply had not been furnished with as much regularity as afterwards, — not that a re-enforcement was not sent at all, but because the^- arrived after longer intervals, or were composed of a smaller number of in- dividuals,— reasons which did not obtain in subsequent times, nor do they now obtain ; for, on account of the early spiritual conquests made by the company, mission- aries were sent over more frequently and in greater numbers.
In the 3-ear 1G81, fifteen years after the census of the first conversions, the settlements had augmented with the addition of eight new towns, but not so the number of missionaries, although in the interval of these fifteen 3^ears many missionaries had proceeded from Spain to Quito, and quite enough to have those missions supplied with laborers. B}' the catalogue which follows we shall come to a knowledge of the settlements formed of con-
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verted ludians until this year, and the number of mis- sionaries appointed to take charge of tliem.*
The result, then, is : that all the missions of Maynas ■were then composed of twentj'-one settlements ; and, as Father Rodriguez sa^-s in his history of the Marauon and Amazons, there were only four missionaries in them, which are those already named, and all who had been employed from the 3"ear 1G38, in which they had their first establishment, until the beginning of 1G81, in which that station was commenced by missionaries going among those tribes, were twentj-four fathers of the compan}', and three lay brethren, of whom nearly' all died.
The tribe of Omagua Indians, which was one of the most numerous that inhabited the valley of the Maranon, had despatched messengers to the town of the Lagoon, in the year 1681, entreating Father Lucero, at that time superior of those stations, to send them missionaries ; because, in consequence of the kind treatment of the other tribes, which had become subject to them, and the advantages they enjo3'ed after having been brought under a system of government so wise and just, they desired to add their tribe to the number, to enjo}'^ the same benefits, and, with them, the preaching of evan- gelical doctrine : but the missions were so destitute of laborers that they had not the number sufficient to sup- ply the settlements already formed, and it was impossible at that time to accede to their request. All that the superior could do was to give them reason to hope that, on the arri\al of the first supply of missionaries, their wishes should be complied with, some one of them being appointed to take them under their charge, acting their curate ; which was not carried into eflect until the year
* Firnt M'tHHion. — 1. Sun Luis Goiizaga; 2. Sau Ignacio ; 3. iaiita T(;r<;.sa.
Santa T(;r<;.sa.
Second Mix.slon. — 1. Roa-Maynas ; 2. Loa Coronados ; '^. Gayos.
Third Minsio)!. — 1. Xevcros ; 2. rarauapuras ; 3. Cliayavitas; 4. Miuiichcs.
Fourth AFifinion. — 1. Ucayales ; 2. Xitipos y Cliipcos; 3. Tibilos ; 4. Aguauos; 5. Guallaga; G. Maiapiuas; 7. Mayuru- nas; 8. Otauabis.
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1686, when a mission, composed of many individuals, having arrived from Spain to Quito, some, although few In number, were appointed to lighten the burdens of those who were already in the worli ; and one of the in- dividuals so appointed was Father Samuel Fritz, a native of Bohemia, to whose lot it fell to go to the new mission of the Ouiaguas ; for, as soon as these Indians had in- telli<j:enee that new missionaries had arrived at the La- goon, and that one of them was disposed to come down to their territory, they went forward to receive him, and ascended with more than thirty canoes as far as the Lagoon, in order to escort him to their country.
Father Viva had succeeded Father Lucero in the office of superior of the stations ; and, being a pei'son of ex- traordinary capacity and endowments, as soon as he saw Father Fritz, he formed so high an estimate of his quali- ties, that it appeared to him that the choice could not have fallen on any one better qualified for that under- taking,— an opinion the wisdom of which was justified by the wonders he wrought, in a short time, by his preaching and instructions among those tribes, and several others, which he reduced to the bosom of our Catholic faith.
It may be readily inferred that, in a tribe who, of their own accord, applied for missionaries, it would not be necessary to toil so hard in order to draw their attention to what is preached to them, or to make them receive in sincerity the religion of the true God, in which they are instructed, as it is in those other tribes in which, as pre- paratory to the preaching of the gospel, it was necessary to contract relations of friendship by going to look for them among the mountains, forests, and hidden ravines, where they are scattered like wild beasts. As soon as the Omaguas were in the presence of their father, re- garding him as the redeemer of their souls, they returned with him to their territory, full of mirth and joy, as was abundantly evident by the festivities with which they solemnized the occasion, — transferring him, for this pur- pose, from one canoe to another, as long as the voyage up the river continued. As soon as they reached the
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first outposts within their jurisdiction, thinking it un- suitable that he should make his entry on foot, they vied with each other in bearing him on their shoulders, in compan}' with the most distinguislied personages of the suite ; and in the midst of dances, and the varied music of flutes, pipes, and other instruments, after their stvle, they took him out of the canoe on their arrival, and con- ducted him to the quarters which they had in readniess for him near the cabins. After some days of rest at that outpost (for it had not as 3'et the importance of a settlement), they proceeded to take him to the other islands inhaT)ited by the same tribe of Omaguas, which were more than tliirt^', that they might all know him, and begin to look upon him as their shepherd. And in this wa}' that great mission had its origin, which became so prosperous, that, in less than three years, almost all the adult Indians were baptized, being already capable of receiving baptism. Father Fritz having administered this sacrament from the beginning to all the children, — the latter not requiring to be instructed in the mysteries of the faith in childhood, as is necessary in the case of adults.
While Father Fritz was emplo3'ed in the religious in- struction of the Omagua Indians, he received intelligence of some neighboring tribes scattered along the banks of the river, as the Yurimagnas, the Ayzuares, the Baromas, and others ; and, learning that the}' would not refuse to embrace the Catholic religion, proceeded to them, and found them so ready to receive it that he began immedi- ately to catechize them, in order to administer to them the rite of baptism. So great was the success that at- tended these missions, that, in the 3'ear 1G89, the Omagua stations were tliirt3--eiglit in number (the capital of which was San Joaquin) ; another belonged to the Turimaguas, and two to tlic Ayzuari tribe. All these were under the charge of Father Fritz : so that, as he himself relates, in his private report, he had scarcely time suilicient in the course of a year to make one visit among them all, and was able to sojourn witli each tril)c only long enough to instruct the adults, and to baptize those who had been
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born since his last visit. All the remainder of the year, those Indians were left to live alone, without any other restraints than their own will, which was so well inclined that no occasion of disturbance ever occurred among them, nor did they abandon the religion in which they had been instructed, to return to the false rites of Gen- tile superstition, which they had been forbidden to prac- tise.
Father Fritz, being exhausted by the fatigue and hard- ship consequent on a life of continual journeying from one settlement to another, found his health impaired ; and his illness increased so rapidl}' as to make it necessary for him to go down to Para, in the year 1G89, to take the advice of the ph3-sicians of that cit3% The Portuguese suspected that his illness was onl}^ a pretext for making a survey of all the remaining valley of the Maranon, from the mouth of Black River (the boundary of his mission) as far as Para ; and consequently^ detained him there, after he had recovered, at the same time commu- nicating the intelligence to the court of Portugal. The result (which was as favorable to Father Fritz as could be desired) did not reach Para until the middle of the 3-ear 1G91, when he was restored to the mission. The- Portuguese government appointed an officer and seven soldiers to accompany him, under pretence of showing him respect ; and, as soon as they entered the tribe of the Azuaiis, Father Fritz wished to dismiss them, because those Indians had discovered a friendly' disposition towards him during his passage down the river, by going up to meet him. The soldiers did not \'ield to his ear- nest request, having in view other objects distinct from those they had intimated to the father, as was afterwards admitted b}' the Portuguese officer, when thej' reached the town of Mayavara, the last of the Yarimaguas. Father Fritz again importuned the Portuguese to return, as he was already within the limits of his mission : to which the officer said, in reply, that his not having done so already was, that he had orders from his governor to take possession of that teri'itor^', as far as that of the Omaguas inclusive, in the name of the king of Portugal,
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as being comprised within his jurisdiction ; and that he would notify him at once to withdraw IVom it and leave it unoccu[)ied. Father Fritz wondered at this determi- nation, and the more as it was opposed to the decision given by the court of Lisbon, in consequence of repre- sentations made by the father himself from Para ; and, having confronted in this manner the Portuguese officer, he prevailed upon him to let him I'cturn without urging his suit an}' further for that time ; and, having descended one da^-'s navigation, the}' landed at Guapatate, opposite a town of the same name, cleared a plot of ground, and left for a boundary- a large tree, known by the name of Samona, indicating that the territory as far as that point belonged to them, and leaving word with some Indians that they should soon return to make a settlement on that spot.
Father Fritz, foreseeing the evil consequences that would result to the missions by the excessive insolence of the Portuguese, unless measures were taken in time to check them, and having communicated the matter to the superior of the missions and the governor of Ma3nas, it was determined, agreeably to the opinion of both, that Father Fritz should proceed personally to Lima to in- form the viceroy of the prosperous state of the missions, and the danger which threatened them, that he might devise measures to thwart the designs of the Portuguese. The Viceroy of Lima, Count of Monclova, and after him the whole city, were astonished at the success which had attended the [)reaching of the gospel by Father Fritz, and the account filled them all with admiration ; but when they came to the principal point, which was to pre- vent an}' further encroachments, on the part of the Por- tuguese, upon the Spanish domain, as well as upon that mission whicli extended from the mouth of tlie river Napo to that of Black River, he discovered in the viceroy little disposition to undertake the defence of that terri- tory. This was afterwards confirmed by the reply given by the count to the memorial of Father Fritz, as appears from the manuscript narrative of this missionary, which was in substance as follows: "That, inasmuch as the
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Portuguese were Catholic Christians as well as the Span- iards, and a warlike nation, he had no means at his com- mand adequate to induce them to confine themselves to their own territor}^ without coming to a rupture, which was unadvisable in the present case, those uncultivated forests 3-ielding no revenue to the king of Spain, unlike many other provinces which ought with more reason to be protected against hostile invasion ; that in the vast extent of the Indies there were lands sufHcient for both crowns. At the same time, he would lay the petition before his Majesty as soon as possible." Certain it is, that if these reasons had not been recorded by a person of such virtue, and who possesses such claims as that missionary, we should refuse to give him credence ; for they seem more becoming a man who had thrown off his allegiance to princes lawfully invested with the territory, than of a minister and governor-general of Spain in those very Indies whose defence against usurpation Father Fritz was soliciting.
The stations which this eminent father had founded were composed of forty-one villages, and so remote from each other that, between the first, on the upper waters of the river, and the last, on the lowest, there intervened a distance of more than one hundred leagues. All these missions are made up of the union of vagrant tribes, who have always inhabited the banks of that great rii^er, and who are obliged by forming settlements to live to- gether in a rational and social state, the missionary him- self being their priest and magistrate, who instructs them in the arts of civilized life, as well as in the doctrines and precepts of the Christian religion. Most of these towns consist of Indians who have been converted long since, and brought to a state of civilization ; to these are occasionally added other Gentile Indians, who, finding themselves worsted in the continual wars which they carry on with the neighboring tribes, and fl^'ing from the cruelties with which they are threatened, come to seek shelter under the covert of the missionary fathers, a respect for whom keeps their enemies in check. In these cases, they improve the opportunity to preach to them,
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and to teach them, preparing their minds to receive bap- tism : but the}- are usually so fickle, that, although they hear the gospel with sufficient attention, manifesting a desire to receive it, they soon throw off that fervent zeal which was awakened b}' the fear which induced them to leave their lauds, or b}' a sense of obligation imposed upon them by the memory of gifts bestowed ; and, when they come to believe that the auger of the tribes with whom they were at war is pacified, they return to their brutal customs. At other times, the curates despatch messen- gers to the neighboring tribes, when they know thej' will receive the benefit to be bestowed upon them : or the missionaries go to look for them in their cabins, to attract them by a present of some gewgaws : by which means they succeed in making them teachable, and inclined to have a fixed place of residence, by forming a settlement, not far from which the missionary has his place of ren- dezvous, in order to go and visit them frequentl}', and to instruct them in the precepts of religion, that they may become proper subjects of baptism.
When these new towns are in a condition to support special missionaries or parish priests, and there is any security of their stability, they are then sent to them ; but these conversions make such slow progress that many years elapse without the addition of one new station to the old ; but, notwithstanding this interval, some fruit never fails to be secured, in recompense of such incessant lal)or. This advantage results exclusively from the missions which the company have under their charge ; because the}' pursue it with zeal, and persevere with unabated fervor in such undertakings, not being deterred fro:n them by the fickleness of the Indians, nor disheartened by the fatigue and suffering they must neces- sarily undergo in countries and climates to which they have not been accustomed.
ConductfMl on these principles, it is evident that if there were zeal in the religious Orders to convert the Indians, missions would be sustained in all the possessions of Spain in that country, each one endeavoring to gain the
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good-will of the Indians by gentleness and civility,* as is the case in Maynas, a Jesuit mission ; and, if such be not the general practice, it is because the whole aim of those individuals is to obtain curacies, from which the}'^ can de- rive an income without labor or encumbrance ; and this not being possible in the missions, because in them they must divest themselves of regard to interest, and shun covetousness altogether, there is no individual who de- sires the work, and no zeal in the Orders to carry it for- ward. It is one of the great calamities we have to bewail in those countries, that, while the convents are so numer- ous and all so wealthy, the Indians should not have the benefit of the most insignificant portion, either of the superfluous riches of their inmates, or of the enormous revenue accruing from their estates, to be emplo3'ed in securing their salvation b}' means of preaching and teach- ing the Word of God, which ought to be the grand and
* The lucns, altliongh governed only by a simple natural law, have left ns the admirable system of their policy in the maxims they observed to conciliate the Indians, and reduce them to obedi- ence, so as to be beloved by them to the degree they were, and that their laws might be observed with scrupulous exactness, which, while they were mild and just, did not fail to be severe whenever it was necessary that rigor should predominate over clemency. They conquered the provinces (when it could not be done by mild measures) by force of arms ; and, even when these means were resorted to, their subjects lived without aversion to the authority which held them in subjection, as it could not be otherwise under a mild and beneficent policy. The same methods ought to be adopted now towards those tribes, that they may not obstinately leliise to come under the Spanish rule ; for if the Ind- ians should discover that the king's vassals live comfortably, that they are treated with consideration, and that only their own welfare is consulted, they would no longer entertain the idea they now have of the Spaniards, as fe;irfal tyrants, and their conversion would become iiracticable. The laws enacted for their benefit are admirable: a failure to comply with them is the source whence all their suft'erings originate ; but should these abuses be reformed, and should the Indians be treated as men have a right to be treated, it might be hoped that the mis- sions would have a favorable result, and those great objects ac- complished in a short period, which have not been effected in the long period which has elapsed from the time of the conquest until now.
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only object and cmploymont of them all. But in the con- ehuling t-bapter, in ^Yhich we arc to speak more in detail of the monasteries, it will be made to appear how diverse are the pursuits and conduct of those ecclesiastics from what belong to the character of missionaries.
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CHAPTER VI.
Prevalence of Party-Spirit between Europeans and Creoles. — Its chief Source, and the Evils resulting from it in the Cities and large Towns.
It can never fail to be unseemly, numerous as the ex- amples may be of this nature, that, among a people of the same country, of the same religion, and even of the same blood, suchenmitj^, rancor, and hatred should exist, as are found to prevail in Peru, where the cities and large towns have become a theatre of discord and perpetual wrangling between Europeans and Creoles. This enmity is the source of the repeated tumults which happen there ; for the hatred engendered between the two opposing inter- ests becomes more and more virulent, and the exasper- ated parties never lose an opportunity to breathe out ven- geance, and give loose rein to the passions and jealousies which are so deep-rooted in their hearts.
To be a European, or " Chapeton," as one is called in Peru, is reason enough for avowing one's self an enemy to the Creoles ; and to have been born in the Indies is a sufficient cause for hating Europeans. To such a height ' is this mutual iil-will carried, that in some respects it ex- ceeds the unbridled frenzy with which nations in open war vilify and outrage each other ; for if, in these, we may hope it will gradually subside, it is not so with the Spanish colonics in Peru : and, instead of being weak- ened by more frequent intercourse, by the influence of family ties, or by other motives which are adapted to promote harmony and friendship, quite the reverse takes place ; for the closer their contact, the higher do the flames of discord rise, and, their somewhat smothered rancor being kindled again by renewed discussion, the
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fire gains strengili, and the conflagration becomes inex- tingnisliable.
Throughout Peru, the spirit of party is a mahxcly which prevails in all the cities and large towns, not- withstanding the slight difTerences which ma_y be oc- casionally observed, in the greater or less degree of scandal which attends it. The disease is so general, that none are exempt from it — neither the first magis- trates of the cit\', nor the highest dignitaries in the church and in the religions orders ; for it attacks even th'>se who have a reputation for wisdom and sanctity. The towns are made the open theatres of the two op- posing parties ; irreconcilable enmity disgorges its venom on the seats of justice ; and even in the monasteries the sparks of discord are kindled to a raging flame. Pri- vate dwellings, likewise, where the ties of parentage bind together both' Europeans and Creoles, become storehouses of anger and recrimination ; so that, upon due consideration, it would be tame to describe the scene as the purgator}- of minds, since it comes to be a hell of living beings, who are kept in a state of per- petual disquiet b}^ numberless occasions of discord, which serve as fuel to the flames of hatred.
It is in the cities of the mountainous districts that part3'-spirit rises to the greatest height ; which proceeds, no doubt, from their isolated position : but in the towns on the coast, where intercoui'se with strangers is more frequent, although their inhabitants do not fail to cherish a spirit of mutual animosit}', the scandal is not so public as in the former, where the attention cannot l)e diverted from party questions by subjects of a diflerent nature.
These dissensions, which are there so common and so \'ioIcnt, that, from the time one arrives in those parts, he is made acquainted with them, and very soon becomes implicated in them, must have had their origin in some powerful cause ; and, while this is not removed, the former must continue. Our object in the i)resent chap- ter will l»e to investigate it ; for, if it is not discovered, it will be impossible to form an adequate idea of it, or to applj- the remedy which the evil demands.
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Although the party feeling which exists between Euro- peans and Creoles may have originated from various sources, there are two which appear to have more in- fluence than all the rest — the excessive vanity and over- bearing manners of the Creoles, and tlie forlorn and pen- niless condition of the Europeans who emigrate to that country. The latter accumulate a fortune with the aid of relatives and friends, as well as by dint of labor and industry ; so that within a few ^-ears they are enabled to form an alliance with ladies of distinction : but the low condition in which the Creoles first knew them is not wholl}' effaced from remembrance ; and, on the first oc- casion of misunderstanding between the European and his relatives, the latter expose, v/ithout the least reflec- tion, the mean origin and profession of the former, and kindle the flames of discord in all hearts. The Euro- peans espouse the cause of their injured countr3'men, and the Creoles that of the native women ; and thus the seeds of dissension spring up, which had been sown in the mind from the remote period of the conquest.
It maj' be readily supposed that the vanity of the Creoles, and their lofty pretensions to a noble ancestry, rise to such a height that they are perpetually discussing the order and line of their descent ; so that it would ap- pear, as it respects nobility and antiquity, the}' have nothing to envy in the most illustrious families in Spain ; and, treating the subject with the ardor of enthusiasm, the}' make it the first topic of conversation with the newly-arrived Europeans, in order to acquaint them with their noble origin : but, when this is investigated impar- tially, we are met, at the first step we take, witli so many diiTiculties that a family can rarely be found that has no mixed blood, not to mention objections of minor impor- tance. In such cases it is amusing to observe how they become mutually the heralds of each other's low birth, so that it is needless to investigate the subject for one's self; for while each one strives to unfold and present to view his royal descent, depicting the illustrious origin of his family in such a way that it may not be confounded with others of the same city, he brings to light all their defec-
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tivc titles, and the fonl l3lots which stain the pnrit}- of his neighbor's. The snmc is repeated b\- these last in regard to the former, nntil every circumstance respecting their famihes is brought to light, and their true origin ex- posed. Europeans themselves, who marry ladies of rank, and who arc not ignorant of f/<ei/* defective titles, become resentful v. hen they are taunted with their former poverty and low condition, and upbraid them with the Haws of their boasted nobility ; and this always furnishes mate- rials enough for both to keep alive a sensitiveness to the insults and injuries heaped upon them by the opposite party.
This very vanity of the Creoles, which is more observ- able in the mountainous districts, owing to the want of intercourse with foreigners, except such as settle in the different towns, keeps them aloof from labor, and from engaging in trade (the only occupation in the Indies which can enable them to preserve unimpaired their in- heritance), and allures them to the practice of vices which are inherent in a life of inaction. Hence it is the}' soon sec the end of all which their parents have left them, by wasting their money, and negleeling the cultivation of their estates ; and the Europeans, availing themselves of the advantages which the neglect of the Creoles affords them, turn them to account, and amass an estate ; for by engaging in trade they soon succeed in get- ting upon a good looting, enjoy credit, accumulate money, and are solicited for marriage l)y the noble families ; for the Creole women themselves, aware of the wasteful and indolent habits of their countrymen, hold Europeans in high esteem, and prefer to be allied with thorn.
The preference which the Creole women give to Euro- peans, for the reason just mentioned, tlic lact that they are the owners of the richest estates, acquired and pre- served by their industry and economy, and tluit they have in their favor the confidence of magistrates and ministers, because their behavior entitles them to it, are no small motives to stir up the envy of the Creoles ; hence the}' complain 1 hat the Europeans arrive barefoot in their country, and soon acquire a greater estate than
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their fathers and conntr}- have given them, they being in reality lords of the soil. This is literally true, for as soon as they are married the}^ are made regidors, and immediately obtain the place of ordinar}^ alcalde, so that in the space of ten or twelve years they are found at the head of one of the chief cities, and have become objects of general esteem and applause. The man who occupies this position was once crying his wares in the streets, with a pack upon his shoulders, dealing out finery and trinkets, which he had bought on credit, to set himself up in trade ; but the fault of this is in the Creoles themselves, for if they would enter into an exten- sive trade, while they have means for it, they would not waste a fortune in the little time that a Eui'opean needs to acquire one. If the Creoles would eschew vicious practices, and maintain their own wives with honor and decency, they would not give occasion to their own country-women to treat them with aversion and hatred ; and if the}- would regulate their conduct by the princi- ples of virtue, they would alwa3-s have on their side the favor and esteem which strangers carry with them ; but as nothing of this kind is congenial to their nature, the root of env}- strikes too deeply to allow such sentiments to gain access to their minds, nor do they reflect that it is the}' themselves who give to Europeans all the esteem, authority, and advantages which tliey enjoy.
From the very birth of the children of foreigners, or from the time that the first glimmerings of reason, how- ever faint, begin to appear, and as soon as reflection draws aside the veil of innocence, the workings of hatred to Europeans begin to exhibit themselves ; for when their minds are imbued with injurious impressions of their parents, which they imbibe from their relatives, and which are taught them by the abominable example of those who ought to give them a right education, they cherish a spirit of enmity towards those who begat them ; and, as their hatred to Europeans becomes more invet- erate, they need no other motive than this to declare themselves in after life their avowed enemies, which they do from the first opportunity they have to exhibit it.
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even without fear or scruple, and perhaps in the very presence of their parents. It is a common thing to hear them remark that, if the blood of the Spaniards, their fathers, could be drawn from their veins, they would let it out, that it might not be mixed with that which thev have received from their mothers, -r- an absurd, and more than absurd supposition, for, were it possible to drain them of their Spanish blood, no other would flow in their veins but that of negroes or Indians.
The Europeans or Chapetons who arrive in those countries are generally men of low origin in Spain, or of a pedigree very little known, besides having neither education nor any good qualit}' to recommend them ; but the Creoles, disregarding distinctions of this nature, treat them all with equal friendship and courtes}' ; it is enough that they have come from Europe, to be honored as persons of distinction, and to become entitled to ever}^ mark of esteem ; and their comlesy is carried so far that even families of the highest rank give a place at their table to the ver}- meanest who emigrate from Spain, even if thc}^ should go in the character of servants. Hence the}' make no distinction between them and their masters, when the}' meet at one of the Creoles', a seat being given them at their side, although their masters may be present ; and it is owing to this obsequious courtesy that many Europeans, who, on account of their inferior birth and education, would never dare to rise above their low condition, being flattered, after they arrive in the Indies, with such tokens of regard, raise their thoughts above what is meet, until they reach the highest post to which ambition can aspire. In pursuing such a course the Creoles have no better ground to rest upon than merely to say that they are white, and this sole prerogative entitles them to some distinction ; nor do they stay to inquire what their profession is, nor to infer, by what it really is, what rank they hold in societ}'. Disastrous consequences result to the Indies from this abuse. The origin of it is, that, as few families there are Ipgilimatebi white, — for this distinction is confined to the most distinguished, — the mere circumstance of
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being white entitles one to a position wliich ought to be- long only to a higher order of nobilit}^ ; and, therefore, being European merely by birth, apart from every other consideration, they are supposed to merit the same courtesy and esteem which are lavished upon more dis- tinguished individirals, who go with an appointment from government, the honor of which ought to distinguish them from the bulk of emigrants.
In regard to those who in Spain enjo^'ed no advan- tages of birth, the facility afforded them of seeking pro- motion and forming an alliance ■uath those who constitute the nobility, is in proportion to the attentions which are bestowed, in some cities more than in others, upon all Europeans indiscriminatel}", without regard to the rank or office of each individual ; for, apart from the consid- eration that the possession of an estate may serve as an offset to the lack of nobility, the emolument of having been born in Europe, as well as that of being a white man, are sufficient to warrant the expectation of con- necting themselves with some of the most distinguished families of that country.
The Creoles pass from this extreme to another, no less pernicious, when they are provoked by a real or sup- posed inJLuy to give vent to a spirit of revenge in the use of insulting and opprobrious language ; they then denounce and vilify the Europeans in a mass, just as they had obsequiously cringed to them at first ; and they do not scruple to revile them as a worthless, low-born race, as if there were no degraded condition, no ignoble origin, and no infamous blot which might not be attrib- uted to them. Whence it is that those on whom the reproach falls avenge themselves by bringing to light the flaws which are incident to their own families, and these being closely allied with each other, all are in danger of being consumed by the raging flames. The Creoles, in order to vilify the Europeans, fasten upon them the cir- cumstance of their forlorn condition at the time they arrived in the countr^^, as well as what they slanderously report of each other in regard to the meanness of their origin, so that all become exasperated by the exposure
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of their mutual defects, and live in continual disquiet and turmoil.
This is the grand source of that disunion, which is wont to create such tumults in the settlements of Peru, and even in those cities where notliing is wanting to the liberty or comfort of their citizens, and where the}' might pass the most agreeable and tranquil life that could be desired. A spirit of opposition keeps them in continual warfare, being full of acrimony' and evil surmisings, and plunged in a sea of dissensions and animosities, the fruit of their own uncontrolled passions, and of the eagerness with which each individual strives to defend the interests of his own party.
As we have alread}' remarked, it is owing to the ill- advised courtes}' with which the Creoles treat the Span- iards, when they view them with a friendly eye, and especially on their first arrival, as they are pledged to no party, that the latter carry their ambitious views far be- yond what their profession and antecedents would justif}^ ; hence it is tliat those who have learned a trade in Europe refuse to follow it as soon as the}' arrive in the Indies, and this is the reason why the mechanical arts never reach an}' greater degree of perfection than they had at the time of the conquest, the Indians and the mestizoes being the only classes who are employed in them. Thus, while Spain is depopulated by the vast numbers who emigrate to the Indies, those countries gain no benefit, each individual being bent upon his own interest, with- out contributing in any degree to the general prosperity of the nation.
There is also another circumstance which contributes to the want of order in the social condition of that country, which is, the custom introduced at an early period, and perhaps from the time of the conquest, of granting the fneros^ or patents of nobility, to all Span- iards who would go and take up their residence there. Its introduction, which might have been justified at that time, both in recompense of military service, and to promote the more rajjid settlement of the country, is, under the present circumstances, prejudicial to Spain as
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well as to the Indies ; to Spain, on account of the great number who emigrate from it to acquire in tlie Indies the two possessions which are most esteemed among men, and whicli all do not here enjoy ; namefy, wealth, or the goods of fortune, and nobility ; the privilege of the latter being freely bestowed upon all who go there, enabling them to hold offices and perform acts which are reserved for the nobles, the bare name of Spaniard being the best patent there can be in those parts. It is also pernicious to the Indies, for, besides the tumults it occasions, the reproach it brings upon the order of nobility, and the idleness and vices that are consequent upon it, the mechanical arts, as well as all the arts of industry, which are essential to a Avell-ordered republic, are completely abandoned, being held in contempt in that country by those who have no occasion to neglect or despise them in
this
The inhabitants of the Indies, both Creoles and Euro- peans, and especially those of Peru, of whom we are now speaking, should they continue to be the loyal sub- jects of the king, and remain steadfast in their fidelity, can have no motive to covet another kind of govern- ment, which shall be more advantageous to them, or a more perfect degree of freedom than that which they now have, or greater security for their property'. They all live there after their own caprice, without the burden of any other impost than that of the excise of the Alcabala^ which is paid very irregularly ; they acknowledge no other obligation or duty to magistrates than such as they are willing to render ; and, regardless of the decisions of the tribunals, thej' scarcely acknowledge themselves as vassals, for each one is a sovereign in his own esteem ; and they are such absolute proprietors of the country, and of their possessions, that they are utter strangers to the fear of losing any portion of them, in the event of prolonged wars in Europe, which exhaust the revenue of princes, and to carry on which the latter are obliged to lay new taxes upon their subjects. A man who owns an estate there disposes of it, as well as of its produce, just as he wishes ; the trader has an undisputed right to his
12i
goods and merchandise ; the capitalist entertauis no appre- hension lest his estate should be impaired by a forced loan, or that he should be compelled to incur exorbitant ex- penses ; tlie poor man does not absent himself from his family, and become a fugitive, for fear of being pressed into service against his will ; and so far is the govern- ment from imposing fines upon the whites or mestizoes, that, if these could appreciate the advantages they cnjo\', they would be envied by all nations, both for the degree of libert}' to which they have attained, as well as for the excellence of the S3'stem of government luider which they live.
Ever}- proprietor becomes so arrogant, on account of what he possesses, that he is regarded as a petty sover- eign in his own dominions, being the absolute disposer of them, and subject to no other law than that of his own caprice. In the cities, villages, and hamlets, where the landholders reside, the}' are the oracles of the people ; and all the authority which the corregidors possess is onh' what is conceded to them by the good pleasure of the most distinguished citizens, who are imitated, in this respect, by those of inferior rank. If the corregidor keeps in favor with them, he occupies the position of an honest citizen, like any one else ; but, if he comes into collision with them before the tribunals, or attempts to make an}- display of authority, he is resisted by force of arms, and, as there are none left to render obedience, his post is virtually vacant ; and, should he proceed to exe- cute his designs, it would lie enough to effect his ruin.
There are towns in which contempt of authority has reached such a point that threats are often carried into execution ; and, if the conduct of the magistrate is not the most prudent and war}', he will have little security of life. It is true this is a case which rarely or never happens, because the corregidors study to promote thoir own interest, and leave the government, or the grciiter part of it, in the hands of the alcaldes, and, l)y tliis means, rid themselves of subjects which give them any uneasiness ; but, as cases occur in which no dissimula- tion can be used, it is in these that the caprice of those
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people shows itself without disguise ; and, in order to make it better understood, we shall quote one of the numerous instances which occurred in those provinces while we were residing there.
In a town in the interior, which held, in point of popu- lation, about a middling rank, an altercation took place between a crcole gentleman and a European, which re- sulti.'d in a mutual challenge ; and the parties went into the field, accompanied by their seconds. One of them was so much injured, that, without bringing the quarrel to a close, he turned his back upon his opponent, and made his escape (after being wounded), in order not to lay down his arms. This circumstance became so gener- ally known, that the individual who was Avorsted in the affray, and who determined to seek revenge, not having courage to make a second attempt, had recourse to the base artifice of furnishing himself with weapons, and seeking his antagonists when they were off their guard. The parties had gathered strength, and the Europeans, or Chapetons, having raised their flag on one side, and the Creoles on the other, the scandal became excessive, and the mutual recrimination insupportable. The result of the matter was, that they patrolled the streets for several nights in search of each other, and at an hour when daylight had scarcely disappeared. Although the corregidor was there, he did not attempt to use any measures to keep them in check, for, his friendly inter- vention having failed of success, he thought he had not a force sufficient to justify any decisive measure. The rumor of this tumult having reached the capital city of the province, orders were sent to have the guilty seized and punished. As soon as the latter had received intel- ligence of the order, they put themselves in an attitude to resist it, should the Audience attempt to put it in execution, augmenting their force with that of the mes- tizoes, servants, and others dependent upen them, and seizing fire-arms wherever they could find them. The corregidor, urged on the one hand by the order of the tri- bunal, and fearful, on the other, of resistance on the part of the delinquents, availed himself of an artifice, suggested
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by prurience, to conciliate all parties, without hazard to himself, and tliat was, to send them a pohte message, requesting permission to visit their houses, under a pledge that he would not approach the apartment to which the}- should retreat. The latter, aware tliat thej-- should incur no risk by so doing, and that the result to them would be favorable, consented to let him in, and the}' withdrew to a room which, on being closed, served for a place of defence. Tlie corregidor arrived with his secretary, high sheriff, and several inferior officers, sigui- f3-ing by that formidable arra}- that the prisoners were to be apprehended, and commenced searching the house, without venturing near the apartment wliere the culprits lay hid (which was as well known to the secretary and his suite as it was to the corregidor) ; and not having found them in an}' of those rooms Avhich had been ex- amined, the process. was concluded, and satisfaction given to the Audience by the testimony of competent witnesses. As soon as the corregidor had withdrawn, the others emerged from their retirement, and began to appear in public, as if no attempt had ever been made to seize them. The Audience knew all that had occurred, but winked at it, on the ground that it was not possible for the corregidor to adopt more efficient measures. We arrived in that town about six months after this took place, and having received attentions from both parties, we succeeded in effecting a reconciliation between them, and thereby preventing any further evil results from that scandalous division.
The domineering spirit, both of the laity and clergy, who introduce these dissensions, prevails in both in an equal degree ; yet it exists to such an excess in the latter as to awaken new zeal and give greater impulse to the former, who confidently rely on their assistance when- ever occasion should require. The whole clerical staff is implicated in these riots and the religious orders exceed all the rest (that of the Jesuits excepted), by interfering in subjects which do not belong to them, and which are not appropriate to their profession. Not only those who wear the habit, but even their servants and dependents,
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have the insolence tq cast reproach upon the civil magis- trate ; and, the pernicious example which they give to the laity is the reason why the latter assume a bolder front, and trample on the authority of their superiors. It is in those countries that contempt of law serves as pas- time to ecclesiastics, who, in reliance upon the immuni- ties they enjo}', have the effrontery to make sport of the civil magistrate, whatever rank he may hold. Perhaps in no other country in the world do we see priests, with arms in their hands, boldly defying a corregidor, even in his own house, and exposing him to the scorn of the populace. There, too, may be seen bands of monks, of twenty or more, in masks, rushing through the streets, and provoking tumults, such as would be looked for only from the lowest and most reckless mob. It is there they have the audacity to enter the prison, armed, and, with- out fear of resistance, to set at liberty' culprits under the just sentence of the law, — an occurrence which took place in Cuenca, only a few days before our arrival in that city in 1740. It is there that the high sheriff has not courage to violate the sanctuary of the private dwellings of the priests, to arrest criminals that have taken refuge in them, as we ourselves witnessed in the town of Lambayeque in the year 1741. As we passed through that town, on our way to Lima, it happened that a common priest had the insolence to attempt to beat the corregidor, because he went to his house to seize a culprit, who had just stabbed a townsman, and had fled thither for refuge. In a word, it is there where justice has no power to enforce her demands.
It is by such examples as these that the laity are em- boldened by the clergj' to treat their judges with con- tempt, and to practise their detestable vices without restraint.
It will not be thought strange that ecclesiastics should show such contempt for justice, when tliey exhibit the same temper towards their prelates ; this being another reason wh}' it is impossible to lay hold of them, and to chastise their insolence, as much so as it is to attempt to reform the complicated machinery of abuses introduced
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into that country, and which liave become inveterate from the days of the first colonists that emigrated thither. These disorderl}- proceedings, the sources of which are such and so various, are incorrigible : their causes cannot be removed, and, should any attempt be made to reform them in part, it would be impossible to stay their future progress. The wise choice of rulers and magistrates, who are disinterested, impartial, of sound morals, condescending to all, and severe only towards those whose unrighteous conduct renders them deserving of punishmeut, — this is the only method of re- form which can be introduced : and if this fails to impose the necessary restraints, and to bring those people back to their reason, we know of no other which is adequate to the object proposed ; for, whatever be the means that can be devised, it appears as if they wholly lose their efficac}' in the distance itself, as well as in the mode of putting them in operation.
Note. — The authors of the " Secret Expedition " have expressed their oi)iiiioii tliat some of tlie Creoles are qiialilied to Iiold offices under Goverumeut ; l)nt thej' have merely alluded to the unwise policy of llio mother country in the selection of public function- aries who Ijecanie a reproach to the nation.
The church livings in Anieiica wei'e numerous, and richly en- dowed; liiit almost all vacancies were filled by ecclesiastics from Spain. It was a common thing to see the whole staff of a cathe- dral, from the l)isliop to the lowest officer, made up of Europeans. A successor was nominated to a see long before the post became vacant, and the candidate only awaited tlie news of the death of a dignitary in cuder to get his credentials sealed, and to go and take j)ossession of his incumliency. The Creoles were still more rigorously exclnded IVom tlie.jndiciary. The regents, oydors, and lis:als of the Audience, as well as tliti governors and their assist- ants, the secri'taries and assessors, all went from Spain. It was the sauK! in the branch of the exchequer. The collectors, comp- trollers, and even appraisers of the custom-honse; theinteiidants, treasurers, oflicers, and other functionaries of the royal exchequer, — were cxdnsively Europeans. As to piomotions in the army, there was scarcely an officer in th(>, regulai troo])s: tin* military honors to which a nativcof t heconnf ry conld aspire, howcncr rich ordiistiiiguishcd Ik; might be, wel■(^ confined to t lit^ rank of colonel of a rcginiiiit of a militia that had never ])asscd muster. I'.vcn the monivs maintaini'(l a kind of warfare in the convents to pre- vent any en ole colleagne from being chosen provincial or prior in the ca|»itulary elcctioua.
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But the chief source of irritation and discoutent was the char- acter of the individuals promoted to oflice. The domestic of a secretary of state was coutideut of liaviujr liis obsequiousness I'e- warded l»y an appointment in America; the brotliercjf a courtesan lady, who enjoyed tlie protection of some one of tlie grandees, was nauu'd inteiuhint of a province ; the intriguing jurist, who had served as the instrument of defending the suit of some favorite at court, was appointed regent or oydor of an Audience ; the hair- dresser of some royal ]iersoimge coutidently expected to see his son promoted to the otiiee of collector of customs If an officer in the family of one of the grandees had dishonored his station by cowardice or vile conduct, he was sent to the Indies, with the rank of general, insi)ector, or commander of a fortress; or, if an ignorant chaplain were found there, he was promoted either to a bisho])ric or to the deanery of a cathedral ; or if a son were thought to be incorrigible, and had become the reproach of his family, he was sent to America, bearing some important com- mission. Several Creoles, it is true, have bei'U a]ii)ointed l>isht)ps in Ameri(!a, and generals in Spain, but tljese were either sons of those European functionaries, who were promoted by their i)ar- ents, through the inlluenco of their relatives and friends in the peninsula, or those who had been sent to Sjjain in boyhood, and who had continued to reside there iiermanently, and who are not to be ranked with the natives of the Indies. At the same time, the king's ministers alleged instanceslike these, liowever rare, to prove that the posts of honor and emolument were equally ac- cessible to Europeans and Creoles. It is not, therefore, strange that quarrels should have ensued ; it is rather to be woiulered at that the Creoles have borne the yoke so long and so patiently. Having none to listen to their complaints, their only alleviation was the wretched resource of vilifying and hating the usurpers of their rights. This motive alone would have been sufficient to justify the emancipation of those countries.
]29
CHAPTER VII.
Gross Licentiousness of the Clergy in general, and particularly of the Monks. — Tumults attending the Capitulary Elections. — Their Priuciijal Cause.
"We enter upon this chapter of our report with some diffidence, both on account of the subject in general, as well as of the peculiar nature of its details, which must be communicated with due regard to the elevated station of the individuals of whom we are to speak ; while, on the other hand, we should make ourselves liable to the imputation of partiality or injustice, were we to pass over in silence the dissolute practices which are observable in them. The offence is of a public nature, and hence no artifice can be used to screen it from the observation of the secretai'ies ; and, if this were practicable, it would preclude the possibility of devising suitable measures of reform. The ministers are the safest channel through which our sovereigns can come to the knowledge of the state of government in their dominions, the conduct of their envo3's and judges, and, finally, of the system of juri.sdiction under which the colonists live. To attempt to conceal this information would be to wish that it might never reach the ears of the prince, and, consequently, to discountenance the reform of immoral practices, which would be the same as to connive at their existence. Even if we were entitled to no other consideration than that which belongs to any of his Majesty's subjects, it would suffice to warrant the discussion not onl}- of this topic, but of every other comprehended within the sphere of our inquiries ; but when we add the powerful one of having had assigned us, among other offices of trust, that of examining the government and condition of those kingdoms, it would be culpable in us, after having dis-
6»
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charged this duty, to withhold the result of our investi- gations ; for, although the sacred character of the per- sons interested might entitle them to some considera- tion, that very character, as it renders their crimes more aggravated, furnishes an occasion of severe rebuke, inas- much as religion itself is implicated, which tolerates no form of connivance or excuse.
In Peru, the body of ecclesiastics is made up of two orders — the secular and regular clergy ; the former com- prising the parish priests, and the latter the monks. The individuals who compose both these orders are guilty of such licentiousness, that, making due allowance for the frailties to which human nature is liable, and the weak- nesses to which men of every class are subject, it would appear that those ecclesiastics regard it as their peculiar privilege to go before all others in the career of vice ; for while the}^ are under the most sacred obligations not only to practise virtue, but to correct the errors incident to frail nature, it is they who, by their pernicious example, sanction the practice of iniquity, and in a measure divest it of its heinous nature.
The parish priests are extremely vicious in their habits ; but, whether it happen that an error or crime in them at- tracts less notice, or whether the}' are more careful to con- ceal it, or for both reasons, which is the most probable, disgraceful as the consequences are known to be, they never reach such a degree of scandal as do those of the monks ; for the latter, from the first step they take, and even without leaving the monasteries, pursue a course of conduct so notorious and shameful that it becomes offen- sive in the extreme, and fills the mind with horror.
Concubinage, as being the most general and scandal- ous, holds the first place among the vices of Peru. All are implicated in it, — Europeans, Creoles, the single as well as the married, and the priests, both secular and regular. A remark so comprehensive in its nature might be deemed h^-perbolical ; but, in order to substantiate the truth of it, we shall give some examples which we have had occasion to observe, and we shall cite them in the order which the subject seems to demand.
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Concubinnge is so general in those conntries that tne practice of it is esteemed a point of honor, particular!}' in the small towns ; and when a stranger arrives, and continues his residence there for some time without having adopted the customs of the countrv, his con- tinence is attributed not to a principle of virtue, but to the passion of avarice, as it is generall}' supposed that he lives so in order to save mone}'. Soon after our ar- rival in the Province of Quito, we proceeded, jointly with the French compan}*, to a plain a little more than four leagues distant from that cit}', where we were to make our first measurement, as a basis of subsequent observations ; and, in order to be in the vicinity of our encampment, we took lodgings on one of the numerous plantations in that valley-, and on Sundays and holida3S we were accustomed to go to the neighboring villages to hear mass. After we had been there some days, the people of the village asked after our concubines, direct- ing their inquiries to those who lived on the plantations ; and, on being told that we lived without women, they could not refrain from expressing their astonishment that such a thing could take place, notwithstanding that it is so common everywhere except in that country.
This vice having become so prevalent, it will not be thought strange that those who ai'e bound by their pro- fession to avoid it, should participate in it ; for a practice which is so general, easily insinuates itself among those who strive to keep themselves from the contagion of it ; and, as a love of reputation fails to oppose anj' obstacle, the inveterate habit gains strength, until it triumphs over all sense of shame, and all the salutary restraints of fear.
Want of discipline in the convents opens the door to licentious practices. In large cities the greater part of the monks live in private houses, for the convents fur- nish an asylum to those only who cannot keep house, or the choristers, novitiates, or such like, who live there from choice. The same is true of the small cities, villages, and hnnilets. The doors of the monasteries are kept open, and the monks live in theii- cells, accompanied
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by their women, and lead in every respect the life of married persons.
In order to live without the walls of the convent, a monk of any of the orders (except that of the Jesuits) must have one of the following reasons to allege, — either that he has an incumbency, or that he has bought an estate with his own property, or that he has taken a lease of some one of the many which are owned by the convents, and which are abandoned for want of cultiva- tion. Any one of these circumstances furnishes him a suffi- cient excuse for keeping a house in the city, and for making it his home, whenever he has occasion to go there, rather than to live in the convent. Those, likewise, who hold masterships, and who have been promoted to the highest honors in the gift of their order, although usually residing in the convent, by virtue of their institute, are allowed to keep their private houses in the city, where their women and children usually live, and where they pass the most of their time. They do this with so much freedom and sense of security that the moment they are threatened with serious illness they take up their abode there, as they would in an infirmary, aban- doning the convent altogether ; and, even when they have no such pretext, the}' usually absent themselves, and visit the monastery merel}' to sa}' mass, and to pass their time there when it suits their caprice or convenience.
In addition to the above-mentioned facts, these individ- uals use so little care to disguise their conduct, that they appear to make incontinence a matter of boasting ; they would impl}' as much as this, when they go on a journey, by taking with them their concubines, children, and servants, as if to publish to the world their abandoned mode of living. We have met them very frequently on the highway in this stj'le, but have noticed them more particularly on the assembling of the chapters ; for all who are present on these occasions enter the citj" pub- hcl}', with their whole family, having either a vote to cast, or a living to solicit ; and when the election is over the}' go out in the same manner, some to take a higher rank in other convents, and others to be installed
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over a vacant cnrac}'. "We happened to be residing in Quito when the time arrived for assembling the chapters in the order of St. Francis, and having taken lodgings in that neighborhood, we had an opportunit}' of seeing distinctly- all that was taking place. For the space of fifteen days prior to the meeting of the chapters, it was a source of amusement to idle persons to look at the monks as the}' entered the city with their concubines ; and, for more than a month after the chapters were closed, it was equally' amusing to see those who were on their return to their new destination. It happened at this time that, while a monk was living with all his family opijosite to the house where we were residing, one of his sons suddenly fell ill and died. The same da}', at two o'clock in the afternoon, the whole bod}^ of friars went to sing a response over him, and, at the close of it, each individual came forward to express his sympath}- for the mourner. This could be seen distinctly by us, the balconies of one house being opposite to those of the other, exposing the whole to view, although the cere- monies were performed without an}' design of conceal- ment.
Strange as this may seem, it is nothing in comparison with what sometimes occurs. It is naturally to be sup- posed that there is scarcely one who escapes the conta- gion of vice, whether he reside in the city, on an estate, or in his own curacy ; for, whether it be in one place or another, they all live in the same loose and profligate manner. But the most notorious circumstance of all is, that these convents have been converted into public l)rothels, particularly in the smaller settlements ; and, that, in the large towns, they have become the scene of such imheard-of abominations and execrable vices, that the mind wavers in uncertainty as to what opinion the inmates have formed of religion, or whether they live in the knowledge and fear of the Catholic.
In the smaller towns, under the pretext that the monks are few in numlter, the doors of the monasteries are kept open, and women go in and out at all times for the pur- pose of cooking, washing, and waiting on the friars, and
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performing all the services which usuall^y devolve upon the lay brothers. Likewise the concubines have free access, at all hours, not only without impediment, but without so much as attracting notice,* of which we shall give two examples, which will place the truth of it be- yond a doubt.
It was on the eve of our depai'ture from Quito, on our tour to Cuenca, that we visited one of the convents to take leave of some of the inmates, whose acquaintance we had made during our stay in that city. We entered one of the cells, or apartments, in which we found a monk, accompanied by three females of respectable ap- pearance, who were seated by the bedside of the friar, to whom our visit was made, but who was so ill that he did not recognize us. The females were busy in applying remedies suited to effect his recovery. • On inquiring of the first monk the occasion of his sudden illness, he told us, in a few words, that the young woman who seemed most officious in her attentions, and betraj'ed evident indications of deep sympathy, was his concubine, with w^hom he had had a quarrel the day previous, and, exas- perated as he still was with her, she ver}^ imprudently seated herself at the door of a church, attached to a nunner3% where he happened to be preaching at that hour. Her presence threw him at once into a transport of rage, and the attack which occasioned his illness seized him so nnexpectedl}" that he could neither proceed with his discourse nor recover the use of his reason. The said monk took occasion, from this circumstance, to speak at large of the miseries of this life, and, when he had concluded, he informed us that, of the other two young women, one belonged to him and the other to the superior of the convent.
On another occasion, a French gentleman, who was associated with us in our expedition, being present at one of the numerous fandangoes, or balls, which are so common there, entered into conversation with a lady who
* The women of the monks no longer live in the monasteries, but in the streets in the vicinity. — Tr.
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had been inWtccl, and, as midnight was then approaching, sho expressed a desire to return home. The gentleman ottered to accompany her. Nhe accepted the otter ; and, without making an}' apologj", proceeded directly to one of the convents of friars, ascended the steps, and knocked. The French gentleman knew not what to think of it, but waited, somewhat confused, to see where it would end, which he soon discovered, to his astonishment ; for, when the porter opened the door, the lad}' bade him good- night, and, ihanking him for his politeness, went in. We may imagine the surprise of this gentleman, who, until then, had not been accustomed to such open prof- ligacy of manners ; but, as such occurrences were fre- quently repeated afterwards, under our own eye, neither he nor ourselves regarded them any longer with sur- prise.
Were we to enumerate all the similar occurrences which took place during our stay in those countries, they would fill a large volume ; but we have said enough to explain what that is of which we speak, without tres- passing too far jn recording facts of such a revolting natui'e. But, at the same time, we shall not neglect the opportunity of communicating whatever the subject be- fore us seems to demand.
The greater part or all of the enormities committed in those wanton fandangoes, which are so common in those countries, appear to be inventions suggested by the in- fernal spirit himself, to keep those people in greater bondage ; but it is exceedingly strange, and even in- credible, that the choicfe of instruments to begin and carry on such dissolute practices should be such as it is, and so fitted to excite horror and aversion. These fan- dangoes, or balls, are usually devised by the members of the religious orders, or more properl}' by those who call themselves religious, although, in fact, they are far from being so ; for it is they who pay the expense, who attend, in company with their concubines, and who get up the fray in their own houses. Simultaneously with the dance, the immoderate use of ardent spirits begins, and the entertainment is gradually converted into acts of im-
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propriety, so unseeml}^ and lewd, that it would be pre- sumption even to speak of them, and a want of delicacy to stain the narrative with such a record of obscenities ; and, letting them lie hid in the region of silence, we shall onl}^ remark, that whatever the spirit of malice could invent, in respect to this subject, great as it might be, it could never fathom that abyss into which those corrupt minds are plunged, nor give any adequate idea of the degree of excess to which debauchery and crime are carried. The peculiar position of those who take the lead in those scenes of riot excites surprise, not merely that the members of a religious order should in- considerately abet the scandals of the lait}', but that they should, in this manner, originate them, and serve as pioneers to those who are entering upon the paths of vice. We have nothing to corroborate the truth of this, but experience itself, together with actual occurrences and the public}^ of facts, which are of such a nature that children inherit the titles of rank held b}' their parents ; and we see, not without surprise, in a city like Quito, scores of lad}' provincials, prioresses, lady guardians, lady readers, &c., as well as of every titled office in the order ; so that children are known in public by no other name than that of the title of the post of honor to which their fathers had been elevated. So far are they from accounting such titles as derogator}-, that they are es- teemed as a badge of honor, and the more so as the rank of the individual is greater. In the same way as the rank of an individual is designated by his title, the merit of the children is graduated b}^ that of their parents ; and the former, regardless of illegitimacy or sacrilege, esteem themselves happ}^ in making a boast of their elevated station in society, nor does it occasion them an^' sense of shame to be known b}^ the honorary titles which had been conferred on their parents in the monastery.
The preceding gives proof enough of entire disregard to appearances in the monks ; for, if we except the bap- tismal records, we have no means of distinguishing thtir offspring from those of the lait}-. They lead a married life with the woman they take, and no one dares to cen-
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sure them ; and ha\ing become lost to all sense of decency, the}- trample on the sanctit}- of the prohibition. It appears as if this inseusibilit}' wrought iu tlii-m more powerfiill}- than in others ; for the}- live without the least restraint, and go far beyond the most infamous of the lait}- in tlie practice of licentiousness. Under pretext of celebrating these orgies in the house of one of the monks, it is reason enough wh}- no justice of the peace should violate the sanctity of their domicile ; and however dis- guised the managers of the ball may be, b}' assuming the dress of the lait}-, common report is enough to identify them with certainty.
It may be thought strange that the superiors of the orders should use concealment, and not apply a remedy in this matter ; for, if they were actuated by no otlier motive than the rei^utation of the Order, they would do it for this sole object ; but the repl}' to this is by no means difficult. They do, indeed, assign several reasons which they suppose to be weighty, such as, that the custom has become inveterate, and that it has ceased to give offence, because it is so G;enerallv admitted in all those countries. But the truth is, they want authority to restrain these excesses, because they are as much implicated in tliem as are the inferior clergy ; and, as the fatal example originates with them, there is no room, under such cir- cumstances, for salutary admonition, nor is it possible for the guilty person to be brouglit to tlie knowledge of his error, and to be made to reform his life. Of the truth of this, the following anecdote will furnish sufficient evi- dence. In one of the towns situated within the Province of (^uito, the living was held by a monk who had at a former period been elected provincial of his Order ; but he was so loose in his morals, and so perverse in his whole conduct, that he kept the village in a state of tur- moil by his unbridled licentiousness, until at length the complaints of the inhal)itants came to the ears of the president and bishop of (^uito. The latter, no longer able to disregard such repeated solicitations, earnestly entreated the acting provincial to restrain the excesses of the monk, who was accordingly sunnnoncd to answer to
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the charges alleged against him. At first, however, the provincial gave him a friendly admonition, and conn- selled him not to be unmindful of his advanced age, and of the elevated station which he had once held in the con- vent. He then urged upon his attention every motive that could possibly influence him to abandon his reckless life, and thereby cut off any further occasion of complaint from the president and bishop. The monk received the admonition with great calmness, and as soon as the provincial had concluded, he commenced speaking, and, availing himself of the freedom of mutual friendship and confidence, not to mention other circumstances, which set aside even the forms of respect and subordination, he said to him, with an air of indiiference, that if he needed the living for any thing, it was only to maintain his concubines, and to carry on his amours ; foi', as it respected himself, so long as he had a frock and hood, and his daily allowance of bread, it was quite sufficient for his maintenance ; that if he (the provincial) intended to infringe his liberty in any respect, he might take the living for himself, for he had no need of it whatever. The result was, that the monk returned to the village, and continued to live, as before, in the same vicious practices.
But what admonition shall a superior give to an in- ferior concerning a crime in wliich both are equally implicated, and who, when occasion offers, go in com- pany to the dwellings of their concubines without the least reserve ? for they meet in the house of the provin- cial, just as they do in that of a private monk, to cele- brate their nightly orgies. Hence it is that such a mode of life as the priesthood lead does not strike the laity with surprise ; but what does give occasion for reproach is the wrangling that takes place between them and their concubines, between the children belonging to one and those which belong to another, and among the women themselves, who lead this abandoned Ufe, especially when it happens that a priest is dissatisfied with one, and gives occasion of jealousy to another. On this account, there exist unceasing brawls and
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riots, -which are more violent in small towns, especially if the inhabitants come to talve part in them. They are also wont to spring from the supremac}' whicli the concubines and children of priests wish to maintain over those of the lait}', trampling upon them and degrading them to servile occupations, as if they were fit only for menial offices. Here, then, we have the real occasion of offence, which is not in the fact that a priest is burdened with a numorous offspring, nor that he lives openlj* with a woman in a state of matrimony, but in the incessant quarrels and tumults which have their origin in a course of conduct in ever}" view unseeml}^ and reproachful.
It is a circumstance ver}- worthy of remark in the fan- dangoes to which we have before alluded, that it is by such deeds of revehy that the assuming of monastic vows is commemorated ; it is in such orgies, in which there is no abominable crime whicji is not committed, and no in- decency which is not practised, that the solemn occasion of chanting the first mass is celebrated, which seems like pi'esenting to the young friars a model on which to form their subsequent conduct ; and the}' appear to make use of the lessons of depravity with so much fidelit}', that they never deviate in the slightest degree from their observance.
Although this licentious life comprises both priests and friars, the former are more continent and less scandalous before the public, and in both orders there are wont to be individuals who live in a more exemplary manner. But we find, on farther iuquirj^, that these are aged priests, who have been induced by advancing years to change their habits, and to lead a more virtuous life ; and it usually happens in regard to both, that, if any one retires from the world to live virtuously, it is not until he is burdened with children and old age, and is naturally on the borders of the grave.
All the seclusion of these priests, who are accounted models of virtue, as well as all their penances of morti- fication and fasting, consist in leading a life of contin- ence, by withdrawing from the society of their concubines. This might appear at first view an inconsiderable triumph ;
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but it comes to be veiy important wben we reflect that there are many individuals iu whom these circumstances concur, and who continue to live in a state of concubin- age until the very moment of their death. Numerous examples of this kind might be quoted ; but we shall con- fine ourselves to one only, which will be sufficient to cor- roborate what we have stated.
On the pampa where our first observations were taken relative to the measurement of the earth, there were various plantations belonging to friars, and one of them was superintended by a monk of such distinguished talents that he had been repeatedly promoted to the dig- nity of provincial. This estate was so near to that on which we were residing, that we frequently preferred going there to hear mass on Sundays and holiday's. By this facility of communication, we had sufficient oppor- tunity of knowing what was occurring on that estate, as well as on the neighboring ones ; but even without this circumstance we could not be ignorant of it ; for the occnrrcnces were so public, that, at the very time the tenants made known to us the names and divisions of the estate, they made us acquainted with ever}' thing relative to the owner of it, without omitting the circum- stances of his profession and mode of life. This monk was already more than eighty years old, but was still living, as a married person, with a 3'oung and good-look- ing concubine, who was frequently mistaken for some one of the daughters of his own famih', for this was the fourth woman with whom he had contracted alliance ; and as children had descended of all these, there was literally a swarm of them, between great and small. This whole famil}' kneeled together in the chapel to hear mass, the concubine herself presiding, and occupying for this pur- pose a conspicuous place. The father said mass, and one of his sons did the office of assistant. But the most re- markable circumstance was, that, although this priest had received the extreme unction three times, being at death's door, he could not be persuaded to make this 3'oung woman withdraw from his bedside ; and at length, after having had the rite administered for the fourth time,
Ill
he died, as the phrase is, in her arms. It will not, there- fore, be thought strange, if attention has been given to what we remarked above, that tliose who become ill in the convents shonld retire to a private house, and con- tinue there, attended by their concubines, until they recover or die.
The regular clergy, as well as all those who are for- bidden b}' their vows to marr}', not only live in the mar- ried state, but secure to themselves advantages over those who are lawfully married ; for they are at liberty to change their women, either when they cease to be congenial to them, or when age has rendered them less attractive ; and it is their practice so to do whenever it suits their caprice, or whenever the}^ have an opportunity to mend their for- tune. To those whom they abandon, a weekly allowance is granted for their support, and this is continued for life, if the individual concerned is one who possesses prop- erty, or holds a high rank in the church or in the Order to which he belongs. From examples like these, some conclusion may be formed of the state of religion in that countr}' — the sacrilege committed in the face of da}^ the irreverence attending the celebration of religious rites, and the want of security for the propagation, or even the existence, of the true faith. Let this question be left to the judgment of each individual, as it would be inex- pedient to make it a subject of discussion, and augment the sense of grief and disappointment which naturally originates from it.
So far, however, is this mode of life from being disrep- utable, or prejudicial to the good name and decorum either of man or woman, that the promotion of a married priest is an occasion of mirth and festivit}' to the woman with whom he has contracted alliance ; so that when a monk has been promoted to an honorable station in his Order, his concubine receives the customary congratula- tions, as one who shares in the honor of the new appoint- ment. What takes place in regard to one is a})plicable also to the other, for I)}' it the}' secure a greater revenue, which is the object desired.
The monks possess advantages over all others in re-
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gard to the rank of the women who belong to them, which arises from the fact that, while they are in a situa- tion more favorable to the acquisition of wealth, they have less to spend for their personal maintenance ; hence it is all applied to the benefit of their women, wliich is not the case cither with the laity or with other ecclesias- tics ; for, although both the former and the latter main- tain them, they do not lavish upon them their whole estate, as is the case with the monks ; for these, as they say themselves, carry their whole wardrobe on their backs, and their only pecuniary obligations are such as they impose upon themselves ; so that whatever they earn, either'within or without the convent, reverts to these wo- men, and is applied to the maintenance of their families. Hence it is that the men, not having scruples of con- science, inclining them to forsake such a course, nor the women sufficient modesty or love of virtue to do the same, it will not seem repugnant to reason that the prac- tice should have become so general as to comprehend all classes, without exception ; yet we shall not venture to affirm so much as this, lest we should brand with such a foul reproach those who may never have incurred it ; but we must declare, that, in regard to several individuals, whom we knew and esteemed as possessing moral worth, and who, to appearance, had always lived circumspectly, time disclosed to us quite the contrary, and under cir- cumstances that give us occasion to doubt even of those who had exhibited externally satisfactory evidence of virtuous conduct.
This licentiousness, both of the laity and priesthood, is universal in Peru, so that what is said of Quito and Lima may be affirmed of all other cities and towns. The root of the evil is, that, those countries having been conquered and settled by persons of a low rank in society, the abuses which they introduced at the commencement continued to prevail and multiply, until they had become universal.*
* There are not wanting in Quito bright examples of virtue among the laity, which shine with more lustre in contrast with the siUTomidiug darkness of infidelity and superstition. An aged friend of mine in that city once informed me that, having
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We shall conclude this chapter by alluding again to the tumults occasioned b}- the capitulaiy elections, in ordej to show how little the monasteries contribute to the object for which they were esta])lished.
The revenue attached to preferments in the religious Orders is the source of all the unreasonable and extrav- agant behavior of the members : hence it is that the}- pay little or no attention to the continuance and increase oi the missions, and neglect their appropriate duty ol preaching for the conversion of infidels. They appeal in pubhc to promote the interests of their own part}', and to kindle more and more the flames of discord among individuals, when duty calls them to interpose thcii friendl}' oflices to allay the spirit of part}' ; hence the perverse, disorderly, and scandalous life which the}' all lead, from first to last, making it evident that those who constitute the religious Orders have no claim to the char- acter of religious persons.
The chapters assemble at certain intervals, to make choice of a pro\incial, or superior of a convent, who has nnder his control all the minor convents of his Order which are comprised within the limits of a province. This dignitary fills up all vacancies that occur in oflfice, or for once grants this prerogative to his predecessor, in case the latter has espoused his cause ; so that the indi- vidual chosen makes this concession to the one who chooses him, and cither one or the other nominates priors or guardians for all the convents of the province, remodels all the benefices, promotes the curates, or nominates others in their place — all which yields him an immense revenue ; for what has been said of the system of bribery practised in the election of a corregidor applies to all the honors and prerogatives conferred by the i)roviucinl, the amount which each individual has to contribute being regulated by a fixed tariff or scale of prices ; whetlier it be under the denomination of a pension, or almsgiving,
applied to a canon of the church for counsel in resiird to the way to 1)0 saved, that (lisnitary hiliorcd to (piief his apprehen- sions hy assniin^ him tliat we had not evidence cnoii^li of u future state to give ourselves any concern about it. — Tr.
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or benevolence, or anj- other terra that mnj^be applied to it ; for, whatever be the pretext, it is well known that the vacancy is not filled unless the stipulated sum should be paid previousl3', or an obligation given to pay it in full as soon as the office begins to yield an income. Although the new provincial should cede to his predecessor the prerogative of filling up these vacancies, the vacancies thus filled do not fail to yield him an immense revenue ; for, besides what the interested parties give to him who directly bestows the emolument, they also remunerate the provincial who concedes the right to bestow it, which leaves them both with an enormous income ; but even this is not to be named in comparison with what thej^ afterwards collect, during their parochial visits, and in the interim of the meeting of the chapters, which is the source whence they derive their chief emolument
The only recompense bestowed by the provincials on those who have espoused their party consists in promoting them to oflfice, on paj'ment of the stipulated alms, which does not diminish aught from the merit of the living con- ferred, for it always enables an individual to get a clear income of twelve thousand dollars or more, during his term of office, even if he have advanced a gratuity of three or four thousand dollars, or have discharged his debt to the provincial from the very proceeds of the benefice bestowed.
But what in this respect forces itself upon the attention is, tliat a religious Order, like that of St. Francis, should handle money-bags of a thousand dollars each as they were maravedies or beads of the rosary ; that it should set up and m.anage its fair of guardianships and livings, as other convents do ; that the provincials in a three years' term, should accumulate a greater sum than is accumulated b}' an}^ one presiding over other orders, the number of livings in their gift exceeding that of the rest ; that, in the same proportion, guardians and curates increase in riches, purchase estates, and keep up pri- vate establishments ; and, in a word, that there should be provincials, and even friars, of elevated rank, rich and ostentatious, and the fame of whose pomp and
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pride echoes throngh the towns and cities where they reside.
In addition to the wealth accumulated by the provin- cials during their term of office, as soon as this term exi)ires they are entitled to one of the best (that is, of the richest) livings or guardianships in the gift of the Order, and they are at lil3erty to select for their own use the most valual)le estate within the province, and, by pay- ing the rent prescribed by ancient usage, to hold it as their own during their lifetime. To these emoluments others are added, which yield such a revenue as to pro- vide them with everything that could be desired.
As it is luideuiable that all the orders in the Indies possess immense wealth, and that the}' have no occasion to employ it to advantage, it is evident that they make an improper use of it, by rendering it subservient to their corrupt propensities. Hence it is that the members of the religious orders take the lead of every other class of men in the practice of vice ; for, if reference be had to concubinage, none are guilty of it to such a degree as the}' are, for there are none who maintain a greater num- ber of women ; if to the use of obscene language, it makes one shudder to listen to them, when they let loose their tongues, and make them the instruments of the most filthy and opprobrious language that can be imagined. Besides this, the}- play at games of hazard more than any class of persons ; they drink to greater excess than the laity, and there is no vice with which the}' have not made themselves familiar ; all which has its source in sui)er- fluous wealth ; for, having no objects on which to lavish it, and no occupation to fill up their intervals of leisure, they make them both subservient to their detestable vices, and continue to live in them even to their last hour.
It being so manifest that the profligacy of the monks in Peru is owing to the riches they hoard up, and that these are derived from tlie livings, the evil might be remedied liy nominating the secular clergy to the bene- fices ; for the priests, cruel as they arc to the Indians, are not so tyrannical as the monks : the reason is, that
14(5
the former receive their appointments for life, and are not compelled, like the latter, to contribute the customary fee or bribe at the meeting of every chapter, nor have they the same occasion to straiten to the utmost their parishioners, in order to render the cui'ac}' as lucrative as possible.
On the other hand, if such a measure were adopted, and friars should be excluded from the benefices, the scandal of profligac}' would not be avoided ; for the sec- ular and regular clergy are equally depraved in their morals. But, externall}^ the difference is in favor of the priests, for these are more wary, as we have alread}' observed, and endeavor to hide their weaknesses ; there is more of decorum in their manners ; their language is not so revolting, nor their lives so scandalous ; so that if we would descrilie the difference between the profligac}' of the monks and the frailty of the i)riests, we should say that the latter are not more abandoned and loose than are the laity in general ; and if there is au}^ difference between the two classes, a greater regard to appearances may be predicated of the priests ; but the monks, under all cir- cumstances, are more profligate than the laity. Thus, although the reform of such mischievous abuses could not be wholly effected, it might be secured in part, and the hope entertained that through the influence of worth)' ecclesiastics, who should be sent from Spain, the vices which now prevail might be rooted out, or held in some degree of restraint, and a new order of administration be set on foot. • Although this object should not be secured, neither as a whole nor in part, other advantages would result from it, which would be of great importance to" the king and his subjects, and which are so indispensable at the present moment, that, otherwise, we cannot rely on the permanent possession of those kingdoms ; at least, no reasonable hope can be entertained that the settlements will ever be extended over that vast territory, which hitherto has recognized no sovereign but the barbarous Indian, and no proprietor but the beast of the forests.
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