)»#;<*/: n<>'^='4'cr select his nursery stock in ref- erence to the hardiness, age and shape of the trees? 7. What methods may be followed in setting out the trees? 8. How should the holes be dug for the trees? 9. What pruning do the young trees need when set out? 10. What treatment does the soil need in a fruit orchard? 11. What are tlie reasons for cultivation of the soil? 12. What is humus? Oh what value is it in the soil? 1.3. How may fruit trees be grown in sod? 14. What are the advantages of a mulch to a fruit crop? What are the disadvantages? 1.5. What is a cover crop? What are the advantages of a cover crop? 16. How may the advantages of cover crops be combined with cultivation? 17. What field crops are used as cover crops for the orchard? 15. How much seed should be sown per acre in order to get a good cover crop? 19. Is it practicable to raise garden crops in the orchard? What crops are best to grow? 20. How is the orchard planted with fillers? 21. What is the best way to get new fruit growing land into the best physical condition? 22. In what two forms is plant food found in the soil? 23. What is the result of a soil too rich in plant food for fruit growing? 24. What is the purpose of applying manures to the land? 25. What are the elements that enter into the composition of the fruit crop? 52 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 26. What effect does an excess of nitrogen in the soil have upon fruit crops? 27. What effect does an excess of potasli and phosphoric acid in the soil have upon the fruit crops? 28. How is the plant food taken from the soil by the plants returned to it naturalb'? 29. What are some of the formulas for combining and applying different fertilizers to the soil? SO. When should manures be applied to fruit lands? 31. M^hat is the general practice of applying manures to the land? 32. When should commercial fertilizers be applied and how? 32. When is a supply of water for irrigation desirable? CHAPTER IV. PRUNING. Careful watching, pruning and care are necessary in the handling of a fruit plantation if the best results are to be obtained. The day is past when the successful orchardist can afford to set his trees and let nature take care of them. He must spray and prune. Under natural conditions nature prunes sur- plus branches and trees, but when those trees are grown in an orchard and plenty of room is given for growth and development certain shaping and training must be given to get symmetrical and useful trees. Reasons for Pruning. — Trees are pruned for a variety of reasons, among which are the following: (1) To remove dead and diseased wood. Nearly all trees have dead and diseased limbs some time during the year, which must be removed in order to keep the tree healthy. (2) To allow sunlight and air to get into the branches and aid in keeping the tree healtlay. If the branches grow too thick the fruit in the tree will not color up as it should. (3) To aid in the production of first class fruit. Too much wood will form on a tree, thus causing the tree to bear too heav- ily and consequently produce small, poorly-colored fruit. (4) To secure shape and size that will enable spraying, cul- tivating and picking to be easily and economically done. (5) To protect the tree from injurious winds and injuries resulting from climatic conditions, as sunscald, sleet storms, etc. (6) To rebuild and give more vigor to weak trees or weak limbs. It is often best to replace trees of this sort with new ones. (7) To remove bruised or injured branches or roots. (8) To restore the balance between roots and top in the case of setting out young trees. The effect of pruning and the necessity for pruning depend upon climatic conditions to some extent. In a humid district 54 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. the tree should perhaps be more open than in a dryer district to permit more sunlight to enter the top of the tree. Too open a head in some districts might lead to sunscald of tree and fruits. In the irrigated districts much extra wood is cut out and still the fruits of the trees must not be exposed too much. In many districts it is well to prune very little other than to remove dead wood and interlocking branches. Pruning the Young Tree.— Pruning should commence with, the setting of the young tree. When it is received from the nursery all bruised roots should be shortened with a sharp knife. The top should be cut back to correspond to the amount the root has been shortened. If the climatic conditions are moist and the soil rich, not as much wood will need to be removed as in a dry season when the soil and atmosphere are dry. Some growers even advocate very severe root and top pruning as is given by those who follow the Stringfellow method. This system is probably too severe for general planting. Start the Head Low.— If a tree is properly handled from th© time it is planted little heavy pruning will be needed. Heavy pruning is always objectionable since the wounds do not heal over as readily as the small ones and are thus more apt to cause permanent injury to the trees. Any branches that interlock or that are giving the tree an unbalanced appearance should be taken out. It is generally conceded that a low-headed tree is the best type to grow because the spraying and picking of the fruit may be mor£ easily and economically done and there is less danger from storms. The head should be started from 18 to 24 inches from the ground. If properly handled this will permit of easy cultivation. Too many branches should not be allowed to make up the head or it will become crowded. Three or four are plenty and with careful attention will form a symmetrical head. When to Prune. — Small limbs may be taken off at any time of the year. Large limbs should be taken when the tree is dor- mant. The best time is in late winter just before growth starts. There is less danger of the wound drying out and cracking if done then than if done early in the fall. Pruning is usually PRUNING. 55 done at any time during the winter when there is no frost in the wood. Pruning tools will break much easier when the wood is frosty. The winter is often the slack season in fruit districts and the work can be done cheaper then. Some pruning may be done at the end of the growing season in late summer, but this is apt to start a late fall growth which is objectionable in tbe colder districts. Cut Close and Clean. — First, make a study of the tree to be pruned and then follow some defin- Fig. s.-Effect of pruning. a.-Scar ^^e plan to train that from a limb properly removed, after tree. The best orchard- two years, b. — Stub left from care- . . „kx„:„„ki„ „v,«„i/i less pruning. 'st obtainable should do the work. All cuts should be made with sharp tools and close to the shoulder. Stubs should never be left as they will not heal over and only cause decay in the tree. In making the cut, if it be a large limb, saw from the bottom up a short distance, then take the saw out and saw down so as to meet the under cut. This will prevent the limb splitting off and causing serious injury to y^^^jims^^ y^.. >^v, the tree. Always make a clean sharp cut. It will heal much quicker than a rough, bruised or jag- ged one. Paint the Cut.— It is a good plan to apply a thick white lead paint to any wounds over an inch in diameter as this keeps the wood from di-ying out. Paint only the wounded part. Grafting Fig. 9. — Result of cutting too far from trunk, a.— Section showing stub, b.— Decay from long stub penetrat- ing heart of tree. 56 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. wax is an especially good material to use, but is too expensive for ordinary use where many limbs are to be painted. Tools. — Good tools kept in good condition are essential for good pruning work. The common ax and bucksaw do not come under this head. A good saw, ligbt and heavy shears, tree pruner for heading in limbs, ladder and heavy knife are all the tools actually need- -Spiit ed in the work. The cutting, a. from removal of limb cut from above. b.— Proper method of removing limb, common two-edged prun- ing saw is the one most often used. The swivel saw is much handier, however. The heavy long-handled shears often take the place of the saw, but unless the pruner is careful in handling them stubs will be left on the tree. Forming the Apple Tree. — Figure 13 shows the dif- ferent steps in formative pruning, starting, as is done in some parts of the coun- try, with the one-year-old tree. The numeral 1 repre- sents a tree set; la shows it cut back to 18 to 24 inch- es from the ground and the side branches cut off. This will force out a number of side buds into strong branches. If all of these are allowed to remain we have a tree similar to 2 the second year. These should be thinned to three or four, as « Tbprf^ ^'^- ^^ —Handy method of heating as snown in ,.a. mere grafting wax to paint wounds. Fig. 12.— Various styles of pruning tool.s. 58 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. should be at least three or four inches between each branch to prevent the development of crotches, which are especially objectionable in apple trees. The arrangement around the trunk is shown in figure 14; a, the first year's growth; b, the second year's growth. / /e i. ^f- 3 -^^ Fig. 13.— Forms of tree before and after pruning. 1 and 1a, at plant- ing time; 2 and 2a, at beginning of second year; 3 and 3a, begin- ning of tliird year. In the second year these scaffold branches should be cut back to one-half or two-thirds their length (figs. 13-2a and l-'t-a). This will cause two or three strong laterals to develop from near the extremity of each stub. With the third season, the laterals which have developed from the previous season's cutting back will again need to be headed in about one-half tlieir growth. Shoots which are growing inward, and those tending to cross or rub, should be removed or corrected. The regulation of a shoot is governed by the position on the tree. Note the designated ones and the position of the buds in figure 14, and the suggestions brouglit out in figure 13, 3 and .Ja. How to Make the Cuts. — In all formative pruning the cuts are made slanting and just back of the bud which has been grown on the proper side of the branch to throw the resulting shoot in the desired direction. The uppermost bud left on the PRUNING. 59 Fig-. Stub usually throws the strongest branch. In many instances an otherwise dormant bud can be found to throw a strong shoot to fill up an open space in the top by cutting '■"""~^-. a notch in the main branch just above the bud in question. The method of cutting back to a bud is shown in figure 15; a and b are cut too far above the bud and will leave an excess of dead wood to be pinched off or covered over by the growing callous; c is cut too close to the base of the bud, a proceeding that is liable to cause the bud to be killed by drying; d shows about the right position for making the cut. Fig. 13, 1 and la, show a properly set one-year-old tree and the same tree pruned to start the head about 18 inches high; in 2 this tree is shown after a summer's thrifty growth, while 2a shows the same tree pruned to form the head; 3 suggests the growth that might result the ensuing season and 3a embodies some suggestions for cutting back to form a desirable head. It should always be borne in mind that that pruning is best whicli is moderate. The severe cutting back of a tree once or twice in its life-time, as is so often the practice, can scarcely help but have serious results. Pruning should be done yearly from the time the tree is set until it is mature; it will then never be necessary to remove any great amount of wood at one time. Espalier or Cordon. — The espalier method of training and pruning is followed in Europe very largely with the apple, pear and peach. It can be used there to advantage since labor is cheap and land is high in price. In America skilled labor is too expensive to use on this work and with our abundance of land the method would be of no value except for ornamental purposes. Espalier training consists of forming the tree into various gro- tesque shapes, or in training it flat along the side of a building gram s h o w i ng limbs of tree at beginning of sec- ond y e a r '3 growth; b, branches pruned before third year's growth starts. 60 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. or fence. It is a land on the south Tig. 15.— IMethods of removing buds, a and b, stubs too long; c, cut too close to bud; d, prop- er method of cutting-. 12. How may certain buds? 13. How may common method of growing the pear in Eng- side of buildings. Renewing Old Trees. — This is a difficult matter and the best method is probably to cut out the trees entirely or else to cut back the tops in winter very severely and train the new growth the same as young trees are handled. If the varieties are not good, top-working with better varieties may often be done to advan- tage. Trimmings. — All trimmings from the or- chard should be burned at once to prevent the spread of insects or disease that may be on them. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER IV. 1. What are the principal reasons for prun- ing orchard trees? 2. When is an open headed tree objectionable? 3. When is an open head desirable? 4. When should the work of pruning com- mence? How severe, should the early pruning be? 5. Why is a low head desirable? How far from the ground should it be to the first branches? 6. When should pruning be done? 7. Describe the method of making cuts in re- moving small and large limbs. S. What is the danger if a long stub is left? 9. Why should the larger wounds be painted? 10. What tools are ordinarily used in pruning? 11. What is a desirable form for the young tree? the growth of the tree be influenced by pruning to old trees be renewed? CHAPTER V. ORCHARD PROTECTION. lliroughout the whole life of fruit plants there Is danger of injury from a variety of causes. At no time can we say that our fruit plants are safe, and we must be continually on the lookout to head off some injury. Among the more common of these injuries may be mentioned the following: sunscald, win- ter killing of the twigs, roots and fruit buds; injuries from birds and live stock, from wind, rain and frost in the growing season, from ice on the branches in winter, from girdling by mice and rabbits, from label wires, injuries from cultivation and from insects and diseases. Sunscald is the name given to the condition of the bark of trees which probably comes as a result of exposure to the sun under cer- tain peculiar conditions. Its ef- fect is usually to kill the bark on the south and southwest sides of the tree; later on, this bark peels off, leaving the wood exposed which soon decays and permanent injuries result. It is found that anything which shades the trunk will pre vent this, hence one of the com- mon remedies is to shade the trunk ^, ,» . , . , , with burlap, corn stalks or simi- Fig.16.— Apple tree injured by sunscald. lar material, especially during the time when the branches are not protected by leaves. Th? en- couraging of branches on the south side of the tree to protect the trunk from the sun, and the inclining of the trees to the southwest, are also remedies. This injury is most liable to occur during severe droughts and in the early spring or late winter before growth has fairly started. It is supposed to be caused by the warm sun of the 62 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. middle of the day starting active life in the portion of the trunk exposed to its direct rays. Later, when a cold spell comes, the protoplasm is destroyed and the soluble compounds formed by the renewal of active life are decomposed. The trees most liable Fig. 17. — Apple trees in trial orchard protected from sunscald by corn stalks. to this injury are those that are newly set and weak, those with smooth bark such as Hard Maple and Basswood, those trees with the trunks inclining to the northeast and thos« on dry land. ORCHARD PROTECTION. 63 The philosophy of this disease should come in for more than passing notice. It is well known that one branch or portion of a dormant plant may start into growth independent of the con- dition of the rest of the plant. Thus a branch from a grape vine Fig.18. — Apple tree with trunk protected by boxing. Such treatment protects from sunscald, from severe freezing, and from cultiva- tion injuries. or other plant, brought through an opening into the greenhouse in winter, will soon start into growth while the rest of the vine Is frozen out doors. So the portion of the trunk of an appU- 64 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. tree that is exposed to the direct rays of the midday sun may start into growth independently of the rest of the tree. Injuries from birds. — Birds are often very injurious by eating cherries, raspber- ries and some other fruits. At times they become so exceedingly injurious that it may be necessary to use the shot gun, but as a rule the birds that commit these depre- dations ar-e very helpful in destroying large numbers of injurious insects and the toll they take in fruit is not more than they are justly entitled to. The Yellow-belly Sap- sucker is a bird that often girdles the larg- er branches of our choicest trees. He should be destroyed. Partridges and perhaps quail will sometimes eat the buds of our fruit trees in winter. They may b-e kept oft by giving them a shock of grain to work on instead. Injuries to trees by cattle. — In remote sections deer will browse the twigs off fruit trees and break them down. Farm stock Is also occasionally injurious in the same way. Fig.l9. — Bark of ap- Reasonable precautions will prevent this. pie tree injured by .... • j ttt- ^ ** the sap-sucker Injuries from wind. — Wmd often causes beny^lap-suSr °^"^^ ^"J"^^' to trees heavily loaded with fruit by shaking off the fruit or even break- ing the trees. The remedy is the use of windbreaks, the support- ing of branches by stakes or by tying one branch to another on the opposite side of the tree. Attention to these precau- tions will often prevent serious injury. Young trees in exposed places are often injured by being blown about. This is th« case for the first year with trees that are newly set and especially those that are set out in autumn and not properly staked or laid down. Such trees are liable to be blown about very much in windy spring weather when the ground is soft, and the tree is then easily loosened and killed. Autumn-set trees should al- ways be staked if they are large enough to take the wind; a ORCHARD PROTECTION. 65 pile of soil about a foot high around them will often be very helpful in holding them in place. In staking, the method of tying the tree so that it will not be scraped by the stake is very important. It would be better not to use stakes at all than not to tie the tree to them properly. It is generally Lest to tie trees to two stakes, using one on each opposite side. Mice and rabbits. — Mice and rabbits eat the bark off the trees and where this injury is not more than three or four inch- es wide and only extends around a portion of the tree, it will often heal over in one or two seasons. But it will be greatly hastened in healing by covering the wound with grafting wax or, better yet, piling up the soil over it if near the ground. When the injury extends completely around the tree and is wide, the tree may be saved by setting some cions in the live bark, above and below the wound, which will carry over the sap until the wound is covered. In such a case, however, the wound should be entirely covered with grafting wax or clay after the cions are put in. Cultivation injuries. — Cultivation is frequently done in such a rough way that it results in serious injuries. These can be largely prevented by the use of narrower singletrees and by protecting the ends with leather, or, better yet, using leather traces that go completely around the end of the singletree, so that when a tree is struck it is not injured. The best way of treating wounds of this kind is by covering them with grafting wax or grafting clay and then covering the whole with burlap. Root galls result from the presence of low forms of life known as Nematodes and possibly also from a bacterial disease. Their life history is not well known. They are often exceedingly injurious but some of them do little harm. Prevention is bet- ter than cure and it is a good plan to refuse to receive nursery stock having such blemishes. They are sometimes prevented by using stocks that are resistant to such injuries. Winter killing may be confined to the twigs and roots or flower buds of fruit trees. Any of these injuries may occur in deep valleys, when comparative immunity is secured on the higher land. Winter injury to twigs and trunks, — This is due to the use of 66 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Fig.20. — Twigs of young cherry trees that have been pulled out by settling of snow crust which had piled in over them. varieties too tender for the locality and the |f / "S. \ most successful remedy I / \ \\ is to secure hardier I / I \ ^ sorts if possible. But this is not always possi- ble and the varieties grown may be most profitable if the trunk is protected in winter. Thus, in northern Min- nesota the best authori- ties recommend that the trunks of young ap- ple trees be surrounded with a box six inches square up to the branch- es and that the same be filled with soil to furnish protection against winter injury. It is well known that even though the smaller branches may be seriously injur- ed in the winter, they stand a good chance of recovering, pro- viding the trunk is vigorous and uninjured. Such protection also prevents scald, injuries from mice and other animals. In Florida some of the orange growers protect their tree trunks by piling up the soil about them as far as the branches. Winter injury to the buds of fruit trees. — This is a common source of loss to growers of cherries and p-eaches at the North. The fruit buds of these trees are liable to start a little in warm winter days and then to be killed by a low temperature, al- though the leaf buds may not be injured at all. Various reme- dies have been tried for this, among the most successful of which is the bending of the trees to the ground in autumn and covering with corn stalks. The tops are sometimes tied to- gether and covered with corn stalks or matting in wint-er. Ex- periments have also been made in covering the trees with va- rious paint compounds for the purpose of giving an -extra cover- ing to the buds, but without good results. One of the most ORCHARD PROTECTION. C? Ingenious ways of furnishing protection to peach buds has been tried by Prof. Whitten of the Missouri Experiment Station who work-ed on the well known principle that dark colors absorb Ffg.21. — Protection of young trees . a. — Trunk protected by wooden box. b. — Trunk protected by lath screen, c. — Trunk protected against mice by mound of earth. more heat than the lighter ones. He found that light colored peach twigs were slower about starting into growth and con- ceived the idea of spraying peach trees with lime wash to pre- vent their starting on mild days in winter. He claims to have been very successful in this practice. The roots of fruit trees may be seriously injured in winter.— This may result from the use of a root stock too tender for the section in which the tree is grown. For instance, in Iowa, North Dakota, South Dakota and Minnesota the best root to use for the plum is the Primus americana, but when they are scarce the nurserymen there often use the Mariana, Myrobalan or even 6S POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. the peach for stocks. The plum takes well on these and they are commonly used in milder sections, but with such roots, trees are often injured or killed out entirely in severe winters in those sections. The same is true of some other trees. It is important to have them on hardy roots in order to prevent root killing. Fig. 22. — Tree gnawed by mice and the wounds bridged over with cions. Heavy mulching about the roots of trees that are on tender roots will often make them safe against winter injury. Eteep planting of trees on tender roots bring the roots deep in the ground where they are not injured and the cion above will generally send out hardy roots. As stated above, it is not un- common to have the tender stocks on which trees are worked killed out, and if the cion has rooted the effect is seen in a weakened growth until a new root system has formed. If there are no roots from the cion the tree dies. Protection from frost. — Freezing affects different plants In various ways. "We can therefore divide plants into two classes: (a) Frost tender plants, such as the asparagus, ash, oak, spruce and various other plants whose young foliage is easily Injured by severe frosts. (b) Frost hardy plants, such as the apple, peach, wiiiow, poplar and birch whose foliage is not destroyed by even u se- vere frost. The flowers of many plants will stand a severe freeze with- out injury providing they are not open when it occurs. This is ORCHARD PROTECTION. 69 the case with th^ apple, pear, strawberry and most cultivated northern fruits. We also have fruit plants like that of the Buffalo Berry and Juneberry whose flowers are seldom injured by severe frosts, even if fully -expanded at the time it occurs. The pistils are the parts of flowers most easily Injured. — Thus, in the strawberry, after a severe frost in flowering time, we will often find the pistils ruined but the stamens apparently uninjured. When injurious frosts are most likely to occur. — Injurious frosts are most likely to occur in places where the air is still, especially in low spots where the air is not only still but where the cold air from the surrounding elevations drains in. If the air moves rapidly, the warm air is mixed with the cold air and does not separate. Such frosty places are evident at the time of the first s-evere autumn frosts, especially if this comes early. It will then be seen that the frosty air fills certain hollows, as water might fill it. In such places, often called warm sheltered nooks, winter killing is frequently serious. A windbreak miay also make a frost pocket on the side hill by interfering with the free circulation of the air. The locations where injurious frosts are least likely to oc- cur and hence afford the best location for fruit growing are high elevations tipping to the north or east where growth is rather backward in spring. Other locations that are comparatively exempt from injurious frosts are such as are near lakes or streams which tend to produce an equable climate. Foretelling of frosts. — Frosts may be foretold some hours in advance by means of the wet and dry-bulb thermometers, the readings of which are compared. The difference between the readings is due to the evaporation from the wet bulb ther- mometer which produces a degree of cold in a direct ratio ac- cording to the dryness of the air. If the air is very dry, the wet bulb thermometer may record ten or fifteen degrees lower than the dry bulb. If the air is saturated with moisture they will read exactly alike. The basis for the calculation is the fact that we seldom have injurious early autumn or late spring frosts after the dew begins to fall. By referring the difference ■iO POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. between the readings of the two thermometers to a table, the dew point may be determined and if it is several degrees above the freezing point, no injurious frost need be expected. The psychrometer is an instrument made up of a wet and dry-bulb thermometer attached to a board or frame for determining the humidity of the air. One adapted for this purpose may be purchased at a reasonable price from instrument dealers or it may be made as follows: For the frame, take a board eighteen inches long, two inches wade and one-half inch thick with a hole bored in one end to hang the apparatus up with wh-en not in use. Get two all-glass thermometers with cylinder bulbs and the degrees Fahrenheit engraved on the stem. Cover th-e bulb of one thermometer with a thin piece of cotton cloth, fastening it securely by a thread. When the cloth covering is wet with water and exposed to evaporation in the air it constitutes the wet bulb thermometer; the other thermom-eter has no coverihg on its bulb, is not wet at any time and constitutes the dry bulb thermometer. ^. „„ „ The following extract from Bulletin No. 23 Fig. 23. — Pscyro- meter for fore- of the Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of telling frosts. Agriculture, entitled "Frost," explains the meth- od of using a psychrometer to foretell frost. To make an observation. — The bulb of the so-called wet bulb thermometer is thoroughly saturated with water by soaking it in a small cup or wide mouthed bottle until the covering is thoroughly wet. The thermometers are then whirled rapidly for fifteen or twenty seconds, stopped and quickly read. A mental note of the reading is made when they are again whirled and read. Subtract the reading of the wet thermom-eter from that of the dry. Find this difference in the column at the side of the following d-ew point table. Follow the horizontal line under this figure until it intersects the column under the reading of the dry bulb thermometer at the top of the column to the right. The number at the intersection is the dew point ORCHARD PROTECTION. 71 reading. If this comes above thirty-two degrees there is no danger of a frost, but if below there is danger, although frost may not occur owing to wind, clouds or other phenomena. DEW-POINT TABLE. Difference of reading of dry Temperature of Air In Degrees (Fahrenheit). and wet bulbs. 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 1 ....'. 11 16 22 27 32 38 43 48 53 58 63 69 2 6 12 18 24 30 35 41 46 52 57 62 67 3 7 14 21 27 33 39 44 50 55 60 66 4 1 10 17 24 30 36 42 48 53 59 64 5 4 13 20 27 33 40 46 51 57 62 6 7 16 24 30 37 43 49 55 61 7 1 11 20 27 34 41 47 53 59 8 5 16 24 31 39 45 51 57 9 11 20 28 36 43 49 55 10 4 16 25 33 40 47 53 11 11 21 30 38 45 51 12 4 17 27 35 42 49 13 11 23 32 40 47 14 6 18 28 37 45 15 12 24 34 42 First Example. Dry bulb thermometer 60 degrees Wet bulb thermometer 47 degrees Difference 13 degrees Dew point from table 32 degrees Probably no frost. Second Example. Dry bulb thermometer 47 degrees Wet bulb thermometer 39 degrees Difference S degrees Dew point from table, between 24' and 31 "^ or 27 degrees Probably a severe frost. Protection from injurious spring and autumn frosts may be given in various ways according to circumstances: (a) By covering up the whole plant and thus retarding its period of bloom until danger of frost is past, as may be done with strawberries and other small fruit. For this purpose th<^y may be covered with earth or mulch. Peach trees are some- times covered with corn stalks or hay to retard flowering. They 7-2 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. may also be laid on the ground and successfully carried through the winter when covered with corn stalks, (b) By smudges which make a cloud of smoke over th-t land and thus prevent evaporation. This is effective when there is sufficient wind to spread the smoke. The material used for this purpose is wet straw, tar, resin, etc., or a combination of such material. It may be carried about the orchard on a stone boat or the smudges may b-e located in various places, (c) By heating the air directly by means of fires, as Is done in parts of Florida where wood is piled ready to be set on fire whenever frost threatens. (d) By cultivating the land; moist soil is exposed, which furnishes considerable protection by the evaporation of the mois- ture from the freshly exposed soil, (e) By spraying the plants; the air is brought neaf to dew point and also warmed. In order to make this effective the spraying must be repeated during the night when frost is ex- pected. (f) By irrigating the land: the air is brought near to dew point and it is also warmed. This is frequently resorted to in the case of cranberries, (g) By covering with tents, as practiced in Florida and other places and even by using stoves in tents, (h) Covering the flowers with straw mulch at night Is practicable in the case of strawberries. Where the mulch is kept between the rows to protect the fruit from dirt, it may be thrown over th-e plants when frost threatens the flowers. If the weather continues cold, it may remain on the plants for a few days without injury, otherwise it should be promptly re- moved. Protection against frost. — In the Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1907, G. H. Powell has the following to say in regard to frost protection in California, which is of very general application: "There are few districts in the citrus belt of California that may not be visited by frost in December, January, or February. The prevention of injury by frost may be influenced to a large extent by the location of groves on lands over which there is a sufl5cient air drainage. The new groves established during ORCHARD PROTECTION. 73 the past fev years have been located on the higher lands with tliis factor piominently in view. To protect them against the e treme cold, many of the groves on the lower lands are equip- ped with wicker coal baskets, briquets of shavings, crud-e oil, and asphaltum, or sheet-iron stoves in which the same material is burned. Oil smudges (in tin receptacles) or other materials, which are located at definite intervals in the spaces between the trees, are sometimes burned. It is a common practice, also, to run the water in the irrigation furrows between the trees on cold nights, in order to make use of the latent heat in the water Figr. 24.' — Form of smudger for use In protecting' orchards from frosts. It is used with a protected stone boat. as a means of frost protection. The materials employed in this protection against frost injury are used to cause a circulation of air over the grove in order to mix together the strata of differ- ent temperatures or for the production of a cloud of smoke over the grove in the morning in order to exclud-e the direct sunlight and thereby prevent the rapid thawing of the fruit when it has been frozen during the preceding night. It is the rapid thawing, rather than the freezing, of the tissues, that causes most of the injury to citrus fruits that have been subjected to ordinary frost temperatures. 74 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. "A general Idea of the operation of frost fighting may be gained from a brief description of the work observ-ed in a grove on a cold night. There were twenty-five perforated sheet-iion stov-es scattered over each acre of grove, one stove being placed in the center of the square between four trees. These stoves were filled with a prepared mixture of shavings, asphaltum, and crude oil. When it was determined to light the fires a force of men appeared, each one carrying a can of oil and a torch. A small quantity of oil was poured over the smudging material and was then quickly lighted with the torch. As soon as all the fires were burning, the men returned home, except one man to about 5 acres, who kept the fires replenished and in good, burning condition. "Just how much benefit is derived from these various devices it is difficult to estimate, as the experience of the growers is conflicting and the experiments that have been conducted have not always been comprehensive. There seems to be no doubt, however, that the judicious use of the various devices used in frost protection has been of great commercial value. One who has had an experience of many years and who has large finan- cial interests involved writes: " 'We have been able to protect against the severest cold we have had since we secured the coal baskets. Several times the temperature has been around 24* or 25° until we got our coal baskets under way, but we were usually able to make a change of from 3° to 5° when our baskets were lighted and were giving off a good heat' "Aside from the injury to the fruit and the young wood by frost, continued cold weather causes the wood of the lemon trees to mature and the fruit to develop a coarse, rough texture and to ripen prematurely." QUESTIONS— CHAPTER V. 1. What is sunscald and how can it be prevented? 2. Wliat injuries to trees are caused by birds? By cattle? Ey wind? By mice and rabbits? By cultivation? 3. Wl-.at are root galls? 1. What effect does winter injury have upon orchard trees? 5. How may twigs, trunks, roots and buds be protected from winter injurj'? 6. Into what classes may plants be divided, considering their susceptibility to frosts? 7. When are injurious frosts most likely to occur? 8. By what means can frosts be foretold? Explain each. 9. In what ways may trees be protected from frosts Y CHAPTER VI. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. The work of the fruit grower is not only one of tillage, prun- ing and fertilizing the crop, but he must be ever on the watch to ward off or kill the insects and diseases that injure or destroy his crop. None of these treatments can be neglected with im- punity, yet if the crop has good cultivation and manuring it will overcome insect injuries and adverse conditions much bet- ter than if neglected. However, spraying will not take the place of manuring, nor manuring of spraying. The great growth and wide specializing in fruit growing has led to the increase of troublesome pests. In some sections where the natural food of the native insects has been destroyed by cleaning the land, they have attacked the introduced plants. Then, too, new and exceedingly injurious insects and diseases have been introduced from other countries and have spread rapidly within recent years and these often need extremely dras- tic measures for their prevention. Good illustrations of the latter are peach yellows and root galls among diseases, and San Jose scale, Gypsy and Brown Tail moths among insects. By the introductiou of insects and diseases some of the old standard varieties have been driven out of cultivation, even in sections where they formerly grew, or else can now only be grown when they are given much more care than was former- ly necessary. The presence of these pests and the discovery of methods of checking their injuries has worked for the interests of the careful, painstaking grower who now has a decided ad- vantage over the slovenly cultivator. In other words, it takes more brains and application to raise fruit now than formerly. Comparative exemption from pests is often the case in new fruit areas but this exemption seldom lasts more than a few years, as is shown by the history of the new fruit areas in the Pacific Coast states where exceptional immunity from insect pests was enjoyed for many years, which might have been continued indefinitely had there been a suitable inspection law 7fi POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. properly enforced. The codlin moth and the plum curculio and other insect pests have come in and are now extremely trouble- some and much care is required to hold them in check. State Inspection. — Much has been said in favor of and against State Inspection laws for the prevention and suppression of insects and diseases. They have accomplished much good in some sections although they have been unquestionably used at times to restrict trade between the states. One of the great- est things that they have accomplished has been to cause peo- ple to think about insect pests and diseases and to impress upon them the importance of subduing them. Laws for the suppression of noxious insects and diseases vary much in the different states but there is a tendency today for all the states to bring their laws to the same standard. These laws generally provide for the appointment of a state entomologist who is required to inspect all nurseries in his state and to furnish a suitable certificate if he finds them worthy. There is also a rule providing that no nursery stock shall be shipped from one state to another without a copy of this, or a similar certificate, being attached to the parcel containing it and that badly infested nurseries and orchards must be prop- erly treated. Suitable penalties are provided for those avoid- ing the provisions of the law. In a few of the states and Canada the law requires that all nursery stock must be fumigated at the destination before its delivery to consignee. It would be hard to say now just what is a fair law for all concerned, and it ought perhaps to vary in different sections of the country ac- cording to crops and climate. A national law is needed to regulate interstate commerce in nursery stock, fruit and other products that might carry noxious insects and diseases from one state to another. The intelligent fruit grower should be familiar with the life habits of the insects in which he is most Interested and should not work blindly by "Rule of Thumb." Insects. — Noxious insects are held in check in various ways and from this standpoint we conveniently class them in groups: Chewing Insects. — Examples of these are grasshoppers, cat- erpillars, beetles and their grubs, etc. These are quite easily reached by arsenical and other poisons which may be placed h\SECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 77 on their food. The great problem in dealing with this class is to find something which will hold the poison on th-e leaves for a reasonable length of time and will at the same time prevent the arsenical poisons from burning the leaves. This is particu- larly true of plants belonging to the plum family, including plums, peaches and apricots, which are easily injured by ar- senious acid even when present in such small quantities that it would not be injurious to the foliage of apple, pear, currant or gooseberry. This burning is especially bad when its application is followed by several days of bright, dry weather. Another Important problem which we have not solved Is how to apply these poisons so that they will not wash off from the leaves. Among the insecticides commonly used for this class of insects are Paris Green, arsenate of lead and hellebore. Some of the chewing insects may be destroyed by the acrid or oily applica- tions which are commonly used for the destruction of sucking insects, such as tobacco water and kerosene emulsion. Insects that work in the wood of the tree belong to the class of chewing insects. These vary in their habits and nearly as various are the remedies used against them; each must be con- sidered in the light of its life history. When borers are in their holes and can be reached easily by gas fumes, perhaps as satisfactory a remedy as any is to squirt a small amount of carbon bisulfide into their holes with a common oil dropper and stop up the holes with a little putty. In the cas-e of borers that tunnel just under the bark, the location of which can be seen by the discoloration of the surface bark (as with the borer of the peach), the best remedy is probably to look over the trees in the early spring and again in the late summer and dig them out with a sharp knife. Sucking Insects. — Examples of this class of insects are plant lice, scale insects and chinch bugs. These do not chew, but their food is the juice of plants. They obtain it by sucking. As they do not bite they cannot be destroyed by internal poisons, such as arsenic and hellebore, but they must be r-eached by something that will affect their respiratory organs. All such in- sects breathe through small pores in their sides and may be de- stroyed by a covering of a film of oil or soap (whale-oil soap 78 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. and kerosene emulsion). The bodies of leaf lice, which form a considerable portion of this class of insects, are covered with a thin skin and are injured or killed by astringent solutions, such as tobacco water, and also by hot water. Fumigating with hydrocyanic acid gas in case of scale or other sucking insects is a good remedy. Fumigating with tobacco smoke will kill most kinds of leaf lice. In fact, it would seem that fumigation, be- ing so sure a remedy, is destined to be more largely used in the future. The use of strong compounds, when trees are dormant, for the destruction of scale insects, must continue to gain in popularity. Among the best of the compounds used for this purpose are the lime and sulfur mixture and the 'soluble oil preparations. Insects that attach themselves to roots generally are of the sucking class and are extremely difficult to destroy. Among the worst of these pests is the woolly aphis or root louse of the apple, and the phylloxera or root louse of the grape, the latter having been extremely injurious to the roots of the European Wine Grap-e in France. In the case of the woolly aphis the trouble is largely avoided by planting trees that are known to be exempt from it. If the trees are once well started there Is little danger of injury, since the pest is seldom harmful to large trees. Fumigation of stock insures the removal of the root louse. In the case of the phylloxera on the European Wine Grape the only satisfactory remedy has been to graft on the roots of some resistant stock such as the American Frost Grape (Vitis riparia). So common has this practice become in Europe that the result is the European wine industry stands on Ameri can roots. Beneficial insects. — In a state of nature, each species of the animal kingdom is held in check so there is a nicely balanced relation between them, but occasionally even in nature some one species becomes too numerous and breaks the bounds that are ordinarily strong enough to hold it. Among the natural agencies that destroy insects may be mentioned heavy rains, sudden changes to a freezing temperature, winds, predaceous and parasitic insects, and fungous and bacterial diseases. Parasites. — A most important factor in checking the spread INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 79 of Insects is the numerous parasites to which they are sub- ject. These may be either animal or vegetable. Any one who has had much experience in gardening may have seen many instances of the increase of animal parasites until certain kinds of insects were no longer injurious. This is common in the case of the cabbage worm, the tent caterpillar, grasshoppers and many others. Animal Parasites. — The most common of animal parasites that destroy insects are small wasps and some two-winged flies which deposit their eggs in or on the eggs and larvae of the in- jurious insects on which the growing wasps feed. These destroy enormous numbers of insects and should be regarded as among the greatest aids to the fruit grower. Among vegetable parasites that destroy insects may be mentioned the diseases which destroy the chinch bugs, and which the states of Kansas, Nebraska and Minnesota attempted to introduce on a large scale for the subjugation of this pest. Another instance is the disease which often destroys cabbage worms and even house flies. A good illustration of this oc- curred recently in the experience of a Minnesota gardener. He found the Cabbage Plusia getting very numerous in his twenty acres of cabbages and got a spraying outfit to kill them with, but had hardly started when he found the worms dying naturally, as the result of a fungous disease. He put up the machine and the disease successfully did the work for him. Predaceous insects search out and destroy their prey. In this class of insects may be included the Preying Mantis, Tiger beetles, ladybugs and some wasps and dragon flies. The Cottony Cushion Scale was flrst noticed in California in 1872 and was greatly feared on account of its spreading so rapidly and protecting itself from insecticides by excreting a waxy substance which completely covered the insect. The pest was finally destroyed by a lady bird (lady bug) imported from Australia. Insects Injurious to the Apple. Affecting the Fruit: Codlin Moth (Carpocapsa pomonella). — The Codlin Moth is the common cause of wormy apples and makes the infested 80 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Fig. 2''i — Injury caused by the lar- va of the Codlin Moth. places to spin their cocoons nearby, which is often be- tween the hoops and staves of the barrels holding the fruit. Remedies. — The fallen fruit should be promptly gathered and destroyed. Keeping hogs in the orchard is very bene- ficial as they destroy the worm-infested fruit; but it should be remembered that when too much stock is pas- tured in the orchard and the grass becomes scarce, they are liable to bark the trees. If bands of burlap, or even paper, six Inches wide, are fastened around the trunks fruit ripen prematurely and fall to the ground. The moths deposit their eggs in the calyx (or eye) of the apple just as the blossoms fall. On hatch- ing, the worm eats into the fruit where it lives until it is ready to change to the moth stage. It then leaves the fruit and spins a cocoon in which it undergoes its changes. There are two or more broods in a season. The worms that are in the late apples leave them in the winter and find Fig. 20 —Flowers of the apple; the proper stage for spraying to control Codlin Moth. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 81 uot later than the first of June, many of the worms and chrysa- lides of this moth will be found under them and may be easily destroyed. The bands should be examined about once in ten days until the last of August. The most common way of protecting against this insect is by spraying the trees just after the blossoms fall, when the ap- ples still stand upright, with Paris Green and water at the rate of one pound to one hundred and sixty gallons. When the trees are sprayed to prevent scab, the Paris Green may be added to the Bordeaux mixture at the rate of one pound to one hundred and fifty gallons of the mixture. Plum and Apple Curculio. — These are snout beetles which cut small holes in the fruit as they feed, and also use the fruit as a place for laying their eggs. The latter soon hatch into a small grub which, at maturity, is about one-half inch long. The spe- cial injury to the fruit from this insect comes from the hard knots that form where it has been stung, which makes the apple gnarled and of poor quality. Remedies. — These insects breed mostly in the wild plums, haws and wild crab apples, and destroying these generally results in lessen- ing the damage to the apples in their vicinity. The windfalls should be destroyed, and pasturing hogs in the or- chard is probably the easiest way to accomplish this. Clean culture has proven most satisfactory in ridding orchards of the curculio as they winter over in grass and rubbish. Spraying the fruit with Paris Green, lime and water, as recommended for the tent caterpillar, has sometimes proven satisfactory. Affecting the foliage: Tent Caterpillar (Malacosoma ameiicana). — The character- istics of this insect are readily seen in Fig. 28, which shows the Fig-. 27. — Showinf which apples are Plum Curculio. tlie way in injured by the $2 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. caterpillars resting on the outside of the tent-like structure In which they live, and also a twig on which a bunch of eggs is fastened. The habit of this insect is about as follows: The eggs are laid on the smaller twigs of fruit trees in ring-like clusters during the first two weeks in July, Two or three hun- dred eggs are laid in each cluster and they are firmly cemented together. Thes-e hatch out early in the spring just as the leaves open. The young caterpillars soon commence to make a tent by extending sheets of silk web across the nearest forks of the twigs and this tent or nest is enlarged as more room is needed. It has holes in it through which the caterpillars enter and they re. treat to the nest at night, in stormy weather and usual- ly when not feed- ing. They gener- ally come out of their nest once in the morning and once in the after- noon to feed. They are very voracious and soon strip the infested tree of its foliage. They change to moths in June and soon com- luence laying eggs. The eggs of the Western Tent cat- erpillar are not laid around the twig but in bunches Fig. 2S.— Tent Caterpillar. a.— -Weti house of tent caterpillar much reduced. Caterpillar nearly full size. b. — Eggs nearly natural size. c. — INIoth natural size. on the sides of the twigs. Remedies. — The tents are readily seen. They should be gathered and destroyed early in the season when the worms are within them. The egg masses are also easily seen against a cloudy sky when the trees are leafless, and can be gathered and destroyed in winter or at any time before they hatch. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. S3 Fall Web Worm (Hyphantria cuneaj. — This is often mis- taken for the Tent Caterpillar from which it is quite distinct. It appears later in the season, g-enerally in July or later. Its webs are larger and loose or open and the caterpillars stay in them and feed. The web is extended to include other foliage as that enclosed is eaten. The remedies should be the same as in the cas-e of the Tent Caterpillar. Leaf Lice or Aphis (Aphis viali). — The leaves of the apple are frequently attacked by plant lice which, by sucking the sap, cause the leaves to curl up and assume a very unnatural appearance. They work almost entirely on the lower side of the leaf and are most abundant on the new and tender growth which generally becomes distorted as a result of such attacks. A Similar lice attack the foliage of the plum, ^^B|||H currant and other plants. The eggs are laid H^HH^ on the branches of apple, plum and other ^^^^^^p tr-ees in autumn. They are yellowish in ^^^^^^K color when first laid, but become a glossy ^^^^B||^^^ black by winter. These hatch in the spring ^^^^^H^^^ and locate themselves on the small, young ■^^^^I^W growth and feed by sucking sap. All hatch- ^^^^^^Hb ed at this time are femal-es and reach ma- ^^^^^^v turity in ten or twelve days, when they com- ^^H|^^^ mence to give birth to living young, pro- ^^H^^P ducing about two daily for two or three ^H^^^ weeks, when they die. The young ones H^H^ soon commence to produce live young and ^^^V their increase is very rapid, in fact so fast ^^^^H that the new growth is kept covered with VPlV them. As the season advances, some of Fig. 2rt.— Eggs ^^^ ^^^^ acquire wings and found new cole- of Plant Lice nies on other trees. On the approach of on twig of , , ., , , ., young apple cold weather males appear and the season t*"^®- closes with a stock of eggs for the con- tinuation of the species. Remedies. — The lice should be destroyed in the spring be- fore they become numerous. The eggs hatch about the time the buds are bursting, and as soon as the lice appear, they should 84 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. be sprayed wth strong soapsuds, kerosene emulsion or tobacco water. If the lice are allowed to get very numerous before spraying is commenced, the work will have to be repeated sev- eral times. Where trees are heavily infested, smoking may be the most desirable treatment. (See reference to this under the head of Insects Injurious to the Plum.) Climbing Cut Worms (Agrotis sp.;— When the foliage or buds are being destroyed without any apparent cause, climbing cut worms should be searched for. If present they will be found in the day-time buried in the ground near the base of the trees and occasionally do much damage. They are closely allied to and resemble the common cut worms so well known to gardeners. Remedies. — They may be destroyed by spraying the foliage as recommended for the Tent Caterpillar and by jarring the trees after dark and then gathering the worms. Insects Attacking Trunks and Branches. Flat Headed Apple Tree Borer (Chrysobothris femorata). — This borer is quite abundant in some sections but generally does not cause serious losses here. It prefers to work in trees that are newly trans- planted, or weakened by some disease, making its borings in the trunks and larg- er branches and often completely girdling them. It is the larva of a beetle that is oblong, flattish in form and of a shining greenish-black color about three-«ighths of an inch long. The beetles emerge from the borings in the trees in the early summer. They are very active in the middle of warm days and may be found in the hot sunshine running up and down the trunk of the tree, whence they fly quickly if an attempt is made to catch them. They lay their eggs, which are yellow, under loose scales on the bark or in cracks and crevices. The young soon hatch and eat their way through the bark, feeding on the sap wood. As the borer approaches maturity, it usually bores into the more solid wood Fig. 30 —Flat head- ed Apple Tree Borer, a.— Borer full grown, b. — Pupa, c— Reverse side of head. d. — Mature borer. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. and finally out to the bark where it changes into the beetle form. This insect also attacks the pear, plum, peach and cherry. Remedies. — All trees should be examined early in autumn; If there are borers present, they may be detected by the dry ap- pearance of the bark or by the exudation of sap or sawdust-like castings. When such signs are seen the parts should be at once cut into with a knife and the borer destroyed. As a pre- ventive measure there is perhaps nothing better than to coat the trunk and larger branches with a mixture of soft soap reduc- ed with a solution of washing soda to the consistency of a thick paint, and if a little car- bolic acid is added, it will be even more repulsive to the beetles. This should be kept on the trees during the summer months when the insect is in- jurious. Twig Borer (Amphicerus bi- caudatus). — A dark colored, cyl- indrical, small beetle that bores into the twigs of the apple, grape and some other fruits. It is seldom extremely injurious. Remedies. — The remedy is to cut out in early summer the in- fested twigs which contain the borers and to burn them. Buffalo Tree Hopper (Ceresa inMlusJ.' — An active, jumping, ridiculous looking creature about one-third of an inch long, re- sembling a beech nut more than any insect. Its eggs are laid in slits cut into the bark of apple trees by the female. Their presence seems to seriously injure the adjoining wood and bark and causes numerous irregular wounds which often seriously check growth and are sometimes taken for hail Injuries. It feeds on the foliage when young, but does little Injury in this stage. Fig. 31. — Buffalo Tree Hop- per; showing scars on old wood as the result of its injuries; also mature in- sect. 86 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Remedies. — The best treatment is to prune away and burn the infested wood in winter, but this is seldom entirely practicable and we have largely to depend on natural remedies and on high cultivation to enable the plant to resist the pest. San Jose Scale (Aspidiottis pemiciosusj. — This is perhaps the most insiduous and destructive of all our insect pests. In appearance, it is nearly circular, about one-six- teenth of an inch in diameter, dark brown in col- or, with a darker spot in the center. It lives on the bark of nearly all of our garden and lawn plants. It is a sucking insect and moves only when very young and then only for a short time, after which it becomes fixed in place. Several generations are produced each year. At the North many of the scales die in winter but those left breed so fast that they soon cover their host. It is probably spread to young trees by the feet of birds, etc. When this pest is discovered for the first time some good expert in such matters should be con- sulted. Remedies. — The best remedies now known are the lime and sulfur wash and some of the soluble oils specially prepared for this purpose, the formula for which will be found in the Appendix. Scurfy Bark Louse (Chionaspis fiirfurusj affects Fig. 32 - the apple and pear. The life history of this insect Ovster Shell is similar to that of other scale insects. The fe- in. place on males are larger than the males, and oval; the *'^*^' males are very small and slender. A branch in- fested with this pest appears to be covered with whitish scurf or dandruff. It is seldom very injurious. Remedies. — The remedies for the San Jose Scale are effective here but covering the branches with whitewash or lightly brush- ing them with kerosene oil is extremely satisfactory. The Oyster-Shell Bark Louse (Lepidosaphes uli) is about the color of the bark on which it grows. It is very injurious where it occurs in great numbers. In appearance each scale Is long and shaped somewhat like an oyster. Its life history INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 87 and remedies are much like those for other scales. It generally yields readily to the whitewash treatment, but where many trees are badly infested they should be treated with some of the solu- ble oils, or lime and sulfur wash should be used. Woolly Apple Louse (Schizoneura lanigeraj; branch form. — When fully grown, this insect is dark colored ano covered with a cottony coating. They may be found covering the new bark about wounds and in the axils of leaves and buds and they may cause serious wounds when neglected. It comes from small eggs laid near the base of the twigs. Remedies. — They are easily destroyed by painting with kero- sene. Where very numerous, it may be best to use whale oil soap mixture, on account of the danger to the tree from using kerosene. Insects Attacking the Roots of the Apple. Woolly Apple Louse (Schizoneura lanigera)', root form. — This insect attacks the roots as well as the branches of the apple. On . riff 33. — "U'ooUy Aphis, a. — Mature Insect, b. — Swelling-s on the root as a result of its injuries. 88 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. the roots it causes warty swellings and may kill the trees. Ic is one of the most dangerous of all insect pests affecting the apple. Remedies. — The best remedies for it when occurring on the roots are as follows: Remove the earth about the crown for a distance of about two feet and put on from four to seven pounds of tobacco dust. Put back the soil and irrigate where practicable to do so. Removing the soil from about the roots and apply- ing hot water has been satisfactorily practiced. Bi sulfide of carbon poured into holes made with a bar about the trees has also been successfully used. In doing this, make the holes about ten inches deep near the infested roots and then pour three ounces of the bi-sulfide into each hole. Three or more holes should be made about each tree. Young trees are often destroyed by the woolly aphis but the old trees are seldom hurt by it. Insects Injurious to the Pear. Any of the foregoing insects referred to as attacking the apple may also attack the pear except the woolly aphis, and the same remedies should be used. In addition to these, the pear is attacked by the fol- lowing in&ects: Pear Tree Slug (Eriocampoa cerasij. — These slimy look- ing insects are hatch- ed from eggs laid in the tissues of the leaves by a glossy, black fly soon after the leaves expand in spring. When first emerging from the egg they are white but soon become cov- ered above with a slimy brown matter Fis. 34.— Pear Tree Slug, a.— Mature in- ^hat oo7Pq mit nf thP sect, b and c— Larva, side and back view. ^"^^ °°^^^ 0""^ °^ ^'^^ d.— Worms feeding on leaves partly skel- skin. The slug, when etonlzed by them. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 89 mature, undergoes its changes in the ground where it also re- mains during the winter. There are several broods each season. The slugs eat off the green surface of the foliage, leaving it skeletonized. It attacks the cherry, plum and rose as well as the pear. Remedies. — The remedies are the same as for any of the leaf-eating insects, Paris Green and Pyrethrum Powder being most commonly used. Dusting the leaves with air-slaked lime is also a good remedy. The Pear Psylla fPsylla pyricola). — This is a minute insect that has occasionally done much injury to pear trees by sucking the sap. It is so small as to be seen with difficulty with the un- aided eye. In severe attacks old trees put forth but little growth, new shoots often wither and drop in May, the leaves turn yellow and the fruit prematurely ripens in midsummer and falls off. Its presence is also indicated by the honey dew which is excreted by the insect in large quantities so as to cover the tree and even the vegetation under it. In this sweet solution a kind of fungus soon starts and smears the tree with a blackish coating. The mature insects pass the winter hidden in crevices un- der the loosened bark on the trunks and limbs of pear trees. During warm days they crawl about. In the first warm days of spring the egg-laying season begins. The eggs are laid in creases in the bark and in the old leaf scars. In two or three weeks they hatch into what is known as "nymphs," which first locate along in the axils and petioles of the leaves. As these nymphs grow, they change their skin and in about one month become full grown with wings, and resemble the harvest fly in miniature. They can jump like a flea and fly away upon the slightest unusual jar. Remedies. — There are several natural enemies that help to hold the pear psylla in check, among which are the lace winged fly and the red ladybug. The most effective treatment seems to be spraying in the spring with kerosene emulsion, applied with considerable force to destroy the young. The mature insect is not easily reached in this way. Insects Injurious to the Peach. Peach Twig Borer fAnarsia lineatella). — When the buds of the peach begin to open in the spring, a small, brownish larva 90 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. with a black head eats into the buds and destroys them. When the new shoots start, the borer eats into thera causing them to wilt and decay. Many of the second brood of this borer eat into peaches, causing a gummy exudation and ruining them for mar- ket. The larvae that appear in the spring spent their winter in little excavations which they made in the fall in the bark of the trees. Remedies. — Early in the spring, just before the buds open, spray the trees with lime and sulfur wash or with whale oil soap, in the proportion of one pound to two gallons of water. Fish oil soap, diluted once with water or kerosene emulsion, will doubtless do the work nearly or quite as well as the lime and sulfur wash. Many of the larvae may be caught under band- ages used as for the Codlin Moth. Peach Borer (Sanninotdea exitiosa). — The yellowish white borer commonly very destructive in peach trees is the larva of a wasp-like appearing moth that lays its eggs on the trunks Fig. 35 — Peach borer; showing trunk of peach tree Injured near surface of ground where gum and frass are mixed together. a. — Male. b. — Female. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. and larger branches of peach trees from the middle to the last of summer in the North. The eggs soon hatch and the larva works into the trees, which exude a quantity of clear, jelly- like gum that is often mixed with borings. The borer lives in the tree about one year. Remedies. — Carefully inspect the trees in autumn and spring, just below as well as above the ground, and remove all borers with a small pointed knife. Wrapping the trunks with stout paper or wire screen during the egg-laying period is recom- mended. Other insects attacking the peach are several kinds of aphis and curculio. For each of these see similar heads included under "Insects injurious to the apple and plum." Insects Injurious to the Plum. Plum Curculio (Conotrachehis nenuphar). — This is the insect which causes the plums to prematurely ripen and drop to the ground. It is not nearly so destructive to our native plums as to those of Eu- ropean origin (Prunus do- mestica). The latter are often so badly infested that none of the fruit comes to full maturity. While our native plums are stung just as much by the cur- culio as the European Fig. ?.6.— Plums injured by Curculio, plum, but few of the eggs Showing scars, also enlarged cur- ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^jj^ ^^^.^^^p into the grub in this fruit, probably on account of its rapid growth. This insect is a small, rough, grayish or blackish beetle, about one- fifth of an inch long, with a black shining lump on the middle of each wing and behind this a more or less distinct band of a dull yellow color with some whitish marks about the body and with a rather short snout. The female lays her eggs in the young, green fruit shortly after it is formed. Then she cuts a circle around the portion of the fruit in which the eggs are laid to prevent it 92 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. from growing. The eggs hatch in a few days and the larva works around the outside of the stone. This causes the fruit to become diseased and it falls prematurely to the ground. Within the plum the growth of the larva is completed. It then goes into the ground where it transforms to a beetle, which soon escapes. Remedies. — Recent investigations seem to show that clean cultivation and burning of any grassy areas near by, in which the beetles can winter over, is most desirable in checking the spread of this pest. When the curculio gets alarmed it draws itself together and falls to the ground. Advantage is taken of this peculiarity to catch and destroy it. A sheet is spread under the tree whose branches are suddenly jarred, when the beetles, which fall on the sheet, may be gathered and destroyed. As it is important to catch as many beetles as possible before any mischief has been done, jarring should begin while the trees ar-e in blossom and should be continued every morning until they ar-e gone. If the insects are abundant this will generally take about three weeks. It will be found that where hens with their broods of chickens are enclosed within the plum orchard, they will devour a large number of the larvae of the curculio. If hogs are kept in the same enclosure as the plum trees, they will pick up the fallen fruit and so destroy a great many of the larvae and assist very much in reducing the injury from this cause. Plum Gouger (Coccotorus scutellaris). — The plum gouger is a snout beetle somewhat resembling the curculio, but readily distinguished from it by a little careful examination. It is about five-sixteenths of an inch long. The head and wing cases are brown with a leaden grey tinge, the latter with whitish and black spots scattered irregularly over their surface. It appears in the spring about the same time as the curculio, but instead of working around the stone it eats through the soft shell and lives within the stone where it undergoes its changes and emerges a perfect beetle. Both sexes of the Plum Gouger bore cylindrical holes In the fruit for food. These cause the fruit to Decome knotty and worthless but it does not prevent their re- maining on the tree until maturity. This insect does not cut INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. a flat or half circle around the hole in which the egg is placed, as is so characteristic of the curculio. Remedies. — The remedies recommended for the curculio are also best for preventing the work of this insect. The Plum Leaf Aphis (Aphis prunifoUi) commonly called "leaf lice," is frequently troublesome and occasionally appears in such large numbers as to seriously check the growth of the trees. The Vde history of this insect is the same as for the apple leaf aphis, which see. Fig. 37.— Hoop tent ready to put over a tree. 94 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Remedies.— Tobacco water, kerosene emulsion and similar materials often hardly appear to have any effect when th-e lice are very abundant, as the leaves curl up and protect the lice, so that they are not easily reached and the waxy covering of the Fig. 38. — Hoop tent in place over tree, lice sheds water. At such times it will be found that tobacco smoke is a most valuable and certain remedy. In applying it, a tent made of unbleached cotton, large enough to cover the INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 95 tree should be used. The best form for this tent is bag shaped, and large enough to easily take in the tree. The tent should be fastened at the bottom to a hoop made of gas pipe. In operating the hoop tent the hoop is lifted up on its edge close to the tree and gradually lifted over it, the slender, long, side branches being pushed up under the tent. When the tree is finally enclosed, tobacco smoke is applied until the tent is filled with smoke so thick that the hand cannot be seen before the face; it is allowed to thus remain for fifteen minutes, which is long enough to kill all the lice. There is no danger of injuring the tree if the tobacco does not flame up. To prevent this, the tobacco used should be dampened. The most convenient form of tobacco to use is leaf stems which come from cigar factories and can be obtained at a very low price. A tent that will answer the purpose very well may be made out of two large pieces of cotton cloth supported on a light wood- en frame. Where the trees are so very large that they require a tent more than 14 feet in diameter, a piece of one-inch rope will be found to work better than a gas pipe hoop to hold the bottom of the tent. Other insects injurious to the plum include the peach borer, leaf slug and fiat headed borer which are described elsewhere. Insects Injurious to the Cherry. The insects injurious to the cherry are about the same as those injurious to the plum and include borers, curculio and aphis. The cherry is also commonly injured by the leaf slug which attacks the pear. These insects may be found under their respective heads. Insects Injurious to the Grape. Grape Vine Leaf Hoppers (Erythroneura vitisj. — These are small, grayish insects that sometimes appear on our grape vines in countless numbers. Wlien abundant, if disturbed on a hot, dry day, they appear in clouds, make a short flight and quickly settle on the vines again. They breed most rapidly in hot, sum- mer weather and do most injury to varieties having no down on the under side of the leaves, such as the Clinton and Beta, but may destroy the foliage of any kind. They are sucking in- sects and cause the leaves to turn yellow and even finally dry up. 96 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Remedies. — By taking advantage of the fact that the insects are dumpish early in the morning and may be easily jarred to the ground, large numbers may be destroyed by shaking the vines after first laying down strips of cloth covered with coal tar or similar material that will catch them. Perhaps the best remedy consists in making two frames four feet square out of common lath and covering them with cloth coated with fresh coal tar. Two men are required to use these, who place the frames opposite one another on each side of the rows, and as near as practicable at the bottom, at the same time gently jarring the vines by striking downwards, with a few light branches, on each side. In this way large numbers of the insects can be caught, and if this method is persistently used this pest may be kept in check. The Grape Phylloxera (Phylloxera vastatrix) or root louse, is an American insect that is frequently found on the roots or leaves of American vines. On the roots its presence results in the formation of swellings or knotty excrescences. It occasion- ally appears on the leaves of some species that have thin foliage such as those of the Riparia class, where it forms many galls on the under side of the leaves which sometimes become so abundant as to seriously check the growth of vines. This leaf form is seldom very troublesome and is not necessary for the propagation of the species. It spreads by winged forms that occur on the roots or leaves and may travel through or over the land for considerable distances. On the American vines its presence does not necessarily cause death or seriously check their growth, but European vines succumb very quickly to its attacks and it has been the principal cause of the inability of growing European grapes successfully in this country. The Im- portation of this insect into Europe and its spread there threat- ened to destroy the vine industry of many sections. Remedies. — The danger from this insect has there been large- ly overcome by grafting the European kinds on native American species which are resistant to this pest; the native Y. riparia {omt River Bank grape) is commonly used. Immense quantities of wood or this species have been sent to Europe for this purpose. The Phylloxera is a native of America east of the Rocky Mountslns INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 97 and is not found on the Pacific coast, but it has been intro- duced into California and foresighted growers there are prac- ticing grafting their vines on resistant roots. Bi-sulfate of car- bon placed in the ground about the roots is a good remedy. Probably the best treatment for the leaf form is to pick and destroy the infested foliage. The Rose Chafer or Rose Bug (Macrodactylus subspinosus) eats roses, the flowers of the grape, and, when very abundant, many other garden plants. It is a beetle with long, hairy legs which is rather slow in its movements. It is especially injurious by reason of its eating the flowers of grapes. Remedies. — "Where they are very abundant, insecticides are too slow in acting to do much good and all remedies fail. Where not unusually abundant, they may be kept in check by picking. Covering the flowers with bags has also been resorted to with excellent results. Bordeaux mixture seems to be distasteful to them and spraying with this material will often largely prevent their ravages as well as check fungus dis- eases. Other insects injuri- ous to the grape are the Snowy Tree Crick- et and occasionally some scale insects and leaf eating insects. Insects Injurious to the Currant and Gooseberry. The Currant Worm (Nematus ventricosus) is the most trouble- some insect that at- tacks the currant and gooseberry. The female lays her eggs In rows on the veins on the under side of the leaves quite early in the season. They are white in color Fig. 39.— Currant Worm. Eggs of •worm on under side of midribs; holes in leaves gnawed by young larva. 98 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. and about one-twentieth of an inch long. These eggs hatch in about ten days. The young worms feed in companies, at first eating small holes in the leaves, but later on they destroy all the green tissue in the leaf and then spread in all directions over the bush, eating the foliage. They will frequently strip a bush of its foliage in a few days time if left to themselves. When full grown they are three-quarters of an inch long. There are two broods of these worms; the first appearing before or about the time the fruit is ripe and the second, two or three weeks later. The mature insect is a fly, somewhat resembling the house fly. Flgr Currant Worm at work. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 99 Remedies. — Powdered hellebore, mixed with its bulk of flour, may be dusted on the plants when the foliage is wet or it may be used at the rate of one ounce of hellebore to a gallon of water and be sprayed on the foliage. Used in either way it is a very cheap, effective and easily applied remedy. But hellebore is quite poisonous and is not safe to use when the fruit is ripe, although no danger will exist if several days should elapse after the application before the fruit is gathered. A light shower after the hellebore is applied will remove all danger from it. Pyrethrum insect powder is a good, safe and effective remedy when applied just at night, but it is very expensive and difficult to obtain of good quality. Paris Green and arsenate of lead make eflicient remedies when proper- ly applied and are most commonly used. Where these insects have made their appearance, the first indication of them should be watched for in following years and great care taken to destroy the first brood each season. It is a good plan to begin spraying early, even if no worms J- I are seen. Growers of this fruit should be very particular not to neglect the bushes -Currant Bor- ^^ter the crop is gathered, for it is very er in its luimei in important for the next year's crop that the center of tl e ,, , , , , , .1. /. •. cane, where pith has they should make a good growth of wood, been eaten out. and neglecting them at this time often al- lows a crop of worms to mature and cause more extensive injury the following year. The fly seems to prefer the foliage of na- tive varieties of gooseberries, such as the Houghton seedling, for its eggs and a few of these bushes may be planted among the currants, when most of the worms can be destroyed on them as soon as the eggs hatch. Imported Currant Borer (Sesia tipuliforwis). — In many sections this insect in its larva state causes great injury to the stems of the currant and gooseberry by so weakening them that 100 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. they break off when loaded with fruit or "by making them sickly. The female lays her eggs in the stems early in the summer. In a few Jays the eggs hatch into little white grubs, which work into the pith of the stem, where they make their burrows and live until the lollowing season. They then finish their trans- formation and appear as wasp-like moths and the females shortly commence r.o lay eggs. This insect infests chiefly the rod and white currant, but it also attacks the black currant and often the gooseberry. Remedies. — The infested stems should be cut out in the au- tumn or very early in the spring and burned at once. If the growers in any vicinity will follow this method in united effort they can keep this insect in subjection. Lice (Aphis rihis) are frequently very ahundant on the foli- age of currants and gooseberries, where they cause the leaves to curl up and become distorted, thus checking their growth but seldom causing serious injury. The life history of this in- sect is about the same as for the apple leaf louse. Remedies. — They may be destroyed by spraying the foliage with tobacco water, soap suds water, or kerosene emulsion. In fighting these insects, it is very important to commence as soon as the first of them are seen as they often increase with great rapidity. On account of the position of the leaves these lice are very difficult to get at with a spray, and on their first appearance the infested foliage should be destroyed. It is some- times most practicable to apply tobacco water by dipping the affected branches into the emulsion or into tobacco water. Insects Injurious to the Raspberry and Blackberry. Raspberry Flat Headed Borer (Agrilus ruficolUs). — The per- fect form, of this insect is a beetle which lays its eggs in the growing canes sometime during the summer. Where the eggs are laid, peculiar gall-like swellings may occur, having many rough slits in them; but this is not always the case, for some- tirq^s canes may be killed by the insect and no swellings at all appear on the canes. The eggs hatch into little yellowish- white larvae, having flattened bodies, brown jaws and tails furn- ished with two dark brown horns. One swelling may contain many larvae. When full grown the larva is from one-half to INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 101 three-fourths of an inch long, and by burrowing in the wood fre- quently girdles the canes. The perfect beetles emerge about the time that the plants are in full blossom. Remedies. — As the insects winter over in the canes, they may be destroyed by cutting and burning all the infested wood some time during the winter. Snowy Tree Cricket (Oecanthus niveusj, — This insect does not feed on the raspberry plant in any way but it is injurious on account of its peculiar habit of puncturing the canes with lines of little holes in which it deposits eggs. If this work does not kill the canes, it so weakens them that when they start in the spring they are very apt to break off as soon as the foliage is expanded. The eggs, which are laid in autumn, are yellow and about one-eighth of an inch long. They are not readily seen when laid, but by the latter part of winter the infested canes take on an unhealthy appearance by which they may be readily located. This insect feeds upon leaf lice and is thus beneficial to some ex- Figr. 42.— Snowy Tree Cricket, a. — *„ * r, ^ -i. Mature Insect, b.— Infested rasp- t^nt, but it causes so much in- berry cane with portion removed jury by laying its eggs in rasp- to show how eggs are placed in ' "' "^ *" *'= "^ cane. c. — Showing Injury to cane berry, grape and Other plants as it ordinarily appears. ^j^i, ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ .^ ^^^^^^ be destroyed as nearly as possible. Remedy.— The only remedy is to cut out and burn the in- fected wood before the eggs hatch. Insects Injurious to the Strawberry. Leaf Roller {Ancylis comptana). — This insect is injurious In Its larva stage when it is about one-half an inch long and a very active worm. It will be found nicely encased in a straw- 102 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. berry leaf that it has drawn together by silken bands and of which it is devouring the green surface. When abundant, thia insect may do very much damage. It changes to a small rust colored moth with white markings on the wings at maturity. It has at least two broods. It winters over in the pupa state in the ground near the plants. Remedies. — The larvae are not -easily reached with any in- secticide as they are protected by the folded leaf. The first brood is rather difficult to destroy without injuring the fruit. Since the second brood does not appear until July, they may bo destroyed by mowing off and burning the foliage of the plants or by scattering straw and burning it. Where there are but a few infected leaves, they should be crushed In the hand. A few trials will show the best method of crushing the worm in- side. Arsenical sprays are also used but the insect is so well protected that this remedy is seldom satisfactory. White Grub (Laclmosterna sp). — This is the common white grub found in sod land. It is the larvae of the June beetle and is sometimes exceedingly destructive, when plants are set out on land that has recently been in sod, by eating the roots of the new- ly set plants. On land that has been culti- vated for two years it is seldom trouble- some. It lives several years in the ground before emerging as the full grown June bug. It may be avoided by not planting on land that was the preceding year in sod. Strawberry Weevil (Antlionomus signatus). — This appears as a small, blackish beetle with gray pubescence when the strawberry flower buds are well developed and lays an egg in each, afterward puncturing the flower stock below the bud, so as to check development. The larva feeds upon the pollen in the unopened bud, and changes to beetle stage in midsummer. It also attacks a number of other flowers in the same way. Oc- casionally it is very troublesome to the strawberry for a num- ber of years; then its injury stops suddenly for no apparent rea- son. Only staminate or pollen varieties are attacked. Fig. 13.— a.— White Grub. b. — Its ma- ture form, known commonly as June beetle. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 103 Remedies. — The best way of avoiding injury from this in- sect is by planting chiefly the pistillate sorts, as these are not affected. In a small way, the rows of staniinate plants may be protected by mosquito netting or other covering until the buds are ready to open. The application of insecticides for the pre- vention of injury by this insect have not been especially suc- cessful. QUESTIONS—CHAPTER VI. Insects. 1. What care should the fruit grower take In suppressing In- sects and diseases? 2. How have insects and diseases been Introduced Into the fruit growing sections? 3. What effect do they have upon the fruit grower's work? 4. What sections are usually exempt from Jnsects and diseases? E.xample. 5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of State In- spection? 6. "U'Tiat do the State Inspection laws provide for? 7. What would be the benefit of a national law? 8. Into what groups may the destructive insects be classified? 9. What are the habits of each? 10. What are the remedies best adapted to each group? 11. Into what groups may the beneficial insects and parasites be classified? 12. What are the habits of each? 13. What is the history of the cottony cushion scale In Cali- fornia? 14. What Insects are Injurious to the apple? 15. What is the life history of the Codlin Moth? 16. What injuries do they cause? 17. What are the best remedies for this Insect? 18. Hnw does the curoulio Injure the apple? 19. What is the remedy for it? 20. What insects injure the foliage of the apple? 21. What is the life history of the Tent Caterpillar? 22. What are the remedies for the Caterpillar? 23. How do the Tent Caterpillar and fall web worm differ In their habits? 24. What remedy should be used for them? 25. What injury does the climbing cut worm cause on the apple tree? 26. How may it be destroyed? 27. What insects injure the trunks and branches of the trees? 28. What is the life history of the flat headed apple tree borer? 29. What harm does it do? 30. What remedy is used as a preventive for the injuries caused? 31. What injury is causfd by the twig borer? The buffalo tree hopper? 32. What is the remedy for the twig borer? 33. What is the life history of the San Jose scale? 34. What injury does it cause? 35. What is the remedy for the San Jose scale? 36. What Injury is caused by the scurfy bark louse? 104 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 37. What is the remedy for it? 38. What Is the life history of the oyster shell bark louse? 39. What is the injury caused by and the remedy for the same? 40. What is the injury caused by the branch form of the woolly aphis and remedy for it? 41. What injury does the -woolly aphis cause on the roots of ap- ple trees? 42. What is the best remedy for it? 43. What insects are injurious to the pear tree? 44. What injuiT does the slug cause? 45. How are its ravages prevented? 46. How does the pear psylla injure the trees? 47. What is its life history? 48. What remedy should be applied? 49. What insects are injurious xo the peach? 50. What harm does the twig borer cause? 51. What is the best remedy for it? 52. What injury is caused by the peach borer? 53. What is the remedy for it? 54. How does the plum curculio affect the plum? 55. What is the remedy? Take up the otber insects discussed in the same way as the foregoing. CHAPTER VII. DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. The diseases which the fruit grower has to combat are numerous. No portion of the plant is exempt from their rav- ages. Some diseases are perhaps not due to a special growth in the tissues, but result from some physiological weakness of the plant, due probably to unfavorable surroundings. Such trou- bles can be stopped only by doing away with the cause, and practically the only method of preventing them is by improved cultural conditions, as is the case with Peach Yellows. The great majoi-ity of plant diseases are what are known as fungus diseases. These are propagated by small bodies or spores, given off in various ways, which act as seeds in starting new growths. The life habits of these diseases are extremely vari- able and often very complex. Some of them live one generation on one plant and the next generation on some very different plant. For instance, the Apple Rust (Gymnosporangiiim) lives one stage on the foliage of the apple and the next on the Red Cedar, where it develops the cedar apples that produce the scarlet, gelatinous fruiting bodies commonly seen on Cedar trees in early summer. This disease may be largely avoided by de- stroying the Red Cedar in the vicinity of orchards. The remedies commonly used for plant diseases are to cover the susceptible portions of the plant with some antiseptic cover- ing. Such materials are generally termed fungicides. The ac- tive fungicidal \Drinciple in most of those in common use is some salt of copper, so combined as not to injure the foliage. The most generally useful fungicide is Bordeaux mixture, which is a combination of the salts of copper with lime and water. Thisi material* is adapted for use in diluted form when the tree Is in leaf, or when of increased strength, for use when the tree is bare of foliage. Sulfate of copper solution is a valuable fungicide for use when trees are dormant, but is very injurious to young •Formulas for Insecticides and fungicides will be found In the Ap- pendix. 106 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. vegetation. Potassium sulfide and other forms of sulfur are used alone or in combination as fungicides. As noxious diseases and insects are present on many plants at the same time, it is a common and good practice to use an application that shall combine the advantages of fungicide and insecticide. A good illustration of this is Bordeaux mixture to which has been added a small amount of Paris Green, Such a mixture is an effective remedy for apple trees that are affected with scab and the Codlin Moth. A very complete list of fungicides and recipes for them will be found in the Appendix. Diseases of the Apple. Apple Blight, Fire Blight (Bacillus amylovorus) . — This is the disease that commonly kills the twigs and branches and occasionally injures the trunks of apple, pear and quince trees. Its cause is a bacterial disease which gains entrance to the tree through wounds or through the flowers. The germs are carried by insects to the flower. The insects are attracted by the dark, mucilaginous fluid that oozes out of the diseased wood in the spring and which is swimming with bacteria. From the flowers and other centers of infection the disease spreads through the whole plant. This is the disease which so commonly kills the young growth of apples in June. Remedies. — Some varieties are quite subject to it, while others are only slightly, if at all, affected with it; hence it may be avoided by selecting resistant sorts. When it ap- pears the best treatment is to remove and burn the infected parts, cutting considerably below where the disease appears. The disease may be carried in pruning implements from a dis- eased to a healthy tree. It may be well under some conditions to disinfect pruning tools* by the use of kerosene or in other ways so as not to spread the disease by them. Bitter Rot (Glomerella rutomaculans). — The summer spore stage of this fungus does serious injury to the apple in some sections. It attacks apples before they are ripe and also ap- ples in storage. The spots which appear become sunken, are soft and have a bitter taste. On the surfaces of these spots the spores issue in long, gelatinous, cylindrical masses. These are washed apart by rain water and spread the infection. The DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 107 winter spores are produced on the branches in canker spots from which come ihe uew sources of spriug infection. Remedies. — Remove and burn all canker spots found on the trees each year, as thes-e are the sources of infection. De- stroy the diseased fruit. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture and later, when the fruit begins to ripen, with a copper carbonate Bolution will hold the disease in check. Black Rot fSphaeropsis malorum) is a common source of trouble. It especially attacks the summer ap- ples at the time of ripening and the other kinds in storage. This fungus also occurs on the branches and leaves of apples. Remedies are the same as for Bitter Rot. Root Galls, in the shape of roundish swellings, are sometimes found on the roots of apples and other trees. Stocks thus affected should be regarded with suspicion, although some of these galls do not appear to be seriously injurious. Leaf Rust (Gymnosporangium niacropusj and (G. glohosum). — This disease causes serious injury to the foliage of apples and pears so that the foliage and fruit crops are destroyed. This fungus causes yellow blotches on the leaves, and later, cluster cups with thorn-like tops appear on the under side of the leaves. One stage of this dis- ease lives on the Red Cedar, where it produces Cedar apples from Fig. 4-l.-Bitter rot of ap- ^^'""^ ^^ *^^ 'P'^°^ ^°™® ^^^ ^"§^^t pie. Branch Infested scarlet, gelatinous, honey-like w^th canker of bitter j^^^g^^ ^j^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ 108 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Cedar form grow on the apple and those from the apple on the Cedar. Remedies. — Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is one remedy. The best remedy, however, is to remove the Cedar apples in winter or to destroy the Cedar trees. Fig. 45.— Leaf rust of apples, a.— Apple leaf infested with the rust disease, b.— Twig of red cedar showing old and young cedar apples, c. — Portion of the tissue of the infested apple leaves en- larged. Apple Scab (Ycnturia pomij. — A very serious disease of the apple. It attacks and kills the foliage and causes black, scab- like spots on the fruit, and also attacks the young growth oc- casionally. The sources of infection are the fallen leaves on which the fungus matures its spores in early spring in time to infect the unfolding leaves. DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 109 Remedy. — Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is the only known satisfactory remedy. Several sprayings are usually neces- sary where this disease is well established. A winter spray with strong Bordeaux mixture before the buds open is recom- mended, followed by two or three sprayings after growth has started, at intervals of from two to three weeks. Good ventila- tion and proper spacing of trees aid very materially in avoiding conditions favorable to fungus growth. Burning or plowing un- der the diseased leaves which have fallen will also aid in stamp- ing out this disease. Powdery Mildew (Podosphaera leucotricha). — This mildew seldom Injures apples except young plants in seedling beds W^}. '^ -MM. Fig. 46.— Apple Infested with scab. or nursery rows. It is most injurious to seedlings in their first year, especially when severely crowded. Remedy.— This disease may be prevented by spraying with Bordeaux mixture, commencing in the early summer and re- peating at intervals of about two weeks. Fruit Scald. — This occurs most commonly on rnples that are kept in cold storage. Some varieties with tender skins 110 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. may be injured in piles in the orchard. The scald shows as laige brownish c black blotches on the fruit. Some varieties are much subject to it while others are quite exempt. The subject is not well understood, but varieties liable to this trouble should be stored where they will have free circulation of air. Spraying Injuries. — In spraying plants it is not uncommon to cause them some little injury. This often shows in the rus- setted appearance of the fruit or foliage. It may be due to the use of chemicals of unknown purity or to the unusual sus- ceptibility of the plant. Carelessness in making Bordeaux mix- ture is often the cause of spraying injury. These injuries may sometimes be so serious that they kill the foliage. As a rule, however, the earliest spraying on the young leaves does not seem to cause injury so frequently as later sprayings. Frost Injuries. — Apples and pears are sometimes slightly injured by frost soon after the flowers open, and in such cases there will often be a russeted ring around the fruit or on one side. Sunscald. — This is a name given to a condition of trees when the bark becomes dead on the southern or southwest side of trees. It is a very serious cause of loss of trees in some sections and in such places all trees should be protected against it. For description of this trouble see chapter on Protection. Diseases of the Pear. The pear is injured by about the same diseases as the ap- ple. It is especially subject to fire blight, scab and rust, which are more fully mentioned under apple. It is also injured by leaf blight (see Quince) and leaf spot, for which Bordeaux mix- ture is the best remedy. Diseases of the Quince. The quince is subject to Brown Rot, Leaf Spot, Rusts, Scab, Fire Blight, and it is also subject to the following: Leaf Blight (Entomosporium maculatum). — This trouble af- fects the leaves and in bad cases may entirely defoliate the plants. On the fruit, the fungus produces black areas. On pears, it may cause the fruit to turn black in places, grow one- sided and crack open. DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. Ill Remedy. — The remedy for this is Bordeaux mixture applied just before the flowers open in the spring and two to four ap- plications of it later at intervals of about two weeks. Black Rot (Sphaeropsis maloruin). — This disease often causes serious rotting of the quince just before maturity. It generally starts from the calyx end. The remedy is a preven- tive, and consists of spraying with Bordeaux mixture. Diseases of the Plum. Plum Pocket (Exoascus pruni). — This is a name givers o certain peculiar deformities which occasionally take the piace of plums on the trees. They consist merely of a thin shell \. ith no evidence whatever of seed. They appear in early summer, and some seasons this disease is very abundant and then for a number of years it may scarcely appear at all. It is due to the presence of a parasitic fungus which attacks the young fruit, and by growing with- in it causes the peculiar de- velopment which finally re- sults in the formation of the so-called pocket. This, or a similar fungus, may also at- tack the foliage and cause irregular swellings and dis tortion. Remedies. — It will some- times be found that a sin- gle tree will be troubled with this fungus for a se- ries of years and it will not spread much. When this is the case such trees should be destroyed, as they are likely to be centers of in- fection, and the diseased fruit should be picked and destroyed. Some varieties are more subject to its attack than others. The leaf curl of peaches is caused by a fungus similar to that which causes plum pockets and recent experiments show that this disease may be kept in check by spraying with thick Bordeaux mixture or a solution of sulfate of copper just be- Fig. 47. — Leaf curl of plums in- volving twig and foliage. 112 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. fore the buds open. Later, sprayings of Bordeaux mixture may be necessary if the weather is rainy. The object of these spray- ings is to kill the spores of the disease which are found on the bark. Black Knot or Wart of the Plum (Plowrightia morbosa). — This manifests itself by wart-like or knot-like growths appear- ing on the smaller limbs as well as on the larger branches and sometimes even on the trunks. In sections of the country where the European Plum (Prunus dO' inestica) is grown this is one of the most serious ob- stacles to its suc- cessful cultiva- tion. Our native plums are not often destroyed by it, but it some- times causes seri- ous injury to them. This knotlike growth is spongy and of a black color. Upon examining it with a microscope it is found that the surface has many little cavities that contain the spores by which the disease spreads. Spores escape from the knots during the late winter or early spring. Remedies. — Upon their iirst appearance these swellings should be removed and burned, if they are on the smaller branches where it is practicable to get them off. If on the trunk or larger branches where the branch cannot be cut off, they should be cut out as much as possible and painted with thick Bordeaux mixture. Where trees are badly infested they should be removed entirely. This same disease also grows on the wild choke cherry and black cherry and, if abundant on them, their removal will make the extermination of the disease easier in the nearby plum orchard. Fig. 4S. -Plum pockets as they ap- pear on the tree. DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 113 Brown Rot of the Plum (Sclerotinia fructigena) is a common and serious cause of loss, peach. See Brown Rot under the head of Shot Hole Disease. — This may he caused by any of the several fungi or even by spraying injuries. Any of these causes may destroy the foli- age in spots; after the deadened tis- sue drops out the shot-hole appear- ance is produced. Crown Gall is the name given to a morbid growth wnich general- ly takes place near tne surface ot the ground. It is of a spongy na- ture and often spnencai in lorm. The same disease or class or diseases also attacks the peach, raspberry, blackberry, apple ano otner trees. It is most commonly injurious to trees growing in the nursery. All stocks showing it should be regarded with suspicion. Scab of plums (Cladosporium carpophyllum) causes dark, hard spots in the skin of the fruit. It may be prevented by spraying with weak Bordeaux mixture. Diseases of the Peach. Brown Rot (Sclerotinia fructigena). — This disease principal- ly attacks peaches about the time the fruit begins to ripen and often spreads rapidly. It also causes decay in the fruit after it is picked, and is likewise one of the most injurious foes of plums and cherries, as well as of the peach, while apples, pears and quinces are sometimes injured by it. It sometimes destroys the young growth. If the diseased fruit is allowed to remain on the tree it dries up and does not fall off. The fungus passes the winter in the diseased branches and also in the dried fruit. In the spring these send out spores which start new centers of Infection. Remedies. — The diseased dried fruit should be removed 114 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Fig. 50 — 'Bro-wn rot; half grown plums rotting with this disease. from the trees and ground and destroyed by burying deeply or burning. During the ripening season all rotting fruit should be gathered promptly and burned. Where the fruit sets thick, thinning is of much assistance in keep- ing the disease in check. Spraying has not general- ly proven successful, on ac- count of the rapidity of the spread of the disease when once started and be- cause of the liability of th-e foliage to Injury from the spraying solutions. It Is probably desirable to use Bordeaux mixture on the trees in the spring before the leaves open, and then apply two or three sprayings of potas- sium sulfide about picking time. Crown Gall or Foot Rot. — This disease or class of diseases affects the peach in much the same way as the plum. In the case of the peach, however, the wood is made weaker and the trees are broken off at the surface of the ground. It is thought by some that it is the result of too much moisture, and the or- ganism to which it Is ascribed (Dendrophagus gohosus) comes in later as a saprophyte. There is no known remedy. Diseased trees seldom amount to much and the best treatment is prob- ably to remove and burn them. Leaf Curl (Exoascus deformans). — This disease appears soon after the leaves come out. It causes them to become distorted and swollen and later those that are infected the worst fall off, leaving the tree nearly or quite bare of foliage. The remedy for it is spraying with Bordeaux mixture about two weeks be- fore the buds begin to swell in the spring. In wet springs a second application of one-half strength can be used to advan- tage. Where the trees are sprayed with lime and sulfur in winter for scale, the disease is held in check. A weak solution DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 115 of copper sulfate, containing one pound to twenty-five gal- ions, applied in the spring about two weel^s before llie buds open, is effective. Scab (Cladosporium carpophylum). — 'This fungus occurs on the fruit, leaves and twigs. On th-e fruit it makes black spots which may unite and involve a large part of the surface in a black scab, disfiguring the fruit and causing it to become one- sided. The mycelium lives over winter on the infected twigs. Winter or early spring sprayings are recommended for the Peach Scab. Yellows. — This disease is now considered due to some de- rangement of the plant functions. It is evidently contagious. The disease is not easily distinguished from troubles due to other causes and weak trees may present symptoms closely re- sembling those that are infected with Yellows. Its symptoms are a general premature ripening of the fruit, which becomes streaked with red, or spotted, and is of a poor quality; a pre- mature development of the winter buds, giving rise to exces- sive branching on new shoots resembling "witches brooms", the formation of water sprouts, and finally a scanty, yellowish de- velopment of the foliage. Peach Rosette. — This disease is very similar to the Yellows. It is distinguished by the peculiar rosette arrangement of the diseased water sprouts which spring from the branches. It gen- erally causes the death of the tree in one season. No remedy is known except to dig out and burn all affected trees at once. Remedies. — The best treatment is to grub out and burn the diseased trees. A rigid enforcement of such treatment would probably keep it in check, as this seems to be a fair lesson to draw from the wide experience of the state of Michi- gan in combatting this trouble. Diseases of the Cherry. The cherry is subject to the following diseases: — Black Knot, Brown Rot, Leaf Curl, Leaf Spot and Powdery Mildew. These are all discussed under Plum and Peach. The remedies for these is Bordeaux mixture. Diseases of the Grape. Anthracnose (Sphaceloma anipelinum). — This rot may at- tack the twigs, fruit or leaves. On the fruit it forms small, dark 116 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. spots with bright borders and is called bird's-eye rot. The dis- eased wood should be removed. When vines are sprayed with Bord-eaux mixture for other diseases, this is held in check, and it is seldom abundant enough to warrant spraying for it alone. Black Rot (GitignarcUa bidwelliij — One of the most com- mon of injurious diseases affecting the grape. It sometimes attacks the leaves, but is most common on the fruit, which causes it to rot, turn black, and finally dry up. The disease breeds in the mummified fruits and in the diseased leaves of th-e Ampelopsis as well as of the grape. Remedies. — The dried grapes should be removed and burned. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is probably the most certain remedy and if persistently fol- lowed up year after year will be found quite effective. The fruit should be kept covered with it until it begins to color, after which ammoniacal carbon- ate of copper should be used. If Bor- deaux mixture was used up to. ripening time the fruit would look dirty. Bag- ging the fruit is commonly a satisfactory remedy, provided the bags are put out as soon as the fruit is set. To spray effectively with Bordeaux mixture will generally take three or four applications, accord- ing to the weather. It is sometimes washed off before it is dry, when it should be applied again. Some vineyardists are get- ting good results by using a solution of copper sulfate (1 lb. to 25 gals, of water) just before growth starts. Downy Mildew (Plasmopara viticola). — This fungus may attack the young wood, flowers or fruit, or all these at the same time. When it attacks the foliage it appears as greenish yel- low, or brownish, irregular spots on the upper surface, with corresponding spots of whitish, frost-like mildew on the under side. The effect of this is to have the leaves dry up and fall Fig. 51. — Black TOt of the grape, showing infested fruit rotted and dried. DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 117 off, frequently when the fruit is quite green, which, consequent- ly, does not ripen. But, besides the loss of fruit from this dis- ease, the wood is often left in a very poor, immature state, and the whole plant so seriously weakened that it will not produce a full crop of fruit for several years. It frequently acts in this manner on the Delaware, while it seldom injures the fruit of that variety. On some other varieties the fruit is more sus- ceptible than the foliage and it produces brown rot of the ber- ries, which may cause severe loss in some season. In this case the first perceptible effect of the disease is when a purp- lish spot appears on the side of the berry. Later, the fruit is covered with a white mould, then it turns brown, and later on becomes soft and wrinkled. Remedies. — Spraying as recommended for Black Rot. Powdery Mildew (Uncimda necator). — This mildew forms a superficial, cobweb-like growth on the leaves and new growth, and occasionally on the fruit. The remedies are the same as for Downy Mildew. It is also recommended to spray the vines in the winter with copper sulfate solution to destroy the win- ter spores. Flowers of sulfur has also been used successfully against this disease. Preventives of grape diseases. — Every effort should be made to keep fungus diseases from getting a hold of the plant. It has been found that where the vines are closely shut in, so that there is but little circulation of air and the water does not quickly dry off the foliage, or where the soil is wet and cold, the vines are very liable to become diseased. On this account, where a vineyard is subject to such troubles, the first thing to do is to remedy, as far as is practicable, anything that ob- structs free circulation of air through it. If the land is moist and cold it should be underdrained. For brown and black rot of the fruit early bagging of the clusters will be found quite ef' fective. But after these things are done, disease may gain a foothold and cause serious injury to weak varieties; hence spraying may be necessary. Some varieties are uniformly healthy in some locations, while others are very susceptible to disease. Yet these latter are often the most profitable kinds to grow for marketing purposes. 118 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Diseases of the Strawberry. Leaf Spot, Rust or Sunburn (SpJiaerella fragariae) is a dis ease wnicli lives in the tissues of the leaves and stem. In the early spring small purple or red spots appear on the new leaves. About the time the plants are ex- hausted by fruit- ing, or perhaps, before the fruit is fairly ripe, these spots increase rapidly in siz6 and in a few days what was a promising straw- berry bed is dried up and worthless. Many varieties that are hardy otherwise have foliage that is susceptible to this dis- ease, and some kinds should not be planted unless some fungi- cide is used to protect them from it. Our growers at present prefer to obviate the necessity of using fungicides by planting only those varieties that are very robust and healthy. How- ever, it may be desirable to grow some varieties with weak foliage. In such a case the newly set plants should be sprayed three or more times the first season, commencing as soon as the young plants are well established and twice the following spring, with Bordeaux mixture or some other fungicide, begin- ning as soon as the leaves appear. To do this requires no more labor or expense than it does to spray for the potato bug the same number of times, and the grower will be well repaid in the increased crop. Highly cultivated plants are less liable to disease than those that are neglected. Fig. 52 — Rust or leaf spot of strawberries, DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 119 Diseases of the Blackberry. The Crown Gall occasionally attacks blackberry canes near the surface of the ground, causing irregular swellings. It has not generally proven seri- ously injurious, but un- doubtedly, the part of wisdom would be to avoid setting new plantations from a field so Infested. The diseased canes should be gathered and burned. Leaf Spot fSeploria rubij. — This disease pro- duces dark colored spots on the foliage, which are sometimes very abundant. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is the best rem- edy. Orange Rust. — The blackberry is also Injured by the orange rust, which is referred to under the head of Rasp- berry. Diseases of the Raspberry. Leaf Curl. — This name is indicative of one of the early stages of the disease. The leaves curl up, and though they may remain green all through the season, the plants make a poor, weak growth. The fruit is dull in color, small in size and rather bitter in taste. Later the plants kill out, and any healthy sets with which they may be replaced scon succumb to the trouble. This disease spreads very slowly and, as a rule, at the beginning there are only a few infected spots in a plantation, which slowly increase in size from year to year. The spread of the disease may be prevented to a great extent by pulling and burning the diseased plants as soon as they appear. In setting out a new plantation, use only land which has not been in rasp- berries for several years and take great care to have young, healthy sets. Do not accept plants from a weak plantation on any account. Fig. 53.— Crown or root gall of blackberries. 120 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Red Orange Rust (Oymnoconia interstitiatis) is most harm- ful to the Black Cap raspberries, though it frequently injures blackberries, dewberries and allied plants. It produces a weak appearance in the canes and foliage, and in the latter part of the summer the under side of the foliage becomes completely covered with a thick coat- ing of orange colored spores, which easily rub off. •^Jl One soon learns to know the plants that are dis- eased, even before the spores appear, and they should be pulled and burned at once. This is es- pecially neecessary with the black-cap varieties; but even with these, if the affected plants are destroyed, the disease may generally be kept in check until a new plantation can be well started, and sometimes assiduous attention to pulling and burning results in stamping out the disease. iiQ^»i Crown Gall is sometimes injurious to the rasp- " * " berry the same as to the blackberry, but it is sel- dom very injurious at the North. In selecting new sets care should be taken to avoid those from infested fields. Cane Rust or Anthracnose fGloesporium neca- tor) manifests itself on the raspberry by small purplish spots, which may spread and form whit- ish patches with purplish edges. The tissue is killed out under the spots. It affects raspber- rust "on^r^^sp! ries generally, but the purple and cap varieties berries. are most liable to its injury. Remedy. — The best treatment is to spray the canes before the leaves start with thick Bordeaux mixture. The badly dis- eased canes should be cut out at pruning time and only resistant varieties planted. Spray the new growth in the spring once or twice. There is a great difference in the power of different varie- ties to resist this disease. Diseases of the Gooseberry and Currant. Mildew (Sphaerotheca morsuvae) is the worst disease of the gooseberry. It attacks the foliage which, as a result, be- comes covered with a whitish mould. Later the leaves dry up DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 121 and drop off and the wood fails to mature. In bad cases the berries become discolored and perhaps ruined. As a rule, this disease does not cause serious injury in good locations in this section; but in wet seasons, or on wet land in any season, or where there is a poor circulation of air it may be very destruc- tive. Remedies. — These should be preventives largely, and con- sist of allowing plenty of room between the plants for a good circulation of air and keeping them in as vigorous a state of health as possible by manuring and cultivating. If the disease makes its appearance in the face of these precautions, recourse should be had to the following remedy, which is very satis- factory: Spray the plants in the spring as soon as the young leaves begin to unfold, and repeat it as often as once in eigh- teen or twenty days, except in times of heavy rains when it must be done oftener. For this purpose use liver of sulfur (Potassium sulfide) dissolved in water at the rate of one-half ounce to the gallon. Leaf Spot fSeptoria ribesj. — Both currant and gooseberry are injured by what is termed leaf spot, which causes deadened spots in the foliage. It may be prevented by spraying with Bordeaux mixture before the fruit begins to color and again after the fruit is picked. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER VII. Diseases. 1. What portions of the plant are most susceptible to disease? 2. How are the majority of plant diseases propagated? 3. What is meant by the alternation of generations? 4. How are plant diseases generally treated? 5. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the plum and give remedy for each: Plum Pocket, Leaf Curl, Black Rot, Brown Rot, Shot Hole Fungus, Crown Gall. 6. What diseases are injurious to the pear? 7. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the apple and give remedy for each: Apple Blight. Bitter Rot, Black Rot, Crown Gall, Leaf Rust, Apple Scab, Powdery Mildew, Fruit Scald. 8. How does spraying sometimes injure the trees? 9. Hnw does frost affect the trees? 10. What is sunsoald and how does it injure the trees? 11. How may it be remedied? 12. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the peach and give remedy for each: Brown Rot, Crown Gall, Leaf Scald, Scab, Yellows. 122 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 13. Describe the Injury caused by the following diseases of the grape and give remedy for each: Anthracnose, Blaclc Rot, Downy Mildew. Powdery Mildew. 14. What are some general preventives for diseases of the grape? 15. How does rust or sunburn affect tlie foliage of the straw- berry ? 16. What is the remedy for it? 17. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the blackberry and give remedy for each: Crown Gall, Leaf Spot, Orange Rust. 18. Describe the Injury caused by the following diseases of the raspberry and give remedy for each: Leaf Curl, Orange Rust, Crown Gall, Anthracnose. 19. What diseases affect the cherry? 20. What diseases affect the quince? 21. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the quince and give remedy fr>r each: Leaf Blight. Black Rot. 22. Describe the injury caused by the following di^seases of the gooseberry and currant and give remedy for each: Mildew and Leaf Spot. Take up the other diseases discussed In the same way as the foregoing. CHAPTER VIII. SPRAYING AND SPRAYING APPARATUS. The methods of spraying of plants naturally divide them- selves into two groups, (1) dust spraying and (2) liquid spray- ing. Dust and Liquid Spraying Compared. — In a general way It may safely be stated that insecticides and fungicides applied In the dust form to trees are not as efhcient as when applied In the liquid form, and the differenc-e in efficiency is enough to make it worth the extra trouble necessary to employ the liquid form under all ordinary circumstances. The principal difficulty with the dust spray Is In getting It to stick to the foliage and fruit. It should be applied while the foliage Is damp. This may be soon after a rain, or while the foliage Is damp with dew. Advantage cannot often be taken of the former condition; hence one must usually rely on getting the dust spray on very early in the morning or oc- casionally late in the evening. In either case it will be out of the regular working hours and therefore disagreeable. The wind also interferes much more with the application of dust sprays than with liquid sprays. This difficulty, however, Is helped by the fact that In the early morning, when the dust spray must usually be applied, there is seldom much wind dur- ing the summer months. Another reason for the comparative inefficiency of dust sprays — and this applies especially to the application of dry Bordeaux mixture — Is that the dry form can never be obtained in as finely divided condition, whether pre- pared at home or in the factory, as good home-made liquid sprays. This means that an equal or even greater quantity of the dust form cannot be as thoroughly distributed over a given amount of leaf surface as can the liquid form, and hence will leave more unprotected spots, through which disease or insect pests may enter. The great advantage In favor of dust sprays Is the comparative cheapness of their application because large quantities of water do not need to be hauled around In order to apply the spraying material, but, as previously stated, this 124 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Is not enougli to make up for the difference in efficiency. How- ever, it may become of much importance in the case of hilly land. Here the light dust spray outfits can be used when It would be impossible to get around with a barrel of liquid spray, or, much less, with the large wagon outfits. Liquid Spraying Outfits. Pressure. — The Important point In the application of liquid sprays is to get a high pressure. This should not be less than 75 pounds on an ordinary pres- sure gauge. For high trees better work will be accomplished with a pressure of 125 pounds. It is not usually advisable to us« a pressure of over 125 pounds, because it is too hard on the machinery and apparatus in general. The higher the pres- sure It Is practicable to maintain, however, the more efficient will be the application of the spray. This should be applied in the finest mist-like form pos- sible, and a good pressure is nec- essary to accomplish this. A fine mist will float among the foliage like a fog if there is not too stiff a breeze, and will cover both sides of the leaves and fruit much bet- ter than could possibly be the case with a spray of drops such as comes from an ordinary nozzle under low pressure. Agitation in Barrel Outfits.— The movement of the barrel while In use is often sufficient to keep well made Bordeaux and other light sprays from settling, but with the heavier sprays, like Paris Green and lime-sulfur wash, some provision for agitation Is necessary. Probably the best way to provide for this agitation is to have a paddle attached to the pump near the bottom of the barrel in such a manner that it will move with every stroke of the handle and thus keep the liquid stirred up and prevent settling. Another method of providing for agitation, known as "jet agitation," Is to leave a small hole In the bottom of fhe cylinder, through which a part of Fig. 55. -Knapsack spray- er. SPRAYING AND SPRAYING APPARATUS. 125 the liquid is forced out with each strolce. This method works quite well while the pump is new and the packing tight, but as the pump becomes worn it will usually be found that all of the liquid which the cylinder will handle will be needed in order to maintain sufficient pressure. Moreover, the hole through which the jet escapes wears larger in time and thus further helps to decrease the efficiency of the pump. Agitation in Tank Outfits.— All tank outfits should be equip- ped for agitation for all kinds of spraying compounds. It is, however, desirable not to have the agitation too violent, be- cause with some spraying compounds, especially with the lime- sulfur wash, there may be considerable sediment which, while small enough to pass through the strainer on the suction hose and through the nozzle in small quantities, may in larger quantities cause cou- siderabl« difficulty with these parts. The agita- tion should be just sufficient to keep the finer particles in suspension and still allow the coarse particles to settle. One way of providing agitation is to have the tank sectioned crosswise with partitions every two and a half or three feet, leaving a hole about a foot wide and six inches high through which the liquid will rush and cause a general stirring up every time the wagon is driven forward to another tree. This method does well with small to medium-sized trees with well made Bordeaux and the lighter spraying compounds but where they tend to settle rapidly, such agitation Is seldom sufficient, and where the trees are so large that considerable periods occur between movements of the wagon it is entirely Insufficient. Another objection to this method is that the partitions make it difficult Fig. 06.— Plum leaf covered with arsenate of l^ad after 10 days. Showing how well it sticks to the foliage. 12G POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. to clean out the tank and remove the coarse sediment which collects in the bottom, A better method of providing for agi- tation is by means of a rod running lengthwise of the tank, with perforated cross pieces about six or eight inches high, cut rounding to fit in the bottom of the tank, and twelve to sixteen inches wide, attached at every two and one-half or three feet. There aro two methods of giving this apparatus the alternating backward and forward movement necessary for agitation. Prob- ably the most common way is by means of a chain drive from one of the hind wheels of the wagon. This method, of course, supplies agitation only when the wagon is in motion and is therefore to some extent open to the same objections as the preceding method. It has the advantage, however, of giving more thorough agitation while it is working and of being such a simple arrangement that it can easily be made, and there is little about it to get out of order. The other method of supplying the mo- tion to the agitator is by hav- ing it connected with the pump. Up to the present time no really substantial method of connection has been devised, and little pro- vision has been made for regulating the amount of agi- tation given. Usually this agitator gives more agitation than is needed. It will, how- ever, probably be the best method when it has become perfected, because it is con- tinuous. Provision is sometimes made for hand operation of the agitator by means of a handle fastened in the top of the tank. The working parts of pumps and the lining of the bamboo spray poles should be of brass for most spraying compounds. If the parts are made of iron they are liable to ordinary rust- ing and to corrosion by Bordeaux mixture and similar com- Fig. 57.— Barrel sprayer. SPRAYING AND SPRAYING APPARATUS. 127 pounds. With the lime-sulfur wash iron parts last longer than brass parts, but any kind of metal will wear rapidly, since this compound contains much grit on account of the large quan- tities of lime used in making it. Air Chamber. — All spray pumps should be provided with an air chamber of liberal size. This equalizes the pressure between the strokes of the pump, thus giving a more even flow of spray from the nozzle and easing the strain on the hose. Nozzles. — Most of the nozzles now in use have a chamber, known as the "ed- dy chamber," underneath the nozzle-cap, with the entrance into the chamber so ar- ranged that a rapid, whirling motion of the liquid results and causes the liquid, if under proper pressure, to break up and leave the nozzle in a very finely divided, mist-like condition. There are a number of tj'pes of nozzles, but the amateur will probably have the best success by using nozzles of the Vermorel type. Where sufficient power is available, as with gasoline engines, two or more poles may be run from one pump, each pole bear- ing from two to four nozzles. Clogging of the nozzle may result from several causes. The most common is improper straining. The spraying mixtures should always be strained, when run into the spraying barrel or tank, through as fine a mesh as possible. For lime-sulfur wash about twenty meshes per inch must be used because a smaller mesh fills up badly. For most other sprays a mesh as small as twenty-five per inch should be used if possible. A much finer m-esh can be used when the strainer is made with the wire mesh on the sides as well as on the bottom because this allows the liquid to continue to pass through the strain- er when the bottom has been covered with sediment, as frequent- ly occurs with lime-sulfur wash. The mesh should he of brass or copper. Whenever burlap is used for holding the dissolving Fig. pump outfit. 128 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. blue vitriol. It should be of a good, firm grade. If it is flimsy, much fiber may leave the burlap and ultimately get into the noz- zles and clog them. Wood fiber, becoming loose from the in- side of the spray tank, -will also frequently cause clogging of the nozzle. A high pressure will drive much sediment through the nozzles that otherwise would clog them. Hose. — The hose must be strong and durable in order to avoid delays from breakage and disagreeable leakages. Three- ply three-eighth inch is most commonly used. One extensive fruit grower in the East uses seven-ply three-eighth inch hose. It is not advisable to use a larger hose because it does not stand the pressure so well and is heavier to drag around from tree to tree in spraying. Thoroughness of work is es- sential to real success in spray- ing. The man who goes about his trees in a "hit or miss" fash- ion, leaving a branch unsprayed here and the center of the tree unsprayed there, is the one who finds that spraying does not pay. An apple that is not completely covered with a coat of poison is not completely protected from the second brood of the codlin moth larvae. Every inch of twig and branch of a tree sprayed for the San Jose scale, that is not coated with the mixture, has just as many live scales on it as it had before the spraying outfit came by that tree, and hence remains unmolested as a source of infection on the new growth and of re-infection on the treated portions as soon as the coat of spray becomes ineffective. Many who begin to spray after an orchard is about full grown find that the trees are set too closely together. Enough space should be left between the rows to permit the ready passage of the spraying outfit at all times. It Is impossible to do good work in spraying trees where one cannot get around conveniently with the spray pole. More- over, in a closely set orchard, a horse pulling a barrel outfit on Fig. 59. — Inexpensive com- pressed air sprayer for spraying" currants, pota- toes, cabbages, etc. SPRAYING AND SPRAYING APPARATUS. 129 a stone-boat will often not be able to get down the row, to say nothing of the impossibility of getting through with a power outfit. Kinds of Spraying Outfits. — For spraying on a very small scal-e, the knapsack, bucket pump, and five-gallon compressed Fig. 60.— One of the many types of sprayers with power from a gaso- Hnp engine. air outfits are very serviceable. The cheapest and most gen- erally useful spraying outfit on areas up to five acres is a first- class oil barrel s-et upright on a stone-boat with a good spray pump fastened on it. On larger areas up to 15 or 20 acres the wagon tank with a horizontal hand pump is more practicable, since it has greater capacity and efiiciency. On areas of over twenty acres the air-cooled gasoline outfit will usually be a good investment. It relieves the laborious work of pumping by hand, and correspondingly reduces the working force necessary and gives a higher pressure. With a little m-echanical ingenuity and care on the part of the operator it should be easily kept in good working order. 130 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Another type of spraying outfit is what is known as the 'gas sprayer." The spray mixture is run into a tight steel tank Fig. 61. — Forms of Vermorel Spray nozzles in common use. a. — Ver- morel nozzle with an opening. c. — Vermorel nozzle with four openings, b. — The top and base of extension rod, showing a cap to keep the spray liquid off tlie hand. of 50 to 250 gallons capacity. A carbon dioxide gas tank is connected with this and the gas released from it, according to the pressure desired, into the spray tank. This method has the advantage of being the most simple arrangement possible. It is, however, expensive, since the gas tanks must be sent back to headquarters to be refilled, involving considerable cost in freight in distant locations, as well as the cost of refilling. In- jury has frequently resulted to trees sprayed with this type of sprayer, presumably because the carbon dioxide gas united with the "lime" in the Bordeaux mixture, leaving free copper sul- fate which burned the foliage. SPRAViXG AND SPRAYIXG APPARATUS. 131 62 — Spiay pump with hori- zontal movement. QUESTIONS— Chapter VIII. Spraying and Spraying Apparatus. 1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of dust spraying? , , ,.-• .,\vhat are tlie important things to be remembered for success- ful luiuid spraying? 3. By what means can the spraying mixture be kept well mixed In the barrel spray mg outfits? In the tank spraying outfits? 4. What rnaterials should be used for making the working parts of spray pumps? ^ ^ remed'- d^^^^ causes the clogging of the nozzles and how may it be 6. What care should be taken in spraying the orchard? /. What spraying outfits are best adapted to small areas? To larga areas? CHAPTER IX. HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. While good, sound business judgment is necessary through- out the whole round of successful fruit growing, it is especially important when th-e grower comes to pickmg and marketing. The successful fruit grower must not only study how to raise fruit and what kinds are needed in the markets of the world but he must learn the best way to market it so as to bring him the largest possible returns. Markets may easily be di- vided into small, local and large, and the methods of selling may vary gr-eatly in different sections. The ways of doing busi- ness are much more uniform in the large markets, but there is much difference in this respect in different sections and the grower should study carefully the peculiarities of his markets. Fruit growers may also be divided into class-es, according as they retail or wholesale their products. Large fruit growers must be wholesalers, while many small growers can oft-en, to advantage, work up a retail business. The methods of dis- tributing fruit have become very much improved in recent years so that the prices are more uniform than formerly. This, to be sure, interferes with the high prices that occasionally pre- vailed in local markets under the old methods. On the other hand it makes less liable the glutting of the local market and the resultant low prices that were so troublesome formerly, so that the present conditions are probably better than the old for both the producer and the consumer. Picking. — The marketing of fruit begins with the picking for it is the first step in selling it. No matter how carefully other details are attended to, the picking must be done right or the fruit will be of little value. Fruit allowed to become too ripe before picking, or roughly handled in picking, may be rendered unsalable. For best results, fruit to be marketed iu fresh condition must be picked by hand. The exact time to pick fruit can only be determined by HARVESTING. MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 133 experience. A rule for this cannot be laid down for every class of fruits. Time to Pick Fruit. — Strawberries are picked when they begin to turn red, and raspberries when the fruits part readily from the stem on which they grow; blackberries and dewber- ries as soon as well colored, although the flavor would general- ly be improved by allowing them to remain longer on the plants. Gooseberries are generally marketed green; currants are allowed to color, but are not allowed to ripen and are gener- ally preferred for jelly-making when a few berries show some green color. Cherries are picked as soon as w^ell colored. This will depend somewhat on the variety. Plums may be picked when they are well colored. The Japanese kinds color well after picking. Prunes are generally allowed to ripen on the trees and are shaken off if to be used for drying. If to be shipped for use when fresh, they are picked as soon as well col- ored. Pears are usually picked as soon as full grown and are preferably ripened In the shade. For the distant market it is necessary that pears be shipped green and be allowed to ripen in transit. At Fresno, California, the season for Bart- lett pears lasts two months, the first ship- ments beginning as soon as the fruit Is large enough to sell. Peaches for the nearby market are picked as soon as they begin to show a slight softness and be- fore they are mellow; for the distant mar- ket, they are picked quite green. Summer cooking apples are generally picked as soon as large enough to use, without re- gard to ripeness. All the summer apples that are to be shipped must be picked green as they are quite perishable when ripe. It may be best, however, to allow them to color a little. Late varieties are picked as soon as well colored and before severe frosts. Apples should always be picked earlier if they show by the windfalls that they are Fig. Gn— Ladder in common use for picking fruit. 134 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. ripening, as there is liable to be serious loss from this cause. Winter apples generally keep~ best if picked a little before they are fully colored, but while still firm and hard. Grapes should be picked when fully ripe, as they do not ripen after being picked. Fifj. G4.— Picking- scene in an apple orchard. Note the low-headed trees, which make it oossible to reach all the fruit from the ground or from short ladders. The pickers are equipped with canvas bags hung over the shoulders, in wliich the fruit is placed as picked. This leaves both hands free and allows rapid work. The fruit is taken to the packing shed in bushel baskets, and is then care- fully packed in boxes or barrels. The stems should be left on strawberries, plums, apples, pears, grapes, currants and cherries. If the stems are pulled out of the fruits, injuries are caused that encourage rotting. Fruit should seldom be shipped in the same package that HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. IS-", It is picked in, but should be sorted into other suitable pack- ages in a cool storehouse. Local peddling is possible where the grower lives near his customers. In some sections the dealers have combined and se- cured legislation which has made this prohibilory; but where practicable, it is a very satisfactory way of disposing of the product so as to get the highest possible price. A variety of fruits are most easily disposed of in this way and under some conditions it is a good plan to combine the peddling of fruit with a vegetable business. Commission Dealer. — The larger grower must find some party to sell his produce. It may be best for him to do this through the commission merchant. In any case, it should be understood that the larger grower has a decided advantage over the small grower as he is a bigger factor in the market and will receive more attention. It is most important to secure an hon- est and able commission dealer if the business is. to be done in this way. The usual charge for handling fruit is 10% of the gross sales. Associations of fruit growers, when well managed, offer the most satisfactory method of selling. Here the sales are made by an agent of the growers. Such an arrangement gives to a large number of small growers a power in the market equal to that of the big grower and shipper. It prevents their com- peting injuriously with one another in the local or distant mar- ket and reduces marketing to a simpler matter. The small grow- er can stay at home and look after the picking and packing, as he does not have to go to market when he sells through an as- sociation, and still he is a controlling factor in the market. Organizations of this kind should have correspondents over a large territory and they can often ignore the prices prevailing in the local markets. Fruit Packages, Packing. — The packages for fruits are many and various and the shipper should be familiar with them all. In some of the older fruit sections it is customary to have the pack- ages for small fruit returned to the packer. As a rule this Is a poor practice and results in the use of unsightly pack- 13G POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. ages which hurt the sale of the fruit. The same is true of the practice of using dirty barrels for apples. The common experi- ence of the larger fruit growers leads to a belief in the gift pack- age for general marketing. In fact, for long distant shipments, the return package is out of the question, although it may do for some local markets. Every fruit shipper should occasionally visit the great markets and study this question of marketing Fig. 65. — ^Fruit packages, showing bushel basket with cover, 32-quart gift package for berries and grape basket. fruits at first hand. He will probably learn more about fruit packages in a single hour of inspection at such a place than in a week of studying such a subject In the small markets. Uniform packages. — While there are a great variety of fruit packages in use in the different markets of this country, it is very desirable that the packages used for selling fruit in the same market be uniform. For instance, it is important to have all the so-called quart boxes, such as are commonly used for selling small fruit, of the same size, otherwise there will be lack of fair competition among growers, since many buyers do not properly distinguish between the standard package and one that is short. In some states, and notably in Canada, legislation has been invoked for this purpose and with good effect. Thes.3 laws generally take the form of prohibiting any person from offering for sale any fruit package smaller than the prescribed size unless each package is plainly labelrd that it is short in size. There is much more attention paid to this subject in America HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 137 than in Europe where comparatively little fruit is used and that generally marketed in a variety of packages. Fiy. 66.— Fruit package with separate compartment for each fruit. The following list shows some of the fruit packages that are prescribed by law: Fruit Package Laws. New York Small Fruit Package Law: Quarts shall contain 67 cubic inches. Pints shall contain ZZVz cubic inches. V2 Pint shall contain 16% cubic inche.s. New York Apple, Pear, Quince and Potato Barrel Law: Barrels shall contain 100 quarts of grain, dry measure. Head diameter shall be 17l^ inches. Stave length shall be 28^^ Inches. Bulge shall not be less than 64 inches, outside measurement, Potatoes sold by weight shall weigh 174 pounds to the barrel. 138 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Massachusetts Berry Basket Law: Baskets shall be of the capacity of one quart, one pint, or one-half pint, Massachusetts standard dry measure. New Jersey Peach Basket Law: Peach baskets shall hold sixteen quarts, Winchester Vz bu. measure. Height of basket shall be 12 1,^ inches. Width across top of basket shall be 13 V^ inches. Inside measurement shall contain 1075.1 cubic inches. Missouri Apple Barrel Law: Length of apple barrel shall be 28 1/^ inches. Chimes shall be % of an inch at the ends. Diameter of heads shall be 17 1^ inches. Diameter of the center of the barrel, inside, shall be 20^4 inches. Canadian Fruit Package Law: Apples packed in Canada for export shall be packed in bar- rels. Distance between the heads, inside measurement, shall be 26 1^ inches. Head diameter shall be 17 inches. Middle diameter of barrel shall be Vi\'z inches. Canadian Fruit Baskets shall contain, when level full a — Fifteen quarts or more. b — Eleven quarts and be 5% inches deep, inside measure- ment. c — Six and two-thirds quarts and be 4% in. deep, inside measurement, d— Two and two-fifths quarts. Michigan Peach Basket Law: Peach basket shall contain 716 4-5 cubic inches or 1-3 bu. Michigan Standard Barrel Law: Barrel staves shall be 27 inches long. Heads shall be l^Vz ins. in diameter. Maine Barrel Law: A barrel of potatoes shall weigh 165 pounds. Tennessee Apple Barrel Law: Apple barrels shall contain 2iA bushels. HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 139 Wisconsin Apple Barrel Law: Apple barrels shall contain 100 quarts, dry measure. Florida Orange Box: The standard orange box adopted by the Florida Fruit Ex- change measures 12x12x26% Inches. Georgia Peach Crate: The peach crate adopted by the Georgia Horticultural Socie- ty measures 8xl2i^x22 inches. Raspberries, blackberries, currants, gooseberries, strawber- ries and small plums are generally shipped in boxes that are com- monly called quarts and occasionally in pint boxes. There is quite a variety in the forms and sizes of boxes used for this pur- pose. In the Central states, almost without exception, the gift package is used and here the boxes are generally made of wood veneer, with the bottom raised about one-half inch and the cor- ners ventilated. Cases usually contain sixteen or twenty-four pints or quarts. This makes a very satisfactory package in which fruit carries well. Grapes are usually marketed in the so-called five or ten- pound veneer basket which usually contains either four or eight pounds. This basket has a wooden cover which is held down by wire. Plums are usually marketed in baskets containing about one-half peck each. In the Eastern states a package resembling the grape basket is often used, while in the Pacific Coast states a basket that fits into a case holding six or eight of them is a favorite. Peaches are shipped in much the same packages as plums although in Delaware round baskets are much used. The bushel basket. — In some sections a favorite package for marketing apples, pears and quinces is the bushel basket with a cover. "While this does very well for local use it is too waste- ful of space in packing cars to warrant its general use. It is, however, a popular package with the purchaser as it is useful to him and he is willing to pay something for it, while the box package is regarded by the purchaser as being of no value. The bushel box is the popular fruit package in many of the Western states and has given excellent returns. For fancy fruit, it is an excellent package, but for fruit of ordinary grades it is probably not as good as the barrel, as the cost of the pack- 140 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. age and packing is much more tlian where barrels are used. Much fancy fruit from the Western states is wrapped in paper before it is packed, and is then put in the boxes in layers by hand. Of course sucli fruit ships and keeps better than fruit not so carefully handled. The box enables a better display to be made of the fruit and supplies a handy package for the retailer. Methods of Packing. — There are two methods or styles of placing apples in these boxes in general use, known as the straigbt and diagonal packs. In the straight pack the apples are ])laced in straight rows, both lengthwise and aci'oss the box. The straight pack is not used where the diagonal can be used as the apples are more apt to be bruised in pressing and putting the cover on. There are various w^ays of arranging the apples in the box in the straight pack as well as the other kinds. Some place the apple on the side, others with the stem up, and others wifh the stem down. Probably the best packs are those arranged with the stems to the outside in the top and bottom layers. Tlie term tier is used to designate the number of rows across the top and the number of rows deep. The number of rows across times the number of rows deep times the number of tiers long gives the number of apples in the box. The number of tiers, of course, depends on the size of the apples. The up-to- date packer now stamps eitber the number of tiers, or the num- ber of apples contained in tire box on the outside so that the buyer may know at a glance how many apples he has in the box. Diagonal Pack. — In the diagonal or diamond pack the rows run diagonally with tbe edge of the box. Its advantage over other packs is that it accommodates sizes that do not work into the straight pack and also that in pressing the apples can adjust themselves to the spaces between the apples in tbe adjoin- ing tiers. Tbe diagonal pack contains the half tiers, such as throe and one-half and four and one-balf. These allow an easy pack for many apples that would not go in the straight pack. The diagonal pack is started by putting in two or three apples in the lower left hand corner and then building the lower layer from these. Experience is needed before one can do this well. HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STOKING FRIIT. IM Grading, — The apples should be graded by an experienced grader and placed on the packing table ready for the packer. A mechanical grader, as shown in the illustration, is useful until one is able to judge the size of an apple readily. The holes in the grading board may be of the following diameters: 214., 2l^. I'i?. 67 —Methods of packiner apples in boxes. Numbors show order in which first fruits are placed in the Imxes. At left A tier straisht pack; at right, SU tier dia^'cnal pack. Fig. 68. — Handy board for prading- apples into sizes for packing^. The figures in the ni)eninf?s show the diameter of the holes in inches, while the figures below sbow the corresponding packs. 142 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 2%, 3% and 3% inches respectively. (This is for fhe standard apple box.) Apples which go through the 3% inch hole and over the 3^4 inch hole are 2V2 tier apples; through 3% and over the 2% inch are 4 tier; througn 2% and over 2V^ inch are iVz tier, and through 2y2 and over 2Vi inch are 5 tier. If the use of the holes results in sizes averaging a trifle too small for a tight pack they can readily be cut a little larger. In some local markets it is customary to sell a large amount of choice fruit in a return package which is not covered. Such boxes present a much improved appearance if the fruit is faced down and packed in layers. This is done by taking off the bot- =^^ 1 IJ'i ^1^8 ---e^-,.. Pig. 69. — Fruit press for packing bushel boxes. -Box in place with tom, placing the box, bottom end up on a small shutter and then putting in the fruit in layers. The bottom boards are then nailed on and the box turned upright. A box packed in layers will hold considerably more than one in which the fruit is poured in. In packing apples and pears in boxes for shipment to distant markets, some pressure must be applied to insure the fruit being solid and firm in the boxes. This is generally given by springing on the head boards, which leaves the top bulging. HARVESTING, MARkiSTING AND STORING FRUIT. 143 When packed in a car, such packages should lie on their sides and be held in place by the use of strips of wood between each tier of boxes. Fruit packing materia! is generally bought by tl grower all cut out ready to put together. For many of the small pack- ages, a wire stitching machine is used in putting them together. Barrels are generally bought in the crate and set up in a local table for fruit packed in boxes. cooper shop. Box material is genei'ally handled in the same way. By purchasing it in this way and putting it together him- self the grower can often utilize his spare labor to advantage. Barrels are commonly used for marketing apples and some- times for pears. This package is preferred for apples in most oi the Eastern markets, and especially when the fruit is some- 141 POPULAR FKUIT GROWING. •what inferior in qualitj\ or when low in price. It is probably best to always market the extra choice apples in boxes. Formerly there was a great difference in the size of barrels used for packing apples and this fruit came to market in barrels holding scarcely two and a half bushels, while sugar barrels, which hold nearly four bushels, were occasionally used. This worked in various ways to make the marketing of apples a very loose matter. To help overcome this difficulty, the National Ap- ple Shippers' association adopted a standard size for apple bar- rels. According to these requirements a standard barrel must have a head 17i^ inches in diameter; a stave 281/^ inches in length and a bulge of not less than 64 inches outside measure- ment. This size of barrel is by law the standard barrel in New York state for the marketing of apples, pears, quince and pota- toes. The standard Missouri barrel is nearly identical. How to pack a barrel of apples. — Select a clean barrel. If second hand barrels are to be used, such as flour barrels, they should be thoroughly cleaned by washing and rubbing. If this is not done, the fruit is apt to look dusty when opened which will detract from its sale. Under such conditions some packenj follow the plan of lining the barrels with newspapers or other cheap paper which is an excellent plan. Ordinarily, new barrels are used. Sometimes a circular piece of paper is put on each end. The barrel being placed before the packer with the bottom out and the head down, the packer puts about a half bushel of apples in the bottom and proceeds to turn them so th'at the stem end faces the head, i. e. downwards. Two layers are gen- erally faced in the case of fruit of first quality but for ordinary fruit, one layer of facing fruit is enough. When these are in, the barrel is filled by pouring in the sorted fruit from a basket that is put down in the barrel before it is emptied so as to avoid the least chance of bruising the fruit. For this purpose a half-bushel basket with a swinging bale is best. As each basketful is put in, the barrel is gently shaken so as to settle the fruit but not enough to bruise it. When the barrel is nearly full, a layer of apples is put on with the stem end up. This layer should stand up out of the barrel two inches or more. The chime hoops *are then loosened a little and the outside one taken off, but not ;'<9 HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUli. 14,"^ second hoop, as this would allow the barrel to spread too much. A head is then put on under a barrel press and is slowly forced Into the barrel. While the pressure is being applied a few well directed strokes with a hammer directs the head into place, when the chime hoop is driven down and a few nails are put in to hold the head in place while the press is removed. The outside chime hoop is put on and nailed in place and then the lining hoops are nailed fast. The barrel is then turned over and sten- cilled on the end that was downward but is now the top. A package thus packed opens up with a nice show of evenly packed apples and makes a good appearance. The necessity of pressing in the apples arises from the fact that otherwise the apples will shake in the barrel when it is moved and will bruise. A properly pack- ed barrel has no movement of its contents. There is considerable bruising of the fruit where the pressure is ap- plied but such bruises are not often injurious. Barrel press. — There are sev- eral kinds of bar rel presses in ?h;;^=„-_:^-^„r^ Fig. 71. — Packing presses for apples. Foot press, b. — Screw press. common use. Presses illustrated in figure 71 are the forms com- monly obtained from the implement dealers. Where such a press cannot be conveniently obtained, a very good one may be made by any blacksmith by using an ordinary bench screw for applying the pressure. Grades of fruit.— For the most successful hahdling of fruit there is nothing more important than proper grading. Even grades of fruit that can be depended upon soon establish for a shipper a reputation that is of great advantage to him In marketing his product. The grades of fruit are variously designated. It la 140 POPULAtt /RUIT GROWING. generally customary to mark the choicest fruit with the words "Choice," "Select," or "Fancy," but other special marks are used. The next grading is generally "First Quality", "A-1," or "AA. ' The lower grade may be marked "A" or "2nds," or for the various grades one or more "X's" may be used. It is seldom that more than three grades are made. In seasons when prices are low it will often be found unprofitable to ship fruit of third quality. Every shipper should put his name on his fruit package to indicate his responsibility for its contents. In this way a ship- per's product comes to be known and fairly valued, which is an advantage to him as well as to the dealer and consumer. For grading apples and pears, the Ontario Fruit Growers association has adopted the following standards which gives a good idea of what such grades should consist of: 1. X A No. 1. Sound apples or pears of uniformly large size and high color for the variety named; of normal form; at least nin-ety per cent, free from worm holes, scabs or other defects. 2. A No. 1. Sound apples or pears of nearly uniform size and good color for the variety named; of normal form; at least ninety per cent free from worm holes, scabs or other defects. 3. No. 1. Sound apples or pears of fairly uniform size; at least eighty per cent, free from worm holes, scabs or other d-efects. 4. No. 2. Apples or pears that are disqualified from be- ing classed under any of the aforementioned grades, but which are useful for culinary purposes, and not less than two inches in diameter. Storage and Storage Buildings. It is a common fault, at least with growers of late keeping varieties of apples, that they are often too quick to sell their product and in consequence stand in their own light in the matter of getting the best returns from their labor. As a rule, it is unwise for the apple grower to sell late-keeping apples from th-e orchard. It is generally far better to wait until those who wish to rush their fruit to market have disposed of it be- fore selling. If the grower sells his product as it is picked, HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 147 he has to look after his harvesting and marketing at the same time, which is apt to crowd him and his facilities to his disad- vantage. Of course, in order to store fruit properly, the grower must study the keeping quality of his product and be equipped with cool storage so that he can hold it for at least a few weeks. Such facilities are an incentive to the grower to give extra at- tention to the fruit he raises, as only good fruit can be stored to advantage. The inferior fruit, if to be marketed at all, should generally be disposed of early. Cold storage apparatus of the modern improved form is too expensive for general use by individual fruit growers and it Fig. 72. —Kansas Cold Storage House; longitudinal section. Is a question whether it is not usually best, when fruit is to be stored for a considerable time, for the grower to patronize the owners of cold storage plants rather than build for his own use or, better yet, co-operate with others and erect a large, modern, fruit storage building. Cooling rooms adapted to the storage of small fruit and other quickly perishable products, even for a short time, could be used to advantage on every fruit farm. These need not be expensive and often an old building may be refitted and made 148 POPULAR FKUIT GROWING. to answer the purpose. The chief requirements are to arrange for thorough insulation against outside changes of temperature. This can be most satisfactorily arranged by the use of dead air spaces and building paper. There should be at least two well constructed dead air spaces about the storage room. These dead air spaces should be made in the floor and roof as well as in the walls. The windows, if such are found necessary, should consist of at least three sash set closely together so as to make two tight dead air spaces between. It will be found that rooms above ground, surrounded by well made dead air spaces, are more satisfactory for cooling fruit than cellars even if the latter are provided with proper Insulation. The cost of properly fitting up a cellar as a cool- ing room is nearly or quite as expensive as the fitting up of a similar space above ground and the wood and other materials used in its construction are short lived. The stone, cement or brick walls used ordinarily in cellars are good conductors of heat and among the poorest of materials for the walls of a storage room. A fruit grower provided with a well insulated fruit room will often find it to his advantage to lower its temperature by the use of ice early in the season. Figs. 72 and 73 show a good method of constructing a fruit storage house large enough to hold a few carloads of apples, with provision for the use of ice for reducing the temperature. The building is designed to be located on a hillside of such a slope that the first floor will be on the level of the surface at one end and the second floor a few feet above the surface at the other. The building is 18 by 38 feet, interior measurement, two stories in height and divided into four rooms, two on each floor. On the second floor Is the Ice-storage room, IS by 21 feet, in which the future supply of ice Is stored, and the ice chamber, 15 by 16 feet, in which is held the ice that cools the refrigerating room directly below. A door in the ice chamber communicates with the outside. This is for the unloading of ice and is the only outside entrance into the second story. The refrigerating room is 16 by 18 feet, and Is the compartment in which the temperature is to be reduced, and in which perishable products are to be stored. Leading HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 140 into this room is the cooling room, 18 by 21 feet, which is to be used as a general purpose storage c-ellar. A small entrance room protects the doorway into the cooling room. This is the only entrance to the ground floor. The flooring is laid tight in the storage room and provided with a slope towards the center. A gutter catches the drainage and carries it into the gutter from the ice chamber. To prevent Fig. 73 —Kansas Cold Storage House, a.— Vertical section, b.— De- tails of construction. leakage the floor of the storage room must have a sheet iron covering. The floor of the ice chamber is laid with 2 by 4-inch lumber with 1-inch space between. This provides for air cir- culation and water drainage. A sloping catch floor leads the water into the gutter which carries it down and out through the cooling room. 150 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Cellars and caves may often be used to advantage for stor- ing apples. Such storage is cheap and easily obtained. They are only useful for this purpose during cold weather. When properly handled apples keep well in them. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER IX. 1. Why does so much depend upon the picking of the fruit for the marliet? t. What effect does the wide distribution of fruit growing sec- tions liave upon the market? 3. What is tlie proper time for picking different fruits? 4. When is local peddling a success? 5. What is the relation of the commissioner to the fruit grower? 6. Of what value are fruit growers associations to the small fiuit grower? 7. What is the advisability of using the return package? 8. Why is it necessary to have packages for selling the same kind of fruit uniform in size? 9. What are some of the packages prescribed by law? 10. How are small fruits generally marketed? 11. What is the standard marketing package for grapes? 12. How are plums and peaches marketed? 13. What is the popular package for apples, pears and quince? 14. How are ordinary grades packed? The fancy grades? 15. What is the size of the standard apple barrel? 16. How should a barrel be packed? •17. What is a barrel press? 18. What are the advantages of grading the fruit properly? 19. How should they be designated? 20. What are the Ontario Fruit Growers standards for grading apples and pears? 21. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a cold storage plant? 22. How may inexpensive cooling rooms be fitted up? 23. Why are cooling rooms above ground more satisfactory and economical than those in cellars? CHAPTER X. PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. Our cultivated fruits, witli a few unimportant exceptions, do not com-8 true from seed, and hence, must be increased by division. The various ways in which seed enters into the sub- ject of the propagation of fruits are as follows: Propagation by Seed. (1). Seed is used for the growing of stocks on which to work (i. e., graft or bud) cultivated fruits such as apples, pears, plums, peaches and others. (2). Seed is used for growing a few varieties of the peach and strawberry that come nearly true from seed, such as the Alpine and St. Anthony de Padua strawberries and, in the case of the peach, for a large number of varieties which come suffi- ciently true to name for home use. Some of the conditions which influence germination of such seeds are as follows: (a) Seeds of many species which ripen in the early sum- mer, such as those of the strawberry, gooseberry and raspberry, if sown at once, will start quickly. Seedlings of such kinds should be wintered over in a cold frame, greenhouse or cold cellar. If the seed is dried it should be stratified towards the end of winter and frozen and sown in the spring. In the case of the raspberry and gooseberry, the seedlings are so small at the end of the first season, if the seed is sown as soon as ripe, that it is generally best to dry it and sow the following spring. (b) Seeds that ripen in late summer should be stratified and sown the following spring. (c) Stratification refers to the mixing, of seeds with soil or other material and burying out of doors. It is a common and very safe way of keeping over winter such seeds as those of the peach, plum, apricot, nuts and many forest tree seeds. All of our hardy seeds may be treated in this way successfully. In practice the seeds are mixed generally in sand, but sometimeB 152 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. '?^^-rerfect union of the inner bark of cion and stoclv at least on one side; (4) in making all the cuts with a sharp knife, that the parts in contact may have a smooth surface; (5) in doing the work rapidly, so that the surface may not be exposed. Grafting wax is generally used for covering the wounds made in some kinds of grafting. A good grafting wax is one that will not become too soft in summer, so as to melt and run down the stock, or so hard in winter as to crack and split off. A very reliable grafting wax is made by melting together resin, four (4) parts, by weight; beeswax, two (2) parts; tallow, one (1) part. When well melted, pour into a pail of cold water, grease the hands slightly and pull the wax until it is about the color of pulled molasses candy. INlake into balls and stor^ for use. This wax should be warmed when applied. If it is too hard, more tallow and less resin may be used. Some propaga- tors use linseed oil instead of tallow. The linseed oil should be pure. If adulterated with cottonseed oil, the wax becomes very stringy and difficult to handle. Clav is frequently used for covering wounds made by graft- ing, and it gives quite as good results as any of the waxes, if properly applied, but is not so convenient. For this purpose some very tenacious clay should be used, and it is thought to he improved when mixed with about one-third fresh cow dung and a little plasterer's hair. The whole mass should be thor- oughly worked over and kneaded before using. Cleft grafting is very common and more universally known and used than any other. It is commonly performed to change the variety of apple, plum and various other trees and plants. It is generally the most practical method to use on branches one or two inches in diameter or larger, but it also works well on small stocks. Cleft grafting is performed as follows: The place selected for the insertion of the cion should be where the grain of the wood is straight. The stock is then cut square off with a sharp saw and is split through its center, with the grafting chisel, to a depth sufficient to allow the cion to be put In place. The cleft is held open by the grafting chisel until the cion PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 167 Fig. S3. — The cleft graft. 1. — Side view of cion cut for grafting. The opposite side is cut in the same manner, malting the lower end wedge shaped. 2. — The stub with the cions Inserted in the cleft. 3. — The graft waxed. 4. — Cloth wrapped over the wax. 5. — Diagram of cross section of stub with cions inserted. Note that the cion is inserted in such a manner that its cambium layer comes in contact with the cambium layer of the stock. Note also that the cion is cut in such a manner that the side nearest the center of the stub is a little thinner, thus permitting th« cleft to pinch down closely onto the cion where the cambium Is located. IGS POrULAR FRUIT GROWING. is cut and inserted, when it is withdrawn, allowing the stock to close on the cion and so hold it in place. If the stock does not spring back so as to hold the cion firmly, it should be tightly drawn together with a string. The number of cions inserted will depend on the size of the stock. If the stock is not over three-quarters of an inch in diameter, one cion is enough to in- sert, but on larger stocks one may be put in each side of the cleft. All the cut surfaces, including the ends of the cion, should now be covered with wax, as shown in fig. 83. The cion to be inserted in cleft grafting should be cut wedge-shaped lengthwise and its cross-section should also be wedge-shaped. Fig. 83 represents a cross-section through a newly made graft, showing cleft in the stock and two cions in place (note how the edges of the wood come together). Fig. S3 also shows the successive stages in cleft grafting. Whip grafting is illustrated in fig. 84. When finished, all the cut surfaces should be covered with grafting wax or waxed paper. In this form of grafting it is seldom that the in- ner barks come together on more than one side of the cion and stock. It is a method that is very quickly performed by one accustomed to it, but its use is limited to branches or stems under three-quarters of an inch in diameter, but for stocks com- ing within this limit, it is very convenient and reliable. It is much used by nurserymen in root-grafting apple, pear and plum seedlings. It is done to a large extent during the win- ter months, when but little can be accomplished out of doors. Root-grafting. — Seedlings, which are dug in autumn and packed in sawdust or moss in a cold cellar, are taken as need- ed, to a warm room and cions grafted upon them just be- low the collar, i. e., the place where the root and top are joined, where only one graft is made to a root. The kind of graft made Is illustrated in fig. 84 which shows the successive stages of the work. A common practice among nurserymen is to use a cion about sfx inches long and insert it on a root about three inches long, the treatment in every respect being the same as where only one graft is made up from each root. In each case, when completed, the union is wrapped with a strip of paper or cloth about three-fourths of an inch wide which has previously PROPAGATION OF PRUlT PLANTS. luy been covered with grafting wax. Some prefer waxed string for this covering. Tlae cion sliould be at least five inches long to allow the graft to be set deep and thus encourage rooting from the cion. When completed, they should be tied in bundles and put away, packed in boxes very firmly in clean sand or Pigr. 84. — Root grafting", a. — ^Apple root such as is used in root grafting, b. — Cion. c. — Cion and root prepared for putting to- gether, d. — The graft made. e. — The graft wrapped with waxed paper. sawdust, in a cold cellar. Early in the spring they should be planted in the nursery, about six inches apart, in rows three feet apart, setting all but the upper bud of the cion below the surface of the ground. It is important to plant the cion deep so as to encourage it to throw out roots, as the trees are then 170 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. more hardy than when they depend entirely on the seedling root for support. Great care should be taken to have the soil very firm and solid around the base of the root and at the union. This may be secured in several ways. Some nurserymen use a large dibber, having a guard on the side to prevent its go- ing too deep. With this a hole is made sufficiently wide and deep to permit the insertion of the graft easily so that not more than one or two buds project above the ground. To do this work most expeditiously, the grafts should all be of the same length and free from side branches. Two persons should work together, a man who uses the dibber and a boy who carries the grafts. The man makes a hole with the dibber, the boy puts in a graft, when the man immediately makes another hole by the side of and two inches away from that containing the graft, and, pressing toward the graft, packs the soil firmly around it. After each row is finished in this way, the man should turn back on the row and press firmly by the side of each graft with the ball of the foot. Another method of planting root-grafts and cuttings, which is applicable for planting cuttings on a small scale, is as fol- lows. This is not a fast method but is very excellent for a few grafts: The thoroughly plowed land is smoothed off, a line stretched and walked on where the row is to come and then thrown to one side. With a spade throw out a furrow along the line, leaving the edge straight and smooth and nine inches deep. Against this place the grafts and then with a hoe turned bottom up push a little earth against the lower part of the root of each graft, and afterwards draw three inches of soil into the fun-ow around the grafts and then press firmly against each graft with the ball of the foot. Fill the trench full and repeat the footing process again. A more expeditious way is to plow out a furrow instead of making it with a spade, and then fill the trench with a plow. In this way the work may be successfully done if the soil is not dry and the season is fa- vorable. But it pays well to do good work, and, where one has only a few hundred or a thousand grafts to plant, the spade method is most certain. In planting in a dry time the great key to success is to have the land firm and solid around the PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS.. 171 root and the union so that there will be no air spaces. This is very important. In two or three years from the root-graft, the trees will be large enough to be transplanted to the orchard. At that time some of the trees will be well rooted from the cion and others will scarcely show any at all. Others may have lost the stock on which they were grafted and be entire- ly on their own roots. In this latter case the trees will not have made a first class growth, although they may make trees of good size later on. Side-grafting. — Side-grafting is a form of union in which the c-ion is inserted in a cut made in the side of the plant gafted on Fig. 85. — Crown grafting below the surface of the ground, a. — Inserting cion in root of seedling, b. — ^Waxing the graft. and the stock is not cut off until the cion has started to grow. It is especially applicable to cherry seedlings, on which the union should be made at the crown of the plant, which is the point on the seedling where the root and top join. This form of grafting may be successfully used on plums, apples, and other fruits. If it is done on the branches of a tree there is no necessity of cutting off the part above the graft until the cion starts into growth. Grafting below ground. — If grafting is done just below the surface of the ground the work is more certaip of being success- 172 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. ful than if above the surface, and the resulting tree will be hardier than if the union was above ground, since the weakest point in a tree (the graft) will be protected by the earth. Of course, very frequently it is impracticable to do the work in this manner. The methods adapted for grafting below ground are the fcame as for above ground, only not so much wax is required. In grafting below ground, it is important to remove the soil until a smooth, straight place in the stem is found of sufficient length to contain the cion. In the case of most fruits this is preferably at the crown, 1. e., where root and stem meet. It is important, also, to keep the wounds free from dirt, for however much it may help to have the whole graft covered in this way, any soil on the cut surfaces will prevent that desirable close con- tact of the cells which is necessary for successful work. "When giafting is done below ground, suckers will often start from the stock in great numbers. These should all be removed or the graft will be ruined. A little observation soon teaches one to distinguish at a glance the sprouts from the stock and cion. In removing these suckers, they should be pulled away from the stock and not simply cut off. Only one shoot should be permitted to grow from each cion and this should be the thriftiest and generally that starting lowest down. The lowest is saved because, wherever a shoot starts, there is gen- erally a crook formed, and if near the ground it is not unsightly. Night Cap is a term given to signify a paper bag that is sometimes drawn over and tied be- low a graft made in the open as soon as it is completed. It is illustrated in Fig. 86. Its use is to prevent the shriveling of the cion du-e to exposure of drying winds. It is especially de- sirable in top-grafting trees in dry seasons or in exposed locations. It is a very valuable ad- junct to the grafting outfit and its use should Of course the bags should Fig. 86.— Night- cap. — Graft be more general, protected by ^^e removed as soon as the cions start and the paper bag. PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 17?? same care should be taken in the use of wax around the graft as if the night cap were not used. The following notes on grafting different fruits will perhaps be of interest: Grafting apples. — Top-working and crown-grafting of apples in the open ground should be done about the time the buds are nicely started, but the cions should not have started at all. It is perhaps the easiest of^all the fruits to graft, and almost any method may be employed on it. The cions should be from four to six inches long. Top-working. — By top-working is meant the grafting or bud- ding of a tree after it is of some considerable size. The term is used to distinguish such trees from those that are root-grafted. It is here recommended for severe locations and for somewhat tender kinds, such as the Wealthy in Central ]\Iinnesota, which, besides being somewhat tender and liable to sun-scald, is weak in the stem and crotches. If this variety is grafted on the branches of the Hibernal, which is a very hardy sort with strong crotches, a tree is form- ed that has much of the hardiness of that variety but at the same time bears Wealthy apples. By this method we may in- crease the hardiness of trees to a considerable degree. Some varieties seem to be better adapted to one stock than to an- other. The Hibernal is a stock that is hardy in every particu- lar and especially desirable for top-working. It grows rapidly, makes a large tree and will keep up in rapidity of growth with any of our larger apples. Most of the larger growing crabs make good stocks for top-working. The Transcendent Crab may be successfully used for this purpose. When it is intended to grow an orchard by this method the stocks should be set in the spring, to be budded the following August or to be grafted the following spring. If to be budded the buds should be inserted in about the same positions in the head of the tree as the grafts. Grafting the Plum. — The plum is most successfully grafted very early in the spring— even before the frost is out of the ground or a bud has commenced to swell. When done at this time the work is generally successful, though not as certain as the apple. It is said that the plum may be grafted very sue- 174 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. cessfully later in the spring, even after the buds have com- menced to swell, providing the buds on the cion are started as much as those on the stock at the time the worlc is performed. The plum may be quite successfully root-grafted in the house in the winter, as recommended for the apple and treated the same way, but it generally takes a year longer to get the tree formed, since in this case the growth from the cion is quite slow the first two years. On account of this slow growth root-grafted plum trees are often crooked and unpromising. This defect, however, may be remedied by cutting away in the early spring of the second year all the growth from the cion except one strong bud at the base. If this work is dona very early in the spring it will result in throwing the whole strength of the root into a single bud and the forming of a stem that is straight in place of the former crooked one. A much better and more satisfactory plan than root-grafting is to plant the stocks in the nursery one year before they are intended to be grafted, and then graft them below the surface of the ground very early in the spring. For this purpose cleft or whip-grafting should be used. When the work is done in this way the result is a very strong growth from the cion. If the suckers are pinched off and the whole strength of the root forced into one shoot, the result, on right land and in the case of strong, healthy stock, will be to give a growth often exceeding four feet in height. Some- times the growth in this latter case will be so heavy that the branches are liable to be broken off in the wind, and should be tied to stakes with soft string. The cions should be from four to six inches long. Grafting the Cherry. — The cherry may be root-grafted In- doors in the winter. When this is done, side-grafting is employ- ed and gives results far ahead of any other method. But with the best of care the losses from in-door grafting of this fruit make it very unsatisfactory. Much better results will be achiev- ed by side-grafting them at the crown of the plant on stocks well established in the open ground, as in the plan recommended for propagation of the plum. In regard to this fruit it is also re- ported that, as in the case of the plum, the work may be done after the stocks start into growth a little, providing the cions PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 175 are as far advanced. The cions should be from four to six inches long. Grafting the Peach is occasionally practiced but it seldom gives best results. Its most common use is on stocks on which the buds have failed to grow and it is sometimes very successful. Grafting the Grape is done most safely very early in the spring, even before a sign of growth appears, but it may also be grafted about the time the first leaves are nicely expanded, if the cions are kept dormant until that time. The work should al- ways be done below the surface of the ground. Any form of graft may be used, but that most commonly used is cleft-graft- ing, as described. In making a cleft-graft upon a grape root it is often necessary to saw the cleft in the stock with a fine saw, on account of the crooked, twisted grain of the wood, which does not allow it to split straight. Some growers do not use any wax around the graft but simply cover it with a mound ..f well packed earth up to the upper bud of the cion. In graft- ing after the leaves are expanded some propagators prefer to use side-grafting, and do not cut the vine severely until it is believed the cion has grown fast to the stock, when the vine is cut entirely away. Whip-grafting is also used for this purpose. The cions should be about six or eight inches long. To change varieties in a vineyard grafting on a cane from the '.'in vine is sometimes practiced. In this case a cane from the old vine long enough to reach nearly midway between the vines is grafted with a cion which should be at least two feet long. When grafted the graft, including the cane and cion, should be buried six inches deep, the end bud of the cion being brought above the ground where the new vine is desired. The following year the old vine may be largely cut away and the growth from the cion will take its place. This method is not so neat as when the vine is cut off and grafted below at the surface of the ground, but it has the merit of being very much more certain of not neces- sitating the destruction of the old vine until a new one is estab- lished. Grafting by approach or inarching is a form of grafting in which V.ie branches of growing plants are brought together. It is sometimes used to change the bearing of vines or trees, or to 17(; POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. grow two branches or stems together. It is much used in propa gating such ornamental trees as cut-leaved and purple birches. It may be done at any time during the growing season and on any flexible growth of whatever age. It is formed by shaving out a piece of baric and wood from the stock and from the cion, of the same size and in such a way that the inner barks of each may be tied together. If this is done even so late as the middle of July they will grow firmly together before winter. It is cus- tomary, when this method is to be used for propagation, to either set a lot of small plants around the one from which the cions are to come, or to grow them in pots and set pots and plants near by. When the branches have united they are permitted to grow until autumn, then the cions are cut off just below the union and the plants with the cions on them are heeled in for winter or protected in some other way. No wax is needed, as the union is very sure if the parts are closely tied together. This is a very safe and sure method and is easily performed, even by the novice. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER X. 1. For what purposes are plants propagated from seed? 2. What is meant by stratification? 3. What kinds of seed are stratified? 4. What are offsets and how are plants propagated from them? 5. What are layers? Spring layers? Summer layers? Mound layers? 6. What plants are adapted to propagation by layers? 7. When are layers made? 8. How are cuttings made? 9. What are soft wood cuttings? 10. Wliat are hard wood cuttings? 11. What conditions are necessary for successful growing of hard wood cuttings? 12. When should they be made? 13. What soil is best for planting cuttings? 14. How should they be planted and when? 15. What is the solar pit? 16. How is it made and for what purpose? 17. What does graftage include? 18. What are the limits of graftage? 19. What Is meant by stock, cion? 20. When is budding practicable? 21. What is the best stock to be budded upon? 22. What is the bud-stick? 23. When is the best time for budding? 24. WTiat conditions are necessary for successful budding. 25. What implements are necessary? 2G. What material is used for tying the buds? PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 177 27. How are the buds cut from the bud-stick? 28. When is the bark in the best condition for budding? 2:». Describe the process of inserting the bud in the stock. 30. What precautions must be taken in budding? 31. What care is necessary in the spring and fall, after the buds liave started? 32. How should the buds be protected from winter injury? 33. When and where is June budding practiced? 34. How do June-budded trees differ from other budded trees? 35. How is June budding performed on peaches and plums in the South? 36. What is shield budding? Flute budding? 37. What is the difference between grafting and budding? 38. What precautions must be taken in budding? 39. What is grafting wax used for? 40. How is it made? 41. What other materials can be used instead of grafting wax? 42. How is cleft-grafting performed? 43. What tools are necessary for cleft-grafting? 44. How should the cion be cut for cleft-grafting? 45. How does whip-grafting differ from cleft-grafting? 46. How and when are root grafts made? 47. How are they planted? On a large scale? On a small scale? 48. What care should be taken when planting the grafts In a dry season? 49. What is side-grafting? 50. What fruit plants is it best adapted to? 51. What advantage is there in grafting below the ground? 52. How should the work be done? 53. For what purpose is the night cap used? 54. How are apples grafted? 55. How are they budded? 56. What is the result of top-working varieties? 57. What is meant by top-working? 58. How is the plum most successfully grafted? 59. How is the plum root-grafted? 60. What forms of grafting are used on the cherry with best results? 61. How is the peach grafted? 62. When is the grape grafted? 63. What methods are used? 64. How may the varieties in a vineyard be changed by graft- ing? 65. What is "inarching" and when is it used? CHAPTER XI. POME FRUITS. THE APPLE. Origin of the Cultivated Apple. Classes of Apples: (a) The true apples have descended from the Pyrus malus of Europe. Characteristics: Woolly twigs, on new growth, calyx and flower stems; fruit, various but always holding its calyx, i. 6., the parts of the flower commonly found on the end of the fruit; leaves, thicker and broader and the twigs thicker than those of the crab apples (P. daccata). The common apple of commerce comes from this species. (b) The crab apples have descended from the Pyrus baccata of Europe and Asia. In Europe the term "crab" is often applied to any small inferior kind of an apple which may be said to be crabby. Characteristics: Growth, smoother and more wiry than that of the true apple; leaves, narrower, thinner and with longer stems; flower clusters and leaves seldom woolly; fruit, small on long, wiry, slender stems; seed, enclosed in hard, close fitting hulls; calyx falls off when the fruit is mature. There are few, if any, of these pure crabs in cultivation. Possibly, however, the Yellow and red Siberian crabs are of this parentage. (c) Hybrid crabs are sometimes known to botanists as Py- rus prunifolia. They are undoubtedly the result of crosses be- tween the true crabs and the larger apples. In this group are in- cluded most of the so-called crabs of commerce, such as the Transcendent, Hyslop, Sweet Russett, Excelsior and others. In them are to be found the quality of the P. malus and the P. bac- cata, mixed in various proportions. (d) Pyrus coronaria, the largest of Western crabs, has a form which has become known as Pyrus ioensis. This is a native of the Mississippi Valley and eastward. Characteristics: Tree, vigorous, especially when young; young growth, woolly; leaves, often deeply indented; fruit, green or later yellowish, aromatic, APPLE. 179 hard, bitter, keeps through the winter; resembles quince in quality and used like the quince for making an excellent jelly. There are but few varieties of this in cultivation, among them are the Soulard and the Fluke. It does not readily cross with the cultivated apple. Groups of Apples: Among cultivated varieties of apples we often find several that closely resemble one another in fruit, foliage and habit. Some of these groups are as follows: (a) The Fameuse group includes Fameuse, Shiawassee Beauty, Mcintosh and St. Lawrence. (b) The Duchess of Oldenburg group includes Duchess, Borovinka, Gilbert and Charlamoff. (c) The Ben Davis group includes Ben Davis, Gano, Shock- ley and Black Ben Davis. Other groups will suggest themselves to those acquainted with many varieties of apples. For describing apples a certain convenient nomenclature has been adopted. It frequently happens that the color, shape and quality of fruits are changed by soil and location. The character- istic appearance of the wood and foliage, however, is less liable to change; in the identification of fruits it is often necessary to take them into account as well as the fruit, and a good descrip- tion should include the tree as well as the fruit. These terms, as applied to the growth of a tree, are "strong and vigorous," as the Duchess of Oldenburg; "vigorous and slender," as Anisim; "stout and short jointed," as the Yellow Transparent. For the general form of the tree the term "upright spread- ing" would indicate the Duchess; "spreading" the Roxbury Rus- sett; "upright" the Wliitney; "round headed" the Red Astrachan. In describing the fruit the word "base" means the part of the apple at the stem end; "apex," the portion at the blossom end; "cavity" is the depression around the stem; "basin," the depression around the flower end; "calyx," the so-called flower in the apex of the apple. The general form is referred to as be- ing "round," "oblate," "conical," and "oblong," which terms are illustrated in fig. 87. As regards size, apples, when under two and a half inches in diameter, are said to be small; when from 180 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. two and a half to three and a half Inches in diameter they are termed "medium," and above this, "large." Fig. 87.-Forms of apples. a.-Oblong. b.-Round c -Conical. ^ Fig. 102.— nowers of the grape, a.— Flower just opening, with cap pushed off. b.— Perfect flower, c. Staminate flower, d. — Flower with reflex stamens. Propagation. — The grape is increased from cuttings and lay- ers and, to a very limited extent in this country, by grafting. In California it is considered good practice to graft the Eu- ropean kinds on American roots to avoid the phylloxera. By seed.— Propagation by seed is used for growing stocks and to obtain new varieties. If vines are to be grown in this way the seed should be at once sown in boxes of rich soil, or in a fine seed-bed. (The seed should be saved from ripe ber- ries). Cover it half an inch deep and protect by a mulch in winter. The plants will make a growth of one or two feet GRAPE. 223 the first season and will show blossoms about the fourth year. Some will have perfect and some staminate flowers, while others will have flowers with re flexed stamens; not one seedling in a thousand will be worth anything for fruit. The chances for obtaining good kinds will be much increased if careful, intelli- gent hybridization is resorted to. By cuttings. — Grape cuttings are of three kinds— long and short hard-wood cuttings, and soft-wood cuttings. The pro- cesses by which they are rooted vary greatly in details but the general principles are the same in every case. Long hard-wood cuttings. — These should be made in the fall from the hard, well-ripened new wood of the season. It is best to make them about eight inches long, if wood is abun- dant. The length will necessarily depend somewhat on the distance between the buds on the canes, and when three-bud cuttings are made of some varieties they may be ten inches long. They are often made six inches or less in length, but as short as this they are more liable to fail from drying out than if longer. They will send out roots best if cut just below a bud, but this is not necessary. These cuttings should be put up in bundles of about one hundred each. Bury them in some well- drained place with the tops down, and cover with about six inches of soil and a foot or two of mulch. Be sure the soil is packed firmly around and between the bundles, so that they cannot dry out in winter. In the spring, when the ground is dry, take all but about three inches of the soil from over the cut- tings and replace it with about one foot of hot stable manure, to induce the cuttings to callous. This is very necessary to insure their rooting, and they should never be planted out until well calloused. The same object may be secured by covering the cuttings with a box and sash, which will confine the sun's rays ana so warm the roots that they will start a callous. When the soil is settled and warm they should be planted out six inches apart, in rows two or three feet apart, putting the cuttings down to the top bud. They should be put at least seven inches deep In most locations. The land for cuttings. — The land selected for growing grape cuttings should be warm, light and rich. Its condition will be 224 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. greatly improved if it is warmed by being plowed several times and has a coat of fine, warm manure turned in before planting. When planting on a large scale the land may be marked off with a line, and a sub-soil plow run eight inches deep in the mark to loosen the soil, after which cuttings can easily be pushed into place by hand. The after-cultivation consists in continually working the top soil and keeping it loose and open. In the fall, if the plants are weak, they may be covered with earth and left where they are for another season's growth; but if strong, they may be dug and used for vineyard planting the following spring. It is customary to dig all the vines late in the fall, carefully sort them and heel them in outdoors for win- ter, or else put them in a cold cellar. In the spring the strong vines may be used in the vineyard and the weaker ones be set out in the nursery to grow another year. (See p. 152 on growing cuttings in chapter on Propagation), One-eye cuttings. — The wood for these should be cut in the fall and wintered over in a cold cellar buried in moss, sand, sawdust, or other similar material, or it may be buried outdoors. In the spring, generally in Feb- ruary or early in March, these canes should be cut up into pieces having one Inch of wood below and half an inch above the bud. Boxes about the size of an ordinary soap box, but only four inches deep and having holes for drain- age, should be prepared by putting in one and a half inches of rich soil and then about the same amount of clean sand on top of It. The cuttings should be set deep enough in the sand to just cover the bud, putting them two inches apart each way. The boxes Fig. 103. — One year old grape from one- bud cutting. GRAPE. 225 may now be put in a gentle hot-bed, or on a greenhouse bench, and kept moist. They should be rooted in about six weeks. When they have made a good root growth they should be plant- ed, after the soil is warm, in rich soil outdoors. The time for this will be as late as the latter part of May in this section. Very nice plants may be grown in this way, but they do not make as strong a growth the first year as plants from long cut- tings, and often need a second year in the nursery before they are large enough for transplanting to the vineyard. Soft-wood cuttings. — These are made from the green wood taken off while the plant is growing. They are rooted in sand in much the same way that florists root cuttings of geraniums, fuchsias, etc. It is a method used only where wood is very valu- able, and as a means of increasing new varieties. Plants grown this way are apt to start slowly and to be weak until well start- ed, and should not be used when those grown from hard-wood can be obtained. Layering. — This is the simplest, surest and easiest method of increasing the grape, and is the best way to grow it where but few vines are wanted. There are two kinds of layers, called spring and summer layers from the season in which they are made. Summer layers are made in the summer, generally the last of July, from a branch of the same season's growth. They are likely to be weak for several years, and do not make as good plants as spring layers. In making them the wood should be slit for an inch or so near the buds that are covered. Bury about one foot of the cane four inches deep in the ground and it will be rooted by late autumn, when it may be treated as recommended for weak year- ling vines grown from hard- wood cuttings. Spring Layers. — These may be made by laying down any cane early in the spring. It will root in one season and by ,,,,„. ^ ^. , , fall will have made a good Fig. int.— Ordinary layer of a grape ^, . ^ , .^ vine. growth of roots, when it may 22fi POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. be cut from the main cane, and if strong enough may be divided into two plants. By a little different treatment of the spring lay- er, a vine may be grown from each bud on the layered cane. For this purpose some thrifty cane should be selected in autumn, pruned of its laterals and buried. In the spring it should be uncovered and only one shoot permitted to grow from each joint. After the new growth has started about six inches from each bud, the whole cane should be layered about four inches deep, handling it carefully so as not to break the new growth. Big. lOG shows such a layer after it has rooted. It is a good plan to cover it not more than three inches at first and to fill up the trench as soon as the shoots grow. It covered four inches deep at once, the young growth will sometimes rot, though this seldom happens, and some skillful growers fill the trench full at once. In the autumn roots will be found growing from each joint and these may be cut apart and treated as recommended for weak vines grown from cuttings. If this method of propagation is to be used to some consider- able extent, vines should be grown especially for the purpose. It is not a good plan to use fruiting vines for layering to any great extent, though it may be safely done in a small way. For directions as to grafting the grape see chapter on Propaga- tion. Fig. 105. — Ordinary layer of grape cut apart and made into two plants. Fig. 106.. -Layering grapes. Showing how to get a plant from each bud of the cane layered. GRAPE. 227 Location of the vineyard. — Some of the hardy, early ripen- ing but inferior grapes will mature in almost any situation, but the better kinds need a warm exposure and free circulation of the air about them to insure their ripening each year. High souiuern slopes generally offer the best locations; in such places there is the greatest amount of heat in summer, very general immunity from the late frosts of spring or the early frosts of autumn, and a movement of the air at all times; all of which are important matters in growing grapes. Other slopes, and even level land, may be successfully used for this purpose, but on northern exposures, the fruit will be later in ripening than if in situations where the plants receive the direct rays of the sun. However, excellent fruit may often be grown on a northern slope if it is near some large body of water, which will help maintain an equal temperature, and especially to keep off the early frosts of autumn. In a vineyard closely shut in so that the loliage of the vines does not dry off quickly after summer showers, it will be found very difficult to grow many of our better kinds of grapes on account of the prevalence of fungus diseases in such places. The cutting away of a belt of trees surrounding a vineyard, so as to allow a free move- ment of air through the vines at all times, has often been the means of making the difference between failure and success in growing grapes. Soil. — The best soil for a vineyard is a rich gravelly or sandy loam, with an open clay sub-soil; but a somewhat clayey loam will do very well if sufficiently drained to remove excess of moisture. Before planting, the land should be thoroughly prepared by plowing and harrowing until in the best condition. Where there is not good surface drainage, as on some prairie farms, it will be found a good plan to plant the vines on ridges made by turning six furrows back to back. In other locations the land should be kept smooth. A limestone soil or loess loam is almost ideal for the grape. The best vines for planting are strong one-year or thrifty two-year-old plants from layers or cuttings, and only those hav- ing a good root system should be used. Plants more than three years old are not desirable, as young, thrifty plants soon out- 228 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. grow those that are old and large when transplanted. It mat- ters little about the direction of the rows; they should be laid out so as to prevent erosion as much as possible. The proper distance between the plants will depend some- what on the vigor of the kinds planted, the manner of pruning, and the soil; but the strong growing varieties, which are most desirable, should generally be set ten by ten feet apart each way, or in some cases eight feet apart in rows ten feet apart, to al- low for the growth of roots and a good circulation of air be- tween the vines. When the vineyard is much shut in it will be found advantageous to increase this distance, but when lo- cated in an airy position and on retentive soil the plants may be set eight by eight feet. Planting. — The most rapid way of planting grape vines is to furrow out the land one way and mark the other, putting the vines at the intersection of the furrows. Before planting, the tops of the vines should be cut off so as to leave only two or three buds, and if the roots are very long it will facilitate plant- ing to cut them back to twelve inches in length; shortening the roots to this extent does not seem to injure the growth of the plant. On light soil and on hillsides it is exceedingly important to get the roots down deep in the land, and the holes should be made large enough to allow the lower roots to come about fifteen inches below the surface. The top loam should be put around the roots, but the plants should not be covered at once more than two inches deeper than they grew in the nursery. The soil should be gradually worked in around the vines as they grow until the holes are full. On heavy soils, especially those quite moist, it is not safe to plant deep, and eight inches will probably be found about the right depth in most locations. In planting vines to be pruned on the one-cane system, it is best to incline them somewhat in the direction in which they are to be trained on the trellises. This should be in the direction of the prevailing summer winds. Cultivation. — Soon after planting, the vines should be well cultivated, and some hoed crop that will not shade them may be grown between the rows for the first two years. After this the vines will need all the land. Cultivation should consist of GRAPE. 229 a shallow plowing early each spring and during the summer. The top soil should be kept loose and light by shallow cultiva- tion. Deep cultivation or much cultivation late in summer is not desirable in a vineyard, and it may cause serious injury by encouraging a late growth. If the land is lightly plowed each spring no large surface-roots will have time to form; but if this is neglected for several years large surface-roots will get started, and then plowing may seriously injure the vines. Pruning and training are the great bugbears to amateurs in grape growing, and the attempt to follow some peculiar meth- od has done more than anything else to discourage the growing of this fruit by farmers. As a matter of fact, vines will grow and bear fruit without any pruning whatever. Pruning is done simply to get the most good fruit from the least amount of vine, and for practical purposes it is a very simple matter. There are, however, many systems described in books, and occasionally used in practice, that are quite complicated and difficult for a beginner to understand and even for the experienced to carry out in practice. The practical points to have in mind in pruning grapes are: (1) That the old wood which has borne fruit once never bears again. (2) That the wood that is formed one season produces the bearing wood for the next season. (3) If all the new wood is left on the vine it will bear ten times more clusters than it can properly develop, and they will be small and imper- fect. (4) If nine-tenths of the new wood is cut away, leaving only from thirty to fifty good buds to each vine, the yield of good grapes will be much increased. (5) It is desirable in severe climates to train the vine so that it can 'pruned and^ cov- ^e laid down on the ground with but lii- ered for winter at tie resistance, for in such locations it is the end of first year. With extra nec-essary to protect it each winter, forma^tion"of tSe « these points are borne in mind vines Is started it matters not so very much what sys- the first year. . . , , tem is pursued in pruning. However, it will be found most convenient to adhere somewhat clearly to some simple system of pruning. But whatever plan for after- 230 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. training is adopted, the care of the vine for th« first two years should be about the same. The first year no support or pruning is needed. The vines will ripen their wood as well on the surface of the ground as if tied to stakes, but it will be more convenient about cultivat- ing if they are staked. Late in the autumn of this year, all of the vines should be cut away except three or four buds as shown in fig. 107, unless the wood is exceedingly firm and ripe, in which, case it may be practical to start forming the vine the first year. The vine should be covered with a mound of earth four or five inches deep. Later on, before severe weather sets in, it Is a good plan in the more northern states to apply a covering of mulch two or three inches in depth, of straw or litter of some sort. This mulching is absolutely necessary to insure the winter- ing of newly transplanted vines. Trellis. — The following spring, a trellis should be built un- less stakes were set the first year, when they may be used again and the work of putting up a trel- lis be deferred until the opening of the third year. The most desirable kinds to use will depend upon the method of training fol- lowed. Spur is a term used to indicate the short stubs of the lateral canes that re- main on the main cane after pruning, from which the new growth starts. It is generally desirable to keep the spurs as short as possible. Systems of Training and Pruning the Grape. There are two fundamental systems used in training the grape, which underlie all methods in common use. In one sys- tem the shoots are trained upward from the cane. This is call- ed the upright system and embraces a large number of method«s. In the other, or drooping system, the shoots are allowed to hang Fig. lOS.— Spur of a Grape Vine. GRAPE. 'z:n naturally from the cane from which they grow. The upright methods have been more widely used than the drooping meth- ods although they are more expensive in practice, since they gen- erally require a more elaborate trellis and the labor of pruning and training is much greater. Further, some of our strong grow- ing vines produce more fruit when trained on the drooping than on the upright system, but there is still quite a difference of opinion among commercial growers as to the relative merits of each, so it is certain that good results are obtained by both of them. The single post method is the simplest method of pruning the grape on the upright system. In this, generally two canes Fig. 109.— Pruning grape vines. Vine treated on high renewal system at end of the season. are selected and wound about the post, each in opposite direc- tions and tied in place. In pruning in after years these canes are preserved and the canes that grow from them are shoriened back to two or three buds. The advantage of this method con- sists in the fact that it permits cultivation of the vineyard both ways and in the cheapness of the support. Its disadvantages 232 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. are that probably the vines are too crowded and the foliage and fruit do not have the best chance to develop. This crowding also encourages disease. High renewal method of training is a form of the upright system that is extensively and successfully employed on a large scale. It starts the branching of the vine at about twenty-four inches from the ground, which is the height of the lower wire oi the trellis. A single stem is carried up to the wire where it branches and its two arms are trained in opposite directions along the wire. In this style of training, the end of the second season will find the vine with two well developed canes extended on the lower wire of the trellis. These should be cut back at pruning time to firm, strong wood. At the beginning of the third season, the buds on this wood will start and form canes that should be trained upward and be tied to the second wire. The third wire is generally put up during the second season, although It is very likely that it will not be needed until the following year. Some of the upright shoots will bear a little fruit the third season but unless the growth is very strong, this should not be permitted. At the end of the third season, all the vine is cut away except two strong canes nearest the center of the vine, which are merely cut back to firm wood and extended along the lower wire. It is from these canes that the vine starts the next year. The subsequent training of the vine is a continued suc- cession of preserving the two best central shoots and the cutting away of all the rest of the vine. If the two central shoots are not strong enough, the nearest strong shoots are preserved. Fig-.llO. — Vine in Figure log after pruning. GRAPE. 233 In the case of strong growing varieties of grapes like the Concord and Worden, i-t is customary to leave more than two canes in pruning; often four and occasionally six are left. When four are left, two are often tied together along the bottom wire. If six are used, the two extra canee are tied along the second wire in the same manner. The amount of wood that should be left on a vine after prun- ing will depend upon the vigor of the variety grown. In the cane of the weak growing sorts, like the Delaware, from twenty to thirty buds should be left on the vine after pruning. This means that all the buds left on the new wood shall not be more than this number on the whole vine and these shall be on two or more canes. In the case of strong growing kinds like the Concord, as many as ten or twelve buds may be carried on each cane and four canes may be left. In other words, such vjnts may safely carry from forty to fifty buds each year. In any case, a weak vine should have fewer buds left than a strong vine. As the vine acquires age, the spurs at the top of the trunk get weak. It is customary then to encourage a shoot from near the ground and treat it much the same as if it were a new young vine and from it form a new top. The second year after it is well started, i. e., when it is in good bearing condition, the old cane may be cut away and the young vine allowed to take its place. A top will retain its vigor six or eight years under ordi- nary treatment but seldom much longer, although the roots will still be vigorous and will form several successive tops. The high renewal method requires much more tying than any of the forms of the drooping system of training. In doing this, the vine should be firmly tied to the trellis and the new growth, as it reaches it, should be tied to the second wire and later to the third wire. It will be necessary to go over the vineyard sev- eral times each season to accomplish this. All shoots do not start with the same vigor, but after they have reached the up- per wire and are well tied they are allowed to hang down and need no further pruning or tying. In the case of the drooping method of training the only tying that is ordinarily practiced is that of tying the main cane very strongly to the wire. In this method, the vines are trained un- 231 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. til the canes reach the upper wire, after which no further train- ing is given and the summer shoots are allowed to hang from the upper wire. In tying the canes, and especially in tying the main arms, allowance should be made for their growth or they may be gir- dled. They should be tied loosely and for this purpose it is cus- tomary to use roping, cotton warp, green Kentucky Blue grass or even willow twigs. The One-Cane Spur Renewal Method. The one-cane spur renewal method of pruning is a form of the upright system that is adapted to sections where vines must Fig. in. —Method of forming vine trained on one cane spur renewal system. be laid down in winter, although some of the Labrusca sorts seem to fruit better when they are not pruned so close as is necessary in adhering to this system. Its chief advantage is that the vine Is trained close to the ground where it may be easily laid down and covered with earth in winter. Trellis. — A form of trellis well adapted to the upright and fan methods may be made by setting posts sixteen feet apart in the row, and using four wires of No. 12 galvanized iron, putting the lowest one about eighteen inches from the ground, and those GRAPE. 235 above ten inches apart. The wires should be securely fastened to one end post passing through the other end and through sta- ples driven in the inside posts, so as to allow the wires free play through them. This method allows loosening of the wires in autumn and tightening of them in summer. The form of trellis best adapted to the Kniffen and Munson methods will be found described under those heads. The second year after planting and as »soon as the weather is settled the vine should be uncovered, using a garden fork, which is the best tool for this purpose. Permit only one cane to grow, and that the strongest which starts. Rub off all the other buds that show while they are small. Tie the cane, as it grows, to stakes or wires and if it grows rapidly, pinch off the top once when it reaches the upper wire. The pruning in the fall of the second year should consist in cutting off all the laterals— in other words, in cutting off all tne Fig. 112 — Pruning grape vines. Old vine trained on one cane spur renewal system. 236 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. side branches close to the main cane. In pruning the main cane, leave about two-thirds of the growth it has made but not more than four feet long. The vine should then be buried as directed for the previous year, and it will be found convenient to bend it as low as possible. To do this to the best advantage, take away a little soil from near the vine, to permit part of the bend to come near the ground. As the vine gets older and stiffer, it will bend most easily and safely below ground. Third season. — The third spring the cane should be tied along the lower wire (fig. 112). If it has wintered well two shoots will start at nearly every joint. As soon as these are three or four inches long the weakest should be broken off und only the strong- est ones, that come about ten inches apart, be allowed to grow. In selecting these shoots preference should always be given to those coming out on the upper side of the main cane. As these shoots push upwards they should be carefully tied to the wires, and when they have reached the top of the trellis each of them should be pinched off at the end. This pruning will check the growth a little and result in the fruit buds being formed nearer the main cane than they would if not checked. Further pinch- ing is sometimes practiced when the finest bunches of fruit are wanted, but for practical purposes one pinching is enough, and some large, successful growers do not pinch at all, though it is probably a mistake not to pinch once, if this system of pruning is followed. If the vine is thrifty it will bear several pounds of fruit this year. As soon as convenient after gathering the ripe fruit the vines may be pruned. It is not necessary to wait for a frost to kill the leaves, and it will not do any harm to bury with some of the leaves on the vine. Where one has but few vines it is best to wait until there is danger of the ground freezing hard before laying them down, but in large vineyards it is not practicable to wait so late, and the work must commence earlier. In pruning the third fall, first select a cane near the extremity of the main cane and cut it off at a length suflScient to reach the next vine on the trellis. This cane must be tied to the lower wire the following (or fourth) spring, and will complete the permanent main cane, fig. 114. The rest of the pruning this fall will con- GRAPE. 237 sist of cutting away all but from three to six buds of the other shoots that have grown from the main cane. In pruning do not cut nearer than within one inch of any bud, to avoid winter kill- ing. Bury as directed. The following spring each of the buds left will start shoots; two vigorous ones should be selected from those nearest the main cane and the others rubbed off. The pruning in after years will be a repetition of this cutting of the canes back to several buds in autumn and allowing two shoots to start from each spur each spring. The Kniffen Method of Training. The Kniffen method of training the grape is a form of the drooping system. This is a method of training which originated in the Hudson valley, perhaps fifty years ago, and which is now widely used since it gives good results and requires less expense, in the items of support and tying, than any others. It is especial- ly adapted to strong growing varieties of grapes and to those of drooping habits. In this method a trellis with two wires is com- monly used and these are respectively 314 and 5i^ feet from the ground. It is especially important to have the end posts set sol- id in the ground and well braced. The intermediate posts are generally driven and they usually stand about twenty feet apart, which allows for a post between every other vine, if they are set ten feet apart — the common distance between them. Vine- yardists often grow their vines two years on stakes before put- ting up the trellis when following this method. Four-cane Kniffen system. — In this method a single cane is carried up the trellis to the top wire and two canes are trained outward from side spurs at each wire. The vine has then four horizontal canes tied to two wires. These are far enough from the ground so that the drooping new growth is pretty well out of the way in cultivation. The pruning of vines on the Kniffen system is much the same as in the case of the High Renewal system. Each year all the tops are cut away except the four best canes nearest to the trunk and these are cut back to sound, firm wood, extended on the wires and tied the following spring. In case the canes nearest the trunk are not strong enough for main canes, these may be cut back to one or two buds (i. e., to 2U POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. spurs), and the nearest strong cane used to form the vine. The following season the shoots growing from these spurs will prob- ably be strong enough to be used to renew the vines. As the vines become well established, it is customary to leave the upper renewal canes longer than the lower. Under this method a Fig. 113. — One form of the four cane Kniffen system of training the grape. Strong growing variety, like Concord, should be allowed ten buds for each of the canes on the upper and five buds each for those on the lower wire or a total of fifty buds for each vine, while such varieties as Delaware should not bear more than thirty buds. There is no summer pruning practiced in the Kniffen method although the young, superfluous, summer shoots should be broken out when they start, as is necessary for best results in any system. Two-cane Kniffen system. — Since the greater part of the fruit under the four-cane Kniffen system is borne on the upper canes, a modification of this system, in which the lower canes are dispensed with and the upper canes left longer, has come into practice in some sections. In this case the lower trunk is tied to the lower wire to steady it, and two canes, each bearing ten to fifteen buds, are left on the upper wire. Sometimes the lower wire Is not used at all. GRAPE. 239 The Munson Method of Training. The Munson trellis is referred to by its author, Professor T. V. Munson, as the Three-Wire Canopy Trellis and is a form of the Kniffen system of pruning. It is described by its author as follows: "Tne posts should be of some durable, strong wood. The end posts of every row should be large and strong and be set three and one-half or four feet in the ground and well tamped. The intermediate posts, which may be much lighter than the end posts, should be six and one-half or seven feet long and set two to two and one-half feet in the ground, with twenty-four fool spaces between posts, which will take three vines eight feet apart or two vines twelve feet apart. After the posts are set a three-eighths-inch hole should be bored though each, four feet from the surface of the ground in the direction in which the row«s run, leaving six Inches or more of post above the hole. These holes are to admit the middle, lower wire of the trellis. For each end post prepare a cross arm of 2x4 hard pine or oak, two feet long; at one inch from either end, and one inch from the upper side, bore a three-eighths of an inch bit hole to pass the lateral wires through, and in the middle of the lower side saw a notch one-half inch deep. For each intermediate post prepare a board of similar wood and likewise bore and notch." "Through the holes in the posts run a No. 11 galvanized wire, fasten at one end, tighten at the other end with a wire stretcher and fasten. This will be the middle and lower wire of the trellis, and all that will be needed the first year, when the young vines are trained up a string tied from the vine to the wire and along it. "The arms and the two lateral wires which they bear need not be put on the trellis until after the vines are pruned and tied the next winter. "Each end cross arm is placed inside the post, and against It, on top of the wire with notch side downward, straddling the wire to keep it from sliding. Then take a piece of the .same size wire, about seven feet long, pass one end through the bit hole in one end of arm and fasten the cross arm thoroughly In place. The wire will hold the arm in place and not weaken or split the arm as do nails or bolts, and will be longer lasting, 240 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. quicker, cheaper, and more elastic, so that when struck by the hames or collar in cultivation, it gives a little, receiving no dam- age. "Likewise place the cross arms on the intermediate posts, leaving the ends of the wire projecting about six inches after fastening. Then fasten a piece of wire about twenty-four feet long to each end of the cross arm at either end of the row and draw both tightly around the next post from the end near the ground and fasten so as to hold the arm at right angles to the middle wire. Then fasten the lateral wires firmly with the above mentioned six inches of wire left after fastening the in- termediate posts, as may be seen in fig. 114. This will prevent the arms from slipping out of position. "Pruning and training on this trellis is very simple and easy, with a little instruction for a few minutes with a vine or two pruned for example. The first season the vine is allowed to grow up on the middle wire by a string about which it is coiled by hand, by going over the vineyard once or twice until the selected shoot of each vine i^ upon the wire, after which it is allowed to ramble at freedom over the wires. By getting on to the trellis the first year one strong shoot, and allowing no other to grow, a partial crop may be had the second year with- out damage. On all weak growers, like the Delaware, this should not be allowed to bear until the third year. At the first regular pruning, (all pruning should be done in November, after leaf fall, and never so late as to cause the vines to bleed), the vine should be cut back to two or three buds that have reached the middle wire. "If the vines are strong growers, cut back to six or eight It ft Bft^ JPost LndPosi ^'"'•' i-i l'<^^ ll'^rin^ iae, four drns ZiCk, pruned 3nd fi<:ii Fig. 114. — The Munson method of pruning; a modification of th« Kniffen system. GRAPE. 241 buds each on two arms, one going each way along the lower wire, from where the ascending vine first touches the wire. After the vines are thus pruned, the outer end of each arm is firmly tied to the lower wire, along which it is gently coiled. These two ties hold the vine firmly in place. The buds on the arms push and ascend, passing over the lateral wires, clinging thereto with their tendrils and hang over like a beautiful green drapery, shading the fruit and body of the vine according to its natural habit. Buds that push on the body of the vine are rub- bed off as they appear, and after blooming the tips of all the bearing shoots are clipped off with a quick stroke of a sharp knife. This causes the growth to concentrate in the fruit, great- ly increasing the size of the berries. The four or five heeled in, or kept in a cold cellar, but the plan recommended should be followed when practicable. It is not considered good policy to plant the layers in the fall as they are very liable to winter Injury when disturbed in autumn. In digging the layers about ten inches of the cane should be cut off with the roots to facilitate handling. It is generally believed that unprotected plants are much hardier when the layers remain attached to the plant dur- ing winter than they are if the canes are cut loose in the fall. Location and soil. — The common varieties of the raspberry succeed admirably in any good soil, but the suckering class, which includes chiefly the red varieties, produce rather more abundantly than the black-caps in moist, heavy loam, and the latter do best in a sandy loam. A northern slope is generally better than a southerly one as it is less liable to injury from drouth, which frequently shortens the fruiting season in bad situations; but it is well known that some varieties withstand dry weather and other climatic troubles far better than others of the same species. Manure and preparation of land. — ^AU varieties need high cultivation. The land should be heavily manured, if of inferior quality, and thoroughly plowed and brought into the best con- dition for corn or other gross feeding crop. The best fertilizer is well rotted barnyard manure. Raspberries, especially the black cap kinds, will produce very well even on quite poor soil, but rich land and thorough cultivation is necessary for the best success with any variety. Time of planting. — The suckering kinds may be planted in autumn or spring with safety. When the work is done in the autumn great care should be taken to firm the soil around the roots, and a forkful of mulch over each hill is a great protec- tion against winter injury. Many growers prefer to set in au- tumn, since at that season they can give the work more careful attention than in the spring. Then, again, the new sprouts from sets (suckers) start very early, and if the work is delayed in the spring the new growth is often broken off or injured in the work ojf planting. Black caps and other tip-rooting kinds should never be set in the fall, as they are very liable to be winter- RASPBERRY. 269 killed if moved at that season. They should always be set in the spring. Selection of plants. — Since the canes are biennial there is no such thing as two or three-year-old plants, as with trees when we refer to the stems; but the roots may be of any age, as they are perennial. Plants of one season's growth are best to begin with. Sucker plants are largely used in the case of varieties increasing in that way; but plants from root cuttings are generally considered fully as good, or even better, when well grown. The old stools from raspberry plantations may be broken up and the parts planted, but such sets have few fibrous roots and often fail. "With the tip-rooting kinds plants obtained by breaking up the old stools are not so good as those from the suckering kinds obtained in the same way and should not be used, as they are very apt to fail even with the best of care. It is important to use only vigorous sets taken from perfectly healthy stock. Old plantations of raspberries fre- quently become diseased and plants from them are often worth- less, consequently much care should be exercised in buying plants. Care should also be taken to avoid using sets that are affected with root galls. Planting. — After the land is thoroughly prepared the plants should be set out in rows seven feet apart and at three-foot intervals in the rows, putting two plants at a place. The dis- tance between the rows may be lessened to five feet if more space is not available and the weaker growing kinds are plant- ed, but the greater distance admits of cultivation even when the bushes are loaded with fruit. It allows sunlight to readily reach the plants and is most satisfactory every way, and for profit they should never be set any nearer; while for some of the strongest growing varieties the hills should not be nearer than five feet in the row. At the time of planting the canes should be cut off close to the ground and no fruit allowed to form the first season. A good way to plant is to mark out the land the three-foot way and then furrow out where the rows are to come. Set the plants in the furrows, covering them temporarily with the feet, and afterwards more carefully with a hoe, firming them in with 270 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. the feet at the same time. The rows should preferably run north and south, for planted in this way the fruit is shaded by the new growth during the hottest part of the day during the period of ripening. Some garden crop may be grown between the rows the first year. Depth to plant. — Black cap raspberry plants should be set about the same depth in the soil as they naturally grew. The roots should be carefully spread and the soil well firmed over them. The suckering kinds should be planted a little deeper than they naturally grew and be well firmed in. Cultivation. — The soil should be kept loose with a horse cul- tivator and the rows free from weeds. If the land gets hard the one-horse plow may be used but the land should be kept flat and as free from ridges as possible. Frequent shallow cultivation, especially in a dry time, is important. Pruning and thinning. — Not more than two shoots should be permitted to grow from each root the first year. The second and succeeding years the suckering kinds will produce a lot of sprouts all around the hill; four or five of those nearest the hill should be allowed to grow and the rest treated as weeds. If a great lot of these suckers are allowed to remain, but little fruit will be produced. Black cap raspberries will this year send up a half dozen or so of sprouts at the base of the old plants, and enough of these should be removed to allow the re- mainder to properly develop. All these sprouts should be pinched once when from twelve to eighteen inches hign, if they are to be grown without a trellis. As soon as the fruit has been gathered the old canes which have borne fruit the current year should be cut out and destroyed. In the spring the suckering kinds need no pruning, but the lateral canes of the black cap varieties should be shortened back to twelve or fifteen inches, and the main cane shortened perhaps one-third its length. This is very important, as the branches of this kind are so slender that they will bend to the ground and break under the weight of fruit unless severely pruned, or they may set more fruit than they can mature and the whole be lost. When pruned in this manner the fruit will be much larger and the plant will yield fully as much fruit as if all the canes were left their whole length. RASPBERRY. 271 Mulching. — The first year no mulching is needed; but the becond season, as early as the middle of June, the rows should be mulched for two feet on each side with hay, straw or litter, or with what is better still, green clover cut when in blossom and put on two inches deep. The latter is especially desirable because it lies close, and as it rots in one season and is very rich in plant food it makes a good manure. Tliis material keeps the land moist, the berries clean, and kills out weeds. After putting on the mulch as recommended there will still be a space two and a half feet wide between the rows where the cultivator should be run to keep the soil loose. Too much stress can hardly be laid upon the importance of mulching this fruit. It frequently makes a difference between a good profit and a big loss. Support. — It is desirable in severe climates to have the canes supported in some manner. In milder sections, where winter protection is not necessary, the bushes may be so fre- quently pinched as to make them form little trees that support themselves; but this kind of treatment is not desirable where the plants have to be covered In winter, as it makes them so very stocky they cannot be easily laid down. A very good sup- port for raspberries and blackberries is made by running a No. 12 galvanized iron wire on each side of the bushes, attached to a good solid post at each end of the row and tied together at frequent intervals. This wire should rest on nails driven in stakes set twenty-five feet apart. Such a support permits the plants to mo\e gently in the wind but not sufficiently to break them by its violence. It keeps the fruit off the ground and is cheap and convenient. Winter protection. — Winter protection of some sort may be necessary for raspberries that are growing in severe loca- tions. A good windbreak may be sufficient to make the differ- ence between success and failure in growing this crop on our western prairies, but in many places in the extreme Northern states and in many parts of Colorado it is necessary to bury the canes to protect them from winter injury. This is espe- cially true when tender kinds are grown. To do this, the bushes should be covered late in autumn before the ground 272 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. freezes hard and should not be handled when there is any frost in the canes. The best covering is fresh earth. In laying them down commence at the north end of the row, remove the soil from the north side of the hill, about four inches deep, with a garden fork; gather the branches together with a two-tined fork, press gently to the north, at the same time place the foot firmly on the base of the hill and press hard, bending the bush B'ig. 122. — Uncovering raspberry bushes in the spring. in the root as much as possible and as little as may be in the canes, until nearly flat on the ground and hold it there until the second man covers with soil sufficient to hold it down. The top of each succeeding hill will lie at the base of its predeces- sor, making a continuous covering. It will be found that a lit- tle mulch put on the canes first after laying them down will hold the soil put on, and much less soil will be required than if no mulch is used. After laying them all down turn a furrow against each side of the rows, covering as much as possible, and draw a little over any canes that may be left exposed. It is only necessary to use enough to barely cover the canes. There are some of the strong growing varieties, such as the Gregg, that on rich land are very difficult to cover. With them it will do very well to bend as nearly to the ground as is safe and cover the tops only with enough soil to hold them in place. RASPBERRY 273 While it would be better to cover them all if it were practicable, yet treated in this way enough snow will generally lodge in the canes to cover them, and if this is supplemented with a light covering of coarse litter or straw so much the better. If mice are numerous they must be poisoned or they will eat the canes under the mulch. A machine has been originated in Minnesota that covers raspberries and blackberries quite successfully and it is there used on a large scale. It requires four horses to operate it. However, it often breaks many canes in operating and some growers prefer to take their chances of winter injury to cover- ing with it. Lifting canes in the spring. — The canes should be raised In the spring soon after the land is dry and well settled. To do this use a round-tined fork and after carefully removing some of the earth raise the plants slightly to a slanting posi- tion. It is found that left in this position the fruiting canes are shaded by the new growth and are not so crowded as when raised up straight. The fruit. — The fruit is found in red or yellow colors in the red raspberry class and in black, yellow and purple in the cap class. The varieties vary in size, fruitfulness and vigor as well as in color. The red kinds are most popular but the black caps are much used. The purple and yellow varieties do not sell well in most markets but are often very satisfactory In the home garden and for drying. All kinds are used for drying in years when prices are low. Picking and marketing. — Avoid picking when fruit is wet, if possible, and pick fruit clean. Do not leave any overripe fruit on the plants. Keep picked fruit in a cool, shady place; transport small fruit in a good spring wagon. Red raspberries are generally marketed in pint boxes, (24 pints in a case), and black cap raspberries in one quart boxes, but some growers find the pint box best for all kinds of rasp berries. In the west the gift package only is used, but in the Eastern states the return package is generally preferred. This subject should receive the most careful attention of growers. For further notes on picking, marketing, diseases and in 274 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. sects affecting raspberries see special chapters on these sub- jects. The Blackberries. The cultivated blackberries may be grouped under five heads as follows: (a) The high bush of the clearings and fence rows of the Northern states, with long clusters — as those of the Ancient Briton. (b) The type with lower growth and short clusters such as those of the Snyder and Badger. Both of these groups are probably forms of the Rwhus villosus. (c) The trailing dewberries such as the Lucretia and the Austin, known botanically as Ruius canadensis. (d) The forms that are intermediate between these species are probably hybrids between the two species above mentioned. Among these are varieties such as the Wilson and the Rath- burn. (e) The cut-leaved or evergreen blackberry (Rulus lacinia- tusj is probably a form of the European blackberry (Rubus fruticosusj. This kind is cultivated on the Pacific Coast where it remains green all winter and is very prolific and highly es- teemed. Propagation: (a) The high bush blackberry is propagated by suckers and root cuttings in the same way as the suckering raspberries. (b) The dewberry is propagated by layering the growing canes, which root readily about midsummer. Varieties of this group are not generally cultivated with success, but in some locations they fruit abundantly. Soils: (a) The best soil for the high bush blackberry is a heavy clay loam, but it grows on a wide range of soils. (b) The dewberry does best in a warm, sandy or gravelly soil, but is not nearly as reliable as the blackberry. Planting, Cultivation and Pruning: (a) Plant and cultivate the same as the suckering rasp- berry. (b) It is considered important by many growers to pinch DWARF JUNEBERRY. 275 the high bush blackberry canes at least once when two feet high, as this encourages the low setting of the fruit buds. (c) Spring pruning should not be done until the blackberry canes are in flower and the amount and location of bloom is seen, otherwise too many fruiting canes may be removed and thus no fruit left. As a rule, about one-half of the bloom should be cut off in the pruning. (d) It is desirable to have a trellis for blackberries and dewberries. Dwarf Juneberry. Dwarf Juneberry {Amelanchier canadensis, variety oMong- ifolia). — This is also called shad bush, service berry and suscu- tan berry, native of the Northern states and far ,into western Canada where in thickets it reaches the height of 16 feet and produces heavy crops of large fruit that is much prized by the settlers and Indians. There are several so-called varieties of it found in the Northern states, one of which makes a small tree, but it is bet- ter known in its dwarf form, which is so very distinct from the tree form as to seem quite worthy of being made a separate species. This latter form is quite abundant and occasionally very productive. It is the selected kinds of it that are cultivat- ed for fruit. It generally grows from four to six feet high; is covered with a profusion of white flowers early in the spring, and ripens its fruit in July with the raspberries. The berry is of a purplish red color, often nearly one-half inch in diameter. Figure 124 shows its size and form. Like the blueberries, the quality of the fruit is sweet though rather tame, but by the ad- dition of a little lemon juice it makes an excellent pie or sauce. It is readily cultivated and yields regular and abundant crops. However, when grown in a small way the fruit must be protect- ed from the birds or they will take it as fast as it ripens. Mos- quito netting, or the coarse wire netting — such as is used for chicken yards, is useful for this purpose. When grown on a large scale, the depredation of the birds is not so apparent. The plants are extremely hardy, seldom if ever being injured by our most severe winters, and are healthy and free from Insect pests. On account of its many good qualities, it should 276 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. find a place in the home garden, and it could often be cultivated for the near market at a profit. Propagation and cultivation. — The plants are readily in- creased from suckers, which are produced rather sparingly around the old plants unless they are cut back. These should be set out at about four- foot intervals in rows five feet apart, on rich upland. They com- mence to bear in two years, but will not pro- duce a full crop until the fourth year. They need clean cultivation, and in dry situations should be mulched to protect from drouth. They require but little pruning, though the suckers should be thin- ned out if they become abundant. Varieties. — T here are but few varieties of this fruit offered by nursery- men, and these are the result of selections made from plants growing In the wild state. They are, however, much superior in size of fruit and in productiveness to the plants commonly found in the fields, although these latter are greatly improved by cultivation. It is very probable that by growing seedlings, new varieties much superior to those now known will be originated. The kinds now grown require several weeks in which to ripen their fruit. The only variety of importance is known as Success and probably originated in Kansas. It is pro- ductive of large purple fruit of good quality; rather spreading in habit, with pendulous fruit clusters; earlier than the others Fig. 123. -Dwarf .Tuneberry. Flow- ers. SAND CHERRY. 2?i mentioned, ripening with the early currants. Probably as good as any if not the best for general cultivation. Aside from its fruit-producing qualities the Dwarf June- berries make nice lawn shrubs, being clean in habit and very pretty when covered with their profusion of graceful white flow- ers, which appear early in the spring. Sand Cherry. Sand Cherry (Prunus pumilaj. — This fruit plant is found In northern Michigan, "Wisconsin, Minnesota, the Dakotas, and elsewhere. It frequently fruits prodigiously on dry, gravelly Fig. 124.— Dwarf Juneberry. Foliage and fruit. embankments where scarcely any other plant can find exist- ence. In fact, it seems to be better adapted to a very dry rather than to a moist location. Plants on rich, moist land will often flower profusely but fail to set much fruit. It seems quite prob- POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. able that where the rainfall is light this plant will do well on rich soil, but where the precipitation is abundant it is best adapted to sandy or gravelly land. Thus it fruits abundantly on the sandy land of northern Minnesota and on the dry, rich land of the Dakotas. Description. — Some plants will reach a height of four feet and spread five feet on the ground, while others attain only half that size. The fruit resembles the cultivated cherry, but varies considerably in form, size and color on different plants. It is generally of a reddish — almost black — color when ripe. Fig. 125 —Sand Cherry. Foliage and fruit. The ripe fruit varies from the size of a large green pea to five- eighths of an inch or more in diameter. In some, the pit is small, while in others it is very large. The quality is generally too as- tringent to be relished uncooked, but this quality varies greatly in the different plants. When cooked, its astringency disap- pears and it makes a most excellent sauce. Where it grows abundantly it is used for sauce and for a sort of wine, which BUFFALO BERRY. 279 is said to be very palatable. It is not only a productive fruit plant, but a clean, strong growing shrub, and well adapted to severe locations on the lawn. The fruit ripens in the latter part bf July and first of August. It seems to be much more like a plum than a cherry, and perhaps the name sand plum would be more appropriate for it. Propagation. — It grows freely from seed, which should be sown as soon as ripe and not be allowed to get dry. Seedlings vary much, and selected plants should be grown in other ways. They fruit in about three years from seed. In many sections the wild plants may be dug and transplanted to the garden. Plants may be increased by layers, suckers and root cuttings, and by budding and grafting on the sand cherry or the native plum. The easiest way to increase them is by cutting the roots around the plants about eight inches away from the main stem sometime when the plant is dormant, and all the cut surfaces will sprout and form new plants. If the roots are cut into pieces about six inches long and these treated like willow cut- tings, they will grow nearly as readily. When budded on the plum, peculiar-looking, interesting trees are formed, which are quite fruitful. The plum may also be worked on the sand cher- ry and It forms a good union, but the roots are so flexible that the trees are liable to blow over unless the union is set very deep. The common cherry does not take freely on it. At present only seedlings are offered by nurserymen, there having been no nam- ed kinds introducd. A form of this, called the Dwarf Rocky Mountain cherry, has recently been sent out from Colorado, but has not been suffi- ciently tried to warrant conclusions as to its value here. It is, however, ex- tremely doubtful whether it is any better than Fig. 126.— Buffalo berry. Flowers, a.— Pistillate, b.— Stamlnate. 280 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Fig. 127.— Buffalo Berry. Foliage and fruit, a. — ^Fruit, natural size. the best of our native kinds. The Utah hybrid cherry some- what resembles this but has a, more erect habit. A quite limit- ed experience seems to show it is much inferior to our best na- tive kinds. Bullberry, or Buffalo Berry. Bullberry, or Buffalo-berry (Shepherdia argentea). — This plant is found abundantly along the river banks and coulees of the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming and Idaho, though but sparing- ly, if at all, in Minnesota or the more eastern and central states, yet it grows freely and fruits abundantly in all the northern states. Description. — A small tree or shrub with light colored foli- age, young growth and opposite leaves. The flowers and fruit are clustered near the base of the small branchlets on spurs on very short stems. The plants are dioecious, i. e., one has pistil- late and the other staminate flowers, so that it is necessary to have both kinds near together in order to get fruit. The flow- ers appear very early in the spring before the leaves and are small and inconspicuous. The fruit is produced in great abun- dance— often so thickly as to conceal the branches on which It grows — and when ripe gives a scarlet appearance to the MULBERRY. 281 whole plant. Occasional plants have yellow fruit. It is about the size of red currants, and contains one oval, quite large seed. The quality is much like that of rather sour red currants. It makes a fine jelly, but on account of the large seeds it is not so desirable for a sauce as red currants, and it is doubtful whether it will ever be popular for fruit where the red currant Is productive and reliable, but it is of use as an ornamental shrub, and it will probably be used to quite an extent for this purpose. Propagation. — This plant suckers readily if the roots are cut, but it is generally grown from seed, which germinate readi- ly if not allowed to dry and are winter covered with earth and sown in the spring. An easy way to winter it is to cover the seed on the surface of the ground with an inverted sod. Mulberries. The mulberry is seldom grown In this country and then is generally limited to two or three trees. This is probably on account of its lack of keeping qualities and its peculiar flavor which is not generally highly esteemed. It is classfied by Prof. L. H. Bailey as follows: 1. The White Mulberry group (Morus alba). a. Russian Mulberry (Morus var. tartarica). b. Nervosa Mulberry (Morus var. venosaj. 2. The Multicaulis group (Morus latifolia). 3. The Japanese group (Morus iaponica). 4. The Black Mulberry group (Morus nigra). 5. The Red or Native Mulberry group (Morus rubra). a. Lampasas Mulberry (Morus var. tomentosa). The best variety of the mulberry for growing in the north Central states is known as the New American but it is not hardy in the more northern states where the Russian Mul- berry takes its place. This latter is known as Morus alba var. tartarica and is described in Amateur Fruit Growing as follows: "The Russian mulberry was introduced from Russia and is very hardy over much of the Northwest. The Mennonites of Nebraska were among the first to introduce it into this coun- try and they grew it from imported seed. It makes a small tree but is much better adapted to being grown in the form of a 282 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. hedge or windbreak. In this form, it will often attain the height of twenty feet and becomes very close and pretty if given an oc- casional pruning. It is of a rapid growth and very hardy in southern Minnesota and southern Dakota, Nebraska and Kan- sas, and even north to the latitude of St. Paul, it stands fairly well. Occasionally in very severe winters, it will lose a part of its new growth but it quickly outgrows this injury and is less liable to winter killing when old than when young." Its fruit. — With few exceptions, all trees of this species now growing in this country have been propagated from seed, and as with most other fruits, not one seedling in five hundred produces fruit of much value. Most seedlings have very small fruit, while others are staminate and have no fruit at all. Quite frequently some trees will bear fruit as large as a medium-sized blackberry, and occasionally considerably larger. The quality of the fruit varies nearly as much as the size of the berries; some being insipid and even unpleasant, while others are sweet and agreeable, but like all mulberries, they lack high quality. They are quite soft when ripe and quickly fall to the ground, which should be kept smooth so that they may be readily gath- ered. It is at its best Just as it falls from the tree and generally commences to ripen just before the first currants, and con- tinues ripening for a week or more. It re- sembles the blackberry In appearance, but the fruit of some seedlings is nearly white in color, though the latter are sel- dom, if ever, as good eat- , _ „ ing as the blackberry. The Fig. 128.— Russian Mulberry. Foil- * ^ ^. ^ , / age and fruit. age at which plants com- CRANBERRY. 283 mence to produce fruit varies greatly, but when five or six years old, they may be expected to commence fruiting, and as they grow older their fruitfulness increases. As a market fruit it probably has no value, but a few trees should be in every garden. Children generally relish the fruit, and the birds let other fruit alone to feed on it. It is also used for sauce and pies, but for this purpose something should be added to it for flavor. Propagation. — The seed grows readily if sown as soon as ripe. For this purpose, the berries may be crushed in dry sand and sown with it in a rather moist, somewhat shady situation. In two years the seedlings may be transplanted to the perma- ment location, but seedlings vary in their productiveness, and while for a windbreak they may answer as well as any, yet when plants are wanted for fruit, they should be grown from cuttings or layers of the best kinds, or by grafting on seedling stocks. For this purpose, the cuttings should be made in the fall, about twelve inches long of the old wood, and be deeply planted in rich land, with not more than two buds above the surface. The branches root easily when layered, and if the earth is drawn up around the sprouts until they root they make good plants. Varieties. — There are no named kinds offered by nursery- men, and it is necessary to depend on chance seedlings. How- ever, if any large windbreak is looked over in the fruiting sea- son one or more trees can generally be picked out that bear fruit of exceptional value, and such may readily be increased. The flowers are of two kinds; sometimes both staminate (male) and pistillate (female) are on one tree, and sometimes a single tree is limited to one sex. On this account some care is neces- sary in selecting a variety to get one with both kinds of flowers, or else plant the pistillate kind near a tree having staminate flowers. The Cranberry. Cranborry (Vaccinium inacrocarpon). — This is the low trail- ing cranberry of the swamps of many of the northern states. The form and habit are well illustrated in Fig. 129. The so-called high bush cranberry (Vihurnum opulus) is a tall shrub and much more widely distributed than the trailing cranberry. The 284 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. latter has one flat seed in each fruit, while the former is a many seeded berry. This plant is not adapted to general cul- tivation, and seldom, if ever, does well on the prairies of the West. It may be laid down as a general rule that it cannot be successfully cultivated except on the granitic soils of the north- ern states, and that it will be a failure on the limestone drift soils, such as are common to the prairies of Minnesota, Iowa and the Dakotas. In Wisconsin and eastern and northern Min- nesota it is often very productive, either wild or cultivated, and is an article of much importance in the markets of those sec- tions each year. Where this fruit can be cultivated it is often the most paying crop that can be grown. Best location for cranberry beds. — In a wild state this plant is found at its best on moist land where the water level is within eighteen inches of the surface. It seems to be rather Indifferent about the soil, some- times growing on sand and then on peat mud or moss. As a rule the best locations are low meadow lands sloping down to ponds, or watered by brooks or creeks, somewhat sheltered but shaded. On uplands, it has been successfully cultivated, but in such situations in is gen- erally unprofitable and fre- . quently an entire failure. It may be laid down as a rule that the soil in which this plant is to thrive must be liberally supplied with water, and yet th-e land must be so drained that the water can be drawn off to at least ten inches be- Fig. 129.— Common' cranberry. Foli- low the surface. The best age and fruit; about one-half cranberry bogs are so ar- CRANBERRY. 285 ranged that both the flowage and drainage can be controlled at will. Land that has been covered with stagnant water for a long time, as the bottom of ponds, is not fit for the growth of this plant until it has been cultivated and exposed to the air for a year or more. Soil adapted to it. — Wherever the cranberry Is growing nat- urally one may be sure that the land near by is adapted to its culture. If no wild plants are growing near the supposed prop- er location, it is a safe and good plan to plant a few rods ol the most favorable portion of it as an experiment before spend- ing much time or money on improvements which may prove to be futile. With a bog adapted to the growing of this plant, with control of the drainage and flowage, a good crop of fruit Is assured for almost every year, if the work of preparation Is properly done. Yet there are many wild and cultivated bogs that have yielded very profitable crops for many years where the flowage has not been controlled, and hence if that factoi- cannot be directed at will, it is not necessarily a sufficient rea- son why an attempt should not be made to plant suitable land, providing the work can be done at small cost. The returns from natural cranberry bogs may often be greatly increased by a little judicious expenditure. Preparation of the land. — The first steps should be directed to destroying the vegetation growing on the land. The proper method of doing this will vary according to the location and condition of the land. It can sometimes be done by fiooding the land for one year and then clearing it, or by summer fallow- ing, and it may occasionally pay to cut off the whole surface of the bog, with spade or turf ax, and remove it by hand. But In some way the surface of the land must be cleaned of its growth and made level, and fine and perfect as a garden. If it is to be flowed, it should be made perfectly level, as it will then take much less water for flowage than if uneven. This matter Is especially important where the water supply is limited. Supplying sand. — It is of great advantage to have the sur- face of the land covered with about four inches of clean sand, and this should be done even if at considerable expense. The sand used should preferably be rather coarse, but it must be free from clay or loam, as anything that encourages the baking 28,> POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. of the surface of the bed is injurious. This sand offers a gooa place for the plants to root, is easily cultivated, and experience shows that it is conducive to fruitfulness. Yet there are many very fruitful peat beds that have never been sanded. If a peat bed is to be used without sand, the surface should be exposed to frost one year before planting or it will be likely to bake hard, but after one season's frost it becomes loose and fine. Drainage and flowage. — The method of securing these con- ditions will depend much on the situation of the land. The drainage is generally best accomplished by digging an open -Cranberry bog newly planted, showing ditch and dike; also portion of bed not yet covered with sand. ditch four or more feet wide through the center of the land. A smaller ditch should completely enclose the land, which should be divided into beds by lateral ditches about five rods apart. Where springs are met with they must be connected with a ditch. Importance of water. — The flowage may sometimes be con- trolled from a pond above the bog, or by a brook or creek run- ning through it. Every reasonable effort should be made to secure and control water for flowage for the following reasons: (1) Without a good water supply bogs often get very dry in periods of protracted drouth, to the great injury of the plants, and occasionally peat or moss bogs get on flre and burn up, destroying all the work done. A bog once on fire can seldom be saved except by flooding. (2) The water kept over the CRANBERRY. 287 plants in the spring will serve to retard the blossoming until danger of frost is past, and will protect the fruit from early frosts in autumn. (3) Beds that are kept under water until late in the spring are seldom seriously injured by insects. (4) Beds do best when protected by a water covering in winter. If not thus protected they may be seriously injured. When there is considerable fall in the bed it is customary to finish it at several grades and to put in as many dams, but where there is not more than two or three feet of fall one dam is quite sufficient. Dams should be made strong and have sluiceways large enough to let off all the water liable to drain through them. About flowing. — All that is required in flowing a bog is sufBcient water to cover the vines. They should be covered about the first of November, and as deep as they are to remain covered during the winter. The freezing of the vines in the ice does not hurt them, but raising the level of the water in the bed after they are frozen, and thus raising the ice and tearing the vines out of the ground, is where the great dan- ger lies. To avoid this, the sluice- ways should be kept suflaciently open to allow any surplus water to pass off. The first two seasons the water should be kept on the vines until the last of April, but after that, or when the bog is in con- dition to bear, the- water should be kept on until the last of May or first of June. The object of keeping it on so late is to prevent injury from late frosts, and to destroy the fruit worm and fire worm which are the worst foes of the cranberry. If the fruit is covered with water in warm weather, it is very liable to be ruined, but the vines are uninjured by such flowage. Throughout the growing season the water should be about twelve inches below the surface of the bed. Fig. 131. — Cranber- ry plants, one, two and three years after set- ting. 288 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Plants and planting.— In selecting plants great care should be used to get them from fruitful beds, as some are almost barren. There are very many named kinds, and they vary great- ly in size, growth, time of ripening and productiveness, but it is doubtful if any of the named kinds, the most of which ori- ginated in the East, are adapted to the climate of this section, and it is probably better for the present to depend on getting plants from the most fruitful wild cultivated beds near at hand. The kind most esteemed in the East is called the Early Black. It is very early and productive, though not a vigorous grower. Propagation. — The cranberry plant grows very readily from cuttings, and on this account some growers cut the plants in a hay cutter, sow the pieces broadcast and harrow them in with a disc harrow, but that method of planting is not advisable. The most common way is to make cuttings of the younger parts of the vines about ten inches long, and plant one in a place, but sometimes longer cut- tings are used which are doubled when planted. The cuttings may be car- ried over a whole season with good success if they are kept covered with running water, but in stag- nant water they would be likely to spoil. On this account they may be set at almost any season of the year if the flowage is con- trolled, but the spring of the year is generally pre- ferred, and if there is no chance to flow at will it is by far the surest time to plant. Before planting is commenced, the bed should be marked off each way at about eighteen inch intervals. In planting, a Fig. 132. — The two kinds of cran berry rakes In common use. PERSIMMON. 28D wooden dibber is used having an incurved or reversed wedge- shaped point, with which the cuttings are crowded through the sand down into contact with the bog beneath at one operation, without first making a hole as is customary in the ordinary use of a dibber. After the cuttings are planted the water should be raised in the trenches sufficiently to keep the surface land a little moist to encourage the rooting of the cuttings. The after- cultivation consists in keeping the soil moist and giving clean cultivation. Some of the best cranberry growers apply each year a coat of about one inch of sand to their bogs and find that it is profitable to do so as it acts much like a fertilizer. Picking. — If the berries are allowed to fully ripen on the vine they will keep much better than if picked earlier, but where there is danger of frost before they are ripe the berries should be picked as soon as they commence to color, though when picked so early, they will seldom keep well after the mid- dle of January. If severely frozen the berries are ruined, but they are not injured by a "white frost." Picking is generally done by hand, though some few growers "rake" them off the vines. The berries keep well in a dry, cool place, and are more easily kept if covered with water. The Persimmon. There are two distinct forms of the persimmon in cultiva- tion, which are commonly known as the Native or American persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) and the Asiatic species (Diospyros kaki) which has been chiefly developed under cul- tivation in Japan, and is known commonly in America as the Japanese persimmon. The wood of most of the species of this tree is hard, close-grained and takes a light polish. Some of the tropical species give us the ebony of commerce. The native persimmon is found growing wild in the South- ern states and as far north as latitude 38, that is, to central Indiana. The tree, when grown in the forest, is sometimes 75 feet high but usually 20 to 30 feet high. It will ripen its fruit as far north as northern Indiana. Its use is largely local, al- though it is occasionally offered in the larger markets. The wild fruit varies in size from one-half to two inches in dia,:ieter, depending largely upon the number of seeds it contains. Seed- 20O POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. less varieties an inch in diameter are known. The fruit is very astringent until ripe and some seedlings never lose this quali- ty. There is a general impression that frost is necessary to sweeten this fruit but this is a mistake, as some varieties are sweet without being touched with frost and others are made more edible. It ripens from August 1st to December in the Cen- tral states. It is easily propagated by seeds which should be stratified over winter and planted in spring the same as the peach pits. The seedlings do not come true from seed. This is especially so with the selected kinds, which are propagated by budding and grafting when two or three years old at the collar in the spring, as soon as the bark will peel easily. This tree is very difficult to transplant and if its tap root is cut off, it is liable to die. The top should be severely pruned when the tree is transplanted. The persimmon will grow in any good agricultural soil, but thrives best on a good, rich, warm soil. As yet, little attention has been paid to originating good named varieties of this native fruit but some of those produced are of fine quality and destined to be widely grown in favorable localities. The Japanese persimmons were introduced into America In the early history and have proven well adapted to the more southern states and parts of California, and are regularly to be seen in our markets and are growing in popularity. There is quite a difference in the hardiness of different varieties. Few of them can stand a temperature of zero and, as a rule, do best south of the 32nd degree of latitude. It is considered by the Japanese as their best pomological product. The trees of the different varieties attain a height of ten feet while others are compact and dwarf in habit and do not grow more than 5 or 6 feet high. This latter class bears young, often a good crop at three years old. The fruit is very pretty, usually bright orange red or vermilion, and round or oblong in shape. They color up when far from being ripe and should not be gathered until just before the frost or when they be- come soft, as in the case of the early kinds. The round varie- ties ripen first and the oblong ripen later. The latter, if picked before being ripe, should be allowed to ripen in the house to remove the slight astringency. PERSIMMON. 291 Seedlings of the Japanese persimmon have a tendency to produce male flowers only during the first three years of flow- ering. After that, a few female flowers appear but they are few in comparison with the male flowers. A large proportion of the seedlings produce fruit that is small and too astringent to eat. There are a number of varieties offered by the nursery trade. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER XIV. SMALL FRUITS. Strawberry. 1. From what species of strawberry have our cultivated vari- eties originated? 2. How may the strawberry be propagated? 3. What location and soil is best for strawberries? 4. How should the land be prepared? 5. Wlien should strawberries be set out? 6. Explain the Hill system — the matted Row system. 7. How should the plrints be trimmed and set? 8. What protection should be given strawberries In winter? 9. How may old strawberry beds be renewed? 10. Into what two classes may strawberries be divided? 11. What are nubbins? 12. How should strawberries be picked and marketed? 13. How may they be protected from frosts? Currant. 1. What Is the origin of the red currant? Of the black cur- rant? Of Crandall's currant? Of the Missouri currant? 2. What soil is best adapted for currant growing? 3. How should they be planted? 4. How often and in what way should they be cultivated? 6. When do currants need mulching? 6. What Is a good mulch for currants? 7. How often should currants be pruned? 5. What pruning is necessary? 9. Wliat are "tree currants?" 10. How are they formed? 11. Of what value are they? 12. In what ways may currants be protected from winter Injury? 13. How is the fruit marketed? 14. For what is it used? 15. What varieties are best for the home garden? Gooseberry. 1. What Is the origin of the American gooseberry? Of the European gooseberry? 2. What are the crosses of the two varieties? 3. How Is the gooseberry propagated? 4. WTien is the best time to plant gooseberries? 5. What pruning is necessary? 6. How are gooseberries marketed? 7. What insects and diseases are injurious to the gooseberry? Raspberry. 1. What varieties belong to the European raspberries? 2. WTiat varieties belong to the American raspberries? 3. Into what two classes are raspberries divided? 292 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 4. How are they propagated? 5. How are raspberries raised from seed? From root cuttings? From layers? 6. What location and soil is best adapted to each class of rasp- berries? 7. How should the land be prepared for the raspberry? 8. When should they be planted? 9. How should the plants be selected? 10. How far apart should the plants be set? 11. How deep should raspberries be set? 12. What cultivation is necessary for the raspberry? 13. How much pruning and thinning is necessary the first year? The second year, etc.? 14. What mulching is best for the raspberry? 15. How and when should it be applied? 16. How can a good support be made for the canes? 17. In what ways may the canes be winter protected? 18. How are the canes laid down and covered? 19. How are they taken up in the spring? 20. What are the characteristics of the berries of the two classes? 21. How are they picked and marketed? Blackberry and Dewberry. 1. Into what groups may the blackberries be divided? 2. What are the characteristics of each? 3. How is the blackberry propagated? 4. How is the dewberry propagated? i. What soils are best adapted to each? 6. How is the blackberry planted and cultivated? 7. What pruning does the blackberry require? The Cranberry. 1. What are the characteristics of the high and low bush cran- berries? 2. How Is the trailing cranberry cultivated? 3. Wliat is the best location for a cranberry bed? 4. What soil is best adapted for the growing of cranberries? 6. How should the land be prepared? 6. Why is sand important in the cranberry bog? 7. By what means can the bog be drained? 8. Why should the drainage and flowage be controlled? 9. How should the flowage be controlled in the fall? 10. What harm comes from freezing the plants in the Ice? 11. How long should the water be kept in the bog in the spring? 12. What care is necessary in selecting the plants? 13. How are they propagated? 14. When should the plants be set? Why? 15. How should the beds be made? 16. Wliat cultivation is necessary? 17. How are cranberries picked? Juneberry, Buffalo Berry, Sand Cherry and Mulberry. 1. Where Is the Dwarf Juneberry found most commonly? 2. What are its characteristics? 3. How are they propagated? 4. What cultivation do they need? 5. Wliat are the characteristics of the varieties most common- ly cultivated? 6. What is the distribution of the Sand Cherry? 7. What location and soil is best adapted to them? 8. What are the characteristics of the Sand Cherry? 9. How are they propagated? 3 0 How are they used in grafting? il. What is the Dwarf Rocky Mt. Cherry? PERSIMMON. 293 12. Where Is the Buffalo Berry commonly found? 13. What are the characteristics of the plant? 14. For what is the fruit used? 15. How is the plant propagated? 16. Into what classes may the Mulberry be divided? 17. What variety is best for the Northern states? 18. What are its characteristics? 19. What are the characteristics of the fruit? 20. How is the Mulberry propagated? 21. What care should be taken in selecting plants? Persimmon. 1. Where Is the American persimmon found native and what Is Its value for domestic use? 2. Of what country Is the Japanese persimmon native and what Is its value as a commercial fruit? CHAPTER XV. THE NUTS. Comparatively little attention has been paid to the growing of any of the nut trees in this country, with the exception of the English walnut. Most of the American nuts, except the English walnut, that reach our markets are the chance productions of the wild groves. It is undoubtedly true that there is a large sec- tion of this country where nuts of some kind might be grown to advantage. This is especially true of rough land in some of the Middle and Southern states. Nearly all of the cultivation of nuts in this country up to the present time has been done by the growing of seedling trees, and little attention has been paid to grafting, which for many years was regarded as a very difficult matter with all nuts. Now that successful grafting methods have been discovered, there is less excuse for planting seedlings. The leading nurserymen now offer named varieties of the principal nut trees, or else of trees grown from selected seed. The Pecan. The pecan (Hicoria pecan) is an important native nut that is used largely and gaining in popularity. It is a near relative of the hickories, several of which produce edible nuts. In its native habitat, the tree grows to a large size and the wood is highly esteemed for the same purposes as the hickory. It is native to a large part of the Mississippi Valley, Eastern and Central Texas and a portion of Mexico. It is cultivated through- out most of this section south of Central Illinois and also in the Southern states south of the Potomac river. Further north It is occasionally grown, but not profitably, and Central Iowa may be regarded as its northernmost limit. The fruit of the pecan is borne on the new growth. The male flowers are at the base of the shoot and the female flowers near the end. The flowers appear with the leaves and are seldom injured by spring frosts. Trees from seed generally bear when PECAN. 295 about ten years old, and at full bearing age they have been known to yield over twenty bushels to a tree. Soil requirements. — The pecan does best on the open, porous clay loams of river bottoms and especially on those that are likely to overflow at high water. It is also grown successfully on the sandy soils of southern Georgia and northern Florida, and even on rich up-lands it frequently produces well. The most successful growers plant the trees from 40 to 50 feet apart. If the trees are grown from seed, it would be an advantage to put them nearer together and then remove the unprofitable ones. In transplanting the pecan it is desirable to save as much of the tap root as is possible, but it may be shortened somewhat with- out seriously interfering with its growth. The root is often very long and it will be found a great convenience in transplanting to have it somewhat shortened. Very often a one-year-old tree will have a root far longer than the stem. The soil should have the best of cultivation, as the trees are gross feeders and should be kept growing rapidly, especially when young and not fully es- tablished. Harvesting and marketing. — It is common to harvest the nuts after they have fallen to the ground. When they are raked together the leaves are shaken out and the nuts dried off before being stored. The highly polished surface of nuts which are seen in our markets is attained by polishing them in revolving barrels where they are polished by rubbing against one another. The great demand today is for larger, thinner-shelled nuts, and there seems to be an almost unlimited market for them. Those who have pecan trees in good locations find them very profitable. Comparatively few of the best nuts are sold at present, as they are in demand by nurserymen for planting. Insects. — There are a number of insects that injure the pecan trees. Perhaps the most serious of these is known as the shuck worm, which penetrates the hull and causes the young fruit to drop prematurely. The remedy is to gather and burn the infested nuts. A web worm is occasionally injurious to the foliage, but this may be destroyed in the same manner as rec- ommended for the common web worm. The twig girdler sometimes girdles the twigs of the pecan, 296 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. causing them to he blown off. The worm will be found in the part that falls. If these twigs are raked together promptly and burned soon after falling, this enemy is easily held in check. Grafting the pecan. — The most successful method of grafting the pecan seems to be crown grafting of the seedlings, when they are only an inch or less in diameter, early in the spring with terminal bud cions and without wax. The stalks should be cut off smoothly, close to the surface of the ground, and a side cleft graft or whip graft used. When this is done, the earth should be drawn up to the top bud of the cion to prevent it drying out. In order to grow seedlings, the nuts are generally planted in autumn in well drained soil, which is sufficiently loose so that it does not bake badly; or, where mice and squir- rels are abundant, a much better plan is to stratify them in the same manner as recommended for peach pits and plant out in the spring as soon as the ground can be worked, putting them about eight inches apart in rows four feet apart and covering three inches deep. Rich, deep garden soil should be used for the seedlings. The Chestnut. The chestnut is one of the most popular of our native nuts and is widely sought after. In some sections in Europe, where the nuts are especially abundant, they are ground into flour and used for bread making. The American chestnut (Castanea americana) forms a large tree as far north as southern Vermont, and west into Indiana. North and west of this range, it is very uncertain. It has, how- ever, been fruited in southeastern Minnesota and occasionally it is grown successfully in Illinois and Iowa. The wood of this tree is very durable in contact with the soil and of rapid growth, hence is in demand for railroad ties and telephone poles. It is one of the most promising trees for use in new timber plantings within its range. There are few varieties. Its nuts are the best in quality of all known species. The other species of chest- nut graft readily upon it. The European chestnut (Castenea sativa) is a native of the cooler portions of central and southern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa. The foliage of this tree is thicker and more CHINQUAPIN. 297 abruptly pointed than that of the American chestnut. Its burrs are very large and its nuts are larger but not so sweet as the Ameri- can chestnut. The skin enclosing the nut is bitter and tough. This species is variously known as European, Spanish, French, Italian and Sweet Chestnut. Among the best of the European varieties are Numbo and Paragon. The latter is most widely planted and the most successful of all cultivated introduced chestnuts. It is sometimes classed as a hybrid. Both of these nuts originated in the United States and are of good quality. Japan chestnut (Castanea crenata). — This tree is said to reach a height of fifty feet in Japan but the varieties that are grown for fruit are dwarfish in form and slender, with a close head. Its leaves are much smaller than those of the American or European chestnuts and the burrs are small with a thin, pa- pery lining and short spines. The nuts are large and glossy, but inferior to the other chestnuts in quality as a rule, though good when cooked. A few varieties are of good quality when fresh. Among the best of the Japanese chestnuts are Parry and Reliance, both of which are of fair quality. Chinquapin (Castanea pumilaj, (G. alnifolia). — The Chinqua- pins are dwarf chestnuts, extending, in their native range, from Massachusetts south to Florida and Texas. The fruit of the Chinquapins is edible and used in a local way throughout their range. Propagation. — The different species of the chestnut are usu- ally propagated from seed, which may be sown as soon as gathered in autumn, or stratified and sown in the spring in rich, porous soil. They may be whip-grafted in the nursery when one year old. This should be done by using dormant cions after the buds have swollen and covering with wax in the or- dinary way. Top-working of large trees has not been successful except where it has been practiced on the young sprouts. Great care should be taken to secure a good union, and if possible th« cion should unite with the stock on both sides. The flowers of the chestnut open in early summer and the long, conspicuous, light colored, male catkins are quite ornamen- tal. The pistillate flowers are Inconspicuous and grow from 298 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. the axils of the leaves on the new growth. Some growers think it necessary to have the pollen of different trees intermingle in order to get the best results. This idea is borne out by the fact that solitary trees often fail to set fruit. Planting and care. — Ordinary seedlings of the American chestnut commence to bear when from eight to fifteen years old, while those that are grafted will frequently bear inside of five years. On account of this, some growers follow the practice of grafting all of their seedlings. It is probable that seedlings would bear as quickly as grafted trees if they were girdled as recom- mended for the grape. Where natural groves are used for grow- ing nuts, the reproduction will often come from sprouts. If de- sired, these may be grafted and cared for the same as seedlings. In any case, however, the sprouts should be thinned out so that the trees can take on their natural form. Where the ground is overgrown with brush, it will be found a good plan, when the trees are once fairly started, and out of reach of stock, to pas- ture the land with sheep. This will destroy much of the brush and the lower leaves on the chestnut trees, giving them a healthy pruning. It will also have a tendency to prevent the spread of fire, as the sheep mix the fallen leaves with the soil and thus pre- vent the collection of large masses of leaves about the stems of the trees. If the trees are to be planted out, the American si>c- cies should be set from 40 to 50 feet apart each way. The for- eign kinds do not grow so large and they may be planted nearer. The nuts are prepared for market by putting them in a suit- able vessel and then pouring scalding hot water over them as soon as gathered. By this means the eggs and larvae of the in- sects in them are destroyed. The nuts should be gathered promptly after falling and the scalding done at once, otherwise the eggs of the weevil in the nuts will have a chance to de- velop and will injure their sale. The nuts should stand in the hot water for about fifteen minutes, after which they should be taken out and carefully dried. There are several insects and diseases that affect the chest- nut. The most harmful is probably the weevil, whose eggs are laid in the nut, but no satisfactory remedy has been found for It. The leaf diseases are subject to control by Bordeaux mixture. ENGLISH WALNUT. 299 English Walnut. The English walnut (Juglans regiaj is cultivated to some ex- tent In the Eastern states south of Connecticut and west into Texas, but in the section east of the Rocky Mountains, it has not attained commercial importance. In southern California, however, it is grown very successfully within a short distance of the coast where the water table is near the surface of the Boil. Back from the coast, it may also be grown in favorable locations, but the shucks do not separate from the nuts so well and hence the product is not nearly so valuable as the product from sections where the climate is somewhat humid. The flowers of the walnuts are monoecious, the male flow- ers being produced in catkins and the pistillate flowers at the ends of the short branches appearing with the leaves. Propagation. — Most of the trees in the Eastern states are grown from seed; the same is true of a large portion of the or- chards in southern California, although in the last few years there has been a large number of grafted trees planted. When grown from seed, it is customary to select the largest, thinnest shelled nuts from trees that are hardy and productive, and that start late in the spring. These are stratified over winter in the same manner as peach pits. They are generally allowed to sprout in the spring before planting, when they are set about one foot apart in rows four feet apart. For this purpose rich, open, porous soil should be used. They are generally large enough for budding the first season. If they are to be planted in an orchard without budding, it is customary to leave them for two or three years in the nursery. The trees are generally bud- ded by the shield or ring method. Cleft-grafting and whip-graft- ing have also been successfully used. Harvesting and marketing. — In the best localities for the English Walnut, the shucks open on the trees and the nuts fall to the ground, where they are easily gathered once or twice a week, and taken to the drying house. Sometimes it is necessary to jar the trees in order to get the nuts in season. It is not de- sirable to beat the trees with poles, as it frequently destroys many of the fruit buds. The nuts are dried by exposure to sun or by artificial heat. 300 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Japan walnut. — The Japan walnut (Juglans sieboldiana) Is now cultivated in an experimental way and is much hardier than the English Walnut which it somewhat resembles, although not 80 hardy as the Black Walnut or Butternut. This tree gives promise of being productive even as far north as central Minne- sota. The nuts are small and more like the Black Walnut than the English Walnut, and probably of little importance commer- cially. The Black Walnut and Butternut are prized for their timber and shade as well as for their nuts. These are frequently gather- ed and marketed in considerable quantities and there is generally a good demand for them. The shucks should be removed and the nuts dried before they are marketed. Black Walnuts have been planted in considerable quantities in Minnesota and Iowa for fence posts and for their nuts. The Almond. The Almond (Prunus amygdalus) resembles the peach in habit of growth, flowering, etc. The nut is really a peach in which the flesh portion is obliterated. It is divided into two classes, the bitter and sweet almond. The sweet class is di- vided into the hard and soft shell types. The hard shell type is scarcely grown, but the soft shell type produces the edible al- monds of commerce. The bitter almond has a hard shell and its chief use is as a stock for the cultivated kinds. It is also grown in the Mediterranean district for the bitter kernel, which is used In the manufacture of flavoring extracts and prussic acid. The Almond is cultivated in a very limited area confined mostly to a few small districts in California, Utah, Arizona and New Mexico. The tree is nearly as hardy as the peach, but on account of the flowers opening so very early, they are almost always destroyed by frost, except in a few favored districts. The tree comes into bear- ing from two to four years after budding, and is generally at its best when from six to nine years of age. Five pounds of hulled al- monds per tree is reported as a good average crop in California orchards. The nuts begin to ripen about the middle of August. It is desirable to have varieties mixed in order to secure good pollination. Much disappointment has been occasioned by plant- ing the almond in situations not suited for it, or possibly by the planting of only one variety in a large area. HAZEL. 301 Soil and planting.— The soil for almonds should be light, warmand well drained. The trees, like the peach, will stand much drought but will yield good crops only on rich, productive soil. It Is, however, impatient of too much water in the soil. The trees are generally planted about 24 feet apart each way. It is customary to do considerable pruning to the tree in order to get it in good form while it is young, after which little pruning is done. Propagation. — The almond is grown almost entirely by bud- ding on seedlings of the sweet or bitter almond, though it is sometimes worked upon peach stocks. The seedlings are han- dled in very much the same way as those of the peach and the trees are planted in an orchard when one year old from the bud. The peach and the prune D'Argen are also successfully grown on the almond. Marketing. — Where the summer air is very dry, the hulls open readily and the unstained nuts are in good condition for marketing and require no further care. In some sections, how- ever, the nuts are more or less stained by rains and then recourse is had by bleaching them with sulfur fumes. As the sulfur fumes do not penetrate to the kernel, the nuts are not injured by this treatment. The only advantage is that it gives them a little better appearance. If the hulls do not separate readily from the nuts it is customary to use what is known as an almond huller, by means of which the hulls are pulled off. Nuts that are so badly stained that they cannot be made marketable are generally sold for confectioner's use. The Hazel. The European hazels are known botanically as Corylus arel- lana, C. pontica and C. viaxima, and in Europe, are cultivated on an extensive scale and yield the most filberts of commerce. The species ordinarily grown in Europe have shown themselves quite liable to disease in this country and have not been successfully cultivated here. Our two native species have a wide range and are quite variable, some plants bearing fruit of very good size and quality. The American hazels are known botanically as Corylus amer- icana, C. rostrata and C. californica. They are of dwarf form and 302 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. can perhaps be cultivated to advantage on open, loose soils of moderate or poor fertility, in rows eight feet apart, although this has not proven encouraging in the few experiments tried. Some of the foreign species are quite large and grow to the height of 12 or 14 feet. The plants are generally propagated by seed lay- ers and sometimes budding is practiced. The flowers. — The flowers are monoecious and form on the new wood. The male flowers are grouped in the form of small catkins that may be seen on the bushes all winter. In the spring, these elongate and the pollen is distributed by the wind. The female flowers are inconspicuous and form a star-like tuft of crimson stigmas that push out from the rather large buds at the time the male flowers elongate. These flowers open early in the spring. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER XV. Nuts. 1. Of what country is the pecan a native? 2. What soil is best for pecan growing? 3. How should they be planted and cultivated? 4. How are pecans harvested and marketed? 5. What insects are injurious to tlie pecan? 6. How are pecans grafted? 7. How are they propagated from seed? 8. What are the characteristics and distribution of the American chestnut? Of the European chestnut? Of the Japanese chestnut? 9. To what extent are they grown? 10. What are the Chinquapins? 11. How are chestnuts propagated? 12. How should chestnuts be planted and cared for? 13. How should chestnuts be cared for before marketing? 14. Wliat insects and diseases injure the chestnut? 15. Over what territory is the English walnut distributed? 16. How are they propagated? 17. How are the walnuts harvested? 18. How are they marketed? 19. What are the characteristics of the Japanese walnut? 20. What are the characteristics of the almond? 21. What soil Is best adapted to it? 22. How should the almond be planted? 23. How Is the almond propagated? 24. How is It harvested and marketed? 25. How is the hazel grown in Europe? 26. How is it propagated? 27. What are the cliaracteristlcs of the Hazel flower? APPENDIX. SPRAYING CALENDAR. This spraying calendar is taken almost entirely from Bul- letin 89 of the Iowa Experiment Station, by Prof. S. A. Beach and E. E. Little. The changes made from the original are noted. General Treatment For The Apple. When to Spray. What to Spray With and What For. 1, When the green tips of the first leaves burst the buds. May be omitted If insects and scab are not abundant. Bordeaux mixture for scab, canker and leaf spot diseases with Paris Green or other arsenical poison for bud moths, case bearers, tent caterpillars, canker worms and other leaf-eating insects. 2. Just before the blos- soms open. Bordeaux mixture for diseases men- tioned under 1. Paris Green or other ar- senical poison for curculio and the in- sects mentioned under 1. The most Im- portant single treatment against the scab! S. Just after the blos- soms fall. Bordeaux mixture for diseases mention- ed under 1. Paris Green or other arseni- cal poison for codlin moth, curculio and leaf eating insects. The most important treatment in fighting codlin moth! 4. Ten to twenty days •after 3. Bordeaux mixture for scab, bitter rot and other diseases. Paris Green or other arsenical poison for codlin moth curculio and leaf-eating insects. 5. Late July or early August. Bordeaux mixture for scab, bitter rot, fly speck, sooty blotch and other diseases. Paris Green or other poison for second brood of codlin moth. Important! Special treatment early Lime-sulfur wash for oyster shell spring before buds break, scale and other scale Insects. 304 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. General Treatment For Cherries. When to Spray. 1. Just before the blos- soms open. What to Spray With and What For. Bordeaux mixture for fruit rot. 2. Just after the blos- soms fall. Bordeaux mixture for fruit rot and leaf spot. Arsenate of lead for curculio. 3. Ten to fifteen days later than 2. 4. Just after fruit picked. 5. From 2 to after 4. 6. When cherry slugs are first seen on leaves. Ammonlacal copper carbonate for fruit rot and leaf spot. Bordeaux mixture for leaf spot. Repeat 4. Dust or spray with Paris Green or other poison. General When to Spray. 1. About ten days be- fore growth starts. 2. Just before the blos- soms open. 3. Just after the blos- soms fall. 4. About 15 days after the blossoms fall. 5. Soon after the mid- dle of June. Treatment For Plums. What to Spray With and Wliat For. Copper sulfate solution (2 lbs. to 50 gallons of water) for Plum Pocket. (S. B. G.) Arsenate of lead for curculio. Bordeaux mixture for fruit rot on blossoms. Bordeaux mixture for fruit rot and leaf-spot. Arsenate of lead for curculio. (Dilute the Bordeaux about one-half for Japanese varieties.) Repeat 2. Repeat 2. 6. Late July or early August. Ammoniacal copper carbonate soap or eau celeste soap for fruit rot and leaf spot. 7. On first appearance of insects. Arsenate of lead for web worms and other leaf-eating insects. General Treatment For Peaches. When to Spray. What to Spray With and What For. 1. Before the buds swell; surely before April first. Bordeaux mixture or lime-sulfur waSh (or copper sulphate solution, S. B. G.) for leaf curl and fruit rot. APPENDIX. 305 General Treatment For Pears. When to Spray. Same as for the apple. When twig blight first appears, and during the dormant season when tlie leaves are off. What to Spray With and What For. Treat same as for apple scab, leaf spot and Insects. Cut affected branches back to sound wood and burn them. Keep tools disin- fected by wiping with cloth saturated with kerosene or other disinfectant after each branch is cut. Before buds open in spring spray with lime-sulfur wash. General When to Spray. 1. Just before growth starts. 2. When the leaves are one-third grown. 3. Just before the blos- soms open. 4. sets. Just after the fruit 10 to 20 days after 10 to 20 days after Treatment For Grapes. What to Spray With and What For. Bordeaux mixture or sulfate of cop- per solution (1 pound to 25 gallons of wa- ter) for grape rot. (S. B G.) Bordeaux mixture for mildews and black rot. IMPORTANT: Repeat 2. Repeat 2. IMPORTANT! Repeat 2. Repeat 2. General Treatment For Currant and Gooseberry. When to Spray. 1. When worms first appear. 2. When fruit Is about half grown. 3. After fruit Is pick- ed. 4. About 2 weeks aft- er 3. What to Spray With and What For. Paris Green or other arsenical poison for the "worms, leaf spot. Bordeaux mixture for Repeat 1. Bordeaux mixture for leaf spot. Repeat 3. General Treatment For Strawberry. When to Spray. When growth begins and later as often as necessary. After picking the fruit. At first appearance of the leaf roller. What to Spray With and What For. Bordeaux mixture for "rust" or leaf spot. Cut and burn foliage on windy day. Arsenical poison every week If neces- sary, but not after fruit Is half grown. 306 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. General Treatment For Raspberry, Blackberry and Dewberry. When to Spray. When orange rust ap- pears. Note. — This dis- ease Is easily recognized by the bright orange col- or on the under side of the leaf. The whole cane looks sickly. When anthracnose and other cane diseases are doing serious damage. What to Spray With and What For. Dig plants at once and burn. After leaves drop In fall or in early spring, cut and burn over the v/nole af- fected patch. General Treatment For Potato. When to Spray. Begin when plants are about 8 inches high or when beetles first appear and spray at intervals of from 10 to 15 days till growth stops. Spray more frequently In hot. damp weather and less often in dry weather. Soak seed potatoes two hours. What to Spray With and What For. Bordeaux mixture combined with Paris Green or other poison for early blight and late blight and rot, also for flea beetles, blister beetles, and Colorado po- tato beetles. Make strong Bordeaux mix- ture, using at least one pound of cop- per sulfate to make 3 gallons of the mixture. To prevent potato scab, use commercial formalin (40 per cent solution) 1 pint to 30 gallons of water. This is enough for twenty bushels of seed. General Treatment For Cucumbers, Squashes and Melons. When to Spray. When young plants come through the ground; repeat irequently. About 1 month after planting. Repeat at in- tervals of 10 day What to Spray With and Wliat For. Tobacco dust for striped beetle. Spray with Bordeaux mixture for blight, flea beetles and striped beetles. General Treatment For Cabbage and Cauliflow^er. Wlien to Spray. When "worms" appear. Repeat when necessary. Lice or aphis. What to Spray With and What For. Paris Green or other arsenical poison In dust, or In resin-lime mixture. Do not apply poison after heading begins. Bury the affected plants. APPENDIX. 307 General Treatment For All Kinds of Plants. What to Spray For. What to Spray With and When. All leaf-eating Insects, Paris Green or other arsenical poisons such as slugs, caterpillars, when insects first appear, beetles, etc. Sucking insects, such as Tobacco dust or tobacco Infusion with plant lice and true bugs. whale-oil soap or kerosene emulsion. Small plants or ends of twigs are best treated by dipping. Scale Insects, such as Spray with the lime-sulfur wash In oyster shell scale, scurfy spring before the buds open, bark louse and San Jose scale. FUNGICIDES AND INSECTICIDES. Sprays are preventive and not curative and therefore must be ap- plied before the injury becomes apparent. After a fungus has gained entrance to the fruit or foliage it cannot be reached, but the infection may be prevented by coating the parts with a fungicide such as Bor- deaux Mixture, which prevents tlie germination of the spores of the fungus. Fungicides. Bordeaux Mixture: Copper sulfate (blue vitriol) 5 pounds. Quicklime (not slaked), not less than 3i/^ pounds or more than 5 pounds. Water, 50 gallons. Dissolve the copper sulfate and dilute to from 25 to 35 gallons. Slake the lime and add enough water to it to complete the required 50 gallons; then pour the two solutions togetlier. Lastly, add any arseni- cal pciiions wliich are to be combined with the Bordeaux mixture. This is a general fungicide for all fruit plants. Testing Bordeaux IVIixture. To determine if the Bordeaux mixture is safe to use on tender foliage, one of three simple tests may be used; (a) Insert the tip of a knife for at least one minute, wlien if me- tallic copper forms on it, i. e., the tip is the color of copper, more lime should be added. If on the otlier hand tlie steel remains un- changed it is safe to conclude tlie mixture is all right. (b) Pour some of the mixture into a shallow dish; then blow into it for at least one-half minute, when, if properly made, a thin scum- like oil will form on the surface. (c) Pour a few drops of a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium into the Bordeaux mixture. If there is not enough lime present, a dark reddish-brown substance will form. Ferrocyanide of potassium is known as yellow prussiate of potash. It is a very deadly poison. To prepare it for use add about ten times its bulk of water. Bordeaux mixture sliould always be well stirred before it is tested. Bordeaux Dont's. Don't use iron or tin vessels for mixing; don't use air-slaked lime; don't pour in the coarser particles of lime; don't make more than can be used in one day — it should be mixed fresh every day. Eau Celeste and Soap: Copper sulfate, 1 pound. Ammonia, strong (26° Baume), 3 pints. Soap, 1 pound. Water, 50 gallons. Dissolve the soap in 10 gallons of water. In a separate vessel, not iron or tin, dissolve the copper sulfate in 40 gallons of water 308 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. and add the ammonia; stir well and add the soap. This Is a good fungicide to use in place of Bordeaux mixture when the fruit is full grown. Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate and Soap: Copper carbonate, 6 ounces. Ammonia, strong, 3 pints. Soap, 1 pound. Water, 50 gallons. Dilute the ammonia with water and use as much of It as Is necessary to dissolve the copper carbonate; add water to make 40 gallons. Dissolve the soap in 10 gallons of water and pour Into the copper carbonate solution. The dissolved copper carbonate loses strength when left exposed to the air, but it may be kept all right in stopped bottles or jugs. This is used when the fruit is nearly ripe because it shows less than the Bordeaux mixture. Potassium Sulfide or Liver of Sulfur: Potassium sulfide, 3 ounces. Water, 6 gallons. Dissolve the potassium sulfide in the water. Apply at once. This mixture deteriorates rapidly and should not be prepared un- til ready for application. This is an effective spray for mildew on gooseberries. Lime-Sulfur Wash: Lime, 15 pounds. Sulfur, 15 pounds. Water, 50 gallons. Place the lime in a kettle and slake it with hot water so that It forms an even white paste, then add water until it makes a thin whitewash. Blend the sulfur with water into a thin paste and add to the whitewash and mix thoroughly. Boil one hour, stirring frequent- ly to keep from caking on the sides of the vessel, and adding water from time to time to replace that which has boiled away. Dilute to 50 gallons and bring to the boiling point again. Strain it boiling hot into the spray tank through wire screen and apply as hot as possible. It should be boiled until it is a brick red color and until the sediment, when it has settled, is brownish or yellowish green. Salt is recom- mended to be added to the sulfur pound for pound, but it may be omitted with no material disadvantage. Use good fresh stone lime which slakes free from grit and dirt. Either flowers of sulfur or light or heavy flour of sulfur may be used. The flowers of sulfur goes into solution most readily. In orchard practice this wash is mostly used against insects which are found on the trees when they are dormant. It has proved very effective against the San Jose Scale, oyster shell scale, the scurfy scale, the case bearers and other insects which pass the winter on the trees. It was formerly customary to add salt to this wash in order to make the wash more adhesive, but later e.xperience seems to show that is not effective. Copper Sulfate Solution: Copper sulfate at the rate of one pound to twenty-five gallons of water is used for the prevention of grape rot, plum pocket and peach leaf curl. Some experiments seem to show that good results will fol- low from an application of this kind on apples, cherries, and some other trees and plants. This solution should only be applied to dor- mant plants, and it is probably best to apply it early in the spring, at least two weeks before there is any sign of vegetation. If applied after the plants have started, injury will result. Its object is to de- stroy the spores of injurious diseases that may be on the plants. APPENDIX. 309 Insecticides. Paris Green: Dry Paris Green — Flour, 20 pounds. Paris Green, 1 pound. Mix tlie two and dust the plants when they are moist from dew or rain. Wet Paris Green — Paris Green, 1 pound. Bordeaux mixture or water, 50-300 gallons. For apples or pears use 1 pound to 150 gallons of Bordeaux mix- ture or water. If water is used add 2 pounds of fresh slaked lime to prevent injury to the foliage. For cherries or plums use 1 pound Paris Green to 300 gallons of Bordeaux mixture or water. For potatoes use 1 pound Paris Green to 75 gallons of Bordeaux mixture or water. For cabbages and cauliflowers use 1 pound Paris Green to 80 gal- lons resin lime mixture after the plants begin to head. Arsenlte of Soda: White Arsenic, 1 pound. Sal Soda, 4 pounds. Water, 1 gallon. Mix and boil about 15 minutes or until the arsenic Is all dissolved. Add just enough water to make up for that lost in boiling, then put In jugs or bottles until needed. Two quarts of this solution may be used in the place of 1 pound of Paris Green by adding about 4 pounds of fresh slaked lime or by combining with Bordeaux mixture in which there is an excess of lime. This spray forms a cheap substitute for Paris Green, but is liable to burn the foliage of tender plants. Arsenate of Lead: Lead acetate (sugar of lead), 22 ounces. Sodium arsenate, 8 ounces. Water or Bordeaux mixture, 100 gallons Dissolve each separately; then mix the two together and pour this mixture into the required amount of water, or if it is to be used with the Bordeaux mixture, pour it into the lime wash before that is mixed with the copper sulfate solution. The sodium arsenate dissolves in water quite readily. Dissolve It In about a gallon of water. Into It pour the dissolved lead acetate to the required amount and let it settle. Then take a small quantity of the liquid in a cup to test it. This Is done by adding to it a little more of the lead acetate solution. If a white substance then forms. It signifies that not enough of the lead has been used to combine with all of the arsenic, and therefore more lead acetate should be added to the mixture. Then pour this mixture into the lime wash if it is to be used with the Bordeaux mixture. While arsenate of lead may be made at home by the above form- ula, yet it is commonly purchased in a paste form in sealed packages. The home made article is more finely divided and stays in suspension longer than the commercial form; yet the difficulty of getting re- liable materials with which to make It oft-times prevents its being a success. Arsenate of lead has the merit of adhering well to and being harmless to the foliage. As a rule, about three pounds of arsenate of lead are required for fifty gallons of water, while of Paris Green, its most popular competitor, about one-third to one-half pound would be required. This would make the arsenate of lead cost for spraying purposes from two to two and one-half times as much as Paris Green. On the other hand, the arsenate of lead adheres so tenaciously to the foliage that less applications of it are usually necessary. This is es- pecially true in rainy weather. This feature of it, together with Its 310 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. harmlessness to the foliage, makes It a very desirable insecticide. It is especially effective against the codlln moth and the curculio. Soap: Whale Oil Soap, 1 pound. Water, 6 gallons. Whale oil soap or other cheap soap Is used for plant lice and other soft bodied insects. When the leaves are off the trees It may be used as strong as 2 pounds to the gallon of water. It Is sometimes used in treating scale insects. Hellebore: Hellebore, 1 pound. Water, 25 gallons. Hellebore may be mixed with three or four parts of flour and dusted on the insects, or it may be mixed with water and used as a spray. It is especially useful in combating worms on currants and gooseberries while the fruit is ripening, because it may be used with- out serious danger of poisoning the fruit. Pyrethrum: Pyrethrum powder, 1 ounce. Water, 3 gallons. For dry applications, mix thoroughly one part by weight of In- sect powder with four of cheap flour and keep in a closed vessel for twenty-four hours before dusting over the plants. Pyrethrum, if fresh and pure, can be made to do very effectual work. It should be kept in tightly sealed cans. If the best pyrethrum cannot be obtained It would be better to use some other insecticide. Resin Lime Mixture: Pulverized resin, 5 pounds. Concentrated lye, 1 pound. Fish oil or any cheap oil except tallow, 1 pint. Water, 5 gallons. Place oil, resin and a gallon of water In a kettle and heat until resin is softened; add lye solution made as for hard soap. Stir thor- oughly, add remainder of water and boil for about two hours until the mixture will unite with cold water making a clear amber colored fluid. Replace the water which has boiled away by adding boiling water to make the 5 gallons. This gives a stock solution which may be kept until needed. In using it, add to the 5 gallons, 80 gal- lons of water, 15 gallons of thin whitewash, and 1 pound of Paris Green or its equivalent. Resin Lime mixture is used in spraying smooth leaved plants, like cabbage and cauliflower, to which other mixtures do not stick well. Kerosene Emulsion: Kerosene (coal oil), 2 gallons. Rain water, 1 gallon. Soap. V2 pound. Dissolve the .soap in water by boiling. Take from the fire and while hot, turn in kerosene and churn briskly for five minutes. It can be easily churned by pumping. Dilute before using with 6 to 9 parts of water. For scale insects and all sucking Insects. Lime: Dry slaked lime is often used In combating Insects having soft, sticky bodies, such as those of the rose slug, cherry slug and asparagus beetle. Tobacco Dust: Tobacco dust may be obtained from large manufacturers at a comparatively small cost. In addition to its value as an insecticide, it has the advantage of acting as a fertilizer. It is useful In fight- ing striped beetles which Infest cucumbers, squashes and melons. APPENDIX. 311 and In keeping plant lice and other Insects from the garden plants. It is also used against root lice, particularly the woolly aphis. For this purpose, it should be worked into the ground in liberal quantities. Tobacco and Soap: Tobacco (waste stems), 1 pound. Boiling water, 4 gallons. Add the hot water to the tobacco and let it stand until cold. Strain and add 1 pound of whale oil soap or 2 pounds of soft soap to each 50 gallons of infusion. Used for plant lice. WAXES FOR GRAFTING AND FOR WOUNDS. The following recipes for waxes are taken from the Horticultur- ist's Rule Book: 1. Common Resin and Beeswax Waxes: a. Reliable wax. — Resin, 4 parts by weight; beeswax, 2 parts; tallow, 1 part. Melt together and pour into a pail of cold w^ater. Then grease the hands and pull the wax until it is nearly white. One of the best waxes, either for indoor or out- door work. b. Resin, 4 pounds; beeswax, 1 pound; tallow, 1 pound. c. Resin, 6 pounds; beeswax, 2 pounds; linseed oil, 1 pint. d. 6 pounds resin, 1 pound beeswax and 1 pint linseed oil; apply hot with a brush, one-eighth of an inch thick over all the joints 2. Alcoholic Waxes: Lefort's Liquid Grafting-Wax, or Alcoholic Plastic— Best white resin, 1 pound; beef tallow, 1 ounce; remove from the fire and add 8 ounces of alcohol. Keep in closed bottles or cans. 3. Waxed String and other Bandages: Waxed String for Root-Grafting. — Into a kettle of melted wax place balls of No. 18 knitting-cotton. Turn the balls frequently, and In five minutes they will be thoroughly saturated, when they are dried and put away for future use. This material is strong enough, and at the same time breaks so easily as not to injure the hands. Any of the resin and beeswaxes may be used. When the string is used it should be warm enough to stick without tying. Waxed Cloth.— Old calico or thin muslin is rolled on a stick and placed in melted wax. "^Tien saturated it is allowed to cool by being unrolled on a bench. It is then cut in strips to suit. Waxed Paper is used to a large extent in some nurseries for covering root grafts. It Is made by painting tough paper with hot wax, which is then hung up to dry. LISTS OF FRUITS ESPECIALLY ADAPTED TO CERTAIN TYPICAL STATES. The list of fruits given for different states must be looked upon as only directive. The states given are selected because they represent certain typical areas adapted to fruit growing. Lists of this kind, however, are often misleading to the beginner, and the inexperienced should be cautious how they follow such lists for the reason that soil and climate may change in some sec- tions of the country within very short distances; for Instance, 312 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. parts of California are well adapted for orange raising, and with- in a short distance, on a considerably higher elevation, the country may be well adapted to the growing of apples. Those who are intending to begin planting in any section should aim to get in touch with the Experiment Stations and obtain from them a list of fruits especially adapted to their location. Varieties of Fruits Recommended for Planting In Alabama. By R. S. Mackintosh, Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, Agri- cultural College, Auburn, Ala. North half of state. Apples — Red June, Red Astrachan, Early Harvest, Family, Wine- sap, Yellow Transparent, Horse, Yates, Terry. Apples, Crab — Not planted to any considerable extent. Apricots — Not planted. Blackberries — Dallas. Early Harvest. Cherries — Not planted. Currants — Not planted. Gooseberries — Not planted. Grapes — Bunch: Delaware, Niagara, Concord. Muscatine type; Eden, Memory and Scuppernong. Peaches — Greensboro, Carman, Hiley, Family Favorite, Belle, El- berta, Solway, White Heath. Pecans — Stuart, Van Deman, Pabst. Pears— Kleffer. Plums — Red June, Burbank, Abundance. Raspberries — Northern part of state: Gault, Springfield, Cuthbert, Cardinal. Strawberries — Lady Thompson, Klondike, Hoffman, Gandy, Dunlap. Figs— Celestial, Brown Turkey. Oranges — Coast region only: Satsuma. Japanese Persimmons — Hachiya, Okame, Hyakume, Tane-Nashl. Pomegranates — Sweet, Acid. Varieties Recommended for Planting in California. By E. J. Wickson, Dean of College of Agriculture, Berkeley, California. There is practically no differentiation as yet between varie- ties for amateurs and commercial varieties. The leading varieties used commercially are selected by amateurs so far as their char- acters agree with individual desires. The following list of varieties is especially recommended for the coast region of California: Apples— Newton, Pippin, Belle Fleur, Gravenstein, R. I. Greening, E. Spitzenberg, Mo. Pippin, W. Astracan, Red June. Grapes — Muscat, Tokay, Cornichon, Thompson, Emperor, Malaga, Rose of Peru, Zinfandel, Sweet Water, Verdal, Carignane, Black Prince, Alicante, Sultina. Peaches — Muir, Phillips, Solway, Lovell, Early Crawford, Tuskena, Foster, Elberta, Late Crawford, Orange Cling, Susquehanna, Nich- ols, Sellers, Lemon, St. Johns, Henrietta, Mary's Choice, Hale, Alexander, Heath. Pears — Bartlett, Winter Nelis, Seckel, Easter, Du Comice, Doyenne D'Ete, Clapp's Favorite, Glout Morceau, Barry, Comet. Plums — Wickson, Hungarian, Kelsey, Yellow Egg, Tragedy, Wash- ington, Satsuma, Burbank, Jefferson, Climax, Grand Duke, Clyman. APPENDIX. 313 Blackberries — Crandalls, Mammoth, Lawton, Klttatinny. Currants — Cherry. Gooseberries — Berkeley, Houghton. Quince — Apple, Orange, Paragon. Raspberries — Logan berry. Phenomenal (Hybrids) Black — None grown. Red— Cuthbert. Strawberries — Dallas, Arizona, Melinda, Thompson, Brandywlne, Gandy. Varieties Recommended for Planting In Colorado. By "W. Paddock, Professor of Horticulture, Agricultural College, Fort Collins. Colorado. For Arkansas Valley. Apples— Jonathan, Gano, Stayman, Wlnesap, Grimes, Colo. Orange, Wealthy, Duchess and Haas for early. Apples, Crab — Whitney. Blackberries— Early Harvest, Lawton, Snyder. Cherries — Montmorency, Morello, Richmond. Currants— Cherry, Fay, Red Cross. Gooseberries — Smith, Downing, Houghton. Grapes — Concord. Niagara, Moore's Early. Peaches— Only grown by laying down in winter; Crawford, Elberta. Pears — Not much grown. Bartlett, Kieffer, Seckel. Plums — Wyant, Cheney, Pfeffer, Premium, Moore's Arctic In the north. Lombard, Bradshaw, Italian Prune in Arkansas Valley. Quince — Not grown. Raspberries — Black — Kansas. Red — Marlboro. Strawberries — Capt. Jack, Jocunda, Bederwood. Varieties Recommended for Planting in Iowa, By S. A. Beach, Professor of Horticulture, Iowa Agricultural Ex- periment Station, Ames, Iowa. Apples — In selecting stocks upon which to top-work less hardy va- rieties, much yet needs to be learned. In the light of our present knowledge of this subject. Hibernal and its kin appear to be suit- able for the most northern parts of the state, while in southern Iowa, Plumb Cider and Haas appear to be especially desirable for this purpose. Northern Iowa — Yellow Transparent, Lowland (Lowland Raspberry), Charlamoff, Oldenburg (Duchess), Patten Greening, Wealthy, Ani- sim, Longfield, Hutchin's Red, Northwestern (Greening), Salome, Black Annette. Iowa Blush, Windsor, Tolman Sweet, Allen Choice, Stavman, Delicious, Ben Davis or Black Ben Davis or Gano. Central Iowa — Yellow Transparent, Lowland (Lowland Raspberry), Charlamoff, Oldenburg (Duchess), Wealthy, Anisim, Longfield, Fall Orange, Ramsdell Sweet. Hutching Red, Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Roman Stem, Northwestern (Greening), Salome, Black Annette, Iowa Blush, Windsor. Tolman Sweet, Allen Choice, Stayman, Ralls Genet, Delicious, Nelson Sweet, Winesap, York Imperial, Ben Davis or Black Ben Davis or Gano. Southern Iowa — Yellow Transparent, Lowland (Lowland Raspberry), Red June, Oldenburg, (Duchess), Dyer, Wealthy, Benoni, Fall Or- ange, Ramsdell Sweet, Hutchins Red, Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Roman Stem. Iowa Blush. Windsor. Allen Choice. Stayman. Ralls Genet, Delicious, Nelson Sweet, Winesap, York Imperial, Ben Davis or Black Ben Davis or Gano. 314 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Pears— On account of the prevalence and great destructiveness of pear blight in Iowa, pear culture is precarious in all parts of the state. The varieties named below have shown a good degree of hardiness and resistance to blight in some localities In Iowa: Fluke, Bloodgood, Warner, Seckel, Flemish Beauty, Bezi de la Motte, Longworth, Kleffer, Anjou. Peaches— Because of their lack of hardiness peaches are seldom fruited north of central Iowa and only the hardier varieties can be recommended for planting in any portion of the state. The varieties named below are among the best of those which have been fruited successfully in different portions of central and south- ern Iowa: Sneed, Greensboro, Champion, Lone Tree, Russell, Hill Chili, Crosby. Plums — Northern Iowa — Forest Garden, Ocheeda, De Soto, Cheney, Wolf. Wyant, Hawkeye, Stoddard. Brlttlewood (?). Hammer (?), Miner. Central Iowa— Forest Garden, Ocheeda (?), De Soto, Wolf, Wyant, Hawkeye, Stoddard. Brittlewood, Hammer, Miner. Southern Iowa — Forest Garden. Ocheeda (?), De Soto, Wolf, Wyant, Hawkeye, Stoddard, Brittlewood, Hammer, Miner. Varieties Recommended for Planting In Michigan. By Prof. L. R Taft, East Lansing. Mich., Superintendent of Farm- ers' Institute. Apples— Red Astrachan, Duchess, Wealthy, Baldwin, Maiden Blush, Jonathan, Hubbardston, Grimes, Wagener, Red Canada, Golden Russet. Apples, Crab — Transcendent, Hyslop, Martha, Whitney. Blackberries — King, Wilson, Snyder, Eldorado, Taylor. Cherries — Early Richmond, Montmorency, English Morello, Gov. Wood, Black Tartarian. Currants — Victoria, Red Dutch, London, White Dutch, Perfection. Gooseberries — Downing, Smith Improved, Keepsake, Industry. Grapes — Moore, Worden, Concord, Delaware, Niagara, Diamond, Brighton. Peaches — Triumph, Dewey, Engle, Elberta, Kalamazoo, or New Pro- lific. Pears — Clapps, Bartlett, Howell, Seckel, Anjou, Kieffer, Lawrence. Plums — Abundance, Burbank, Bradshaw, Lombard, Grand Duke, Mon- arch. Quince — Orange, Rea and Champion. Raspberries — • Black — Kansas, Gregg, Cumberland. Red— Miller, Marlboro, Eaton, Cuthbert. Strawberries — Excelsior, Haverland, Clyde, Sample, Dunlap, Aroma, Pride of Michigan, Dornan, Brandywine. Varieties of Fruits Recommended for Planting in Minnesota. By Minnesota State Horticultural Society. Apples — First degree of hardiness — Duchess, Hibernal, Charlamoff, Patten's Greening, Okabena. Second degree of hardiness — Wealthy, Tetofsky, Malinda, Peerless, Anisim. Most profitable for commer- cial planting in Minnesota — Wealthy, Duchess, Patten's Greening, Okabena, Anisim. Varieties for trial — Salome, Eastman, Yellow Sweet, Brett, Milwaukee, University, Lowland Raspberry, Iowa Beauty, Jewell's Winter, Gilbert. Valuable in some locations — Wolf River, McMahon, Yellow Transparent, Longfield, Northwest- ern Greening. Crabs and Hybrids — For general cultivation— Florence, Whitney, Ear- ly Strawberry, Minnesota, Sweet Russet, Virginia, Transcendent. Varieties for trial — Lyman's Prolific, Faribault, Shields. APPENDIX. 315 Plums— For general cultivation — DeSoto, Surprise, Forest Garden, Wolf (Freestone), Wyant. Stoddard. Most promising for trial — New Ulm, Brittlewood, Compass Cherry, Terry. Grapes — First degree of hardiness — Beta, Janesville. Second degree of hardiness — Moore's Early, Brighton, Delaware, Worden, Aga- wam. Concord, Moore's Diamond. Raspberries — Red Varieties — King, Turner, Marlboro, Miller, Brandy- wine, Loudon. Black and purple varieties — Palmer, Nemaha, Gregg, Older, Columbian, Kansas. Blackberries — Ancient Britain and Snyder. Currants — Red Dutch, White Grape, Victoria, Long Bunch, Holland, North Star, Pomona, Red Cross, Perfection, London Market. Gooseberries — Hougliton, Downing, Champion, Pearl. Strawberries — Perfect varieties — Bederwood, Enhance, Lovett, Splendid, Glen Mary, Clyde, Senator Dunlap. Imperfect varieties — Crescent, Warfleld, Haverland. Native Fruits — Valuable for trial — Dwarf Juneberry, Sand Cherry, Buffaloberry, High Bush Cranberry. Varieties recommended for Planting in iVIissourl. By J. C. Wliitten, Professor of Horticulture, Columbia, Mo. Apples — Ben Davis, Gano, Jonathan, Grimes, York, Winesap, Ingram, Rome Beauty, Maiden's Blush, Wealthy, Early Harvest. Apples, Crab — Florence, Wliitney, Hyslop. Apricots — Alexander and Budd (Even these do not thrive, and 1 know of none tliat are well adapted). Blackberries — Snyder, Taylor, Lawton, Early Harvest. Cherries — Early Richmond, English IMorello, Montmorency. Currants — Re'd Dutch, White Dutch, Red Cherry. Gooseberries — Downing, Smith, Houghton. Grapes — Moore's Early, M^orden, Concord, Woodruff Red, Wyoming Red. For wine— Cynthiana, Elvira. Peaches — Champion, Carman, Family Favorite, Elberta, Crosby, Salway. Pears— Kieffer, Garber, Dwarf Duchess, Anjou, Keull. Plums— Wild Goose, Wayland, Gold, Dawson, Chabot, Burbank. Quince — Missouri Mammoth, Orange. Raspberries — Black — Evans, Kansas, Hopkins, Gregg. Red — Turner, Cardinal, Loudon. Strawberries— Aroma, Excelsior, Warfield, Bubach, Haverland, Gandy. Varieties Recommended for New York. By S. D. Willard, Geneva, N. Y., leading nurseryman and fruit grower. Apples — Garden Royal, Gravenstein, Oldenburg, Mcintosh, Esopus, Spitzenburg, Northern Spy, Boiken. Apricots — Acme, Montgamet. Blackberries— Early Bagnard. Eldorado. Cherries — Sour: Richmond, Morello, Montmorency. Sweet: Rockport, Windsor, Schmidt. Currants — White Imperial. Wilder. Gooseberries — Downing, Columbus. Pears — Bartlett, Anjou, Lawrence, Washington. Plums — Reine Claude, Bxirbank, German Prune. The varieties espe- cially valuable for home use are very few. Raspberries — Black — Diamond. Gregg, Cumberland. Red — Cuthbert, Loudon, Golden Queen. 316 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. List of Fruits for Northern New England. By W. M. Munson, Professor of Horticulture, Agricultural College, Orono, Me. Apples — Oldenburg, Gravenstein, Baldwin, Spy, Hubbardston, Stark, Tolman, Fameuse. For home use, add — Astrachan, Williams, Mother, Paradise, Winter Sweet, Mackintosh. For extreme northern parts of Maine and Vermont, except Grand Isle County, hardier sorts are required; for example — Wealthy, Dudley, Oldenburg, Alexander, Rolfe, Arctic and some local varieties, like Stowe and Hayforu. Apples, Crab — Hyslop, Martha, Transcendent. Blackberries — Agawam and Snyder. Cherries — Richmond. Windsor, English Morello. Currants — Fay, Wilder, White Imperial. Grape — Moore's Early, Campbell's Early, Green Mountain, Worden, and possibly. King. Gooseberries — Downing. Peaches — Not commercially grown. Pears — Angouleme, Anjou, Bartlett, Bosc, Clapp, Diel, Lawrence, Sheldon, Vermont Beauty. Plum— Bavay, Burbank, Bradshaw, Grand Duke, Imperial, Gage, Moore's Arctic. Quince — Not commercially grown. Raspberries — Black — Cumberland, Gregg. Red— Cuthbert, Loudon. Purple — Shaffer. Strawberries — Dornan, . Di^nlap, Glen Mary, Warfield. List of Fruits Recommended for New Jersey. By M. A. Blake, Horticulturist, Experiment Station, New Bruns- wick, N. J. Apples — I would suggest Early Harvest, Early Ripe, Red Astrachan, William's, Starr, Summer Rambo, Wealthy, Maiden's Blush, Fall Pippin, Jonathan, Stayman's Winesap, Winesap, York Imperial and Rome Beauty. These varieties are recommended for soutii Jersey. North Jersey has practically the same conditions for fruit growing as New York State, and such varieties as Northern Spy, R. I. Greening, Baldwin and Mackintosh can be included in the list. All varieties that are adapted to New York state can be grown in northern Jersey. Such varieties as Baldwin and R. I. Greening are practically fall apples in southern Jersey. Crab Apples — Hyslop and Transcendent. Apricots — Harris Hardy and Moorpark. Blackberries — Ward. Cherries — Sweet — Governor Wood, Yellow Spanish, Black Tartarian, Windsor. Sour — Early Richmond and May Duke. Currants — Wilder, Fay and Cherry. Gooseberries — Downing, Columbus and Red Jacket. Grapes — Commercial varieties for south Jersey — Concord and Ives. Some grapes are sold from south Jersey for eating purposes, but the larger quantity is now made into grape juice. The two va- rieties named are the ones almost exclusively grown. Green Moun- tain, Niagara, Brighton, Worden, Moore's Diamond, Delaware and others can be grown for dessert and home use, however. Peaches— Greensboro, Hiley, Carman, Waddell, Mountain Rose, Ear- ly Crawford, Niagara, Reeve's Favorite, Elberta, Late Craivford, Belle of Georgia, Old Mixon, Steven's Rareripe, Salway. APPENDIX. 317 Pears— Kieffer and La Conte for market, Bartlett, Clalrgeau and such varieties can be recommended for the home orchard, but are Hkely to be severely attacked by blight. Clapp's Favorite is es- pecially susceptible. Plums (European) — Lombard and Fellenburg, (Japanese) — Red June. Quinces — Champion and Orange. Raspberries — Black — Cumberland and Kansas. Red — Herbert and Cuthbert. Hybrids — Columbian and Haymaker. Strawberries — Gandy, Tennessee Proliflc, Nettie, Glen Mary, William Belt, Success. The conditions for fruit growing in northern Jersey are about the same as those of New York and New England. Some of the soils there are well adapted to apples. Some of the high quality varieties of pears could be recommended for this section in addition to those given. Pear blight is very severe in south Jersey, however, and Kieffer and La Conte are becoming the varieties most grown. Southern New Jersey has much tlie same conditions for fruit grow- ing as Delaware and parts of Maryland. Varieties Recommended for Planting in North Carolina. By W. N. Hutt, Horticulturist, Agricultural College, West Raleigh, N. C. Apples — In Mountains — Red June, York, dayman, Winesap, Grimes and Bonum. In Cotton Belt — Horses, Winesap, Stayman, Shock- ley, Ben Davis. Apricots — None grown. Blackberries— Dewberries in sandy region only Lucretia. Cherries — Little grown. Sour type grown in mountains. Currants — In Mountains, Red Dutch and Fay. Gooseberries— Downing and Houghton. Grapes — Niagara, Concord and Delaware. Scuppernong and James on coast. Peaches — Greensboro, Carman, Salway. Pears — Kieffer, La Conte, Seckel, Early Harvest. Plums — Abundance, Red June, Burbank, Wild Goose. Quince — In mountains, Meech. Raspberries — Black — In mountains — Gregg. Red— In mountains — Loudon, Cuthbert and Miller. Strawberries — Lady Thompson, Heflin, Gandy, Bubach, Clenoa. Figs — In coast and lower Piedmont — Brown Turkey, Celestial. Pecans — In coast and lower Piedmont— Stewart, Van Deman, Frot- schen, Schley. Mulberries— White English, Black English, New American. Varieties Recommended for Planting In Ohio. By W. J. Green, Professor of Horticulture of E.xperiment Station, Wooster, O. Apples — Yellow Transparent, Oldenburg, Sweet Bough, Maiden's Blush, Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Hubbardston, York Imperial, Rome Beauty, Northern Spy. Apples, Crab — Transcendent. Blackberries— Early Harvest, E. King, Eldorado, Snyder. Cherries — Dydhouse, Early Richmond, Montmorency, English Morello. Currants — Victoria, Wilder. White Dutch. Gooseberries — Downing, Pearl, Portage, Josselyn. Grapes — Worden, Green Mountain, Niagara, Brighton. Peaches — Mountain Rose, Greensboro, Champion, Elberta, Smock. Pears — Wilder, Bartlett, Angouleme, Seckel. 318 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Plums— Bradshaw, Field, Reine Claude, Lombard, Grand Duke. Quince — Orange. Raspberries — Black— Cumberland, Hunger, Conrath. Red — Cuthbert, King, Loudon. Strawberries— Fairfield, Dunlap, Haverland, Bubach, Latest. Varieties Recommended for Planting in Oregon. By C. J. Lewis, Professor of General Horticulture, Agricultural Col- lege, Corvallis, Ore. Apples — E. Spltzenburg, Yellow Newtown, Jonathan, Baldwin, Ben Davis, Gano, Yellow Imperial, Gravenstein. Apples, Crab — Martha, Transcendent. Apricots — Blenheim, Moore Park, Royal. Blackberries— Lawton, Kittatlnny. Cherries— Roval Anne, Lambert, Bing, Black Republican. Currants— Fay, Cherry, White Grape. Gooseberries — Champion, Downing, Industry. Grapes— Concord, Niagara, Tokay, Malaga, Muscat. Peache.=! — Alexander. Crawfords, Foster, Muir, Salway, Hale's Early, L. Clinv. Pears — Bartlett, Anjou, Bosc, Howell, W. Nelis, Cornice, E. Beurre. Plums — Italian, Petite. Quince — Champion, Apple or Orange, Rea's Mammoth. Raspberries- Black — Gregg, Cumberland, Kansas, Mammoth Cluster. Red — Cuthbert, Marlboro, Loudon. Strawberries — Clark's Seedling, Niagara, Warfield, Clyde, Hopkins, Oregon Everbearing, Excelsior, Dunlap. List of Fruits Recommended for the State of Washington and Adjoin- ing Fruit Districts; Revised and Corrected by Professor W. S. Thornber, Pullman, Wash. Varieties recommended for western Montana, Idaho, eastern Washington, eastern Oregon, Nevada, eastern California and adja- cent parts of British Columbia: Apples — Early — Bough (sweet). Early Harvest, Red Astrachan, Jefferis, Oldenburg, Yellow Transparent, Maiden Blush. Gravenstein. Midseason — Fall Pippin, Fameuse, Mcintosh Red, Rambo, Wealthy, Tompkins King, Bailey. Late — Grimes Golden, Arkansas Black, Blue Pearmain, Esopus Spitz- enberg, Jonathan, Monmouth, Northern Spy, Wagener. White Winter Pearmain, Rome Beauty, Staymen Winesap, Yellow Bellflower, Wine- sap. Crab Apples — ^Hyslop, Transcendent, Grant. Pears — Early — Bartlett, Tyson. Midseason— Beurre d'Anjou, Flemish, Seckel, Howell. Late — Sheldon, Easter Beurre, Winter Nelis. Plums — • Early — Columbia, Bradshaw. Midseason — Agen or French, Peach Golden Drop, Imperial Gage. Late — Shropshire, Damson, Italian Prune. Peaches — Early — Alexander, Early York, Greensboro, Mountain Rose. Midseason — Early Crawford, Foster, Lemon Cling, Muir, Susque- hanna. Sweet Cherries— Napoleon (Royal Anne), Lambert, Black Republican, Windsor. Sour Cherries — Late Duke, May Duke, Morello, Olivet. APPENDIX. 319 Apricots — Moorpark, Royal, Gibb. Grapeo — Early— Moore. Brighton, Winchell. Midseason — Wordeii, Delaware, Concord. Late— Niagara, lona, and Alexandria or Muscat and Black Hamburg in warm valleys only. Currants — Cierry, Red Dutch, White Grape. Gooseberries — Industry, Houghton. Pale Red. Strawberries — Early — Dubach, Crescent, Excelsior, Warfleld. Midseason — Hood River, Parker Earle, Sharpless. Late — Gandy. Red Raspberries — Marlboro, Cuthbert, Shaffer. Black Raspberries — Gregg, Kansas, Palmer. Blackberries— Ancient Britton and Kittatinny. Quinces — Mech and Missouri. Dewberries — Lucretia. The following varieties are recommended for the Coast region of western Oregon, western Washington, and adjacent parts of British Columbia. Apples — Early — Earlv Harvest, Yellow Transparent, Red Astrachan, Benoni. Midseason — Gravenstein, Fall Pippin, Fameuse, Mcintosh, Rambo. Late — Baldwin, Belmont, Esopus Spitzenberg, Jonathan, Northern Spy. Talman Sweet, Grimes Golden, Yellow Bellfiower, Crab Apples— Hyslop and Transcendent, Whitney. Pears — Early— White Doyenne. Clapp, Bartlett, Tyson. Midseason— Beurre D'Anjou, Bosc. Louise, Seckel, Gray Doyenne and Sheldon. Late— Easter Beurre, Cornice, Winter Nells, Dana, Hovey and Lawrence. Plums — Early — Columbia, Jefferson. ^ Midseason— De Soto, French, Golden Drop, Peach Golden Prune, Sugar, Imperial Gage. Late — Sliropshire, Damson, Italian. Peaches — „ , , , Early— Alexander, Charlotte, Mountain Rose, Triumph, Hale. Midseason — Early Crawford, Foster, Muir, Oldmixon Free. Late— Late Crawford, Heath. Sweet Cherries— Bing, Republican, Royal Anne, Lewelling, Lambert, Tartarian. Sour Cherries — May Duke, Richmond. Morello, Olivet. Apricots — Moorpark, Royal, Gibb. Varieties Recommended for Planting In Saskatchewan. By Angus Mackay, Superintendent Experimental Farm, Indian Head, Saskatchewan. Apples, Crab— Siberian Crab (P. baccata) and crosses on this variety. Cherries — Prunus tomentosa. Currants — Red— Fay's Prolific, Victoria, Red Dutch, White — White Grape, White Imperial. Black— Lee's Prolific, Black Naples. Gooseberries — Smith's Improved, Houghton. Plums — Manitoba Native, Aitken, Weaver. Raspberries — Black— Older Black and Hilborn Black. Red — Dr. Reider, Marboro, Turner, Herbert. Yellow— Caroline. Strawberries— South Dakota No. 1 (Seedling of Jessie fertilized with pollen from Manitoba Wild Strawberry). H20 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. RULES FOR NAMING FRUITS. In the naming and describing oi' new sorts, there is chance for mucli confusion by duplication of names and in other ways. In order to simphfy this matter, rules have been adopted by the American Pomological Society as follows: Rule I. No two varieties of the same kind of fruit shall bear the same name. The name first published for a variety shall be the accepted and recognized name, except in cases where it has been ap- plied in violation of this code. (a) The term "kind" as herein used shall be understood to ap- ply to those general classes of fruits that are grouped together in common usage without regard to their exact botanical relationship; as, apple, cherry, grape, peach, plum, raspberry, etc. (b) The paramount right of the originator, discoverer or in- troducer of a new variety to name it, within the limitations of this code, is recognized and emphasized. (c) Where a variety name, through long usage, has become thor- oughly established in American Pomological literature for two or more varieties, it should not be displaced nor radically modified for either sort, except in cases where a well-known synonym can be ad- vanced to the position of leading name. The several varieties bear- ing identical names should be distinguished by adding the name of the author who first described each sort, or by adding some other suit- able distinguishing term that will insure their identity in catalogues or discussions. (d) Existing American names of varieties, which conflict with earlier published foreign names of the same, or other varieties, but which have become thoroughly established through long usage, shall not be displaced. Rule II. The name of a variety of fruit shall consist of a single word. (a) No variety shall be named unless distinctly superior to ex- isting varieties in some important characteristic nor until it has been determined to perpetuate it by bud propagation. (b) In selecting names for varieties, the following points should be emphasized: distinctiveness, simplicity, ease of pronunciation, dnd Bpelling, indication of origin or parentage. (c) The spelling and pronunciation of a varietal name derived from a personal or geographical name should be governed by the rules that control the spelling and pronunciation of the name from which it was derived. (d) A variety imported from a foreign country should retain its foreign name subject only to such modification as is necessary to conform to this code or to render it intelligible in English. (e) The name of a person should not be applied to a variety dur- ing his life without his expressed consent. The name of a deceased horticulturist should not be so applied except through formal action by so^ne competent horticultural body, preferably that with which he was most closely connected. (f) The use of such general terms as seedling, hybrid, pippin, pearmain, beurre, rare-ripe, damson, etc., is not admissible. (g) The use of a possessive noun as a name is not admissible, (h) The use of a number, either singly or attached to a word, Should be considered only as temporary expedient while the variety is undergoing preliminary test. (i) In applying the various provisions of this rule to an exirting varietal name that has, through long usage, become firmly imbedded in American Pomological literature, no ohange shall be made, which will involve loss of identity. Rule ITI. In the full and formal citation of a variety name, the name of the author who first published it shall be given. Publication. Rule IV. Publication consists (1) in the distribution of a printed description of the variety named, giving the distinguishing charac- APPENDIX. 321 ters of fruit, tree, etc.. or (2) in the publication of a new name for ■I variety that is properly described elsewhere: such publica ion to be made^n any book,^ulletin. ^'eport.. trade catalogue or perK.d|cal providing the issue bears the date of its P"bUcation and s geneially distributed among nurserymen, fruit growers and horticultunsts o. n> in certain cases, the general recognition of a name for a piop- agated virfety in a community for a number of years snail consti- tute publication of that name. . ^ 4.„ „,r,j„t, +„,„ r>i- mnrp (a) In determining the name of a vanety to which two or more names have been given in the same publication, that which stands first shall have precedence. „ . . Revision. , , , Rule V No properly published variety name shall be changed for any reason except conflict with this code, nor shall anotner va- riety be substituted for that originally described thereunder. Usual Distances Apart for Planting Fruits. Apples 25 to 40 feet each way ^?^l4'\''^'^'''::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::2olo3o - •• : Pears, Dwarf . , }5 !° in !! !! '.'. Plums :^^t«^2 Peaches B }"" ^^ Cherries '16 to 25 .16 to 20 Apricots - , ^ „„ Nectarines 16 to 20 Quinces _ 8 to 14 Mulberries H i** o2 .. Japanese Persimmons 20 to 25 Pecans "^5 *° !x .. .\ .! Grapes 8 to 12 ;; ;' Currants 4 x 5 _^ Gooseberries *■ x o Raspberries, Black 3x7'' Raspberries, Red 3 x 7 Blackberries 4x7 to 6x8 feet Cranberries 1 or 2 feet apart each way Strawberries w -^ *° "^^ 1° 4 feet Oranges and Lemons 25 to 30 feet each way Number of Plants Required to Set an Acre of Ground at Given Distances. 1 ft. x 1ft 43,560 12 ft. X 20 ft 181 1 ft. X 2 ft 21,780 12 ft. X 24 ft 151 1 ft X 4 ft 10,890 12 ft. X 30 ft 121 1 ft X 6 ft 7,260 12 ft. X 36 ft 86 1 ft. X 7 ft 6,223 15 ft. X 15 ft 193 2 ft. X 2 ft 10.890 15 ft. X 20 ft 145 2 ft. X 3 ft 7,260 15 ft. X 24 ft 121 2 ft. X 4 ft 5,445 IS ft. X 20 ft 121 2 ft. X 6 ft 3.630 18 ft. X 24 ft 100 3 ft. X 3 ft 4.840 20 ft. X 20 ft 108 3 ft. X 6 ft 2,420 20 ft. X 24 ft 90 4 ft. X 4 ft 2,722 20 ft. X 30 ft 72 4 ft. X 5 ft 2,178 20 ft. X 42 ft 51 4 ft. X 6 ft 1,185 30 ft. X 30 ft 48 4 ft. X 8 ft 1,361 30 ft. X 36 ft 40 5 ft. X 6 ft 1,452 30 ft. X 42 ft 34 5 ft. X 8 ft 1,089 40 ft. X 40 ft 27 12 ft. X 12 ft 302 40 ft. X 50 ft 21 12 ft. X 15 ft 242 50 ft. X 50 ft 17 12 ft. X 18 ft 201 100 ft. X 100 ft 4 322 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING HORTICULTURAL PUBLICATIONS. The following list of books, papers and bulletins on fruit growing IS appended as suggestive material for supplementary reading for the student and fruit growei . BOOKS. William Briggs, Toronto, Ont. The Canadian Apple Growers' Guide. Dewey & Co., San Francisco, Cal. California Fruits and How to Grow Them, E. J. Wickson Doubleday, Fage & Co., Garden City, N. Y. How to Make a Fruit Garden, S. \V. Fletcher. Orchard and Fruit Garden, E. P. Powell. The Fruit Grower, St. Joseph, Mo. The Fruit Grower's Guide Book, E. H. Favor. Ginn & Co., Chicago, 111. Fungous Diseases of Plants, B. M. Duggar. Orange Judd Co., New York, N. Y. The American Apple Orchard, F. A. Waugh. The American Fruit Culturist, J. J. Thomas. Foundations of American Grape Culture, T. V. Munson. Fruit Harvesting-, Storing and Marketing, F. A. Waugh. Grape Growing and Wine Making, Geo. Husmann. Plums and Plum Culture, F. A. Waugh. Systematic Pomology, F. A. Waugh. J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, Pa. Insects Injurious to Fruits, Wm. Saunders. Macmillan Co., New York or Chicago. Cyclopedia of American Horticulture, edited by L. H. Bailey. Bush Fruits, F. W. Card. Farm and Garden Rule Book, L. H. Bailey. Fruit G.rowing in the Arid Regions, Paddock and Whipple. The Nursery Book, L. H. Bailey. The Principles of Fruit Growing, L. H. Bailey. The Pruning Book, L. H. Bailey. The Spraying- of Plants, E. G. Lodeman. W. T. Seibels, 242 N. Clark St., Chicago, III. Produce Markets and Marketing. John Wiley & Sons, New York, N. Y. American Horticultural Manual, two vols., Budd and Hansen. PERIODICALS. The following periodicals are devoted wholly or in part to horti- cultural subjects: Better Fruit, Hood River, Ore. The Country Gentleman, Philadelphia, Pa. The Chicago Packer, Chicago, 111. The Fruit Belt, Grand Rapids, Mich. The Fruit Grower, St. .Joseph, Mo. The Fruit Magazine, Vancouver, B. C. The Fruitman and Gardener, Mt. Vernon, Iowa. The Fruit Trade Journal, New York, N. Y. The Market Growers' Journal, Louisville, Ky. The National Horticulturist, Council Bluffs, Iowa. The Rural New Yorker, New York, N. Y. The various local farm papers usually maintain horticultural col- umns or publish more or less matter relating to fruit growing. HORTICULTURAL PUBLICATIONS. 323 The reports of the state horticultural societies contain many valu- able (Suggestions, and as they are based very largely on the actual experience of local growers, they are usually very practical and useful. BULLETINS. The U. S. Department of Agriculture has published a number of bulletins on fruit growing which may be obtained free of charge by writing to the Division of Publications, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. The bulletins which are now available include the following: Farmers' Bulletin 113, The Apple and How to Grow It. Farmers' Bulletin 118, Grape Growing in the South. Farmers' Bulletin 154, The Home Fruit Garden, Preparation and Care. Farmers' Bulletin 156, The Home Vineyard, with Special Refer- ence to Northern Conditions. Farmers' Bulletin 157, The Propagation of Plants. Farmers' Bulletin 176, Cranberry Culture. Farmers' Bulletin ISl, Pruning. Farmers' Bulletin 198, Strawberries. Farmers' Bulletin 213, Raspberries. Farmers' Bulletin 238, Citrus Fruit Growing in the Gulf States. Farmers' Bulletin 215, Fungicides and Their Use in Preventinc; Diseases of Fruits. Farmers' Bulletin 284, Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Grape East of the Rocky Mountains. Farmers' Bulletin 2^1, Evaporation of Apples. Farmers' Bulletin 293, Use of Fruit as Food. Farmers' Bulletin 332, Nuts and Their Uses as Food. Farmers' Bulletin 401, The Protection of Orchards in the Pacific Northwe.«;t from Spi-ing P'rosts by Means of Fires and Smudges. Farmers' Bulletin 404, Irrigation of Orchards. Farmers' Bulletin 426, Canning Peaches on the Farm. Farmers' Bulletin 440, Spraying Peaches for the Control of Brown Rot, Scab and Curculio. The various state experiment stations have issued a large num- ber of publications on fruit growing. Those published in your own state can be obtained from the Director of the E.xperiment Station free of charge. These bulletins are also usually sent free to applicants outside the state as long as the supply lasts. INDEX Accessibility to market, 13 Adventitious buds, 20 Age of trees for planting, 35 Agitation in sprayers, 124 Alabama, Varieties for, 312 Alcoholic waxes, 311 Almond, 300 Altitude and frosts, 182 Analysis of fruit, 48 Anthracnose, 115. 120 Aphis, 83, 93, 100 Apparatus, Spraying, 123 Apple, 178: blight, 106: classifica- tion, 178: curculio, 81; descrip- tion of varieties, 179; diseases 106; forming the tree. 56, ISR grading, 146; grafting, 173 insects. 79; mulching. 189 origin of, 178: packing. 140, 144 picking, 132: planting. 185 propagation, ISO; scab, 108; soil for, 182; species of. 178; spray calendar. 303; stocks, 181; tree borer. 84: varieties, 190. Apricot, 217 Arsenate of lead, 309 Arsenite of soda, 309 Assimilation, 26 Associations, 137 Bagging grapes, 244 Bark, 19 Bark louse, 86 Barrels, 143 Barrel press, 145 Baskets. 139 Beeswax, 311 Beneficial insects, 78 Birds, Injuries from, 64 Bitter rot, 106 Blackberry. 274; diseases, 119; insects, 100; propagation, 27 (; spray calendar, 306 Black knot, 112 ' Black rot, 107, 111, 116 Blight, 106. 110 Books on horticulture, 322 Bordeaux mixture, 105, 307 Borer. 84; currant, 99; flat-head- ed, 84; peach, 90; peach twig, 89; raspberry, 100 Brown rot, 113 Buds. 20 Buds, Winter injury to, 66 Budding, 157; forms of, 163; June, 163; time for, 158 Budstick. 158 Buffalo ben-y, 280; propagation, 281 Buffalo tree hopper, 85 Bulletins on fruit growing, 323 Bushel basket. 139 Bushel box. 139 Business aspect, 16 Butternut, 300 Buying trees, 33, 184 California, Varieties foi-. 311 Callousing, 154 Cane rust, 120 Caterpillar, Tent. 81 Cedar apples. 107 Cellars, 150 Chart of frost, 71 Chemical elements in fruit, 48 Cherry, 204; classification, 204 cultivation, 205; diseases, 115 grafting, 174; insects, 95; mar keting, 208; planting, 205 propagation, 207; soil for, 205 spray calendar, 304; varieties, 209 Chestnut, 296 Chinese sand pear, 191 Chinquapin, 297 Choice of locations, IS Cion, 156, 164, 168 Classification of fruits, 28 Clay soils, 15 Cleft grafting, 166 Clogging of spray nozzles, 127 Codlin moth, 79 Cold storage, 147 Collar, 19 Colorado, Varieties for, 313 Commission dealers, 135 INDEX 325 Cooling' rooms, 147 Copper carbonate and soap, 308 Copper sulfate solution. 308 Cordon pruning, 59 Corn in orchards, 45 Cover crops, 43, 45 Cranberry, 283; drainage, 286: location of beds, 284; picking. 289; planting, 288; soil for, 285 Cricket. Snowy tree, 101 Cropping the orchard, 45 Crossing, 24 Crown, 19 Crown gall. 113, 114, 119 Cultivation. 40, 188 Curculio. 81, 91 Currant, 258; borer. 99; cuttings, 260; diseases. 120; insects, 97; origin. 259; propagation, 259; spray calendar, 305; worm, 97 Cuttings, 153, 154 Cut worm, 84 Dewberry, 274 Diagonal pack, 140 Digging the hole.s. 38 Direction of the slope, 16 Diseases of fruits, 105 Distances for planting, 321 Downy mildew, 116 Dust spraying, 123 Eau celeste. 307 Effect of pruning. 53 English walnut, 299 Espalier pruning. 5? Fall web worm. 83 Fillers, 46 Fire blight. 106 Flat-headed apple borer, 84 Flower, 21 Foot rot, 114 Forming the apple tree, 56 Forming the head, 54 Frost, 68; foretelling, 69; killing. 68; protection, 68. 71 Fruit, 23; analysis, 48; classifi- cation. 28; diseases, 105; grades. 145; laws, 137; lists, 311; pack- ages, 135; plants from seed, 2.'>: propagation, 25, 151; scald, 10!<; rules for naming, 320 Fungicides, 105, 307 Girdling, 21, 245 Gooseberry, 263; diseases, 120; insects, 97; spray calendar, 305 Gouger, Plum, 92 Grading fruit, 141, 145 Graftage, 156 Grafting, 164; cleft, 166; root. 168; side. 171; tools, 165; wax formula. 166, 311; whip, 168 Grain in orchards, 45 Grape, 220; bagging. 244; culti- vation, 228; cuttings, 223; dis- eases, 115; flowers, 222; gird- ling. 245; grafting, 175; hybrids, 221; insects, 95; Kniffen method of training, 237; layers, 225 location for. 227; Munson meth od of training, 239; origin, 220 phylloxera, 96: planting, 228 propagation, 222; pruning, 229 soil for, 227; species of, 220 spray calendar, 305: thinning, ,243; training, 229; trellis, 230 vine leaf hopper, 95 Growing trees in sod, 41 Grub, White, 102 Hardwood cuttings. 154 Harvesting, 132 Hazel, 301 Heeling in, 186 Hellebore, 310 Hexagonal system, 38 Hogs in orchards. 80 Holes for trees, 38, 185 Hopper, Leaf, 95 Horticultural publications, 32!: Hose for spraying, 128 Humus, 41 Hybrids, 24 Inarching, 175 Injuries, 64; frost, 68; spraying, 110 Insecticides, 309 Insects. 75; beneficial, 78; chew- ing, 76; parasitic, 78;' preda- ceous, 79; sucking, 77; on the roots, 78 Inspection laws, 76 Iowa, Varieties for. 313 Irrigation. 51 326 INDEX Juneberry, 275; cultivation, 2TG; propagation, 276; xarietles, 2TS June budding, 163 Kerosene emulsion, 310 Kniffen system for grapes, 2.' Ladders for picking, 133 Layers, 153 Laying out the orchard, 37 Leaf blight, 110 Leaf curl. Ill, 114, 119 Leaf hopper, 95 Leaf lice, 83 Leaf roller, 101 Leaf rust, 107, 118 Leaf slug. 88 Leaf spot, 118, 119, 121 Leaves, 21 Lice, 83. 100 Lime, 310 I^imestone soil, 14 Lime-sulfur wash, 308 Liquid spraying, 123 Loam, 14, 15 Location for fruit growing, 13, If Loess loam, 14 Louse, Woolly apple. 87 Low-headed trees, 54 M Manures, 47, 50; application, 49 Marketing, 132 Methods of packing, 140 Mice, 65 Michigan, Varieties for, 314 Mildew. 109, 116, 120 IVlineral substances, 28 Minnesota, Varieties for, 314 Missouri, Varieties for, 315 Moisture loss, 26 Mountain ash as stock. 194 Mulberry, 281; groups, 281; prop- agation 283; varieties, 283 Mulching, 42 N Naming fruits. Rules for, 320 Nectarines. 217 New England, Varieties for. ?.lfi New Jersey, Varieties for, 316 New York, Varieties for, 315 North Carolina, Varieties for, 317 Nozzles, Spray, 127 Number of plants to the acre. 321 Nursery inspection, 76 Nursery selection, 35 Nursery stock, 35 Nuts, 294 Offsets, 152 Ohio. Varieties for, 317 Open-headed trees, 54- Orange rust. 120 Orchard cultivation, 40 Orchard protection, 61 Oregon, Varieties for, 318 Outlook for fruit growing, 17 Overproduction, 17 Oyster shell bark louse, 86 Packages, 136, 139, 143 Packing. 135, 140 Painting wounds, 55 Papers, Horticultural, 322 Parasites, 78 Paris green, 309 Parts of the flower, 22 Peach, 209; borer, 89, 90; classi- fication, 212; diseases, 113; distribution, 209; grafting, 175; insects, 89: leaf curl, 111; loca- tion and soil, 216; origin, 211; planting, 214; propagation, 213; protection, 210; pruning, 215; rosette, 115; spray calendar, 304; thinning, 216; varieties, 216; yellows, 115 Pear. 191; Chinese sand, 191; diseases. 110; dwarf, 192; in- sects. 88; psylla, 89; spray cal- endar. 305; standard, 192; tree slug, 88 Pecan, 294 Peddling, 135 Periodicals, 322 Persimmon, 289 Phylloxera, 96 Picking fruit. 132 Plant food. 46, 48 Plant growth, 19 Planting, 34. 37 Plum, 198; classification, 200; cultivation, 203; curculio, 81, 91; diseases. Ill; gouger, 92; grafting. 173; insects, 91; leaf aphis, 93; marketing, 204; mix- ing varieties of, 202; planting, INDEX 327 Plum — Cont'd. 201; picking, 203; pocket, 111; propagation, 200; pruning, ,20:>: soil. 201; species, 198: spray calendar, 304; stocks, 201; thinning. 203; varieties, 204 Pollen, 24 Pollination. 24, 32 Pome fruits, 178 Potassium sulHde, 308 Powdery mildew, 109, 117 Preparing the land, 33 Pressure in spra.\ing, 124 Press, Barrel, 145 Principles of plant growth, lit Propagation, l.'il Protection, Orchard, 61, 68 Pruning. 39, 53; effect of, 53; how to make cuts in, 55, 58; metliod of, 55; reasons for, 53; the young tree, 54; tools, 56 Publications. 322 Psychrometer, 70 Psylla, Pear, 89 Pumps, Spray, 126 Pyrethruin, 310 Quince. 105; as stock, 102; dis- eases, 110; insects, 196; i)rop- agation, 195 Quincunx syptem, 3S Rabbits. 65 Raffia. 160 Raspberry. 265; classification. 265; diseases, 119; flat-headed borer, 100; insects. 100; market- ing. 273; mulching, 271; pick- ing. 273; propagation, 266; pro- tection, 271; pruning, 270; rust. 120; soil, 268; spray calendar, 306; support, 271; thinning, 270 Rate of seeding cover crops, 44 Reasons for cultivation, 40 Reasons for pruning, 53 Red orange rust, 120 Renewing old trees, 50 Resin lime mixture, 310 Rest period of plants, 28 Return package, 142 Root cuttings, 153 Root galls, 65, 107 Root gra'fting, 168 Root killing, 67 Rose chafer, 97 Rot, Bitter, 106 Rot, Black, 107, 111, 116 Rot. Brown, 113 Rules for naming fruits, 320 Runners, 19, 152 Rust, 107. 118, 120 Sand cherry, 277; distribution, 277; propagation, 279 Sandy soils, 15 San Jose scale, 86 Saskatchewan, Varieties for, 319 Scab, 108, 113, 115 Scald, Fruit, 109 Scale insects, 86 Scurfy bark louse, 86 Seed," 25, 151 Seedlings, 25, 1S4 Selection of trees, 35 Selection of varieties, 31 Shape of trees, 35 Shot hole fungus, 113 Side grafting, 171 Slope, Direction of the, 16 Small fruits, 247 Smudger, 73 Snowy tree cricket, 101 Soap, Whale oil, 310 Sod culture, 41 Soils, 14 Solar pit, 155 Sorting table, 143 Sprayers, 124, 129 Spraying, 123; calendar, 303; injuries, 110; outfits, 129 Square system, 37 Stems, 19, 139 Stock, 156, 181, 201 Storage buildings, 146 Storing, 132, 146 Stratification, 151 Strawberry, 247; diseases, 118 hill system, 251; insects, 101 marketing, 257; origin of, 247 picking, 257; propagation, 248 renewing beds, 254; row sys- tem, 251; rust, 118; setting plants, 252; sexuality of plants, 255; soil, 24S; spraying cal- endar, 305; time of planting, 249; varieties, 258; weevil, 102; winter protection, 253 Stone fruits. 108 Success in fruit growing, 17 Suckers, 19, 189 Sunburn, 118 Sunscald, 61 Systems of planting, 37 328 INDEX Tent caterpillar, 81 Thermometer, 70 Thinning fruits, 203, 216 Thorns, 19 Thoroughness of spraying, 12S Time to apply manures, 50 Time to pick fruit, 133 Time to plant, 34 Time to prune, 54 Tobacco dust, 310 Tobacco soap, 311 Tools for pruning, 56 Topography, 16 Top-working, 173 Transpiration, 26 Tree currants, 262 Tree hopper, Buffalo, 85 Trellis for grapes, 230 Twig borer, 85, 89 Varieties, 29, 31 Varieties for various states, 312 W ^V■alnut. 21.9, 300 Washington, Varieties for, 318 Waxed string bandage, 311 Waxes, Grafting, 311 Web worm, 83 Weevil, Strawberry, 102 Wet and dry bulb, 70 Whale oil soap, 310 When to prune, 54 Whip grafting, 168 White grub, 102 Windbreaks, 182 Wind injury, 64 Winter injury to roots, 67 Winter killing, 65 Woolly aphis, 87 Woolly apple louse, 87 Yellow, I'each. 11' ntrEKTf uburt N. C. State Colltifi STANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS Published and Sold By WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY. ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA AGRICULTURAL. POPULAR FRUIT GROWING, by Samuel B. Green. This book covers the factors in successful fruit growing, with list of fruits adapted to each state; orchard protection, injurious insects, diseases injurious to fruits, spraying, harvesting, propagation of fruit plants, etc., etc. It is prepared es- pecially for beginners and as a text book for schools and colleges. 3U''J pages, 120 illustrations. Price, postpaid. .$1.00 AMATEUR FRUIT GROWING, by Samuel B. Green, a practical guide to the growing of fruit for home use and the market, written with special reference to a cold climate. Illustrated. 134 pp. Price, 12 mo Paper, 25 cents; cloth, 50 cents. VEGETABLE GARDENING, by Samuel B. Green. 10th edition. A manual on the growing of vegetables for home use and the market, profusely illustrated. 252 pp. Price, 12 mo Cloth, $1.00; paper, 50 cents. 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The most popular and practical cook book ou the market. 154 pp. Price, 12 mo Cloth, 50 cents; paper, 25 cents. THE "BUCKEYE" COOK BOOK, by Mrs. Wilcox. A careful compilation of tried and approved recipes for all branches of the household. 1288 pp. with complete index. Price, postpaid $2.50 Agricultural Text Books for High Schools The four agricultural books described below are planned especially for High Schools in which agriculture is taught. They constitute a complete four year graded course. Each book is complete in itself and is prepared to cover the sub- ject as thoroughly as the time allotted to agriculture in one year will permit. They are thoroughly practical; they discuss subjects in their logical order, con- tain laboratory exercises and experimental work, and a list of questions after each chapter to emphasize the important features of each lesson. These books constitute a complete, concise and practical course that will meet the urgent need of the modern agricultural High School. FIELD CROPS, by A. D. Wilson, Superintendent of Extension and Farmers' Institutes, Minnesota College of Agriculture; and C. W. Warburton, Agronomist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. An Intensely practical discussion of the American farm crops is presented in this volume, which abounds in helpful suggestions and valuable information for the mcst successful growing, harvesting, and marlveting of the various crops. It is divided into three parts, containing also two introductory chapters on the classification of crops and the growth of plants. Part I. Contains seven chapters, discussing in detail all of the Grain Crops. Part II. Contains twelve chapters, discussing all of the Forage Crops. Part III. Contains six chapters, discussing fully the Miscellaneous Crops, including: potatoes, sugar crops, fibre crops, tobacco, weeds, rotation, etc. This is the most complete and authentic book for the purpose on the marl^et. It contains about 450 pages, nearly 200 illustrations, is printed on high grade book paper from clear type and bound in a neat, handsome and durable cloth cover. Price $1.50 net BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, by Chas. S. Plumb, Professor of Animal Husbandry, University of Ohio, and Author of "Types and Breeds of Farm Animals," "Indian Corn Culture" and "Animal Husbandry Literature," etc. This is the first volume prepared on the subject of Animal Husbandry that is particularly adapted to the needs of high school students in agriculture. Professor Plumb has long been known aa one of the leading instructors and investigators in the Animal Husbandry field, as a judge of live stock, and as a clear thinker and interesting writer on live stock subjects. In this new volume he has concentrated the results of his many years' experience in teactiing and experimentation. The matter is presented in a simple, practical manner that makes it particularly valuable for the purpose for which it is intended. Among the important subjects which are discussed minutely are: Breeds of Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Swine; Animal Type and Its Importance; Reasons and Methods of Judging Live Stock; Points of the Horse; Judging Horses, Cattle, Sheep, Swine, etc.; Heredity: its Meaning and Influences; Selection and Its Importance; Pedigrees and their Value; Suggestions to Young Breeders; Composition of Plants and Animals; Influence of Foods on Body; Feeding Standards, Origin and Use; How to Calculate a Ration; Coarse Feeds and their Value; Concentrated Feed and their Value; Poultry: Feeding, Management and Marketing; and the General Management of Cattle. This will be a book of about 350 pages profusely illustrated, well printed, durably bound. Price $1.25 net SOILS AND SOIL FERTILITY, by A. R. Whitson, Professor of Soils, University of Wisconsin; and H. L. Walster, Instructor of Soils, University of Wisconsin. A book especially prepared as a text book on the subject of soils for high school courses in agriculture. Among the most important subjects fully discussed are: Conditions Essential to Plant Growth; Origin of the Soil; Supply of Chemical Elements; Nitrogen, Phos- phorous and Potash; Soil Analysis; Manures; Artificial Fertilizers; Physical Properties of Soils and Plant Growth; Moisture; Temperature and Ventilation; Drainage; Erosion; Tillage; Humus; Relation of Crops to Climate and Soils; Rotation of Crops; Classifica- tion of Soils; Management; Dry Farming and Irrigation; Selection of Farms. This book does not go into the scientific detail of the structure and chemical composition of soils, but discusses in a simple, practical way the best methods of handling the land to pro- duce good crops. About 300 pages, well illustrated, printed on high grade paper, bound durably in cloth cover. Price $1.25 net AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING, by J. B. Davidson, Professor of Agricultural Engineering, Iowa State College,and Joint Author of "Farm Machinery and Farm Motors." A practical elementary book on the subjects of Rural Engineering for use in high schools. The fundamental principles of agricultural engineering are presented in a simple practical manner, entirely within the comprehension of the high school student. Among the subjects discussed are: Agricultural Surveying, Drainage, Irrigation, Road Construction; Farm Machinery, including the relation of Farm Machinery to Farm Operations, Elements of Machines, Material and Lubrication; Tillage Machinery, Seeding Machinery, Harvesting Machinery, Combined Harvester and Thresher, Manure Spreaders, Haying Machinery, Threshing Machinery, Feed Cutters, Huskers and Shredders, Feed Mills, Wagons, Buggies, Sleds, and Pump Machinery; Farm Motors, including Sources of energy. Transformation of energy. Prime Movers, and hand work; Wind mill. Steam Engine, Steam and Gas Tractors and Electric Motors; Farm struc- tures, and Farm Sanitation. This book will contain about 450 pages with many illus- trations from photographs and drawings, printed on high grade paper from clear type, and will be handsomely bound in durable cloth covers. Price $1.50 net Instructors, teachers and students of agriculture will find these books very helpful, as they contain authentic information on the various subjects discussed, that is given in clear concise language which is easily understood; exercises and experiments follow all lessons. Every effort has been made to make these books interesting, practical and reliable. Send all orders to WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY, ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA.