SAMUEL B, Green.

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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT.

Popular Fruit Growing

BYE ls
ul
SAMUEL B{GREEN
7
Professor of Horticulture and Forestry in the

University of Minnesota

Author of “Vegetable Gardening,” “Amateur Fruit Growing,”
“Forestry in Minnesota,” “Principles of American
Forestry,’ “Farm Wind-Breaks
and Shelter Belts,” Etc.

Webb Publishing Company
St. Paul, Minn.
1909

Copyright, 1909,

By

SAMUEL B. GREEN.

LIBRARY of CONGRESS
Two Gonies Received

MAY 241909
i an 24, “rn 5
LA

3S KXo. No,
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Copy &

PREFACE.

The development of the teaching of Agriculture has made
necessary, and has been largely dependent on, the making of text-
books of various kinds adapted to the special technical work for
which our best agricultural schools stand.

When these agricultural colleges started there were no text-
books adapted to their special lines of work, and the demand
necessitated the hasty preparation of text-books which are now
being replaced by those that are more complete and better adapt-
ed in every way for teaching purposes.

This book is the result of the development of the teaching
of Fruit Growing in the University of Minnesota and is, in a way,
a compilation of lectures on Fruit Growing given to the students
which have been carefully revised and considerably extended.
At the end of each chapter are suggestive questions on the mat-

ter presented.
An appendix is added which contains formulas for fungi-
cides, insecticides and grafting waxes, etc.; lists of fruits recom-
mended for special typical states and rules for naming fruits.
The fruit lists are from the professors of Horticulture of the
various Agricultural Colleges and from secretaries of the va-
rious Horticultural Societies. ;

In the preparation of this work I have had the earnest and
intelligent assistance of Miss Jeannette Foster. I am also under
obligations to my assistant in Horticulture, Mr. A. R. Kohler,
who prepared the pages on Spraying and Spraying machinery;
to Mr. Elvin Peterson, student of the College of Agriculture,
who has made many of the drawings; to Prof. Frederick Wash-
burn for cuts which he has loaned; to Prof. E. M. Freéman for
many suggestions embodied in the chapter on Plant Diseases and
to Mr. A. G. Ruggles for suggestions in regard to the chapter on
The Suppression of Insects Injurious to Fruits. I am also under
obligations to those who have assisted by furnishing data for the
fruit list and in other ways aided in its preparation.

SAMUEL B. GREEN,
St. Anthony Park, Minn.
February, 15, 1909.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

Factors in Successful Fruit Growing.—Accessibility, Loca-
tion: Soils. Topography. Business Aspect. Cultivation. Mulch-

ing. Cover Crops. Plant Food. Manuring. Varieties. Planting.
Nursery Stock.

CHAPTER II.

Orchard Protection.—Injuries. Frost Protection. Foretell-
ing Frost. Protection.

CHAPTER III.

Insects injurious to fruits.—Insects: State Inspec-
tion. Chewing Insects. Sucking Insects. Root Insects. Benefi-
cial Insects. Parasites. Predaceous Insects. Apple Insects and
Remedies. Pear Insects and Remedies. Peach Insects and
Remedies. Plum Insects and Remedies.

CHAPTER IV.

Diseases injurious to fruits——Plum Diseases and Remedies.
Pear Diseases and Remedies. Apple Diseases and Remedies.
Peach Diseases and Remedies. Grape Diseases and Remedies.
Strawberry Diseases and Remedies. Blackberry Diseases and
Remedies. Raspberry Diseases and Remedies. Cherry Diseases —
and Remedies. Quince Diseases and Remedies. Gooseberry Dis-
eases and Remedies. Currant Diseases and Remedies.

CHAPTER V.
Spraying and spraying apparatus.—Dust Spraying. Liquid
Spraying. Spraying Apparatus.
CHAPTER VI. _

Harvesting and Marketing.—Picking. Peddling. Associa-
tions. Packing. Packages. Package Laws. Barrels. Packing
Barrels. Grades of Fruit. Cold Storage,

CHAPTER VII.

Principles of Plant Growth.—Parts of Plant. Parts of Flow-
er. Pollination. Hybrids. Assimilation. Transpiration, Rest
Period. Classification of Plants. Varieties.

CHAPTER VIII.

Propagation of Fruit Plants.—Seed. Stratification. Offsets.
- Cuttings. Budding. Grafting. Inarching. .

CHAPTER IX.

Pome Fruits.—Apples: Classes of, Propagation, Apple Or-
chards, Trees, Seedlings; Root Grafting, Planting, Heeling In,
Cultivation, Pruning, Mulching, Varieties. Quince: Propagation,
Planting, Pruning, Insects and Diseases, Varieties. Pear: Origin,
Chinese Sand Pear, Standard Pears, Dwarf Pears, Propagation,
Soil and Cultivation, Planting, Pruning, Insects and Diseases,
Varieties, Packing.

CHAPTER X.

Stone Fruits.—Plum: Origin, Propagation, Stocks, Soil, Plant-
ing, Insects, Varieties. Peach: Origin, Groups, Propagation,
Planting, Pruning,’Soil, Insects and Diseases, Varieties. Nectar-
ine: Origin: Apricot: Origin, Stocks, Planting, Pruning, Insects
and Diseases, Varieties.

CHAPTER XI.

Grapes.—Origin, Propagation, Soil, Planting, Training and
Pruning, Single Post Method, High Renewal Method, Kniffen
Method, 4-Cane Kniffen Method, 2-Cane High Renewal Method,
Munson Method, Tying Material, Thinning, Manuring, Girdling.

CHAPTER XIl.

Small Fruits.—Strawberry: Origin, Location, Soil, Manuring,
Planting Methods, Trimming, Protection, Renewing, Burning,
Picking and Marketing, Varieties. Currant: Origin, Soil and
Planting, Pruning, Protection, Marketing, Varieties. Gooseberry:
Origin, Propagation, Planting, Pruning, Marketing, Insects, Dis-
eases. Raspberry: Origin, Classes, Propagation, Location, Soil,

Manuring, Planting, Cultivation, Pruning, Thinning, Mulching,
Protection, Picking, Marketing. Blackberry and Dewberry:
Groups, Propagation, Soils, Planting, Cultivation, Pruning.
Cranberry: Location, Soil, Cultivation, Drainage, Planting, Pick-
ing. Juneberry: Origin, Propagation, Cultivation, Varieties. Sand
Cherry: Distribution, Propagation. Bullberry or Buffalo Berry:
Distribution, Propagation. Mulberries: Origin, Propagation, Va-
rieties. Persimmon: American Persimmon, Where found, Value
of Fruit, Method of. Propagation, Japanese Persimmon, Value
of Fruit, Propagation.

CHAPTER XIll.

Nuts.—Pecan: Origin, Soil, Harvesting, Marketing, Insects,
Grafting. Chestnut: Groups. Chinquapins: Propagation, Plant-
ing, Insects, Diseases. English Walnut: Propagation, Harvest-
ing, Marketing. Japanese Walnut. Black Walnut. Almond:
Soil, Planting, Propagation, Marketing. Hazel: Origin, Flower.

APPENDIX.

Appendix.—Spraying Calendar. Fungicides. Insecticides.
Grafting Waxes. Rules for Naming Fruits. Lists of Fruit Rec-
ommended for Different States. Distances apart for planting
fruits.

Popular Fruit Growing.

CHAPTER Il.

FACTORS THAT MAKE UP A GOOD FRUIT-GROWING SEC-
TION.

Accessibility—By accessibility is meant railroad and other
communication; not only nearness to market but the possibili-
ties of getting suitable transportation service at a reasonable
figure. Water communication is often better than rail, especial-
ly for those kinds of fruits that are easily injured by rough handl-
ing. Two or more competing lines of communication generally
tend to give the shipper better service than when one road has
the monopoly. Accessibility is of the first importance though it
will not entirely take the place of suitable soil conditions; how-
ever, it may sometimes make it profitable to use an inferior soil.

Good wagon roads make it easy to get to market quickly
with large loads of produce in good condition and form, a very
important factor in the development of any fruit section.

If location is so far from the consumer that the produce must
be shipped by a common carrier it is important that enough
fruit be raised in the section to make the business of handling
and shipping: it one of sufficient importance to command special
attention from the carrier and the buyers, so as to make it a
_ place where buyers will go for fruit. In starting a fruit industry
in a new place the pioneers often labor under the disadvantage
of not having enough of their product to make it worth while to
ship it. This difficulty can be overcome in new sections by
starting the industry on a large scale so that shipments may
be made in carload lots and by co-operation in selling.

Soils.—The only sure way of determining the value of a soil
for a particular fruit is by field-trial, because so many factors
enter into the makeup of a good fruit soil that it is easy to make
mistakes, and yet the best fruit soils have many evident points

8 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

in common. There is hardly any soil but which under favorable
conditions will be found adapted to some class of fruits. For _
instance, the pear prefers a rather heavy clay soil; the peach
and cherry quite open and porous soils. The strawberry and
blackberry will often do well on soil too sandy for other
fruits although either one suffers from drought on a heavy soil.
The currant and gooseberry prefer an open clay loam but will
adapt themselves to almost any location. Then there are loca-
tions, such as the lands adapted to the Albemarle Pippin in
Virginia, so wondrously fitted to special fruits that it seems
impossible to raise these in perfection elsewhere.

In the case of apples and many other tree fruits the congitian
of the sub-soil is generally of more importance than the surface
soil, although the condition of the latter must not be overlooked.
It is desirable to have a surface soil that can be cultivated easily
and will not bake hard after rains. Soil that is extremely rich
in plant food is usually undesirable for apples, pears and peach-
es, especially if too rich in nitrogen. On such land the trees
generally grow large and frequently do not bear until quite ma-
ture. The unripened buds and wood, common under such col
ditions, kill back in winter and the vigorous growth of early
summer seems to be predisposed to fire blight or similar dis-
eases.

Loess loam is the name given to an open clay soil which
is made up largely of clay and small shells. On such land we
generally find in the North a vigorous growth of Maple, Hack-
berry and White Oak. It is perhaps the best kind of an all
around fruit soil and any of our fruits will do well in it.

A limestone soil, where the roots can reach the underlying
lime rock or soil and which has much lime in its- makeup, is
especially favorable for all our fruits and comes next to or may
equal in value the loess loams. In parts of Florida the coral
rock and the old shells in the sand help to make good fruit soil.

Heavy clay loam may be better adapted.to agriculture than
to fruit raising, but if such soil is thoroughly underdrained and
given a proper rotation of cover crops, manure and general cul-
tivation, it -will often be found adapted to a goodly number of
fruits and especially to apples, pears, currants, gooseberries and

-

FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. “)

the sweet cherries. But such a soil requires. very careful
management in order to get the best results from it.

Sandy loam underlaid with a good, open clay sub-soil is
almost ideal for any of the small fruits and grapes. It is the
easiest kind of soil to handle and can be cultivated shortly after
a rain without becoming lumpy or sticking to the tools, and it
easily forms a dust blanket. Implements scour in it very read-
ily, which is no small convenience. Altogether, it is the most
pleasant kind of soil tc cultivate and well adapted to a long list
of fruit plants. :

Sandy soil dries out so quickly that crops on it suffer from
drought. This is especially true where the soil particles are
eoarse. It gives quick returns from manure applied to it but
does not hold soluble manures. In general it is not adapted to
any of the fruit crops unless it can be irrigated, or is located
- where the water table is within the reach of the roots. Under
such conditions this soil may, with proper management, give
good results with strawberries, blackcap raspberries, plums,
sour cherries and peaches, and with many of the sub-tropical

‘fruits. ‘

Mucky soil is not well adapted to fruits of any kind but
some kinds of strawberries and blackberries will occasionally
yield enormously on such land where it is well drained. When
muck is applied to sandy or clay land, it is often beneficial.

Flat, black prairie soil is seldom sufficiently adapted to any
kind of fruit to become the foundation of an important fruit in-
dustry, although many kinds of fruits may do well enough on it
to make them desirable for planting in the home garden. -

Clay Soil, underlaid with gravel at a depth of from two to
- four feet, may be used for sour cherries, peaches and plums,
but crops on it are liable to suffer from drought and such lands
should generally be avoided for fruits. It dries out easily and
yet the surface soil, being of clay, becomes lumpy unless care-
fully handled. It has most of the disadvantages of both a stiff
clay and sandy soil.

Topography.—By the topography of a country we mean its
elevation. A rolling country gives good water drainage and
our cultivated fruits, with the exception of the cranberry, are

10 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

intolerant of surplus water in the soil. A rolling country also
gives many high slopes where. there is comparative immunity
from unseasonable frosts. Its various slopes are adapted to a
variety of crops. For these reasons good fruit sections are
generally located where the land is hilly but land that is quite
flat may sometimes prove valuable for fruit when near large
water areas so that there is secured comparative immunity from
frosts and when sufficiently elevated to secure good drainage.
As a rule, however, flat land is not well adapted to fruit growing.

BUSINESS ASPECT.

Fruit growing as a business.—Success in any business is
largely a personal matter and success in fruit growing likewise
depends much on the individual and his adaptability. The de-
mand for fruit is on the increase and the consumption of fresh
fruits per capita is now greater than a few years ago. With the
introduction of improved methods of storing and shipping fresh
fruit is destined to play a more important part in the diet of
every American. Comparatively a few years ago fresh fruit was
regarded as a luxury but now it is looked upon as a Staple food
having special hygienic values.

Overproduction of fruit.—There is occasionally an overpro-
duction of fruit but it is rare that there is an overproduction
of good fruit. Our chief trouble is that our methods of distri-
bution are faulty and our people do not get the fruit they want.
Those fruits are most stable in price that can be readily used
for canning or drying purposes because, when low in price, the
’ surplus may be easily disposed of. The tendency is certainly
toward cheaper, good fruit, but there is also a growing discrimi-
nating taste for fruit of the best quality and the number of
consumers who are willing and able to pay a fair price for a
good article is fast increasing. As wealth increases this dis-
crimination in favor of the best will econ even more pro-
nounced than it is today.

The successful fruit grower must be well grounded in the
principles of growing fruit and the many problems that are sure
to present themselves in the course of the annual round of
duties. Not only is it desirable that he know how to grow

FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 11

fruit but he must know how to market it. In other words, he
must be a good business man. Some of the most successful fruit
growers and horticulturists have been men who were not raised
in the work but have taken it up late in life and succeeded large-
ly because of their business training and ability. This is not
to say that farmer’s sons do not make good farmers, but they
- often fail to get the most out of their farm practice owing to
the lack of business training in which perhaps another man ex-
cels, although he may not understand the practice of handling
the land. The fruit industry is especially adapted to the man
of ready resources who can quickly adapt himself to changes
of situation.

Choice of Locations.—Most people who are making a spe-
cialty of fruit growing, and most farmers who contemplate a
change to fruit growing, are held fast by social ties, by land
holdings or in other ways, so that they cannot easily change
their location even if they wished to do so, therefore the choice
of location for them is a settled fact. If they engage in fruit
growing at all it must be in their present surroundings. To
them it is a selection of crops and methods of management best
suited to their conditions. If fruit growing cannot be made
profitable where they are they had better devote their land to
other purposes.

On the other hand, there is a small class of people who
wish to grow fruit of certain kinds who do have the opportunity
of changing their location. For such, it would: be a good plan
to visit the principal fruit sections and thoroughly study their
conditions and probable future before locating permanently. In
making such a study it is not well to be too quick to form an
opinion as there are many factors to be considered: Rarely,
indeed, is it desirable for a grower to change from a line of
fruit growing that he is thoroughly acquainted with to one that
is very different. Occasionally it may be desirable or necessary
to do so, but in any case the change should be made with great
caution. The successful apple grower of Missouri may make a
successful California orange grower after he has had experience,
but he will have much that is new to learn before he can do
this. The man who is starting anew in the growing of fruit of

aS

12 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

any kind will generally find it best to start in a Sua! way and
not risk too much on a single venture,
Cultivation of Fruit Plantations.

In a state of nature, as in our primeval forests and groves,
where trees do well, they generally have the surface soil about
their roots covered withaloose accumulation of vegetable mould
that is shaded from the sun and wind. The deeper soil is filled
with roots more or less decayed and tending to keep the sub- ~—
soil porous. This covering protects the soil from baking, drying
out and becoming too compact and gives the conditions aimed at
in the cultivation of the land. For this kind of treatment, there
must be a great accumulation of vegetable mould, which is in-
compatible with the light and air needed for the production of
cultivated fruit and with the opportunity to get at the trees
from all sides for gathering the fruit and for giving the pro-
tection that the trees need from noxious insects and diseases.
The nearest approach to nature’s method of cultivation is ac-
complished by mulching the orchard, which is sometimes done
to advantage.

The reasons for proper cultivation are: (a) To give our
favorite plants all the light, air and soil that they can use to
advantage by destroying all competitors in the shape of weeds
which would ordinarily make their struggle for existence more
severe. (b) To protect from drought by keeping the top soil
loose. In this way evaporation is prevented and the moisture
saved in the soil for the use of the roots. Soil that is compact
will transmit water upward to the surface by capillary attraction
- where it can evaporate, but wher the surface soil is loose evapo-
ration is prevented and the water thus transmitted from the
sub-soil is retained near the surface. This is one of the chief
reasons for the cultivation of the soil. The extent of this protec-
tion is shown in the following table taken from “Soils and Fertil-
‘izers” by Professor Harry Snyder and giving the result of some
examinations made in dry weather:

Per cent. of Water in Field.

With Shallow Surface Without
Cultivation. Cultivation.
Soil depth 3 to 9 inches ............ 14.21 8.02

Soil depth 9 to 15 inches ............ eo 12.38

FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 13

(c) The cultivation of the soil also sets plant food free. It opens
_ the soil up so that the air can get in and assist in the devel-
opment of the plant food locked up in an insoluble form. This
is an important function of tillage. The soil should be regarded
as a great laboratory in which many complex organic and inor-
‘ganic changes are continually taking place.

Humus is the decayed organic matter found in soils. It
much resembles common charcoal in its physical properties, has
great affinity for water and holds fertilizing agents in the soil.
Humus makes the soil porous so that the air can readily pene-
trate it and also assists in chemical changes. Since it keeps
the soil porous it prevents it from baking hard, thus protecting
it from drought. It is largely on account of these qualities of
humus that stable manure, a large per cent. of which is humus,
is often so much more effective than commercial fertilizers. The
plowing in of green crops adds humus to the soil. The contin-
ued cultivation of the soil sometimes affects it injuriously by
oxidizing all the humus and leaving it in such a condition that
{t washes badly and will not hold moisture. A good illustration
of this change is shown in the fact that newly cleared land will
seldom wash badly until the decayed organic matter in the soil
has become so thoroughly oxidized that the humus no longer holds
the soil together. After this organic matter has disappeared clay
soils lose their loose, porous texture and become hard, com-
pact and liable to wash.

The value of humus in the soil is well illustrated by experi-
ments at the Minnesota Experiment Station. Corn, grown con-
tinuously for six years on the same field, yielded an average of
21.4 bushels per acre, while corn in a three-retation, including
- wheat and clover, yielded 47.1 bushels per acre. As the plot
producing corn continuously has sufficient plant food to mature
a normal crop annually, the low yield can only be accounted for
by the poor physical condition of the soil produced through the
depletion of the humus by frequent cultivation.

Growing fruit trees in sod is a practice not to be generally
recommended, but where the soil conditions are especially favor-
able it may sometimes be done to good advantage. In locations
where trees are especially liable to injury from drought it is a

14 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

poor practice. In the retentive soils of Minnesota, Wisconsin,
Iowa and elsewhere, apples may be grown to great perfection
by spading up the soil about the tree for a distance of three
or four feet from the trunk each spring and later in the season
mowing the grass.and weeds and putting them around the trees.
However, such locations are exceptional and the great truth re-
mains that, in general, orchards which are kept in sod are Sel-
dom profitable. When orchards are in a stiff sod the rain water
is prevented from soaking into the land because an old sod on
steep hillsides sheds water readily. The grass roots also carry
up large amounts of water from the soil, which is evaporated
and lost.

Mulching.—Growing trees and other plants by mulching may
sometimes be successfully practiced. Some of the points to
be considered in this connection are:

a—There is a great difference in the protective values of
different kinds of. mulch. A covering of coarse weeds may af-
ford little protection, while a mulch of hard-wood sawdust would
give excellent results.

b—Trees that are grown by mulching generally do best
when the soil about them is worked in the spring before the
mulch is applied.

c—A mulch may often be used to advantage close to trees
where the soil near them is not easily cultivated. In such cases it
is a good plan to protect the tree trunks with galvanized iron
wire netting from injuries by mice which are especially attracted,
by the mulch. :

d—Raspberries, blackberries, currants and gooseberries May ©
be grown by a system of mulching without cultivation but it is
seldom desirable to grow them in this way.

e—While the cultivation of the soil is not as successful in
‘the conservation of moisture as mulching, yet, when the best
cultivation is practiced it is far better than mulching as com-
monly done. :

f—Mulching fruit plants the year around without spring work-
ing of the soil tends to encourage a development of large surface
roots which may later be winter-killed. Large surface roots
also interfere with cultivation when mulching is discontinued,

FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 15

although the risk of permanent injury from _ source is much
less than is generally supposed.

g—Mulching sometimes causes great danger by fire.

_h—The mulch about plants may harbor insects, such as cur-
‘culio, ete., which might injure the trees. These are most easily
-kept in check by clean cultivation; but where fruit trees are
mulched, pasturing hogs in the orchard will greatly help in check-
‘ing the spread of such insects as remain in the fruit after it
falls.

Cover crops is a term used in connection with the growing
of crops in orchards. In a general way, the best fruit growers
are a unit in believing in the importance of clean cultivation for
orchards. However, as we have already noted, this is often
impractical on steep hillsides liable to wash badly. Clean cul-
tivation also leads finally to a poor condition of the soil which
can only be fully remedied by the addition of humus. This humus
may be added by the application of coarse stable litter or other
organic matter directly to the land. In this case the humus is
confined almost entirely to the few upper inches and is not dis-
tributed throughout the soil as it is by the growth of clover or
similar crops. The decaying roots of a cover crop leave humus
‘both in the sub-soil and in the surface soil, thus rendering the
“whole mass more porous.

Still other advantages of cover crops are (a) they protect the
soil to some extent from deep and sudden freezing and thawing;
(b) they prevent the snow from blowing away in the winter;
(c) such cover crops as clover and peas not only improve the
- physical conditions of soils on which they grow, but actually
leave them richer in nitrogen. On this account plants of this
class are especially desirable for orchards. (d) They are some-
‘times helpful in checking the production of the wood in late sum-
mer by using up some of the plant food and moisture in the soil.
This checking of late growth in the fall ripens up the wood
earlier, leaving the tree in better shape to stand the winter.

How to combine the advantages of cover crops and cultiva-
tion is often an important question for orchardists. In many
fruit sections, this may be done by the cultivation of the soil
during the summer and seeding down to some cover crop in the

“16 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

late summer or early autumn. This may be a crop that will kill
out in winter or that will live over and be allowed to grow on the

land until late in spring, when it is turned under. Occasionally ~~

it may be a good plan to seed an orchard down to clover for a
year or two in order to increase the humus in the soil; as, for
instance, in the case of soils on steep hillsides where the humus
is nearly exhausted. For this purpose the land should preferably
be plowed in late autumn and the clover seed sown in early
spring without any nurse crop.

Examples of practical use of cover crops.—Cover crops are
of various kinds, among which may be mentioned the following:

(a) Peach growers of Michigan and apple growers and
nurserymen in Minnesota use oats in their orchards, sown from
the first to the middle of August, to protect the roots from severe
freezing. Such a cover holds the leaves in autumn and the
snows in winter, thus preventing frequent freezing and thawing
as well as deep freezing of the ground.

(b) Crimson clover is an excellent cover crop for parts of
New York State and south to Alabama. It should be sown in late
summer or early autumn in New York but later in Alabama
where it grows all winter.

(c) Buckwheat is a good cover crop for steep slopes or
other places where it may be desirable to use a cover crop in
summer. It shades the ground and aids it in holding moisture.
thus preventing the soil from drying out.

(d) Vetches and cowpeas may sometimes be used to ad-
vantage for a cover crop and should be sown in early spring.
The cowpea is the great cover crop of the Southern states.

(e) Soy beans is a good cover crop and is sown in mid-
summer in rows.

(f) The Velvet bean and Beggar Weed are great cover
crops for the extreme Southern states.

(g) Mammoth clover and alfalfa may be used as cover crops
if plowed under the second or third year. They should be sown
in orchards without a nurse crop in the early spring. Sometimes
they are sown in the orchard, leaving a space of four feet for
cultivation by the side of the rows of trees.

Amount of seed of cover crops to sow per acre.—The follow-
ing table shows the number of pounds of seed required per acre

FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 17

to obtain a good stand of the cover crops generally used in this
country:

Nitrogen Collectors. Nitrogen Consumers.

|. UC OS 40 Ibs. Reaes pceronts. wove 9 Ibs.
Hairy Vetch ......... 40 Ibs. APUG etreters cosas) c's ole Za Ss
OWNS os... es. 90 Ibs. 1eKys Nek eS eae 30 ~=Ibs.
Soy Beans .......... 90 Ibs. Oats oc eee ks ese 2 bu.
Velvet Beans ......... 25 Ibs. Barley sonia ik: 1% bu.
Mammoth Clover ....20 lbs. Buckwheat ....... % bu.
Crimson Clover ..... 20 Ibs. COrny recs Bie seas: % bu.
Sweet Clover ........ 15 Ibs.

- Crops in the orchard.—The question of cropping the orchard
is an important one. As a rule this should never be done, yet
it may oiten happen that while the trees are young, before they
need all the space between them, some other crop can be grown
on the land to advantage. In such a case, the soil must be man-
ured or it may run down so much that the fruit crop will not be
profitable. The best test to apply to this is to see that the young
trees make a reasonable growth of wood each year and, with this
accomplished, there is no danger in cropping the orchard.

It often happens that a cover crop may permit a fair growth
of wood but will so rob the soil of moisture late in the summer
that the fruit will fail to fill out properly. It is also true that
while in some locations trees may be grown without irrigation
to bearing size, the fruit is very small unless water is applied
to the soil at the time the fruit is filling out.

The small grains are especially objectionable in the or-
chard because they do not permit the cultivation of the soil nor
shade it sufficiently to keep it from baking. These crops also
take much plant food from the soil.

Potatoes and corn require the cultivation of ae soil in
summer and consequently are among the best to grow in the
orchard. In the orchard preference should be given to those
crops that do not require the cultivation of the soil in late sum-
mer or early autumn, since cultivation seems to encourage late
growth of wood. If the orchard is to be cropped care should be
taken that the fertility of the soil is not impaired thereby, and
ordinarily it will be necessary to add manure to replace the
plant food removed,

18 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Small fruits of various kinds may be used in orchards but
must be removed when the trees get large enough to need all -
the land. It may often be a help to an apple orchard to have
the tree trunks shaded by small fruits, such as raspberries and
‘currants. 3

Planting with fillers is the name given to the system of - plant-
ing whereby an extra number of trees are set out with the pur-
pose of cutting them out as soon as they get large enough to
crowd the trees that are to grow to maturity. Good examples
of this practice are found in the planting of peaches or plums
in the intervals between apples; again, in planting twice as
many peaches or plum trees on the land as can grow to maturity;
the intention in each case being to cut out one-half of them as
soon as the trees begin to crowd. This is not a bad practice
when well carried out but in the hands of the average fruit
grower the thinning process is seldom begun soon enough.
This may result in serious injury and is always harmful.

Fruit Crops and Plant Food.

The most important factor in the growing of a fruit, or
other agricultural crop, is the proper preparation of the soil.
This should be attended to before anything is attempted in the
way of fertilization of the land. Get the soil into the best physi-
cal condition and then manure* may be used to best advantage.
In the case of orchards in new forest land it is poor practice to
plant until the stumps and trash are well subdued, except where
mulching is to be practiced, since the soil can be cleaned most
economically before the trees are planted out.

All agricultural soils contain plant food in two forms:

(a) ‘Where the soil is rich in plant food which is easily
available to the roots of plants and which they can absorb read-
ily. This is the condition of the soils in new fruit growing sec-
tions where the land has not yet been cropped extensively. Such
soils may also contain a large amount of plant food which is not
readily available.

(b) Soils also contain plant food in a form which is not
readily available to the roots of crops. This is the condition of

*As here used, the term “manure” includes both animal manures
and commercial fertilizers.

FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 19

the largest amount of plant food in all soils and especially so
in the case of soils that have been poorly tilled for long periods.

- Kach year a portion of the insoluble plant food in the soil
is made soluble or put into such a condition that the roots of
plants can use it. In the soils of the older sections the soluble
plant food is largely used up and sometimes only the amount
that is set free each year is available to the plants. It is this
store of food that we should aim to supplement by the manures
which we apply to the soil.

There are some new soils so rich in plant food that nothing
is gained by manuring them. In fact, fruit trees on such soils
are occasionally damaged by the use of manures which encour-
ages a late growth in autumn, but such cases are rare and prac-
tically all our fruit lands, especially those in the older fruit
growing sections, are greatly improved by the addition of
manures... This is especially true of bearing orchards.

In manuring the orchard the object is to get the maximum
crop. The average crop or one just below the average is Sel-
dom profitable, being generally inferior in quality as well as in
quantity. It comes in competition with the crops of all the poor-
est fruit growers and is sold only to people of small means.

The application of manure is for the purpose of getting the
most profitable crop. It matters not how much money we put
into our land providing we can take it out with a good profit.
In other words, expensive manuring may be most profitable. It
is the best grower that gets the profitable crop.. Manure will
not take the place of good tillage, insect protection and other
similar factors, but the well fed plant, like the well fed animal,
will overcome adverse conditions under which the weak, under-
fed individual will succumb. =

The elements that enter into the composition of fruit crops
are the same as those that compose our farm crops, They dif-
fer largely in the relative proportions in which they enter vari-
ous crops, but as our information about the composition of the
soils in which our plants grow is indefinite, and as we use
manures to supplement the plant food in the soil, we need not
be particular about the exact proportions in which we apply it.
Hach grower should study his own soil conditions and the ef-
fects of different manures on it in order to get the best results.

20 ' POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

The chemical elements composing our fruit and agricultural
crops are oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorous, sulfur
iron, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, chlorin and silicon. ©
Nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous are the elements commonly
lacking in the soil and it is these that we look for in the so-
called commercial fertilizers and manures. These elements
each act differently in affecting vegetation. To be used by the
plants they must be soluble in the soil solutions. Soil that has
an excess of soluble nitrogen in it encourages a vigorous, soft
growth of wood and a dark green color in the leaves. Often
such plants are unproductive, but when they bear fruit it is gen- —
erally large in size. On such land trees are liable to grow late
in autumn and as a consequence winter-kill. For peaches, such
soil is more injurious than for apples and other hardy crops.
Nitrogen encourages a growth of wood rather than fruit. Large
amounts of potash and phosphoric acid in the soil cause a firm,
solid growth of wood, early: maturity of plant, high color and
extreme fruitfulness but do not increase the size of the fruit
like nitrogen. Potash and phosphoric acid, with the proper pro-
portions of nitrogen, give the best results, all of these elements
being necessary for healthy plant growth.

Amount of plant food in a crop of apples.—It is interest-
ing to note the amount of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric.
acid taken from the land by a crop of seventy-five barrels of
apples—that number being used as it represents a good aver-
age crop of apples per acre.

TABLE SHOWING THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF 75
BARRELS OF APPLBHS.
Water Dry Matter Nitrogen Phos. Acid Potash
9563 Ibs. 1687 Ibs. 4.5 lbs. 2.25 lbs. 11.25 Ibs.
or 85% or 15% or .04 % or 202%), yueegor alieg

To raise this crop of apples there are perhaps 50 trees,
each one of which is fifteen years old and in its branches, trunk
and roots, there are 400 pounds of wood of which 40% is water.
It is probably fair to assume that the weight of the new growth
of wood of a thrifty apple tree at fifteen years of age is twenty
pounds per year, from which the amount of plant food used for
the production of wood each year can be readily computed. It
is also safe to assume that the amount of plant food yearly set

FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 21

‘free in the soil is sufficient to take care of this growth of wood.
The leaves are returned to the soil and hence the material in
them does not have to be supplied to the soil. Therefore, if we
supply enough plant food to put back that taken away from the
land in the crop, we will keep our land in good condition, There
is nothing exact about such statements, as they may vary as
much as different soils do from one another. The following
table shows approximately the amount of plant food materials
removed in one year from the soil of an acre of land fully
stocked with thrifty trees. This includes the amount contained
in the new wood, foliage and fruit:
PLANT FOOD REMOVED FROM THE SOIL BY ONE ACRE IN
APPLH ORCHARD.
Nitrogen Phos. Acid Potash Lime Magnesium

Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs.
Apple . 51.5 14 55 57 23
Peach 74.5 18 oe 114 35
Pear 29.5 Fi 33 38 11
Plum DOR 8.5 38 41 13

The following table shows the amount of nitrogen, phos-
phoric acid and potash found in a good crop of fruit grown cn
one acre:

PLANT FOOD OF MANURIAL VALUE REMOVED FROM THE
LAND BY VARIOUS FRUIT CROPS.

Fruit Pounds Nitrogen Phos. Acid Potash
4 lbs. Ibs, Ibs.

Apples 11,250 4.5 eo 11.25
Pears 10,000 4 1 12
Plums 7,200 7 3.6 14.4

' Peaches 4,950 4 2 eS)
Quinces 7,200 8 3.6 17.2
Raspberries 4,800 5.6 4.3 12
Blackberries 4,800 9.6 2.4 11
Strawberries 4,000 5.2 2 92
Currants 4,000 12 4.8 12
Gooseberries 4,000 6 2.8 : 8
Grapes 6,000 9 4.2 18

This manurial value may be applied to the land in many
forms. Maynard gives the following formulas:

22 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

(a)° For fruit trees over ten years of age (forty trees), vary-
ing in quantity according to the condition of the soil and crop,
250 to 500 pounds of fine ground bone, 100 to 300 pounds of sul-
fate of potash, 50 to 150 pounds of nitrate of soda..-

(b) Unleached hardwood ashes at the rate of one to two
tons per acre and 500 pounds of fine ground bone.

(c) 400 to 600 pounds of South Carolina rock, ground fine,
100 to 300 pounds of sulfate of potash, 100 to 300 pounds of
nitrate of soda.

(d) Barnyard manure, 6 tons per acre.

No manure needed in some cases.—In the case of some new
and extra fertile fruit soils there may be no apparent diminu-
tion of fertility of the soil for many years. Such soils may often
be maintained in their best condition indefinitely without the
addition of manures by the use of nitrogen-gathering cover
crops, such as clover, vetches and peas. :

Time to apply manures to fruit lands.—In the case of fresh
animal manure not yet decayed, there is little loss ordinarily in
applying it broadcast as soon as removed from the stables or
yards. As a rule this is the most economical way to handle
it and is the general practice among good farmers, fruit growers
and gardeners. However, partly decomposed manures contain
so much soluble plant food that the loss might be very serious
were the manure applied to the surface of frozen ground. Such
manure is most economically applied in the spring and at once
covered by a light plowing or harrowing. Such manure should
generally be-covered at once after applying and not allowed to
dry out on the surface of the soil.

It is generally best to apply commercial manures to fruit
plantations in the early spring or early summer. This is
especially true of such soluble, quick acting fertilizers as ni-
trate of soda and muriate of potash. These may be applied broad-
east to the soil about the trees. The surface covered should
generally be fully as large as the diameter of the top of the tree
but in the case of upright trees a larger surface should be coy-
ered. When the land is well stocked with mature trees the
manure should always be applied to the whole surface of the
soil, 5

Varieties of fruits to grow.—The varieties of fruits best

FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 23

adapted to a given location cannot be named without special and
eareful study. Some varieties are very profitable in one local-
ity but close by, in another locality, they may be a failure. The
matter of selection of varieties for profitable culture is one of
the most important subjects the fruit grower has to consider.
There are many new varieties of fruit introduced each year and
only a few of them are any better than old standard sorts, while
the greater part have very serious faults.

Among the varieties of fruit in cultivation, we may dis-
tinguish several classes:

(a) Varieties of great vigor and productiveness, adapted
for a wide range of country. These are oftentimes somewhat
inferior to the best in quality but of good appearance and good
enough in quality for the average market. Among such varieties
may. be named the Duchess of Oldenburg, Talman Sweet. and
Ben Davis apples; Bartlett and Anjou pears; Lombard and
Quackenboss plums; Crawford and Hlberta peaches; Concord
and Niagara grapes; King and Marlboro raspberries; Snyder
blackberry, and Dunlap, Splendid and Bederwood strawberries.
These varieties do well over a large extent of country. Some
of them may not bring the highest prices in our markets but
they sell well and are the popular standards.

(b) Varieties that are very particular about location and
are not generally successful, but, where they do well, produce
fruit of very superior quality. Among this class of fruits may
be mentioned the Newtown Pippin, Gravenstein and Williams ap-
ple; Green Gage plum; Bosc pear; Columbia peach; Iona grape;
- Herstine raspberry; Lawton blackberry and Jucunda strawberry.

In selecting varieties for growing, the fruit grower should
-choose those that are adapted to his market for it is there they
are to be finally tested. The fruit grower’s success is depend-
ent on how the market regards his product, and he should not
expect to change the prevailing desires of people very much.
There is, however, much in the power of a good example and
there is a growing number of people who are particular as_to
the quality of their food and are willing to pay a fair price for it.
The fruit grower should not try to sell white strawberries, rasp-
berries or currants, for the general markets demand that they
be red in color and blackberries must be black and not red or

24 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

white. It is not worth while to attempt to change prevailing
opinions in such matters for the sake of pushing some new
variety, no matter how good its quality. By this it is not meant
that the market will not use the unusual kinds but it does not
desire them. In general, the market wants large size, bright,
warm colors and at least fair qualities in fruits.

The fruit grower should not select varieties because they are
doing well elsewhere but should become familiar with the ex-
perience of fruit growers in his section and get in touch with
the officers of the Experiment Station of his state and advise
with them in these matters. The reports of his local Horticul-
tural: society should be very helpful and they must be poor in-
deed if he cannot get some benefit from them.

Choose varieties that will pollenize well together.—It shail
be more generally known that there are some varieties of fruits
that are self-sterile and will not be productive unless near other
similar kinds. The following partial lists show varieties that are
both self-sterile and seif-fertile but it is quite possible that some
of these may be self-sterile at one time and self-fertile at an-
other time or in another locality.

Fruit Self-sterile Self-fertile
Plums Miner Robinson
Wild Goose De Sota
Mariana Forest Garden
Itasca Cheney
Grapes Brighton Concord
Wilder Niagara
Agawan
Delaware
Apples Winesap Ben Davis
Gravenstein - Duchess
Northern Spy Baldwin <
Red Astrakan
Pears Bartlett Flemish Beauty
Anjou Clairgeau
Nelis Kieffer

FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 25

An experiment with the Kieffer pear at the Michigan Agri-
cultural College during the summer of 1907 seems to indicate
that the Kieffer ought sometimes to go on the self-sterile list.
A Kieffer tree was enclosed in a canopy of muslin with one
branch left outside the canopy. The air within the canopy was
made to circulate daily by artificial means during the blossom-
ing period so as to insure pollination of at least some of the
flowers. Not a fruit set under the canopy, while the branch
that was left outside and was free to receive foreign pollen set
fruit freely.

Preparing the land. —

(a) The land on which the fruit plantation is to stand
should be in as good condition as possible before the fruit plants
are set out. Do not leave this work to be done after the plants
are set for it costs more to do it then and the plants will very
likely be injured in the process.

(b) Get the land into good shape for a first class crop of
corn; then it will be in good condition for fruit plants.

Time to plant.

(a) In severe locations and with the more tender kinds
of fruits early spring is undoubtedly the best time for planting.
It is also the best time for the beginner, as there is less lia-
bility of failure in spring planting.

(b) For the hardy fruits, such as apples, plums and pears,
in sections where there is little danger of winter injury, autumn
is possibly the best season for planting. ;

(c) It is often desirable to plant in autumn even though
extra care is required in order to save the crowding of work in
_ the spring. In severe locations autumn planting may-often be
practiced successfully, providing. the stems of plants are laid
flat on the ground after planting and covered with a few inches
of earth, and afterwards mulched on the approach of winter.
In doing such work the location of the top of the tree should
be marked with a stake so that it may be found easily in the
spring when it is to.be uncovered. Autumn planting is often
a convenient practice and may save the necessity of doing such
work in the spring when fruit growers are generally crowded.

26 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Selecting the tree nursery stock.

(a) It is important to secure vigorous, thrifty nursery
stock that is free from scale insects, root lice or other injurious
insects or diseases.

(b) Select trees that have their bark green and smooth
and that have made a thrifty growth the year before.

(c) In the case ot grafted fruits the fruit grower should
insist upon having his stock worked on roots adapted to his
location. This feature does not need so much attention in the
best fruit sections; but in cold, northern climates, in the ex-
treme South and in some other locations it is a matter of first
importance. This will be found discussed under the propaga-
tion of each fruit.

(d) In order to make early autumn delivery it is customary
in some nurseries to strip the leaves from the trees. This is not
the best practice and such trees should not be selected.

Ne, Wye. AWN Gh of Las Bibi, Bee WNW WE Merepeaee oe Nise

¢ %,
Sh Gs We

Fig, 1.—Young apple trees of different forms.

FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 27

Age of nursery stock to buy.

(a) As a rule young, thrifty nursery stock is to be pre-
ferred. The tendency among beginners is to use stock which
is too old.

(b) Old plants are much more injured by moving. than
those that are young and often give poorer results.

Where to buy.—As nursery stock cannot be fully judged e
its appearance as easily as many other lines of merchandise,
buyers are very dependent upon the representations made to
them by the parties from whom they purchase. As a rule, it is
desirable to buy of the nearest reliable man who will furnish what
is wanted at a fair price. Purchasers will often find it advan-
tageous to deal directly with the principal instead of through
his agent. Expect to pay a fair price and be suspicious nf bar-
gain counter nursery stock, for the buyer in any case is creatly
dependent upon the honesty of the seller for the genuineness
of his stock. You cannot always tell what it is by its appear-
ance. It may not even be true to name.

Shapes of trees.

(a) The general public wants a tree that is of good form
and the nurserymen prefer to grow that kind.

(b) Some of our best varieties are so crooked that they do
not look well and hence have not been pushed by our nursery-
men,

(c) The difference in the habits of trees can be easily
seen in any orchard of many varieties. The upright form of the
Tetofsky apple is in marked contrast with the spreading form
of the Roxbury Russett. The spreading form of the Wild
Goose plum is very different from that of the Lombard. A per-
- son who is very familiar with the appearance of certain varie-
ties of pears or apples can easily separate them from other
kinds by the appearance of the tree even when devoid of foliage.
From this the impression should not be taken that all fruit
‘trees may be distinguished from each other by their forms,’
color of bark and other characteristics, for while a person of
much experience in this line may thus distinguish many kinds,
it is quite out of the question to separate the members of all
our long lists of fruits in such a way.

28 _ POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

How shall we plant the orchard?—There are several ways
of setting out trees. The two methods most commonly fol-
lowed are known as setting in squares and setting alternately.
It is important to have the rows straight both ways as it is more
convenient in cultivation and looks better. The rows can be
made straight in various ways but perhaps in no better way
than to set out the trees around the outside first or, if the or-
chard is large, say a row every 40 rods. By using these outside
trees as sight stakes, the other rows may easily be made straight
both ways. If the land is laid off carefully with a corn marker
one way and by a plow the other, the trees are quite easily put
where they belong by sighting to the trees set at the ends of
the rows.

Digging the holes.

(a) In digging the holes make them large enough to re-
ceive the roots without crowding and deep enough as a rule to
bring the union of the stock and cion well below the surface.
Trees should generally be planted a little deeper, say from four
to eight inches, than they grew in the nursery. In severe lo-
eations and on gravelly soils they are frequently planted a foot
deeper to protect from frost injury.

(b) In the case of fruit trees of best planting out size, if the
land has been properly plowed and furrowed out only a little
digging will be required.

(c) In digging holeg in shallow soil put the surface and
sub-soils separate and then use the surface soil to cover the
roots and put the sub-soil on top.

(d) Firm the soil around the roots of the trees until it is
solid. For this purpose it is a good plan to use a packer of
wood such as is used to firm the soil around posts. This is es-
pecially important on dry soils.

Pruning the trees.

(a) Trees may be left until after they are set out before
pruning but sometimes it may effect quite a saving in freight
to prune the trees before they are shipped from the nursery.

(b) Severe pruning is often needed for young trees as
much depends upon the forming of the tree when young.

*

FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 29

(ec) Perhaps no pruning is more.important than that of
deciding at what height the trees should branch out. This will
depend much on location. Trees with long trunks certainly
tend to make cultivation methods easy and in very favorable
sections they may be safely thus trained. In the Middle states
and the Pacific coast states, best results have come from al-
lowing the branches of trees to start within two feet of or close
to the ground and thus the trunk is protected against sunscald
and other climatic troubles.

(d) It is generally advisable to shorten the roots of or-
dinary two-year-old apple and pear trees and vigorous one-
year-old plum and peach trees to about eight inches, where there
are several roots, as such treatment facilitates planting and does
not injure the trees. Larger trees-should have their roots short-
ened in the same proportion and the ragged ends of roots should
always be cut off before planting. Such pruning as this may
easily be done with a sharp hatchet on a block.

QUESTIONS—CHAPTER I.

1. What is meant by accessibility?
2. What are the characteristics of a good fruit growing section?
3. What soils are best adapted to different fruits?
4. What is the composition of limestone soil? Of clay loam? Of
sandy loam? Of sandy soil? Of mucky soil? Of prairie soil? Of
elay soil?
5. What is meant by the topography of a country?
6. What is the best location for fruit growing?
7. What are some of the things upon which the success of fruit
growing depends?
8. What is the result of an overproduction of fruit?
. 9. What are some of the problems that a fruit grower has to
contend with?

10. What treatment does the soil need in a fruit orchard?

11. What are the reasons for cultivation of the soil?

12. What is humus? Of what value is it in the soil?

13. How may fruit trees be grown in sod?

14. What are the advantages of a mulch to a fruit crop? What
are the disadvantages?

15. What is a cover crop? What are the advantages of a cover
erop?

16. How may the advantages of cover crops be combined with
eultivation ?

17. What field crops are used’as cover crops for the orchard?

18. How much seed should be sown per acre in order to get a
good cover crop?

19. Is it practicable to raise garden crops in the orchard? What
crops are best to grow?

20. How is the orchard planted with fillers?

30 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

21. What is the best way to get new fruit growing land into the
best physical condition?

22. In what two forms is plant food found in the soil? an

23. What is result of a soil too rich in plant food for fruit grow-
ing? é
A 24. What is the purpose of applying manures to the land?

25. What are ihe elements that enter into the composition of
the fruit crop?

26. What effect does an excess of nitrogen in the soil have upon
fruit crops?

27. What effect does an excess of potash and phosphoric acid
in the soil have upon the fruit crops?

28. How is the plant food, taken from the soil by the plants
retrvrned to it naturally?

. What are some of the formulas for combining and applying

different fertilizers to the soil? :

30. When should manures be applied to fruit lands?

31. What is the general practice of applying manures to the land?

32. When should commercial fertilizers be applied and how?

33. How are varieties of fruits adapted to different districts?

34. How may the varieties be classified in regard to their adapta-

35. What general principles should the fruit growers follow in
selecting varieties for planting?
: 6 “How and when should land be prepared before planting fruit
rees?

87. When is the best time for planting?

38. How should the fruit grower select his. nursery stock in ref-
erence to the hardiness, age and shape of the trees?

39. What methods may be followed in setting out the trees?

40. How should the holes be dug for the trees?

41. What pruning do the young trees need when set out?

CHAPTER II.
ORCHARD PROTECTION.

Throughout the whole life of fruit plants there is danger
of injury from a variety of causes. At no time can we say that
our fruit plants are safe, and we must be continually on the
lookout to head off some injury. Among the more common of
these injuries may be mentioned the following: sunscald, win-
ter killing of the twigs, roots and fruit buds; injuries from
birds and live stock, from wind, rain and frost in the growing
season, from ice on the branches in winter, from girdling by
mice and rabbits, from label wires, injuries from cultivation and
from insects and diseases.

. of Sunscald is the name given to
the condition of the bark of trees
which probably comes as q result
of exposure to the sun under cer-
tain peculiar conditions. Its ef-
fect is usually to kill the bark on
the south and southwest sides of
the tree; later on, this bark peels
off, leaving the wood exposed which
soon decays and permanent injuries
result. Jt is found -that anything
which shades the trunk will pre-
vent this, hence one of the com- ~
| mon remedies is to shade the trunk
Sa aa een fece iegaved py With burlap, corn stalks or simi-

sunscald. lar material, especially during the
time when the branches are not protected by leaves. The en-
couraging of branches on the south side of the tree to protect
the trunk from the sun, and the inclining of the trees to the
southwest, are also remedies.

This injury is most liable to occur during severe droughts
and in the early spring or late winter before growth has fairly
started. It is supposed to be caused by the warm sun of the

32 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

middle of the day starting active life in the portion of the trunk
exposed to its direct rays. Later, when a cold spell comes, the
protoplasm is destroyed and the soluble compounds formed by
the renewal of active life are decomposed. The trees most liable

Fig. 3.—Apple trees in trial orchard protected from sunscald by
corn stalks.

to this injury are those that are newly set and weak, those
with smooth bark such as Hard Maple and Basswood, those
trees with the trunks inclining to the northeast and those on
dry land.

ORCHARD PROTECTION. 33

The philosophy of this disease should come in for more than
passing notice. It is well known that one branch or portion ofa
dormant plant may start into growth independent of the con-
dition of the rest of the plant. Thus a branch from a grape vine

Fig. 4.—Apple tree with trunk protected by boxing. Such treatment
protects from sunscald, from severe freezing, and from cultiva-
tion injuries.

or other plant, brought through an opening into the greenhouse

in winter, will soon start into growth while the rest of the vine

is frozen out doors. So the portion of the trunk of an apple

34 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

tree that is exposed to the direct rays of the midday sun may
start into growth independently of the rest of the tree.

Injuries from birds.—Birds are often .
very injurious by eating cherries, raspber-
ries and some other fruits. At times they
become so exceedingly injurious that it may
be necessary to use the shot gun, but as
a rule the birds that commit these depre-
dations are very helpful in destroying large
numbers of injurious insects and the toll
they take in fruit is not more than they are
justly entitled to. The Yellow-belly Sap-
sucker is a bird that often girdles the larg-
er branches of our choicest trees. He should
be destroyed. Partridges and perhaps
quail will sometimes eat the buds of our
fruit trees in winter. They may be kept off
by giving them a shock of grain to work on
instead.

Injuries to trees by cattle.—In remote
sections deer will browse the twigs off fruit
trees and break them down. Farm stock is
also occasionally injurious in the same way.
Fig. 5.—Bark of aP- Reasonable precautions will prevent this.

ple tree injured by EY i a ;
the sap-sucker Injuries from wind.—Wind often causes
oe much injury to trees heavily loaded with
fruit by shaking off the fruit or even break-

ing the trees. The remedy is the use of windbreaks, the support-
ing of branches by stakes or by tying one branch to another
on the opposite side ofthe tree. Attention to these precau-
tions will often prevent serious injury. Young trees in exposed
places are often injured by being blown about. This is the case
for the first year with trees that are newly set and especially
those that are set out in autumn and not properly staked or
laid down. Such trees are liable to be blown about very much in
windy spring weather when the ground is soft, and the tree is
then easily loosened and killed. Autumn-set trees should al-
ways be staked if they are large enough to take the wind; a

ORCHARD PROTECTION. 35

pile of soil about a foot high around them will often be very
helpful in holding them in place. In staking, the method of
tying the tree so that it will not be scraped by the stake is
very important. It would be better not to use stakes at all than
not to tie the tree to them properly. It is generally best to tie
trees to two stakes, using one on each opposite side.

Mice and rabbits.—Mice and rabbits eat the bark off the
trees and where this injury is not more than three or four inch-
es wide and only extends around a portion of the tree, it will
often heal over in one or two seasons. But it will be greatly
hastened in healing by covering the wound with grafting wax or,
better yet, piling up the soil over it if near the ground. When
the injury extends completely around the tree and is wide, the
tree may be saved by setting some cions in the live bark, above
and below the wound, which will carry over the sap until. the
wound is covered. In such a case, however, the wound
should be_entirely covered with grafting wax or clay after the
cions are put in.

Cultivation injuries.—Cultivation is frequently done in such
a rough way that it results in serious injuries. These can be
largely prevented by the use of narrower singletrees and by
protecting the ends with leather, or, better yet, using leather
traces that go completely around the end of the singletree, so
that when a tree is struck it is not injured. The best way of
treating wounds of this kind is by covering them with grafting
wax or grafting clay and then covering the whole with burlap.

Root galls result from the presence of low forms of life
known as Nematodes and possibly also from a bacterial disease.
Their life history is not well known. They are often exceedingly

injurious but some of them do little harm. Prevention is bet-
ter than cure and it is a good plan to refuse to receive nursery
stock having such blemishes. They are sometimes prevented
by using stocks that are resistant to such injuries.

Winter killing may be confined to the twigs and roots or
flower buds of fruit trees. Any of these injuries may occur in
deep valleys, when comparative immunity is secured on the
higher land.

Winter injury to twigs and trunks.—This is due to the use of

36 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

yarieties too tender for
the locality and the
most successful remedy .
is to secure hardier
sorts if possible. But
this is not always possi-
ble and the varieties
grown may be most
profitable if the trunk
is protected in winter.
Thus, in northern Min-
nesota the best authori-
ties recommend that
the trunks of young ap-
ple trees be surrounded
with a box six inches
square up to the branch-

Fig. 6.—Twigs of young cherry trees that
have been pulled out by settling of snow eS and that the same
erust which had piled in over them. be filled with soil

to furnish protection against winter injury. It is well known
that even though the smaller branches may be seriously injur-
ed in the winter, they stand a good chance of recovering, pro-
viding the trunk is vigorous and uninjured. Such protection
also prevents scald, injuries from mice and other animals.
In Florida some of the orange growers protect their tree trunks
by piling up the ‘soil about them as far as the branches.
Winter injury to the buds of fruit trees.—This is a common
source of loss to growers of cherries and peaches at the North.
The fruit buds of these trees are liable to start a little in warm
winter days and then to be killed by a low temperature, al-
though the leaf buds may not be injured at all. Various reme-
dies have been tried for this, among the most successful of
which is the bending of the trees to the ground in autumn and
covering with corn stalks. The tops are sometimes tied to-
gether and covered with corn stalks or’ matting in winter. HEx-
periments have also been made in covering the trees with va-
rious paint compounds for the purpose of giving an extra cover-
ing to the buds, but without good results. One of the most

ORCHARD PROTECTION. 37

ingenious ways of furnishing protection to peach buds has
been tried by Prof. Whitten of the Missouri Experiment Station
who worked on the well known principle that dark colors absorb

Fig. 7.—Protection of young trees . a.—Trunk protected by wooden
box. b.—Trunk protected by lath screen. c.—Trunk protected
against mice by mound of earth. : :

-more heat than the lighter ones. He found that light colored
peach twigs were slower about starting into growth and con-
ceived the idea of spraying peach trees with lime wash to pre-
vent their starting on mild days in winter. He claims to have
been very successful in this practice.

The roots of fruit trees may be seriously injured in winter.—
This may result from the use of a root stock too tender for
the section in which the tree is grown. For instance, in Iowa,
North Dakota, South Dakota and Minnesota the best root to use
for the plum is the Prunws americana, but when they are scarce
the nurserymen there often use the Mariana, Myrobalan or even

2

38 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

©,

the peach for stocks. The plum takes well on these and they
are commonly used in milder sections, but with such roots, trees -
are often injured or killed out entirely in severe winters in those
sections. The same is true of some other trees. It is important
to have them on hardy reots in order to prevent root killing.

Fig. 8.—Tree gnawed by mice and the wounds bridged over with
} cions.

Heavy mulching about the roots of trees that are on tender
roots will often make them safe against winter injury. Deep
planting of trees on tender roots bring the roots deep in the
ground where they are not injured and the cion above will
generally send out hardy roots. As stated above, it is not un-
common to have the tender stocks on which trees are worked
killed out, and if the cion has rooted the effect is seen in a
weakened growth until a new root system has formed. If there
are no roots from the cion the tree dies.

Protection from frost.—Freezing affects different plants in
various ways. We can therefore divide plants into two classes:

(a) Frost tender plants, such as the asparagus, ash, oak,
Spruce and various other plants whose young foliage is easily
injured by severe frosts.

(b) Frost hardy plants, such as the apple, peach, willow,
poplar and birch whose foliage is not destroyed by even a Se-
vere frost.

The flowers of many plants will stand a severe freeze with-
out injury providing they are not open when it occurs. This is

ORCHARD PROTECTION. 39

the case with the apple, pear, strawberry and most cultivated
northern fruits.

We also have fruit plants like that of the Buffalo Berry
and Juneberry whose flowers are seldom injured by severe frosts,
even if fully expanded at the time it occurs.

The pistils are the parts of flowers most easily Injured.—
Thus, in the strawberry, after a severe frost in flowering time,
we will often find the pistils ruined but the stamens apparently
uninjured.

When injurious frosts are most likely to occur.—Injurious
frosts are most likely to occur in places where the air is still,
especially in low spots where the air is not only still but where
the cold air from the surrounding elevations drains in. If the
air moves rapidly, the warm air is mixed with the cold air and
does not separate. Such frosty places are evident at the time
of the first severe autumn frosts, especially if this comes early.
It will then be seen that the frosty air fills certain hollows, as
water might fill it. In such places, often called warm sheltered
nooks, winter killing is frequently serious. A windbreak miay
also make a frost pocket on the side hill by interfering with
the free circulation of the air.

The locations where injurious frosts are least likely to oc-
cur and hence afford the best location for fruit growing are high
elevations tipping to the north or east where growth is rather
backward in spring. Other locations that are comparatively
exempt from injurious frosts are such as are’ near lakes or

streams which tend to produce an equable climate.
Foretelling of frosts—Frosts may be foretold some hours
in advance by means of the wet and dry-bulb thermometers,
the readings of which are compared. The difference between
the readings is due to the evaporation from the wet bulb ther-
mometer which produces a degree of cold in a direct ratio ac-
cording to the dryness of the air. If the air is very dry, the
wet bulb thermometer may record ten or fifteen degrees lower
than the dry bulb. If the air is saturated with moisture they
will read exactly alike. The basis for the calculation is the
fact that we seldom have injurious early autumn or late spring
frosts after the dew begins to fall. By referring the difference

40 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

between the readings of the two thermometers to a table, the
dew point may be determined and if it is several degrees above |
the freezing point, no injurious frost need be expected.

The psychrometer is an instrument made up
of a wet and dry-bulb thermometer attached to
a board or frame for determining the humidity
of the air. One adapted for this purpose may be
purchased ata reasonable price from instrument
dealers or it may be made as follows: For the
frame, take a board eighteen inches long, two
inches wide and one-half inch thick with a hole

’ bored in one end to hang the apparatus up with
when not in use. Get two all-glass thermometers
with cylinder bulbs and the degrees Fahrenheit
engraved on the stem. Cover the bulb of one
thermometer with a thin piece of cotton cloth,
fastening it securely by a thread. When the
cloth covering is wet with water and exposed to
evaporation in the air it constivuces the wet
bulb thermometer; the other thermometer has
no covering on its bulb, is not wet at any time
and constitutes the dry bulb thermometer.
= The following extract from Bulletin No. 23
ig. 9.—Pscyro-
meter for fore- Of the Weather Bureau, U. S: Department of

telling frosts. 4 syiculture, entitled “Frost,” explains the meth-
od of using a psychrometer to foretell frost.

To make an observation.—The bulb of the so-called wet bulb
thermometer is thoroughly saturated with water by soaking it
in a small cup or, wide mouthed bottle until the covering is
thoroughly wet. The thermometers are then whirled rapidly
for fifteen or twenty seconds, stopped and quickly read. A
mental note of the reading is made when they are again whirled
and read. Subtract the reading of the wet thermometer from
that of the dry. Find this difference in the column at the
side of the following dew point table. Follow the horizontal
line under this figure until it intersects the column under the
reading of the dry bulb thermometer at the top of the column
to the right. The number at the intersection is the dew point

ORCHARD PROTECTION. 41

reading. If this comes above thirty-two degrees there is no
danger of a frost, but if below there is danger, although frost
may not occur owing to wind, clouds or other phenomena.

DEW-POINT TABLE,
Difference of

reading of dry Temperature of Air in Degrees (Fahrenheit).
and wet bulbs. 15 20 25 30 85 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Lee chaise fc ccisis oie, «jaca w. civsece « LI IG 22) 27) 82) 88 480 48 53) 58 63. 69
PMs eee Tetets ee sees civics vies seme 6 12/918" (24°30 3b) 4146 52 57 62° 67
SAM Rem er Wey eva Tatiai 61 sl oGor'e'a 0 beso Tell Ohta soma ONe44e- 50" 55160766
Ree ioreieraic vis yec8 ee. 60.0°; 1 10 17 24 30 36 42 48 53 59 64
RIM PoP N arc ae siete sieweiets ote ele otal 4 .18 20 27 83 40 46 51 57 62
(5 2c OS cee ee 7 16 24 30 37 438 -49 55 61
Uf °2 Sag Gee eee eae epeilee 20 oe rae aie 40 DS) OO
A) SSE ro SE oe eee 5 alg 24530) 398 457551 57
Gh tag Glas SS eae Te 20 28a6 43° 49) b>
ANUS ht 5 8 Sea na 4 16 25 33 40 47 53
ibe DSR Sta me eee eae eae Ty SOCIO ei Cay aL
HMM er greasy seta seeds oscs ore Ls ooo) 42 49
Gia slave tc tai cucit eksit ise a's o's 11> 23° 32)..40 47
LEP neo BO ORs Eee ene 5 18 28 37. 45
Vere Roe tere Se 12 24 34 42

Dry bulb thermometer .............. eee e cece eens 60 degrees
Wet bulb thermometer ............ 00. cece e eee 47 degrees

Difference Steg ES IR ne Skee pet Sa BRL Pe ea 13 degrees
Hews pot trom table: owes sls do le es oe ee es 32 degrees

Probably no frost.
Second Example.

Dry bulb thermometer’ ......5..2.00200.......2-3.. 47 degrees
Wet bulb etivermometer ss ek ee ee oe 39 degrees
TERETE TEC Giehe ts tet aten oy ale cok Ente ote ieee au GRE: ARE wise ane 8 degrees

Probably a severe frost.

Protection from injurious spring and autumn frosts may be
given in various ways according to circumstances:

(a) By covering up the whole plant and thus retarding its
period of bloom until danger of frost is past, as may be done
with strawberries and other small fruit. For this purpose they
may be covered with earth or mulch. Peach trees are some-
times covered with corn stalks or hay to retard flowering... They

42 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

may also be laid on the ground and successfully carried through
the winter when covered with corn stalks, ;

(b) By smudges which make a cloud of smoke over the
land and thus prevent evaporation. This is effective when -
there is sufficient wind to spread the smoke. The material used
for this purpose is wet straw, tar, resin, etc., or a combination
of such material. It may be carried about the orchard on a stone
boat or the smudges may be located in various places.

(c) By heating the air directly by means of fires, as is
done in parts of Florida where wood is piled ready to be set
on fire whenever frost threatens.

(d) By cultivating the land; moist soil is exposed, which
furnishes considerabie protection by the evaporation of the mois-
ture from the freshly exposed soil.

(e) By spraying the plants; the air is brought near to dew
point and also warmed. In order to make this effective the
spraying must be repeated during the night when frost is ex-
pected.

(f) By irrigating the land; the air is brought near to dew
point and it is also warmed. This is frequently resorted to
in the case of cranberries.

(g) By covering with tents, as practiced in Florida and
other places and even by using stoves in tents.

(h) Covering the flowers with straw mulch at night is
practicable in the case of strawberries. Where the mulch is
kept between the rows to protect the fruit from dirt, it may be
thrown over the plants when frost threatens the flowers. If
the weather continues cold, it may remain on the plants for a
few days without injury, otherwise it should be promptly re-
moved.

Protection against frost.—In the Yearbook of the United
States Department of Agriculture for 1907, G@. Harold Hume
has the following to say in regard to frost protection in Cali-
fornia, which is of very general application:

“There are few districts in the citrus belt of California that
may not be visited by frost.in December, January, or February.
The prevention of injury by frost may be influenced to a large
extent by the location of groves on lands over which there is
a sufficient air drainage. The new groves established during

ORCHARD PROTECTION. 43

the past few years have been located on the higher lands with
this factor prominently in view. To protect them against the
extreme cold, many of the groves on the lower lands are equip-
ped with wicker coal baskets, briquets of shavings, crude oil,
and asphaltum, or sheet-iron stoves in which the same material
is burned. Oil smudges (in tin receptacles) or other materials,
which are located at definite intervals in the spaces between
the trees, are sometimes burned. It is a common practice, also,
to run the water in the irrigation furrows between the trees on
cold nights, in order to make use of the latent heat in the water

Fig. 10.—Form of smudger for use in protecting orchards from
; frosts. It is used with a protected stone boat.

as a means of frost protection. The materials employed in this
protection against frost injury are used to cause a circulation
of air over the grove in order to mix together the strata of differ-
ent temperatures or for the production of a cloud of smoke over
the grove in the morning in order to exclude the direct sunlight
and thereby prevent the rapid thawing of the fruit when it has
been frozen during the preceding night. It is the rapid thawing,
rather than the freezing, of the tissues, that causes most of
the injury to citrus fruits that have been subjected to ordinary
frost temperatures.

44 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

“A general idea of the operation of frost fighting may be
gained from a brief description of the work observed in a grove
on a cold night. There were twenty-five perforated sheet-iron
stoves scattered over each acre of grove, one stove being placed
in the center of the square between four trees. These stoves
were filled with a prepared mixture of shavings, asphaltum, and
erude oil. When it was determined to light the fires a force of
men appeared, each one carrying a can of oil and a torch. A
small quantity of oil was poured over the smudging material
and was then quickly lighted with the torch. As soon as all
the fires were burning, the men returned home, except one man
to about 5 acres, who kept the fires replenished and in good,
burning condition.

“Just how much benefit is derived from these various devices
it is difficult to estimate, as the experience of the growers is
conflicting and the experiments that have been conducted have
not always been comprehensive. There seems to be no doubt,
however, that the judicious use of the various devices used in
frost protection has been of great commercial value. One who
has had an experience of many years and who has large finan-
cial interests involved writes:

““Wie have been able to protect against the severest cold
we have had since we secured the coal baskets. Several times
the temperature has been around 24° or 25° until we got our coal
baskets under way, but we were usually able to make a change of
from 3° to 5° when our baskets were lighted and were giving off
a good heat.’

“Aside from the injury to the fruit and the young wood by
frost, continued cold weather causes the wood of the lemon
trees to mature and the fruit to develop a coarse, rough texture
and to ripen prematurely.”

QUESTIONS—CHAPTER lI.

1. What is sunscald and how can it be prevented?

2. What injuries to trees are caused by birds? By cattle? By
wind? By mice and rabbits? By cultivation?

3. What are root galls?

4. What effect does winter injury have upon orchard trees?

5. How may twigs, trunks, roots and buds be protected from
winter injury? :

6. Into what classes may plants be divided, considering their
susceptibility to frosts? :

When are injurious frosts most likely to occur?
8. By what means can frosts be foretold? Explain each.
9. In what ways may trees be protected from frosts? ©

CHAPTER III.
‘INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS.

The work of the fruit grower is not only one of tillage, prun-
ing and fertilizing the crop, but he must be ever on the watch to
ward off or kill the insects and diseases that injure or destroy
his crop. None of these treatments can be neglected with im-
punity, yet if the crop has good cultivation and manuring it
will overcome insect injuries arid adverse conditions much bet-
ter than if neglected. However, spraying will not take the place
of manuring, nor manuring of spraying. :

The great growth and wide specializing in fruit growing
has led to the increase of troublesome pests. In some sections
where the natural food of the native insects has been destroyed
by cleaning the land, they have attacked the introduced plants.
Then, too, new and exceedingly injurious insects and diseases
have been introduced from other countries and have spread
rapidly within recent years and these often need extremely dras-
tie measures for their prevention. Good illustrations of the
latter are peach yellows and root galls among diseases, and
San Jose scale, Gypsy and Brown Tail moths among insects.
By the introduction of insects and diseases some of the old
standard varieties have been driven out of cultivation, even
in sections where they formerly grew, or else can now only
be grown when they are given much more care than was former-
ly necessary. The presence of these pests and the discovery of
methods of checking their injiries has worked for the interests
of the careful, painstaking grower who now has a decided ad-
vantage over the slovenly cultivator. In other words, it takes
more brains and application to raise fruit now than formerly.

Comparative exemption from pests is often the case in new
fruit areas but this exemption seldom lasts more than a few
years, aS is shown by the history of the new fruit areas in the
Pacific Coast states where exceptional immunity from insect
pests was enjoyed for many years, which might have been
continued indefinitely had there been a suitable inspection law

46 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

properly enforced. The codlin moth and the plum curculio and
other insect pests have come in and are now extremely trouble-
some and much care is required to hold them in check.

State Inspection.—Much has been said in favor of and against
State Inspection laws for the prevention and suppression of
insects and diseases. They have accomplished much good in
some sections although they have been unquestionably used at
times to restrict trade between the states. One of the great-
est things that they have accomplished has been to cause peo-
ple to think about insect pests and diseases and to impress upon
them the importance of subduing them.

Laws for the suppression of noxious insects and diseases
vary much in the different states but there is a tendency today
for all the states to bring their laws to the same standard.
These laws generally provide for the appointment of a state
entomologist who is required to inspect all nurseries in his
state and to furnish a suitable certificate if he finds them worthy.
There is also a rule providing that no nursery stock shall be
shipped from one state to another without a copy of this, or a
similar certificate, being attached to the parcel containing it
and that badly infested nurseries and orchards must be prop-
erly treated. Suitable penalties are provided for those avoid-
ing the provisions of the law. In qa few of the states and Canada
the law requires that all nursery stock must be fumigated at
the destination before its delivery to consignee. It would be
hard to say now just what is a fair law for all concerned, and it
ought perhaps to vary in different sections of the country ac-
eording to crops and climate. A national law is needed to
regulate interstate commerce in hhursery stock, fruit and other
products that might carry noxious insects and diseases from
one state to another. The intelligent fruit grower should be
familiar with the life habits of the insects in which he is most
interested and should not work blindly by “Rule of Thumb.”

Insects.—Noxious insects are held in check in various ways
and from this standpoint we conveniently class them in groups:

Chewing insects.—Examples of these are grasshoppers, cat-
erpillars, beetles and their grubs, etc. These are quite easily
reached by arsenical and other poisons which may be placed

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 47

on their food. The great problem in dealing with this class is
to find something which will hold the poison on the leaves for
a reasonable length of time and will at the same time prevent
the arsenical poisons from burning the leaves. This is particu-
larly true of plants belonging to the plum family, including
plums, peaches and apricots, which are easily injured by ar-
senious acid even when present in such small quantities that it
would not be injurious to the foliage of apple, pear, currant or
gooseberry. This burning is especially bad when its application
is followed by several days of bright, dry weather. Another
important problem which we have not solved is how to apply
these poisons so that they will not wash off from the leaves.
Among the insecticides commonly used for this class of insects
‘are, Paris Green, arsenate of lead and hellebore. Some of the
chewing insects may be destroyed by the acrid or oily applica-
tions which are commonly used for the destruction of sucking
insects, such as tobacco water and kerosene emulsion.

Insects that work in the wood of the tree belong to the class
‘of chewing insects. These vary in their habits and nearly as
various are the remedies used against them; each must be con-
sidered in the light of its life history. When borers are in
their holes and can be reached easily by gas fumes, perhaps as
satisfactory a remedy as any is to squirt a small amount of
earbon hbi-sulfide into their holes with a common oil dropper
and stop up the holes with a little putty. Inthe case of borers
that tunnel just under the bark, the location of which can be
seen by the discoloration of the surface bark (as with the borer
of the peach), the best remedy is probably to look over the
trees in the early spring and again in the late summer and dig
them out with a sharp knife.

_ Sucking Insects.—Examples of this class of insects are”plant
lice, scale insects and chinch bugs. These do not chew, but
their food is the juice of plants. They obtain it by sucking.
As they do not bite they cannot be destroyed by internal poisons,
such as arsenic and hellebore, but they must be reached by
something that will affect their respiratory organs. All such in-
sects breathe through small pores in their sides and may be de-
stroyed by a covering of a film of oil or soap (whale-oil soap

‘

48 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

and kerosene emulsion). The bodies of leaf lice, which form
a considerable portion of this class of insects, are covered with
a thin skin and are injured or killed by astringent solutions,
such as tobacco water, and also by hot water. Fumigating with
hydrocyanic acid gas in case of scale or other sucking insects
isa good remedy. Fumigating with tobacco smoke will kill most
kinds of leaf lice. In fact, it would seem that fumigation, be-
ing so sure a remedy, is destined to be more largely used in the
future. The use of strong compounds, when trees are dormant,
for the destruction of scale insects; must continue to gain in
popularity. Among the best of the .compounds used for this
purpose are the lime and sulfur mixture and the soluble oil
preparations.

Insects that attach themselves to roots generally are of the
sucking class and are extremely difficult to destroy. Among
the worst of these pests is the wooly aphis or root louse of the
apple, and the phylloxera or root louse of the grape, the latter
having been extremely injurious to the roots of the Huropean
Wine Grape in France. In the case of the wooly aphis the
trouble is largely avoided by planting trees that are known to
be exempt from it. If the trees are once well started there is
little danger of injury, since the pest is seldom harmful to large
trees. Fumigation of stock insures the removal of the root
louse. In the case of the phylloxera on the Huropean Wine
Grape the only satisfactory remedy has been to graft on the
roots of some resistant stock such as the American Frost Grape
(Vitis riparia). So common has this practice become in Hurope
that the result is the European wine industry stands on Ameri-
ean roots.

Beneficial insects.—In a state of nature, each species of the
animal kingdom is held in check so there is a nicely balanced
relation between them, but occasionally even in nature some
one species becomes too numerous and breaks the bounds that
are ordinarily strong enough to hold it. Among the natural
agencies that destroy insects may be mentioned heavy rains,
sudden changes to a freezing temperature, winds, predaceous and
parasitic insects, and fungous and bacterial diseases.

Parasites.—A most important factor in checking the spread

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 49

of insects are the numerous parasites to which they are sub-
ject. These may be either animal or vegetable. Any one who
has had much -experience in gardening may have seen many
instances of the increase of animal parasites until certain kinds
of insects were no longer injurious. This is common in the
case of the cabbage worm, the tent caterpillar, grasshoppers
and many others. :

Animal Parasites—The most common of animal parasites
that destroy insects are small wasps and some two-winged flies
which deposit their eggs in or on the eggs and larvae of the in-
jurious insects on which the growing wasps feed. These destroy
enormous numbers of insects and should be regarded as among
the greatest aids to the fruit grower.

Among vegetable parasites that Matas insects may be
mentioned the diseases’ which destroy the chinch bugs, and
which the states of Kansas, Nebraska and Minnesota attempted
to introduce on a large scale for the subjugation of this pest.
Another instance is the disease which often destroys cabbage
worms and even house flies. A good illustration of this oc-
curred recently in the experience of a Minnesota gardener. He
found the Cabbage Plusia getting very numerous in his twenty
acres of cabbages and got a spraying outfit to kill them with,
but had hardly started when he found the worms dying naturally,
as the result of a fungous disease. He put up the machine and
the disease successfully did the work for him.

Predaceous insects search out and destroy their prey. In
this class of insects may be included the Preying Mantis, Tiger
_ beetles, Jadybugs and some wasps and dragon flies.

The Cottony Cushion Scale was first noticed in California
in 1872 and was greatly feared on account of its spreading so
rapidly and protecting itself from insecticides by excreting a
waxy substance which completely covered the insect. The pest
was finally destroyed by a lady bird (lady bug) imported from
Australia.

Insects Injurious to the Apple.

Affecting the Fruit:

Codlin Moth (Carpocapsa pvomonella).—The Codlin Moth
-is the common cause of wormy apples and makes the infested

50 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

fruit ripen prematurely
and fall to the ground.
The moths deposit their
eggs in the calyx (or eye)
of the apple just as the
blossoms fall. On hatch-
ing, the worm eats into
the fruit where it lives
until it is ready to change
to the moth stage. It
then leaves the fruit and
spins a cocoon in which
it undergoes its changes.
There are two or more
broods in a season. The
worms that are in the
Fig. 11.—Injury caused by the lar- late apples leave them in

va of the Codlin Moth. the winter and find

places to spin their cocoons
nearby, which is often be-
tween the hoops and staves
of the barrels holding the
fruit.

Remedies.—The fallen fruit
should be promptly gathered
and destroyed. Keeping hogs
in the orchard is very bene-
ficial as they destroy the
worm-infested fruit; but it
should be remembered that
when too much stock is pas-
tured in the orchard and the
grass becomes scarce, they
are liable to bark the trees.
If bands of burlap, or even oe
paper, six Inches wide, are fig. 12.Flowers of the apple;

the proper stage for spraying
fastened around the trunks to control CG Glin Moth.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 51

not later than the first of June, many of the worms and chrysa-
lides of this moth will be found under them and may be easily
destroyed. The bands should be examined about once in ten days
until the last of August.

The most common way of protecting against this insect is
by spraying the trees just after the blossoms fall, when the ap-
ples still stand upright, with Paris Green and water at the rate
of one pound to one hundred and sixty gallons. When the trees
are sprayed to prevent scab, the Paris Green may be added to
the Bordeaux mixture at the rate of one pound to one hundred
and fifty gallons of the mixture.

Plum and Apple Curculio (Anthonomus quadrigibbus).—
These are snout beetles which cut small holes in the fruit as

a they feed, and also use the

Zap fruit as a place for laying

their eggs. The latter
soon hatch into a small
grub which, at maturity,
is about one-half inch long.
The special injury to the
fruit from this insect
comes from the hard knots
that form where it has
been stung, which makes

Fig. 13.—Apples distorted as the re- the apple gnarled and of
sult of injury by Curculio. poor quality.

An

| RS
Vs
Lys

Remedies.—These insects breed mostly in the wild plums,
_haws and wild crab apples, and destroying these generally re-
sults in lessening the damage to the apples in their vicinity.
The windfalls should be destroyed, and pasturing hogs in the or-
chard is probably the easiest way to accomplish this. Clean
culture has proven most satisfactory in ridding orchards of the .
curculio as they winter over in grass and rubbish. Spraying the
fruit with Paris Green, lime and water, as recommended for the
tent caterpillar, has sometimes proven satisfactory,

Affecting the foliage:

Tent Caterpillar (Malacosoma americana).—The character-
istics of this insect are readily seen in Fig. 14, which shows the

52 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

caterpillars resting on the outside of the tent-like structure in
which they live, and also a twig on which a bunch of eggs is _
fastened. The habit of this insect is about as follows: The
eggs are laid on the smaller twigs of fruit trees in ring-like -
clusters during the first two weeks in July. Two or three hun-
dred eggs are laid in each cluster and they are firmly cemented
together. These hatch out early in the spring just as the leaves
open. The young caterpillars soon commence to make’ a tent
by extending sheets of silk web across the nearest forks of the
twigs and this tent or nest is enlarged as more room is needed. It
has holes in it through which the caterpillars enter and’they re-
treat to the nest
at night, in stormy
weather and usual-
ly when not feed-
ing. They gener-
ally come out of
their nest once in
the morning and
once in the after-
noon to feed. They
are very voracious
and soon strip the
infested tree of
its foliage. They
change to moths in
June and soon com-
mence laying eggs.
The eggs of. the

Fig. 14.—Tent Caterpillar. a.—Web Western Tent cat-
house of tent caterpillar much reduced. erpillar are’ not
Caterpillar nearly full size. b.—Eggs 3
nearly natural size. c.—Moth natural laid around the
size.

twig but in bunches
on the sides of the twigs.

Remedies.—The tents are readily seen. They should be
gathered and destroyed early in the season when the worms
are within them. The egg masses are also easily seen against
a cloudy sky when the trees are leafless, and can be gathered
and destroyed in winter or at any time before they hatch,

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 53

Fall Web Worm (Hyphantria cunea).—This is often mis-
taken for the Tent Caterpillar from which it is quite distinct.
It appears later in the season, generally in July or later. Its
webs are larger and loose or open and the caterpillars stay in
them and feed. The web is extended to include other foliage
as that enclosed is eaten. The remedies should be the same as
in the case of the Tent Caterpillar.

Leaf Lice or Aphis (Aphis mali).—The leaves of the apple
are frequently attacked by plant lice which, by sucking the
sap, cause the leaves to curl up and assume a very unnatural
appearance. They work almost entirely on the lower side of
the leaf and are most abundant on the new and tender growth
which generally becomes distorted as a result of such attacks.
Similar lice attack the foliage of the plum,
currant and other plants. The eggs are laid
on the branches of apple, plum and other
trees in autumn. . They are yellowish in
color when first laid, but become a glossy
black by winter. These hatch in the spring
and locate themselves on the small, young
growth and feed by sucking sap. All hatch-
ed at this time are females and reach ma-
turity in ten or twelve days, when they com-
mence to give birth to living young, pro-
ducing about two daily for two or three
weeks, when they die. The young ones
soon commence to produce live young and
their increase is very rapid, in fact so fast
that the new growth is kept covered with
them. As the season advances,~some of

Fig. 15.—Hegs the lice acquire wings and found new colo-
of Plant Lice nies on other trees. On the approach of
on twig of ;

young apple cold weather males appear and the season

tree, closes with a stock of-eggs for the con-
tinuation of the species.

Remedies.—The lice should be destroyed in the spring be-
fore they become numerous. The eggs hatch about the time the
buds are bursting, and as soon as the lice appear, they should

54 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

be sprayed with strong soapsuds, kerosene emulsion or tobacco
water. If the lice are allowed to get very numerous before
spraying is commenced, the work will have to be repeated sev-
eral times. Where trees are heavily infested, smoking may be
the most desirable treatment. (See reference to this under the
head of Insects Injurious to the Plum.)

Climbing Cut Worms (Agrotis sp.)—When the foliage or
buds are being destroyed without any apparent cause, climbing
cut worms should be searched for. If present they will be found
in the day-time buried in the ground near the base of the trees
‘and occasionally do much damage. They are closely allied to
and resemble the common cut worms so well known to gardeners.

Remedies.—They may be destroyed by spraying the foliage
as recommended for the Tent Caterpillar and by jarring tke
trees after dark and then gathering the worms.

Insects Attacking Trunks and Branches.

Flat Headed Apple Tree Borer (Chrysobothris femorata).—
This borer is ihe abundant in some sections but generally does

Fig. 16.—Flat head-
ed Apple ‘Tree
Borer. a.—Borer
full grown. b.—
Pupa. c.—Reverse
side of head. d.—
Mature borer.

not cause serious losses here. It prefers
to work in trees that are newly trans-
planted, or weakened by some disease,
making its borings in the trunks and larg-
er branches and often completely girdling
them. It is the larva of a beetle that is”
oblong, flattish in form and of a shining
greenish-black color about three-eighths
of an inch long. The beetles emerge from
the borings in the trees in the early
summer. They are very active in the
middle of warm days and may be found
in the hot sunshine running up and down
the trunk of the tree, whence they fly
quickly if an attempt is made to catch
them. They lay their eggs, which are
yellow, under loose scales on the bark or

in cracks and crevices. The young soon hatch and-eat their
way through the bark, feeding on the sap wood. As the borer
approaches maturity, it usually bores into the more solid wood

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 55

and finally out to the bark where it changes into the beetle form.
This insect also attacks the pear, plum, peach and cherry.

_ Remedies.—All trees should be examined early in autumn;
if there are borers present, they may be detected by the dry ap-
pearance of the bark or by the exudation of sap or sawdust-like
eastings. When such signs are seen the parts should be at
once cut into with a knife and the borer destroyed. As a pre-
ventive measure there is perhaps nothing better than to coat
the trunk and PAGED branches with a mixture of soft soap reduc-
ed with a solution of washing
soda to the consistency of a
thick paint, and if a little car-
bolic acid is added, it will be
even more repulsive to the
beetles. This should be kept:on
the trees during the summer
months .when the insect is in-
jurious.

Twig Borer (Amphicerus bi-
caudatus).—A dark colored, cyl-
indrical, small beetle that bores
into the twigs of the apple, grape
and some other fruits. It is
seldom extremely injurious.

Remedies.—The remedy is tu
cut out in early summer the in-
fested twigs which contain the
borers and to burn them.

Fig. 17. — Buffalo. Tree. Hop- Buffalo Tree Hopper (Ceresa
per; showing scales on old bubalus).—An acti jumpin
wood as the result of its i JA tive, jumping,
injuries; also mature in- ridiculous looking creature about
sect.

one-third of an inch long, re-
sembling a beech nut more than any insect. Its eggs are laid
in slits cut into the bark of apple trees by the- female. Their
presence seems to seriously injure the adjoining wood and bark
and causes numerous irregular wounds which often seriously
check growth and are sometimes taken for hail injuries. It
feeds on the foliage when young, but does little injury in this
stage.

56 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Remedies.—The best treatment isto prune away and burn the
infested wood in winter, but this is seldom entirely practicable
and we have largely to depend on natural remedies and on high
cultivation to enable the plant to resist the pest.
San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus).—This is perhaps
the most insiduous and destructive of all our insect pests. In
appearance, it is nearly circular, about one-six-
teenth of an inch in diameter, dark brown in col-
or, with a darker spot in the center. It lives on ~
the bark of nearly all of our garden and lawn plants.
It is a sucking insect and moves only when very
young and ther only for a short time, after which
it becomes fixed in place. Several generations are
. produced each year. At the North many of the
scales die in winter but those left breed so fast
that they soon cover their host. It is probably
spread to young trees by the feet of birds, ete.
When this pest is discovered for the first time
some good expert in such matters should be con-
sulted.
Remedies.—The best remedies now known are
the lime and sulfur wash and some of the soluble
oils specially prepared for this purpose, the formula
for which will be found in the Appendix.
ZO Scurfy Bark Louse (Chionaspis furfurus) affects

Ficz.ig— the apple and pear. The life history of this insect
Oe Shel is similar to that of other scale insects. The fe-
in place on males are larger than the males, and oval; the
ume males are very small and slender. A branch in-
fested with this pest appears to be covered with whitish scurf
or dandruff. It is seldom very injurious.

Remedies.—The remedies for the San Jose Scale are effective
here but covering the branches with whitewash or lightly brush-
ing them with kerosene oil is extremely satisfactory.

The Oyster-Shell Bark Louse (Lepidosaphes uli) is about
the color of the bark on which it grows. It is very injurious
where it occurs in great numbers. In appearance each scale
is long and shaped somewhat like an oyster. Its life history

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 57

and remedies are much like those for other scales. It generally
yields readily to the whitewash treatment, but where many trees
are badly infested they should be treated with some of the solu-
ble oils, or lime and sulfur wash should be used.

Woolly Apple Louse (Schizonewra lanigera); branch form.—
When fuily grown, this insect is dark colored and covered
with a cottony coating. They may be found covering the new
bark about wounds and in the axils of leaves and buds and
they may cause serious wounds when neglected. It comes from
small eggs laid near the base of the twigs.

Remedies.—They are easily destroyed by painting with kero-
sene. Where very numerous, it may be best to use whale oil
soap mixture, on account of the danger to the tree from using
kerosene.

Insects Attacking the Roots of the Apple.

Woolly Apple Louse (Schizoneura lanigera); root form.—This
insect attacks the roots as well as the branches of the apple. On

WIP |
Wey
> a

Fig. 19.—Woolly Aphis. a.—Mature insect. b.—Swellings on the root
as a result of its injuries.

58 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

the roots it causes warty swellings and may kill the trees. It is
one of the most dangerous of all insect pests affecting the apple.

Remedies.—The best remedies for it when occurring on the
roots are as follows: Remove the earth about the crown for a
distance of about two feet and put on from four to seven pounds
of tobacco dust. Put back the soil and irrigate where practicable
to do so. Removing the soil from about the roots and apply-
ing hot water has been satisfactorily practiced. Bi-sulfide
of carbon poured into holes made with a bar about the trees
has also been successfully used. In doing this, make the holes
about ten inches deep near the infested roots and then pour
three ounces of the bi-sulfide into each hole. Three or more
holes should be made about each tree. Young trees are often
destroyed by the woolly aphis but the old trees are seldom hurt
by it.

Insects Injurious to the Pear.

Any of the foregoing insects referred to as attacking the
apple may also attack the pear except the wooly aphis, and the
same remedies should be used. In addition to these, the pear is
attacked by the fol-
lowing insects:

Pear Tree Slug
(EHriocampoa cerasi).
—These slimy look-
ing insects are hatch-
ed from eggs laid in
the tissues of the
leaves by a glossy,
black fly soon after
the leaves expand in
spring. When first
emerging from the
egg they are white
but soon become cov-
ered above with a

slimy brown matter
Fig. 20.—Pear Tree Slug. a.—Mature in-
sect. b—bLarva. e.—Worms feeding on wee oozes out of the
leaves partly skeletonized by them. ' skin. The slug, when

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 59

mature, undergoes its changes in the ground where it also re-
mains during the winter. There are several broods each season.
The slugs eat off the green surface of the foliage, leaving it
skeletonized. It attacks the cherry, plum and rose as well as
the pear.

Remedies.—The remedies are the same as for any of the
leaf-eating insects, Paris Green and Pyrethrum Powder being
most commonly used. Dusting the leaves with air-slaked lime
is also a good remedy.

The Pear Psylla (Psyilla pyricola).—This is a minute insect
that has occasionally done much injury to pear trees by sucking
the sap. It is so small as to be seen with difficulty with the un-
aided eye. In severe attacks old trees put forth but little growth,
new shoots often wither and drop in May, the leaves turn yellow
and the fruit prematurely ripens in midsummer and falls off. Its
presence is also indicated by the honey dew which is excreted
by the insect in large quantities so as to cover the tree and
even the vegetation under it. In this sweet solution a kind of
fungus soon starts and smears the tree with a blackish coating.

The mature insects pass the winter hidden in crevices un-
der the loosened bark on the trunks and limbs of pear trees.
During warm days they crawl about. In the first warm days
of spring the egg-laying season begins. The eggs are Iaid in
creases in the bark and in the old leaf scars. In two or three
weeks they hatch into what is known as “nymphs,” which first
locate along in the axils and petioles of the leaves. As these
nymphs grow, they change their skin and in about one month
become full grown with wings, and resemble the’ harvest fly
in miniature. They can jump like a flea and fly away upon
the.slightest unusual jar. =

Remedies.—There are several natural enemies that help to
hold the pear psylla in check, among which are the lace winged
fly and the red ladybug. The most effective treatment seems to
be spraying in the spring with kerosene emulsion, applied with
considerable force to destroy the young. The mature insect is
not easily reached in this way.

; Insects Injurious to the Peach.

Peach Twig Borer (Anarsia lineatella).—When the buds of
the peach begin to open in the spring, a small, brownish larva

60 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. :

with a black head eats into the buds and destroys them. When
the new shoots start, the borer eats into them causing them to
wilt and decay. Many of the second brood of this borer eat into
peaches, causing a gummy exudation and ruining them for mar-
ket. The larvae that appear in the spring spent their winter in
little excavations which they made in the fall in the bark of the
trees.

Remedies.—Harly in the spring, just before the buds open,
spray the trees with lime and sulfur wash or with whale oil
soap, in the proportion of one pound to two gallons of water.
Fish oil soap, diluted once with water or kerosene emulsion, will
doubtless do the work nearly or quite as well as the lime and
sulfur wash. Many of the larvae may ‘be caught under band-
ages used as for the Codlin Moth.

Peach Borer (Sanninoidea exitiosa).—The yellowish white
borer commonly very destructive in peach trees is the larva
of a wasp-like appearing moth that lays its eggs on the trunks

Fig. 21.—Peach borer; showing trunk of peach tree injured near
‘surface of ground where gum and grass are mixed together.
a.—Male. b.—Female.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 61

and larger branches of peach trees from the middle to the last
of summer in the North. The eggs soon hatch and the larva
works into the trees, which exude a quantity of clear, jelly-
like gum that is often mixed with borings. The borer lives
in the tree about one year.

Remedies.—Carefully inspect the treesin autumn and spring,
just below as well as above the ground, and remove all borers
with a small pointed knife. Wrapping the trunks with stout
paper or wire screen during the egg-laying period is recom-
mended.

Other insects attacking the peach are several kinds of
aphis and curculio. For each of these see similar heads included
under “Insects injurious to the apple and plum.”

Insects Injurious to the Plum.

Plum Curculio (Conotrachelus nenwphar).—This is the insect
which causes the plums to prematurely ripen and drop to the
ground. It is not nearly so
destructive to our native plums
as to those of Huropean origin
(Prunus domestica). The lat-
ter are often so badly infested
that none of the fruit comes to
full maturity. While our na-
tive plums are stung just as
much by the curculio as the
European plum, but few of the
eggs of the curculio develop
into the grub in this fruit, prob-
ably on account of its rapid
Fig. 22.—Showing the way in which 8’OWth. This insect is a small

pEnice ote injured by the Plum rough, grayish or _ blackish
beetle, about one-fifth of an

inch long, with a black shining lamp on the middle of each wing
and behind this a more or less distinct band of a dull yellow
color with some whitish marks about the body and with a rath-
er short snout. The female lays her eggs in the young, green
fruit shortly after it is formed. Then she cuts a circle around
the portion of the fruit in which the eggs are laid to prevent it

62 - POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

from growing. The eggs hatch in a few days and the larva
works around the outside of the stone. This causes the fruit
to become diseased and it falls prematurely to the ground. -
Within the plum the growth of the larva is completed. It then
goes into the ground where it transforms to a beetle, which soon
escapes.

Remedies.—Recent investigations seem to show that clean
cultivation and burning of any grassy areas near by, in which
the beetles can winter over, is most desirable in checking the
spread of this pest. When the curculio gets alarmed it draws
itself together and falls to the ground. Advantage is taken of
this peculiarity to catch and destroy it. A sheet is spread under
the tree whose branches are suddenly jarred, when the beetles,
which fall on the sheet, may be gathered and destroyed. As it
is important to catch as many beetles as possible before any
mischief has been done, jarring should begin while the trees
are in blossom and should be continued every morning until
they are gone. If the insects are abundant this will generally
take about three weeks. It will be found that where hens with
their broods of chickens are enclosed within the plum orchard,
they will devour a large number of the larvae of the curculio.
If hogs are kept in the same enclosure as the plum trees, they
will pick up the fallen fruit and so destroy a great many of the
larvae and assist very much in reducing the injury from this
cause.

Plum Gouger (Coccotorus scutellaris).—The plum gouger
is a snout beetle somewhat resembling the curculio, but readily
distinguished from it by a little careful examination. It is about
five-sixteenths of an inch long. The head and wing cases are
brown with a leaden grey tinge, the latter with whitish and
black spots scattered irregularly over their surface. It appears
in the spring about the same time as the curculio, but instead
of working around the stone it eats through the soft shel] and
lives within the stone where it undergoes its changes and
emerges a perfect beetle. Both sexés of the Plum Gouger bore
cylindrical holes in the fruit for food. These cause the fruit to
become knotty and worthless but it does not prevent their re-
maining on the tree until maturity. This insect does not cut

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 63

a flat or half circle around the hole-in which the egg is placed,
as is so characteristic of the curculio.

Remedies.—The remedies recommended for the curculio are
also best for preventing the work of this insect.

The Plum Leaf Aphis (Aphis prunifolii) commonly called
“leaf lice,” is frequently troublesome and occasionally appears in
such large numbers as to seriously check the growth of the trees.

The life history of this insect is the same as for the apple
leaf aphis, which see.

Fig. 23.—Hoop tent ready to put over trees,

64 - POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Remedies.—Tobacco water, kerosene emulsion and similar
materials often hardly appear to have any effect when the lice
are very abundant, as the leaves curl up and protect the lice,
so that they are not easily reached and the waxy covering of the

Fig. 24.—Hoop tent in place over tree.

ites sheds water. At such times it will be found that tobacco
smoke is a most valuable and certain remedy. In applying it,
a tent made of unbleached cotton, large enough to cover the

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 65

tree should be used. The best form for this tent is bag shaped,
and large enough to easily take in the tree. The tent should
be fastened at the bottom to a hoop made of gas pipe. In
operating the hoop tent the hoop is lifted up on its edge close
to the tree and gradually lifted over it, the slender, long, side
branches being pushed up under the tent. When the tree is
finally enclosed, tobacco smoke is applied until the tent is filled
with smoke so thick that the hand cannot be seen before the
face; it is allowed to thus remain for fifteen minutes, which is
long enough to kill all the lice. There is no danger of injuring
the tree if the tobacco does not flame up. To prevent this, the
tobacco used should be dampened. The most convenient form
of tobacco to use is leaf stéms which come from cigar factories
and can be obtained at a very low price.

A tent that will answer the purpose very well may be made
out of two large pieces of cotton cloth supported on a light wood-
en frame.. Where the trees are so very large that they require
a tent more than 14 feet in diameter, a piece of one-inch rope
will be found to work better than a gas pipe hoop to hold the
bottom. of the tent.

Other insects injurious to the plum include the peach borer,
leaf slug and flat headed borer which are described elsewhere.
Insects Injurious to the Cherry.

The insects injurious to the cherry are about the same as
those injurious to the plum and include borers, curculio and
aphis, The cherry is also commonly injured by the leaf slug
which attacks the pear. These insects may be.found under
their respective heads.

Insects Injurious to the Grape.

Grape Vine Leaf Hoppers (Hrythroneura vitis).—These are
small, grayish insects that sometimes appear on our grape vines
in countless numbers. When abundant, if disturbed on a hot,
dry day, they appear in clouds, make a short flight and quickly
settle on the vines again. They breed most rapidly in hot, sum-
mer weather and do most injury to varieties having no down.
on the under side of the leaves, such as the Clinton and Beta,
but may destroy the foliage of any kind. They are sucking in-
sects and cause the leaves to turn yellow and even finally dry up.

66 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Remedies.—By taking advantage of the fact that the insects
are dumpish early in the morning and may be easily jarred
to the ground, large numbers may be destroyed by shaking the
vines after first laying down strips of cloth covered with coal
tar or similar material that will catch them. Perhaps the best
remedy consists in making two frames four feet square out of
common lath and covering them with cloth coated with fresh coal
tar. T'wo men are required to use these, who place the frames
opposite one another on each side of the rows, and as near as
practicable at the bottom, at the same time gently jarring the
vines by striking downwards, with a few light branches, on each
side. In this way large numbers of the insects can be caught,
and if this method is persistently used this pest may be kept
in check.

The Grape Phylloxera (Phylloxera vastatriz) or root louse,
is an American insect that is frequently found on the roots or.
leaves of American vines. On the roots its presence results in
the formation of swellings or knotty excrescences. It occasion-
ally appears on the leaves of some species that have thin foliage
such as those of the Riparia class, where it forms many galls
on the under side of the leaves which sometimes become so
abundant as to seriously check the growth of vines. ‘This leat
form is seldom very troublesome and is not necessary for the
propagation of the species. It spreads by winged forms that
occur on the roots or leaves and may travel through or over
the land for considerable distances. On the American vines its
presence does not necessarily cause death or seriously check
their growth, but European vines succumb very quickly to its
attacks and it has been the principal cause of the inability of
growing European grapes successfully in this country. The im-
portation of this insect into Europe and its spread there threat-
ened to destroy the vine industry of many sections.

Remedies.—The danger from this insect has there been large-
ly overcome by grafting the European kinds on native American
species which are resistant to this pest; the native V. riparia (our
River Bank grape) is commonly used. Immense quantities of wood
of this species have been sent to Europe for this purpose. The
Phylloxera is a native of America east of the Rocky Mountains-

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 67

and is not found on the Pacific coast, but it has been intro-
duced into California and foresighted growers there are prac-
ticing grafting their vines on resistant roots. Bi-sulfate of car-
bon placed in the ground about the roots is a good remedy.
Probably the best treatment for the leaf form is to pick and
destroy the infested foliage.

The Rose Chafer or Rose Bug. aber anaeeh rhs subspinosus)
eats roses, the flowers of the grape, and, when very abundant,
many other garden plants. It is a beetle with long, hairy legs
which is rather slow in its movements. It is especially injurious
by reason of its eating the flowers of grapes. :

Remedies.—Where they are very abundant, insecticides are
too slow in acting to do much good and all remedies fail. Where
not unusually abundant, they may be kept in check by picking.
Covering the flowers with bags has also been resorted to with
excellent results. Bordeaux mixture seems to be distasteful to

them and = spraying
with this material will
often largely prevent
their ravages as well
as check fungus dis-

ye we eases.
% Other insects injuri-

AE, ,ous to the grape are
the Snowy Tree Crick-
et ‘and ocasionally
some scale insects and
leaf eating insects.
Insects Injurious to the
Currant and
Gooseberry.
The Currant Worm
Fig. 25.--Currant Worm. Eggs of worm ‘N@matus ventricosus)
on under side of midribs; holes in is the most trouble-
leaves gnawed by young larva. some insect that at-
tacks the currant and gooseberry. The female lays her
eges in rows on the veins on the under side of the
leaves quite early in the season. They are white in color

68 ~ POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

and about one-twentieth of an inch long. These eggs hatch in
about ten days. The young worms feed in companies, at first
eating small holes in the leaves, but later on they destroy all
the green tissue in the leaf and then spread in all directions
over the bush, eating the foliage. They will frequently strip a
bush of its foliage in a few days time if left to themselves. When
full grown they are three-quarters of an inch long. There are
two broods of these worms; the first appearing before or about
the time the fruit is ripe and the second, two or three weeks
later. The mature insect is a fly, somewhat resembling the
house fly. °

Fig. 26.—Currant Worm at work.

‘

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 69

Remedies.—Powdered hellebore, mixed withits bulk of flour,
may be dusted on the plants when the foliage is wet or it may
be used at the rate of one ounce of hellebore to a gallon of water
and be sprayed on the foliage. Used in either way it is a very
cheap, effective and easily applied remedy. But hellebore is
quite poisonous and is not safe to use when
the fruit is ripe, although no danger will
exist if several days should elapse after
the application before the fruit is gathered.
A light shower after the hellebore is applied
will remove all danger from it. Pyrethrum
insect powder is a good, safe and effective
remedy when applied just at night, but it is
very expensive and difficult to obtain of
good quality. Paris Green and arsenate of
lead make efficient remedies when proper-
ly- applied and are most commonly used.

: Where these insects have made their
appearance, the first indication of them
should be watched for in following years
and great care taken to destroy the first
brood each season. It is a good plan to
begin spraying early, even if no worms
are seen. Growers of this fruit should be
BS very particular not to neglect the bushes
Fig. ppatpe ais Ror- after the crop is gathered,.for it is very
er in its tunnel in important for the next year’s crop that
the center of the
cane, where pit has they should make a good growth of wood,
been eaten out. and neglecting them at this time often al-
lows a crop of worms to mature and cause more extensive injury
the following year. The: fly seems to prefer the foliage of na-
tive varieties of gooseberries, such as the Houghton seedling,
for its eggs and a few of these bushes may be planted among
the currants, when most of the worms can be destroyed on them
as soon as the eggs hatch.
Imported Currant Borer (Sesia tipuliformis).—_In many

-sections this insect in its larva state causes great injury to the

stems of the currant and gooseberry by so weakening them that

70 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

they break off when loaded with fruit or by making them sickly.
The female lays her eggs in the stems early in the summer. In
a few days the eggs hatch into little white grubs, which work
into the pith of the stem, where they make their burrows and
live until the following season. They then finish their trans-
formation and appear as wasp-like moths and the females shortly
commence to lay eggs. This insect infests chiefly the red and
white currant, but it.also attacks the black currant and often
the gooseberry.

Remedies.—The infested stems should be cut out in the au-
tumn or very early in the spring and burned at once. If the
growers in any vicinity will follow this method in united effort
they can keep this insect in subjection.

Lice (Aphis ribis) are frequently very abundant on the foli-
age of currants and gooseberries, where they cause the leaves
to curl up and become distorted, thus checking their growth
but seldom causing serious injury. The life history of this in-
sect is about the same as for the apple leaf louse.

Remedies.—They may be destroyed by spraying the foliage
with tobacco water, soap suds water, or kerosene emulsion.
In fighting these insects, it is very important to commence as
soon as the first of them are seen as they often increase with
great rapidity. On account of the position of the leaves, these
lice are very difficult to get at with a spray, and on their first
appearance the infested foliage should be destroyed. It is some-
times most practicable to apply tobacco water by dipping the
affected branches into the emulsion or into tobacco water.

Insects Injurious to the Raspberry and Blackberry.

Raspberry Flat Headed Borer (Agrilus ruficollis)—The per-
fect form of this insect is a beetle which lays its eggs in the
growing canes sometime during the summer. Where the eggs
are laid, peculiar gall-like swellings may occur, having many
rough slits in them; but this is not always the case, for some-
times canes may be killed by the insect and no swellings at all
appear on the canes. The eggs hatch into little yellowish-
white larvae, having flattened bodies, brown jaws and tails furn-
ished with two dark brown horns. One swelling may contain
many larvae. When full grown the larva is from one-half to

&

Bim wet lp» £-

en

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 71

three-fourths of an inch long, and by burrowing in the wood fre-
quently girdles the canes. The perfect beetles emerge about
the time that the plants are in full blossom.

Remedies.—As the insects winter over in the canes, they
may be destroyed by cutting and burning all the infested wood
some time during the winter.

Snowy Tree Cricket (Occanthus niveus).—This insect does
not feed on the raspberry plant in any way but it is injurious
on account of its peculiar habit of puncturing the canes with

i lines of little holes in which
it deposits eggs. If this work
does not kill the canes, it so
weakens them that when they
start in the spring they are
very apt to break off as soon
as the foliage is expanded.
The eggs, which are laid in
autumn, are yellow and about
one-eighth of an inch long.
They are not readily seen
when laid, but by the latter
part of winter the infested
eanes take on an unhealthy
appearance by which they
may be readily located. This
insect feeds upon leaf lice and
Pe re Ghee a is thus beneficial to some ex-
“Mature insect. b.—Infested rasp- ‘ent, but it causes so much in-
er eae leeea iy ieey by laying its cxes anrasrr
cane. c.—Showing injury to cane berry, grape and other plants
Pe ee ly appears. with pithy wood that it should
be destroyed as nearly as possible.

Remedy.—The only remedy is to cut out and burn the in-

fected wood before the eggs hatch.
Insects Injurious to the Strawberry.

Leaf Roller (Ancylis comptana).—This insect is injurious
in its larva stage when it is about one-half an inch long and a
very active worm. It will be found nicely encased in a straw-

72 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

berry leaf that it has drawn together by silken bands and of
which it is devouring the green surface. When abundant, this
insect may do very much damage. It changes to a small rust
colored moth with white markings on the wings at maturity.
It has at least two broods. It winters over in the pupa state
in the ground near the plants.

Remedies.—The larvae are not easily reached with any in-
secticide as they are protected by the folded leaf. The first
brood is rather difficult to destroy without injuring the fruit.
Since the second brood does not appear until July, they may be
destroyed by mowing off and burning the foliage of the plants
or by scattering straw and burning it. Where there are but a
few infected leaves, they should be crushed in the hand. A
few trials will show the best method of crushing the worm in-

wy side. Arsenical sprays are also used but
the insect is so well protected that this
remedy is seldom satisfactory.

White Grub (Lachnosterna sp).—This is
the common white grub found in sod land.
It is the larvae of the June beetle and is
sometimes exceedingly destructive, when
plants are set out on land that has recently
been in sod, by eating the roots of the new-
ly set plants. On land that has been culti-
vated for two years it is seldom trouble-

: i some. It lives several years in the ground
Fig. 29.—a.—White .

Grub. b.—Itsma- before emerging as the full grown June
ture form, known hug, It may be avoided by not planting

commonly as June si 2
beetle. on land that was the preceding year in sod.

QUESTIONS—CHAPTER Ill. —
Insects.

1. What care should the fruit grower take in suppressing in-
sects and diseases? ?

2. How have insects and diseases been introduced into the fruit
growing sections?

3. What effect do they have upon the fruit grower’s work?

4. What sections are usually exempt from insects and diseases?
Example.

5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of State In-
spection?

Tei pac Nien.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 93

What do the State Inspection laws provide for?

What would be the benefit of a national law?

Into what groups may the destructive insects be classified?
What are the habits of each?

What are the remedies best adapted to each group?

How do the Tent Caterpillar and fall web worm differ in

Into what groups may the beneficial insects and parasites be

are the habits of each? :
is the history of the cottony cushion scale in Calli-

insects are injurious to the apple?

is the life history of the Codling Moth?
injuries do they cause?

are the best remedies for this insect?
How does the curculio injure the apple?

What is the remedy for it?

What insects injure the foliage of the apple?
What is the life history of the Tent Caterpillar?
What are the remedies for the Caterpillar?

What remedy should be used for them?
What injury does the climbing cut worm cause on the apple

How may it be destroyed?
insects injure the trunks and branches of the trees?

is the

life history of the flat headed apple tree borer?

harm does it do?
remedy is used as a preventive for the injuries caused?

injury

is the
is the

is caused by the twig borer? The buffalo tree

remedy for the twig borer? Z
life history of the San Jose scale?

injury does it cause?

is the
injury
is the
is the
is the
is the

remedy for the San Jose scale?

is caused by the scurfy bark louse?

remedy for it?

life history of the oyster shell bark louse?
injury caused by and the remedy for the same?
aD caused by the branch form of the woolly
it?

What injury does the wooily aphis cause on .the roots of ap-

What is the best remedy for it?
What insects are injurious to the pear tree?
What injury does the slug cause?

How are its ravages prevented?

How does the pear psylla injure the trees?
What is its life history?

What remedy should be applied?

What insects are injurious 10 the peach?
What harm does the twig borer cause?.
What is the best remedy for it?

What injury is caused by the peach borer?
What is the remedy for it?

6.
qe
8.
9.
10.
ab
classified?
12. What
13. What
fornia?
14. What
15. What
16. What
17. What
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
their habits?
24,
ao:
tree?
26.
27. What
28. What
29. What
30. What
31. What
hopper?
32. What
33. What
34. What
35. What
36. What
37. What
38. What
39. What
40. What
aphis and remedy for
1.
ple trees?
42.
43.
44,
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54

How does the plum curculio affect the plum?
What is the remedy?

CHAPTER IV.
Diseases Injurious to Fruits.

The diseases which the fruit grower has to combat are
numerous. No portion of the plant is exempt from their rav-
ages. Some diseases are perhaps not due to a special growth
in the tissues, but result from some physiological weakness of
the plant, due probably to unfavorable surroundings. Such trou-
bles can be stopped only by doing away with the cause, and
practically the only method of preventing them is by improved
cultural conditions, as is the case with Peach Yellows.

The great majority of plant diseases are what are known as
fungus diseases. Theseare propagated by small bodies or spores,
given off in’ various ways, which act as seeds in starting new

growths. The life habits of these diseases are extremely vari- .

able and often very complex. Some of them live one generation
on one plant and the next generation on some very different
‘plant. For instance, the Apple Rust (Gymnosporangium) lives
one stage on the foliage of the apple and the next on the Red
Cedar, where it develops the cedar apples that produce the
scarlet, gelatinous fruiting bodies commonly seen on Cedar trees
in early summer. This disease may be largely. avoided by de-
stroying the Red Cedar in the vicinity of orchards.

The remedies commonly used for plant diseases are to. cover
the susceptible portions of the plant with some antiseptic cover-
ing. Such materials are generally termed fungicides. The ac-
tive fungicidal principle in most of those in common use is some
salt of copper, so combined as not to injure the foliage. The
most generally useful fungicide is Bordeaux mixture, which is
a combination of the salts of copper with lime and water. This
material* is adapted for use in diluted form when the tree is in
leaf, or when of increased strength, for use when the tree is bare
of foliage. Sulfate of copper solution is a valuable fungicide
for use when trees are dormant, but is very injurious to young

*Formulas for insecticides and fungicides will be found in the Ap-
pendix.

SE TT re ee Pe TT ee ee Te ee eee eels em.”

DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 45

vegetation. Potassium sulfide “and other forms of sulfur
are used alone or in combination as fungicides. As noxious
diseases and insects are present on many plants at the same
time, it is a common and good practice to use an application
that shall combine the advantages of fungicide and insecticide.
A good illustration of this is Bordeaux mixture to which has
been added a small amount of Paris Green. Such a mixture is
an effective remedy for apple trees that are affected with scab
and the Codlin Moth. A very complete list of fungicides and
recipes for them will be found in the Appendix.

; Diseases of the Apple.

Apple Blight, Fire Btight (Bacillus amylovorus).—This is
the disease that commonly kills the twigs and branches. and
occasionally injures the trunks ef apple, pear and quince trees.
Its cause is a bacterial disease which gains entrance to the
tree through wounds or through the flowers. The germs are
carried by insects to the flower. The insects are attracted by
the dark, mucilaginous fluid that oozes out of the diseased
wood in the spring and which is swimming with bacteria.
From the flowers and other centers of infection the disease
spreads through the whole plant. This is the disease which
so commonly kills the young growth of apples in June.

Remedies.—Some varieties are quite subject to it, while
others are only slightly, if at all, affected with it; hence: it
may be avoided by selecting resistant sorts. When it ap-
pears the best treatment is to remove and burn the infected
parts, cutting considerably below where the disease appears.
“The disease may be carried_in pruning implements from. a: dis-
eased to a healthy tree. It may be well under some conditions
to disinfect pruning tools by the use of kerosene or in other
Ways sO as not to spread the disease by them.

Bitter Rot (Glomerella rufomaculans).—The summer spore
stage of this fungus does serious injury to the apple in some
seetions. It attacks apples before they are ripe and also ap-
ples in storage. The spots which appear become sunken, are
soft and have a bitter taste. On the surfaces of these spots
the spores issue in long, gelatinous, cylindrical masses. ‘These
are washed apart by rain water and spread the infection. The

76

POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

winter spores are produced on the branches in canker spots
from which come the new sources of spring infection. ;

Remedies.—Remove and burn all canker spots found on
the trees each year, as these are the sources of infection. De-
stroy the diseased fruit.
later, when the fruit begins to ripen, with a copper carbonate
solution will hold the disease in check.

ple.
with
rot.

Branch infested
canker of bitter

Spraying with Bordeaux mixture and

Black Rot (Sphaeropsis malorum)
is a common source of trouble. It
especially attacks the summer ap-
ples at the time of ripening and
the other kinds in storage. This
fungus also occurs on the branches
and leaves of apples.

Remedies are the same as for
Bitter Rot.

Root Galls, in the shape of
roundish swellings, are sometimes
found on the roots of apples and
other trees. Stocks thus affected
should be regarded with suspicion,
although some of these galls do
not appear to be seriously injurious.

Leaf Rust (Gymnosporangium
macropus) and (G. globosum).—
This disease causes serious injury
to the foliage of apples and pears
so that the foliage and fruit crops
are destroyed. This fungus causes
yellow blotches on the leaves, and
later, cluster cups with thorn-like
tops appear on the under side of
the leaves. One stage of this dis-
ease lives on the Red Cedar, where
it preduces Cedar apples from
which in the spring come the bright
scarlet, gelatinous, honey-like
masses. The spores from the Red

‘
f
.
P

;
%

DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 17.

Cedar form grow on the apple and those from the apple on the
Cedar.

Remedies.—Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is one remedy.
The best remedy, however, is to remove the Cedar apples in
winter or to destroy the Cedar trees.

Fig. 31.—Leaf rust of apples. a.—Apple leaf infested with the rust
disease. b.—Twig of red cedar showing old and young. cedar
apples. c.—Portion of the tissue of the infested apple leaves en-
larged.

Apple Scab (Venturia pomi).—A very serious disease of the
apple. It attacks and kills the foliage and causes black, scab-
like spots on the fruit, and also attacks the young growth oc-
easionally. The sources of infection are the fallen leaves on
which the fungus matures its spores in early spring in time
to infect the unfolding leaves,

78 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Remedy.—Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is the only
known satisfactory remedy. Several sprayings are usually neces-
sary where this disease is well established. A winter spray
with strong Bordeaux mixture before the buds open is recom-
mended, followed by two or three sprayings after growth has
started, at intervals of from two to three weeks. Good ventila-
tion and proper spacing of trees aid very materially in avoiding
conditions favorable to fungus growth. Burning or plowing un-
der the diseased leaves which have fallen will also aid in stamp-
ing out this disease.

Powdery Mildew (Podosphaera leucotricha).—This mildew

seldom injures apples except young plants in seedling beds

Fig. 32.—Apple infested with scab.
or nursery rows. It is most injurious to seedlings in their first
year, especially when severely crowded.

Remedy.—This disease may be prevented by spraying with
Bordeaux mixture, commencing in the early summer and re-
peating at intervals of about two weeks.

Fruit Scald.—This occurs most commonly on apples that
are kept in cold storage. Some varieties with tender skins

>)

DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 79

may be injured in piles in the orchard. The scald shows as
large brownish or black blotches on the fruit. Some varieties
are much subject to it while others are quite exempt. The
subject is not well understood, but varieties liable to this
trouble should be stored where they will have free circulation
of air. ‘

Spraying Injuries.—In spraying plants it is not uncommon
to cause them’ some little injury. This often shows in the rus-
setted appearance of the fruit or foliage. It may be due to
. the use of chemicals of unknown purity or to the unusual sus-
ceptibility of the plant.. Carelessness in making Bordeaux mix-
ture is often the cause of spraying injury. These injuries may
sometimes be so serious that they kill the foliage. As a rule,
however, the earliest spraying on the young leaves does not
seem to cause injury so frequently as later sprayings.

Frost Injuries—Apples and pears are sometimes slightly
injured by frost soon after the flowers open, and in such cases
there will often be a russeted ring around the fruit or on one
side.

Sunscald.—This is a name given to a condition of trees
when the bark becomes dead on the southern or southwest side
of trees. It is a very serious cause of loss of trees in some
sections and in such places all trees should be protected against
it. For description of this trouble see chapter on Protection.

Diseases of the Pear. f

The pear is injured by about the same diseases as the ap-
ple. It is especially subject to fire blight, scab and rust, which
are more fully mentioned under apple. It is also injured by
‘leaf blight (see Quince) and leaf spot, for which Bordeaux mix-
ture is the best remedy. ;

Diseases of the Quince. =

The quince is subject to Brown. Rot, Leaf Spot, Rusts, Scab,
Fire Blight, and it is also subject to the following:

Leaf Blight (Entomosporium maculatum).—This trouble af-
fects the leaves and in bad cases may entirely defoliate the
plants. On the fruit, the fungus produces black areas. On
pears, it may cause the fruit to turn black in places, grow one-
sided and crack open.

80, POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Remedy.—The remedy for this is Bordeaux mixture applied
just before the flowers open in the spring and two to four ap-
plications of it later at intervals of about two weeks.

Black Rot (Sphaeropsis malorum).—This disease often
causes serious rotting of the quince just before maturity. It .
generally starts from the calyx end. The remedy is a preven-
tive, and consists of spraying with Bordeaux mixture.

Diseases of the Plum. ;

Plum Pocket (Hxzoascus pruni).—This is a name given to
certain peculiar deformities which occasionally take the place
of plums on the trees. They consist merely of a thin shell with
no evidence whatever of seed. They appear in early summer,
and some seasons this disease is very abundant and then for
‘a number of years it may scarcely appear at all. It is due to
the presence of a parasitic fungus which attacks -the young
fruit, and by growing with-
in it causes the peculiar de-
velopment which finally re-
sults in the formation of the
so-called pocket. This, or 2
similar fungus, may also at-
tack the foliage and cause
| irregular swellings and dis-
tortion.

Remedies.—It will some-
times be found that a sin-
gle tree will be troubled
with this fungus for a se-
ries of years and it will not
spread much. When this is

: P the case such trees should

Fig. 33.—Leaf curl of plums in-

volving twig and foliage. be destroyed, as they are

likly to be centers of in-

fection, and the diseased fruit should be picked and destroyed.
Some varieties are more subject to its attack than others.

The leaf curl of peaches is caused by a fungus similar to
that which causes plum pockets and recent experiments show
that this disease may be kept in check -by spraying with thick
Bordeaux mixture or a solution of sulfate of copper just be-

DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. $1

fore the buds open. Later, sprayings of Bordeaux mixture may

be necessary if the weather is rainy. The object of these spray-

ings is to kill the spores of the disease which are found on the
_ bark.

Black Knot or Wart of the Plum (Plowrightia morbosa).—
This manifests itself by wart-like or knot-like growths appear-
ing on the smaller limbs as well as on the larger branches and
scmetimes even
on the trunks. In
sections of the
country where
the Huropean
Plum (Prunus do-
mestica) is grown
this is one of the’
most serious ob-
stacles to its suc-
cessful cultiva-
tion. Our native
plums are _ not
often destroyed
by it, but it some-
times causes seri-
ous injury to
them. This knotlike growth is spongy and of a black color.
Upon examining it with a microscope it is found that the surface
has many little cavities that contain the spores by which the
disease spreads. Spores escape from the knots during the late
winter or early spring.

Remedies.—Upon their first appearance these swellings
should be removed and burned, if they are on the smaller
branches where it is practicable to get them off. If on the trunk
or larger branches where the branch cannot be cut off, they
should be cut out as much as possible and painted with thick
Bordeaux mixture. Where trees are badly infested they should
be removed entirely. This same disease also grows on the wild
choke cherry and black cherry and, if abundant on them, their
removal will make the extermination of the disease easier in
the nearby plum orchard,

Fig. 34.—Plum pockets as they ap-
pear on the tree.

82 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

~ Brown Rot of the Plum (Sclerotinia fructigena) is a common
and serious cause of loss. See Brown Rot under the head of
peach. ;

Shot Hole Disease.—This may
be caused by any of the several fungi
or even by spraying injuries. Any
of these causes may destroy the foli-
age in spots; after the deadened tis-
sue drops out the shot-hole appear-
ance is produced.

Crown Gall is the name given
to a morbid growth which general-
ly takes place near the surface of
the ground. It is of a spongy na-
ture and often spherical in form. The
same disease or class of diseases
also attacks the peach, raspberry,
blackberry, apple and other trees. It
is most commonly injurious to trees
growing in the nursery. All stocks
showing it should be regarded with

Fig. 35.—Black knot of suspicion.
pion: Scab of plums (Cladosporium
carpophyllum) causes dark, hard spots in the skin of the fruit.
It may be prevented by spraying with weak Bordeaux mixture.
Diseases of the Peach.

Brown Rot (Sclerotinia fructigena).—This disease principal-
ly attacks peaches about the time the fruit begins to ripen and
often spreads rapidly. It also causes decay in the fruit after
it is picked, and is likewise one of the most injurious foes of
plums and cherries, as well as of the peach, while apples, pears
and quinces are sometimes injured by it. It sometimes destroys
the young growth. If the diseased fruit is allowed to remain
on the tree it dries up and does not fall off. The fungus passes
the winter in the diseased branches and also in the dried fruit.
In the spring these send out spores which start new centers of
infection.

Remedies——The diseased dried fruit should be removed

ae

DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 83

from the trees and ground and destroyed by burying deeply or
burning. During the ripening season all rotting fruit should
be gathered promptly and
burned. Where the fruit
sets thick, thinning is of
much assistance in keep-
ing the disease in check.
Spraying has not general-
ly proven successful, on ac-
count of the rapidity of
the spread of the disease
when once started and be-
cause of the liability of
the foliage to injury from
the spraying solutions. It
Se! is probably desirable to use
Fig. 86.—Brown rot; half grown plums Bordeaux mixture on the
rotting with this disease. irees in the spring before
the leaves open, and then apply two or three sprayings of potas-
sium sulfide about picking time.

Crown Gall or Foot Rot.—This disease or class of diseases
affeets the peach in much the same way as the plum. In the
case of the peach, however, the wood is made weaker and the
trees are broken off at the surface of the ground. It is thought
by some that it is the result of too much moisture, and the or-
ganism to which it is ascribed (Dendrophagus gobosus) comes
in later aS a Saprophyte. There is no known remedy. Diseased
trees seldom amount to much and the best treatment is prob-
ably to remove and burn them. e. :

Leaf Curl (Haxzoascus deformans).—This disease appears soon
after the leaves come out. It causes them to become distorted
and swollen and later those that are infected the worst fall off,
leaving the tree nearly or quite bare of foliage. The remedy
for it is spraying with Bordeaux mixture about two weeks be-
fore the buds begin to swell in the spring. In wet springs a
second application of one-half strength can be used to advan-
tage. Woere the trees are sprayed with lime and sulfur in
winter for scale, the disease is held in check. A weak solution

84 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

of copper sulfate, containing one pound to twenty-five gal-
lons, applied in the spring about ‘two weeks before the buds
open, is effective. :
Scab (Cladosporium carpophylum).—This fungus occurs on
the fruit, leaves and twigs. On the fruit it makes black spots
which may unite and involve a large part of the surface in a
black scab, disfiguring the fruit and causing it to become one-
sided. The mycelium lives over winter on the infected twigs.

Winter or early spring sprayings are recommended for the ~

Peach Scab.

Yellows.—This disease is now considered due to some de-
rangement of the plant functions. It is evidently contagious.
The disease is not easily distinguished from troubles due to
other causes and weak trees may present symptoms closely re-
sembling those that are infected with Yellows. Its symptoms
are a general premature ripening of the fruit, which becomes
streaked with red, or spotted, and is of a poor quality; a pre-
mature development of the winter buds, giving rise to exces-
sive branching on new shoots resembling “witches brooms’, the
formation of water sprouts, and finally a scanty, yellowish de-
velopment of the foliage.

Peach Rosette.—This disease is very similar to the Yellows.
It is distinguished by the peculiar rosette arrangement of the
diseased water sprouts which spring from the branches. It gen-
erally causes the death of the tree in one season. No remedy
is known except to dig out and burn all affected trees at once.

Remedies.—The best treatment is to grub out and burn
the diseased trees. A rigid enforcement of such treatment
would probably keep it in check, as this seems to be a fair
lesson to draw from the wide experience of the state of Michi-
gan in combatting this trouble.

Diseases of the Cherry.

The cherry is subject to the following diseases:—Black
Knot, Brown Rot, Leaf Curl, Leaf Spot and Powdery Mildew.
These are all discussed under Plum and Peach. The remedies
for these is’ Bordeaux mixture.

Diseases of the Grape.

Anthracnose (Sphaceloma ampelinum).—This rot may at-

tack the twigs, fruit or leaves. On the fruit it forms small, dark

ie Se 2

DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 85

spots with bright borders and is called bird’s-eye rot. The dis-
eased wood should be removed. When vines are sprayed with
Bordeaux mixture for other diseases, this is held in check, and
it is seldom abundant enough to warrant spraying for it alone.
Black Rot (Guignardia bidwellii)—One of the most com-
mon of injurious diseases affecting the
grape. It sometimes attacks the leaves,
but is most common on the fruit, which
causes it to rot, turn black, and finally
dry up. The disease breeds in the
mummified fruits and in the diseased
leaves of the Ampelopsis as well as of
the grape.

Remedies.—The dried grapes should
be removed and burned. Spraying with
Bordeaux mixture is probably the most
certain remedy and if persistently fol-
lowed up year after year will be found

’ quite effective. The fruit should be
kept covered with it until it begins to
color, after which ammoniacal carbon-
ate of copper should be used. If Bor-
deaux mixture was used up to ripening
time the fruit would look dirty. Bag-

Fig. 37.—Black rot of
the grape, showing Z : :
infested fruit rotted ging the fruit is commonly a satisfactory

ego ed: remedy, provided the bags are put out as

soon as the fruit is set. To spray effectively with Bordeaux
mixture will generally take three or four applications, accord-
ing to the weather. It is sometimes washed off before it is dry,
when it should be applied again. Some vineyardists are get-
ting good results by using a solution of copper sulfate (1 Ib.
to 25 gals. of water) just before growth starts.

Downy Mildew (Plasmopara viticola).—This fungus may
attack the young wood, flowers or fruit, or all these at the same
time. When it attacks the foliage it appears as greenish yel-
low, or brownish, irregular spots on the upper surface, with
corresponding spots of whitish, frost-like mildew on the under
side. The effect of this is to have the leaves dry up and fall

86 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

off, frequently when the fruit is quite green; which, consequent-
ly, does not ripen. But, besides the loss of fruit from this dis-
ease, the wood is often left in a very poor, immature state, and
the whole plant so seriously weakened that it will not produce a
-full crop of fruit for several years. It frequently acts in this
manner on the Delaware, while it seldom injures the fruit of
that variety. On some other varieties the fruit is more sus-
ceptible than the foliage and it produces brown rot of the ber-
ries, which may cause severe loss in some season. In this
case the first perceptible effect of the disease is when a purp-
lish spot appears on the side of the berry. Later, the fruit is
covered with a white mould, then it turns brown, and later on
becomes soft and wrinkled.
Remedies.—Spraying as recommended for Black Rot.

Powdery Mildew (Uncinula necator)—This mildew forms

a superficial, cobweb-like growth on the leaves and new growth,
and occasionally on the fruit. The remedies are the same as
for Downy Mildew. It is also recommended to spray the vines
_in the winter with copper sulfate solution to destroy the win-
ter spores. Flowers of sulfur has also been used successfully
against this pest.

Preventives of grape diseases.—HEXvery effort should be
made to keep fungus diseases from getting a hold of the plant.
It has been found that where the vines are closely shut in, so
that there is but little circulation of air and the water does not
quickly dry off the foliage, or where the soil is wet and cold,
the vines are very liable to become diseased. On this account,
where a vineyard is subject to such troubles, the first thing
to do is to remedy, as far as is practicable, anything that ob-
structs free circulation of air through it. If the land is moist

and cold it should be underdrained. For brown and black rot

of the fruit early bagging of the clusters will be found quite ef-
fective. But after these things are done, disease may gain a
foothold and cause serious injury to weak varieties; hence
spraying may be necessary. Some varieties are uniformly
healthy in some locations, while others are very susceptible to
disease. Yet these latter are often the most profitable kinds
to grow for marketing purposes.

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7

DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 87

Diseases of the Strawberry.

Leaf Spot, Rust or Sunburn (Sphaerella fragariae) is a dis-
ease which lives in the tissues of the leaves and stem. In the
; early spring small
purple or red
spots appear on
the new leaves.
About the time
the plants are ex-
hausted by fruit-
ing, or perhaps,
before the fruit is
fairly ripe, these
spots increase
rapidly in sizé
and in a few
days what was a
promising straw-
berry bed is dried
up and worthless.

Fig. 38.—Rust or leaf spot of strawberries. Many varieties

that are hardy
stherwise have foliage that is susceptible to this dis-
ease, and some kinds should not be planted unless some fungi-
cide is used to protect them from it. Our growers at present
prefer to obviate the necessity of using fungicides by planting
only those varieties that are very robust and Healthy. How-
ever, it may be desirable to grow some varieties with weak
foliage. In such a case the newly set plants should be sprayed
three or more times the first season, commencing as soon as
the young plants are well established and twice the following
spring, with Bordeaux mixture or some other fungicide, begin-
ning as soon as the leaves appear. To do this requires no more
labor or expense than it does to spray for the potato bug the
same number of times, and the grower will be well repaid in
the increased crop. Highly cultivated plants are less liable to
disease than those that are neglected.

88 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Diseases of the Blackberry.

The Crown Gall occasionally attacks blackberry canes near

the surface of the ground, causing irregular swellings. It has
not generally proven seri-
ously injurious, but un-
doubtedly, the part of
wisdom would be to avoid
setting new plantations
from a field so infested.
The diseased canes should
be gathered and burned.

Leaf Spot (Septoria
rubi).—Thhis disease -pro-
duces dark colored spots
on the foliage, which are
sometimes very abundant.
Spraying with Bordeaux
mixture is the best rem-
edy.

Fig. 39.—Crown or root gall of Orange Rust.—T he

blackberries. i seus
blackberry is also injured
by the orange rust, which is referred to under the head of Rasp-
berry. :
Diseases of the Raspberry.

Leaf Curl.—This name is indicative of one of the early
stages of the disease. The leaves curl up, and though they
may remain green all through the season, the plants make a
poor, weak growth. The fruit is dull in color, small in size and
rather bitter in taste. Later the plants kill out, and any healthy
sets with which they may be replaced soon succumb to the

trouble. This disease spreads very slowly and, as a rule, at.

the beginning there are only a few infected spots in a planta-
tion, which slowly increase in size from year to year. The
spread of the disease may be prevented to a great extent by
pulling and burning the diseased plants as soon as they ap-
pear. In setting out a new plantation, use only land which
has not been in raspberries for several years and take great
care to have young, healthy sets. Do not accept plants from @
weak plantation on any account.

—

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DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 89

Red Orange Rust (Gymnoconia interstitialis) is most harm-
ful to the Black Cap raspberries, though it frequently injures
blackberries, dewberries ‘and allied plants. It produces a
weak appearance in the canes and foliage, and in the latter
part of the summer the under side of the foliage
becomes completely covered with a thick coat-
ing of orange colored spores, which easily rub off.
One soon learns to know the plants that are dis-
eased, even before the spores appear, and they
should be pulled and burned at once. This is es-
pecially: neecessary with the black-cap varieties;
but even with these, if the affected plants are
destroyed, the disease may generally be kept in
check until a new plantation can be well started,
and sometimes assiduous attention to pulling and
burning results in stamping out the disease. _

Crown Gall is sometimes injurious to the rasp-
berry the same as to the blackberry, but it is sel-
dom very injurious at the North. In selecting
new sets care should be taken to avoid those from
infested. fields. ;

Cane Rust or Anthracnose (Gloesporium. neca-
tor) manifests itself on the raspberry by small
purplish spots, which may spread and form whit-
ish patches with purplish edges. The tissue is

; A killed out under the spots. It affects raspber-
aoe icon ries generally, but the purple and cap varieties

berries. are most liable to its injury.

Remedy.—The best treatment is to spray the canes be-

fore the leaves start with thick Bordeaux mixture. The badly

diseased canes should be cut out at pruning time and only re-
sistant varieties planted. Spray the new growth in the spring
once or twice. There is a great difference in the power of dif-
ferent varieties to resist this disease.
Diseases of the Gooseberry and Currant.

Mildew (Sphaeroiheca morsuvae) is the worst disease of
the gooseberry. It attacks the foliage which, as a result, be-
comes covered with a whitish mould. Later the leaves dry up

O°. POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

and drop off and the wood fails to mature. In bad cases the
berries become discolored and perhaps ruined. As a rule, this
disease does not cause serious injury in good locations in this
section; but in wet seasons, or on wet land in any season, or
where there is a poor circulation of air it may be very destruc-
tive.

Remedies.—These should be preventives largely, and con-
sist of allowing plenty of room between the plants for a good
circulation of air and keeping them in as vigorous a state of
health as possible by manuring and cultivating. If the disease
makes its appearance in the face of these precautions, recourse
should be had to the following remedy, which is very satis-
factory: Spray the plants in the spring as soon as the young
leaves begin to unfold, and repeat it as often as once in eigh-
teen or twenty days, except in times of heavy rains when it
must be done oftener. For this purpose use liver of sulfur
(Potassium sulfide) dissolved in water at the rate of one-half
ounce to the gallon.

Leaf Spot (Septoria ribes) —Both currant and gooseberry
are injured by what is termed leaf spot, which causes deadened
spots in the foliage. It may be prevented by spraying with
Bordeaux mixture before the fruit begins to color and again
after the fruit is picked.

QUESTIONS—CHAPTER IV.

Diseases.

What portions of the plant are most susceptible to disease?
How are the majority of plant diseases propagated?

What is meant by the alternation of generations?

How are plant diseases generally treated?

Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the
plum and give remedy for each: Plum Pocket, Leaf Curl, Black Rot,
Brown Rot, Shot Hole Fungus, Crown Gall.

6. What diseases are injurious to the pear?

7. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the
apple and give remedy for each: Apple Blight, Bitter Rot, Black Rot,
Crown Gall, Leaf Rust, Apple Scab, Powdery Mildew, Fruit Scald.

8. How does spraying sometimes injure the trees?

9. How does frost affect the trees? ©

10. What is sunscald and how does it injure the trees?
11. How may it be remedied?

12. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the
peach and give pemedy. for each: Brown Rot, Crown Gall, Leaf Scald,
Scab, Yellows. ;

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DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 91

13. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the
grape and give remedy for each: Anthracnose, Black Rot, Downy
Mildew, Powdery Mildew.

14, What are some general preventives for diseases of the grape?
7 15. How does rust or sunburn affect the foliage of the straw-
erry? -

16. What is the remedy for it?

17. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the
blag berry: and give remedy for each: Crown Gall, Leaf Spot, Orange

ust.

i8. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the
raspberry and give remedy for each: Leaf Curl, Orange Rust, Crown
Gall, Anthracnose.

19. What diseases affect the cherry?

20. What diseases affect the quince? _

21. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the
quince and give remedy for each: Leaf Blight, Black Rot.

22. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the
gogneberry and currant and give remedy for each: Mildew and Leaf

pot. -

CHAPTER V.
SPRAYING AND SPRAYING APPARATUS.

The methods of spraying of plants naturally divide them-
selves into two groups, (1) dust spraying and (2) liquid spray-
ing.

Dust and Liquid Spraying Compared.—In a general way it
may safely be stated that insecticides and fungicides applied
in the dust form to trees are not as efficient as when applied
in the liquid form, and the difference in efficiency is enough to
make it worth the extra trouble necessary to employ the liquid
form under all ordinary circumstances.

The principal difficulty with the dust spray is in getting
it to stick to the foliage and fruit. It should be applied while
the foliage is damp. This may be soon after a rain, or while
the foliage is damp with dew. Advantage cannot often be
taken of the former condition; hence one must usually rely on
getting the dust spray on very early in the morning or oc-
casionally late in the evening. In either case it will be out of
the regular working hours and therefore disagreeable. The
wind also interferes much more with the application of dust
sprays than with liquid sprays. This difficulty, however, is
helped by the fact that in the early morning, when the dust
spray must usually be applied, there is seldom much wind dur-
ing the summmer months. Another reason for the comparative
inefficiency of dust sprays—and this applies especially to the
application of dry Bordeaux mixture—is that the dry form can
never be obtained in as finely divided condition, whether pre-
pared at home or in the factory, as good home-made liquid
sprays. This means that an equal or even greater quantity of
the dust form cannot be as thoroughly distributed over a given
amount of leaf surface as can the liquid form, and hence will
leave more unprotected spots, through which disease or insect
pests may enter. The great advantage in favor of dust sprays
is the comparative cheapness of their application because large
quantities of water do not need to be hauled around in order
to apply the spraying material, but, as previously stated, this

:
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SPRAYING AND SPRAYING APPARATUS. 93

is not enough to make up for the difference in efficiency. How-
ever, it may become of much importance in the case of hilly
land. Here the light dust spray outfits can be used when it
would be impossible to get around with a barrel of liquid spray,
or, much less, with the large wagon outfits.

Liquid Spraying Outfits. Pressure.—The important point
in the application of liquid sprays is to get a high pressure.
This should not be less than 75 pounds on an ordinary pres-
sure gauge. For high trees better work will be accomplished
with a pressure of 125 pounds. It is not usually advisable to
use a pressure of over 125 pounds, because it is too hard on
the machinery and apparatus in general. The higher the pres-
sure it is practicable to maintain, however, the more efficient
will be the application of the spray. This should be applied
in the finest mist-like form pos-
sible, and a good pressure is nec-
essary to accomplish this. A fine
mist will float among the foliage
like a fog if there is not too stiff
a breeze, and will cover both sides
of the leaves and fruit much bet-
ter than could possibly be the case
with a spray of drops such as comes
from an ordinary nozzle under low
pressure.

Agitation in Barrel Outfits.—
The movement of the barrel while
in use is often sufficient to keep

Fig. 41.—Knapsack spray- well made Bordeaux and other
: er. light sprays from settling, but with
the heavier sprays, like Paris Green and lime-sulfur wash,
some provision for agitation is necessary. Probably the best
way to provide for this agitation is to have a paddle attached
to the pump near the bottom of the barrel in such a manner
that it will move with every stroke of the handle and thus keep
the liquid stirred up and prevent settling. Another method of
providing for agitation, known as “jet agitation,” is to leave a
smail hole in the hottom of the cylinder, through which a part of

94 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

the liquid is forced out with each stroke. This method works
quite well while the pump is new and the packing tight, but as
the pump becomes worn it will usually be found that all of the
liquid which the cylinder will handle will be needed in order to
maintain sufficient pressure. Moreover, the hole through which
the jet escapes wears larger in time and thus further helps to
decrease the efficiency of the pump.

Agitation in Tank Outfits.—AIl tank outfits should be equip-
ped for agitation for all kinds of spraying compounds. It is,
however, desirable not to have the agitation too violent, be-
cause with some spraying compounds, especially with the lime-
sulfur wash, there may be considerable sediment which, while
small enough to pass through the strainer on the suction hose
and through the nozzle in
small quantities, may in
larger quantities cause con-
siderable difficulty with
these parts. The agita-
tion should be just sufficient
to keep the finer particles in
suspension and still allow the
coarse particles to settle. One
way of providing agitation is
to have the tank sectioned
crosswise with partitions
every two and a half or
three feet, leaving a hole
about a foot wide and six
inches high through which the
liquid will rush and cause a

Fig. 42.—Plum leaf covered with general stirring up every time
arsenate of lead after 10 days. the wagon is driven forward

to another tree. This method does well with small
to. medium-sized trees with well made Bordeaux and
the lighter spraying compounds but where they tend to
settle rapidly, such agitation is seldom sufficient, and where the
trees are so large that considerable periods oecur between
movements of the wagon it is entirely insufficient. Another
objection to this method is that the partitions make it difficult

SPRAYING AND SPRAYING APPARATUS, 95

to clean out the tank and remove the coarse sediment which
collects in the bottom. A better method of providing for agi-
tation is by means of a rod running lengthwise of the tank, with
perforated cross pieces about six or eight inches high, cut
rounding to fit in the bottom of the tank, and twelve to sixteen
inches wide, attached at every two and one-half or three feet.
There are two methods of giving this apparatus the alternating
backward and forward movement necessary for agitation. Prob-
ably the most common way is by means of a chain drive from
one of the hind wheels of the wagon. This method, of course,
supplies agitation only when the wagon is in motion and is
therefore to some extent open to the same objections as the
preceding method. It has the advantage, however, of giving
3 more thorough agitation while
it is working and of being
such a simple arrangement
that it can easily be made,
and there is little about it to
get out of order. The other
method of supplying the mo
tion to the agitator is by hav-
ing it connected with the
pump. Up to the present
time no really substantial
method of connection has
been devised, and little pro-
yision has been made for
regulating the amount of agi-
tation given. Usually this
agitator gives more agitation
= ” than is needed. It will, how-
Fig. 43.—Barrel sprayer. ever, probably be the best
method when it has become perfected, because it is con-
tinuous. Provision is sometimes made for hand operation of the
agitator by means of a handle fastened in the top of the tank.
The working parts of pumps and the lining of the bamboo
spray poles should be of brass for most spraying compounds.
If the parts are made of iron they are liable to ordinary rust-
ing and to corrosion by Bordeaux mixture and similar com-

96 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

pounds. With the lime-sulfur wash iron parts last longer
than brass parts, but any kind of metal will wear rapidly, since
this compound contains much grit on account of the large quan-
tities of lime used in making it.

Air Chamber.—All spray pumps should be provided with
an air chamber of liberal size. This equalizes the pressure
between the strokes of the pump, thus giving a more even flow
of spray from the nozzle and easing the strain on the hose.

; Nozzles.—Most of the nozzles now in
use have a chamber, known as the “ed-
dy chamber,” underneath the nozzle-cap,
with the entrance into the chamber so ar-
ranged that a rapid, whirling motion of
the liquid results and causes the liquid,
if under proper pressure, to break up and
leave the nozzle in a very finely divided,
mist-like condition. There are a number
of types of nozzles, but the amateur will
probably have the best suecess by using
nozzles of the Vermorel type. Where

/ sufficient power is available, as with
gasoline engines, two or more poles may
be run from one pump, each pole bear-
ing from two to four nozzles.

Clogging of the nozzle may result
from seyeral causes. The most common
is improper straining. The spraying

Sue) Meee mixtures should always be _ strained,

Fig. 44.—Bucket when run into the spraying barrel or
pump outfit. tank, through as fine a mesh as possible.

For lime-sulfur wash about twenty meshes per inch must be

used because a smaller mesh fills up badly. For most other
sprays a mesh as small as twenty-five per inch should be used if
possible. A much finer mesh can be used when the strainer is
made with the wire mesh on the sides as well as on the bottom
because this allows the liquid to continue to pass through the strain-
er when the bottom has been covered with sediment, as frequent-
ly oceurs with lime-sulfur wash. The mesh should be of brass
or copper. Whenever burlap is used for holding the dissolving

SPRAYING AND SPRAYING APPARATUS. 97

blue vitriol, it should be of a good, firm grade. If it is flimsy,
much fiber may leave the burlap and ultimately get into the noz-
zles and clog them. Wood fiber, becoming loose from the in-
side of the spray tank, will also frequently cause clogging of
the nozzle. A high pressure will drive much sediment through
the nozzles that otherwise would clog them.

Hose.—-The hose must be strong and durable in order to
avoid delays from breakage and disagreeable leakages. 'Three-
ply three-eighth inch is most commonly used. One extensive’
fruit grower in the Hast uses seven-ply three-eighth inch hose.
It is not advisable to use a larger hose because it does not
stand the pressure so well and is heavier to drag around from
tree to tree in spraying. -

Thoroughness of work is es-
sential to real success in spray-
ing. The man who goes about
his trees in a “hit or miss” fash-
ion, leaving a branch unsprayed
here and the center of the tree
unsprayed there, is the one who
finds that spraying does not pay.
An apple that is not completely
covered with a coat of poison is

pressed air sprayer for
spraying currants, pota- not completely protected from

toes, cabbages, etc. the second brood of the codlin

moth larvae. Every inch of twig and branch of a tree sprayed
for the San Jose scale, that is not coated with the
mixture, has just as many live scales on it as it
had before the spraying outfit came by that tree, and
hence remains unmolested as a source of infection on the new
growth and of re-infection on the treated portions as-soon as
the coat of spray becomes ineffective. Many who begin to spray
after an orchard is about full grown find that the trees are set
too closely together. Enough space should be left between the
‘rows to permit the ready passage of the spraying outfit at all
times. It is impossible to do good work in spraying trees where
one cannot get around conveniently with the spray pole. More-
over, in a closely set orchard, a horse pulling a barrel outfit on

98 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

a stone-boat will often not be able to get down the row, to say
nothing of the impossibility of getting through with a power
outfit.

Kinds of Spraying Outfits—For spraying on a very small
scale, the knapsack, bucket pump, and five-gallon. compressed

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Bae aw WORE
CANADA

Fig. 46.—One of many types of sprayers with power from gasoline
engine. : :

air outfits are very serviceable. The cheapest and most gen-
erally useful spraying outfit on areas up to five acres is a first-
class oil barrel set upright on a stone-boat with a good spray
pump fastened in it. On larger areas up to 15 or 20 acres the
wagon tank with a horizontal hand pump is more practicable,
since it has greater capacity and efficiency. On areas of over
twenty acres the air-cooled gasoline outfit will usually be a good
investment. It relieves the laborious work of pumping by hand,
and correspondingly reduces the working force necessary and
gives a higher pressure. With a little mechanical ingenuity
and care on the part of the operator it should be easily kept
m good working order.

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SPRAYING AND SPRAYING APPARATUS, 99

Another type of spraying outfit is what is known as the
“pas sprayer.” The spray mixture is run into a tight steel tank

Fig. 47.—Forms of Vermorel Spray nozzles in common use. a.—Ver-
merel nozzle with an opening. e.—Vermorel nozzle with four
openings. b.—The top and base of extension rod, showing a
cap to keep the spray liquid off the hand.

of 50 to 250 gallons capacity. A carbon dioxide gas tank is

‘connected with this and the gas released from it, according to

the pressure desired, into the spray tank. This method has
the advantage of being the most simple arrangement possible.
It is, however, expensive, since the gas tanks must be sent back
to headquarters to be refilled, involving considerable cost in
freight in distant locations, as well as the cost of refilling. In-
jury has frequently resulted to trees sprayed with this type of
sprayer, presumably because the carbon dioxide gas united with
the “lime” in the Bordeaux mixture, leaving free copper sul-
fate which burned the foliage.

100 4 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Tig. 48.

Spray pump with hori-
zontal movement. :

QUESTIONS—Chapter V.
Spraying and Spraying Apparatus.
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of dust spraying?
2. What are the important things to be remembered for success-
ful liquid spraying? :
By what means can the spraying mixture be kept well mixed
in the barrel spraying outfits? In the tank spraying outfits?
4, What materials should be used for making the working parts
of spray pumps?
5. What causes the clogging of the nozzles and how may it he
remedied? :
6. What care should be taken in spraying the orchard?
7. What spraying outfits are best adapted to small areas? To
large areas?

== oe

-

CHAPTER VI.
HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT.

While good, sound business judgment is necessary through-
out the whole round of successful fruit growing, it is especially
important when the grower comes to picking and marketing.
The successful fruit grower must not only study how to raise
fruit and what: kinds are needed in the markets of the world
but he must learn the best way to market it so as to bring
him the largest possible returns. Markets may easily be di-
vided into small, local and large, and the methods of selling
may vary greatly in different sections. The ways of doing busi-
ness are much more uniform in the large markets, but there
is much difference in this respect in different sections and the
grower should study carefully the peculiarities of his markets.

Fruit growers may also be divided into classes, according
as they retail or wholesale their products. warge fruit growers
must be wholesalers, while many small growers can often, to
advantage, work up a retail business. The methods of dis-
tributing fruit have become very much improved in recent years
so that the prices are more uniform than formerly. This, to
be sure, interferes with the high prices that occasionally pre-
vyailed in local markets under the old methods. On the other

“hand it makes less liable the glutting of the local market and
the resultant low prices that were so troublesome formerly,

so that the present conditions are probably better than the old
for both the producer and the consumer.

Picking.—The marketing of fruit begins with the picking
for it is the first step in selling it. No matter how carefully
other details are attended to, the picking must be done right
or the fruit will be of little value. Fruit allowed to become
too ripe before picking, or roughly handled in picking, may be
rendered unsalable. For best results, fruit to be marketed in
fresh condition must be picked by hand.

The exact time to pick fruit can only be determined by

102 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

experience. A rule for this cannot be laid down for every class
of fruits.

Time to Pick Fruit—Sirawberries are picked .wlien they
begin to turn red, and raspberries when the fruits part readily
from the stem on which they grow; blackberries and dewber-
ries as soon as well colored, although the flavor would general-
ly be improved by allowing them to remain longer on the
plants. Gooseberries are generally marketed green; currants
are allowed to color, but are not allowed to ripen and are gener-
ally preferred for jelly-making when a few berries show some
green color. Cherries are picked as soon as well colored. This
“will depend somewhat on the variety. Plums may be picked
when they are well colored. The Japanese kinds color well
after EieMe: Prunes are generally allowed to ripen on the
trees and are shaken off if to be used for
drying. If to be shipped for use when
fresh, they are picked as soon as well col-
ored. Pears are usually picked as soon as
full grown and are preferably ripened in
the shade. For the distant market it is
necessary that pears be shipped green
and be allowed to ripen in transit, At
Fresno, California, the season for Bart-
lett pears lasts two months, the first ship-
ments beginning as soon as the fruit is
large encugh to sell. Peachés for the
nearby market are picked as soon as they
begin to show a: slight softness and be-
fore they are mellow; for the distant mar-
ket, they are picked quite green. Summer
cooking apples are generally picked as
Fig. 49.—Ladder in Soon as large enough to use, without re-

icine pie for gard to ripeness. All the summer apples
that are to be shipped must be picked green

as they are quite perishable when ripe. It may be best, however,
to allow them to color a little. Late varieties are picked as soon
as well colored and before severe frosts. Apples should always
be picked earlier if they show by the windfalls that they are

SS er ey TR

HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 1038

ripening, as there is liable to be serious loss from this cause.
Winter apples generally keep best if picked a little before they
are fully colored, but while still firm and hard. Grapes should
be picked when fully ripe, as they do not ripen after being
picked.

elle,

ial

I \
ay i

ss; ! I “
tl md lf Wile Vee eee BN

Fig. 50.—Ladder used for picking apples and bag for holding them.

The stems should be left on strawberries, plums, apples,
pears, grapes, currants and cherries. If the stems are pulled
out of the fruits, injuries are caused that encourage rotting.

Fruit should seldom be shipped in the same package that

104 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

it is picked in, but should be sorted into other suitable pack-
ages in a cool storehouse.

Local peddling is possible where the grower lives near his
customers. In some sections the dealers have combined and se-
cured legislation which has made this prohibitory; but where
practicable, it is a very satisfactory way of disposing of the
product so as to get the highest possible price. A variety of
fruits are most easily disposed of in this way and under some
conditions it is a good plan to combine the peddling of fruit
with a vegetable business.

Commission Dealer.—The larger grower must find some
party to sell his produce. It may be best for him to do this
through the commission merchant. In any case, it should be
understood that the larger grower has a decided advantage over
the small grower as he is a bigger factor in the market and will
receive more attention. It is most important to secure an hon-
est and able commission dealer if the business is to be done in
this way. The usual charge for handling fruit is 10% of the
gross sales.

Associations of fruit growers, when well managed, offer the
most satisfactory method of selling. Here the sales are made
by an agent of the growers. Such an arrangement gives to a
large number of small growers a power in the market equal
to that of the big grower and shipper. It prevents their com-
peting injuriously with one another in the local or distant mar-
ket and reduces marketing to a simpler matter. The small grow-
er can stay at home and look after the picking and packing, as
he does not have to go to market, when he sells through an as-
sociation, and still he is a controlling factor in the market.
Organizations of this kind should have correspondents Over a
large territory and they can often ignore the prices prevailing in
the local markets. ; :

Fruit Packages,

PackIng.—The packages for fruits are many and various
and the shipper should be familiar with them all. In some of
the older fruit sections: it is customary to have the pack-
ages for small fruit returned to the packer. As a rule this
is a poor practice and results in the use of unsightly pack-

— a

HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 105

ages which hurt the sale of the fruit. The same is true of the
practice of using dirty barrels for apples. The common experi-
ence of the larger fruit growers leads to a belief in the gift pack-

age for general marketing. In fact, for long distant shipments,

the return package is out of the question, although it may do
for some local markets. Every fruit shipper should occasionally
visit the great markets and study this question of marketing

Wa

Fig. 51.—Fruit packages, showing bushel basket with cover, 32-quart
gift package for berries and grape basket.

fruits at first hand. He will probably learn more about fruit

packages in a single hour of inspection at such a place than in

a week of studying such a subject in the small markets.
Uniform packages.—While there are a great variety of fruit

packages in use in the different markets of this country, it is

very desirable that the packages used for selling fruit in the

“same market be uniform. For instance, it is important to have

all the so-called quart boxes, such as are commonly used for
selling small fruit, of the same size, otherwise there will be
lack of fair competition among growers, since many buyers do
not properly distinguish between the standard package and one
that is short. In some states, and notably in Canada, legislation
has been invoked for this purpose and with good effect. These
laws generally take the form of prohibiting any person from
offering for sale any fruit package smaller than the prescribed
size unless each package is plainly labeled that it is short in size.
There is much more attention paid to this subject in America

106 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

than in Hurope where comparatively little fruit is used and that
generally marketed in a variety of packages.

Fig. 52.—Fruit package with separate compartment for each fruit.

The following list shows some of the fruit packages that are
prescribed by law:
Fruit Package Laws. '
New York Small Fruit Package Law:
Quarts shall contain 67 cubic inches.
Fints shall contain 3314 cubic inches.
Y% Pint shall contain 16% cubic inches.

New York Apple, Pear, Quince and Potato Barrel Law:
Barrels shall contain 100 quarts of grain, dry measure.
Head diameter shall be 174% inches. :
Stave length shall be 28% inches.

Bulge shall not be less than 64 inches, outside measurement.
Potatoes sold by weight shall weigh 174 pounds te the barrel.

HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 107

Massachusetts Berry Basket Law:
Baskets shall be of the capacity of one quart, one pint, or
one-half pint, Massachusetts standard dry measure.
New Jersey Peach Basket Law:
Peach baskets shall hold sixteen quarts, Winchester 1% bu.
measure.
Height of basket shall be 12% inches.
Width across top of basket shall be 13% inches.
Inside measurement shall contain 1075.1 cubic inches.
Missouri Apple Barrel Law:
Length of apple barrel shall be 28% inches.
Chimes shall be 34 of an inch at the ends.
Diameter of heads shall be 1714 inches.
Diameter of the center of the barrel, inside, shall be 20%
inches.
Canadian Fruit Package Law:
Apples packed in Canada for export shall be packed in bar-
rels.
Distance between the heads, inside measurement, shall be
26%4 inches.
Head diameter shall be 17 inches.
Middle diameter of barrel shall be 18% inches.
Canadian Fruit Baskets shail contain, when level full
a—Fifteen quarts or more. ;
b—HBHleven quarts and be 5% inches deep, inside measure-
ment. ‘
c—Six and two-thirds quarts and be 4% in. deep, inside
measurement.
d—Two and two-fifths quarts.
Mithigan Peach Basket Law:
Peach basket shall contain 716 4-5 cubic inches or 1-3 bu.
Michigan Standard Barrel Law:
Barrel staves shall be 27 inches long.
Heads shall be 1614 ins. in diameter.
Maine Barrel Law:
A barrel of potatoes shall weigh 165 pounds.
Tennessee Apple Barrel Law:
Apple barrels shall contain 214 bushels.

108 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Wisconsin Apple Barrel Law:

Apple barrels shall contain 100 quarts, dry measure.
Florida Orange Box:

The standard orange box adopted by the Florida Fruit Ex-
change measures 12x12x2654 inches. ;
Georgia Peach Crate:

The peach crate adopted by the Georgia Horticultural Socie-
ty measures 8x12%x22 inches.

Raspberries, blackberries, currants, gooseberries, strawber-
ries and small plums are generally shipped in boxes that are com-
monly called quarts and occasionally in pint boxes. There is
quite a variety in the forms and sizes of boxes used for this pur-
pose. In the Central states, almost without exception, the gift
package is used and here the boxes are generally made of wood
veneer, with the bottom raised about one-half inch and the cor-
ners ventilated. Cases usually contain sixteen or twenty-four
pints or quarts. This makes a very satisfactory package in
which fruit carries well.

Grapes are usually marketed in the so-called five or ten-
pound veneer basket which usually contains either four or eight
pounds. This basket has a wooden cover which is held down by
wire. Plums are usually marketed in baskets containing about
one-half peck each. In the Hastern states a package resembling
the grape basket is often used, while in the Pacific Coast states
a basket that fits into a case holding six or eight of them is a
favorite. Peaches are shipped in much the same packages as
plums although in Delaware round baskets are much used.

The bushel basket.—In some sections a favorite package for
marketing apples, pears and quinces is the bushel basket with
a cover. While this does very well for local use it is too waste-
ful of Space in packing cars to warrant its general use. It is,
however, a popular package with the purchaser as it is useful
to him and he is willing to pay something for it, while the box
package is regarded by the purchaser as being of no value.

The bushel box is the popular fruit package in many of
the Western states and has given excellent returns. For fancy
fruit, it is an excellent package, but for fruit of ordinary grades
it is probably not as good as the barrel, as the cost of the pack-

SS

HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 109

age and packing is much more than where barrels are used.
Much fancy fruit from the Western states is wrapped in paper
before it is packed and is then put in the boxes in layers by
hand. Of course such fruit ships and keeps better than fruit not
so carefully handled.

In some local markets it is customary to sell a large amount
of choice fruit in a return package which is not covered. Such
boxes present a much improved appearance if the fruit is faced
down and packed in layers. This is done by taking off the bot-

= i
ea nee
a ne, Soe en nae ye

@
evoee Le ae ee P we

Fig. 53.—Fruit press for packing bushel boxes. Fi

tom, placing the box, bottom end up, on a small shutter and then

putting in the fruit in layers. ‘The bottom boards are then
nailed on and the box turned upright. It is often worth while
to take considerable care in packing fruit even if intended only
for local consumption. A ‘box packed in layers will hold con-
siderably more than one in which the fruit is poured in.

In packing apples and pears in boxes for shipment to distant
markets, some pressure must be applied to insure the fruit be-
ing solid and firm in the boxes. This is generally given by
springing on the head boards, which leaves the top bulging.

soe

a ee

110 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

When packed in a car, such packages should lie on their sides
and be held in place by the use of strips of wood between each
tier of boxes. )
Fruit packing material is generally bought by the grower
all cut out ready to put together. For many of the small pack-
ages, a wire stitching machine is used in putting them together.
Barrels are generally bought in the crate and set up in a local

. ———
es u a

Fig. 54.—Sorting table for fruit packed in boxes.

.cooper shop. Box material is generally handled in the same
way. By purchasing it in this way and putting it together him-
self the grower can often utilize his. spare labor to advantage.

Barrels are commonly used for marketing apples and some-
times for pears. This package is preferred for apples in most
of. the Eastern markets, and especially when the fruit is some-

HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 111

what inferior in quality, or when low in price. It is probably
best to always market the extra choice apples in boxes.
Formerly there was a great difference in the size of barrels
used for packing apples and this fruit came to market in barrels
holding scarcely two and a half bushels, while sugar barrels,
which hold nearly four bushels, were occasionally used. This
worked in various ways to make the marketing of apples a very
loose matter. To help overcome this difficulty, the National Ap-
ple Shippers’ association adopted a standard size for apple bar-
rels. According to these requirements a standard barrel must
have a head 1714 inches in diameter; a stave 28% inches in
length and a bulge of not less than 64 inches outside measure-
ment. This size of barrel is by law the standard barrel in New
York state for the marketing of apples, pears, quince and pota-
toes. The standard Missouri barrel is nearly identical.
How to pack a barrel of. apples.—Select a clean barrel. If
second hand barrels are to be used, such as flour barrels, they
should be thoroughly cleaned by washing and rubbing. If this
is not done, the fruit is apt to look dusty when opened which
will detract from its sale. Under such conditions some packers

_ follow the plan of lining the barrels with newspapers or other

cheap paper which is an excellent plan. Ordinarily, new barrels
are used. Sometimes a circular piece of paper is put on each
end. The barrel being placed before the packer with the bottom
out and the head down, the packer puts about a half bushel of
apples in the bottom and proceeds to turn them so that the
stem end faces the head, i. e. downwards. Two layers are gen-
erally faced in the case of fruit of first quality but for ordinary
fruit, one layer of facing fruit is enough. When these are in, the
barrel is filled by pouring in the sorted fruit from a basket that
is put down in the barrel before it is emptied so as to avoid the
least chance of bruising the fruit. For this purpose a half-bushel
basket with a swinging bale is best. As each basketful is put
in, the barrel is gently shaken so as to settle the fruit but not
enough to bruise it. When the barrel is nearly full, a layer of
apples is put on with the stem end up. This layer should stand
up out of the barrel two inches or more. The chime hoops are
then loosened a little and the outside one taken off, but not the

112 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

second hoop, as this would allow the barrel to spread too much.
A head is then put on under a barrel press and is slowly forced
into the barrel. While the pressure is being applied a few well
directed strokes with a hammer directs the head into place, when
the chime hoop is driven down and a few nails are put in to
hold the head in place while the press is removed. The outside
chime hoop is put on and nailed in place and then the lining
hoops are nailed fast. The barrel is then turned over and sten-
‘cilled on the end that was downward but is now the top.

A package thus packed opens up with a nice show of evenly
packed apples and makes a good appearance. The necessity of
pressing in the apples arises from the fact that otherwise the
apples will shake in the barrel when it is moved and will bruise.

= A properly pack-
ed barrel has no
movement of its

———————
POPC, | contents. There
Se I
f|| is considerable
— bruising of the

fruit where the
pressure is ap-
plied but such
bruises are not
Tiff # Often injurious.

! Barrel press.

Spree —There are sev-
Fig. 55.—Packing presses for apples. a.— ¢ral kinds of bar
Foot press. b.—Screw press. rel. presses ‘in

common use. Presses illustrated in figure 55 are the forms com-
monly obtained from the implement dealers. Where such a press
cannot be conveniently obtained, a very good one may be made
by any blacksmith by using an ordinary bench screw for applying
the pressure.

Grades of fruit—FKor the most successful handling of fruit

there is nothing more important than proper grading. Even grades
of fruit that can be depended upon soon establish for a shipper
a reputation that is of-great advantage to him in marketing his
product. The grades of fruit are variously designated. It is

’
a
x

|
|
.
:

HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 113

generally customary to mark the choicest fruit with the words
“Choice,” “Select,” or “Fancy,” but other special marks are
used. The next grading is generally “First Quality’, “A-1,” or
“AA.” The lower grade may be marked “A” or “2nds,” or
for the various grades one or more “X’s” may be used. It is
seldom that more than three grades are made. In seasons when
prices are low it will often be found unprofitable to ship fruit
of third quality.

Every shipper should put his name on his fruit package to
indicate his responsibility for its contents. In this way a ship-
per’s product comes to be known and fairly valued, which is
an advantage to him as well as to the dealer and consumer.

For grading apples and pears, the Ontario Fruit Growers
association has adopted the following standards which gives a
good idea of what such grades should consist of:

1. X A No. 1. Sound apples or pears of uniformly large

‘size and high color for the variety named; of normal form;: at

least ninety per cent. free from worm holes, scabs or other
defects.

2. A No. 1. Sound apples or pears of nearly uniform size
and good color for the variety named; of normal form; at least
ninety per cent free from worm holes, scabs or other defects.

3. No. 1. Sound apples or pears of fairly uniform size;
at least eighty per cent. free from worm holes, scabs or other
defects.

4, No. 2. Apples or pears that are disqualified from be-
ing classed under any of the aforementioned grades, but which
are useful for culinary purposes, and not less than two inches

‘in diameter.

Storage and Storage Buildings.

It is a common fault, at least with growers of late keeping
varieties of apples, that they are often too quick to sell their
product and in consequence stand in their own light in the
matter of getting the best returns from their labor. As a rule,
it is unwise for the apple grower to sell late-keeping apples
from the orchard. It is generally far better to wait until those
who wish to rush their fruit to market have disposed of it be-
fore selling. If the grower sells his product as it is picked,

114 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

he has to look after his harvesting and marketing at the same
time, which is apt to crowd him and his facilities to his disad-
vantage. Of course, in order to store fruit properly, the grower
must study the keeping quality of his product and be equipped
with cool storage so that he can hold it for at least a few weeks.
Such facilities are an incentive to the grower to give extra at-
tention to the fruit he raises, as only good fruit can be stored
to advantage. The inferior fruit, if to be marketed at all,
should generally be disposed of early.

Cold storage apparatus of the modern improved form is too
expensive for general use by individual fruit growers and it

PUEHGTCATUHOROANET|

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is a question whether it is not usually best, when fruit is to
be stored for a considerable time, for the grower to patronize
the owners of cold storage plants rather than build for his own
use or, better yet, co-operate with others and erect a large,
modern, fruit storage building.

Cooling rooms adapted to the storage of small fruit and
other quickly perishable products, even for a short time, could
be used to advantage on every fruit farm. These need not be
expensive and often an old building may be refitted and made

Wee

HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 115

to answer the purpose. The chief requirements are to arrange
for thorough insulation against outside changes of temperature.
This can be most satisfactorily arranged by the use of dead
air spaces and building paper. There should be at least two
well constructed dead air spaces about the storage room. These
dead air spaces should be made in the floor and roof as well as
in the walls. The windows, if such are found necessary, should
consist of at least three sash set closely together so as to make
two tight dead air spaces between.

It will be found that rooms above ground, surrounded by
well made dead air spaces, are more satisfactory for cooling
fruit than cellars even if- the latter are provided with proper
insulation. The cost of properly fitting up a cellar as a cool-
ing room is nearly or quite as expensive as the fitting up of a
similar space above ground and the wood and other materials
used in its construction are short lived. The stone, cement or
brick walls used ordinarily in cellars are good conductors of
heat and among the poorest of materials for the walls of a
storage room. beet

A fruit grower provided with a well insulated fruit room
will often find it to his advantage to lower its temperature by
thé use of ice early in the season. Figs. 56 and 57 show a good
method of constructing a fruit storage house large enough to
hold a few carloads of apples, with provision for the use of ice
for reducing the temiperature. The building is designed to be
located on a hillside of such a slope that the first floor will be
on the level of the surface at one end and the second floor a

‘few feet above the surface at the other. The building is 18 by 38

feet, interior measurement, two stories in height and divided
into four rooms, two on each floor. On the second floor is the
ice-storage room, 18 by 21 feet, in which the future supply of ice
is stored, and the ice chamber, 15 by 16 feet, in which is held
the ice that cools the refrigerating room directly below. A
door in the ice chamber communicates with the outside. This
is for the unloading of ice and is the only outside entrance into
the second story. The refrigerating room is 16 by 18 feet, and
is the compartment in which the temperature is to be reduced,
and in which perishable products are to be stored. Leading

116 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

into this room is the cooling room, 18 by 21 feet, which is to be
used aS a general purpose storage cellar. A small entrance
room protects the doorway into the cooling room. This is the
only entrance to the ground floor.
The flooring is laid tight in the storage room and provided
with a slope towards the center. A gutter catches the drainage
and carries it into the gutter from the ice chamber. To prevent

Sf earner a ae a a a TT a ea TTS TT

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Fig. 57.—Kansas Cold Storage House. a.—Vertical section. b.—De-
tails of construction.

leakage the floor of the storage room must have a sheet iron
covering. The floor of the ice chamber is laid with 2 by 4-inch
lumber with 1-inch space between. ‘This provides for air cir-
culation and water drainage. A sloping catch floor leads the
water into the gutter which carries it down and out through the
cooling room,

ne

HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 117

Cellars and caves may often be used to advantage for stor-
ing apples. Such storage is cheap and easily obtained. They
are only useful for this purpose during cold weather. When
properly handled apples keep well in them.

QUESTIONS—CHAPTER VI.

1. Why does so much depend upon the picking of the fruit for
the market?
2. What effect does the wide distribution of fruit growing sec-
tions have upon the market?
38. What is the proper time for picking different fruits?
4, When is local peddling a success?
5. What is the relation- of the commissioner to the fruit grower?
6. Of what value are fruit growers associations to the small
fruit grower?
7. What is the advisability of using the return package?
8. Why is it necessary to have packages for selling the same
kind of fruit uniform in size? :
9. What are some of the packages prescribed by law?
10. How are small fruits generally marketed?
ll. What is the standard marketing package for grapes?
12. How are plums and peaches marketed?
13. What is the popular package for apples, pears and quince?
14. How are ordinary grades packed? The fancy grades?
15. What is the size of the standard apple barrel? |
16. How should a barrel be packed? :
17. What is a barrel press?
18. What are the advantages of grading the fruit properly ?
19. How should they be designated?
20. What are the Ontario Fruit Growers standards for grading
apples and pears? ‘
21. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a cold storage
plant?
22. How may inexpensive cooling rooms be fitted up?
23. Why are cooling rooms above ground more satisfactory and
economical] than those in cellars?

CHAPTER VII.
SOME FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH

The roots of plants are made up of several distinct parts.
The main central root is termed the tap root when it extends
directly downward into the earth, as in the roots of Bur Oak
and Black Walnut. When a plant has several spreading roots
it is said to have surface roots, but such roots may sometimes
divide and go deep into the ground; for example, the roots of
the Red Oak and White Pine. Root fibres or rootlets is the
term used for the smaller division of roots. The foregoing
roots have hard bark, and do not feed the plant. They do little
more than anchor it in place. The roots feed through what
are known as the root hairs, which are soft, fresh, young roots
generally white in color. :

The collar or crown of a plant is that portion where the
roots and top unite. It is close to the surface of the ground.
This portion of the tree is frequently injured by borers, by ice
and in other ways. It is a good plan, especially in the case of
young trees, to protect them in winter with a bank of earth
around the collar.

The stems of plants may be annual, as in the case of many
garden plants; biennial, as in the case of the raspberry and
blackberry, and perennial, as in the currants, gooseberries and
fruit trees. Runners are creeping stems, as in the case of the
strawberry. Suckers are stems springing up from roots or
underground stems. Thorns are modified branches and live for
indefinite periods while prickles, like those on the gooseberry,
are modifications of the bark and live but one year.

The bark covers the whole exterior of the trunk, branches
and roots and serves as a protection. It is made up of two
parts, the outer or corky layer which is dead bark, and the in-
ner, or live bark. These vary much in appearance and thickness
on different kinds of trees. For instance, on the White Birch
the corky layer is pure white, very thin and tough, while on
our White Pine it is very dark brown and often an inch or

‘~~

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH. 119

‘more in thickness and quite brittle. This covering of bark is

quite impervious to disease where intact, but there are gener-
ally many small breaks in its surface through which disease
may enter and once inside the bark it is well protected.
Cracks in the live bark are most common in early summer
when growth is rapid. Diseases may also enter through some
wound, and hence the desirability of covering large wounds
with some impervious material to keep disease out of the plant.
Buds are the portions of plants which always tip new
growth. They are often opposite, as in the case of the Maple, or
alternate as in the apple, pear, plum or peach. Adventitious
buds are those that start-apparently without system. Theoreti-

_eally, botanists say that any cell may grow into a bud so that

buds may appear in almost
any place on the trunk, roots,
or branches, and in the case
of the orange a single seed
may grow three plants, one
of which is the result of ordi-
hary sexual union while the
other two may be looked up-
on as being adventitious.
Buds may produce leaves or
flowers. The former are
termed leaf buds and the lat-
ter flower buds. These are
illustrated in Fig. 58. They
vary in shape, time of forma-
tion and location in different
plants. Flower buds are more
liable to winter injury than
leaf buds. Plants that are
: growing fast are quite liable
Fig. 58.—Fruit buds of: a.—Apple. to form only leaf buds and
en ren eae The crosses often fail to form flower buds.
When growth is rather slow

naturally or when checked by artificial means, fruit buds are
formed. In the case of some trees that do not come into bear-

120 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

ing readily, girdling is sometimes practiced in order to throw

the plant into bearing. This may be done in a variety of ways
but should not be_attempted except in the case of trees that
seem hopeless otherwise.

Girdling may be done successfully as follows:

With an ordinary cross-cut saw, cut in a spiral direction
around the trunk or branch to be treated and have the cut end
just under where it commenced but several inches below. In
this way the circulation of sap is only sufficiently impeded to
cause flower buds to form. Such wounds seldom cause serious
. injury to vigorous trees. This work should be done in June if
at all, but is seldom a desirable practice.

The leaves of plants are made up of
loose, open tissue enclosed in a thin mem-
brane. This membrane has openings in it
through which the plant takes in carbonic
acid gas, i. e. carbon dioxide from the air,

It is through these openings, called stomata,
that diseases frequently enter the plant.
Such openings also occur in the young
twigs of some plants. It is in its green por-
tions that the plant absorbs and assimilates
food, and since this green portion is formed
almost exclusively in our fruit plants only
in the presence of direct sunlight, the im-
portance of lots of sunlight for best develop-
ment of these plants is evident.
The flower is the portion of the tree
designed for the production of seed. All
apple tree two the parts of our fruit plants in a natural
mies se ae state seem to facilitate this object. Flow-
after girdling ers are often imperfect, as in the case of
with saw. ke
some forest trees, but in our com-
mon cultivated fruit plants the flowers are generally perfect
and only such flowers are referred to here. But flowers that are
perfect may be self-sterile, that is, may not be fertile to their
own pollen but need to be cross fertilized.

and throws off large quantities of water. .

4
RS

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH. 121

The parts of the flower and the purpose of each.—The parts
of the flower are modified leaves. The outside covering of the
flower of our common fruits is termed the calyx. Its purpose is
to protect the more tender organs and it is generally green in
color. The next row of modified leaves of the flower is called
the corolla. This is generally white or of some conspicuous

Fig. 60.—Flower of Duchess of Oldenberg apple.

color. It serves as a protection and also by its coloring at-
tracts insects which assist in pollination. The next row of
modified leaves are the stamens. They are of various forms,
generally tipped with a small pouch-like vessel in which the
male element, Known as pollen, is formed. The stem is called
the filament and the pouch the anther. The pistils are the fe-
male organs made up of ovary or seed pod, style or stem, and
stigma, which later is the part that receives and holds the pollen
which grows through it to the seed. The bright colored por-

422 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

tions and the nectar attract insects that aid in transferring the
pollen from one flower to another. The edible portions of the
fruit attract birds and other animals, including man, who aid
in distributing the seed. '
Fruit.—A true fruit as defined by botanists is the ripened
seed vessel and its contents. This agrees with the horticul-

-7--
ex 4
Ry Fe

AF pollen THINS
SMa sci

s ——pollen-tube

Fig. 61.—Diagrammatie drawing showing how pollen grains grow
down the pistil of the strawberry and unite with the contents of
the ovary in the act of fertilization; At the right, cross section
through flower of strawberry, showing its parts,

turists’ definition so far as fruits such as apples, pears, peaches,

apricots, plums, gooseberries and currants are concerned, but

in the case of strawberries, blackberries and mulberries, this
definition would allow us to claim only the single grains on
the sides of the*berries as fruits, while in these fruits, we com-
monly consider the fleshy center a part of the fruit. These lat-
ter fruits are in structure much like an ear of corn with an

- FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES. OF PLANT GROWTH. 123

edible cob. The word fruit as used by the fruit grower had a
eertain definite. well understood significance before the dawn
of scientific botany and the botanists should not attempt to
change the significance of the word.

Pollen—Pollen grains vary in form but are cell-like in
structure and have the power of making a root-like growth into
the tissues of the pistil to the ovary where the contents of the
pollen grain unites with and fertilizes the ovule. Without this
process taking place, seed is not produced and it is seldom that
fruit is formed at all. Pollen from one distinct kind of fruit
will not fertilize the ovule of another of a different, distinct kind
but each is restricted to a very close limit. For instance, the
pollen of one variety of the apple will fertilize other apples
but will not fertilize the plum. When varieties of the same
or nearly allied fruits are fertilized with the pollen from one
or another, they are said to be crossed and the operation is
termed crossing. The results from this work are seldom well
marked in the crossed fruit although the skillful operator may
sometimes be able to see it. But the results of the cross will
show in the seedlings from the crossed fruit and it must not
be expected that the seedlings will partake equally of the nature
of each, for we know from much experience that the results of
such crosses are uncertain and irregular.

Pollination—Under natural conditions flowers are pollen-
ized in various ways, but chiefly by wind, in the case of
plants that have inconspicuous flowers such .as corn, pine,
spruce and poplar; and by insects in our cultivated fruits and
'most other plants which have conspicuous flowers. Some flow-
ers are probably pollenized in both ways.

Hybrids.— Where a cross is made between very unlike forms,
as between the sand cherry and the plum, the result is generally
termed a hybrid. The difference between crosses and hybrids
is only one of degree and of late years there has been a tendency
to do away with the use of the term, hybrid altogether. There
is a very common impression that hybrids are exceedingly rare
and of more value than ordinary crosses but such is far from
being the case, as they are frequently of little value for any
purpose and often fail to form seed and even to set fruit.

424 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Fruit Plants from seed.—While our wild plants come nearly
true from seed, our cultivated fruits, which have come from
them, will not come true but will show a decided tendency to
resemble the wild, inferior forms. Although an occasional seed-
ling may be a decided improvement over the cultivated kinds
there is not one chance in a thousand of getting better fruits
than those we now have by saving seed. This comes from the
fact that we do not grow our fruits from seed but by grafting,
budding, etc. If they were grown for many generations from

Ss

y, ! ts =
a).
ZZ OW og.

Ly

Fig. 62.—Showing variation in sizes and shapes of plums grown from
the same lot of seed.

seed it would undoubtedly be possible to get them to come
as true to type as our garden vegetables. It must be noticed
that as there are no two plants exactly alike the strongest ten-
dency in plants is to be unlike. Some cultivated fruit plants that
come nearly true from seed are a few local varieties of the peach,
the Wyant plum and such strawberries as the Alpine and St.
Anthony de Padua. :

The yearly round of life in plants consists of a rapid
growth in the spring, during which time the plant is using up

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH. 123

the store of food accumulated the year before. After this rapid
growth has passed comes a period of slower growth in which the
wood is said to ripen. That is, it becomes hard by reason of its
cells becoming filled with starch or other plant food which
is used to start growth in the spring. When this is completed
active growth stops, but plant food is probably being stored
up so long that the leaves still remain green. When we have
warm, moist weather late in autumn, active growth sometimes
’ starts again and some of this plant food is changed to unstable
compounds which may result in winter killing. Some varieties
are much more liable to start in this way than others. No
characteristic of hardiness in plants is more certain than ear-.
ly maturity of wood.
; Assimilation—Plants are made up of various tissues and
these are composed of numerous cells. The material of which
the cells are composed is largely carbon. This carbon is de-
rived from the carbon dioxide of the: air which enters the
leaves, and, under the action of light, air and water is decom-
posed; the oxygen is given off and the carbon is retained and,
combining with water obtained from the roots, forms starch, .
sugar, gum and other plant foods. This process of food mak-
ing is called assimilation and can be carried on only in the green
parts of the plant and in these, only when exposed to light and
air. Hence foliage, air and light are essential elements for
plant growth, and the greater the quantity and better the de-
velopment of foliage and the more light this foliage has at
its disposal for its work the more vigorously will the tree grow.
In general, therefore, the growth of the fruit and wood may
be reduced either by the removal of foliage, which reduces
the working surface, or by shading, which somewhat checks
the activity of the foliage by hindering light action.
Transpiration.—The flow of sap in trees is not well un-
derstood. In a general way it may be said that the sapwood
transmits the water from the roots to the leaves, where a part
enters into the assimilated sap and goes to build up the plant,
and the remainder, which is by far the greater part, passes off
as vapor. The amount thus transpired, varies greatly with the
species, age of the tree, amount of foliage at work, amount of

126 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. ;

light at its disposal, climatic conditions and the condition of
tree growth. The amount of water transpired is so large in
comparison to the amount retained in the tree that while an
acre of forest may store in its trees 1000 pounds of carbon,
15 or 20 pounds of mineral substance and 5000 pounds of water

Fig. 63,—Abnormal flower of strawberry with seven petals; not unusual,

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH. 127

in a year, it may have taken from the soil and given off to
the air from 500,000 to 1,500,000 pounds of water or from one-
quarter to one-half as much as agricultural crops. It has been es-
timated that the leaves of deciduous trees transpire one-sixth to
one-third as much water as an equal surface of water. Large
deciduous trees undoubtedly give off as much as a barrel of water
a day in dry summer weather. Coniferous trees transpire much
“less water than most a trees, frequently not over one-
sixth as much.

Mineral substances are taken up by plants in small quanti-
tics and consist mostly of lime, magnesia, potash and phos-
phorus.- They are carried’ to the leaves where they are used,
(perhaps also on their passage through the tree), with a part
of the water in food preparation. The main part of the mineral
substances taken up remains, as the water transpires in the
leaves and young twigs, and is returned to the soil when tie
leaves are shed.

Rest period of plants —With very few exceptions, all plants
require an occasional rest period for their best development.
Some species get it naturally by being dried and others by '«-
ing frozen. Even when plants are kept under growng condi-
tions the year round, they have periods of rest and of active
growth. During the rest period plants undergo very few
changes, and yet there is undoubtedly some growth during
mild weather in winter, and as evaporation must be going on
most of the time from twigs and buds water must be supplied
from the roots.

Classification of fruits—The commercial fruits of the
world may be grouped under the following heads, of which only
the more important Northern grown fruits are referred to here.

Class I. Orchard culture or tree fruit culture.
Sub- Gees
Pomaceous fruits: Apple, pear, quince.
na Drupaceous or stone fruits: Plums, peach, cherry.
Ill. Citrus fruits: Orange, lemon, lime, etc.
TV. Moraceous fruits: Mulberry. fig.
V. Anonaceous fruits: Pawpaw.
VI. Myrtaceous fruits: Guava.
VII. Sapotaceous fruits: Sapodilla.
VIII. Anacardiaceous fruits: Mango.
IX. Ebenaceous fruits: Persimmon.
xX. Leguminous fruits: St. Johns bread, tamarind.
XI. Nut fruits: Nuts of various kinds.
XII. Palmaceous fruits: Cocoanut, date, etc.
XIII. Miscellaneous tree fruits: Olive, pomegranate,

128 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Class II. Vine tree culture.
Sub-class
I, Viticultural fruits: Grape.
II. Passifloraceous fruits: Granadilla.
Class TIT. Small fruit culture.
Sub-class
I. Bush fruits: s
Group (a) Rubaceous fruits: Raspberry, blackberry.
(b) Ribaceous fruits: Currants and goose-
berries. j
(c) Miscellaneous fruits: Juneberry, buffalo-
berry.
Il. Strawberry culture: Strawberry.
Tif. Cranberry culture: Common cranberry.
Class IV. Non-woody or herb-like fruits.
Sub-class
I. Musaceous fruits: Banana.
II. Pineapple.
Ill. Cactaceous fruits: Prickly pear.

It has been estimated that there are more than ten thou-
sand varieties of our commonly cultivated fruits in America.
In order to study these satisfactorily some method must be
found to classify them. This matter will be found worked out
in the various books on systematic pomology. Botanists have
found it convenient ‘to group plants under the head of class, or-
der, genus, species, varieties. The same classification, of course,
applies to the larger groups in horticulture; but the horticultur-
ist has gone farther than the botanist with his classification
and has divided his plants into varieties.

A variety is made up of a group of individuals which differ
from the rest of its species in certain recognizable particulars
which are transmitted from generation to generation without
material modification. The horticulturist makes into groups
more or less definite the varieties having certain important
traits in common, as, for instance, when he groups certain va-
rieties of vegetables or fruits together. New varieties of fruits
are being continually offered by the trade, and, although not
one in ten of those sent out are as good as those commonly
grown, yet from time to time marked improvement is made.

QUESTIONS—CHAPTER VII.

What is the root system of plants made up of?
Of what value are these parts to the plant?
What is meant by “collar or crown?”

Why does this portion of the tree need protection?
When are plants annuals? biennials? perennials?

SU co Ror

rae

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH. 129

6. What are runners? suckers? thorns? prickles?
7. Of what use is the bark?
8. What is it made up of? ‘

9. How do these parts vary in different plants?

10. What are the buds?

11. What are adventitious buds?

12. What are the characteristics of the leaf? flower? bud?
13. How are fruit buds formed? ~

14. What is meant by girdling?

15. How is it accomplished?

16. What are leaves made up of?

17. How are they constructed?

18. What functions do the leaves perform for the plant?
19. What functions do the flowers perform for the plant?
20. What are the different parts of the flower?

21. How is each constructed and for what purpose?

22. What is a fruit as defined by botanists? by horticultur-

23. How is it constructed?

24. What is pollen? .

25. What are its characteristics?

26. How are plants crossed?

27. What is meant by the term “hybrid?”

28. How are flowers pollinated?

29. To what ‘extent do fruit plants come true from seed?

30. What is the cause of this?

31. What local varieties come true from seed?

39. What course of growth does the plant take throughout
the year? F :

33. What is meant by the process of assimilation?

34. How is it carried on in plants?

25. What is tne result of removing foliage from a plant?

36. What is meant by franspiration?

37. What approximate amounts are transpired from the
leaves of deciduous trees? '

88 What minerals are taken up from the ground by plants?

89. How is it returned to the soil?

40. What is the need of a rest period for plants?

41. How should they be cared for during this period?

42. How may commercial fruits be grouped?

43. What is the most convenient way of classing fruits?

44. What is a variety?

CHAPTER VIII.
PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. |

Our cultivated fruits, with a few unimportant exceptions,
do not come true from seed, and hence, must be increased by
division. The various ways in which seed enters into the sub-
ject of the propagation of fruits are as follows:

Propagation by Seed.

(1). Seed is used for the growing of stocks on which to
work (i. e., graft or bud) cultivated fruits such as apples, pears,
plums, peaches and others.

(2). Seed is used for growing a few varieties of the peach
and strawberry that come nearly true from seed, such as the
Alpine and St. Anthony de Padua strawberries and, in the case
of the peach, for a large number of varieties which come suffi-
ciently true to name for home use.

Some of the conditions which influence germination of such
seeds are as follows:

(a) Seeds of many species which ripen in the early sum-
mer, such as those of the strawberry, gooseberry and raspberry,
if sown at once, will start quickly. Seedlings of sueh kinds
should be wintered over in a cold frame, greenhouse or cold
cellar. If the seed is dried it should be stratified towards the
end of winter and frozen and sown in the spring. In the case
of the raspberry and gooseberry, the seedlings are so small
at the end of the first season, if the seed is sown as soon as
ripe, that it is generally best to dry it and sow the following
spring.

(b) Seeds that ripen in late summer should be stratified
and sown the following spring.

(c) Stratification refers to the mixing of seeds with soil
or other material and burying out of doors. It is a common and
very safe way of keeping over winter such seeds as those of
the peach, plum, apricot, nuts and many forest tree seeds. All
of our hardy seeds may be treated in this way successfully. In
practice the seeds are mixed generally in sand, but sometimes

> ae aw Ps

~ Se

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 131

leaf mold or fresh, moist leaves are used for this purpose,
Where only small quantities are cared for, boxes are generally
used, which are left out doors in winter; but where large quanti-
ties of large seeds like
those of the peach and
black walnut are used, they
are often mixed in pits on
the surface of the ground
and covered with sod.
Apple seed is gener-
: aan ey ally kept dry during the
Fig. 64.—Seed stratified-in pit winter and moistened and
and covered with sod. frozen in the spring before
sowing, but may be stored over winter by stratification with ex-
cellent results. In the case of a few plants the seed will start
at once if stratified. In such cases dry the seed and do not sow
until spring. However, it is a good plan to mix it with damp
sand in the latter part of winter for a few weeks, after which, it
may be frozen before being sown.

_ Fig. 65.—Boxes of stratified seeds at the Minnesota Hxperiment

Station in Winter.

Propagation by Offsets.

(a) The strawberry and red raspberry, American plum, Mo-
rello cherry and some other fruits may be grown by taking off
sprouts that come up from the roots. Such sprouts are termed
“offsets,” or suckers.

(b) Offsets are best removed in autumn or in the spring.
In removing them, it is important to get a portion of the main

132 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

root from which they grow. In the case of the plum, two or
three inches of the main root is sufficient.

Propagation by Layers. :

(a) The easiest and best way of increasing many orna-
mental as well as fruit
plants is by layering.
Spring layers are made by
laying down any portion
of the plant in the spring.

(b) Summer layers
are made in the summer,
generally in July, from
wood of the same season’s
erowth.

(c) Mound layering is
used for propagating the
gooseberry, currant and
quince.

(d) Layers may be
made at any time, al-
though roots may not form
for a year or more.

(e) Layers should be
taken up when well root-
ed and dormant. This is

; generally in the autumn

Fig. ates ease te as of the first year or in the
following spring.

(f) Layering is adapted to such fruits as the grape, cur-
rant, gooseberry and black raspberry.

Propagation by Cuttings.

(a) Various portions of plants may be used for propagating
plants. Cuttings may be made of the ripened wood of the
branches in the case of the gooseberry, currant, grape, quince
and Kieffer pear. ;

(b) Cuttings may be made of the roots, as in the red
raspberry, blackberry and some kinds of the Morello cherries

w

hy Se »
OFS

and plums. Plants grown in this way from cuttings are gen-

erally better than those grown from sprouts,

x
¢
3
d
5

.
3
7
7

ee ey ees

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 133

(c) Cuttings may be made of the soft wood of the sum-
mer as in the grape, currant and gooseberry and, in the case
of the strawberry, they may be made from the immature offsets.
Soft wood cuttings need a frame or greenhouse for best re-
sults and should be treated similarly to geranium and coleus
cuttings.

Size of Cuttings.

(a) The size of the cuttings used in propagation varies
greatly. All that is absolutely necessary is to have one bud
to each cutting and this will produce good results, providing
it has the proper conditions of heat and moisture surrounding

it. One-bud cuttings are sometimes used for the currant and

grape with good results, but must have the best of care.
(b) Cuttings are generally made with more than one bud
to encourage strong growth and to increase their chance of

‘living. .

Conditions Necessary for the Successful Growing of Hard-
wood Cuttings.

(a) The wood for ripe wood (hardwood) cuttings must be
well matured and firm. Such wood, if well matured, has in it
plenty of food to start the cuttings into growth.

(b) The wood should preferably be made up into cuttings
in autumn or early winter if to go into the open ground. If net
planted out at once they should be stored in a cold cellar, cave
or pit outdoors. They will often be calloused by spring if thus
treated. Cuttings may be of any length, from one bud, up. It
is customary to make cuttings of currant and gooseberry about
eight inches long.

Planting Cuttings.

(a) The soil for cuttings should be rich in plant food, com-
pact enough to hold moisture but porous enough at the sur-
face to prevent baking.

(b) Cuttings should generally be calloused before plant-
ing for best results, kut set out before they show roots. It
is generally best to get cuttings into the ground as soon as the
spring weather permits, but do not plant out grape cuttings
until they are calloused. Currant cuttings may be made up
in early autumn or even in the last of August and set out at
once, as when thus treated they will often be rooted by winter.

134 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Fig. 67.—Cuttings properly planted out.

(c) Set cuttings deep so that the upper bud will come just
at the surface of the ground. Do not have over one inch of
long cuttings above ground.

(d) Set the cuttings slanting, i. e., at an angle of 45° or
at half-pitch. This is preferred to setting straight, as they re-
main firm better when thus planted.

(e) In making cuttings, plan to have af least one bud with-
in one inch of the top end.

The Solar Pit.—There are many trees that will, not grow
from cuttings unless they have their roots started a little be-
fore planting. This is most easily accomplished by what is
known as “the solar pit’, which owes its suecess to the facet
that cuttings root first at
the warmer end. It is
made and used as follows:
The bundles of cuttings
are heeled-in as recom-
mended. In the _ spring
they are taken out and
: Beeeres es buried close together with

Fig. 68.—Solar pit with cuttings tiea the butt ends uppermost

in bundles and buried. in a warm, sunny spot
and covered with about six inches of-soil. A hotbed frame
with sash is then put over them to warm the soil. Sometimes,

FS a oe a

ae

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 135

instead of using sash, the soil over the cuttings is covered with

a foot or more of fermenting manure.. In either case the soil

is warmed and the formation of roots encouraged. In using the
sclar pit the rooting process should not be carried so far as
to permit the roots to show’ plainly, as they are then liable
to be broken off in planting, but the cuttings should be planted
out as soon as they show signs of healing over on the butt
end. This healing over process is called callousing, and in
many plants necessarily precedes the formation of roots.
Graftage.

Graftage includes what is commonly called budding and
grafting. Working is another term that ineludes the same.
Most trees that graft easily will bud readily. _

Limits of Graftage.—It is common to hear surprising stories
about graftage. Quite recently a prominent grape grower

referred to his efforts to graft the red currant on the red

maple tree. Even Pliny says “Some ‘apples are so red that
they resemble blood, which is caused by their being grafted
on a mulberry stock.” But budding or grafting are never suc-
cessful unless the cion and stock are nearly allied, and the
closer the relationship between them, the more certain the suc-
cess. Lindley says: ‘Varieties of the same species unite most
freely; then species of the same genus; then genera of the
same natural order, beyond which the power does not extend.
For instance, pears work freely on pears, very well on quinces
and mountain ash; less successfully on apples or thorns, and
not at all upon plums or cherries; while the lilac will take on
the ash, because of the near relationship between the two.”

But there are many exceptions to any rule that could be laid

down concerning this matter. Some plants are increased most
readily by budding, while others graft more easily than they
are budded. The stone fruits are very easily budded and grait-
ing them is often a much more uncertain process.

(b) Stock is the name applied to the part grafted on, be
it large or small. The stock may consist of a cutting, a rooted
layer, a tree or a seedling root and it may be worked when
either dormant or growing.

(ec) Cion is the name of the part inserted. It may con-

136 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

sist of one (See page 13) or more buds and be cut with or with-
out wood. In budding, the term bud-stick is often used to take ©
its place.

Budding.—In its broad sense the term graftage includes
all there is of budding, which is simply grafting while the tree

Ai

} | 1 \ i if

t,

:
|
:
:

Fig. 69.—Budding. 1.—Bud stick with one bud nearly re-
moved. Note that cut is made from below upwards.
2.—Two views of bud after it has been removed.
3.—Stock with T cut made in bark and flaps loosened
to receive bud. 4.—Bud inserted under bark. 5.—Bud
tied in place with. raffia.

is growing, but, as generally used, budding applies to the pro-
cess by which a bud of the season is removed from its parent

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 137

plant and induced to unite with and grow upon some other
plant congenial to it. In the Northern states it is commonly
practiced to propagate plums and other stone fruits, and ap-
ples and pears, all of which are readily increased in this way.
The varieties of some ornamental trees and plants may be
propagated by budding, as, for instance, some varieties of elm,
maple, poplar and birch. Most trees that graft -readily will
bud as readily, while others that will graft with difficulty will
bud very easily. Budding is rather a simpler operation than
grafting and easier for the beginner to perform successfully.

Stocks for budding are generally grown from seed and the
buds are inserted in them when they are but a few years old,
and as near the ground as possible. But budding may be done
very successfully on any growing branch or stem where the
park is not too hard and still bends easily. It is often used to
change the bearing qualities of fruit trees of small or medium
size. | ;
Bud-stick is the-name given to the shoots from which the
buds are taken. It is also referred to as the cion, but the cion
proper is the piece which is inserted in the stock.

Time for Budding.—In a general way, budding may be done
at any time when the bark will peel, providing the buds are
sufficiently matured on the new growth of the season to insert
them. The proper time will be influenced by the kind of stock
used, the season, and sometimes by attacks of insects or dis-
eases. For instance the native plum is generally budded to
best advantage about the last of July, but should the stocks be
attacked by some insect or disease that seriously injures the
foliage in the middle of July, the growth of the stocks will
soon be checked and the work must be performed at once or
not at all. A period of severe drouth may check the growth, and
in a similar way make early budding necessary. If the stocks
are growing very fast, it is often best to delay the operation
until the wood has become somewhat hardened, or else its
rapid growth may cover up the inserted bud. If considerable
pruning of the stocks is necessary to make a place for the bud,
it should be done at least two weeks before budding is com-
menced, because the heavy pruning of any plant when in ac-

138 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

tive growth results in a serious check to ‘its parts. If done just
when the buds are inserted, this may prevent the success of
the operation. The ordinary season for budding in the North-
ern states is from the middle of July to the first of September,
and the earliness or lateness at which a variety is most suc-
cessfully budded depends on the condition of growth. The
stock that stops growing early in the season is budded early,
and those that grow until autumn are budded late. The condi-
tions for success are:

1. The stock and cion must be perfectly healthy and free
from insects. If either of them are weak or sickly, unsatis-
factory results may be expected. To this end, everything neces-
sary shoud be done to keep off insects and disease.

2. The buds should be well developed in the axils of the
leaves on the
young shoots from
which the buds
are to be taken.
It seldom hap-
pens that. they
are in this condi-
tion until the bud
at the end. is
formed, but some-
times the buds in

. the center of the
twigs will be
large enough to
grow, while those
at the base and at
the extreme tip
are still quite

: ri small. If the buds
Fig. 70.—Showing method of cutting bud
when the bark is to be removed from it. are thought to be
Ree um Cue an the spring gee a too immature, they
efore grow has commenced. C= a)
shoot started from an ips eried bud and may be readily
tied to the stub of a stock. The dotte 1
line b shows where the stock should be eut ue uss oped by
off after the bud is well started. pinching off the

~ ahd Ng

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 139

tips of the twigs. In ten or twelve days after such pinching, of
even a very soft shoot, its buds will be fit for working.

_ 8. The bark must separate easily from the wood on the
stocks to be budded. This will take place only when they are
growing rapidly.

4. A sharp, thin knife is absolutely necessary.

5. The work must be done rapidly, and the buds firmly
and evenly tied into place. No wax is needed.

Necessary implements.—A common shoe knife, with the
corners rounded off, makes a very cheap, and yet a most excel-
lent budding knife. There are many specially designed forms
of knives for this purpose-and most of them have an ivory point
or blade in the base of the handle for lifting the bark, but the
rounded corner of the back of the shoe knife is just as good as
the best ivory blade for raising the bark. A shoe knife costs not
one-fourth as much as an ordinary budding knife and generally .
holds an edge better.

Besides a shoe knife, tying material is necessary. For
this purpose basswood bark is perhaps the best, since it is but
little affected by moisture, and if put on wet, remains tight
and close, ‘This tying material is prepared by soaking sections
of the bark of the common basswood in water until the inner
layers separate easily. The bark peels from the trees readily
in June and July, and it requires about three weeks of soaking
in stagnant water to get the fiber into the right condition. Aft-
er the layers readily separate the bark should be stripped into
pieces about one-fourth of an inch wide. _If hard and stiff, it
'may be softened by rubbing and pounding. Cotton warp, corn
husks or woolen yarn answer very well, and a tying material
ealled raffia is now used more widely than any other material
for budding. This is a long, grass-like material which is used
for baskets and is made from the leaves of a palm known as
Raphia peduncula. It should be made into thin, very narrow
strips before being applied and should be put on dry.

The process of budding will be found illustrated in figs.
69 and 70, showing the successive stages in shield budding,
whieh is the form generally used in this country. When every-
thing is ready for the work, prepare a lot of bud-sticks as shown

140 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

in fig. 69, by cutting off all but about one-half inch of the leaf
stalks. These sticks should be carefully protected from wilting,
and it is customary to carry them in the field wrapped up in
moist cloth or oiled paper. If it is necessary to-store them
after they are cut, they should be kept in a cool, moist place,
in moss, sawdust, or cloths, but not in water. They are often
kept for a week before using, but are preferably used as soon
as possible after they are cut.

To insert the bud a smooth place is selected (on small
stocks this should be about two inches from the ground) and
on the north side if practicable, since buds are less liable to
be injured by freezing on that side than'on any other. A cross-
cut should be made at this point, and ‘from it a cut about 1%
inches long, as shown at 3 in fig. 69; at the same time the bark
should be raised to loosen it. A bud-stick is then taken and
a bud cut off with the bark and a thin piece of the wood extending
about one-half inch above and below the bud, as shown at 2
in fig. 69. The lower point of the bud (by which is meant the
bark and wood cut off, as well as the bud) is now
inserted under the bark at the cross-cut, and is gently pushed
down by the leaf stock and knife blade. If the bark of the
stock will not raise when the bud is thus pushed down, the
stock is not in the best condition for budding and it will be
necessary to raise the bark with the back of the knife blade,
or with the ivory biade previously referred to, in order to let
the bud come into its place. The sides of the bud should come
under the bark, but if the wound is not large enough to admit
quite all the bud, any small part that may project above the
cross-cut should be cut off by again drawing the knife through
the cross-cut. The bud must now be securely and firmly tied
in place, taking care to draw it down evenly and firmly and to
cover all the wounds with tying material as shown at 5 in fig.
69, but do not cover the bud itself. In less severe sections,
the ties do not need such careful attention as herein the North-

western states, where it is important to tie very carefully.

After the bud is tied, the bands should be watched so that when
the growth of the stock becomes so great that the bands are
too tight for it—which is generally in about a week—they may

a

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 141

be loosened. When the bud is well united, the band should be
cut off altogether. The buds will generally unite in about two
weeks, but sometimes they will require a longer time, and it
is often desirable to: leave the ties on for some little time after
this period. It is a bad practice to neglect the bands and al-
low them to severely cut into the stock.

The inserted buds should not start at all until the follow-
ing spring. If they start into growth the season they are in-
serted, they are almost certain to be killed the following win-
ter. If the bark of the inserted bud shrivels, or if it remains
fresh and the bud falls off, the work is entirely lost, though
the stocks that have missed one year may be budded the next,
and even while loosening the bands it may not be too late to
again bud those that have failed. To make the work more cer-
tain, two buds are often inserted in each stock, although only
one is allowed to grow. i

In the spring, the inserted bud will resemble fig. 70. Just

as the top buds commence to swell, the budded stocks should

be cut off at least one inch above the inserted bud, and some-
times seven or eight inches of the old stock is left above the
bud to serve as a stake to support the shoot starting from the
bud (fig. 70). All the shoots that come from the stock should
be rubbed off so that all its strength will go into the inserted
bud.

Late in the season the stock should be cut down to just
above the bud, see the dotted line at c in figure 70. The grow-
ing shoot should be trained to a single stem if its stock is a

' low one, so as to make a straight tree. If the root is strong,

the bud wili make a growth of two to four feet the first year.

‘Some kinds of trees readily take on an upright form, while

others naturally grow very crooked and need special care to
induce them to grow straight.

On the approach of winter it is a good plan to draw the
earth up against the buds as a protection, but this cannot be
done when the buds are more than two or three inches from
the ground. If the buds are too high up to allow this earthing
up from the ground, especially in the case of somewhat tender
kinds,. some growers put a very thin covering of grafting wax

oe

142 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

around the bud, taking care not to cover the tip of the bud |

more than a very little. This covering is a protection against
ice forming behind the bud and from sudden freezing and thaw-
ing in winter. However, with our hardy trees this precaution
is unnecessary. sh ;

June Budding.—Many nurserymen offer what they call
June-budded trees at low prices. These are often small trees
that can be easily sent by mail and are made by an operation
similar to commen budding as described herewith except that
the work is done in June and the inserted buds are forced
into growth as soon as they adhere to the stock, by cutting off
the latter. At the North they make only a small growth the
season they are budded. The buds for this purpose may be
hastened into maturing by pinching off the ends of the shoots
to be used for bud-sticks. For ordinary purposes, nothing is
gained by budding in June in the Northern states, for a plant
budded there in August will make as large, if not a larger,
growth and as straight a tree by the end of the following year
than-a June-budded tree of the same age will make in its two
years of growth. However, at the South, where the growing
season is longer, June budding is the favorite way of growing
peaches and plums which there make a strong enough growth
the first season. If they were treated in the common way as
used at the North the trees would be too large for best results
in transplanting.

The wood is sometimes removed from the bud after it is
cut off. This practice is common in Europe, but in general
practice in this country it is left on. However, care should
be taken not to cut the bud very thick, or the large amount
of wood in it will prevent its binding into place smoothly and
evenly. When the wood is to be removed from the bud, the
latter is cut off in a little different way from the method de-
scribed. This method is illustrated at a figure 70. Two cuts are
made and then by a dexterous twist, the bud and bark removed.
It is then inserted as previously described.

Other forms of budding are used occasionally but in all
of them the general principles are the same as those practiced in
shield budding. Figure 71 shows a form of budding where-

Pe ee

i oa ee Co Pees

ew |

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 143

in a circle of bark is taken out of the bud-stick and is inserted
into a stock or branch of about the same size. These are un-
usual forms and only used for some special purpose. In bud-
ding on the branches of trees, it is generally best to insert the
bud on the upper side, but the place for its insertion should
be governed by the form of the tree. Budded trees are no bet-
ter than grafted trees, but they may be as good, or perhaps
worse, according to the way in which the work is done. If the
buds and stocks are perfectly hardy, as, for instance, when
our native plum seedlings are budded with similar kinds of
improved quality, as with the DeSota plum, or native seedlings,
then the tree resulting is as good as if root grafted. But if
the hardy kinds of apple are budded on ordinary seedlings
which are not hardy, then there is a part of the tender seedling
which is above ground and is liable to be killed out by cold.
In this case, the resulting tree would be
much improved if the seedling root had been
grafted below ground instead of being bud-
ded above, so as to have the benefit of the
protection the ground affords. On the other
hand, where hardy trees are budded on the
branches to change the bearing, the work
is just as sure as if grafted. It is foolish,
then, to pay more money for a budded than
ie i a grafted tree. .
° He q Grafting. is distinguished from budding
Seen ear i “eth - by being performed at a season of the year,

od used in generally in the spring, when vegetation is

ae poacing. dormant—at least, when the plant operated
upon is not in full leaf; but there are many exceptions

}

.

‘to such a definition, and it might be better to include

the two subjects of budding and grafting under the general
head of graftage, as they are closely related. ;
Stock is the term used to indicate the plant grafted on,
whether large or small.
Cion is the term used to express the part inserted, of
whatever size or form it may consist. These should ordinarily
be of the new, well ripened growth of the season. If cions are

144 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

to be used in the spring they should generally be cut late in
the fall, as some kinds are liable to be injured by the winter.
However, a spring-cut cion may often be used successfully, but
it is not safe to trust them if, when cut open, the heart wood
appears dark colored. Cions should not be cut when frozen.
They should be stored in moist sawdust or sand in a cold cellar,
or buried in the ground outdoors during the winter. But this
does not apply in the case of plum cions, which generally do
best when cut in the spring as needed. Plum cions are stored
with difficulty as they quite often lose their buds in storage.
Cherry cions are most safely carried through the winter when
packed in moist leaves. If packed in sand or sawdust, they
sometimes become water soaked.

Fig. 72.—Tools used in grafting and budding: 1.—Budding knife.
2.—Grafting knife. 3.—Grafting chisel. 4.—Club mallet.

The principles which underlie grafting are the same as in

budding, i. e., the cions and stock must be closely related; the
work must be done in such a manner that the inside bark of
both cion and stock come closely in contact; and at a season
of the year, and under such circumstances that they may unite
at once, Or aS soon as growth starts. The success of the opera-
tion largely depends (1) on having the stock and cion perfectly
healthy; (2) in selecting the proper season, which varies some-

&.
rae
Ne

te

|

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. - 145

what with the different plants; (3) in getting a perfect union
of the inner bark of cion and stock at least on one side; (4)
in making all the cuts with a sharp knife, that the parts in
contact may have a smooth surface; (5) in doing the work
rapidly, so that the surface may not be exposed.

Grafting wax is generally used for covering the wounds
made in some kinds of grafting. A good grafting wax is one
that will not become too soft in summer, so as to melt and run
down the stock, or so hard in winter as to crack and split off.
A very reliable grafting wax is made by melting together resin,
four (4) parts, by weight; beeswax, two (2) parts; tallow, one
(1) part. When well melted, pour into a pail of cold water,
grease the hands slightly and pull the wax until it is about the
color of pulled molasses candy. Make into balls and store for
use. This wax should be warmed when applied. If it is too
hard, more tallow and less resin may be used. Some propaga-
tors use linseed oil instead of tallow. The linseed oil should
be pure. If adulterated with cottonseed oil, the wax becomes
very stringy and difficult to handle.

Clay is frequently used for covering wounds made by graft-
ing, and it gives quite as good results as any of the waxes, if
properly applied, but is not so convenient. For this purpose
some very tenacious clay should be used, and it is thought to
be improved when mixed with about one-third fresh cow dung
and a little plasterer’s hair. The whole mass should be thor-
oughly worked over and kneaded before using.

Cleft grafting is very common and more universally known
_and used than any other. It is commonly performed to change
the variety of apple, plum and various other trees and plants,
It is generally the most practical method to use on branches
one or two inches in diameter or larger, but it also works well
on small stocks.

Cleft grafting is performed as follows: ‘The place selected
for the insertion of the cion should be where the grain of
the wood is straight. The stock is then cut square off with a
sharp saw and is split through its center, with the grafting
chisel, to a depth sufficient to allow the cion to be put in place.
The cleft is held open by the grafting chisel until the cion

146

Fig.

POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

73.—The cleft graft. 1.—Side vigw of cion eut for grafting.
The opposite side is cut in the same manner, making the lower
end wedge shaped. 2.—The stub with the cions inserted in the
cleft. 3.—The graft waxed. 4.—Cloth wrapped over the wax.
5.—Diagram of cross section of stub with cions inserted. Note
that the cion is inserted in such a manner that the cambium layer
comes in contact with the cambium layer of the stock. Note
also that the cion is cut in such a manner that the side nearest
the center of the stub is a little thinner, thus permitting the

cleft to pinch down closely onto the cion where the cambium is”

located.

:
|
q
2
:

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 147

is cut and inserted, when it is withdrawn, allowing the stock to
close on the cion and so hold it in place. If the stock does not
spring back so as to hold the cion firmly, it should be tightly
drawn together with a string. The numberof cions inserted
will depend on the size of the stock. If the stock is not over
three-quarters of an inch in diameter, one cion is enough to in-
sert, but on larger stocks one may be put in each side of the
cleft. All the cut surfaces, including the ends of the cion, should
now be covered with wax, as shown in fig. 73.

The cion to be inserted in cleft grafting should be cut
wedge-shaped lengthwise and its cross section should also be
wedge-shaped. Fig. 73 represents a cross-section through a
newly made graft, showing cleft in the stock and two cions
in place (note how the edges of the wood come together). Fig.
73 also shows the successive stages in cleft grafting.

Whip grafting is illustrated in fig. 74. When finished, all
the cut surfaces should be covered with grafting wax or waxed
paper. In this form of grafting, it is seldom that the in-
ner barks come together on more than one side of the cion
and stock. It is a method that is very quickly performed by
one accustomed to it, but its use is limited to branches or stems
under three-quarters of an inch in diameter, but for stocks com-
ing within this limit, it is very convenient and reliable. It is
much used by nurserymen in root-grafting apple, pear and
plum seedlings. It is done to a large extent during the win-
ter months, when but little can be accomplished out of doors.

Root-grafting.—_Seedlings, which are dug in autumn and
packed in sawdust or moss in a cold cellar, are taken as need-
ed, to a warm room and cions grafted upon them just be-
low the collar, i. e., the place where the root and top are joined,
where only one graft is made to a root. The kind of graft made
is illustrated in fig. 74 which shows the successive stages of
the work. A common practice among nurserymen is to use a
cion about six inches long and insert it on a root about three
inches long, the treatment in every respect being the same as
where only one graft is made up from each root. In each case,
when completed, the union is wrapped with a strip of paper -
or cloth about three-fourths of an inch wide which has previously

148 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

been covered with grafting wax. Some prefer waxed string for
this covering. The cion should be at least five inches long .
to allow the graft to be set deep and thus encourage rooting
trom the cion. When completed, they should be tied in bundles
and put away, packed in boxes very firmly in clean sand or

Fig. 74.—Root grafting. a—Apple root such as is used in root
grafting. b.—Cion. e—Cion and root prepared for putting to-
gether. d.—vThe graft made. e.—The graft wrapped with waxed
paper,

sawdust, in a cold cellar. Early in the spring they should be
planted in the nursery, about six inches apart, in rows three
feet apart, setting all but the upper bud of the cion below the
‘surface of the ground. It is important to plant the cion deep
so as to encourage it to throw out roots, as the trees are then

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 149

more hardy than when they depend entirely on the seedling root
for support. Great care should be taken to have the soil very

-firm and solid around the base of the root and at the union.

This may be secured in several ways. Some nurserymen use
a large dibber, having a guard on the side to prevent its ge-
ing too deep. With this a hole is made sufficiently wide and
deep to permit the insertion of the graft easily so that not more
than one or two buds project above the ground. To do this
work most expeditiously, the grafts should all be of the same

- length and free from side branches. Two persons should work

together, a man who uses the dibber and a boy who carries the
grafts. The man makes a hole with the dibber, the boy puts
in a graft, when the man immediately makes another hole by
the side of and two inches away from that containing the graft,
and, pressing toward the graft, packs the soil firmly around it.
After-each row is finished in this way, the man should turn back
on the row and press firmly by the side of each graft with the
ball of the foot. _

Another method of planting root-grafts and cuttings, which
is applicable for planting cuttings on a small scale, is as fol-
lows. This is not a fast method but is very excellent for
a few grafts: The thoroughly plowed land is smoothed off, a
line stretched and walked on where the row is to come and
then thrown to one side. With a spade throw out a furrow
along the line, leaving the edge straight and smooth and nine
inches deep. Against.this place the grafts and then with a hoe
turned bottom up push a little earth against the lower part
of the root of each graft, and afterwards draw three inches of
soil into the furrow around the grafts and then press firmly
against each graft with the ball of the foot. Fill the trench
full and repeat the footing process again. A more expeditious
way is to plow out a furrow instead of making it with a spade,
‘and then fill the trench with a plow. In this way the work may

“pe successfully done if the soil is not dry and the season is fa-

vorable. But it pays well to do good work, and, where one has
‘only a few hundred or a thousand grafts to plant, the spade
method is most certain. In planting in a dry time the great
key to success is to have the land firm and solid around the

150

POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

t
root and the union so that there will be no air spaces. ‘This is ;
very important. In two or three years from the root-graft, the

trees will be large enough to be transplanted to the orchard. :
At that time some of the trees will be well rooted. from the -
cion and others will scarcely show any at all. Others may ;
have lost the stock on which they were grafted and be entire- :
ly on their own roots. In this latter case the trees will not .
have made a first class growth, although they may make trees
of good size later on.

Side-grafting.—Side-grafting is a form of union in which the
cion is inserted in a cut made in the side of the plant grafted on

WP 22)
hy) A
LY (0

and the stock is not cut off until the cion has started to grow.
It is especially applicable to cherry seedlings, on which
the union should be made at the crown of the plant,
which is the point on the seedling where the root and top join.
This form of grafting may be successfully used on plums, ap-
ples, and other fruits. If it is done on the branches of a tree ‘

there is no necessity of cutting off the part above the graft un-
til the cion starts into growth.

Grafting below ground.—If grafting is done just below the
surface of the ground the work is more certain of being success-

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 161

ful than if above the surface, and the resulting tree will be
hardier than if the union was above ground, since the weakest
point in a tree (the graft) will be protected by the earth. Of
course, very frequently it is impracticable to do the work in this
manner.’ The methods adapted for grafting below ground are the
same as for above ground, only not so much wax is required.

In grafting below ground, it is important to remove the soil
until a smooth, straight place in the stem igs found of sufficient
length to contain the cion. In the case of most fruits this is
preferably at the crown, i. e., where root and stem meet. It is
important, also, to keep the wounds free from dirt, for however
much it may help to have the whole graft covered in this way,
any soil on the cut surfaces will prevent that desirable close con-
tact of the cells which is necessary for successful work. When
grafting is done below ground, suckers will often start from the
stock in great numbers. These should all be removed or the
graft will be ruined. A little observation soon teaches one to
distinguish at a glance the sprouts from the
stock and cion. In removing these suckers,
they should be pulled away from the stock and
not simply cut off. Only one shoot should be
permitted to grow from each cion and this
should: be the thriftiest and generally that
starting lowest down. The lowest is saved
because, wherever a shoot starts, there is gen-
erally a crook formed, and if near the ground it
is not unsightly.

Night Cap is a term given to signify a paper
bag that is sometimes drawn over and tied be-
low a graft made in the open as soon as it is
completed. It is illustrated in Fig. 76. Its use
is to prevent the shriveling of the cion due to
exposure of drying winds. It is especially de-
sirable in top-grafting trees in dry seasons or
a in exposed locations. It is a very valuable ad-
* Big. 76.—Night- junct to the grafting outfit and its use should

cap. — Graft be more general. Of course the bags should

protected by :
paper bag. be removed as soon as the cions start and the

152 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

stevt~andethe same care should be taken in the use of wax
around the graft as if the night cap were not used.

The following notes on grafting different fruits will perhaps
be of interest: ; ;

Grafting apples.—Top-working and crown-grafting of apples
in the open ground should be done about the time the buds
are nicely started, but the cions should not have started at all.
It is perhaps the easiest of all the fruits to graft, and almost
any method may be employed on it. The cions should be from
four to six inches long.

Top-working.—By top-working is meant the grafting or bud-
ding of a tree after it is of some considerable size. The term
is used to distinguish such trees from those that are root-grafted.
It is here recommended for severe locations and for somewhat
tender kinds, such as the Wealthy in Central Minnesota, which,
besides being somewhat tender and liable to sun-scald, is weak
in the stem and crotches.

If this variety is grafted on the branches of the Hibernal,
which is a very hardy sort with strong crotches, a tree is form-
ed that has much of the hardiness of that variety but at the ©
same time bears Wealthy apples. By this method we may in-
crease the hardiness of trees to a considerable degree. Some
varieties seem to be better adapted to one stock than to an-
other. The Hibernal is a stock that is hardy in every particu-
lar and especially desirable for top-working. It grows rapidly,
makes a large tree and will keep up in rapidity of growth with
any of our larger apples. Most of the larger growing crabs
make good stocks for top-working. The Transcendent Crab
may be successfully used for this purpose. When it is intended
to grow an orchard by this method the stocks should be set in
the spring, to be budded the following August or to be grafted
the following spring. If to be budded the buds should be inserted
in about the same positions in the head of the tree.as the grafts.

Grafting the Plum.—The plum is most successfully grafted
very early in the spring—even before the frost is out of the
ground or a bud has commenced to swell. When done at this
time the work is generally successful, though not as certain as
the apple. It is said that the plum may be grafted very suc-

4
:

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 153

cessfully later in the spring, even after the buds have com-
menced to swell, providing the buds on the cion. are started
as much as those on the stock at the time the work is performed.

The plum may be quite successfully root-grafted in the
house in the winter, as recommended for the apple and treated
the same way, but it generally takes a year longer to get the
tree formed, since in this case the growth from the cion is
quite slow the first two years. On account of this slow growth
root-grafted plum trees are often crooked and unpromising.
This defect, however, may be remedied by cutting away in the
early spring of the second year all the growth from the cion
except one strong bud at the base. If this work is done very
early in the spring it will result in throwing the whole strength
of the root into a single bud and the forming of a stem that is
straight in place of the former crooked one. A much better and
more satisfactory plan than root-grafting is to plant the stocks
in the nursery one year before they are intended to be grafted,
and then graft them below the surface of the ground very early
in the spring. For this purpose cleft or whip-grafting should
be used. When the work is done in this way the result is a
very strong growth from the cion. If the suckers are pinched
off and the whole strength of the root forced into one shoot, the
result, on right land and in the case of strong, healthy stock, will
be to give a growth often exceeding four feet in height. Some-
times the growth in this latter case will be so heavy that the

-branches are liable to be broken off in the wind, and should

be tied to stakes with soft string. The cions should be from
four to six inches long. :

Grafting the Cherry.—The cherry may be root-grafted in-
doors in the winter. When this is done, side-grafting is employ-
ed and gives results far ahead of any other method. But with
the best of care the losses from in-door grafting of this fruit

‘make it very unsatisfactory. Much better results will be achiev-

ed by side-grafting them at the crown of the plant on stocks well
established in the open ground, as in the plan recommended for
propagation of the plum. In regard to this fruit it is also re-
ported that, as in the case of the plum, the work may be done
after the stocks start into growth a little, providing the cions

154 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

are as far advanced. The cions should be from four ‘to six
inches long.

Grafting the Peach is occasionally practiced but it seldom
gives best results. Its most common use is on stocks on which
the buds have failed to grow and it is sometimes very successful.

Grafting the Grape is done most safely very early in the
spring, even before a sign of growth appears, but it may also be
grafted about the time the first leaves are nicely expanded, if
the cions are kept dormant until that time. The work should al-
ways be done below the surface of the ground. Any form of
graft may be used, but that most commonly used is cleft-graft-
ing, as described. In making a cleft-graft upon a grape
root it is often necessary to saw the cleft in the stock with a
fine saw, on account of the crooked, twisted grain of the wood,
which does not allow it to split straight. Some growers do not
use any wax around the graft but simply cover it with a mound
of well packed earth up to the upper bud of the cion. In graft-
ing after the leaves are expanded some propagators prefer to
use side-grafting, and do not cut the vine severely until it is -
believed the cion has grown fast to the stock, when the vine is
cut entirely away. Whip-grafting is also used for this purpose.
The cions should be about six or eight inches long.

To change varieties in a vineyard grafting on a cane from the
old vine is sometimes practiced.. In this case a cane from the
old vine long enough to reach nearly midway between the vines
is grafted with a cion which should be at least two feet long.
When grafted the graft, including the cane and cion, should be
buried six inches deep, the end bud of the cion being brought
above the ground where the new vine is desired. The following
year the old vine may be largely cut away and the growth from
the cion will take its place. This method is not so neat as when
the vine is cut off and grafted below at the surface of the ground,
but it has the merit of being very much more certain of not neces-
sitating the destruction of the old vine until a new one is estab-
lished. ; ;

Grafting by approach or inarching is a form of grafting in
which the branches of growing plants are brought together. It
is sometimes used to change the bearing of vines or treés, or to

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 155

grow two branches or stems together. It is much used in propa-
gating such ornamental trees as cut-leaved and purple birches.
It may be done at any time during the growing season and on
any flexible growth of whatever age. It is formed by shaving
out a piece of bark and wood from the stock and from the cion,
of the same size and in such a way that the inner barks of each
may be tied together. If this is done even so late as the middle
of July they will grow firmly together before winter. It is cus-
tomary, when this method is to be used for propagation, to either
set a lot of small plants around the one from which the cions
are to come, or to grow them in pots and set pots and plants
near by. When the branches have united they are permitted to
grow until autumn, then the cions are cut off just below the
union and the plants with the cions on them are heeled in for
winter or protected in some other way. No wax is needed, as the
union is very sure if the parts are closely tied together. This is
a very safe and sure method and is easily performed, even by
the novice. °

QUESTIONS—CHAPTER VIII.

1. For what purposes are plants propagated from seed?

2. What is meant by stratification?

3. What kinds of seed are stratified?

4. What are offsets and how are plants propagated from them?
5. What are layers? Spring layers? Summer layers? Mound

6. What plants are adapted to propagation by layers?
7. When are layers made?
8 How are cuttings made?
9. What are soft “wood euttings?
10. What are hard wood cuttings?
11. What conditions are necessary for successful growing of
hard wood cuttings?
- 12. When should they be made?
13. What soil is best for planting cuttings?
14. How should they be planed and when?
15. What is the solar pit?
16. How is it made and for what purpose?
17. What does graftage include?
18. What are the limits of graftage?
19. What is meant by stock, cion?
20. When is budding practicable?
21. What is the best stock to be budded upon?
22. What is the bud-stick?
23. When is the best time for budding?
24. What conditions are necessary for Sdeccee an budding?
25. What implements are necessary?
26. What material is used for tying the buds?

156

POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

How are the buds cut from the bud-stick?

When is the bark in the best condition for budding?
Describe the process of inserting the bud in the stock.

What precautions must be taken in budding?

What care is necessary in the spring and fall, after the buds

have started? ?

How should the buds be protected from winter injury?
When and where is June budding practiced?

How do June-budded trees differ from other budded trees?
How is June budding performed on peaches and plums in the

What is shield budding? Flute budding?

What is the difference between grafting and budding?
What precautions must be taken in budding?

What is grafting wax used for?

How is it made?

What other materials can be used instead of grafting wax?
How is cleft-grafting performed?

What tools are necessary for cleft-grafting?

How should the cion be cut for cleft-grafting?

How does whip-grafting differ from cleft-grafting?

How and when are root grafts made?

How are they planted? On.a large scale? On a small scale?
, What care should be taken when planting the grafts in a dry

" What is side-grafting?

What fruit plants is it best adapted to?

What advantage is there in grafting below the ground?
How should the work be done?

For what purpose is the night cap used?

How are apples grafted?

How are they budded?

What is the result of top-working varieties?

What is meant by top-working?

How is the plum most successfully grafted?

How is the plum root-grafted? ;
What forms of grafting are used on the cherry with best

’ How is the peach grafted?

When is the grape grafted?

What methods are “used?

How may the varieties in a vineyard be changed by graft-

What is ‘‘inarching’”’ and when is it used?

wre

CHAPTER IX.
POME FRUITS. ‘
THE APPLE.

’ Origin of the Cultivated Apple.

Classes of Apples:

(a). The true apples have descended from the Pyrus malus
of Europe. Characteristics: Woolly twigs, on new growth, calyx
and flower stems; fruit, various but always holding its calyx,
i. e., the parts of the flower Commonly found on the end of the
fruit; leaves, thicker and broader and the twigs thicker than
those of the crab apples (P. baccata). The common apple e
commerce comes from this species.

(b) The crab apples have descended from the Pyrus baccata
of Europe and Asia. In Europe the term “crab” is often applied
to any small inferior kind of an apple which may be said to be
crabby. Characteristics: Growth, smoother and more wiry than
that of the true apple; leaves, narrower, thinner and with longer
stems; flower clusters and leaves seldom woolly; fruit, small on
long, wiry, slender stems; seed, enclosed in hard, close fitting
hulls; calyx falls off when the fruit is mature. There are few, if
any, of these pure crabs in cultivation. Possibly, however, the
Yellow and red Siberian crabs are of this parentage.

(ec) Hybrid erabs are sometimes known to botanists as Py-
rus prunifolia. They are undoubtedly the result of crosses be-
tween the true crabs and the larger apples. In this group are in-
cluded most of the so-called crabs of commerce, such as the
Transcendent, Hyslop, Sweet Russett, Excelsior and others. In
them are to be found the quality of the P. malus and the P. bac-
cata, mixed in various proportions.

(d) Pyrus coronaria, the largest of Western crabs, has a
form which has become known as Pyrus ioensis. This is a native
of the Mississippi Valley and eastward. Characteristics: Tree,
vigorous, especially when young; young growth, woolly; leaves,
often deeply indented; fruit, green or later yellowish, aromatic,

158 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

hard, bitter, keeps through the winter; resembles quince in
quality and used like the quince for making an excellent jelly.

There are but few varieties of this in cultivation, among
them are the Soulard and the Fluke. It does not readily cross
with the cultivated apple.

Groups of Apples:

Among cultivated varieties of apples we. often find several
that closely resemble one another in fruit, foliage and habit.
Some of these groups are as follows:

(a) The Fameuse group includes Fameuse, Shiawassee
Beauty, McIntosh and St. Lawrence.

(b) The Duchess of Oldenburg group includes Duchess,

Boroyinka, Gilbert and Charlamoff.

(c) The Ben Davis group includes Ben Davis, Gano, Shock-
ley and Black Ben Davis.

Other groups will suggest themselves to those acquainted
with many varieties of apples.

For describing apples a certain convenient nomenclature has
been adopted. It frequently happens that the color, shape and
quality of fruits are changed by soil and location. The character-
istic appearance of the wood and foliage, however, is less liable
to change; in the identification of fruits it is often necessary to
take them into account as well as the fruit, and a good descrip-
tion should include the tree as well as the fruit. These terms, as
applied to the growth of a tree, are “strong and vigorous,” as
the Duchess of Oldenburg; “vigorous and slender,” as Anisim;
“stout and short jointed,” as the Yellow Transparent.

For the general form of the tree the term “upright spread-
ing” would indicate the Duchess; “spreading” the Roxbury Rus-
sett; “upright” the Whitney; “round headed” the Red Astrachan.

In describing the fruit the word “base” means the part of
the apple at the stem end; “apex,” the portion at the blossom
end; “cavity” is the depression around the stem; “basin,” the
depression around the flower end; “calyx,” the so-called flower
in the apex of the apple. ‘The general form is referred to as be-
ing “round,” “oblate,” “conical,” and “oblong,” which terms are
illustrated in fig. 77. As regards size, apples, when under two
and a half inches in diameter, are said to be small; when from

¢

:
;

APPLE. 159

two and a half to three and a half inches in diameter they are
termed “medium,” and above this, “large.”

~

ooo se
——> be

Fig. 77.—Forms of apples. a.—QOblong. b.—Round. e.—Conical.
d.—Oblate. Numbers refer as follows: 1. Stem. 2. Cavity. 3.
Calyx. 4. Basin. 5. Core.

Propagation of Varieties:

Apples are commonly propagated

(a) By root-grafting in-doors in winter on whole or piece
roots.

(b) By crown-grafting in the field in spring.

(c) By budding.

160 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. y

Various other forms of graftage may be successfully used
in growing the apple as it is easily worked in this way.

Stocks for the Apple: '

(a) Seedlings of vigorous, hardy sorts are commonly used
as stocks for the apple in the best apple districts and little at-
tention is paid to the source of the seed.

In the Central and Northwestern states, where the winters
are severe and the snowfall often scanty, the apple is liable to
winter injury and much care is taken in getting hardy stocks.
For this purpose seedlings of the hardiest varieties are sought.

(b) Seedlings of hardy hybrid crabs are now much favored
{cr severe locations and are giving good results, but are not suf-
ciently tested so that their value can be definitely stated. It
seems from present experience that their use should be extended.

(c) Seedlings of the pure Pyrus baccata are of great hardi-
ness and are now being widely experimented with in severe loca-
tions, especially in Minnesota and the Dakotas. Some varieties
do well on it when budded or grafted at the crown while other
kinds unite poorly with it and there is at least something of a
question as to its future usefulness as a stock.

(d) Dwarf apples are formed by working them on the Para-
dise stock, which is a dwarf apple stock much used in Europe
for this purpose but seldom used in America. It makes small
trees that are adapted to training in various forms.

(2) Top-working or grafting the tops of trees is practiced in
some sections to change the bearing of trees and to overcome
weaknesses in the trunk of certain kinds, such as the Wealthy,
which ‘is liable to canker in the crotches in Minnesota and the
Dakotas. ‘Some varieties are much more productive when top-
worked than when merely root-grafted.

Location of the apple orchard.—The best location for an

apple orchard is on high northern slopes tipping down to the
northeast, and the steeper the slope the better, provided it does
not interfere with cultivation. The northern slope is preferred
because it is least affected by drouth, sudden changes of temper-
ature, and by drying winds, which very uniformly come from the
South. However, some excellent orchards in the Northwest are
located on southern slopes. Jt is important to plant apple trees

ees

es ee

APPLE. 161

on the highest land available. Even if the elevation is not more
than ten feet above the general level of the adjacent country,
it is a great advantage in furnishing air-drainage and thus equal-
izing the temperature and lessening the danger from frost in
the blossoming period. _

The worst location for an orchard is what is called a warm
_ sheltered spot, where the sun das free access and the winds are
entirely’ shut off. Into such a place the cold air from the sur-
rounding higher elevations settles, making it cold at night and the
hottest place during the day. Blight and winter killing are apt
to be abundant in such a place. In some sections—most generally
those protected by water or forests of wooded hills—but little,
if any, difference is to be noticed in the growth and productive-
ness of trees on the various exposures, while in exposed places
this difference is very marked. :

Windbreaks.—A free circulation of air is very desirable in
an orchard, and full exposure is better than shutting it in too
closely, yet in a full wind-swept exposure, the best conditions
for a successful orchard are not found. It should be surrounded
with windbreaks on the exposed sides, sufficient to somewhat
break the force of the wind but not heavy enough to prevent a
good circulation of air through the orchard at any time. It is
much more important to have a windbreak on the south and west
sides of an orchard than on the north or east, for it is from the
former directions that the most injurious winds come from.

The land best adapted to the growth of apples is what might
be called a deep, open, clayey loam, that is well drained, either
naturally or artificially, and does not suffer severely from drouth
or excess of water. However, the apple may be grown success-
fully on almost any soil, even on that which is dry and gravelly, °
providing it has a reasonable amount of plant food; but orchards
require more careful management in severe situations than in
those which are favorable and of course are not as long lived and
productive. :

The soil for apple orchards must be retentive and rich in
plant food, for it is impossible to raise good fruit 6n poor soil.
Sufficient moisture can generally be secured by heavy mulching,
and the newer soils of the Northern states are generally rich

162 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

enough for apples without manuring; indeed, heavy, black prairie
loam is generally so rich in plant food that it stimulates in most
varieties of apples a late growth, especially when the autumn
is warm and moist, and only the hardiest kinds, such as those
that do not make a late growth in autumn, should be planted in
such locations.

Fig. 78.—Various kinds of roots on apple trees. a.—Cut-too short.
b.—Stock has died and roots have been sent out from the cion.
e.—Similar to b, but with more fibrous roots. d.—A good form
well dug, in which the stock is still preserved.

If the sub-soil is a very hard clay that the roots can scarcely

“penetrate, very deep plowing should be resorted to; but as this is

not deep enough to give the roots much of a chance in very hard,

dry clays, the holes should be dug very deep. A better way than
digging holes into such hardpan is to explode a medium charge of

ee a a oe

APPLE. 163

dynamite in each hole, which will so loosen the soil that the roots

can penetrate it. In some locations, such treatment will make all

the difference between success and failure.

Trees should be selected that are vigorous and healthy, with
plenty of strong roots. It is really of little importance what the
size or form of the top of the tree may be, provided it has good
roots and is healthy and free from blemishes; for, if vigorous,
the form of the top may be readily changed. The best trees are
those, not over four years old, that have made moderate but not
rapid growth in the nursery. Three-year-old trees, of most va-
rieties, are generally the best to set. Two-year-old trees do very

well and are often as good as any. One-year-old trees are too

small to conveniently cultivate around them in the field and are
better off in the nursery for another year.

Seedlings.—Apple seed grows readily and generally forms
plants about twelve inches high, with tap-roots of about the
same length, the first season. The seed does not reproduce in
quality the fruit it was taken from, and probably not one seedling
in a thousand is as good as any of the better cultivated kinds.
Seedlings, however, are raised in large quantities, to be used in
grafting and to increase the named varieties. Apple seed is gen-
erally obtained by washing out the pomace from cider mills. The
seeds are heavier than the pulp and are readily separated from it
by water. It is best not to allow the seed to get very dry after
cleaning, and on this account some growers prefer to sow it in
the fall shortly after cleaning, while others mix it with sand and
keep it buried in the ground until spring. If the seed gets very
dry it often fails to start, or does not start for one year, unless
scalded or mixed with moist sand and allowed to freeze and thaw
arfew times. In a small way the seed may be kept mixed with
sand and buried in a box in the ground until spring, when it
should be put in a warm place until it starts into growth a little.
It should then be sown in drills three inches deep and about three
feet apart, in rich, warm soil, sowing about twenty seeds to the
foot.

Root grafted trees should always be preferred to those that
are budded for severe sections, although in the case of hardy
trees that have already been root-grafted, budding is as good as

164 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

grafting to change the bearing qualities, where extremely hardy
stocks are used. The objection to budded trees is not in the
method of propagation, but in the fact that the buds must be in-
serted above or close to the ground in a seedling root which is
often of doubtful hardiness and may be quite tender and the bud
is partly exposed above ground, where it is liable to fail at
any time. Root-grafted trees have the graft below ground and
send out roots from above the graft, which increases the hardi-
ness of the tree. Quite frequently the roots of a budded or graft- —
ed tree will be tender and kill out, while the top is healthy and
sound, consequently it is desirable to have the roots as hardy
as the top. But as this is not always practicable, every effort
should be made to get the hardiest roots obtainable. In most
favorable locations, budded trees may be just as desirable as
those which are root-grafted. The kind of root-graft; whether it
is made with whole or piece roots, makes but little difference
to the ordinary planter, who should try especially to get good
trees and then be careful to plant the graft well below the sur-
face of the ground. |

.Planting.—For planting, the land should be in as good condi-
tion as is required for corn. The work of planting will be greatly
facilitated if the land is furrowed out both ways with a large
plow, and the trees set at the intersections. If the trees must be
set in sod, a hole five feet in diameter should be dug for each tree;
no grass should be allowed to grow in this space, and it should
be heavily mulched.. In setting the trees, the holes should be
made large enough to take in all the roots without crowding. If
it is necessary to set trees into the subsoil, as it often is, then in
digging the holes the top-soil should be kept separate from the
sub-soil and be put back in the bottom of the hole so as to be in
contact with the roots. The roots should be evenly spread out
in the hole and the fine top soil carefully worked among them so
as not to leave any air spaces between or under them. If the
soil is dry it can hardly be made too solid around the roots. If
wet, but little pressure should be used.

The time to plant.—In the extreme North, fruit trees should
never be set in the fall of the year as they are then especially
liable to winter injury, nor should they be dug from the nursery

4
2
4

APPLE. 165

rows in the spring, as they are very liable to have been weakened
by unfavorable winter conditions and will often start poorly. They
should be dug in the autumn and buried root and branch—“heeled
in”—in dry soil until spring, or else be carried over the winter in
a cold cellar. As few cellars are fit for this purpose it is gener-
ally safer to bury them outside. As .a rule, it is best for plant-
ers to get their trees in the fall, as they are then more certain
to get good stock, and there is no delay in waiting for them to

‘come in the spring. The trees may be set as soon as the soil

works easily in the spring, and until the trees break into leaf.
Usually moderately early planting gives the best results, but it
is bad practice to set trees in wet, sticky soils.

In the more favorable sections for apple growing there is
very little danger of trees in the nursery being injured in winter
and hence it is safe to dig the trees in the spring and set them
out. Autumn planting is also successful with apples in very
favorable locations but must be done with much care for best
results.

Autumn planting.—While it is best, as a rule, to plant trees
in the spring, yet it is quite practical to plant apples, plums,
and most other fruit trees in the autumn, provided that they are
afterwards laid on the ground on the approach of winter and
covered with earth and a little mulch. This makes considerable
additional labor over spring planting. On the other hand, how-
ever, it permits of planting in the autumn when the general farm
and garden work is not as pressing as in the spring. It really
amounts to the “heeling in” of each tree separately. In the spring
the trees should be uncovered and straightened up before growth |
starts, and they are then all ready to go on and grow.

“Heeling in” is a term used to designate the temporary bury-
ing of the roots of trees or plants in earth or other material. If
the trees are to be moved again within a few days, a very light
covering will be sufficient; but if they are to remain several weeks
much care should be taken to do the work well. To begin with,
select a dry, mellow piece of ground; dig a wide ditch, put in
the trees—a few at a time—either in an erect or sloping posi-
tion, and cover them so deep and firm that they cannot dry out.
If apples or some other somewhat tender trees are to remain

166 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

“heeled in” over winter, it will be found best to commence by
digging a trench about two feet deep and three feet wide in dry
land, where no water will stand in the trenches; put in a layer of
trees, Sloping; cover over the roots with a thin layer of fine, mel-

beat pate ice ee a a a oe Se Sag ee

Fig. 79.—Heeling-in. Showing methods followed in heeling-in trees
of orchard transplanting size.

low earth, filling in carefully and solid all the interstices among
the stems and roots; continue thus until all the trees are in, when
the tops should be bent to the ground and covered with a few
inches of earth.

Depth to plant.—In the best locations, the trees should be
set about four inches deeper than they grew in the nursery. In
very dry, light soil, they may be put, perhaps, twelve inches deeper
than they naturally grew. On steep hillsides, they must be sét much
deeper or they will come too near the surface, owing to the slope of
the land. One of the most important objects secured by deep
planting is the sending out of roots from the cion, for when
trees are well rooted from the cion they are generally much im-
proved in hardiness. However, in deep, retentive soil deep plant-
ing is not desirable.

Distance apart to plant.—In favorable locations apples should
be set farther apart than where the conditions are very severe.
Most varieties do best toward the northern limits of apple growing

APPLE. 167

when not over thirty feet apart. In fayorable apple districts
in the Eastern states apple trees are generally set 35 to 40 feet
apart, while in some of the Pacific Coast fruit sections, where
the trees seldom become large, they are set out 25 to 30 feet apart.
Apple trees should be set so as to “break joints” north and south
—that is, the trees in one row should be set opposite the vacan-
cies in the next. If the rows run northeast and southwest the
trees will shade one another on the southwest side, which is the
side most liable to injury from the sun.

Cultivation.—Young orchards should be cultivated in some
hoed crop which does not necessitate the working of the soil in
autumn, but will keep the land well cultivated early in the sum-
mer. For this purpose corn, early potatoes or squash are good
crops. Do not sow the ordinary small grains in orchards. Buck-
wheat, however, seems to be an exception to the rule, and on
account of its dense shade is a very good crop for this purpose.

' After the trees begin to bear it is often a good plan to seed the
land to clover, which should be broken up occasionally. The
trees, however, should be well mulched with stable litter and, if
they do not make a satisfactory growth, should be manured.
When an orchard becomes “sod bound” nothing will do it more
good than a drove of hogs, sufficient to root up all the sod, but
they must not be allowed to gnaw the trees. Besides breaking
up the sod the hogs are very beneficial in destroying many kinds
of insects.

Forming the tree.—Whatever the shape of the tree when it
is received from the nursery, it will need careful attention in
the orchard. The question whether to grow trees with a long
or short trunk is a much disputed one; but it may be laid down
as a general rule that in favorable locations the trunks of the
hardier kinds should be free from branches for fully three feet
from the ground, but in such cases they may need some protec-
tion from sunscald. In very severe and exposed locations, or
in the case of somewhat tender varieties, it will be better to
have the trees branch near the ground. When formed in this way,
they are hardier and less exposed to the wind than if they have
tall trunks. There is a constant tendency for trees to incline to
the northeast, and this should be prevented as far as possible.
To do this, the growth should be encouraged on the southwest

168 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

side by light summer pruning on the north side. Also, in set-
ting the trees, they should be slightly inclined to the southwest
‘and an effort made to keep them in that direction.

Sprouting from the roots.—In the case of young thrifty trees,
such as the Wealthy and some other kinds, even with trees up
to six inches in diameter, vigorous sprouts will often be pro-

Fig. 80.—Apple trees of various forms showing method of pruning
for planting.

duced from the trunk when the top is badly injured and such

sprouts will make profitable trees. This has been the experience

in Minnesota where trees have been killed back in severe win-

ters.

Mulching.—The advantage of a mulch around trees in ap-
ple orchards is not generally appreciated. It checks evaporation
and prevents the running off of water and allows it to soak into
the ground. It helps to equalize the moisture in the soil through-
out the growing season, and prevents root-killing in winter. It
is of the greatest assistance in rather dry locations, where its
ase makes success possible with many varieties‘ that otherwise

APPLE. 169

would be complete failures. In almost any soil of the North-
west the chances of trees living and doing well would be in-
ereased by the use of a mulch around them, but this is especially
true of trees on sandy land and in southern exposures. It is
generally best to cultivate the land around trees when they are
small; but if they are set on sod land, or after they begin to
bear, or if they suffer from. drouth, they should be heavily
mulched at once, and this should be renewed as often as nec-
essary to keep a covering five or six inches in depth on the
ground at all times extending at least four feet on all sides of the
tree, and, in the case of larger trees, extending out as far as
the branches. Trees that are mulched should for best results
have the mulch removed and the soil spaded up around them
E each spring. Mulch, however, encourages the presence of mice
which are liable to gnaw the bark from the stems which must
be protected against them. . :

The varieties of the apple differ greatly in their resistance
to severe climatic conditions. Some varieties have wonderful
hardiness and recuperative qualities and are adapted to a wide
range as, for instance the Oldenburg, Baldwin, Ben Davis and
Tolman Sweet, while others are adapted only to a limited range,
like the Newtown Pippin. There are a large number of differ-
ent kinds, although but few of them are cultivated in a large
way commercially. ‘The varieties of the first degree of hardiness
are recommended by the Minnesota State Horticultural Society
and may be taken as illustrating the kinds that should be tried in
the most severe northern sections. They are Hibernal, Duchess
of Oldenburg, Charlamoff, Patten’s Greening and Okabena.
This list illustrates the way in which we are developing an
-_ American pomology of our own, for of this list the first three
are of northern European origin and the last two are American
seedlings; one, Patten’s Greening, originated in northern Iowa;
the other, Okabena, originated in southwestern Minnesota.

The principal varieties of apples cultivated in the large
commercial orchards of the chief apple-growing regions include
the Baldwin, Ben Davis, Gano, Winesap, Greening, Grimes Gold-
en, Jonathan, Missouri Pippin, Northern Spy, Oldenburg, Tol-
man Sweet and Wealthy.

170 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING, ©

The insects and diseases commonly attacking the apple are

the codlin moth, flat headed apple tree borer, tent caterpillar, —

apple curculio, apple leaf lice, and among the common diseases
are scab and fire blight. See Chapter III, Insects, and Chapter
IV, Diseases.

Pear.

Pear growing has been an important matter in the North-
eastern states since the early settlement of the country, anid
has attained great commercial importance in parts of California
of late years. In the interior ‘states the pear has been subject
to fire blight and its cultivation has made little progress. In
the Gulf states the sand pear hybrids only are grown. The pear
is probably nearly as hardy as the apple against climatic trou-
bles. ;

Origin—The commonly cultivated pear of America and
Europe has been developed from the wild pear (Pyrus com-
munis) of Europe and Asia. In its native state the fruit is hard
and inferior. Pliny said of the pears in his time that they all
had to be cooked to be eaten. The greatest improvement in
pears was made by Von Mons in Belgium early in the nine-
teenth century. He originated many of the best kinds now
grown. f

The Chinese
Sand Pear (Pyrus
sinensis) was in-
troduced into this
country about the
middle of the last
century and was
for many years
cultivated mostly
as a curiosity and
for ornament. It
is a vigorous tree,
with broad, shin-
ing, very resist-

Fig. 81.—Forms of Pears. A.—Solid line shows :
obtuse pyriform. Dotted line, round. B.— ant foliage and
Solid line shows oblong obovate. Dotted ¢onspicuous fruit
line, acute pyriform.

PHAR. 171

so gritty, hard and acid as to be valueless for des-
sert purposes but useful like the quince when _ cooked.
It readily crosses with the ordinary pear (P. communis) of

gardens and a large number of more-or less mixed seedlings

has been the result. Among these are two that have become
commercially valuable. These are the Kieffer and the Le Conte.
The Le Conte was for a long time thought to be entirely resistant

_to fire blight and especially adapted to the Southern States, but of

late years it has been badly affected with this disease and now
fhe Kieffer is regarded as the most reliable even in the South,
although it is not entirely resistant to the fire blight. At the
North, and over a wide range of territory, the Kieffer has prov-
en a profitable sort on account of its fine appearance and keep-
ing qualities, although of inferior quality. It is also less liable
to attacks of the San Jose scale, at least in Some locations, than
varieties of P. communis. ;

The flowers of the pear are perfect and yet there are many
varieties that are most certain only when grown mixed in the
orchard with other kinds and it is now a customary practice to
mix the varieties in the orchard. This weakness of pears does
not seem to be constant but varies possibly according to soil
and location.

Standard pears.—What are known as Standard pears are
worked on seedlings of the small wild crabby pears which are
common in Europe, botanically the Pyrus nivalis, or on seedlings
of the Oriental pears. These have lots of plump seed and
are vigorous and thrifty. Most of the stocks used in this coun-
try are imported from Europe. The seedlings are not easily
grown as they are liable to leaf blight when young.

Dwarf pears.—When the pear is worked on what is known
as quince stocks, the resultant trees are dwarf in size and bear
fruit very young. Some varieties of the pear bear best and
the fruit is of improved quality when worked on this stock.
The stocks for this purpose are generally grown by layering
the vigorous Angers quince. The layers are then planted out
in nursery rows and when growing thriftily are budded or
grafted in spring with the pear. The pear does not make a good
union on the Japanese quince and all attempts to use it for this
purpose have failed.

172 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

If dwarf pears are planted deep, they throw out roots above
the graft and then become Standards, but quince stock must be
below ground for protection. An observant person can easily dis-
tinguish the dwarf pear trees that have roots from the cion
by their greater vigor and, if desired, these pear roots may be
cut off and the strong growth checked. :

Dwarf pears have the merit of fruiting very young and
heavily, often when only three years from the bud. They are
especially fitted for the small garden and of little importance

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Fig. 82.—Some of the peculiar ways in which pear trees are com-
monly pruned in French gardens.

otherwise. Dwarf pears need to have their new wood shortened
each year if they are to be kept in compact form, otherwise
they get too rangy. About twelve feet is the proper distance
between them. The Duchess pear is the most popular sort for
growing on quince roots.

PEAR. 173

Thorns, (Crataegus), Mountain Ash and even Shad Bush
(Amalanchier canadensis) have been used as pear stocks with
fair results. The Mountain Ash is occasionally used for this
purpose in Sweden, where ordinary pear stocks are tender.

The Kieffer pear is sometimes grown from cuttings in the
South and used as a siock for the pear.

Propagation.—The pear is grown in practically the sume
Ways as the apple, that is, (a) by crown-grafting in the
fields, (b) by root-grafting in the house in winter on whole
roots—in this case the growth is generally quite slow the first
year, (c) by budding in summer.

Soil and cultivation.—The pear needs a rich, retentive soil
but thrives on a variety of soils and especially likes a rather
hard sub-soil clay. It is short lived on soils of a loose, open
texture. Fire blight is especially troublesome on soils where
the trees make a very rapid growth and it is the practice of
some growers to keep the land in sod to prevent too rapid
growth of wood. Yet the pear orchard must not be allowed to
become so firmly bound in sod that the trees are prevented from
making a reasonable growth. Nitrogenous manures and the use
of nitrogenous cover crops should generally be avoided in the
pear orchard and most attention given to the use of potash and
phosphoric acid.

Trees and Bene ng vous thrifty trees, about two years
from the bud or three years from the root graft, are best for
planting. Standard pears are generally planted 16x16 or 20x20
feet apart, according to the form and size of the varieties. Pears
generally bear paying crops younger than apples. This quality,
however, varies with the different kinds.

Pruning.—Pears need more pruning than apples when young.
During the first few years after planting, the few central shoots
that often seem to occupy all the attention of the tree when
young should be pinched or shortened except the strongest cen-
tral shoot, which should be preserved through the life of the
tree. Proper attention to this when the trees are young will
develop a head that will need but little training after the trees
commence to bear.

Fruit.—Pears vary gr catty in size, quality, aby and form, and
also in season of ripening, from early summer to late winter.

174 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Some are valuable only for cooking, others are of finest dessert
quality. The fruit should be protected by spraying and should
be picked when full grown, even if very hard, as they are im-
proved by being ripened under cover. Some varieties that
water core badly on the tree are exempt from it when the
fruit is ripened under cover. Fruit allowed to hang long on ~
the trees in autumn does not keep well. :

The fruit is marketed as fresh fruit, dried, canned and used
for making pear cider known as “perry.”

Insects and diseases commonly attacking the pear are
much the same as those attacking the apple. The pear is, if
anything, more liable to fire blight than the apple. See Chapter
III, Insects, and Chapter IV, Diseases.

The varieties of the pear that are most popular include the
Bartlett, Kieffer, Clairgeau, Anjou, Howell, Sheldon, Seckel and
Nelis. The Duchess is the most popular dwarf kind. By the
proper selection of varieties the season for the pear may be
extended from early summer to late winter, but the very early,
and especially the very late, pears are not of the best quality
and are generally supplanted by the apple which is more easily
grown.

Quince.

Origin.—The quince (Cydonia vulgaris) is a fruit of com-
paratively little importance. It is a native of Asia and South-~
eastern Hurope. There are not many varieties of it and few
of these are much known. The plant is a shallow rooted shrub,
seldom over twelve feet high, and is sometimes trained to the
tree form. It is chiefly grown in New York, New England and
on the Pacific coast. It prefers a cool, rather moist climate and
is uncertain elsewhere. There is a demand for it in most of the
markets of the Northern states.

Flowers.—The flowers of the quince much resemble those
of the apple but are larger and more open, are white, shaded to
pink, are produced singly at the ends of the twigs and are very
ornamental. They are supposed to be self-fertile.

Propagation.—The quince is easily propagated. The most
common ways are as follows:

(a) Cuttings of the new wood planted in autumn (com-
mon) and from cuttings of the surface roots igen ane

QUINCE. 175

(b) Mound layering, i. e., by piling the soil up among the
stems which causes them to root, after which they are sepa-
rated and set out.

(c) Budding or grafting the cultivated kinds on the free
growing Angers Quince (uncommon).

(d) By grafting long quince cions on pieces of apple roots,
perhaps one or two inches long, which are broken off in one year
and the plants then obtained on their own roots. This method
is generally successful and especially desirable with some kinds
that do not grow easily from cuttings. It is customary to use
the short pieces of apple root commonly wasted in root- grafting
the apple, for this purpose.

(e) The quince grows well from seed which starts readily.
The fruit of seedlings may be either pear or apple shaped.

Soil and planting.—Rich, retentive, not moist soil is best.
Sandy soils are not so desirable as clay soils. The bushes

should be planted out about twelve feet apart each way. Avoid

cultivation of the soil as much as possible, especially in late sum-
mer, and avoid stable manure, as these have a tendency to en-
courage fire blight. Nitrogenous fertilizers and nitrogenous
eover crops should be avoided. Fertilizers containing potash
and phosphoric acid are best.

Pruning.—Little pruning is required, ut to keep the
suckers off from the roots and trunks. The trees should branch
close to the ground.

Picking..—The fruit should be picked when it begins to
turn yellow and it must be handled with great care, as it
bruises easily. If stored in a cool place the fruit will keep a
month or more. It is used only for cooking when it has a

peculiar and delicious quality quite its own. Most of it is pre-

served in the form of jelly or marmalade but when baked it
makes a desirable dessert.

Insects and diseases.—The quince is attacked by nearly the
same insects and diseases that affect the apple and pear and is
especially liable to leaf rust, fire blight and leaf blight. See
Chapter [Ii, Insects, and Chapter IV, Diseases.

The varieties of the quince commonly grown are the Orange,
Champion, Rea and Meech.

176

SO QO DN STR G9 bo

POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. i

QUESTIONS—CHAPTER IX. .
Apples.
Into what classes may apples be divided?
Characterize each. :
Into what groups of varieties may apples be divided?
What terms are applied in descriptions of apples?
How are apples propagated?
What stocks are used in different localities?
How are dwarf apples formed?
What is meant by ‘‘top-working?’’
What is the best location for an apple orchard?
What is a poor location for an apple orchard?
Of what advantage is a windbreak to an orchard?
hat soil is best adapted to apple growing?
With what kind of trees should the orchard be started?
How are seedlings grown and for what purpose?
How is apple’ seed obtained?
How is it cared for and planted?
What are the merits of root-grafted trees?
What are the merits of budded trees?
How should apple trees be set out?
What care should be taken in planting?
When is the best time to plant trees?
When should autumn planting be practiced?
What is meant by ‘‘heeling in?’’
How are plants heeled in?
What depths should trees be set?
How far apart should trees be planted?
What cultivation do orchards require?
What pruning should be done?
In what case should sprouting from the roots be encouraged?
What are the advantages of a mulch in the orchard?
When and how should a mulch be .applied?
What varieties are best adapted to the North? To the South?
What varieties are most grown for commercial use?
Pear.
In what sections of the country is the pear grown?
Of what country is the pear a native? é
What are the characteristics of the Chinese sand pear?
What is the origin of the Le Conte and Kieffer pears?
What are Standard pears?
What are dwarf pears used for?
What are their characteristics?
What trees are used as stock for the pears?
How is the pear propagated? z
What cultivation and soil is best for the pear?
How should young trees be planted out?
What pruning do the trees need?
What are the qualities of the fruit?
How is the fruit marketed?
What insects and diseases are injurious to the pear?
What are some of the common varieties of the pear?
How are pears packed for market?
Quince.
Of what country is the quince a native?
What are the characteristics of the quince?
In what ways may the quince be propagated?
What soil and cultivation is best for the quince?
What pruning does the tree require?
When should the fruit be picked?
For what is it used?
What are the common varieties of the quince?

CHAPTER X.
THE STONE FRUITS.

Under the head of stone fruits we include peaches, plums,
cherries, almonds, nectarines, and apricots, all of which are
classified under the genus Prunus. This is one of the most im-
portant groups to horticulturists and contains some very valu-
able fruits and ornamental plants. The almond is an impor-
tant fruit that belongs under this head, but its cultivation is not
referred to in this chapter as it is included under the head of
nuts.

The Plum.

There are more species of the plum cultivated in a large
way in this country than any other of our common fruits. In
the Northeastern states and on the Pacific coast the European
or Domestica plums are much at home and commonly grown.
In many of the Central states the Japanese plums are widely
grown and are increasing in popularity. Even as far north as
southern Minnesota, they are grown successfully in the best
plum localities. In the great Mississippi Valley, extending from
far north to the south, the most popular varieties of plums are
those that have sprung from the native sorts. These have been
developed within less than half a century.

The different species —There are several species from
which the cultivated sorts have come. They are as follows:

(a) European or Domestica plum group (Prunus domes-
tica). This plum is a native of Europe and Western Asia and
- includes most of the finest plums of commerce. Its most com-
mon color is red or purple, but it is also found with yellow or
green skin. In Europe it is cultivated far into the north, but
the same varieties that are successfully grown in the cold north
there have failed in the northern part of the Mississippi Valley.
Popular varieties in this class are Lombard, German Prune, Vic-
toria and Bradshaw.

(b) The Myrobalan or Cherry plum group (Prunus cerasife-
ra). This plum is native to southeastern Europe. It is a favor-

ted

178 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

ite stock on which to bud varieties of the P. domestica. The
De Caradeuc and Mariana plums, which are supposed to have
sprung from species native to this country, are probably close-
ly related to this species.

(c) Japan plum group (Prunus triflora). This plum comes
to us from Japan, whence it was introduced about thirty years
ago. It is probably a native of various parts of Asia and is
closely allied to our American plum. The fruit is of large size
and brilliantly colored in red, yellow and purple. It does es-
pecially well in good plum sections and has a wider range than
the Domestica class of plums. Many varieties flower so early
in the spring that their crops are uncertain. It seems quite
probable that crosses with it and some of the native kinds will
give rise to very valuable varieties adapted to a wide range of
conditions. Examples of this class are Kelsey, Burbank and
Abundance.

(d) American plum group (Prunus americana). This is
the common wild plum of the Northern states and Canada, ex-
tending from the Rocky Mountains eastward across the continent
and well to the south. It is admirably adapted to the severe
conditions of the northern Mississippi Valley and the plains,
and from it have come a large number of varieties, including |
such well known kinds as De Soto, Wyant, Wolf, Weaver and
Rollingstone. A form of this, sometimes known botanically as
Prunus nigra and having some quite evident characteristics of
its own, is found somewhat north of the range of the typical
Prunus Americana. Good examples of this are the Cheney and
Aitkin, both of which flower early and mature their fruit ear-
ly. Plums of this class seem to do best in northern Minnesota,
northern North Dakota and Manitoba.

(e) The Wild Goose group (Prunus hortulana), represents
a group of plums that seem especially adapted to southern Iowa,
Missouri, southern Iilinois and adjacent sections. Among these
are such well known popular varieties as Wild Goose and Way-
land.

(f) The Chickasaw group (Prunus angustifolia or P. chica-
sa) are native to the Southern states and include such varieties
as Newman, Pottawatomie and Lone Star,

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PLUM. 179

Bailey classifies the various varieties of the Prunus domes-
tica substantially as follows:

Prunes.—These are known by their sweet, firm flesh, which
contains enough sugar to permit of their being dried and made
a commercial product. As a rule a good prune should contain
not Jess than 12 per cent of sugar. Many plums that are grown
‘aS prunes on the Pacific coast and elsewhere are cultivated in
the Eastern states as plums.

The Damsons represent a small class of plums having very
firm flesh, the fruit of which is borne in clusters and the foliage
is small. These are commonly seen along fences and in various
wild places in many of the Eastern states. They are generally
grown from seed and not grafted. ‘The fruit is valuable prin-
cipally for cooking.

Gages.—In addition to these there is a class known as Green
Gages, which are round and generally of good table quality.
The variety known as Green Gage is typical of this group.
Large, yellow plums, such as Coe’s Golden Drop, may be used to
represent another group. Large purple and blue plums repre-
sent another section, and some of the most important under this
elass are Lombard, Bradshaw and Quackenboss.

Propagation.—The plum is propagated in a variety of ways.
The American sorts are sometimes grown from root cuttings.
In this case the trees used are on their own roots. Cuttings
for this purpose consist of pieces of the smaller surface roots
that are cut up in autumn, about four inches long. They are
then mixed with sand in boxes or nail kegs and stored in a cold
cellar until spring, by which time they will be calloused and
very likely will have started buds. These cuttings are general-
ly sown thickly in drills about three feet apart and covered
about three inches deep.

Growing plums from suckers.—The American plums are
also grown from suckers which are encouraged by cutting the
surface roots about trees that are growing on their own roots.
This method is a favorite one for many small growers and
amateurs. Some horticulturists consider trees grown on their
own roots much superior to those that are grown in the usual]
way.

180 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

The European, Japan and American plums are mostly grown
by budding or grafting on seedling plums. Crown-grafting in
spring on well established seedlings, is a common practice.
Root-grafting on whole roots in winter is practiced the same
as root-grafting the apple, and is successful but not as reliable
as crown grafting in early spring, and the plants start slowly
when grown in this way.

Stocks for the plum.—The Myrobalan plum is in common
use as a Stock for the plum. The Mariana, a nearly allied stock,
is also used and both make good stocks for the plum in the
milder sections. For the colder sections, as in Minnesota, the
Dakotas, northern Iowa, Wisconsin and adjacent states, seed-
lings of the native Prunus
americana are much to be pre-
ferred. Seedlings of the Wild
Goose type of plums, as well as
those of Prunus americana,
make excellent stocks for
southern Iowa, Missouri and
Kansas. Peach seedlings are
largely and successfully used
as stocks for the plum in mild-
er plum-growing sections, while
for the colder states they are
to be avoided. The apricot
has been tried as a stock for
the American varieties of the
plum but fails to make a per-
manent union with it.

The soil for the plum should
095 preferably be one that is thor-
Fig. 83.—Sprout of the plum :

root taken off with a piece of oughly well drained and rea-

a parent root; the best way. sonably retentive of moisture,
but it will succeed in any good agricultural soil. The trees hold on
well, even on quite gravelly ridges, but in such situations in
dry years the fruit is exceedingly small and the trees make but
little growth and are short lived.

Trees and planting.—It is best to set only young trees, that

PLUM. 181

is, those under three years. Plums that have made a strong
growth may be set at one year old. Most planters prefer them
at this age as they are cheaper and easier to plant out than
older trees. Plums are generally planted from 16 to 20 feet
apart each way and for some dwarf varieties the smaller dis-
tance may be sufficient, but for the stronger growing kinds twen-
ty feet is little enough between them. As a rule a better plan

than planting equi-distant apart each way is to plant the trees

E

Pie yt
ay eS Fe ye
+

ae

Fig. 84.—Old plum tree pruned in order to renew the top.

16 to 20 feet apart in rows forty or fifty feet apart and grow
some other crop between.

Mixing Varieties —There is some uncertainty as to the
flowers of the plum. Some varieties are generally, if not al-
ways, self-fertile, while others are commonly, if not always self-
sterile. These qualities seem to vary more or less, according
to location and soil. Much disappointment has arisen from the

182 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

planting of ‘self-sterile kinds singly, as, notably, the Wild Goose.
It can be laid down as a general rule, and it will apply espe-
cially to the native kinds, that varieties of the same time | of
flowering should be mixed in orchards.

Picking.—The Huropean plums should be peered with the
stem on; the Américan plums naturally become detached from
the stem at maturity. The fruit may be either a free stone or
a cling stone and examples of each are found among the differ-
ent classes of the plum. (The word “prune” is applied to a
class of plums having firm flesh and a larger per cent of sugar
than the ordinary plum, which dries readily.) Some of the best
plum growers practice thinning the fruit. The time when the
different varieties come into bearing depends much on the
peculiarities of each sort. The different classes of plums usual-
ly bear fruit in three years.

Insects.—The insects most injurious to the plum are the
Curculio, Peach Borer, Tent Caterpillar and Leaf Lice, which see
in chapter on Insects.

The diseases especially injurious to the plum are Brown
Rot, Plum Pocket and Leaf Curl. Plum Knot and Shot Hole fun-
gus are discussed under the head of diseases.

The varieties of the plum are many~and various. In the
great plum growing sections of the Pacific Coast the principal
kinds grown are Burbank, Climax, Clyman, Satsuma, Wick-
son, Yellow Egg, Grand Duke, Washington, Blue Damson.

In the Northeastern states the principal varieties grown
are Lombard, Abundance, Wildgoose, Burbank.

The varieties best adapted to Minnesota and the surround-
ing states are Wyant, De Soto, Wolf, Stoddard, Surprise, Cherry
and Forest Garden.

Peach.

The peach is one of the most uncertain of our cultivated
fruits. It is highly esteemed and is used almost entirely as a
luxury by the greater part of our people. It is nowhere adapted
to great areas, although widely grown in a small way. It is
grown in a large commercial way in a few favorable sections,
among which may be mentioned: 1. The section along the south
shore of the Great Lakes, including portions of southern Michi-

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PEACH. . 183

gan, New York, Ohio and southern Canada; 2. Long Island and
portions of Connecticut, southern New York, New Jersey, Dela-
ware and Maryland; 3. Further south there is a’ great peach
section in the highlands of northern Georgia, Alabama, etc.;
4. Southern Illinois, Missouri, and portions of Kansas, lowa and
Nebraska; 5. Parts of Texas; 6. Parts of eastern Colorado;
7. A large part of California.

The northern limits of successful peach growing in New
England is perhaps central Massachusetts, and even in southern
New Hampshire peaches are raised in favorable years. In the
Mississippi Valley peaches are raised as far north as southern
Iowa. However, as the
northern limits of peach
raising are reached, the
crop becomes uncertain,
owing chiefly to the kill-
ing of the fruit buds in
winter, which will gener-
ally stand a temperature
of over 25 degrees below
zero if the wood is well
ripened in autumn. The
flower buds are much more
tender than the leaf buds
and are often killed with-
out injuring the growth of
the trees. On rich soils,
especially on those that
are liable to be moist, the
peach grows too late in
autumn and the flower
buds will kill in such loca-

Fig. 85.—Protecting peach tree. Peach
tree tied up, ready for pruning. % Dee
(After Whitten.) tions even when uninjured

on higher, drier, and perhaps poorer, soils. In central Iowa the
planting of the hardiest kind of peaches has been attended with

some success.
Laying the peach trees down in winter.—In northern Iowa
and southern Minnesota a few peaches are grown each year by

184 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

bending the trees to the ground in winter and covering the tops
with corn stalks, marsh hay or similar material. The wood of
the peach is exceedingly brittle but the roots are very tough
and the trees are bent in the roots by digging a hole at the
side of the tree deep enough to reach the pliable portion of the
root. Forked roots are preferred on peach trees that are des-
tined to be treated in this way, as their roots are smaller, and
hence do not get stiff as quickly as these grown to one central
shoot.

Origin.—The peach is native of Asia, but was introduced
into America at a very early date, and in the-last century was
spontaneous over a large area of country in the mountainous
section of the Southern
states. While there are
many forms of the peach,
they are all classed as
coming from the same spe-
cies, Prunus persica. Pro-
fessor R. H. Price, in the
report of the American
Pomological Society for
1903, classifies the various
kinds of peaches under
five heads, although he
says that some varieties
cannot be placed in either,
and that the practical ap-
plication of this classifica-
tion lies in the fact that
the grower should not be
concerned so much about
what varieties he has as
about having the varieties
he plants of the proper
group for his location. The
Fig. 86.—Protecting peach trees. Peach following classification is

tree covered with corn stalks. (After : . * 9
Whitten.) taken from this article:

PEACH. 185

(a) Peen-to group. This is distinguished by its vigorous
willow-like branches. Flowers appear very early; fruit flattened
and much like an oblate apple; stone flattened in an opposite
way from that of the ordinary peach; leaves narrow and long
and hang on in winter. They are adapted especially for the
Southern states and near the coast. Angel and Waldo are varie-
ties of this group. :

(b) South China group. The parent of this race is the
variety Honey, which is supposed to have come from South
China. The tree is smaller than the Peen-to. Valuable seed-
lings of this group are Climax and Coleman.

Fig. 87.—Leaves and pits of the different types of peaches. 1.—Per-
sian. 2.—North China. 3.—Spanish. 4.—South China. 5.—Peen-
to. Pits numbers 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 are of the same type as the
leaves over them. (After Price.)

186 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

(c) Spanish group. The tree is the largest of all supposed
to have been introduced by the Spaniards; leaves small, flat,
and hang on late in autumn; fruit ripens late and nearly always
downy; tinged with yellow; nearly always acid and of low
quality. This variety bears heavily in the district to which it
is adapted, which includes the Southern and South Central
states. Among the varieties belonging to this group are Gal-
veston, Guadaloupe, Onderdong and Victoria.

(d) North China group. The parent of this group is the
Chinese Cling which is supposed to have originated in North
China. The tree is of medium growth; flowers large; fruit
large and white with a red blush. Such varieties as Elberta,
Mamie Ross and Carmen belong to this group. These are raised
in enormous quantities on the high lands of the Southern states.

(e) Persian group; of unknown parentage, but is —

supposed to haye come from the high altitudes of Persia. Tree
is medium in size; flowers varied in size; foliage nearly al-
ways crimped, trough shaped and fall off the tree early in au-
tumn. This tree needs a long period of rest. Well known
varieties of this group are Crawford, Alexander, Mountain Rose,
Old Nixon Free and Old Nixon Cling. This group includes most
of the varieties that are successful in the North.
Propagation.—The peach is sometimes grown from seed.

Some varieties come so nearly true from seed that they are

propagated in this way, but it is an uncommon method with
commercial varieties. Budding is the common and almost ex-
clusive method used in growing the peach although success
often attends grafting, which is of convenient use for working
over in the spring those budded plants on which the buds failed
to take. In the South the peach stocks are commonly budded
in June and make large, full sized trees by the end of the first
autumn. In the North the peach is usually budded the first year
in August when the seedlings will be about two feet high, and
the stocks are cut back the following spring. June budding at
the North is not popular, as the resultant plants are too small.

The seed must be stratified over winter and then cracked
in the spring, if not already open, and the kernels planted. WVa-
cancies in the nursery row may be filled from the seed bed

q
;
Z
E

PEACH. 187

"when the seedlings are very young. Seedlings from natural

fruit are preferred for stocks from sections where the peach

is healthy and free from yellows. A favorite place for ob-

: taining peach seed is from Tennessee and Kentucky where the
peach grows in thickets. Plum stocks are sometimes preferred

1 for the peach where it is grown in heavy, moist soil but are

:

4

;

seldom used in commercial peach growing.

Planting.—The irees for planting out should be one year
old from budding, small but not weak. They should be trimmed
to a straight shoot one to three feet high and all side branches
removed at planting, making them appear as a mere whip
stick. This facilitates forming the head. It saves freight and
packing if they are to be shipped long distances, to have this
done before they are shipped. Trees more than one year old
are not desirable for orchard planting. At the North peach
trees should be set out in the spring. The distance apart will

= SF SS ee Ay eS Tee

Fig. 88.—Pruning peach trees. a.—Before pruning. b.—After pruning.

188 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

a
vary with the locality, soil and variety. In a general way it =
will be found that 15x15 feet apart is about right. Some grow- ~
ers put out twice as many trees as can grow well to maturity.
In such cases they must be thinned out when they commence
to crowd one another.

Pruning.—On inferior soils, such as those of parts of the
peach region of Michigan and the Maryland peninsula, it is
customary to do but little pruning and the trees are allowed
to branch close to the ground and form rangy heads. On better
soils it is quite customary to cut back the new wood severely
after the tree is formed, cutting off from one-third to one-fourth
of the new growth and the weak wood out of the interior of the
tree. This thins the fruit by removing many fruit buds and
keeps the tree in compact form. When the trees are injured

oe
AS

lt

Fig. 89.—Pruning peach trees. - Showing severe pruning desirable for
peach trees injured: in winter. a.—Before pruning. b.—After
pruning. : g

PEACH. 189

- in the winter, they recover most quickly, if at all, by being cut

back severely.

Location and soil—The peach grows well even in quite
poor soil. In very rich soil it is liable to grow late in autumn
and the buds kill in winter. Some of the best orchards are on
very poor soil. It does best on high ridges, especially in loca-
tions exposed to the north and west. Southern slopes are liable
to-start the buds too early. Where late spring and early au-
tumn frosts are prevented by proximity to water, as in Michi-
gan, the peach does well at the north, but as the northern limits
of peach growing are reached, extra skill is required to grow it.

‘Thinning the fruit.—If the close pruning referred to is fol-
lowed, many fruit buds will be cut off and thus the crop is thin-
ned, but in addition to this, special thinning is most important
with the peach. If it sets fruit at all it generally sets too much,
and if all is allowed to grow the tree is weakened and the fruit
becomes small and poor. Trees that are thinned generally yield
as much fruit in quantity and that of much better quality than
trees not thinned. In thinning, take out all curculio-stung and
imperfect fruit as they are of no value. ‘Thinning should be
done as soon as the imperfect fruit can be determined and after
the natural fall of small fruit has taken place. Thin to from
four to six inches apart on the branches. It often requires much
will power to do this, as such thinning will seem excessive at
the time it is done. -

Peach trees bear young, not infrequently at two years old.
The fruit of the peach is used fresh, for canning, evaporating

-and as a kind of cider which yields brandy by distillation.

Insects and diseases.—The trunk of the peach tree is fre-

quently injured by the Peach Borer, and the fruit by the Cur-

culio. The diseases of the peach are as follows: Brown Rot,
Leaf Curl, Scab, Postular Spot, Yellows, Rosette, Little Peach.
Varieties.—There are many varieties of the peach. Grow-
ers must study the conditions in their own localities and the
adaptation of varieties to them. The most important varieties
in the North are Elberta, New Prolific, Kalamazoo, Smock and
Triumph. Those most important in the South are Alexander,
Carmen, Hlberta, Greensboro, Mountain Rose and Sneed,

190 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. |

Nectarine.

The nectarine is a smooth-skinned peach. It is interest-

Ing to know that peaches have been grown from the seed of

nectarines and nectarines from the seed of peaches. The fruit -

is usually inferior to that of the peach in size, quality and ap-
pearance. It is grown the same as the peach but not nearly as
‘successfully, and is liable to the same insects and diseases. It
seems to do best in the Pacific Coast states.

Apricot.

The apricot is a fruit somewhat intermediate between the
peach and the plum. The bark resembles the peach but the
leaves are very broad and almost circular.

Origin.—The apricot commonly cultivated in Eastern and
European gardens is a native of Asia. Botanically, it is known
as Prunus armeniaca. The Russian apricot is a hardy form
of this species having small fruit. There are a few varieties
cultivated that belong to other species but they are of.poor
quality and of little importance, except the so-called Chinese
apricot plum (Prunus simoni) of Asia which is referred to un-
der the head of plums. The apricot is as hardy as the peach
and thrives under the same soil and climatic conditions but pre-
fers a rather heavier, although well drained soil. The apricot
is grown in Hurope and in a large way in the Pacific Coast
states. In the Eastern and Central states it has not been much
planted because its early period of flowering makes it sus-
ceptible to injury from frost and the liability of its being in-
jured by Curculio has made the crop so uncertain that the peach
has taken its place.

Stocks.—The apricot may be grown on seedlings of the
European plums ana on the peach. It is said that apricot stocks
are not as good as either of these, especially on land that is
liable to be very wet in the spring. Some experience seems to
show that the apricot does not work well on the Prunus armeni-
acd.

Planting and pruning.—The apricot requires about the same
eare in planting and pruning as the peach. However, it does
not need quite such close pruning but only enough to keep it
in good form.

APRICOT. 191

Picking and marketing is much the same with the apricot
as with the peach. However, it is generally looked upon as a
dessert fruit and- is generally marketed in small packages.

Insects and diseases affecting the apricot are practically
the same as those that attack the peach but it is more liable
to injuries from the Curculio, which must be carefully held in
check by jarring and clean cultivation. Arsenical sprays can-
not be recommended as the foliage is too susceptible to injury
from them. |

Varieties.—The most popular varieties of the larger apricots
are Moorpark and Royal. Of the Russian apricots the best are
the Gibb, Budd and Alexander, but they are little grown.

QUESTIONS—CHAPTER X.
Stone Fruits.

1. What fruits are included under the head of stone fruits?
2. What is the distribution of plum growing in the United

States?

3. What is the origin and distribution of the Domestica plum?

4. What varieties belong to the class and what are their char-
acteristics?

-5. What is the origin of the Myrobalan plum?

6. What varieties belong to this class?

7. What is the origin and distribution of the Japan plum and
what varieties belong to the class?

8. What is the origin and distribution of the American plum?

9. What varieties belong to the class?

10. What is the origin and distribution of the Wild Goose class
of plums and what varieties belong to the class?

11. What is the origin of the Chicasaw group of plums?

12. What varieties belong to this class?

13. Into what groups does Bailey classify the plums?

14. What are the characteristics of each?

15. In what ways may the plum be propagated?

16. What is the common way of propagating the American sorts?
The Huropean? The Japanese?

17. What stocks are used for grafting the varieties?

18. What kind of soil is best for the plum?

19. How should the trees be set out?

20: Why should varieties be mixed in an orchard?

21. How and when should plums be picked?

22. What insects are injurious to the plum?

23. What varieties are grown in the Pacific Coast states? In
the Northeastern states?

24. What varieties are best adapted to Minnesota?

25. In what sections of the United States is the peach grown
commercially ?

26. How far north is the peach grown successfully?

27. What is the effect of good soil for peach growing in the

28. How are peaches protected in winter?

192

POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

29. What are the characteristics of peach wood? Of peach root:
30. What is the origin of the peach?

31. Into what groups may peaches be divided?

32. What is the origin and characteristics of each class?

‘33. How is the peach propagated in the North? In the South?

34. How and when is the peach budded?
35. How are peaches set out in the orchard?
86. What pruning of peach trees is necessary? On ues soil? On

good soil?

the

37. What location and soil is best adapted to peach growing?
28. How should the fruit be thinned?

39. For what purpose is the fruit used?

40. What insects and diseases are injurious to the peach?

41. What are the important varieties grown in the North? In
South?

42. From what did the nectarine originate?

43. How is it grown?

44. Where did the apricot originate?

45. Over what territory is it distributed?

46. What are its characteristics?

47, What trees are used as stocks for the apricot?

48. How are apricots planted?

49. What pruning do apricots require?

50. How is the fruit picked and marketed?

51. For what is it used?

52. What insects and diseases are injurious to-the apricot?
58. What are the most popular varieties?

4

CHAPTER XI.
The Grape.

Origin.—There are about twenty species of wild grapes in
America and but few of them have been fully tested under
cultivation. No part of habitable North America is found with-
out some native species and in many sections these are ‘im-

portant fruits, in their wild state. The grapes commonly cul-

tivated in this country east of the Rocky Mountains are of
native origin but in the Pacific Coast states the best European

_ grapes are grown in great perfection. They are also grown

under glass. The species commonly grown in vineyards in this
country are as follows:
(1) ‘Northern Fox Grape (Vitis labrusca), the species from
which almost all of our popular varieties have sprung. BEx-
amples of these are Concord, Worden, Moore’s Early and Lady.
As found in its native state, it has a large purple fruit, thick
skin, and very pulpy meat surrounding the large seeds. The
flowers are either perfect or staminate; the leaves are large,
with whitish down on the underside. It is found occasionally
in the southeastern part of Minnesota, and very abundantly in
states farther east and south and in parts of Canada. The Con-
cord grape resulted from the selection of seed from a wild vine
which had been cultivated for two generations by Ephraim Bull
of Concord, Massachusetts. Seedling Labrusca grapes are fre-
quently white or greenish in color. The cultivated grapes of
this class have perfect flowers with well developed stamens.

- They also cross readily with the European wine grape, the River
_ Bank and several other native grapes.

(2) River Bank or Frost grape (Vitis riparia), the com-
mon wild grape found far north in Canada and in the northern
United States, is as yet scarcely cultivated, but it is probable
that*some of its hybrids will prove valuable for cold locations.
This grape has thin, smooth foliage, green on both sides; short
jointed wood and perfect or staminate flowers. The vines bear-
ing the staminate flowers generally make an extremely rapid

194 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

growth and produce a great number of delightfully fragrant
flowers but no fruit. This species, when crossed with the V.
labrusca, has given us Beta and Janesville, two varieties of great
hardiness. From this source will probably come the hardy
grapes for the colder portions of the United States and Canada.

European Wine grape (Vitis vinifera)—To this species
belong most of the cultivated grapes of Europe and Asia. Its
flowers are either perfect or staminate. It has been cultivated
since the remote past and has given rise to a large number
of kinds having widely varying characteristics, but none of these
have been successfully cultivated in the open air in the
portion of North America lying east of the Rocky Mountains,
although they have been grown successfully in California and

some adjacent states. The reason for this is undoubtedly the-

susceptibility of the roots of this species to attacks of the grape
vine root louse (Phylloxera) which is abundant over a large
part of eastern North America, but to the attacks of which the
American vines are largely immune. This pest has of recent
years been introduced into both California and Hurope, so that
many vineyards in these sections have been of necessity graft-
ed on American roots to stem its ravages.

Hybrid American grapes.—The poor success attending the
introduction of varieties of Huropean grapes led to early at-
tempts at crossing them with native Fox grape (V. labrus-
ca). Among the first and most successful of these were the
crosses made by EH. S. Rogers of Salem, Mass., who originated
and distributed a large number of varieties, some of which still
remain in cultivation. These are known as Rogers’ hybrids and
include such well known and productive sorts as Lindley, Aga-
wam, Aminia, Herbert, Barry and Salem. These have been

largely replaced by the pure labrusca sorts of more recent in-

troduction which are nearly, or quite as good, in quality and
less liable to disease in ordinary locations.

Prof. T. V. Munson of Denison, Texas, has paid special at-
tention to the development of varieties of grapes adapted to
the Southern and Southwestern states and has sent out a large
number of good varieties. Among them are the following: Car-
man, Headlight, Brilliant and others, In his work he has used

pee

GRAPE. 195

a large number of little known species in addition to those men-
tioned. Among them are the following: V. rupestris, V. solonis,
V. doaniana, V. Champini, V. candicans, V. bouquiniana, V.
lincecumti, V. aestivalis, V. berandieriana and V. rotundifolia.

_ Flowers of the grape.—In the wild state some species of
grapes produce some plants that have perfect flowers and others
that have staminate flowers. Our cultivated kinds, that are
not the result of crossing distinct species quite uniformly, have
perfect flowers and no crossing is needed to make them produc-
tive. The sorts that have originated from the crossing of two
or more species, such as Brighton and Lindley, often have flow-
ers in which the stamens are reflexed. Such stamens seldom
if ever produce germinable pollen and hence must be supplied
with pollen from other vines. When this is not supplied the
flowers generally fail to set fruit, or if they set fruit at all it
is very small and seedless.

Fig. 90.—Flowers of the grape. a.—Flower just opening, with cap
pushed off. b.—Perfect flower. c. Staminate flower. d.—Flower
with reflex stamens.

_ Propagation.—The grape is increased from cuttings and lay-

ers and, to a very limited extent in this country, by grafting.

In California it is considered good practice to graft the Eu-
ropean kinds on American roots to avoid the phylloxera.

By seed.—Propagation by seed is used for growing stocks
and to obtain new varieties. If vines are to be grown in this
way the seed should be at once sown in boxes of rich soil, or
in a fine seed-bed. (The seed should be saved from ripe ber-
ries). Cover it half an inch deep and protect by a mulch in
winter. The plants will make a growth of one or two feet

196 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

the first season and will show blossoms about the fourth year.
Some will have perfect and some staminate flowers, while others
will have flowers. with reflexed stamens; not one seedling in- a
thousand will be worth anything for fruit. The chances for
obtaining good kinds will be much increased if careful, intelli-
gent hybridization is resorted to.

By cuttings.—Grape cuttings are of three kinds—long and
short, hard-wood cuttings and soft-wood cuttings. The pro-
cesses by which they are rooted vary greatly in details but
the general principles are the same in every case.

Long hard-wood cuttings.—These should. be made in ane
fall from the hard, well-ripened new wood of the season. It
is best to make them about eight inches long, if wood is abun-
dant. The length will necessarily depend somewhat on the
distance between the buds on the canes, and when three-bud
cuttings are made of some varieties they may be ten inches
long. They are often made six inches or less in length, but as
short as this they are more liable to fail from drying out than
if longer. They will send out roots best if cut just below a bud,
but this is not necessary. These cuttings should be put up in
bundles of about one hundred each. Bury them in some well-
drained place with the tops down, and cover with about six
inches of soil and a foot or two of mulch. Be sure the soil is
packed firmly around and between the bundles, so that they
cannot dry out in winter. In the spring, when the ground is
dry, take all but about three inches of the soil from over the cut-
tings and replace it with about one foot of hot stable manure, to
induce the cuttings to callous. This is very necessary to insure
their rooting, and they should never be planted out until well
calloused. The same object may be secured by covering the
cuttings with a box and sash, which will confine the sun’s rays
and so warm the roots that they will start a callous. When the
soil is settled and warm they should be planted out six inches
apart, in rows two or three feet apart, putting the cuttings down
to the top bud. They should be put at least seven inches deep
in most locations. ;

The land for cuttings.—The land selected for growing grape
euttings should be warm, light and rich. Its condition will be

ae
er

alle Sete wei it gi las

Be!

Pe hem t

GRAPE. 197

greatly improved if it is warmed by being plowed several times
and has a coat of fine, warm manure turned in before planting.
When planting on a large scale the land may be marked off
with a line, and a sub-soil plow run eight inches deep in the
mark to loosen the soil, after which cuttings can easily be
pushed into place by hand. ‘The after-cultivation consists in
continually working the top soil and keeping it loose and open.
In the fall, if the plants are weak, they may be covered with
earth and left where they are for another season’s growth; but
if strong, they may be dug and used for vineyard planting the
following spring. It is customary to dig all the vines late in
the fall, carefully sort them. and heel them in outdoors for win-
ter, or else put them in a cold cellar. In the spring the strong
vines may be used in the vineyard and the weaker ones be set
out in the nursery to grow another year. (See pp. on growing
cuttings in chapter on Propagation).

One-eye cuttings——The wood for these should be cut in
the fall and Te over in a cold cellar buried in moss, sand,
sawdust, or other similar
material, or it may be
buried outdoors. In the
spring, generally in Feb-
ruary or early in March,
these canes should be cut
up into pieces having one
inch of wood below and
half an inch above the
bud. Boxes about the size
of an ordinary soap box,
‘but only four inches deep
and having holes for drain-
age, should be prepared by
putting in one and a half
inches of rich soil and then

Fig. 91.—One ear old grape vine K
ae one-bud anes ap about the same amount of

clean sand on top of it.
The cuttings should be set deep enough in the sand to just cover
the bud, putting them two inches apart each way. The boxes

198 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

may now be put in a gentle hot-bed, or on a greenhouse bench,
and kept moist. They should be rooted in about six weeks.
When they have made a good root growth they should be plant-
ed, after the soil is warm, in rich soil outdoors. The time for
this will be as late as the latter part of May in this section.
Very nice plants may be grown in this way, but they do not
make as strong a growth the first year as plants from long cut-
tings, and often need a second year in the nursery before they are
large enough for transplanting to the vineyard.

Soft-wood cuttings.—These are made from the green wood
taken off while,the plant is growing. They are rooted in sand
in much the same way that florists root cuttings of geraniums,
fuchsias, ete. It is a method used only where wood is very valu-
able, and as a means of increasing new varieties. Plants grown
this way are apt to start slowly and to be weak until well start-
ed, and should not be used when phoRe grown from hard-wood
can be obtained.

Layering.—This is the simplest, surest and easiest method.
of increasing the grape, and is the best way to grow it where
but few vines are wanted. There are two kinds of layers, called
spring and summer layers from the season in UE they are
made.

Summer layers are made in the summer, generally the last
of July, from a branch of the same season’s growth. They are
likely to be weak for several years, and do not make as good
plants as spring layers. In making them the wood should be
slit for an inch or so near the buds that are covered. Bury
about one foot of the cane four inches deep in the ground and
it will be rooted by late autumn, when it may be treated as
recommended for weak year-
ling vines grown from hard-
wood cuttings. ©

Spring Layers.—These may
be made by laying down any
cane early in the spring. It
= will root in one season and by

fall will have made a good
Sioa —Orainary layer Lape ans growth of roots, when it may

GRAPE. 199

be cut from the main cane, and if strong enough may be divided
into two plants. By a little different treatment of the spring lay-
er, a vine may be grown from each bud on the layered cane, For
this purpose some thrifty cane should be selected in autumn,
pruned of its laterals and buried. In the spring it should be
uncovered and only one shoot permitted to grow from each
joint. After the new growth has started about six inches from
each bud, the whole cane should be layered about four inches
: deep, handling it carefully so
as not. to break the new
growth. Fig. 94 shows such
a layer after it has rooted. It
is a good plan to cover it not
more than three inches at
: first and to fill up the trench
Fig. 93.—Ordinary layer of grape 4S Soon as the shoots grow. It
wee and made into two covered four inches deep at
once, the young growth will
sometimes rot, though this:seldom happens, and some skillful
growers fill the trench full at once. In the autumn roots will be
found growing from each joint and these may be cut apart and
treated as recommended for weak vines grown from cuttings.
If this method of propagation is to be used to some consider-
able extent, vines should be grown especially for the purpose.
It is not a good plan to use fruiting vines for layering to any
great extent, though it may be safely done in a small way.
For directions as to grafting the grape see chapter on Propaga-
tion.

i

Fig. 94.—Layering grapes. Showing how to get a plant from each
bud of the cane layered.

>

200 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Location of the vineyard.—Some of the hardy, early ripen-
’ ing but inferior grapes will mature in almost any situation, but
the better kinds need a warm exposure and free circulation of
the air about them to insure their ripening each year. High
southern slopes generally offer the best locations; in such
places there is the greatest amount of heat in summer, very
general immunity from the late frosts of spring or the early
frosts of autumn, and a movement of the air at all times; all
of which are important matters ‘in growing grapes. Other slopes,
and even level land, may be successfully used for this purpose,
but on northern exposures, the fruit will be later in ripening
than if in situations where the plants receive the direct rays
of the sun. However, excellent fruit may often be grown on a
northern slope if it is near some large body of water, which
will help maintain an equal temperature, and especially to keep
off the early frosts of autumn. In a vineyard closely shut in
so that the foliage of the vines does not dry off quickly after
summer showers, it will be found very difficult to grow many
of our better kinds of grapes on account of the prevalence of
fungus diseases in such places. The cutting away of a belt
of trees surrounding a vineyard, so as to allow a free move-
ment of air through the vines at all times, has often been the
means Of making the difference between failure and success in
growing grapes.

Soil_—The best soil for a vineyard is a rich gravelly or
sandy loam, with an open clay sub-soil; but a somewhat clayey
loam will do very well if sufficiently drained to remove excess
of moisture. Before planting, the land should be thoroughly
prepared by plowing and harrowing until in the best condition.
Where there is not good surface drainage, as on some prairie
farms, it will be found a good plan to plant the vines on ridges
made by turning six furrows back to back. In other locations
the land should be kept smooth. A limestone soil or loess loam
is almost ideal for the grape. —

The best vines for planting are strong one-year or thrifty
two-year-old plants from layers or cuttings, and only those hav-
ing a good root system should be used. Plants more than three
years old are not desirable, as young, thrifty plants soon out-

4

ay
¥
*
2

Pe a eee ee,

ee

4

. GRAPE. ) 201

grow those that are old and large when transplanted. It mat-
ters little about the direction of the rows; they should be laid
out so as to. prevent erosion as much as possible.

The proper distance between the plants will depend some-
what on the vigor of the kinds planted, the manner of pruning,
and the soil; but the ‘strong growing varieties, which are most
desirable, should generally be set ten by ten feet apart each way,
or in some cases eight feet apart in rows ten feet apart, to al-
low for the growth of roots and a good circulation of air be-
tween the vines. When the vineyard is much shut in it will
be found advantageous to increase this distance, but when lo-
cated in an airy position and on retentive soil the plants may
be set eight by eight feet.

Planting.—The most rapid way of planting grape vines is
to furrow out the land one way and mark the other, putting the
vines at the intersection of the furrows. Before planting, the

‘tops of the vines should be cut off so as to leave only two or

three buds, and if the roots are very long it will facilitate plant-
ing to cut them back to twelve inches in length; shortening the
roots to this extent does not seem to injure the growth of the
plant. On light soil and on hillsides it is exceedingly important
to get the roots down deep in the land, and the holes should
be made large enough to allow the lower roots to come about
fifteen inches below the surface. The top loam should be put
around the roots, but the plants should not be covered at once
more than two inches deeper than they grew in the nursery.
The soil should be gradually worked in around the vines as
they grow until the holes are full. On heavy soils, especially
those quite moist, it is not safe to plant deep, and eight inches

_ will probably be found about the-right depth in most locations.

In planting vines to be pruned on the one-cane system, it is
best to incline them somewhat in the direction in which they
are to be trained on the trellises. This should be in the
direction of the prevailing summer winds.

Cultivation.—Soon after planting, the vines should be well
cultivated, and some hoed crop that will not shade them may
be grown: between the rows for the first two years. After this
the vines will need all the land. Cultivation should consist of

202 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

a shallow plowing early each spring and during the summer.
The top soil shouid be kept loose and light by shallow cultiva-
tion. Deep cultivation or much cultivation late in summer is
not desirable in a vineyard, and it may cause serious injury by
encouraging a late growth. If the land is lightly plowed each
spring no large surface-roots will have time to form; but if
this is neglected for several years large surface-roots will get
started, and then plowing may seriously injure the vines.
Pruning and training are the great bugbears to amateurs
in grape growing, and the attempt to follow some peculiar meth-
od has done more than anything else to discourage the growing
of this fruit by farmers. As a matter of fact, vines will grow
and bear fruit without any pruning whatever. Pruning is done
simply to get the most good fruit from the least amount of vine,
and for practical purposes it is a very simple matter. There are,
however, many systems described in books, and occasionally
used: in practice, that are quite complicated and difficult for
a beginner to understand and even for the experienced to carry
out in practice. The practical points to have in mind in pruning
grapes are: (1) That the old wood which has borne fruit once
never bears again. (2) That the wood that is formed one season
produces the bearing wood for the next season. (8) If all the
new wood is left on the vine it will bear ten times more clusters
than it can properly develop, and they will be small and imper-
fect. (4) If nine-tenths of the new
wood is cut away, leaving only from
thirty to fifty good buds to each vine,
the yield of good grapes will be much
increased. (5) It is desirable in severe
climates to train the vine so that it can

Fig. 95.—Grape vine

pruned and cov- be laid down on the ground with but lit-
ered for winter at tle resistance, for in such locations it is
the end of first s

year. With extra necessary to protect it each winter.
seucone ines, tne If these points are borne in mind
vines is started it matters not so very much what sys-

the first year.

it will be found most convenient to adhere somewhat clearly to
some simple system of pruning. But whatever plan for after-

tem is pursued in pruning. However,.

GRAPE.

295

training is adopted, the care of the vine for the first two years

should be about the same.

The first year no support or pruning is needed. The vines
will ripen their wood as well on the surface of the ground as
if tied to stakes, but it will be more convenient about cultivat-
ing if they are staked. Late in the autumn of this year, all of
the vines should be cut away except three or four buds as shown
in fig. 98, unless) the wool is exceedingly firm and ripe, in which
case it may be practical to start forming the vine the first
year. The vine should be covered with a mound of earth four’
or five inches deep. Later on, before severe weather sets in, it
is a good plan in the more northern states to apply a covering

‘

of mulch two or three inches in depth, of straw or litter of some

sort. This mulching is absolutely necessary to iusure the winter-

ing of newly transplanted vines.

Trellis. —The following spring, a trellis should be pualt un-

Fig. 96.—Spur of a Grape Vine.

less stakes were set the
first year, when they may
be used again and the
work of putting up a trel-
lis be deferred until the
opening of the third year.
The most desirable kinds
to use will depend upon
the method of training fol-
lowed.

Spur is a term used to
indicate the short stubs of
the lateral canes that re-
main on the main cane
after pruning, from which

the new growth starts. It is generally desirable to keep the

spurs as short as possible.

Systems of Training and Pruning the Grape.

There are two fundamental systems used in training the
grape, which underlie all methods in common use. In one sys-
tem the shoots are trained upward from the cane. This is call-.
ed the upright system and embraces a large number of methods.
In the other, or drooping system, the shoots are allowed to hang

204 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

naturally from the cane from which they grow. The upright

methods have been more widely uSed than the drooping meth-:

ods although they are more expensive-in practice, since they gen-
erally require a more elaborate trellis and the labor of pruning
and training is much greater. Further, some of our strong grow-
ing vines produce more fruit when trained on the drooping than
on the upright system, but there is still quite a difference of

opinion among commercial growers as to the relative merits of

each, so it is certain that good results are obtained by both of
them.

The single post method is the simplest method of pruning:
the grape on the upright system. In this, generally two canes

N
1)

Fig. 97.—Pruning grape vines. Vine treated on high renewal system
at end of the season.

are selected and wound about the post, each in opposite direc-.

tions and tied in place.’ In pruning in after years these canes
are preserved and the canes that grow from them are shortened
back to two or three buds.. The advantage of this method con-
sists in the fact that it permits cultivation of the vineyard both

ways and in the cheapness of the support. Its disadvantages

a
;
:
;

GRAPE. 205

are that probably the vines are too crowded and the foliage and
fruit do not have the best chance to develop. This crowding
also encourages disease.

High renewal method of training is a form of the upright
system that is extensively and successfully employed on a large
seale. It starts the branching of the vine at about twenty-four
inches from the ground, which is the height of the lower wire
of the trellis. A single stem is carried up to the. wire where
it branches and its two arms are trained in opposite directions
along the wire. In this style of training, the end of the second
season will find the vine with two well developed canes extended
on the lower wire of the trellis. These should be cut back at.
pruning time to firm, strong wood. At the beginning of the third
season, the buds on this wood will start and form canes that
should be trained upward. and be tied to the second wire. The
third wire is generally put up during the second season, although
it is very likely that it will not be needed until the following
year. Some of the upright shoots will bear a little fruit the third
season but unless the growth is very strong, this should not be
permitted. At the end of the third season, all the vine is cut
away except two strong canes nearest the center of the vine,
which are merely cut back to firm wood and extended along the
lower wire. It is from these canes that the vine starts the next
year. The subsequent training of the vine is a continued suc-:

-eession of preserving the two best central shoots and the cutting

away of all the rest of the vine. If the two central shoots are
not strong enough, the nearest strong shoots are preserved.

— a es ==

eri oy Se =

Fig. 98.—Vine in Figure 97 after pruning.

206 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

In the case of strong growing varieties of grapes like the
Concord and Worden, it is customary to leave more than two
canes in pruning; often four and occasionally six are left. When
four are left, two are often tied together along the bottom wire.
If six are used, the two extra canes are tied along the second
wire in the Same manner.

The amount of wood that should be left on a vine after prun-
ing will depend upon the vigor of the variety grown. In the
case of the weak growing sorts, like the Delaware, from twenty
to thirty buds should be left on the vine after pruning. This

meaus that all the buds left on the new wood shall not be more —

._ than this number on the whole vine and these shall be on two
or more canes. In the case of strong growing kinds iixe the
Concord, aS many as ten or twelve buds may be carried on each
cane and four canes may be left. In other words, such vines
may safely carry from forty to fifty buds each year. In any
case, a weak vine should have fewer buds left than a strong vine.

As the vine acquires age, the spurs at the top of the trunk
get weak. It is customary then to encourage a shoot from near
the ground and treat it much the same as if it were a new young
vine and from it form a new top. The second year after it is
well started, i. e., when it is in good bearing condition, the old
cane may be cut away and the young vine allowed to take its
place. A top will retain its vigor six or eight years under ordi-
nary treatment but seldom much longer, although the roots will
still be vigorous and will form several successive tops.

The high renewal method requires much more tying than any
of the forms of the drooping system of training. In doing this,
the vine should be firmly tied to the trellis and the new growth,
as it reaches it, should be tied to the second wire and later to
the third wire. It will be necessary to go over the vineyard sev-
eral times each season to accomplish this. All shoots do not
start with the same vigor, but after they have reached the up-
per wire and are well tied they are allowed to hang down and
need no further pruning or tying.

In the case of the drooping method of training the only tying
that is ordinarily practiced is that of tying the main cane very
strongly to the wire. In this method, the vines are trained un-

a ee eee Oe oe en ee ee ‘

GRAPE. 207

til the canes reach the upper wire, after which no further train-
ing is given and the summer shoots are allowed to hang from the
upper wire.

' In tying the canes, and especially in tying the main arms,
allowance should be made for their growth or they may be gir-
dled. They should be tied loosely and for this purpose it is cus-
tomary to use roping, cotton warp, green Kentucky Blue grass
or even willow twigs.

The One-Cane Spur Renewal Method.
The one-cane spur renewal method of pruning is a form of
the upright system that is adapted to sections where vines must

. Fig. 99.—Method of forming vine trained on one.cane spur renewal

system.

be laid down in winter, although some of the Labrusca sorts seem

to fruit better when they are not pruned so close as is necessary
in adhering to this system. Its chief advantage is that the vine
is trained close to the ground where it may be easily laid down
and covered with earth in winter.

Trellis.—A form of trellis well adapted to the upright and
fan methods nray be made by setting posts sixteen feet apart in
the row, and using four wires of No. 12 galvanized iron, putting
the lowest one about eighteen inches from the ground, and those

208 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

above ten inches apart. The wires should be securely fastened
to one end post passing through the other end and through sta-
ples driven in the inside posts, so as to allow the. wires free play
through them. This method allows loosening of the wires in
autumn and tightening of them in summer. The form of trellis
best adapted to the Kniffen and Munson methods will be found
described under those heads.

The second year after planting and as ‘soon as the weather
is settled the vine should be uncovered, using a garden fork,
which is the best tool for this purpose. Permit only one cane to
grow, and that the strongest which starts. Rub off all the other
buds that show while they are small. Tie the cane, as it grows, to
stakes or wires and if it grows rapidly, pinch off the top once
when it reaches the upper wire.

The pruning in the fall of the second year should Coneree in
cutting off all the laterals—in other words, in cutting off all the

Bee eas

Fig. 100—Pruning grape vines. Old vine trained on one cane spur
renewal system.

.
:
:

Pe

Gy

GRAPE. 209

side branches close to the main cane. In pruning the main cane,
leave about two-thirds of the growth it has made but not more
than four feet long. The vine should then be buried as directed
for the previous year, and it will be found convenient to bend it
as low as possible. To do this to the best advantage, take away
a little soil from near the vine, to permit part of the bend to come
near the ground. As the vine gets older and stiffer, it will bend
most easily and safely below ground.

Third season.—The third spring the cane should be tied along
the lower wire (fig. 100). Ifit has wintered well two shoots will
start at nearly every joint. As soon as these are three or four
inches long the weakest should be broken off and only the strong-
est ones, that come about ten inches apart, be allowed to grow.
In selecting these shoots. preference should always be given to
those coming out on the upper side of the main cane. As these
shoots push upwards they should be carefully tied to the wires,
and when they have reached the top of the trellis each of them
should be pinched off at the end. This pruning will check the
growth a little and result in the fruit buds being formed nearer
the main cane than they would if not checked. Further pinch-
ing is sometimes practiced when the finest bunches of fruit are
wanted, but for practical purposes one pinching is enough, and
some large, successful growers do not pinch at all, though it is
probably a mistake not to pinch once, if this system of pruning
is followed. ;

If the vine is thrifty it will bear several pounds of fruit this
year. As soon as convenient after gathering the ripe fruit the -
' yines may be pruned. It is not necessary to wait for a frost to
kill the leaves, and it will not do any harm to bury with some of
‘the leaves on the vine. Where one has but few vines it is best
to wait until there is danger of the ground freezing hard before
laying them down, but in large vineyards it is not practicable to
wait so late, and the work must commence earlier. In pruning
the third fall, first select a cane near the extremity of the main
cane and cut it off at a length sufficient to reach the next vine
on the trellis. This cane must be tied to the lower wire the
following (or fourth) spring, and will complete the permanent
“main cane, fig. 102. The rest of the pruning this fall will con-

210 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

sist of cutting away all but from three to six buds of the other
shoots that have grown from the main cane. In pruning do not
cut nearer than within one inch of any bud, to avoid winter kill-
ing. Bury as directed.

The following spring each of the buds left will start shoots;
two vigorous ones should be selected from those nearest the main
cane and the others rubbed off. The pruning in after years will
be a repetition of this cutting of the canes back to several buds
in autumn and allowing two shoots to start from each spur each
spring.

The Kniffen Method of Training.

The Kniffen method of training the grape is a form of the
drooping system. This is a method of training which originated
in the Hudson valley, perhaps fifty years ago, and which is now
widely used since it gives good results and requires less expense,
in the items of support and tying, than any others. It is especial-
ly adapted to strong growing varieties of grapes and to those of
drooping habits. In this method a trellis with two wires is com-
monly used and these are respectively 3% and 5% feet from the
ground. It is especially important to have the end posts set sol-
id in the ground and well braced. The intermediate posts are
generally driven and they usually stand about twenty feet apart,
which allows for a post between every other vine, if they are
set ten feet apart—the common distance between them. Vine-
yardists often grow their vines two years on stakes before put-
ting up the trellis when following this method.

Four-cane Kniffen system.—In this method a single cane is
carried up the trellis to the top wire and two canes are trained
outward from side spurs at each wire. The vine has then four
horizontal canes tied to two wires. These are far enough from
the ground so that the drooping new growth is pretty well out
of the way in cultivation. The pruning of vines on the Kniffen
system is much the same as in the case of the High Renewal
system. Each year all the tops are cut away except the four
best canes nearest to the trunk and these are cut back to sound,
firm wood, extended on the wires and tied the following spring.
In case the canes nearest the trunk are not strong enough for
main canes, these may be cut back to one or two buds (i. e., to

GRAPE. 411

spurs), and the nearest strong cane used to form the vine. The
following season the shoots growing from these spurs. will prob-
ably be strong enough to be used to renew the vines. As the
vines become well established, it is customary to leave the upper
renewal canes longer than the lower. Under this method a

=) )

Aa. Rs
= Va Zz

A fit.

strong growing variety, like Concord, should be allowed ten buds
for each of the canes on the upper and five buds each for those
on the lower wire or a total of fifty buds for each vine, while
such varieties as Delaware should not bear more than thirty
buds. There is no summer pruning practiced in the Kniffen
method although the young, superfluous, summer shoots should
be broken out when they start, as is necessary for best results
-in any system.

Two-cane Kniffen system.—Since the greater part of the
fruit under the four-cane Kniffen system is borne on the upper
canes, a modification of this system, in which the lower canes
are dispensed with and the upper canes left longer, has come
into practice in some sections. In this case the lower trunk is
tied to the lower wire to steady it, and two canes, each bearing
ten to fifteen buds, are left on the upper wire. Sometimes the
lower wire is not used at all.

J

212 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

The Munson Method of: Training.
The Munson trellis is referred to by its author, Professor
T. V. Munson, as‘the Three-Wire Canopy Trellis and is a form
of the Kniffen system of pruning. It is described by its author
as follows:
“The. posts should be of some durable, strong wood. The
end posts of every row should be large and strong and be set

three and one-half or four feet in the ground and well tamped. —

The intermediate posts, which may be much lighter than the
end posts, should be six and one-half or seven feet long and set
two to two and one-half feet in the ground, with twenty-four
foot spaces between posts, which will take three vines eight
feet apart or two vines twelve feet apart. After the posts are
set a three-eighths-inch hole should be bored though each, four
feet from the surface of the ground in the direction in which the
rows run, leaving six inches or more of post above the hole.
These holes are to admit the middle, lower wire of the trellis.
For each end post prepare a cross arm of 2x4 hard pine or oak,
two feet long; at one inch from either end, and one inch from the
upper side, bore a three-eighths of an inch bit hole to pass the
lateral wires through, and in the middle of the lower side saw
a notch one-half inch deep. For each intermediate post prepare
a board of similar wood and likewise bore and notch.”

“Through the holes in the posts run a No. 11 galvanized wire,
fasten at one end, tighten at the other end with a wire stretcher
and fasten. This will be the middle and lower wire of the
trellis, and all that will be needed the first year, when the young
vines are trained up a string tied from the vine to the wire and
along it.

“The arms and the two lateral wires which they bear need

not be put on the trellis until after the vines are pruned and
tied the next winter. A

“Hach end cross arm is placed inside the post, and against
it, on top of the wire with notch side downward, straddling the
wire to keep it from sliding. Then take a piece of the ‘same
size wire, about seven feet long, pass one end through the bit
hole in one end of arm and fasten the cross arm thoroughly in
place. The wire will hold the arm in place and not weaken or
split the arm as do nails or bolts, and will be longer lasting,

'
i

Ee Tag Pere ee eg

ee ar

ay ee re a ae ng ee Sees

SATO

vr ee

GRAPH. 913
quicker, cheaper, and more elastic, so that when struck by the
hames or collar in cultivation, it gives a little, receiving no dam-
age.

_ “Likewise place the cross arms on the intermediate posts,
leaving the ends of the wire projecting about six inches after
fastening. Then fasten a piece of wire about twenty-four feet
long to each end of the cross arm at either end of the row and
draw both tightly around the next post from the end near the
ground and fasten so as to hold the arm at right angles to the
middle wire. Then fasten the lateral wires firmly with the
above mentioned six inches of wire left after fastening the in-
termediate posts, as may be-seen in fig. 102. This will prevent
the arms from slipping out of position.

“Pruning and training on this trellis is very simple and easy,
with a little instruction for a few minutes with a vine or two
pruned for example. The first season the vine is allowed to
grow up on the middle wire by a string about which it is
coiled by hand, by going over the vineyard once or twice until

the selected shoot of each vine is upon the wire, after which it

is allowed to ramble at freedom over the wires. By getting on
to the trellis the first year one strong shoot, and allowing no
other to grow, a partial crop may be had the second year with-
out damage. On all weak growers, like the Delaware, this
should not be allowed to bear until the third year. At the first
regular pruning, (all pruning should be done in November, after
leaf fall, and never so late as to cause the vines to bleed), the
vine should be cut back to two or three buds that have reached —

-the middle wire.

“If the vines are strong growers, cut back to six or eight

— 27 fe Between Pests.

Lateral were. NG

= eh - qo = ty su
A om : el =
End Pics Vines at pull bearing age, four arms each, pruned and tied.
We. Ht bin. :
bove qround

Fig. 102.—The Munson method of pruning; a modification of the
Kniffen system.

214 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

buds each on two arms, one going each way along the lower
wire, from where the ascending vine first touches the wire.
After the vines are thus pruned, the outer end of each arm is
firmly tied to the lower, wire, along which it is gently coiled.
These two ties hold the vine firmly in place. The buds on the
arms push and ascend, passing over the lateral wires, clinging
thereto with their tendrils and hang over like a beautiful green
drapery, shading the fruit and body of the vine according to its
natural habit. Buds that push on the body of the vine are rub-
bed off as they appear, and after blooming the tips of all the
bearing shoots are clipped off with a quick stroke of a sharp
knife. This causes the growth to concentrate in the fruit, great-
ly increasing the size of the berries. The four or five shoots
pushing nearest the crotch of the vine should not be tipped, but
the flower clusters, if any, on them picked off and the shoots
allowed to grow in freedom along the trellis above the bearing
shoots, to better shade the fruit and develop themselves ready
for cropping the next year. This is known as the ‘long arm re-
newal system,’ in contradiction to the spur system of pruning
and gives much better results.

“At the second year’s pruning and others following, the old
arms with all the bearing shoots on them are cut off down to the
new arm and the new arms cut back to lengths they can fill with
fruit and mature well. In this, critical judgment and knowledge
of capabilities of different varieties are more required in the
pruner than in any other part of the training work. Some vari-
eties, such as Delaware, cannot carry more than three to four
arms, while Herbemont can more easily carry four arms, each
eight feet long. Hence the Delaware should be planted eight
feet or less apart, while Herbemont and most of the Post Oak
hybrids should be twelve to sixteen feet apart. In other words,
each variety should be set far enough apart so that it will fill
the trellis with fruit from end to end and mature it well so as
to better economize space and not be crowded.

“By the third year, the vines should come to full bearing
and be pruned with four bearing arms, two to go each way along
the lower wire of the trellis, gently coiling around the wire, one
arm in one direction, the other in opposite direction, and should
be of about equal lengths, so that one firm tie with jute yarn,

=

GRAPE. 215

near the ends, will be all the tying the vines will need—that is,
two ties to each vine—the least required by any trellis system,
and the pruning is also simplest and the results every way the
best.

“Some of the advantages of this trellis are its cheapness,
its simplicity, bringing the work up breast high so that pruning,
harvesting, tying, and Spraying can be done in an erect position,
saving back strain; perfect distribution of light, heat and air
to foliage, fruit and soil, yet protecting body of vine and fruit
from sunscald and birds; giving free ventilation and easy pas-
sage of wind through the vineyard without blowing down the
trellis or tender shoots from the vines, and allowing ready pas-
sage from row to row, without going around, thus getting larger
and better crops at less expense and increasing length of life of
vineyard and the pleasure of taking care of it.”

Training vines against buildings or walls is a good plan, and
such treatment will hasten the period of ripening and protect
from early and late frosts. Of course, the southern exposure
is always preferable. The trellis for this purpose should be
about one foot away from the wall or building. In such jocations
it is possible to mature good varieties of grapes where otherwise
they would be a failure. It is doubtful if-there is a habitable
section of northern United States where fairly good grapes will
not ripen nearly every year in such positions, and almost every
farm: offers several favorable opportunities of this sort. The
soil close to buildings may not be such as is desired, but it can
easily be improved, or entirely removed and a:better kind sub-
stituted. And sometimes what would be a very poor soil for
many other crops is just what is needed for the grape. There
are many cases where in such locations single vines have borne
several hundred pounds of grapes in one season.

Pruning neglected vines.—When vines have been neglected
for several years it is often a difficult matter for the beginner
to bring them under any system of pruning, and they are on
this account allowed to go unpruned and unproductive. Some-
times such vines may best be brought into shape by cutting
away nine-tenths of the wood and. then carefully thinning out
and pinching the young growth that may start. At other times,

216 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

again, it may be best to cut the whole vine off at the surface of
the ground. If this is done at the proper season for pruning sever-
al sprouts will start from near the root, but only one, or at most
two, should be saved. These sprouts should be trained the
same aS a newly planted vine, except that in one season they
will make a vine large enough to bear a good crop of fruit the
following, year. By either method only one fruiting year is lest,
but as a rule the greatest success attends the latter method.

Time of pruning.—The best time to prune the grape is late
in the fall or early in the spring. If the vines are to be laid on
the ground in winter of course they should be pruned in au-
tumn, as doing it then will greatly facilitate the laying down
process. If for any reason the vines have not been pruned until
the buds have started, it is far better to do it then than not at
all. The so-called “bleeding” of vines does not appear to serious-
ly injure them, though pruning when the sap will run from the
cut surfaces is a bad plan and generally causes the bleeding
wood to die back.

Spring pruning of the grape should consist only in pulling
out the extra shoots that start from each spur that have been
left to produce bearing wood. No matter what training method
is followed, the vine is liable to produce a number of weak shoots

that are of no help to it and should be removed if not needed to

carry out the plan of training.

Removing foliage.—Under no circumstances should any con-
siderable foliage be taken from the vine while it is growing. The
notion that ripening fruit needs the sunlight is very much at
fault. Grapes ripen best where the fruit is in the shade and the
leaves in the bright sunlight. The leaves are, so to speak, both
_ lungs and stomach to the plant and anything that injures them
prevents the ripening of the fruit.

The tying material commonly used in tying vines consists
of raffia which can be purchased from the dealers in garden and
florist supplies. Many vineyards are tied with green rye or even
with green bluegrass.

Thinning the fruit—Under almost any ‘system of pruning,
some varieties will set more fruit than they can properly mature.
Where this is the case, the poorest bunches should be cut away

ee ee eS ee eee

Dc

GRAPH. ; 217

as soon as the berries are well formed. As a rule, the improved
appearance of the remaining fruit is so great, as the result of
this thinning process, as to make the operation a paying one.

Manures.—Ordinarily new soils contain an abundance of
plant food. Grapes do not require much manure, and the best
kinds for them are those which have but a small amount of or-
ganic matter, such as wood ashes, or acid phosphate and potash.
Yet on gravelly or sandy lands, they may be much benefitted by
the liberal use of stable manure. Never apply manure as long
as the vines are making a satisfactory growth without it. A
very rapid, long, growth is not nearly as desirable as that which
is firm, well matured and moderate in quantity.

Bagging grapes.—In sections of the country where black
rot of the fruit is abundant it may be profitable to put all the
grapes in bags, but in sections where this disease is only occa-
sionally destructive it will seldom be a paying operation. But
in growing fruit for home use, or where something very nice is
wanted, it will often be worth undertaking; as the expense for
labor and material need not exceed a half cent per pound. The
bagged grapes have a little thinner skin than those not bagged,
are free from dust and spiders’ webs, and are not so liable to be
caught by the first autumn frost. Some varieties seem to ripen
more evenly when bagged.

Bagging should be done when the berries are about the size
of small peas, and if there is danger from rot, even earlier. For
this purpose ordinary one-pound manilla paper bags should be
used, such aS may be obtained from any grocery store. They

should be cut down about two inches on each side, and a small

hole made in each bag, generally by cutting off the lower corners,
to let out any water that might collect in them. They are then
ready for use. A bag is brought up over the bunch, above the
branch, and securely fastened with a pin. The bags should be
left on until picking :time, when the bag and bunch may be
taken off together. If the fruit is to be stored it will be found
that it will keep longer in the bags than without them. Gener-
ally the bags remain on the whole season without trouble, and
some growers use the same bags for two seasons. Cloth bags
made especially for this purpose will last about four years. In
France a wire bag is used to some extent for this purpose.

218 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Keeping grapes.—The keeping quality of grapes varies
much with the different kinds; some varieties will hardly keep
a week after being gathered, while others are easily kept for
two or three months by using only ordinary care. A moist, cold
cellar is a very good place to keep them. The bunches. should
first be relieved of any cracked or injured berries, and then laid
one tier deep on shallow trays or shelves, so that the air may cir-
culate freely among them. The fruit should be perfectly dry
when put in the cellar. If the cellar is not cool when needed
for use some ice may be put in it in a tub and the windows kept
shut in the day time and opened at night. If the grapes are
packed in dry saw dust or cork bark they will keep even better
than on trays. Where cold storage is accessible they may be
packed in baskets before being stored, but in any case great

care should be taken to remove any injured berries, or they will

rot and spoil those near them.
Girdling the grape to advance the period of ripening is prac-

ticed to a limited extent, but there is quite a difference of opin-

ion regarding the ultimate
effect of the operation on
the health and vigor of the
vine. It seems, however, to
be pretty generally conced-
ed that it can be done to a
limited extent without seri-
ous, if any, injury; that it
generally advances the peri-
od of ripening from seven to
ten days, and that the
fruit from girdled vines
is considerably larger than
from vines not girdled and
‘ of just as good quality. The

Fig. 103.—Girdling the grape. French ‘ ;
girdling tool which removes a out a ring of bark one-
section of bark about one-fourth fourth inch or more in width
inch wide. Branch of grape vine A I
showing -where girdling can be at any time during the

safely done on the portions of . sf :
the cane that are pruned away. . Srowing season but gener

operation consists in taking”

7 ae

GRAPE. 219

ally soon after the berries are well set. For this purpose a spe-
cial tool is often used which makes two cuts and takes out the
bark with one movement. If the whole vine is girdled at the
surface of the ground, it will soon show great weakness, so when
practiced at all it should be confined to girdling the lateral canes
that are to be cut away entirely when the vine is pruned. In sec-
tions where early autumn frosts are common, it is frequently de-
sirable to try this method of advancing the period of ripening.

QUESTIONS—CHAPTER XI.
The Grape.

Where did the grape originate?
Describe the Northern Fox Grape.
Describe the River Bank Grape.
Describe the Huropean Wine Grape.
Describe the flowers of the grape.
How is the grape propagated?
What are long hard wood cuttings of the grape?
How should they be cared for? f
9. How should the land be prepared before planting the cuttings?
10. What are one eye cuttings?
11. How are they planted?
12. What are soft-wood cuttings?
13. How are they grown?
14. What is layering?
15. How are summer layers made?
16. How are spring layers made?
17. What is the best location for a vineyard?
18. What soil is best for a vineyard?
19. How should grapes be planted?
20. What cultivation do they need?
21. What points should be remembered when pruning the grape?
22. What pruning is needed the first year? i
23. What is meant by a ‘“‘spur?’”’
24. Explain the two “systems” of training.
25. What is the single post method? The high renewal method?
The Kniffen method? One-cane spur renewal method?
26. What pruning is needed the second year?
27. What pruning is needed the third year?
28. Explain the Munson method of training?
29. What pruning is required the first year, second year and
third year in this system?
80. Describe a method of pruning.
31. What effect does training vines against buildings or walls
produce?
32. How should neglected vines be pruned?
88. When should grape vines be pruned?
34. What material is commonly used in tying vines?
25. To what extent should the foliage and fruit be thinned out?
36. What fertilizers do grapes require?
27. What is meant by “girdling?”’ How should it be done?

.

Soe aa ip £2. bS) bt

CHAPTER XIl.
THE SMALL FRUITS.

The strawberry is the most important of small fruits. . It is
found growing from the far North to the hot South and around
the world. Is is easily grown, stands transportation moderately
well and is almost universally admired. x

Origin.—The cultivated varieties of strawberries have come
from the following species: Chilian strawberry (Fragaria chilo-
ensis). This South American species evidently enters most
largely into the parentage of our cultivated kinds, although this
fact was not generally acknowledged, and until recent years it
was thought that the native North American strawberry was
the parent of nearly all our cultivated kinds.

American strawberry (Fragaria virginiana).—This species
enters in a small way into some of our cultivated kinds. It was
formerly believed to form the largest part of the parentage of
the best American kinds, but this has been shown to be a mis-
take.

Alpine strawberry (Fragaria vesca).—This is a native of
Hurope and of the northern parts of this country and Canada,
From it have come some of the ever-bearing varieties whose
praises are so often talked of. It will not readily hybridize with
either of the two kinds previously mentioned. This species is
not sufficiently productive to warrant its being largely culti-
vated. The ever-bearing or perpetual varieties are not desirable
since they produce a few berries all through the season, but do
not produce enough at any one time to make their cultivation
an object of importance. This class of strawberries is generally
grown from seed but may be increased by runners.

Propagation.—The strawberry is increased by seed, runners
and plant divisions. The plants of the commercial kinds do not
“come true” from seed, but seedlings vary very much in their
value for cultivation. Probably not one plant in five thousand
seedlings that may be raised will be as good as any of the best
half dozen varieties now in cultivation, but there will be a good

ee ey ee

eee

Aeng

STRAWBERRY. 221

many plants out of such a number that will be fairly productive
of good fruit. It is this variability that gives us an opportunity
of originating new kinds that are better than those now grown.

To raise strawberries from seed the ripened berries should
tbe crushed in a small amount of dry sand or loam as soon as
they are “dead ripe.” The seed and sand should then be sown
at once in a somewhat shaded bed of rich soil, when the seed
will come up in a few weeks if well cared for. The plants should
be transplanted four inches apart in another bed as soon as
larve enough to handle. By winter, if carefully attended to,
they will be of good size and may be moved to the fruiting bed
in the spring, where they will fruit the following year; that is,
in two years from the time the seed was sown. It is a very sim-
ple process and may be carried on by any careful person. The
raising of seedlings is not often profitable, but is a very fascinat-
ing line of experimental work on account of the possibility that
one may develop a variety of more than ordinary value.

For practical purposes, strawberries are increased only from
runners, which most desirable kinds produce in great abundance
when growing in rich soil. These runners are attached to the
old plant only one season, the connection dying the first win-
ter if not before. It is common to separate them into old plants
and young plants. By old plants is meant the plants that have
once borne fruit. They can be distinguished by their black
roots, and should never be used for starting new beds except in
an emergency, as they often fail to grow. The young runners
are what should be set out. They have never fruited, have white
roots, and were formed the season just preceding the spring they
are set. Strawberries should never be grown from divisions, un-

‘less it is necessary to save the stock of a valuable kind.

Location and soil_—A northern slope is most to be desired
for strawberries as there they are not exposed to drying souther-
ly winds, which occasionally-in exposed locations so dry out the
land that the crop is seriously lessened; also, as the plants start
latest on north slopes the blossoms are not as liable to be in-
jured by the Jate spring frests which sometimes cause serious
injury to plants that start early. Some growers, however, are
very successful in growing them on southerly slopes or on level

222 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

land. In a general way, any land or location that is good enough
for a crop of corn will do admirably for strawberries, but straw-
berries should never be planted on sod-land on account of the
liability of its being infested with cut-worms, or with white
grubs which feed on the roots of the plants.

Manure and preparation of the land.—The strawberry is a
gross feeder and needs plenty of plant food in the soil. The best
fertilizer is barn-yard manure, but it should not be plowed in
very deep because the plant feeds mainly in the surface soil.
It is generally best to plow the land in autumn, turning in the
manure about six inches deep if it is coarse, but if partially rot-
ted, four inches is deep enough to cover it. The land should be
thoroughly dragged and smoothed in the spring when it is ready
for the plants.. When so prepared the land has a loose surface
bed in which to set the plants, while underneath it the -soil is
so firm as to retain the moisture and yet it is open enough so that
the young roots can push into it.

Time of planting.—Practically there is only one time to plant
and that is in the spring. It is occasionally recommended to
plant in August. It may be all right to do so in case there is no
‘strawberry bed in the home garden and there is considerable
moisture in the ground so the plants will live without too much
care; but in ordinary seasons the results from setting the plants
at this time are very uncertain and do not warrant the planting
of them on a large scale. If it is decided to set a bed for the
home garden in August, the plants may be well-rooted layers
from some bed near by, or if-.obtained from a distance they should
have been potted and be well rooted in the pots. The potted
plants cost more but are more certain to grow than layers. The
growers of strawberries for profit nearly always plant in the
spring. The earlier the plants can be set the longer the season
for them to grow, and the cool, moist weather of early spring
seems to favor the formation of roots. But they may be set as
late as the first of June with fair prospect of success. However,
if the land is very dry at planting time, it is best not to plant
until after a rain, even if waiting for it delays the planting con-
siderably. It is poor practice to set out strawberry plants in
dry soil and try to keep them growing by watering, as so much

q
4

STRAWBERRY. 223

water and attention is required that the operation will be found
a losing one—except where good facilities of irrigation are at
hand. It is occasionally practiced in northern states to set straw-
berry plants in autumn, when the plants should be covered with
soil and mulched on approach of winter. At the South, straw-
berry plants are set in late autumn and in winter.

If plants are received when the land is very dry, it is the
custom of the best
growers to open the
AL / bundles, shake out the
SW ee plants and dip the
anes —\ roots into a clay-loam
= Soo mud and “heel them in”

Wij //- close together, putting
gee 3 a little soil between the
RRS plants. When thus

treated, they may be
easily watered, and will
commence to grow and
be ready to set out in
the field or garden as
soon as a favorable time
offers. If the space
where the plants are
heeled in is surrounded
by a board fence or

Fig. 104.—Strawberry roots pruned other windbreak, a few

SEE aes ea feet high, it will aid
much in retarding the drying action of the wind.

Plants that have been some time in transit are very apt to
look white and weak when received, and are almost sure to
die if at once set in the full sunshine. They should be “heeled
in” and partially shaded until they assume their normal color
before planting.

Plants for setting out may occasionally be found to have the
fleshy part of the interior of their stems discolored by the win-
ter. If not moved, they will frequently grow and overcome this
injury, but if transplanted they often die. The loss from this

224 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

cause may be greatly lessened if the plants are not set out until
late in the spring, after they have partly recovered from the
trouble. Cases have occurred where all the plants set early have
died from this cause, while those from the same bed set out late
have done well. :

Methods of planting.—There are several methods of planting

strawberries. Two ways are mentioned here, and they may be
modified as the good judgment of the planter suggests.

The hill system.—This system is especially adapted to the
home garden. By it the fruit is grown to a larger size than in
the matted. rows, but not so much is produced. It consists in
setting the plants at about one foot distance in rows two and one-
half or three feet apart, and keeping all the runners cut off.
Managed on this plan, the plants become very large, have many
crowns, look neat and pretty, and produce a good amount of ex-
tra choice fruit. The objection to it is that it takes three or four
times aS many plants to set out as are needed where the matted
row system is followed, and the crop is not so large. For these
reasons this system is seldom followed by commercial growers.

Matted-row system.—All large strawberry growers pursue
very nearly the following plan: After the land is prepared in
the spring it is marked out with a corn-marker, four feet one
way and two feet the other, and the plants are set at the inter-
sections. The horse cultivator is run both ways until the plants
commence to make runners rapidly (about the middle of July),
when it is run only in the four-foot intervals. The runners are
then pushed together by the cultivator, thus forming a bed or
matted row, which by autumn will be eighteen inches wide. The
ground between the rows should be worked as often as once in
ten days, and after each rain, throughout the growing season up
to the last of September, after which cultivation should cease for
the year. Keep the soil loose and be sure the bed is free from
weeds on the approach of winter. For some varieties two feet

apart in the row may leave larger gaps than the runners ecan fill, :

but almost any of our commercial kinds will easily fill up even
larger vacancies. Such varieties as the Dunlap will easily fill up
intervals of three feet in rich soil. The runners should stand
about six inches apart in the bed by the first of September, after
this number is secured all others should be destroyed as weeds.

sits

sie

STRAWBERRY. — 225

Trimming and setting the plants.—The plants, when dug,
should have all the dead leaves, pieces of runners and blossoms
trimmed off, and if there is a considerable growth of leaves part
of them ‘should be cut off. AIl flowers that appear the first year
should be taken off. If the roots are large, they are not readily
planted, and it is customary to shorten them to about three inch-
es. The old roots then quickly start a lot of fresh feeding roots.

Fig. 105.—Strawberries. Cultivating the new bed about midsummer.

If a great mop of roots is planted in a bunch, a part of them is
very apt to rot. Perhaps as good a way as any to set the plants
is with a spade. This requires two persons, generally a man and

‘a boy, to do the work rapidly. After the land is marked out,

the man places the spade with the back side away from him,
presses it about six inches into the moist earth, moves it from.
him and lifts it out. The boy takes up a plant, separates the
roots, and puts them in the hole. The man puts the spade in
the ground about four inches nearer him than he had it before
and presses the soil against the plant. The boy finishes the op-
eration by firming the plant in the soil with his hands. As soon
as the planting is done, the cultivator should be started to loosen
up the soil between the plants. Great care should be taken to
keep the plants from getting dry when planting them out.

226 . POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Some large growers have used a transplanting machine
such as is commonly used for tobacco for setting strawberry
plants, but the ordinary transplanter requires much care to
prevent its setting the plants too deep and burying the crowns.
Do not set the plants deeper than they grew in the bed from
which they were moved.

Winter protection.—Under whatever system the strawberry
may be grown, it is benefitted by being protected in winter by
a mulch of sufficient thickness to prevent frequent freezing and
thawing, which is very injurious to the plants. Of course a cov-

ering of snow will answer the purpose, but it is not safe to trust

it. The mulch skould consist of marsh hay, corn stalks, straw,
boughs, or any litter that does not lie too close and is free from
weed seeds. It should ordinarily be put on about three inches

deep over the whole of the strawberry bed. This should be ap- -

plied in late autumn or early winter, after the ground is frozen,
but some good growers think that a part of the covering at least
ought to be put on before any severe freezing sets in, while
others wait until the ground is frozen hard enough to bear up a
team before covering. In spring the mulch should be taken off
and put in the intervals between the plants where it will help to
preserve the moisture during dry weather and to keep the fruit
clean.

In winters when there is not much snow fall but severely
cold weather, it is important to cover strawberry plants much
deeper than is customary in the Hastern and Central states.
Hight inches of settled straw is generally none too much where
the winters are cold and dry with little snow-fall; and where
straw is very abundant, as is the case where grain growing is
largely practiced, it is a good plan to use as much as this every
year. This is especially true in western Minnesota, the Dakotas
‘and Wyoming where a heavy covering will often make all the
difference between success and failure. However, where a heavy
covering is used, it is important to set the plants in rows at
least six feet apart, so that there will be room between
the rows for the straw when the plants are uncovered. It is then
very convenient for replacing over the plants if a very cold spell
comes when the flowers are open. The use of straw as here

“ - = ae Zz
ee ei ea

STRAWBERRY. 227

recommended has been known to save the crop for several years
in succession in some of the most severe locations in Minnesota
and the Dakotas.

How to continue beds in bearing—Some growers prefer to
fruit their strawberry beds but one season. It is probably best
to fruit the beds at least two seasons, provided they are in good
condition when the first crop is gathered. If properly renewed
it will often happen that the second crop on a strawberry bed
will be better than the first, but generally it is not quite as good.

Renewing strawberry beds.—There are several ways of re-
newing an old strawberry bed, but perhaps the following plan is
as good as any: As soon as may be after the crop is gathered
the bed is closely mowed and all the weeds and strawberry leaves
are burned. A plow is then run on either side of the matted rows
and all but about one foot in width of it is turned under. The
furrow thus made is filled with fine rotted manure and the cul-
tivator set going. The plants remaining are then thinned out
with a hoe and special pains are taken to cut out all weeds and
old or weak plants. This leaves the old bed clean and with
plenty of manure close by, in which the old plants can make
new roots. The plants soon send up new leaves which are
much healthier than they would be were the old foliage allowed
to remain, and if we have an ordinary season an abundance of
runners wiil be sent out, and by winter the old bed will look
nearly as vigorous as a new one.

This method of renewing the old bed has the merit of de-
stroying all the diseased foliage, and to some extent, also, in-
-jurious insects. It is very important that the renewed bed be
kept healthy by frequent cultivation and the destruction of any
insects that may appear, in order to have it do its best in fruit-
ing the following season. In renewing old beds a common two-
horse corn cultivator will be found a very satisfactory implement.
A disc harrow with the inner sections removed is also good.
Hither of these implements will do the work better in hard soil
than the one-horse plow.

Burning over the strawberry bed is very important where
old beds are to be fruited again, but it is absolutely necessary
for best success that the burning shall be done quickly; that is,

228 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

the trash should be thoroughly dry, so that it will “go like a
flash.” Ifthe trash is somewhat moist, so that it will burn but
slowly, the roots and crowns of the plants will almost certainly
be killed. Sometimes it may be impracticable to get the trash
sufficiently dry to burn well. In such cases the material should
be raked from over the plants into a windrow between the rows,
to be burned, or it may be best to cart off a part of it if the cov-
ering is very heavy.

Fig. 106.—Flowers of strawberry. At left, pistillate flower; at right,
perfect flower. :

Sexuality of the strawberry plant.—We have two classes of
the strawberry, distinguished by their blossom. One class has
perfect flowers, i. e., all its flowers have well developed stamens
and pistils (male and female organs). These can be planted
alone without ‘any other variety near, and will produce: fruit.
This class is sometimes called bi-sexual (fig. 106). The other class
has pistils (female organs), but does not have stamens, or has

ii

STRAWBERRY. 229

_ bat very few of them. This class is often called imperfect (fig. 106).

It is found in practice that the varieties with pistillate blossoms
frequently produce more fruit than those with bisexual flowers,
consequently it is often advantageous to raise as many of such
kinds as possible and as few of the others, but it is necessary
to have some of the bi-sexual kinds near the pistillate kinds or

‘no fruit is produced. Just the proportion that should exist be-

tween the bi-sexual and the pistillate kinds is a disputed point,
but it is probably about one to three or four, depending upon
the weather at the time of blossoming. It is safe to say that
when pistillate kinds are used, every third row should be of some

Fig. 107.—Portions of flower of strawberry. At left, cross section of
receptacle, showing pistils; at right, two pistils attached with
three stamens to a portion of the calyx. 1

bi-sexual kind, selected so that it will be in flower at the same
time as the imperfect variety. The neglect of this precaution
is a constantly recurring source of disappointment. Some grow-
ers recommend that every third plant in the row be of some bi-

~~

230 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

sexual kind. The objection to this way in practice is that the pistil-

late kinds, being often the strongest growers, may soon crowd
out the weaker variety; and then, again, when this plan is fol-
lowed, the plants when taken up are so hopelessly mixed as to
be worthless for setting a new bed.

Dry berries, “Nubbins.”—Sometimes the berries fail to fill

out evenly all over, or are small and mostly dry and hard, or one-
sided. This may result from the pistils, or a part of them, being
injured by frosts, dry wird, or an unusually severe rain or hail
storm which, by destroying the delicate pistils, prevents the
formation of seed and the development of the part adjoining, for
it has been conclusively proven that unless the seeds are per-
fected. the fleshy part near them does not fill out. Sometimes
the blossoms are stung by a snout-beetle and then they hardly
form berries at all. Nubbins are also caused by winter injury
which weakens the plants to such an-extent that apparently they
are not strong enough to fill out the fruit. Imperfect pollination
may also cause nubbins.

Picking and marketing.—If the berries are to be sold great
care should be taken to have them carefully picked. Green ber-
ries are bad enough to have in a box, if they are to be shipped,
but overripe berries will cause much more trouble for they are
sure to decay before they reach their destination and damage
all the good fruit. On this account the beds should be picked
clean every day in warm weather. The pickers will need care-
ful watching so as to be sure they do not put poor berries in
the bottom of the boxes, and that they pick all the ripe berries
so none will be left to get overripe. It is always desirable to
pick fruit, that is to be shipped, in the cool of the day unless it
should be wet. Sorting and grading the berries after they have
been picked will be found necessary if a strictly first class prod-
uct is desired, and will often pay if the general average of the
. fruit is large.

Gift packages holding twenty-four boxes are almost universal-
ly used for shipping strawberries in the Western states, while
in some of the Hastern states the return package is still popular.
The latter cost about twenty-five cents per crate, including boxes

and cover. They are always made so there is room to heap up the

boxes and to allow a circulation of air through them,

Re ee ee Ne

CURRANT. 231

Avoiding frosts.—It sometimes happens» that the blossoms,
which appear about the middle of May and are quite 5us-
ceptible to frosts, are seriously injured on ‘cold nights. They
may often be protected when in thig critical condition by taking
the mulching from the rows and throwing it back again on the
plants for a few days, or until the danger from frost is past.
If the winter mulch is left on as late as it is safe to do so, which
is until the new growth starts strongly, it will serve to retard the
plants and they will not come into blossom until a week or:-so
later than they otherwise would were the mulch removed early in
the spring. But aside from the risk or injury from frost, more fruit
is produced from plants that come into flower early. An ordi-
nary frost seldom destroys the stamens, its damage being con-
fined to the pistils, therefore, the center or berry part of the
frosted flower turns black.

Varieties.—The varieties vary much in size, color, and qual-
ity of the fruit and vigor, productiveness and hardiness of the
plants. The flowers also vary, as has been mentioned under the
head of Sexuality cf the flowers. There are now several hun-
dred varieties catalogued by nurserymen, and new varieties are
brought out each year, but of the new kinds that have been tried
probably not one in twenty-five has been worth the keeping, and
yet we can reasonably expect that most of the kinds now popular
will be displaced by better kinds within a few years.

It is well not to pay a high price for plants. The new kinds,
if good, are soon offered at reasonable figures. As a rule it is
not necessary to pay over twenty-five cents per dozen, or one
dollar per, hundred for plants. In quantities of five hundred or
more they can be bought at much less cost. About two hun-
dred plants, if weil set out and cared for, will give all the fruit
needed by the ordinary family. Beginners will generally be most
successful if they confine themselves at the start to some good
bi-sexual kind, to save the annoyance of caring for two varieties
which may be easily mixed together.

' The Currant.

The currant will grow and fruit abundantly in almost
any soil or situation in the northern states if given good cultiva-
tion; and even when it has but little care it is still very sure

232 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

to produce a fair crop. However, no cultivated plant responds
more promptly and generously to manuring and careful at-
tention. The acid fruit, in any of the various ways in which it
is used, is healthy and refreshing. It is not so universally es-
teemed as the strawberry, yet it is used in immense quantities
each year, and first-class fruit carefully marketed generally pays
the grower a good profit. No fruit is more satisfactory in the
home garden. A currant bush once planted will continue to bear
fruit for an indefinite period, often for thirty years: There are
very many species of currants, but our cultivated kinds belong
to the following:
Origin:

(a) The red currant has come from Ribes rubrum of north-

ern Europe and northern America. Examples of this species are
to be found in the varieties known as Red Dutch and White Grape,
which have red and white fruit respectively.

(b) The black currant of the garden has come from Ribes
nigrum of Hurope. Plants and fruit of this species have a pe-
culiar chinch-bug-like odor which to many people is unpleasant.
There is no great demand for the fruit, but in some markets it
is much sought after and brings a high price. Examples are
Black Naples and Lee’s Prolific.

(c) The Crandall currant has come from Ribes aurewm of”

western America. The fruit is purplish black, shining, often
large, two to several in a cluster. The variety known as Cran-
‘dall is practically the only cultivated form, but it varies greatly
when grown from seed. It seems to be little if any improvement
over the best. wild forms. The well known Missouri. currant of
‘the gardens is a form of this which seldom produces much fruit.

Propagation.—The currant does not come true from seed.
The named varieties are grown from layers, cuttings, or divisions.

Seedlings are easily raised if treated the same as recommend-
‘ed for raspberry seedlings, but rather more care must be tak-
en with its seed than with that of the raspberry as it germinates
very quickly in the spring, and if moved after growth has start-
ed it often fails to grow.. On this account the seed should be
‘-gown in the fall where it is to grow the following year. Or if
‘sown in boxes they should be frozen until February or March,

CURRANT. 233

when they may be put in a greenhouse or hotbed. But very few
seedlings are of any value, and the growing of them is seldom
attempted.

Cuttings are very easily rooted and varieties are almost.
universally grown from them. They may be taken off at almost
any time while the plant is dormant, and wood of almost any
age or size will root if carefully handled, but the following meth-
od is generally very certain to bring good results:

As soon as the leaves have fallen—which may be in the
latter part of August or first of September—the young wood
(growth of the current season) is cut into pieces about seven
inches long.- They are then at once set out in rich, well drained
soil four inches apart, in rows three feet apart. Only about one
inch of the cutting should be above gfound, and great care
should be taken to very firmly pack the earth around the bottom
of the cuttings. When thus treated they will have calloused and
made some small roots before the ground freezes, and will start
vigorously the following spring. The cuttings should remain as
planted for at least one, or perhaps two years. If the land is

-in good condition they ‘will be ready to set out when one year

old, but can remain where planted for several seasons if well
cultivated. If wood is scarce the cuttings may be shorter than
recommended, but in such a case more care will be required to
ensure that they do not dry out in the soil. Sometimes the cut-
tings may consist of a single bud each, and may be sown like
beans in a furrow, but much experience is required to be suc-
cessful with.them when made so very small.

Layers may be made at any time during the growing sea-
son, but preferably in the spring or early summer, as they will

-then be well rooted by autumn. They consist simply of branches

which have been covered with earth and have become rooted.
After becgming well rooted they are separated from the old plant.
The branches are rather surer to root if the bark and wood is
eut or broken a little, but most varieties root very easily without
this trouble.

Soil and planting.—The currant will grow in almost any
kind of land, and on that which will raise a fair corn crop it

gives good returns, but the soil cannot be too rich or the cul-

234 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

set out in the fall or spring with good results. If set in the fall
each plant should be banked up with about two spadesful of soil.
They should be put five or six feet apart each way, and for the
strong varieties most generally grown six is better than five
feet. One plant is enough for a hill, and those that are young
and thrifty are better than older ones. Where practicable, they
should be planted so as to allow for cultivation both ways. They
should not ordinarily be set along a fence or border, as they are
difficult to cultivate in such places and are often neglected. - The
land should be piowed lightly with a one-horse plow early in the
spring, and the cultivator started soon afterward. While the
plants are in fruit, cultivation will have to be suspended, as the
weight of the berries will bend the branches so that they will be
in the way and liable to injury. As soon as the crop is gathered
the working of the land should be again commenced and continue
until the middle of August, after which there is no need of it.
Mulching.—Good crops of currants may be grown without
cultivation provided the land is heavily mulched, and in some-
what dry locations they are more surely grown on this plan than
on any other. The mulch may consist of straw litter, coal ashes,
hard-wood sawdust, or similar material. If ashes or sawdust is
used it should not be mixed with the soil but kept on the surface.
It is often a good plan to mulch near the plants and cultivate
in the center of the rows. Ashes or sawdust used for this pur-
pose will keep down the weeds near the plants and do away with
the necessity of hand cultivating. Pine sawdust is not as good
for this purpose as that from the hard woods, but may be safely
used if kept on the surface of the land and not mixed with it.
Partially rotted sawdust is much to be preferred to that which
is fresh. .
Pruning.—The currant is improved by some pruning each
year. This may be done at almost any season, but preferably
in August. To do this work properly it should be understood~
that very little fruit is borne on the wood of the preceding sea-
son’s. growth, and that .the buds which produce the greatest
amount of fruit are on wood in its third season of growth or
older. The fruit buds are formed late in summer and open early

tivation too constant for the best crops of fruit. Plants may be :
¥
1

+

CURRANT. | 235

in the following growing season. In pruning, the old wood which
is weakened by age should be cut out close to the ground and
enough new sprouts from the roots should be encouraged to take
its place. Not more than from four to six shoots from the roots
~ should be allowed to remain. If all are allowed to grow, too
much bearing wood will be produced and the fruit will conse-
quently be very small. The wood which is infested by borers
should also be cut away.

Tree currants are frequently advertised as being very desir-
able and are often sold at a high price. They are, in fact, merely
our common currants pruned so as to make them take on a tree-
like form. They appear very pretty while growing, but having
only one stem the first borer that attacks it destroys the plant.
To make plants take on this tree-form, all but one upper bud is
rubbed off the cuttings when they are set out. The remaining
bud pushes up a straight shoot, which is allowed to branch at
about a foot from the ground and to make a miniature tree.
Such plants seldom send up sprouts, so the stem cannot be re-
newed. The: common:red currant is sometimes grafted on the
strong growing Ribes aureum, but such plants are open to the
same objections as other tree currants and are only valuable as
curiosities.

Winter protection.—The Red Dutch and a few other very
excellent varieties are perfectly hardy in almost any soil or situ-
ation, but some of the kinds producing the largest fruit are oc-
casionally injured in severe locations in winter. They may, how-
ever, be protected by covering them with earth, but if so treated
they will need to be mulched or to have some support to keep
the fruit off the ground, as the canes will not straighten up well
in the spring after being bent down all winter. Another way
of giving some protection is to tie the stems together in autumn
with string or willow withes. This is very desirable where the
snow drifts over the plants, as it prevents their being broken by
it when it settles in the spring. More protection is afforded by
this treatment than is generally supposed.

Marketing.—It is customary to market the aera in bas-
kets holding about six or eight pounds, but sometimes quart
boxes and other packages are used for this purpose. One must

236 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

study the local market to learn which package is the best to use.
This fruit is generally sold by the pound. Unlike raspberries
and strawberries, it will remain in good condition on the plants
for some little time after getting ripe, but it does not ship as well
if very ripe as when it is a little green. The fruit makes the
firmest jelly before it gets fully ripe, and on this account it is

Fig. 108.—Currant bushes tied up for winter to prevent snow from
breaking’ them down. :

sometimes most profitable to market the crop when the berries
at the end of the bunches are still quite green.

Varieties.—There are not so many varieties of the currant
offered in the nursery catalogues as of most other cultivated
fruits, but still there is much difference in the size and quality
of the different kinds, as well as in the hardiness and vigor of the
plants. For the home garden, about one dozen plants well cared
for will give an abundance of fruit.

oe The Gooseberry.

The gooseberry is closely related to the currant and is
fully as productive. The fruit, however, is not so highly es-
teemed in this country as in northern Europe where a differ-

GOOSEBERRY. OP goa

ent species is grown and where it is a favorite fruit. There
are several species of the gooseberry that enter into our culti-
vated kinds. The color of the cultivated gooseberries varies
from a pale green to a deep red when ripe.

Origin:

(a) The American gooseberry has come from the Ribes
oxyacanthoides of America. Examples. are the Houghton and
the Smith. There are several other species of native American
gooseberrieS which are used locally in a wild state. The. great-
est objection to this class is the large number of sharp prickles.
Some of the new varieties are a great improvement in this re-
spect.

(b) The European gooseberry is Ribes grossularia. Hxam-
ples are the Industry and the Lancastershire Lad. They are
not much grown in America as they are especially subject to
mildew in this country.

Crosses.—There are a number of crosses between the Eu-
ropean and American gooseberries. The Triumph and the
Downing are each supposed to be crosses of this kind.

The directions given for growing the currant apply with
equal] force to the gooseberry, except in a few particulars, which
are included under the following heads:

Propagation.—Most varieties of the gooseberry do not grow
as readily from cuttings as the currant, and many kinds with
small, slender wood it is almost impossible to root in this way.
For this reason layering is a most common method of propaga-
tion. If the branches are carefully covered with soil in June,
after the new growth is six or more inches long, each twig will
be found slightly rooted by autumn. They should then be taken
“up and cut apart with a piece of the rooted main branch with
each twig. ‘These little layers should be set out at once in the
spring and treated the same as recommended for currant cut-
tings. Some varieties need to have the bark slightly broken
when they are laid down, but most kinds root readily without
this trouble.

Planting—Autumn is the time usually preferred for set-
ting the gooseberry. The sprouts start into growth so very
early in the spring that any delay at that time causes them a

t .
238 3 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

set-back from which they may not readily recover. But plants
may be very successfully set in the spring if planted -early.
Gooseberries are grown in practically the same way as currants.

Pruning should consist in taking out any superfluous or
weak stems, as recommended for currants. Besides this, the
size and appearance of the fruit of the common kinds will be
greatly improved if from one-third to one-half of the new growth
is cut off annually. However, some of the newer kinds pro-
ducing the large fruit, may perhaps, need this recommendation
somewhat modified. Large fruit is picked and sold most readily
and the quantity produced from a trimmed bush is, as a rule,
fully as much as from one not trimmed. This is especially
true of our native kinds which are inclined to overbear. Prun-
ing thins out the bushes so that picking can be more easily
done. - nae
Marketing.—Gooseberries are most in demand when per-
fectly green but are also used when fully ripe. They are gen-
erally marketed in quart boxes.

Insects.—The insects that commonly injure currants and
gooseberries are the Currant Worm, Currant Borer, Leaf Lice
and Berry Moth. See Chapter III.

Diseases.—The more common diseases of the currant and
gooseberry are Leaf Spot and Mildew. See Chapter IV.

The Raspberry.

(a) The European raspberry (Rubus ideus). ‘Varieties of ~

this class were the only kinds grown in this country for many
years and they proved to be poorly adapted to general cultiva-
tion here although in a few sections, as, for instance, near the
Hudson River, they were a success. .Among the varieties of
this class that have been grown here are the Herstine, Hud-
son River, Red Antwerp and Superlative. In this class are yel-
low as well as red kinds. :

(b) The American raspberries are the foundation of com-
mercial raspberry growing in America on a large scale. They
embrace the red raspberry (Rubus strigosus) and the black
cap varieties (Rubus occidentalis). Examples of the red rasp-
berry are the Cuthbert, King and Turner and of the black caps,
Gregg, Older and Kansas are examples. Among the varieties
of each of these species are red and yellow varieties,

;_ =e

RASPBERRY. 239

(c) Hybrids between the red and black cap raspberries are
common. They were formerly considered a separate species
and known as Rubus neglectus. Examples are the Columbian,
Schaeffer and Philadelphia.

Classes of raspberries.—All raspberries in cultivation may

be divided into two classes, the suckering class and the tip

rooting class, according as to whether they increase by suckers
or by tip layers. This is a convenient, rather than a botanical
classification. ;

Propagation.—_The methods of propagation vary greatly
with the different species of raspberries. They consist of propa-
tion by seed, by suckers, by root cuttings, by tip layers and by
division of the stools.

Raspberries from seed.—All the cultivated kinds may be
grown from seed, but plants from seed are not “true,” i. e., are
not like the plants from which they came, and it is only an
occasional seedling that is nearly as good as any of the varie-
ties commonly cultivated. To raise seedlings, the “dead” ripe
fruit should be crushed in a small amount of dry-sand, and the
whole sown at once in a light, moist soil, somewhat shaded.
The seed will seldom germinate until the following spring when,
after the plants are large enough to handle, they may, if too
thick in the seed beds, be set out in another bed to grow the
first season, or if not crowded be left to grow where they are.
The plants should be taken up in the fall, “heeled in,” and plant-
ed again the following spring, when they will bear fruit the
following (the third) year. Another way is to sow the seed as
soon as obtained in small boxes, and cover them lightly with
leaves or litter. In February bring the boxes into a green-
house, transplant to other boxes as soon as the seedlings have
their third leaves formed, and plant permanently outdoors as
soon as large enough and the weather will permit; by this sys-
tem some fruit is generally obtained the second year after plant-
ing out.

By root cuttings.—Most of the varieties of raspberries com-
ing under the first three species mentioned produce suckers
from the roots and these are generally used to start new planta-
tions, but when there is a shortage for this purpose it is cus-

240 -POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

tomary to grow plants of the suckering kinds from root cut-
tings, which may be made as follows: In the autumn, after the
plants have stopped growing, the roots are taken up, cut into
pieces two or three inches
long and put in boxes with
alternate layers of sand o1
loam. The boxes are then
buried in some well-drain-
ed spot until the land is
fit to work in the spring,
when the roots’ should
show a callous on the cut
ends. The roots are then
planted two or three inches
apart in the furrows and
covered about two inches

Fig. 109.—Raspberry Plants. A.— deep in rich soil. By the
Dormant plant ready for trans- t
planting. B.—Growth started too end of the season they

much to transplant, will have made plants large
enough to set out permanently.

This plan of growing plants from root cuttings may be
greatly changed in detail, but the general plan is the same. It
is always best to make up the root cuttings in the fall, but cut-
tings from strong growing kinds do nearly as well made up in
the spring. The cuttings are generally made with a sharp
knife or a pair of pruning shears, but nearly equally good re-
sults may be had by cutting the roots in a hay cutter and this
is a common practice where large quantities are grown.

By layers.—The black-caps and some other species grow
most readily from layers. The tips of the new growth reach
the ground about the latter part of August or first of Septem-
ber and readily make new plants if held in place. These tips
should be covered with a spadeful of soil, or better, be inserted
three or four inches straight down into a hole made by push-
ing a spade in the ground. They will be well rooted in a week
or two. These rooted layers will be found to winter over most
safely if allowed to remain undisturbed until spring, but should
have a light mulch over them during winter. They may also

Ky

RASPBERRY. 241

be wintered over if dug and very carefully heeled in, or kept in
a cold cellar, but the plan recommended should be followed
when practicable. It is not considered good policy to plant
the layers in the fall as they are very liable to winter injury
when disturbéd in autumn. In digging the layers about ten
inches of the cane should be cut off with the roots to facilitate
handling. It is generally believed that unprotected plants are
much hardier when the layers remain attached to the plant dur-
ing winter than they are if the canes are cut loose in the fall.

Location and soil.—The common varieties of the raspberry
succeed admirably in any good soil, but the suckering class,
which includes chiefiy the red varieties, produce rather more
abundantly than the black-caps in moist, heavy loam, and the
latter do best in a sandy loam. A northern slope is generally
better than a southerly one as it is less liable to injury from
drouth, which frequently shortens the fruiting season in bad
situations; but it is well known that some varieties withstand
dry weather and other climatic troubles far better than others
of the same species. .

Manure and preparation of land.—All varieties need high
cultivation. The land should be heavily manured, if of inferior
quality, and thoroughly plowed and brought into the best con-
dition for corn or other gross feeding crop. The best fertilizer
is well rotted barnyard manure. Raspberries, especially the

black cap kinds, will produce very well even on quite poor soil,

but rich land and thorough cultivation is necessary for the best
success with any variety. :
Time of planting.—The suckering kinds may be planted in

autumn or spring with safety. When the work is done in the

autumn great care should be taken to firm the soi] around the
roots, and a forkful of mulch over each hill is a great protec-
tion against winter injury. Many growers prefer to set in au-
tumn, since at that season they can give the work more careful
attention than in the spring. Then, again, the new sprouts from
sets (suckers) start very early, and if the work is delayed in
the spring the new growth is often broken off or injured in the
work of planting. Black caps and other tip-rooting kinds should
neyer be set in the fall, as they are very liable to be winter-

wy ae
Be ei ‘

242 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

killed if moved at that season. They .should always be set in
the spring. ;

Selection of plants.—Since the canes are biennial there is
no such thing as two or three-year-old plants, as with trees
when we refer to the stems; but the roots may be of any age,
as they are perennial. Plants of one season’s growth are best
to begin with. Sucker plants are largely used in the case of
varieties increasing in that way; but plants from root cuttings
are generally considered fully as good, or even better, when
well grown. The old stools from raspberry plantations may
be broken up and the parts planted, but such gets have few
fibrous roots and often fail. With the tip-rooting kinds plants
obtained by breaking up the old stools are not so good as those
from the suckering kinds obtained in the same way and should
not be used, as they are very apt to fail even with the best of
care. It is important to use only vigorous sets taken from
perfectly healthy stock. Old plantations of raspberries fre-
quently become diseased and plants from them are often worth-
less, consequently much care should be exercised in buying
plants. Care should also be taken to avoid using sets that are
affected with root galls. :

Planting.—After the land is thoroughly prepared the plants
should be set out in rows, seven feet apart and at three-foot
intervals in the rows, putting two plants at a place. The dis-
tance between the rows may be lessened to five feet if more
space is not available and the weaker growing kinds are plant-
ed, but the greater distance admits of cultivation even when
the bushes are loaded with fruit. It allows sunlight to readily
reach the plants and is most satisfactory every way, and for
profit they should never be set any nearer; while for some of
the strongest growing varieties the hills should not be nearer
than five feet in the row. At the time of planting the canes
should be cut off close to the ground and no fruit allowed to
form the first season.

A good way to plant is to mark out the land the three-foot

way and then furrow out where the rows are to come. Set the.

plants in the furrows, covering them temporarily with the feet, -
and afterwards more carefully with a hoe, firming them in with

Fy a a ee

RASPBERRY. 243

the feet at the same time. The rows should preferably run
north and south, for planted in this way the fruit is shaded
by the new growth during the hottest part of the day during
the period of ripening. Some garden crop may be grown between,
the rows the first year.

Depth to plant.—Black cap raspberry plants should be set
about the same depth in the soil as they. naturally grew. The
roots should be carefully spread: and the soil well firmed over
them. The suckering kinds should be planted a little deeper
than they naturally grew and be well firmed in.

Cultivation.—The soil should be kept loose with a horse cul-
tivator and the rows free from weeds. If the land gets hard
the one-horse plow may be used but the land should be kept
- flat and as free from ridges as possible. Frequent shallow
cultivation, especially in a dry time, is important.

Pruning and thinning.—Not more than two shoots should
be permitted to grow from each root the first year. The second
and succeeding years the suckering kinds will produce a lot of
sprouts all around the hill; four or five of those nearest the hill
should be allowed to grow and the rest treated as weeds. If
a great lot of these suckers are allowed to remain, but little
fruit will be produced. Black cap raspberries will this year
send up a half dozen or so of sprouts at the base of the old
plants, and enough of these should be removed to allow the re-
mainder to properly develop. All these sprouts should be
pinched once when from twelve to eighteen inches high, if they
are to be grown without a trellis. As soon as the fruit has been
gathered the old canes which have borne fruit the current year
should be cut out and destroyed. In the spring the suckering
_ kinds need no pruning, but the lateral canes of the black cap
varieties should be shortened back to twelve or fifteen inches,
and the main cane shortened perhaps one-third its length. This
is very important, as the branches of this kind are so slender
that they will bend to the ground and break under the weight
of fruit unless severely pruned, or they may set more fruit than
they can mature and the whole be lost. When pruned in this
manner the fruit will be much larger and the plant will yield
fully as much fruit as if all the canes were left their whole length.

244 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Mulching.—The first year no mulching is needed; but the
second season, as,early as the middle of June, the rows should
be mulched for two feet on each side with hay, straw or litter,
or with what is better still, green clover cut when in blossom
and put on two inches deep. The latter is especially desirable
because it lies close, and as it rots in one season and is very
rich in plant food it makes a good manure. ‘This material 7
keeps the land moist, the berries .clean, and kills out weeds. :
After putting on the mulch as recommended there will still be
a space two and a half feet wide between the rows where the —
cultivator should be run to keep the soil loose. Too much
stress can hardly be laid upon the importance of mulching this
fruit. It frequently makes a difference between a good profit
and a big loss.

Support.—It is desirable in severe climates to have the

canes supported in some manner. In milder sections, where
winter protection is not necessary, the bushes may be so fre-
quently pinched as to make them form little trees that support
themselves; but this kind of treatment is not desirable where
the plants have to be covered in. winter, as it makes them so
very stocky they cannot be easily laid down. A very good sup-
port for raspberries and blackberries is made by running a No.
12 galvanized iron wire on each side of the bushes, attached
to a good solid post at each end of the row and tied together at
frequent intervals. This wire should rest on nails driven in
stakes set twenty-five feet apart. Such a support permits the
plants to move gently in the wind but not sufficiently to break
them by its violence. It keeps the fruit off the ground and is
cheap and convenient.

Winter protection.—Winter protection of some sort may
be necessary for raspberries that are growing in severe loca-
tions. A good windbreak may be sufficient to make the differ-
ence between success and failure in growing this crop on our
western prairies, but in many places in the extreme Northern
-states and in many parts of Colorado it is necessary to bury
the canes to protect them from winter injury. This is espe-
cially true when tender kinds ‘are grown. To do this, the
bushes should be covered late in autumn before the ground

eee ee

RASPBERRY. 245

freezes hard and should not be handled when there is any frost
in the canes. The best covering is fresh earth. In laying them
down commence at the north end of the row, remove tha soil
from the north side of the hill, about four inches deep, with
a garden fork; gather the branches together with a two-tined
fork, press gently to the north, at the same time place the foot
firmly on the base of the hill and press hard, bending the bush

Fig. 110.—Laying down raspberries. _

in. the root as much as possible and as little as may be in the
canes, until nearly flat.on the ground and hold it there until
the second man covers with soil sufficient to hold it down. The
top of each succeeding hill will lie at the base of its predeces-
sor, making a continuous covering. It will be found that a lit-
tle mulch put on the canes first after laying them down will
hold the soil put on, and much less soil will be required than
if no mulch is used. After laying them all down turn a furrow
against each side of the rows, covering as much as possible,
and draw a little over any canes that may be left exposed. It
is only necessary to use enough to barely cover the canes.
There are some of the strong growing varieties, such as the
Gregg, that on rich land are very difficult to cover. With them
it will do very well to bend as nearly to the ground as is safe
and cover the tops only with enough soil to hold them in place,

246 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

While it would be better to cover them all if it were practicable,

yet treated in this way enough snow will generally lodge in

the *anes to cover them, and if this is supplemented with a
light covering of coarse litter or straw so much the better. If
micé are numerous they must be poisoned or they will eat the
canes under the mulch.

A machine has been originated in Vannasarer that covers
raspberries and blackberries quite successfully and it is there
used on a large scale. It requires four horses to operate it.
However, it often breaks many canes in operating and some

growers prefer to take their chances of winter injury to cover- —

ing with it: .

Lifting canes in the spring.—The canes should be raised
in the spring soon after the land is dry and well settled. To
do this use a round-tined fork and after carefully removing
some of the earth raise the plants slightly to a slanting posi-
tion. It is found that left in this position the fruiting canes
are shaded by the new growth and are not so crowded as when
raised up straight.

The fruit.—The fruit is found in red or yellow colors in
the red raspberry class and in black, yellow and purple in the
cap class. The varieties vary in size, fruitfulness and vigor
as well as in color. The red kinds are most popular but the
black caps are much used. The-»purple and yellow varieties
do not sell well in most markets but are often very satisfactory
in the home garden and for drying. All kinds are used for
drying in years when prices are low.

Picking and marketing.—Avoid picking when fruit is wet,
if possible, and pick fruit clean. Do not leave any overripe

fruit on the plants. Keep picked fruit in a cool, shady place;

transport small fruit in a good spring wagon.

Red raspberries are generally marketed in pint boxes, (24
pints in a case), and black cap raspberries in one quart boxes,
but some growers find the pint box-best for all kinds of rasp:
berries. In the west the gift package only is used, but in the
Bastern states the return package is generally preferred. This
subject should receive the most careful attention of growers.

For further notes on picking, marketing, diseases and in-

BLACKBERRY AND DEWBERRY. 247

sects affecting raspberries see special chapters on these sub-
jects. .
The Blackberries.

The cultivated blackberries may be grouped under five heads
as follows:

(a) The high bush of the clearings and fence rows of the
Northern states, with long clusters—as those of the Ancient
Briton.

(b) The type with lower growth and short clusters such
as those of the Snyder and Badger. Both of these groups are
probably forms of the Rwbus villosus. ,

(ec) The trailing dewberries such as the Lucretia and the
Austin, known botanically as Rubus canadensis,

(d) The forms that are intermediate between these species
are probably hybrids between the two species above mentioned.
Among these are varieties such as the Wilson and the Rath-
burn. ¥

(e) The cut-leaved or evergreen blackberry (Rubus lacinia-
ius) is probably a form of the European blackberry (Rubus
- fruticosus). This kind is cultivated on the Pacific Coast where
it remains green all winter and is very prolific and highly es-
teemed.

Propagation:

(a) The high bush blackberry is propagated by suckers
and root cuttings in the same way as the suckering raspberries.

(b) The dewberry is propagated by layering the growing
canes, which root readily about midsummer. Varieties of this
group are not generally cultivated with success, but in some
locations they fruit abundantly. ;

Soils:

(a) The best soil for the high bush blackberry is a heavy
clay loam, but it grows on a wide range of soils.

(b) The dewberry does best in a warm, sandy or gravelly
soil, but is not nearly as reliable as the blackberry.

Planting, Cultivation and Pruning:

(a). Plant and cultivate the same as the suckering rasp-
berry.

(b) It is considered important by many growers -to pinch

248 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

the high bush blackberry canes at least once when two feet

high, as this encourages the low setting of the fruit buds.

(c) Spring pruning should not be done until the blackberry
canes are in flower and the amount and location of bloom is
seen, otherwise too many fruiting canes may be removed and
thus no fruit left. As a rule, about one-half of the bloom should
be cut off in the pruning.

(d) It is desirable to have a trellis for blackberries and

dewberries.
Dwarf Juneberry.

Dwarf Juneberry (Amelanchier canadensis, variety oblong-

ifolia).—This is also called shad bush service berry and suscu-

tan berry, native of the Northern states and far into western.

Canada where in thickets it reaches the height of 16 feet :and

produces heavy crops of large fruit that is much prized by the

settlers and Indians.
There are several so-called varieties of it found in the

Northern states, one of which makes a small tree, but it is bet-
ter known in its dwarf form, which is so very distinct from:

the tree form as to seem quite worthy of being made a separate
species. This latter form is quite abundant and occasionally
very productive. It is the selected kinds of it that are cultivat-

ed for fruit. It generally grows from four to six feet high; is .

covered with a profusion of white flowers early in the spring,

and ripens its fruit in July with the raspberries. The berry’

is of a purplish red color, often nearly one-half inch in diameter.
Figure 112 shows its size and form. Like the blueberries, the
quality of the fruit is sweet though rather tame, but by the ad-
dition of a little lemon juice it makes an excellent pie or sauce.
It. is readily cultivated and yields regular and abundant crops.
However, when grown in a Small way the fruit must be protect-
ed from the birds or they will take it as fast as it ripens. Mos-

quito netting, or the coarse wire netting—such as is used

for chicken yards, is useful for this purpose. When grown on
a large scale, the depredation of the birds is not so apparent.
The plants are extremely hardy, seldom if ever being injured

by our most severe winters, and are healthy and free from:

insect pests. On account of its many good qualities, it should

4
:

DWARF JUNEBERRY. 249

find a place in the home garden, and it could often be cultivated

for the near market at a profit.
Propagation and cultivation——The plants are readily. in-
creased from suckers, which are produced rather sparingly
around the old plants

Ri], SN ‘
<P ND
A (Wh a ei unless they are cut
4 oN cp DNs: oS I
F We . CICS back. These should be
ee a io ( \y Ge ‘ set out at about four-
. ae z foot intervals in rows
EAs
~Y Os five feet apart, on rich

upland. They com-
mence to bear in two
years, but will not pro-
duce a full crop until
the fourth year. They
need clean cultivation,
and in dry situations
should be mulched to
protect from drouth.
They require but little
pruning, though the
suckers should be thin-
j ned out if they become
Fig. 111.—Dwarf Juneberry. Flow- abundant.

es Varieties —T here
are but few varieties of this fruit offered by nursery-
men, and these are the result of selections made
'from plants growing in the wild state. They are, however,
much superior in size of fruit and in productiveness to the
plants commonly found in the fields, although these latter are
greatly improved by cultivation. It is very probable that by
growing seedlings, new varieties much superior to those now
known will be originated. The kinds now grown require several
weeks in which to ripen their fruit. The only variety of importance
is known as Success and probably originated. in Kansas. It is pro-.
ductive of large purple fruit of good quality; rather spreading
in habit, with pendulous fruit clusters; earlier than the others

1) ; ‘ Wp, ~~

250 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

mentioned, ripening with the early currants. Probably as good
as any if not the best for general cultivation. ;
Aside from its fruit-producing qualities the Dwarf June-
berries make nice lawn shrubs, being clean in habit and very
pretty when covered with their profusion of graceful white flow-
ers, which appear early in the spring.
Sand Cherry.
Sand Cherry (Prunus pumila).—This fruit plant is found
in northern Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the Dakotas, and
elsewhere. It frequently fruits prodigiously on dry, gravelly

Fig. 112.—Dwarf Juneberry. Foliage and fruit,

embankments where scarcely any other plant can find exist-
ence. In fact, it seems-to be better adapted to a very dry rather
than to a moist location. Plants on rich, moist land will often
flower profusely but fail to set much fruit. It seems quite prob-

ree PSPS SEPP Re ee ES
Ce ene a eT ees EMA cies tee se ea ee

Se a ee

SAND CHERRY. 251

able that where the rainfall is light this plant will do well on
rich soil, but where the precipitation is abundant it is best
adapted to sandy. or gravelly land. Thus it fruits abundantly
on the sandy land of northern Minnesota and on the dry, rich
land of the Dakotas. L
Description.—Some plants will reach a height of four feet
and spread five feet on the ground, while others attain only
half that size. The fruit resembles the cultivated cherry, but
varies considerably in form, size and color on different plants.
It is generally of a reddish—almost black—color when ripe.

. Fig. 113.—Sand Cherry. Foliage and fruit.

The ripe fruit varies from the size of a large green pea to five-
eighths of an inch or more in diameter. In some, the pit is small,
while in others it is very large. The quality is generally too as-
tringent to be relished uncooked, but this quality varies greatly
in the different plants. When cooked, its astringency disap-
pears and it makes a most excellent sauce. Where it grows
abundantly it is used for sauce and for a sort of wine, which

959 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

is said to be very palatable. It is not only a productive fruit

plant, but a clean, strong growing shrub, and well adapted to
severe locations on the lawn. The fruit ripens in the latter part
of July and first of August. It seems to be much more like a

plum than a cherry, and perhaps the name sand plum would be ©

more appropriate for it.
Propagation.—It grows freely from seed, which should be
sown as soon as ripe and not be allowed to get dry. Seedlings

vary much, and selected plants should be grown in other ways.

They fruit in about three years from seed. In many sections
the wild plants may be dug and transplanted to the garden.
Plants may be increased by layers, suckers and root cuttings,
and by budding and grafting on the sand cherry or the native
plum. The easiest way to increase them is by cutting the roots.
around the plants about eight inches away from the main stem
sometime when the plant is dormant, and all the cut surfaces
will sprout and form new plants. If the roots are cut into
pieces about six inches long and these treated like willow cut-
tings, they will grow nearly as readily. When budded on the
plum, peculiar-looking, interesting trees are formed, which are
quite fruitful. The plum may also be worked on the sand cher-
ry and it forms a good union, but the roots are so flexible that
the trees are _ liable to blow over unless the union is set very
deep. The common cherry
does not take freely on it.
At present only seedlings
are offered by nurserymen,
there having been no narh-
ed kinds introducd.

A form of this, called
the Dwarf Rocky Mountain
cherry, has recently been
sent out from Colorado,
‘but has not been sufii-
ciently tried to warrant
conclusions as to its value
here. It is, however, ex-
tremely doubtful whether

Fig. 114.—Buffalo berry. Flowers. 5 z
a.—Pistillate. b.—Staminate. it is any better than

Te ee ie we

ee he ee ee yen

7) 7

ae Sie

oT

H
ee ee eS ee ee

a ee

Jus.

§
;
4

BUFFALO BERRY. 253

Fig. 115.—Buffalo Berry. Foliage and fruit.
a.—Fruit, natural size.

the best of our native kinds. The Utah hybrid cherry some-
what resembles this but has a more erect habit. A quite limit-
ed experience seems to show it is much inferior to our best na-
tive kinds.

Bullberry, or Buffalo Berry.

Bullberry, or -Buffalo-berry (Shepherdia argentea).—This
plant is found abundantly along the river banks and coulees of
the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming and Idaho, though but sparing-
ly, if at all, in Minnesota or the more eastern and central states,

yet it grows freely and fruits abundantly in all the northern
states. ;

Description——A small tree or shrub with light colored folli-
age, young growth and opposite leaves. The flowers and fruit
are clustered near the base of the small branchlets on spurs on
very short stems. The plants are dioecious, i. e., one has pistil-
late and the other staminate flowers, so that it is necessary to
have both kinds near together in order to get fruit. The flow-

ers appear very early in the spring before the leaves and are ~

small and inconspicuous. The fruit is produced in great abun-
dance—often so thickly as to conceal the branches on which
it grows—and when ripe gives a scarlet appearance to the

254 . POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

whole plant. Occasional plants have yellow fruit. It is about
the size of red currants, and contains one oval, quite large seed.
The quality is much like that of rather sour red currants. It a
makes a fine jelly, but on account of the large seeds it is not
so desirable for a sauce as red currants, and it is doubtful
whether it will ever be popular for fruit where the red currant
is productive and reliable, but it is of use as an ornamental
shrub, and it will probably be used to quite an extent for this
purpose.

Propagation.—This plant suckers readily if the roots are
cut, but it is generally grown from seed, which germinate readi-
ly if not allowed to dry and are winter covered with earth and
sown in the spring. An easy way to winter it is to cover the
seed on the surface of the ground with an inverted sod.

Mulberries.

The mulberry is seldom grown in this country and then
is generally limited to two or three trees. This is probably on
account of its lack of keeping qualities and its peculiar flavor
which is not generally highly esteemed. It is classfied by Prof.
L. H. Bailey as follows:

1. The White Muloerry group (Morus alba).

a. Russian Mulberry (Morus var. tartarica).
b. Nervosa Mulberry (Morus var. venosa).
. The Multicaulis group (Morus latifolia).
. The Japanese group (Morus japonica).
. The Black Mulberry group (Morus nigra).
. The Red or Native Mulberry group (Morus rubra). i
a, Lampasas Mulberry (Morus var. tomentosa).

The best variety of the mulberry for growing in the north
Central states is Known as the New American but it is not
hardy in the more northern states where the Russian Mul- :
berry takes its place. This later is known as Morus alba var.
tartarica and is described in Amateur Fruit Growing as follows:

“The Russian mulberry was introduced from Russia and
is very hardy over much of the Northwest. The Menonites of j
Nebraska were among the first to introduce it into this coun-
try and they grew it from imported seed. It makes a small tree :
but is much better adapted to being grown in the form of a

OT m CO bo

MULBERRY. 255

hedge or windbréak. In this form, it will often attain the height
of twenty feet and becomes very close and pretty if given an oc-
casional pruning. It is of a rapid growth and very hardy in
southern Minnesota and southern Dakota, Nebraska and Kan-
sas, and even north to the latitude of St. Paul, it stands fairly
well. Occasionally in very severe winters, it will lose a part
of its new growth but it quickly outgrows this injury and is less
liable to winter killing when old than when young.”

Its fruit—With few exceptions, all trees of this species
now growing in this country have been propagated from seed,
and as with most other fruits, not one seedling in five hundred
produces fruit of much value. Most seedlings have very small
fruit, while others are staminate and have no fruit at all. Quite
frequently some trees will bear fruit as large as a medium-sized
blackberry, and occasionally considerably larger. The quality
of the fruit varies nearly as much as the size of the. berries;
some being insipid and even unpleasant, while others are sweet
and agreeable, but like all mulberries, they lack high quality.
They are quite soft when
ripe and quickly fall to
the ground, which should
be kept smooth so that
they may be readily gath-
ered. Itis at its best just
as it falls from the tree
and generally commences
to ripen just before the
first currants, and con-
tinues ripening for a
week or more. It re.
sembles the blackberry
in appearance, but the
fruit of some seedlings
is nearly white in color,
though the latter are sel-
dom, if ever, as good eat-
ing as the blackberry. The

Fig. 116.—Russian Mulberry. Foli- :
age and fruit, age at which plants com-

256 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

mence to produce fruit varies greatly, but when five or six years

old, they may be expected to commence fruiting, and as they grow
older their fruitfulness increases. As a market fruit it probably
has no value, but a few trees should be in every garden. Children
generally relish the fruit, and the birds let other fruit alone
to feed on it. It is also used for sauce and pies, but for this
purpose something should be added to it for flavor.

Propagation.—The seed grows readily if sown as soon as
ripe. For this purpose, the berries may be crushed in dry sand
and sown with it in a rather moist, somewhat shady situation.
In two years the seedlings may be transplanted to the perma-
ment location, but seedlings vary in their productiveness, and
while for a windbreak they may answer as well as any, yet
when plants are wanted for fruit, they should be grown from
cuttings or layers of the best kinds, or by grafting on seedling
stocks. . For this purpose, the cuttings should be made in the
fall, about twelve inches long of the old wood, and be deeply
planted in rich land, with not more than two buds above the
surface. The branches root easily when layered, and if the
earth is drawn up around the sprouts until they root they make
good plants.

Varieties.—There are no named kinds offered by nursery-
men, and it is necessary to depend on chance seedlings. -How-
ever, if any large windbreak is looked over in the fruiting sea-

son one or more trees can generally be picked out that bear

fruit of exceptional value, and such may readily be increased.
The flowers are of two kinds; sometimes both staminate (male)
and pistillate (female) are on one tree, and sometimes a single
tree is limited to one sex. On this account some care is neces-
sary in selecting a variety to get one with both kinds of flowers,
or else plant the pistillate kind near a tree having staminate
flowers. _
The Cranberry.

Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon).—This is the low trail-

ing cranberry of the swamps of many of the northern states.

The form and habit are well illustrated in Fig. 117. The a

4h Seed

.
¥
e

high bush cranberry (Vitwrnum opulus) is a tall shrub and r

much more widely distributed than the trailing cranberry. The

CRANBERRY. 257

latter has one flat seed in each fruit, while the former is a
many seeded berry. This plant:is not adapted to general cul-
tivation, and seldom, if ever, does well on the prairies of the
West. It may be laid down as a general rule that it cannot be
successfully cultivated except on the granitic soils of the north-
ern states, and that it will be a failure on the limestone drift
soils, such as are common to the prairies of Minnesota, Iowa
and the Dakotas. In Wisconsin and eastern and northern Min-
nesota it is often very productive, either wild or cultivated, and
is an article of much importance in the markets of those see-
tions each year. Where this fruit can be cultivated it is often
the most paying crop that can be grown.
Best location for cranberry beds.—In a wild state this
plant is found at its best on moist land where the water level is
within eighteen inches of the
surface. It seems to be rather
indifferent about the soil, some-
times growing on sand and then
“on peat mud or moss. AS a
rule the best locations are low
meadow lands sloping down to
ponds, or watered by brooks or
creeks, somewhat sheltered
but shaded. On uplands, it has
been successfully cultivated,
but in such situations in is gen-
erally unprofitable and _ fre-
quently an entire failure. It
may be laid down as a rule
that the soil in which this plant
Kh is to thrive must be liberally
supplied with water, and yet

the land must be so drained
N a

EEN ee that the water can be drawn

ZK FH ~ off to at least ten inches be-

: ee :
Fig. 117.—Common cranberry. Foli- low the surface. The best

ABS and fruit; about one-half cranberry bogs are so afr-

258 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

ranged that both the flowagé and drainage can be controlled :

at will. Land that has been covered with stagnant water for
a long time, as the bottom of ponds, is not fit for the growth
of this plant until it has been cultivated and exposed to the air
for a year or more.

Soil adapted to it—Wherever the cranberry is growing nat-
urally one may be sure that the land near by is adapted to its
culture. If no wild plants are growing near the supposed prop-
er location, it is a safe and good plan to plant a few rods of
the most favorable portion of it as an experiment before spend-
ing much time or money on improvements which may prove
to be futile. With a bog adapted to the growing of this plant,
with control of the drainage and flowage, a good crop of fruit
is assured for almost every year, if the work of preparation is
properly done. Yet there are many wild and cultivated bogs
that have yielded very profitable crops for many years where
the flowage has not been controlled, and hence if that factor
cannot be directed at will, it is not necessarily a sufficient rea-
son why an attempt should not be made to plant suitable land,
providing the work can be done at small cost. The returns
from natural cranberry bogs may often be greatly increased
by a little judicious expenditure.

Preparation of the land.—The first steps should be directed
to destroying the vegetation growing on. the land. The proper
method of doing this will vary according to the location and
condition of the land. It can sometimes be done by flooding
the land for one year and then clearing it, or by summer fallow-
ing, and it may occasionally pay to cut off the whole surface
of the bog, with spade or turf ax, and remove it by hand. But
in some way the surface of the land must be cleaned of its
growth and made level, and fine and perfect as a garden. If
it is to be flowed, it should be made perfectly level, as it will
then take much less water for flowage than if uneven. This
matter is especially important where the water supply is limited.

Supplying sand.—It is of great advantage to have the sur-
face of the land covered with about four inches of clean sand,

and this should be done even if at considerable expense. The -

sand used should preferably be rather coarse, but it must be
free from clay or loam, as anything that encourages the baking

CRANBERRY. 259

of the surface of the bed is injurious. This sand offers a good
place for the plants to root, is easily cultivated, and experience
shows that it is conducive to fruitfulness. Yet there are many
‘very fruitful peat beds that have never been sanded. If a peat
bed is to be used without sand, the surface should be exposed
to frost one year before planting or it will be likely to bake
hard, but after one season’s frost it becomes loose and fine.
Drainage and flowage.—The method of securing these con-
ditions will depend much on the situation of the land. The
drainage is generally best accomplished by digging an open

Fig. 118.—Cranberry bog newly planted, showing ditch and dike; also
' portion of bed not yet covered with sand.

ditch four or more feet wide through the center of the land. |
A smaller ditch should completely enclose the land, which
should be divided into beds by lateral ditches about five rods
apart. Where springs are met with they must be connected
with a ditch.

Importance of water.—The flowage may sometimes be con-
trolled from a pond above the bog, or by a brook or creek run-
ning through it. Every reasonable effort should be made to
secure and control water for flowage for the following reasons:
(1) Without a good water supply bogs often get very dry in
periods of protracted drouth, to the great injury of the plants,
and occasionally peat or moss bogs get on fire and burn up,
destroying all the work done. A bog once on fire can seldom
be saved except by flooding. (2) The water kept over the

260 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

plants in the spring will serve to retard the blossoming until —

danger of frost is past, and will protect the fruit from early
frosts in autumn. (3) Beds that are kept under ‘water until
late in the spring are seldom seriously injured by insects. (4)
Beds do best when protected by a water covering in winter. If
not thus protected they may be seriously injured.

When there is considerable fall in the bed it is customary
to finish it at several grades and to put in
as many dams, but where there is not more
than two or three feet of fall one dam is
quite sufficient. Dams should be made
strong and have sluiceways large enough to
let off all the water liable to drain through
them.

About flowing.—All that is required in
flowing a bog is sufficient water to cover
the vines. They should be covered about
the first of November, and as deep as they
are to remain covered during the winter.
The freezing of the vines in the ice does
not hurt them, but raising the level of the
water in the bed after they are frozen, and
thus raising the ice and tearing the vines
out of the ground, is where the great dan-

mee Have ger lies. To avoid this, the sluice-
two and three ways should be kept sufficiently open
pears after set-~ to allow any surplus water jt0 mass
off.

The first two seasons the water should be kept on the vines
until the last of April, but after that, or when the bog is in con-
dition to bear; the water should be kept on until the last of
May or first of June. The object of keeping it on so late is
to prevent injury from late frosts, and to destroy the fruit
worm and fire worm which are the worst foes of the cranberry.
If the fruit is covered with water in warm weather, it is very
liable to be ruined, but the vines are uninjured by such flowage.
Throughout the growing season the water should be about
twelve inches below the surface of the bed.

i
?

es ee oS ee

all

;
%
%
yi

CRANBERRY. 261

=~

Plants and planting.—In selecting plants great care should
be used to get them from fruitful beds, as some are almost
barren. There are very many named kinds,.and they vary great-
ly in size, growth, time of ripening and productiveness, but it is
doubtful if any of the named kinds, the most of which ori-
ginated in the Hast, are adapted to the climate of this section,
and it is probably better for the present to depend on getting
plants from the most fruitful wild cultivated beds near at hand.
The kind most esteemed in the East is called the Early Black.
It is very early and productive, though not a vigorous grower.

Propagation.—The cranberry plant grows very readily from
cuttings, and on this account some growers cut the plants in
a hay cutter, sow the pieces broadcast and harrow them in with
a disc harrow, but that method of planting is not advisable.
The most common way is to make cuttings of the younger parts
of the: vines about “Es inches long, and plant one in a place,
but sometimes longer cut-
tings are used which are
doubled when planted.
The cuttings may be car-
ried over a whole season
with good success if they
are kept covered with
running water, but in stag-
nant water they would be
likely to ‘spoil. On this
account they may be set
at almost any season of the
year if the flowage is con-
trolled, but the spring of
the year is generally pre-
ferred, and if there is no
chance to flow at will it
(ne is by far the surest time
Fig. 120.—The two kinds of cran- to plant.

berry rakes in common use. Before planting is
commenced, the bed should be marked off each way
at about eighteen inch intervals. In planting, a

262 _ POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

wooden dibber is used having an incuryed or reversed wedge-
shaped point, with which the cuttings are crowded through the
sand down into contact with the bog beneath at one operation,
without first making a hole as is customary in the ordinary
use of a dibber. After the cuttings are planted the water should
be raised in the trenches sufficiently to keep the surface land a
little moist to encourage the rooting of the cuttings. The after-
cultivation consists in keeping the soil moist and giving clean
cultivation. Some of the best cranberry growers apply each
year a coat of about one inch of sand to their bogs and find that
it is profitable to do so as it acts much like a fertilizer.

Picking.—If the berries are allowed to fully ripen on the
vine they will keep much better than if picked earlier, but
where there is danger of frost before they are ripe the berries
should be picked as soon as they commence to color, though
when picked so early, they will seldom keep well after the mid-
dle of January. If severely frozen the berries are ruined, but
they are not injured by a “white frost.” Picking is generally
done by hand, though some few growers “rake” them off the
vines. The berries keep well in a dry, cool place, and are more
easily kept if covered with water.

The Persimmon.

There are two distinct forms of the persimmon in cultiva-

tion, which are commonly known as the Native or American
persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) and the Asiatic speci2s
(Diospyros kaki) which has been chiefly developed under cul-
tivation in Japan, and is known commonly in America as the
Japanese persimmon. The wood of most of the species of this
tree is hard, close-grained and takes a light polish. Some of
the tropical species give us the ebony of commerce.

The native persimmon is found growing wild in the South-
ern states and as far north as latitude 38, that is, to central

Indiana. The tree, when grown in the forest, is sometimes 75

feet high but usually 20 to 30 feet high. It will ripen its fruit
as far north as northern Indiana. Its use is largely local, al-
though it is occasionally offered in the larger markets. The
wild fruit varies in size from one-half to two inches in diameter,
depending largely upon the number of seeds it contains. Seed-

ee ee

Se

: PERSIMMON. 263

less varieties an inch in diameter are known. The fruit is very
astringent until ripe and some seedlings never lose this quali-
ty. There is a general impression that frost is necessary to
sweeten this fruit but this is a mistake, as some varieties are
sweet without being touched with frost and others are made
more edible. It ripens from August 1st to December in the Cen-
tral states. It is easily propagated by seeds which should be
stratified over winter and planted in spring the same as the
peach pits. The seedlings do not come true from seed. This
is especially so with the selected kinds, which are propagated
by budding and grafting when two or three years old at the
collar in the spring, as soon as the bark will peel easily. This
tree is very difficult to transplant and if its tap root is cut off,
it is liable to die. The top should be severely pruned when
the tree is transplanted. The persimmon will grow in any good
agiicultural soil, but thrives best on a good, rich, warm soil.
As yet, little attention has been paid to originating good named
varieties of this native fruit but some of those produced are
of fine quality and destined to be widely grown in favorable
localities.

The Japanese persimmons were introduced into America in
the early history and have proven well adapted to the more
southern states and parts of California, and are regularly to
be seen in our markets and are growing in popularity. There
is quite a difference in the hardiness of different varieties.
Few of them can stand a temperature of zero and, as a rule, doe
best south of the 32nd degree of latitude. It is considered by
the Japanese as their best pomological product.

The trees of the different varieties attain a height of ten
_ feet while others are compact and dwarf in habit and do not

grow more than 5 or 6 feet high. This latter class bears young,
often a good crop at three years old. The fruit is very pretty,
ustally bright orange red or vermilion, and round or oblong in
shape. They color up when far from being ripe and should
not be gathered until just before the frost or when they be-
cime soft, as in the case of the early kinds. The round varie-
ties ripen first and the oblong ripen later. The latter, if picked
before being ripe, should be allowed to ripen in the house to
remove the slight astringency.

264 patra. POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Seedlings of the Japanese persimmon have a tendency to
produce male flowers only during the first three years of flow-
ering. After that, a few female flowers appear but they are
few in comparison with the male flowers. A large proportion
of the seedlings produce fruit that is small and too astringent
to eat. There are a number of varieties offered by the nursery ,
trade.

QUESTIONS—CHAPTER XII.
SMALL FRUITS.
Strawberry. { J
1. From what species of strawberry have our cultivated vari- 4
eties originated? :
2. How may the strawberry be propagated?
3. What location and soil is best for strawberries?
4. How should the land be prepared?
5. When should strawberries be set out?
6. Explain the Hill system—the matted Row system.
7. How should the plants be trimmed and set?
8. What protection should be given strawberries in winter?
9. How may old strawberry beds be renewed?
10. Into what two classes may strawberries be divided?
11. What are nubbins?
12. How should strawberries be picked and marketed?
13. Hiow may they be protected from frosts?

Currant.
What is the origin of the red currant? Of ‘the black cur-
rant? Of Crandall’s currant? Of the Missouri currant?
What soil is best adapted for currant growing?
How should they be planted?
How often and in what way should they be cultivated?
When do currants need mulching? j
What is a good mulch for currants?
How often should currants be pruned?
What pruning is necessary?
What are ‘‘tree currants?”’
10. How are they formed?
11. Of what value are they?
12. In what ways may currants be protected from winter injury?
13. How is the fruit marketed?
14. For what is it used?
15. What varieties are best for the home garden?
Gooseberry.
What is the origin of the American gooseberry? Of the
European gooseberry ?
What are the crosses of the two varieties?
How is the gooseberry propagated?
When is the best time to plant .gooseberries?
What pruning is necessary?
How are gooseberries marketed?
What insects and diseases are injurious to the gooseberry ?
Raspberry.
What varieties belong to the European raspberries?
What varieties belong to the American raspberries?
Into what two classes are raspberries divided?

Fe

Ooo IM ym Go bo

TIM oe pote

BORO

4,
5.

PERSIMMON. 265

How are they propagated?
How are raspberries raised from seed? From root cuttings?

From layers?

6.
“berries

By
The se

°

2.
3.
4,
5.

fi What location and soil is best adapted to each class of rasp-

How should the land be prepared for the raspberry?

When should they be planted?

How should the plants be selected?

How far apart should the plants be set?

How deep should raspberries be set?

What cultivation is necessary for the raspberry?

How much pruning and thinning is necessary the first year?
cond year, etc.?

What mulching is best for the raspberry?

How and when should it be applied?

How can a good support be made for the canes?

In what ways may the canes be winter protected?

How are the canes laid down and covered?

How are they taken up in the spring?

What are the characteristics of the berries of. the two classes?

How are they picked and marketed?

Blackberry and Dewberry.
Into what groups may the blackberries be divided?
What are the characteristics of each?
How is the blackberry propagated?
How is the dewberry propagated?
What soils are best adapted to each?
How is the blackberry planted and cultivated?
What pruning does the blackberry require?

The Cranberry.
What are the characteristics of the high and low bush cran-

How is the trailing cranberry cultivated?

What is the best location for a cranberry bed?

What soil is best adapted for the growing of cranberries?
How should the land be prepared?

Why is sand important in the cranberry bog?

By what means can the bog be drained?

Why should the drainage and flowage be controlled?
How should the flowage be controlled in the fall?

What harm comes from freezing the plants in the ice?
How long should the water be kept in the bog in the spring?
What care is necessary in selecting the plants?

How are they propagated?

When should the plants be set? Why?

How should the beds be made?

What cultivation is -necessary?

How are cranberries picked?

Juneberry, Buffalo Berry, Sand Cherry and Mulberry.
Where is the Dwarf Juneberry found most commonly?
What are its characteristics?

How are they propagated?
What cultivation do they need?
What are the characteristics of the varieties most common-

ly cultivated?.

What is the distribution of the Sand Cherry?
What location and soil is best adapted to them?
What are the characteristics of the Sand Cherry?
How are they propagated?

How are they used in grafting?

What is the Dwarf Rocky Mt. Cherry?

266 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

12. Where is the Buffalo Berry commonly found?
13. What are the characteristics of the plant?
14. For what is the fruit used?
15. How is the plant propagated? :
16. Into what classes may the Mulberry be divided?
17. What variety is best for the Northern states? ~
18. What are its characteristics?
19. What are the characteristics of the fruit?
20. How is the Mulberry propagated?
21. What care should be taken in selecting plants?
Persimmon.
Where is the American persimmon found native and what is

1,
its value for domestic use?
2. Of what country is the Japanese persimmon native and what

{s its value as a commercial. fruit?

CHAPTER XIII,
THE NUTS.

Comparatively little attention has been paid to the growing
of any of the nut trees in this country, with the exception of the
English walnut. Most of the American nuts, except the English
walnut, that reach our markets are the chance productions of the
wild groves. It is undoubtedly true that there is a large sec-
tion of this country where nuts of some kind might be grown
to advantage. This is especially true of rough land in some of
the Middle and Southern states.

Nearly all of the cultivation of nuts in this country up to the
present time has been done by the growing of seedling trees,
and little attention has been paid to grafting, which for many
years was regarded as a very difficult matter with all nuts. Now
that successful grafting methods have been discovered, there is
less excuse for planting seedlings. The leading. nurserymen now
offer named varieties of the principal nut trees, or else of trees
grown from selected seed.

; The Pecan.

The pecan (Hicoria pecan) is an important native nut that
is used largely and gaining in popularity. It is a near relative
of the hickories, several of which produce edible nuts. In its
native habitat, the tree grows to a large size and the wood is
highly esteemed for the same purposes as the hickory. It is
native to a large part of the Mississippi Valley, Eastern and
Central Texas and a portion of Mexico. It is cultivated through-
out most of this section south of Central Illinois and also in the
Southern states south of the Potomac river. Further north it
is occasionally grown, but not profitably, and Central lowa may
be regarded as its northernmost limit.

The fruit of the pecan is borne on the new growth. The male
flowers are at the base of the shoot and the female flowers near
the end. The flowers appear with the leaves and are seldom
injured by spring frosts. Trees from seed generally bear when

268 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.
about ten years old, and at full bearing age they have been known
to yield over twenty bushels to a tree. :

Soil requirements.—The pecan does best on the open, porous
clay loams of river bottoms and especially on those that are
likely to overflow at high water. It is also grown successfully
on the sandy soils of southern Georgia and northern Florida,
and even on rich up-lands it frequently produces well. The
most successful growers plant the trees from 40 to 50 feet apart.

If the trees are grown from seed, it would be an advantage to ©
put them nearer together and then remove the unprofitable ones.
In transplanting the pecan it is desirable to save as much of the

tap root as is possible, but it may be shortened somewhat with-

out seriously interfering with its growth. The root is often very

long and it will be found a great convenience in transplanting to
have it somewhat shortened. Very often a one-year-old tree will

have a root far longer than the stem. The soil should have the

best of cultivation, as the trees are gross feeders and should be

kept growing rapidly, especially when young and not fully eB

tablished.

Harvesting and marketing.—It is common to harvest the
nuts after they have fallen to the ground. When they are raked
together the leaves are shaken out and the nuts dried off before
being stored. The highly polished surface of nuts which are
seen in our markets is attained by polishing them in revolving
barrels where they are polished by rubbing against one another.
The great demand today is for larger, thinner-shelled nuts, and
there seems to be an almost unlimited market for them. Those
who have pecan trees in good locations find them very profitable.
Gomparatively few of the best nuts are sold at present, as they,
are in demand by nurserymen for planting.

Insects.—There are a number of insects that injure the pecan
trees. Perhaps the most serious of these is known as the

shuck worm, which penetrates the hull and causes the young
fruit to drop prematurely. The remedy is to gather and burn
the infested nuts. A web worm is occasionally injurious to the
foliage, but this may be destroyed in the same manner as rec:
ommended for the common web worm.

The twig zgirdler sometimes girdles the twigs of the pecan,

A ee eee Th a cs

CHESTNUT. 269

causing them to be blown off. The worm will be found in the
part that falls. If these twigs are raked together promptly and
burned soon after falling, this enemy is easily held in check.

Grafting the pecan.—The most successful method of grafting
“the pecan seems to be crown grafting of the seedlings, when
they are only an inch or less in diameter, early in the spring
with terminal bud cions and without wax. The stalks should
be cut off smoothly, close to the surface of the ground, and a
side cleft graft or whip graft used. When this is done, the earth
should be drawn up to the top bud of the cion to prevent it
drying out. In order to grow seedlings, the nuts are generally
planted in autumn in well drained soil, which is sufficiently
loose so that it does not bake badly; or, where mice and squir-
rels are abundant, a much better plan is to stratify them in the
same manner as recommended for peach pits and plant out in
the spring as soon as the ground can be worked, putting them
about eight inches apart in rows four feet apart and covering
three inches deep. Rich, deep garden soil should be used for
the seedlings.

The Chestnut.

The chestnut is one of the most popular of our native nuts
and is widely sought after. In some sections in Hurope, where
the nuts are especially abundant, they are ground into flour and
used for bread making.

The American chestnut (Castanea americana) forms a large
tree as far north as southern Vermont, and west into Indiana.
North and west of this range, it is very uncertain. It has, how-
ever, been fruited in southeastern Minnesota and occasionally it
is grown successfully in Illinois and Iowa. The wood of this tree
-is very durable in contact with the soil and of rapid growth,
hence is in demand for railroad ties and telephone poles. It is
one of the most promising trees for use in new timber plantings
within its range. There are few varieties. Its nuts are the
best in quality of all known species. The other species of chest-
nut graft readily upon it.

The European chestnut (Castenea sativa) is a native of the
cooler portions of central and southern Europe, western Asia and
northern Africa. The foliage of this tree is thicker and more

270 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

abruptly pointed than that of the American chestnut. Its burrs are —

very large and its nuts are larger but not so sweet as the Ameri-
can chestnut. The skin enclosing the nut is bitter and tough.
This species is variously known as European, Spanish, French,
Italian and Sweet Chestnut. Among the best of the Huropean
varieties are Numbo and Paragon. The latter is most: widely
planted and the most successful of all cultivated introduced
chestnuts. It is sometimes classed as a hybrid. Both of these
nuts originated in the United States and are of good quality.
Japan chestnut (Castanea crenata)—This tree is said to

reach a height of fifty feet in Japan but the varieties that are

grown for fruit are dwarfish in form and slender, with a close
head. Its leaves are much smaller than those of the American
or European chestnuts and the burrs are small with a thin, pa-
pery lining and short spines. The nuts are large and glossy,

but inferior to the other chestnuts in quality as a rule, though —

good when cooked. A few varieties are of good quality when
fresh. Among the best of the Japanese chestnuts are Parry and
Reliance, both of which are of fair quality.

Chinquapin (Castanea pumila), (C. alnifolia).—The Ghinguee

pins are dwarf chestnuts, extending, in their native range, from
Massachusetts south to Florida and Texas. The fruit of the
Chinquapins is edible and used in a local way throughout their
range.

Propagation.—The different species of the chestnut are usu-
ally propagated from ‘seed, which may be sown as soon as
gathered in autumn, or stratified and sown in the spring in
rich, porous soil. They may be whip-grafted in the nursery
when one year old. This should be done by using dormant cions
after the buds have swollen and covering with wax in the or-
dinary way.

Top-working of large trees has not been successful except
where it has been practiced on the young sprouts. Great care
should be taken to secure a good union, and if possible the cion
should unite with the stock on both sides.

The flowers of the chestnut open in early summer and the
long, conspicuous, light colored, male catkins are quite ornamen-
tal. The pistillate flowers are inconspicuous and grow from

4
|
.
a
:
a

i
”
ft
%
‘

CHINQUAPIN. 271

the axils of the leaves on the new growth. Some growers think
it necessary to have the pollen of different trees intermingle in
order to get the best results. This idea is borne out by the
fact that solitary trees often fail to set fruit.

Planting and care.—Ordinary seedlings of the American
chestnut commence to bear when from eight to fifteen years old,
while those that are grafted will frequently bear inside of five
years. On account of this, some growers follow the practice of
grafting all of their seedlings. Itis probable that seedlings would
bear as quickly as grafted trees if they were girdled as recom-
mended for the grape. Where natural groves are used for grow-
ing nuts, the reproduction will often come from sprouts. If de-
sired, these may be grafted and cared for the same as seedlings.
In any case, however, the sprouts should be thinned out so that
the trees can take on their natural form. Where the ground is
overgrown with brush, it will be found a good plan, when the
trees are once fairly started, and out of reach of stock, to pas-
ture the land with sheep. This will destroy much of the brush
and the lower leaves on the chestnut trees, giving them a healthy
pruning. It will also have a tendency to prevent the spread of
_ fire, as the sheep mix the fallen leaves with the soil and thus pre-
vent the collection of large masses of leaves about the stems of
the trees. If the trees are to be planted out, the American spe-
cies should be set from 40 to 50 feet apart each way. The for-
eign kinds do not grow so large and they may be planted nearer.

The nuts are prepared for market by putting them in a suit-
able vessel and then pouring scalding hot water over them as
‘soon as gathered. By this means the eggs and larvae of the in-
sects in them are destroyed. The nuts should be gathered
promptly after falling and the scalding done at once, otherwise
the eggs of the weevil in the nuts will have a chance to de-
velop and will injure their sale. The nuts should stand in the
hot water for about fifteen minutes, after which they should be
taken out and carefully dried.

There are several insects and diseases that affect the chest-
nut. The most harmful is probably the weevil, whose eggs are
laid in the nut, but no satisfactory remedy has been found for
it. The leaf diseases are subject to control by Bordeaux mixture.

272 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

English Walnut.

The English walnut (Juglans regia) is cultivated to some ex-
tent in the Hastern states south of Connecticut and west into
Texas, but in the section east of the Rocky Mountains, it has
not attained commercial importance. In southern California,
however, it is grown very successfully within a short distance
of the coast where the water table is near the surface of the
soil. Back from the coast, it may also be grown in favorable
locations, but the shucks do not separate from the nuts so well
and hence the product is not nearly so valuable as the product
from sections where the climate is somewhat humid.

The flowers of the walnuts are monoecious, the male flow-
ers being produced in catkins and the pistillate flowers at the
ends of the short branches appearing with the leaves.

Propagation.—Most of the trees in the Hastern states are
grown from seed; the same is true of a large portion of the or-
chards in: southern California, although in the last few years
there has been a large number of grafted trees planted. When
grown from seed, it is customary to select the largest, thinnest
shelled nuts from trees that are hardy and productive, and
that start late in the spring. These are stratified over winter
in the same manner as peach pits. They are generally allowed
to sprout in the spring before planting, when they are set about
one foot apart in rows four feet apart. For this purpose rich.
open, porous soil should be used. They are generally large
enough for budding the first season. If they are to be planted in
an orchard without budding, it is customary to leave them for
two or three years in the nursery. The trees are generally bud-
ded by the shield or ring method. Cleft-grafting and whip-graft-
ing have also been successfully used.

Harvesting and marketing.—In the best localities for the
English Walnut, the shucks open on the trees and the nuts fall
to the ground, where they are easily gathered once or twice a
week, and taken to the drying house. Sometimes it is necessary
to jar the trees in order to get the nuts in season. It is not de-
sirable to beat the trees with poles, as it frequently destroys
many of the fruit buds. The nuts are dried by exposure to sun
or by artificial heat.

ee oy

Pe a ee eee

7
ES
*
a

ALMOND. 273

Japan walnut.—The Japan walnut (Juglans sieboldiana) is
now cultivated in an experimental way and is much hardier than
the English Walnut which it somewhat resembles, although not
so hardy as the Black Walnut or Butternut. This tree gives
promise of being productive even as far north as central Minne-
sota. The nuts are small and more like the Black Walnut than
the English Walnut, and probably of little importance commer-
cially.

The Black Walnut and Butternut are prized for their timber
and shade as well as for their nuts. These are frequently gather-
ed and marketed in considerable quantities and there is generally
a good demand for them. The shucks should be removed and
the nuts dried before they are marketed. Black Walnuts have
been planted in considerable quantities in Minnesota and Iowa
for fence posts and for their nuts.

The Almond.

The Almond (Prunus amygdalus) resembles the peach in
habit of growth, flowering, etc. The nut is really a peach in
which the flesh portion is obliterated. It is divided into two
classes, the bitter and sweet almond. The sweet class is di-
vided into the hard and soft shell types. The hard shell type is
scarcely grown, but the soft shell type produces the edible al-
monds of commerce. The bitter almond has a hard shell and its
chief use is as a stock for the cultivated kinds. It is also grown
in the Mediterranean district for the bitter kernel, which is used
in the manufacture of flavoring extracts and prussic acid. The
Almond is cultivated in a very limited area confined mostly to a
few small districts in California, Utah, Arizona and New Mexico.
The tree is nearly as:hardy as the peach, but on account of the
_flowers opening so very early, they are almost always destroyed
by frost, except in a few favored districts. The tree comes into bear-
ing from two to four years after budding, and is generally at its
best when from six tonine years of age. Five pounds of hulled al-
monds per tree is reported as a good average crop in California
orchards. The nuts begin to ripen about the middle of August.
It is desirable to have varieties mixed in order to secure good
pollination. Much disappointment has been occasioned by plant-
ing the almond in situations not suited for it, or possibly by
the planting of only one variety in a large area.

274 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Soil and planting.—The soil for almonds should be light,
warm and well drained. The trees, like the peach, will stand much
drought but will yield good crops only on rich, productive soil.
It is, however, impatient of too much water in the soil. The
trees are generally planted about 24 feet apart each “way. It is
customary to do considerable pruning to the tree in order to get
it in good form while it is young, after which little pruning is
done.

Propagation.—The almond is grown almost entirely by bud-
ding on seedlings of the sweet or bitter almond, though it is
sometimes worked upon peach stocks. The seedlings are han-
dled in very much the same way.as those of the peach and the
trees are planted in an orchard when one year old from the bud.
The peach and the prune D’Argen are also successfully grown on
the almond.

Marketing-—Where the summer air is very dry, the hulls,
open readily and the unstained nuts are in good condition for
marketing and require no further care. In some sections, how-
ever, the nuts are more or less stained by rains and then recourse
is had by bleaching them with sulfur fumes. As the sulfur
fumes do not penetrate to the kernel, the nuts are not injured by
this treatment. The only advantage is that it gives them 4a little
better appearance. If the hulls do not separate readily from
the nuts it is customary to use what is known as an almond
huller, by means of which the hulls are pulled off. Nuts that
are so badly stained that they cannot be made marketable are
generally sold for confectioner’s use.

The Hazel.

The European hazels are known botanically as Corylus arel-
lana, C. pontica and C. maxima, and in Hurope, are cultivated on
an extensive scale and yield the most filberts of commerce. The
species ordinarily grown in Hurope have shown themselves quite
liable to disease in this country and have not been successfully
cultivated here. Our two native species have a wide range and
are quite variable, some plants bearing fruit of very good size
and quality.

The American hazels are known botanically as Corylus amer-
icana, C. rastrato and C. california. They are of dwarf form and
can perhaps be cultivated to advantage on open, loose soils of

HAZEL. 275

moderate or poor fertility, in rows eight feet apart, although this
has not proven encouraging in the few experiments tried. Some
of the foreign species are quite large and grow to the height of
“12 or 14 feet. The plants are generally propagated by seed lay-
ers and sometimes budding is practiced.

The flowers.—The flowers are monoecious and form on the
new wood. The male flowers are grouped in the form of small
catkins that may be seen on the bushes all winter. In the spring,
these elongate and the pollen is distributed by the wind. The
female flowers are inconspicuous and form a star-like tuft of
crimson stigmas that push out from the rather large buds at
the time the male flowers. elongate. These flowers open early:
in the spring.

QUESTIONS—CHAPTER XIll.
; Nuts.
1. Of what country is the pecan a native?
2. What soil is best for pecan growing?
3. How should they be planted and cultivated?
4. How are pecans harvested and marketed?
5. What insects are injurious to the pecan?
6. How are pecans grafted?
7. How are they propagated from seed?
8. What are the characteristics and distribution of the American
chestnut? Of the European chestnut? Of the Japanese chestnut?
9. To what extent are they grown?
10. What are the Chinquapins?
11. How are chestnuts propagated?
12. How should chestnuts be planted and cared for?
13. How should chestnuts be cared for before marketing?
14. What insects and diseases injure the chestnut?
15. Over what territory is the English walnut distributed?
16. How are they propagated?
17. How are the walnuts harvested?
18. How are they marketed?
19. What are the characteristics of the Japanese walnut?
20. What are the characteristics of the almond?
21. What soil is best adapted to it?
22. How should the almond be planted?
23. How is the almond propagated?
24. How is it harvested and marketed?
25. How is the hazel grown in Europe?
26. How is it propagated?
27. What are the characteristics of the Hazel flower?

APPENDIX.

SPRAYING CALENDAR.

This spraying calendar is taken almost entirely from Bul-
letin 89 of the Iowa Experiment Station, by Prof. S. A. Beach and

HE. E. Little.

The changes made from the original are noted.

General Treatment For The Apple.

When to Spray.

1. When the_= green
tips of the first leaves
burst the buds.
omitted if insects and
scab are not abundant.

2. Just before the blos-
soms open.

38. Just after the blos-
soms fall.

4. Ten to twenty days
after 3.

5. Late July or early
August.

Special treatment early
spring before buds break.

May be:

What to Spray With and What For.

Bordeaux mixture for scab, canker and
leaf spot diseases with Paris Green or
other arsenical poison for bud moths,
case bearers, tent caterpillars, canker
worms and other leaf-eating insects.

Bordeaux mixture for diseases men-
tioned under 1. Paris Green or other ar-
senical poison for curculio and the in-
sects mentioned under 1. The most im-
portant single treatment against the scab!

Bordeaux mixture for diseases mention-
ed under 1. Paris Green or other arseni-
eal poison for codlin moth, curculio and
leaf eating insects. The most important
treatment in fighting codlin moth!

Bordeaux mixture for scab, bitter rot
and other diseases. Paris Green or other
arsenical poison for codlin moth curculio
and leaf-eating insects.

Bordeaux mixture for scab, bitter rot,
fly speck, sooty blotch and other diseases.
Paris Green or other poison for second
brood of codlin moth. Important!

Lime-sulfur wash for oyster shell

seale and other scale insects,

a ee per eee

APPENDIX. 277

General Treatment For Cherries.

When to Spray.

1. Just before the blos-
soms open.

2. Just after the blos-
soms fall.

8. Ten to fifteen days
later than 2.

4. Just after fruit is
picked.

. 5. From 2 to 3 weeks
after 4.

6. When cherry slugs
are first seen on leaves.

What to Spray With and What For.
Bordeaux mixture for fruit rot.
Bordeaux mixture for fruit rot and leaf

spot. Arsenate of lead for curculio.

Ammoniacal copper. carbonate for fruit
rot and leaf spot.

Bordeaux mixture for leaf spot.

. Repeat 4.

Dust or spray with
other poison.

Paris Green or

' General Treatment For Plums.

When to Spray.
1. About ten days- be-
fore growth starts.
2. Just before the blos-
soms open.

8. Just after the blos-
soms fall.

4. About 15 days after
the blossoms fall.

5. Soon after the mid-
dle of June.

: 6. Late July or early
August.

7. On first appearance
of insects.

General
When to Spray.
1. Before the buds

swell; surely before April
first.

What to Spray With and What For.

Copper sulfate solution (2 lbs. to 50
gallons of water) for Plum Pocket. (S.
Ke)

Arsenate of lead for curculio. Bordeaux
mixture for fruit rot on blussoms.

Bordeaux mixture for fruit rot and
leaf-spot. Arsenate of lead for curculio.
(Dilute the Bordeaux about one-half for
Japanese varieties.)

Repeat 2.

Repeat 2.

Ammoniacal copper carbonate soap or
eau celeste soap for fruit rot and leaf
spot.

Arsenate of lead for web worms and
other leaf-eating insects.

Treatment For Peaches.

W-hat to Spray With and What For.

Bordeaux mixture or lime-sulfur wash
(or copper sulphate solution, S. B. G.)
for leaf curl and fruit rot.

278 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

General Treatment For Pears.

When to Spray.
Same as for the apple.

When twig blight first
appears, and during the
dormant season when the
leaves are off.

What to Spray With and What For. _

Treat same as for apple scab, leaf spot
and insects.

Cut affected branches back to sound
wood and burn them. Keep tools disin-
fected by wiping with cloth saturated
With kerosene or other disinfectant after

each branch is cut.

Before buds open in spring Spry with
lime-sulfur wash.

General Treatment For Grapes.

When to Spray.

1. Just before growth
starts.

2. When the leaves are
one-third grown.

3. Just before the blos-
soms open.

4. Just after the fruit
sets.

5. 10 to 20 days after

x 6. 10 to 20 days after
oO.

What to Spray With and What For.

Bordeaux mixture or sulfate of cop-

per solution (1 pound to 25 gallons of wa-

ter) for grape rot. (S. BG.)
Bordeaux. mixture for mildews and
black rot. IMPORTANT! ;
Repeat 2.
Repeat 2. IMPORTANT! Ss
Repeat 2.
Repeat 2.

General Treatment For Currant and Gooseberry.

When to Spray.

1. When worms
appear.

first

2. When fruit is about
half grown.

3. After fruit is pick-
ed.

4. About 2 weeks aft-

What to Spray With and What For.

Paris Green or other arsenical poison
for the ‘‘worms.’” Bordeaux mixture for
leaf spot.

Repeat 1.

Bordeaux mixture for leaf spot.

Repeat 3.

General Treatment For Strawberry.

When to Spray.

When
and later as often as
necessary.

After picking the fruit.

At first appearance of
the leaf roller.

growth begins

What to Spray With and What For.
Bordeaux mixture for “rust” or leaf

spot.

Cut and burn follage on windy day.

Arsenical poison every week if neces-
sary, but not after fruit is half grown.

SG, NES Ee aes oe LO a ae ae

rae a

General
When to Spray.

When orange rust ap-
pears. Note.—This dis-
ease is easily recognized
by the bright orange col-
or on the under side of
the leaf. The whole cane
looks sickly.

When anthracnose and
other cane‘ diseases are
doing serious damage.

General

When to Spray.

Begin when plants are
about 8 inches high or
when beetles first appear
and spray at intervals of
from 10 to 16 ¢»ys till
growth stops.

Spray more freq ently
in hot, damp weather and
less often in dry weather.

Soak seed potatoes two
hours.

Treatment For Raspberry,

APPENDIX. 279

Blackberry and Dewberry.
What to Spray With and What For.

Dig plants at once and burn.

After leaves drop in fall or in early
spring, cut and burn over the whole at-
fected patch.

' Treatment For Potato.

What to Spray With and What For.

Bordeaux mixture combined with Paris
Green or other poison for early blight
and late blight and rot, also for flea
beetles, blister beetles, and Colorado po-
tato beetles. Make strong Bordeaux mix-
ture, using at least one pound of cop-
per sulfate to make 3 gallons of the
mixture.

To prevent potato scab, use commercial
formalin (40 per cent solution) 1 pint to
39 gallons of water. This is enough for
‘twenty bushels of seed.

General Treatment For Cucumbers, Squashes and Melons.

When to Spray.

When young plants
come through the ground;
repeat trequently.

About 1 month after
planting. Repeat at in-
tervals of 10 days.

What to Spray With and What For.
Tobacco dust for striped beetle.

Spray with Bordeaux mixture for
blight, flea beetles and striped beetles.

General Treatment For Cabbage and Cauliflower.

When to Spray.

When “‘worms’”’ appear.
Repeat when necessary.

We

}

: Lice or aphis.

What to Spray With and What For.

Paris Green or other arsenical poison
in dust, or in resin-lime mixture. Do
not. apply poison after heading begins.

Bury the affected plants.

280 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

General Treatment For All Kinds of Plants.

When to Spray. What to Spray With and What For.

. All leaf-eating insects, Paris Green or other arsenical poisons

such as slugs, caterpillars, when insects first appear. :
beetles, ete.

Sucking insects, such as Tobacco dust or tobacco infusion with
plant lice and true bugs. whale-oil soap or kerosene emulsion.
i Small plants or ends of twigs are best
treated by dipping.

Scale insects, such as Spray with the lime-sulfur wash in
oyster shell scale, scurfy spring before the buds open.
barks louse and San Jose
scale.

Bordeaux Dont’s. Don’t use iron or tin vessels for mixing; don’t
use air-slaked lime; don’t pour in the coarser particles of lime; don’t
make more than can be used in one day—it should be mixed fresh
every day.

Sprays are preventive and not curative and therefore must be ap-
plied befcre the injury becomes apparent. After a fungus has gained
entrance to the fruit or foliage it cannot be reached, but the infection
may be prevented by coating the parts with a fungicide such as Bor-
ets Mixture, which prevents the germination of the spores of the
ungus.

FUNGICIDES AND INSECTICIDES.

Fungicides.
Bordeaux Mixture:
Copper sulfate (blue vitriol) 5 pounds.
Quicklime (not slaked), not less than 314 pounds or more than
5 pounds. :
Water, 50 gallons.

Dissolve the copper sulfate and dilute to from 25 to 35 gallons.
Slake the lime and add enough water to it to complete the required 50
gallons; then pour the two solutions together. Lastly, add any arseni-
cal poisons which are to be combined with the Bordeaux mixture.
This is a general fungicide for all fruit plants.

Eau Celeste and Soap:
Copper sulfate, 1 pound.
Ammonia, strong (26° Baume), 3 pints.
Soap, 1 pound. :
Water, 50 gallons.

Dissolve the soap in 10 gallons of water. In a separate vessel,
not iron or tin, dissolve the copper sulfate in 40 gallons of water
and add the ammonia; stir well and add the soap. This is a good
fungicide to use in place of Bordeaux mixture when the fruit is full
grown.

Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate and Soap:
Copper carbonate, 6 ounces.
Ammonia, strong, 3 pints.

Soap, 1 pound.
Water, 50 gallons.

Dilute the ammonia with water and use as much of it as is
necessary to dissolve the copper carbonate; add water to make 40
gallons. Dissolve the soap in 10 gallons of water and pour into the
copper carbonate solution. The dissolved copper carbonate loses
strength when left exposed to the air, but it may be kept all right in

eS ee ee ee fey oT ele oe

APPENDIX. 281

stopped bottles or jugs. This is used when the fruit is nearly ripe
because it shows less than the Bordeaux mixture.

Potassium Sulfide or Liver of Sulfur: ©
; Potassium sulfide, 3 ounces.
Water, 6 gallons.

Dissolve the potassium sulfide in the water. Apply at once.
This mixture deteriorates rapidly and should not be prepared un-
til ready for application. This is an effective spray for mildew on
gooseberries.

Lime-Sulfur Wash:
_ Lime, 15 pounds. ; -
Sulfur, 15 pounds.
Water, 50 gallons. :

Place the lime in a kettle and slake it with hot water so that
it forms an even white paste, then add water until it makes a thin
whitewash. Blend the sulfur with water into a thin paste and add
to the whitewash and mix thoroughly. Boil one hour, stirring frequent-
ly to keep from caking on the sides of the vessel, and adding water
from time to time to replace that which has boiled away. Dilute to 50
gallons and bring to the boiling point again. Strain it boiling hot
into the spray tank through wire screen and apply as hot as possible.
It should be boiled until it is a brick red color and until the sediment,
when it has settled, is brownish or yellowish green. Salt is recom-
mended to be added to the sulfur pound for pound, but it may be
' omitted with no material disadvantage. Use good fresh stone lime
Which slakes free from grit and dirt. Wither flowers of sulfur or
light or heavy flour of sulfur may be used. The flowers of sulfur
goes into solution most readily.

In orchard practice this wash is mostly used against insects which
are found on the trees when they are dormant. It has proved very
effective against the San Jose Scale, oyster shell scale, the scurfy
scale, the case bearers and other insects which pass the winter on the
trees. It was formerly customary to add salt to this wash in order to
make the wash more adhesive, but later experience seems to show that
is not effective.

Copper Sulfate Solution:

Copper sulfate at the rate of one pound to twenty-five gdllons of
water is used for the prevention of grape rot, plum pocket and peach
leaf curl. Some experiments seem to show that good results will fol-
low from an application of this kind on apples, cherries, and some
other trees and plants. This solution should only be applied to dor-
mant plants, and it is probably best to apply it early in the spring,
at least two weeks before there is any sign of vegetation. If applied
after the plants have started, injury will result. Its object is to de-
stroy the spores of injurious diseases that may be on the plants.

Insecticides.
Paris Green:
Dry Paris Green—Flour, 20 pounds.
Paris Green, 1 pound.
Bee the two and dust the plants when they are moist from dew
or rain.
Wet Paris Green—Paris Green, 1 pound.
Bordeaux mixture or water, 50-300 gallons.
For apples or pears use 1 pound to 150 gallons of Bordeaux mix-
ture or water. If water is used add 2 pounds of fresh slaked lime
to prevent injury to the foliage.
For cherries or plums use 1 pound Paris Green to 300 gallons of
Bordeaux mixture or water.
For potatoes use 1 pound Paris Green to 75 gallons of Bordeaux
tnixture or water. 3

-

282 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

For cabbages and cauliflowers use 1 pound Paris Green to 80 gal-
Ions resin lime mixture after the plants begin to head.

Arsenite of Soda:
White Arsenic, 1 pound.
Sal Soda, 4 pounds.
Water, 1 gallon.

Mix and boil about 15 minutes or until the arsenic is all dissolved.
Add just enough water to make up for that lost in boiling, then put
in jugs or bottles until needed. Two quarts of this solution may be
used in the place of 1 pound of Paris Green by adding about 4 pounds
of fresh slaked lime or by combining with Bordeaux mixture in which
there is an excess of lime. This spray forms a cheap substitute for
Paris Green, but is liable to burn the foliage of tender plants.

Arsenate of Lead:
Lead acetate (sugar of lead), 22 ounces.
Sodium arsenate, 8 ounces.
Water or Bordeaux mixture, 100 gallons

Dissolve each separately; then mix the two. together and pour
this mixture into the required amount of water, or if it is to be used
with the Bordeaux mixture, pour it into the lime wash before that is
mixed with the copper sulfate solution.

The sodium arsenate dissolves in water quite readily. Dissolve it
in about a gallon of water. Into it pour the dissolved lead acetate to
the required amount and let it settle. Then take a small quantity of
the liquid in a cup to test it. This is done by adding to it a little
more of the lead acetate solution. If a white substance then forms,
it signifies that not enough of the lead has been used to combine
with all of the arsenic, and therefore more lead acetate should be
added to the mixture. Then pour this mixture into the lime wash if
it is to be used with the Bordeaux mixture.

While arsenate of lead may be made at home by the above form-

ula, yet it is commonly purchased in a paste form in sealed packages. ©

The home made article is more finely divided and stays in suspension
longer than the commercial form; yet the difficulty of getting re-
liable materials with which to make it oft-times prevents its being a
success.

Arsenate of lead has the merit of adhering well to and being
harmless to the foliage. As a rule, about three pounds of arsenate
of lead are required for fifty gallons of water, while of Paris Green,
its most popular competitor, about one-third to one-half pound would
be required. This would make the arsenate of lead cost for spraying
purposes from two to two and one-half times as much as Paris Green.
On the other hand, the arsenate of lead adheres so tenaciously to the
foliage that less applications of it are usually necessary. This is es-
pecially true in rainy weather. This feature of it, together with its
harmlessness to the foliage, makes it a very desirable insecticide. It
is especially effective against the codlin moth and the curculio.

Soap:
Whale Oil Soap, 1 pound.
Water, 6 gallons.

Whale oil soap or other cheap soap is used for plant lice and
other soft bodied insects. When the leaves are off the trees it may be
used as strong as 2 pounds to the gallon of water. It is sometimes
used in treating scale insects.

Hellebore:
Hellebore, 1 pound.
Water, 25 gallons.
Hellebore may be mixed with three or four parts of flour and
dusted on the insects, or it may be mixed with water and used as a
spray. It is especially useful in combating worms on currants and

a :

ey ee eee ee ee

oT ae ae ee 4

a ot di

APPENDIX. 283

gooseberries while the fruit is ripening, because it may be used with-
out serious danger of poisoning the fruit.
Pyrethrum:

Pyrethrum powder, 1 ounce.

Water, 3 gallons.

For dry applications, mix thoroughly one part by weight of in-
sect powder with four of cheap flour and keep in a closed vessel for
twenty-four hours before dusting over the plants. Pyrethrum, if fresh
and pure, can be made to do very effectual work. It should be kept in
tightly sealed cans. If the best pyrethrum cannot be obtained it
would be better to use some other insecticide.

Resin Lime Mixture:

Pulverized resin, 5 pounds.

Concentrated lye, 1 pound.

Fish oil or any cheap oil except tallow, 1 pint.

Water, 5 gallons.
: Place oil, resin and a gallon of water in a kettle and heat until

resin is softened; add lye solution made as for hard soap. Stir thor-

oughly, add remainder of water and boil for about two hours until
the mixture will unite with cold water making a clear amber colored
fluid. Replace the water which has boiled away by adding boiling
water to make the 5 gallons. This gives a stock solution -which
may be Kept until needed. In using it, add to the 5 gallons, 80 gal-
lons of water, 15 gallons of thin whitewash, and 1 pound of Paris
Green or its equivalent. Resin Lime mixture is used in spraying
smooth leaved plants, like cabbage and cauliflower, to which other
mixtures do not stick well.

Kerosene Emulsion:
Kerosene (coal oil), 2 gallons.
Rain water, 1 gallon.
Soap, % pound.

Dissolve the soap in water by boiling. Take from the fire and
while hot, turn in kerosene and churn briskly for five minutes. It
can be easily churned by pumping. Dilute before using with 6 to 9
parts of water. For scale insects and all sucking insects.

Lime:

Dry slaked lime is often used in combating insects having soft,
sticky bodies, such as those of the rose slug, cherry slug and asparagus
beetle.

Tobacco Dust:

Tobacco dust may be obtained from large aenutantarers at a
comparatively small cost. In addition to its value as an insecticide,
it has the advantage of acting as a fertilizer. It is useful in fight-
ing striped beetles which infest cucumbers, squashes and melons,
and in Keeping plant lice and other insects from the garden plants.
It is also used against root lice, particularly the woolly aphis. For
this purpose, it should be worked into the ground in liberal quantities.
Tobacco and Soap:

Tobacco (waste stems), 1 pound.
Boiling water, 4 gallons.

Add the hot water to the tobacco and let it stand until cold.
Strain and add 1 pound of whale oil soap or 2 pounds of soft soap to
each 50 gallons of infusion. Used for plant lice.

WAXES FOR GRAFTING AND FOR WOUNDS.

The following recipes for waxes are taken from the Horticultur-
ist’s Rule Book:

1. Common Resin and Beeswax Waxes:
a. Reliable wax.—Resin, 4 parts by weight; beeswax, 2 parts;
tallow, 1 part. Melt together and pour into a pail of cold

284 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

water. Then grease the hands and pull the wax until it is

nearly white. One of the best waxes, either for indoor or out-

door work. p
b. Resin, 4 pounds; beeswax, 1 pound; tallow, 1 pound.
c Resin, 6 pounds; beeswax, 2 pounds; linseed oil, 1 pint.
d. 6 pounds resin, 1 pound beeswax and 1 pint linseed oil; apply
hot with a brush, one-eighth of an inch thick over all the joiucs
2. Alcoholic Waxes:

Letort’s Liquid Grafting-Wax, or Alcoholic Plastic.—Best white
resin, 1 pound; beef taliow, 1 ounce; remove trom the fire and
add 8 ounces of alcohol. Keep in closed bottles or cans.

3. Waxed String and other Bandages:

Waxed String for Root-Graiung.—Into a kettle of melted wax
Place balls of No. 18 knitting-cotton. Turn the balls trequently,
and in five minutes they will be thoroughly saturated, when
they are dried and put away for future use. This material is
strong enough, and at the same time breaks so easily as not
to injure the hanus. Any of the resin and beeswaxes may be
used. When the string is used it should be warm enough to
stick without tying.

Waxed Cloth.—Old calico or thin muslin is rolled on a stick
and placed in melted wax. When saturated it is allowed to cool
by being unrolled on a bench. I1t is then cut in strips to Suit.

Waxed Paper is used to a large extent in some nurseries tor
covering root grafts. It is made by painting tough paper with
hot wax, which is then hung up to dry.

LISTS OF FRUITS ESPECIALLY ADAPTED TO CERTAIN
TYPICAL STATES.

The list of fruits given for different states must be looked
upon as only directive. The states given are selected because
they represent certain typical areas adapted to fruit growing.
Lists of this kind, however, are often misleading to the beginner,
and the inexperienced should be cautious how they follow such
lists for the reason that soil and climate may change in some sec-
tions of the country within very short distances; for instance,
parts of California are well adapted for orange raising, and with-
in a short distance, on a considerably higher elevation, the
country may be well adapted to the growing of apples. Those
who are intending to begin planting in any section should aim
to get in touch with the Experiment Stations and obtain from
-them a list of fruits especially adapted to their location.

Varieties of Fruits Recommended for Planting In Alabama.

By R. S. Mackintosh, Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, Agri-
cultural College, Auburn, Ala.
North. half of state.
Apples—Red June, Red Astrachan, Early Harvest, Family, Wine-
sap, Yellow Transparent, Horse, Yates, Terry.
Apples, Crab—Not planted to any considerable extent.
Apricots—Not planted. ;
Blackberries—Dallas, Early Harvest.

APPENDIX. 285

Cherries—Not planted.

Currants—Not planted.

Gooseberries—Not planted.

Grapes—Bunch: Delaware, Niagara, Concord. Muscatine type: Eden,
Memory and Scuppernong.

Peaches—Greensboro, Carman, Hiley, Family Favorite, Belle, El-
berta, Solway, White Heath.

Pecans—Stuart, Van Deman, Pabst.

Pears—Kieffer.

Plums—Red June, Burbank, Abundance.

Raspberries—Northern part of state: Gault, Springfield, Cuthbert,
Cardinal.

Strawberries—Lady Thompson, Klondike, Hoffman, Gandy, Dunlap.

Figs—Celestial, Brown Turkey.

Oranges—Coast region only: Satsuma.

Japanese Persimmons—Hachiya, Okame, Hyakume, Tane-Nashi.

Pomegranates—Sweet, Acid.

; Varieties Recommended for Planting in California.
By E. J. Wickson, Dean of College of Agriculture, Berkeley,
California.

There is practically no differentiation as yet between varie-
ties for amateurs and commercial varieties. The leading varieties
used commercially are selected by amateurs so far as their char-
acters agree with individual desires. The following list of varieties
is especially recommended for the coast region of California:
Apples—Newton, Pippin, Belle Fleur, Gravenstein, R. I. Greening, E.

Spitzenberg, Mo. Pippin, W. Astracan, Red June.

Grapes—Musceat, Tokay, Cornichon, Thompson, Emperor, Malaga,
Rose of Peru, Zinfandel, Sweet Water, Verdal, Carignane, Black
Prince, Alicante, Sultina.

Peaches—Muir, Phillips, Solway, Lovell, Harly Crawford, Tuskena,
Foster, Elberta, Late Crawford, Orange Cling, Susquehanna, Nich-
ols, Sellers, Lemon, St. Johns, Henrietta, Mary’s Choice, Hale,
Alexander, Heath.

Pears—Bartlett, Winter Nelis, Seckel, Easter, Du Comice, Doyenne
D’Ete, Clapp’s Favorite, Glout Morceau, Barry, Comet.

Plums—Wickson, Hungarian, Kelsey, Yellow Egg, Tragedy, Wash-
ington, Satsuma, Burbank, Jefferson, Climax, Grand Duke, Clyman.

Blackberries—Crandalls, Mammoth, Lawton, Kittatinny.

Currants—Cherry.

Gooseberries—Berkeley, Houghton.

Quince—Apple, Orange, Paragon.

Raspberries+Logan berry. Phenomenal (Hybrids)

Rlack—None grown.
Red—Cuthbert.

oes alas, Arizona, Melinda, Thompson, Brandywine,

andy. ,

Varieties Recommended for Planting in Colorado.

By W. Paddock, Professor of Horticulture, Agricultural College,
Fort Collins, Colorado.

Apples—Jonathan, Gano, Stayman, Winesap, Grimes, Colo. Orange,
Wealthy, Duchess and Haas for early.

, For Arkansas Valley.
Apples, Crab—Whitney.
Blackberries—Farly Harvest, Lawton, Snyder.
Cherries—Montmorency, Morello, Richmond.
Currants—Cherry, Fay, Red Cross.
Gooseberries—Smith, Downing; Houghton.
Grapes—Concord, Niagara, Moore’s Early,

286 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Peaches—Only grown by laying down in winter; Crawford, Elberta.
Pears—Not much grown. Bartlett, Kieffer, Seckel.
Plums—Wyant, Cheney, Pfeffer, Premium, Moore’s Arctie in the
north. Lombard, Bradshaw, Italian Prune in Arkansas Valley.
Quince—Not grown.
Raspberries—
Black—Kansas,
Red—Marlboro.
Strawberries—Capt. Jack, Jocunda, Bederwood.

= Varieties Recommended for Planting in lowa

By C. E. Beach, Professor of Horticulture, Iowa Agricultural BEx-

periment Station, Ames, Iowa.

Apples—In selecting stocks upon which to top-work less hardy va-
rieties, much yet needs to be learned. In the light of our present
knowledge of this subject, Hibernal and its kin appear to be suit-
able for the most northern parts of the state, while in southern
Iowa, Plumb Cider and Haas appear to be especially desirable
for this purpose.

Northern Iowa—Yellow Transparent, Lowland (Lowland Raspberry),
Charlamoff, Oldenburg, Duchess, Patten Greening, Wealthy, Ani-
sim, Longfield, Hutchin’s Red, Northwestern (Greening), Salome,
Black Annette, Iowa Blush, Windsor, Tolman Sweet, Allen Choice,
Stayman, Delicious, Ben Davis or Black Ben Davis or Gano.

Central Iowa—Yellow Transparent, Lowland (Lowland Raspberry),
Charlamoff, Oldenburg (Duchess), Wealthy, Anisim, Longfield, Fall
Orange, Ramsdell Sweet, Hutchins Red, Grimes Golden, Jonathan,
Roman Stem, Northwestern (Greening), Salome, Black Annette,
Iowa Blush, Windsor, Tolman Sweet, Allen Choice, Stayman, Ralls
Genet, Delicious, NeJson Sweet, Winesap, York Imperial, Ben Davis
or Black Ben Davis or Gano.

Southern Iowa—Yellow Transparent, Lowland.(Lowland Raspberry),
Red June, Oldenburg, (Duchess), Dyer, Wealthy, Benoni, Fall Or-
ange, Ramsdell Sweet, Hutchins Red, Grimes Golden, Jonathan,
Roman Stem, Iowa Blush, Windsor, Allen Choice, Stayman, Ralls

=

Genet, Delicious, Nelson Sweet, Winesap, York Imperial, Ben

Davis or Black Ben Davis or Gano.

Pears—On account of the prevalence and great destructiveness of
pear blight in Iowa, pear culture is precarious in all parts. of the
state. The varieties named below have shown a good degree of
hardiness and resistance to blight in some localities in Iowa:
Fluke, Bloodgood, Warner, Seckel, Flemish Beauty, Bezi de la
Motte, Longworth, Kieffer, Anjou.

Peaches—Because of their lack of hardiness peaches are seldom
fruited north of central Iowa and only the hardier varieties can

be recommended for planting in any portion of the state. The

varieties named below are among the best of those which have
been fruited successfully in different portions of central and south-
ern Iowa: Sneed, Greensboro, Champion, Ione Tree, Russell, Hill
Chili, Crosby.

Plums—Northern Iowa—Forest Garden. Ocheeda, De Soto, Cheney,
Wolf, Wyant, Hawkeye, Stoddard, Brittlewood (?), Hammer (?),
Miner.

Central Iowa—Forest Garden, Ocheeda (7), De Soto, Wolf, Wyant,
Hawkeye, Stoddard, Brittlewood, Hammer, Miner.
Southern Iowa—Forest Garden. Ocheeda (?), De Soto, Wolf, Wyant,
Hawkeye, Stoddard, Brittlewood, Hammer, Miner.
Varieties Recommended for Planting in Michigan.

By Prof. lL. R. Taft, East Lansing, Mich., Superintendent of Farm-

ers’ Institute. ;

Apples—Red Astrachan, Duchess, Wealthy, Baldwin, Maiden Blush,
ena Hubbardston, Grimes, Wagener, Red Canada, Golden

usset.

—

:
f
c
P
F
1

APPENDIX. 287

Apples, Crab—Transcendent, Hyslop, Martha, Whitney.
Blackberries—King, Wilson, Snyder, Eldorado, Taylor.
Cherries—Early Richmond, Montmorency, English Morello, Gov.
Wood, Black Tartarian.
-Currants—Victoria, Red Dutch, Loudon, White Dutch, Perfection.
Gooseberries—Downing, Smith Improved, Keepsake, Industry.
Grapes—Moore, Worden, Concord, Delaware, Niagara, Diamond,
Brighton.
eo umph, Dewey, Engle, Elberta, Kalamazoo, or New Pro-
ific.
Pears—Clapps, Bartlett, Howell, Seckel, Anjou, Kieffer, Lawrence.
eee ndance, Burbank, Bradshaw, Lombard, Grand Duke, Mon-
arch.
Quince—Orange, Rea and Champion.
Raspberries—
Black—Kansas, Gregg, Cumberland.
Red—Miller, Marlboro, Eaton, Cuthbert.
Strawberries—Excelsior, Haverland, Clyde, Sample, Dunlap, Aroma,
Pride of Michigan, Dornan, Brandywine.

Varieties of Fruits Recommended for Planting in Minnesota.
By Minnesota State Horticultural Society.

Apples—First degree of hardiness—Duchess, Hibernal, Charlamoff,
Patten’s Greening, Okabena. Second degree of hardiness—Wealthy,
Tetofsky, Malinda, Peerless, Anisim. Most profitable for commer-
cial planting in Minnesota—Wealthy, Duchess, Patten’s Greening,
Okabena, Anisim. Varieties for trial—Salome, Eastman, Yellow
Sweet, Brett, Milwaukee, University, Lowland Raspberry, Iowa
Beauty, Jewell’s Winter, Gilbert. Valuable in some locations—
. Wolf River, McMahon, Yellow Transparent, Longfield, Northwest-
ern Greening. ,

Crabs and Hybrids—For general cultivation—Florence, Whitney, Har-
ly Strawberry, Minnesota, Sweet Russet, Virginia, Transcendent.
Varieties for trial—Iivman’s Prolific, Faribault, Shields.

Plums—For general cultivation—DeSoto, Surprise, Forest Garden,
Wolf (Freestone), Wyant, Stoddard. Most promising for trial—
New Ulm, Brittlewood, Compass Cherry, Terry.

Grapes—First degree of hardiness—Beta, Janesville. Second degree
of hardiness—Moore’s Early, Brighton, Delaware, Worden, Aga-
wam, Concord, Moore’s Diamond.

Raspberries—Red Varieties—King, Turner, Marlboro, Miller, Brandy-
wine, Loudon. Black and purple varieties—Palmer, Nemaha,
Gregg, Older, Columbian, Kansas.

Blackberries—Ancient Britain and Snyder.

Currants—Red Dutch, White Grape, Victoria, Long Bunch, Holland,
North Star, Pomona, Red Cross, Perfection, London Market.

_Gooseberries—Houghton, Downing, Champion, Pearl.

Strawberries—Perfect varieties—Bederwood, Enhance, Lovett, Splendid,
Glen Mary, Clyde, Senator Dunlap. Imperfect varieties—Crescent.
Warfield, Haverland.

Native Fruits—Valuable for trial—Dwarf Juneberry, Sand Cherry,
Buffaloberry, High Bush Cranberry.

Varieties recommended for Planting in Missourl.
By J. C. Whitten, Professor of Horticulture, Columbia, Mo.

Apples—Ben Davis, Gano, Jonathan, Grimes, York, Winesap, Ingram,
- Rome Beauty, Maiden’s Blush, Wealthy, Early Harvest.

Apples, Crab—Florence, Whitney, Hyslop.

Apricots—Alexander and Budd (Even these do not thrive, and I
know of none that are well adapted).

Blackberries—Snyder, Taylor, Lawton, Early Harvest.

288 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Cherries—Early Richmond, English Morello, Montmorency.
Currants—Red Dutch, White Dutch, Red Cherry. )
Gooseberries—Downing, Smith, Houghton.
Grapes—Moore’s Harly, Worden, Concord, Woodruff Red, Wyoming
Red. For wine—Cynthiana, Hlvira.
Peschess Seamp ies, Carman, Family Favorite, Elberta, Crosby,
alway.
Pears—Kieffer, Garber, Dwarf Duchess, Anjou, Keull.
Plums—Wild Goose, Wayland, Gold, Dawson, Chabot, Burbank.
Quince—Missouri Mammoth, Orange. ;
Raspberries—
Black—Evans, Kansas, Hopkins, Gregg.
Red—Turner, Cardinal, Loudon.

Strawberries—Aroma, Excelsior, Warfield, Bubach, Haverland, Gandy.

Varieties Recommended for New York.

By 8S. D. Willard, Geneva, N. Y., leading nurseryman and fruit
grower.
Apples—Garden Royal, Gravenstein, Oldenburg, McIntosh, Esopus,
Spitzenburg, Northern Spy, Boiken.
Apricots—Acme, Montgamet.
Blackberries—Harly Bagnard, Eldorado.
Cherries—Sour: Richmond, Morello, Montmorency,.
Sweet: Rockport, Windsor, Schmidt.
Currants—White Imperial, Wilder.
Gooseberries—Downing, Columbus.
Pears—Bartlett, Anjou, Lawrence, Washington.
Plums—Reine Claude, Burbank, German Prune. The varieties espe-
cially valuable for home use are very few.
Raspberries—
Black—Diamond, Gregg, Cumberland.
Red—Cuthbert, Loudon, Golden Queen.

oe List of Fruits for Northern New England.

By W. M. Munson, Professor of Horticulture, Agricultural College,
Orono, Me.

Apples—Oldenburg, Gravenstein, Baldwin, Spy, Hubbardston, Stark,
Tolman, Fameuse. For home use, add—Astrachan, Williams, Mother,
Paradise, Winter Sweet, Mackintosh. For extreme northern parts
of Maine and Vermont, except Grand Isle County, hardier sorts
are required; for example—Wealthy, Dudley, Oldenburg, Alexander,
Rolfe, Arctic and some local varieties, like Stowe and Hayford.

Apples, Crab—Hyslop, Martha, Transcendent.

Blackberries—Agawam and Snyder.

Cherries—Richmond. Windsor, English Morello.

Currants—Fay, Wilder, White Imperial.

Grape—Moore’s Early, Campbell’s Early, Green Mountain, Worden,
and possibly, King.

Gooseberries—Downing.

Peaches—Not commercially grown.

Pears—Angouleme, Anjou, Bartlett, Bosc, Clapp, Diel, Lawrence,
Sheldon, Vermont Beauty.

Plum—Ravay, Burbank, Bradshaw, Grand Duke, Imperial, Gage,
Moore’s Arctic. :

Quince—Not commercially grown.

Raspberries—

Black—Cumberland, Gregg.
Red—Cuthbert, Loudon.
Purple—Shaffer.
Strawhberries—Dornan, Dunlap, Glen Mary, Warfield,

APPHNDIX. 289

List of Fruits Recommended for New Jersey.

BY M.A. Biake, Eves er emecen Station, New Bruns-

wick,

Apples—I would suggest Early Harvest, Early Ripe, Red Astrachan,
William’s, Starr, “Summer Rambo, Wealthy, Maiden’s Blush, Fall
Pippin, Jonathan, Stayman’s Winesap, Winesap, York Imperial and
Rome Beauty. These varieties are recommended for south Jersey.
North Jersey has practically the same conditions for fruit growing
as New York State, and such varieties as Northern Spy, R. I.
Greening, Baldwin and Mackintosh can be included in the list. All
varieties that are adapted to New York state can be grown in
northern. Jersey. Such varieties as Baldwin and R. I. Greening are
practically fall apples in southern Jersey.

Crab Apples—Hyslop and Transcendent.

Apricots—Harris Hardy. and Moorpark.

Blackberries—Ward.

Cherries— j
Sweet—Governor Wood, Yellow Spanish, Black Tartarian, Windsor.
Sour—Early Richmond and May Duke.

Currants—Wilder, Fay and Cherry.

Gooseberries—Downing, Columbus and Red Jacket.

Grapes—Commercial varieties for south Jersey—Concord and Ives.
Some grapes are sold from south Jersey for eating purposes, but
the larger quantity is now made into grape juice. The two va-
rieties named are the ones almost exclusively grown. Green Moun-
‘tain, Niagara, Brighton, Worden, Moore’s Diamond, Delaware and
others ean be grown for dessert and home use, however.

Peaches—Greensboro, Hiley, Carman, Waddell, Mountain Rose, Ear-
ly Crawford, Niagara, Reeve’s Favorite, Elberta, Late Crawford,
Belle of Georgia, Old Mixon, Steven’s Rareripe, Salway.

Pears—Kieffer and La Conte for market. Bartlett, Clairgeau and
such varieties can be recommended for the home orchard, but are
likely to be severely attacked by blight. Clapp’s Favorite is es-
pecially susceptible.

Plums (European)—Lombard and Fellenburg. (Japanese)—Red June.

Quinces—Champion and Orange.

Raspberries—

Black—Cumberland and Kansas.
Red—Herbert and Cuthbert.
Hybrids—Columbian and Haymaker.

Strawberries—Gandy, Tennessee Prolific, Nettie, Glen Mary, William
Belt, Success.

-The eonditions for fruit growing in northern Jersey are about
the same as those of New York and New England. Some of the
soils there are well adapted to apples. Some of the high quality
varieties of pears could be recommended for this section in addition
to those given. Pear blight is very severe in south Jersey, however,
and Kieffer and La Conte are becoming the varieties most grown.
Southern New Jersey has much the same conditions for fruit grow-
ing as Delaware and parts of Maryland.

Varieties Recommended for Planting in North Carolina.
By W. N. Hutt, Horticulturist, Agricultural College, West Raleigh,
IN Fp Oo

Apples—In Mountains—Red June, York, Stayman, Winesap, Grimes
and Bonum. In Cotton Belt—Horses, Winesap, Stayman, Shock-
ley, Ben Davis.

Apricots—None grown.

Blackberries—Dewberries in sandy region only Lucretia.

Cherries—Little grown. Sour type grown in mountains.

Currants—In Mountains, Red Dutch and Fay.

290 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

Gooseberries—Downing and Houghton. E

Guiles *heeot Concord and Delaware. Scuppernong and James on
coast, k

Peaches—Greensboro, Carman, Salway.

Pears—Kiefter, La Conte, Seckel, Early Harvest.

Plums—Abundance, ° Read June, Butbank, Wild Goose.
uince—In mowuntains, Meéch,

Raspberriés— :
Black—In mountains—Grege.

.Red—In mountains—Loudon, Cuthbert and Miller. —

Strawberries—-Lady Thompson, Heflin, Gandy, Bubach, cledda.

Figs—In coast and lower Piedmont—Brown Turkey, Celéstial. am

Pecans—In coast and lower Piedmont—Stewart. Van Deman, HEOt-
schen, Schley. rae

Mulberries—White English, Black Etiglish, New American.

Varieties Recommended for Planting in Ohio.

By W. J. Green, Professor of Horticulture of Experiment Station,
Wooster, 0.

Apples—Yellow Transparent, Oldenburg, .Sweet Bough, Maidén’ a
Blush, ..Grimes..Golden, Jonathan, Hubbardston, York Imperta
Rome Beauty, Northern Spy.

Apples, Crab—Transecendent.

Blackberries—Early Harvest, E. King, Eldorado, Snyder,.

Gherries—Dydhouse, Harly Richmond, Montmorency, English Morello.

Currants—Victoria, Wilder, White Dutch.

Gooseberries—Downing, Pearl, Portage, Jossélyn. :

Grapes—Worden, Green Mountain, Niagara, Brighton.

Peaches—Mountain Rose, Greensboro, .Champion, Elberta, Smock.

Pears—Wilder, Bartlett, Angouleme, Seckel.

Plums—Bradshaw, Field, Reine Claude, Lombard, Grand Duke.

Quince—Orange.

Raspberries—

Black—Cumberland, Munger, Conrath.
Red—Cuthbert, King, Loudon. i

Strawberries—Fairfield, Dunlap, Haverland, Bubach, Latest.

Varieties Recommended for Planting in Oregon.

By C. J. Lewis, Professor of General Horticulture, Agricultural Cot.
lege, Corvallis, Ore.

a<pples—E. Spitzenburg, Yellow Newtown, Jonathan, Baldwin, Ben
Davis, Gano, Yellow Imperial, Gravenstein. ; :
Apples, Crab—Martha, Transcendent.
Apricots—Blenheim, Moore Park, Royal.
Blackberries—Lawton, Kittatinny. :
Onerries—Royal Anne, Lambert, Bing, Black Republican.
Currants—Fay, Cherry, White Grape.
Gooseberries—Champion, Downing, Industry.
Grapes—Concord, Niagara, Tokay, Malaga, Muscat. = = ee
pee Crawfords, Foster, Muir, Salway, Hale’s Early,
Cliny. = :
Pears—Rartlett, Anjou, Bosc, Howell, W. Nelis, Comice, E. Beurre
Plums—lItalian, Petite. é : -
Quince—Champion, Apple ae Orange, Rea’s Mammoth.
Raspberries—
Rlack—Gregg, eimperienendt! Kansas, Mammoth Cluster. E
Red—Cuthbert, Marlboro;, Loudon. MeKR ce:
Strawberries—Clark’s Seedling, Niagara, Warfield, Clyde, Hopkins,
Oregon Hiverbearing, Excelsior, ,Dunlap. } a ;

APPENDIX. 201

Varieties Recommended for Planting in Saskatchewan.

By Angus Mackay, Superintendent Experimental Farm, Indian Head,
Saskatehewan.

“Apples, Crab—Siberian Crab (P, baccata) and crosses on thig variety.
Cherries—Prunus tomentosa.
Currants—
Red—Fay’s Prolific, Victoria, Red Dutch.
‘White—White Grape, White Imperial.
Black—Lee’s Prolific, Black Naples.
Gooseberries—Smith’s ‘Improved, Houghton.
Plums—Manitoba Native, Aitken, Weaver.
Raspberries—
Black—Older Black and Hilborn Black.
Red—Dr. Reider, Marlboro, Turner, Herbert.
Yellow—Caroline. :
Strawberries—South Dakota No. 1 (Seedling of Jessie fertilized with
pollen from Manitoba Wild Strawberry). ;

RULES FOR NAMING FRUITS.

In the naming and describing of new sorts, there is chance for

ich confusion by duplication of names. and in other ways. In
on ie to simplify this matter, rules have been adopted by the Am-
erican Pomological Society as follows:

Rule I. No two varieties of the same kind of fruit shall bear
the same name. The name first published for a variety shall be
the accepted and recognized name, except in cases where it has been
applied in violation of this code.

(a) The term ‘kind’? as herein used shall be understood to ap-
ply to those general classes of fruits that are grouped together in
common usage without regard to their exact botanical relationship; as,
‘apple, cherry, grape, peach, plum, raspberry, ete.

(b) The paramount right of the originator, discoverer or: in-
troducer of a new variety to name it, within the limitations of ‘this
code, is recognized and emphasized.

(c) Where a variety name, through long ~ usage, has Rectan
thoroughly established in American Pomological literature for two
or more yarieties, it should not be displaced nor radically modified
for either sort, except in. cases .where. a well-known. synonym can
be advanced to the position of leading name, The several va-
rieties bearing identical names should be distinguished by adding
the name of the author who first described each sort, or by adding
some other suitable distinguishing term that will’ insure their identi-
ty in eatalogues or discussions.

(d) Existing American names of varieties, which conflict with
earlier published foreign names of the same, or other varieties, but
which have become thoroughly established through long usage, shall
not be displaced.

ae Il. The name of a variety of fruit shall consist of a single
wor

(a) No variety shall be named unless distinctly superior to ex-
isting varieties in some important characteristic nor until it has
been determined to perpetuate it by bud propagation.

(b) In selecting names for varieties, the following points should
be emphasized: distinctiveness, simplicity, ease of pronunciation,
and spelling, indication. of origin or parentage,

(c) The spelling and pronunciation of a varietal name derived
from a personal or geographical name should be governed by the
rules that control the spelling and pronunciation of the name from
which it was derived.

(d) A variety imported from.a foreign country should retain its

292 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING.

foreign. name-subject. only to. such. ‘modification: as is necessary to
conform to this code or to render it intelligible in English.

(e) The name of a person should not be applied to a variety dur-
ing his life without his expressed consent. The name of a deceased
horticulturist should not be so applied except through formal action
by some competent horticultural body, preferably that ‘with which
he was most closely connected.

(f) ‘The use of such general terms as_ seedling, hybrid, pippin,
pearmain, beurre, rare-ripe, damson, etc., is not admissible. -

(g) The use of a possessive noun as a name is not admissible. ;

(h) The use of a number, either singly or attached to a word,
should be considered only as ‘temporary expedient: while the variety
is undergoing preliminary test.

(i) In applying the various provisions of this rule to an existing
varietal name that has, through long usage, become firmly imbedded
in American Pomological literature, no change shall be made, which
will involve loss of identity.

Rule III. In the full and formal citation of a variety name, the

name of the author who.first published it shall be. given.
Publication. —

+ Rule IV. Publication consists’ (1) in the distribution of a printed
description of the variety named, giving the distinguishing charac-
ters- of fruit, ‘tree, etc., or (2) in the publication of a new name for
a variety that is properly described elsewhere; such publication -to
be made in any book, bulletin, report, trade catalogue or - periodical,
providing the issue bears the date of its publication and is generally
distributed. among nurserymen, fruit growers and horticulturists; -or
(3) in certain cases, the general recognition of a name -for a prop-
agated variety in a community for a number of years shall consti-
tute publication of that name.

(a) In determining the name of a variety to which two ‘or more
names have been given in the same publication, that which ‘stands
first shall have precedence. ; ,

: Revision. iowa

Rule V. No properly published variety name shall be ‘ean
for any reason, except conflict with this code, nor shall another va-
riety be substituted for that originally described thereunder. -

Usual > Distances Apart for Planting Frults.

CADDIES! Sia er ei eenta wees amie rete PaaS k Pha or 25 to 40 feet each way
Apples, Dwarf PR OAS RE ce Re PEON Aare ..e-10 to 15

IGA SS canner erence Lege On Bin ees Hose 20 to. 30.0525
Pears, jones soeincdiat ve vesman 4 lene ahenelens cece mat Sapa aie A 10! to ae ero secs
SEPLUTTM Sosa eco ie AGE Nn anes aR eae ONT oR EE ES T62ZtO M20 as rier i
(PCA Chess Sak Se Fee eicate vee SM ay hate Gecors PET ERE 16 to 20 LEE Ca
WhELrisse.e cess einedaviel anton aati SVS Sie Se inane a V Sapumnaeat eats 16 to 25 ie pets
INOMCOWIS Soe sogcods cuooteoadcn done danntodsounaues LG) tOs 2 Olean ate
INectanines 20 ae S ee Oe aia ara eee ne se pareiee 16 to 20. —* se os
QUIN CES ees cscuetaveraercrgen fine Oeste treraus waeun euate vacenate 8° tO MT e i ea ana
Mulberries .../.........:.. RETR CaN Re subrsiors tate Seb cs eae 25 to 30 Her shel sy i,
Japanese. Persimmons ............. sits Radia Meter aie .20 to 25 FRE ae &
IPCCAINS cava eectuccen tet ane ote TEA SO ae PEN Sik Uoato eek 35 to 40 SSSSyis ne a
GLASS Re cae Suze aol ean ot ar AN Une oR SEAT aa SIGNI MeN 8 to 12 Hae ie
Currants... Bee ave wiesetn)ijn svaiedete af ofticetece avczin\n alnlaavin a: «1.24 eS Sone) eee eee
GOOSEDErELESs-.cicimiace alavanslelevettatcigrest te Sule eralatenwtonee “4 ox BS oe Nags
Raspherriess ss lakes o2k.y arcs ce sserstescnelecnseba ietevate este ciate « SS if PIC ESA
.Raspberries, Red «....... SPT EO TSCA OP IOC OE 28 xX at
SRlacKberries BG) ine SRG a ae ae Sia 2s idl Doe eae RRA to 6x8 tect
GraNWerviesy ces csre oansievetagarcaec a ssnetatataneeoncecratarare 1 or 2 feet apart each: way
Strawberries! 52). Seok Oh els eer eS a Ril ea Weel Oma eo tOeeeleeE

Oranges and Lemons pe tby tod bepoeeegeictv gcse enn tO80 feet, each way,

=
q
As

; APPENDIX.
Number of Plants Required to Set an
Distances.

eebe eee 12
TEs Si. ae 12
2054 ih a>: Same 4 12
aoe hte ox = |6 12
iettowx 7 15
Zeit ex: - 2 15
2) es ees ay
Beeostt, ox. 4 18
Bronte. os, 6 18
tax . 3 20
Sette x 6 20
waft. x. 4 20
Fae 5 20
4ftx 6 3
SEE x 8 30
biette x . 6 30
Ba hte. x):,..8 40
Wott. x 12 40
12° ft. x 15 50
Me ate OB -100

Acre
ft. x
fee
ft, x
Pty xX
Pt
fio
ft. x
Lt
LiL eS
heen
ttc
ft
ft xX
Pos x
ihe eae

x

x

x

x

x

293

Ground at Given

i INDEX.
A BuGding. “7. . gee eee 136
Age of trees for planting... 27 DURE 3 6715 See ee ee eee 142
Alcoholic waxes ........... 284 EOVMS OF... he csi ee» aae
SRCRENGHIN looks Oe ee ag 273 Budstiels... 23. =e RT
Altitude and frosts ......... 161 | Buffalo Berry ......... ek)
Analysis— . distribution =. > .c, ween ee 253
SOT a PUN ee i a pe 18 propagation .............. 254
Ege eo PPC IesPRIN IE RENSDSI: Reng NE o 20 | Buffalo Tree Hopper ........ 55
WED RACIIOSE). cos dette g4 | Buildings for storage 113, 114,115
Aphis ; RU +2 eae Ale 53, 63, 70 Bistter nwt! ei eset aes 273
Apple ..... Vic aiaaie ne Bate 75, 157 | Buying trees ..27, 142, 143, 163
Gaseasen tian ee ee F 170 Bushel pox. oyeshe ree 5 £08
ITSO CES ns erm ere es 49, 170 a ee
SGA ies stars otis ware alace ei eaa ian eee 17 Cc
PEER ORS oc specs le soteneesrs 54 Callousing) io. eee eee 133
Lop U=9 at perenne Hicker na Gg vo cmaese rote 5) Cane. ruStiacesecnnee SU as/olrs ae 8)
JOreKeN eh tly Rig Meson Ds OG Gl Oceen 111 Cedar apples: 22. sae cee 76
WICK ees Arles vere neieer ence 101 Chart Offrost 2. sane eta AL
SPECIES OL: Meier eiaeenios 157 Cherry —
DeaeUK ath cheery oN cee Secure 168 diseases i220 ee hema ane . St
(es eeKeh tne gical o cia aco Choro 113 INSECTS. Ai ee ee 65
ADL COE wal, curecervetepoiere steele ns seco. grafting) oes wee .153
Arsenate ofleadvn. seas ws net 282 Chestnut Ar. 0 eneseterete answered)
Arsenite of soda ............ 282 Chinese Sand Pear ....... soda)
ASSimilatlonman, a eecisuaioene rien 125 Chinquapin’ (7%. aie eae 270
ASSOCIATIONS Acces ee aie 104 Classification of fruits ...... 127
Agitation in sprayers ...... 3 Codlin moths 3 camer 49
Collaretirrrc £6 oh RS ee 118
Cleft (Grafting u eee 145
B Crown) cok eee ee Sing.
Bake in ei eirete wo ae Beate Gon Beemer ee 118 Con. + eerie ccenereteiote 147
BARE CIE DRESS sisi eistaietene: crore 112 Cold“ Storacey termine) aes 114
BIAICK DERRY ie. ceteiw euerene eiorenee 247 Copper sulfate solution ....281
GISCASES Lhe clas Wate wets ees 88 Granberrye «2c 222 see ee 206
TTUSE CES Morn iewissshe ce eovceus, sue recente 70 location of beds .......... 257
propasation =. cee cece see 247 drainage 9s. -25 ee eae Wee 259
ISIE 1G RNOENS A Gdn Uo nbc oleate SOUS sonic ein ees tee 258
Blaie i ENOD Neto case eteielens 76, 8), 85 planting: Ny ascent Baas deans 261
Bitter ROts soso eee eee 75 Pickine’ jus.) eee BASES aes 262
Bordeaux mixture ...... 74, 280 Cover ‘Crops; =... ieee Pe Seeley
BrownyRoty csce ce ween eens 82 Cropping the orchard ...... 17
BUGS eRe eae ie sens tomer tdains 119 Crossing’). ii een enema 122

:
,,

INDEX, 295
SVOWIO EAI. So ighets sc0 ae 82, 83, 8§ G
BET VALION Swe + so eee 12, 167
000 SOT mr oa, 1 Grading: Of TYtit cass 112
“diseases ......... Pee ai sy | Gift package .............. 230
HRSatie ee g7 | Girdling of grape .......... 120
propagation BREA re a 232 CoP LEUCINE Merete tyicietale. Deaatepusensaceee 143
currant borer ..........-. 69 GRE TC oe ritete cd vette ene oie oa lattantone 145
eurrant worm ........... 67 VERT Pccnrrwe lacrosse atatcieuerersre ch ute 147
UUEERIVESS 0-5 01a le oie 21s vel siwinis <0" 233 STC Geargholats ste seta lep chal cnetere shee 130
PMID). ssisie cee ete tse 51 BO a oa ean aiaanie Race ere es 147
(Chink? Saar ae 54 M@PenMme 3.9235 ore 154
oe 132, 133 | Grafting wax formula ...... 145
SOOSCDELIV Gi) cists alsielelers wate ts 236
: Db : TEUSO CES Mes ercteme itis, wheletonevel ss bis ie 57
Dewberry .........-... 247, 248 | . diseases ......-....-.+00e 83
~ yi3 aS eee .. 74 | Grain in orchards .......... 17
Distances for planting 293 NEUE RDO relat cxccersie re oracle aie Tek acerieteds iste 193
Downy. mildew .......+.-... 85 TOASSOUS. nce d tiadolec eect rT 65
Bustesoraying -...\..-.0..... a2 OMNS2EISES — Soo cdoudsoc wands “84
; VEE INE ie Aisverete cist atare es axe 154
E DAU ATE Ys oreo ery. sessions es inh 202
PEGNMCCIESTS |... 0.2 sos en 280 propagation ...........-. 195
English Walnut ........... 972 Grape phylloxera .......... 65
: Grape vine leaf hopper 65
KF
Wall web worm .....:..5-.: 53 H
Flat headed apple tree borer 54 | Harvesting ................ 101
MIGWer 2k... es areltiacakeners. srs B20 Pl aaeA ey Sans 2 Fs ee ee wee 274
PINES yest crock o. 0.3 ecedsltee Satoh aire 3 18 | Fleehgs& Ani 22. ei eed: 168
BMPEOREht- o... 6s ceca ee 15 | BeweWOre i.e... eb ba 383
MEY URS oie soy woke Sis o suen sph eee fioges in orenardS .........% 50
propagation .......6.-+++ 124 | Holes for trees ........ 164, 28
Glassification ........ F 127 ETUIYN UL Sees eee facets tes al aiay ee nese 13
BAADEALION, «6 oo. ee ebetes 23 ED Viorel Sictie rie tans are tattle atone ays 125
PETRA IS 0S) 5's: esis alelatee Oe ¢ 20
MPSS en otaifan 1s" bal ane acsi'< aN oid Woe 284
DACKASOS — .ocaceceees oes +0104 -
MDW eS et eal o\ <i crs) a's) once Sir CS 136 WH SCCEECUAGR (oe) oa i's 's wcreye ties & 281
PEGAMOS, alice ces se Lee 412 | Insects—
Fabes: for Naming. o. 6c. yee. 291 CALelu emer toss oe cles ofa e es 47
Frost— IG NUUIBES iss ool go) ose ia cb a eb 46
MACE ELOIU. iy ck eestor e hele Sate 41 PeCMAGCOUS,. s4 osetia Slane 49
MMU OS er eepay oc, a's a cies dca seharenees 38 OA vv isis) ance wienet aaber ovate 48
MOUOEO MAIS rs. 6 oie a eree een elds 39 Inspection laws ..........%5 46
Wipeicides ..........0.05 280, 74 7.7 BREN io aa aR rar a 34
MIRE SCALG. | oi5.04.5 aves web ale wes 78 BEDE. gach inka tcc Mole aa CL 38

(

296 INDEX.

J N..

FUN |S ENVY as eee ae eee eee 248 | Nectarines -............ Sunes 193
propagation: joes css. 6s. 249 |) Nozzles” oo. 7 Se ei
GUL LI VAL HOM se ty sa eterite 245 | Number plants to acre ....293
VALIETIOS ene micro atiee we miaeo Nursery inspection ......... “46

June budding: ots dha 142 | Nursery selection .......; ') 26

Nursery stock <- yoyo: Roe
Nutistruits) 3 2ee ce a SBN 267
K. =
Kerosene emulsion formula 283 oO
Offsets > ick Wee os, bee
L Orange rust ~..... terres td)

NGAVETSi sis cohen aioe ina oaete echoes 132 Orchard protection ....... Rec

Theat sOlisht veces cre che wrepseee +» 79 | Orchard cultivation ..... Seles

TOL Sr deat ©) Pg Gee Rie Pepe A 80, 88, 88 | Oyster shell bark louse .... 56

Peat otic. hone ee ....... 58 | Outlook for fruit growing :. 10

eat roller seks eee ce 71 Stine Noo. Ral ana

MO AE SISULS Ge Sree ierotave (ora voyetererianne 76, 87

Leaf spot ..... eialitve Boateedaney he 90 P

I DIskels her (SAN FE neichalow matic Reeve) Packages ...... 105, 106, 119, 111

Leaves ..... FT hese Ce 225,120 | Packing: .4.1 05 teen

Liquid ‘spraying ....... ‘7ees 98 | Parasites ...: LSE ee nes

PLUNVE) oi arcane vatenane rial orate sete 283 Paris SYEON 2 se ararsceen ae ee

Lime-sulfur wash .......... 481. Peach 2.24.00 soca 182

Iuimestone’ SOllekie seine ee 8 diseases: oo ats ee.

TEQESS) Lop itrercmnalae epee tacicis Bar te) insects: +:.... "Jee eaves D So

PQS eke eis eanieterotsierecete tapers Pe ania) borer, .c2 eee : .59, 60

Ladders for picking ..102, 103 ‘propagation ........ Sees 186

Location for fruit growing 7, 11 jGistribution: , = sue gee 182, 185

| FF KG{o ae RSIS Some Nairaics, events sie s 70 jEraftine 4s eee “2454

; froups ...... «2.184, 185, 186
iMMEno mbes Cay ma So aa Sod OW,
M PLUNINE: 4 ie Sees Aurelie Mayo)

MANULTES eee cero ale tee eats 21, 18 TOSGUCE: ) icc eysicteee eaei ss ee ~. 84
ApPDUCALION NOL) weer mereeree see location and soil . 189

Marketing ....... hago eo8o 101 re MATICELES ity 0h .xsaine ceaste tm oer eae 189

MELO Eiigecete. cise Soe ev ames eis) POCA © oo: ciaia dices aie ets ee ee 267

IMOISEUTEVOSSE wiuislcihie se wre meen 125. S| PCa rin S aaa PR ety ait ere Li)

‘Mountain Ash as. stock ....173 diseases. ....... hake Wa ras 79

MUD erry < foxscis a uae sais eee Oa INSECES ee ae ee eee ~» 58
ETOUDS | Renee ae ee eo “treetslug iis. cee fixie bs
distribution ......+.- Se Ee2 DD DSYMla. ek
propagation ....; ona oo Peddling 42.5. eee Se

i VAT CLEVES. 5. clepauereioreteve i eken ieee 256 Persimmon. ......... Ss eee

Mulehinie weenie de aR ao 14) Bhylloxera Acs acep eee 4. SSG

—

INDEX. 297

Bee SEOOG | eh wee aes cles £8; 3. Raila. sy eos oer aes 139
Wales vOWwth, «seis... + aes 1S. Red orange rust-o2.. os... .s 89
1°-1k27 915 ae “2.255 28,164 Resin> lime mixture”... os. 283
PAIS) Seva a sce aie oe 101, 102, 182 Root serartinge se cee eke 147
PLUM. eee eee eee eee eee LTT Raat cutunes, a". 60 5h Fa ueces 132

diseases ......... eee Pop eeee Eta Gt Wally 5 ssc casos ine capes 76
BPYISECLS | to. 2 sci Genes. a Soe ea ws 61 Rose. chafer: =... oy ott. oa 67
Srpocket wv ees ee eee Bal emiens 22.0, fs ha eigetsnices. 131

Curculio ....... ieee eee Oe a at en Ae a GR een 87

PSPTUESET) «os <a seco sens se cds Pie wehe Oe
medic ipnis- = 0. eS ve ay, OB .

BRODASATION cee ss wee ct ess 179 Ss

elssification. 6.650%. io)

2 i oon Tri tae Sade AONOEPY fyi Weve on oh ae 25
Pollination ....... Romie 24,123 | . distribution ....... se eee 250
Potassium. sulfide .......... 281 propagation ............. 201
Powdery mildew ........ 78, 86 | San Jose scale ...... sece-s 56
EOP AS aON 6. c cS elke on 130 Seat steecc asc cabelas a miars 82, 77, 84
EPOMCCHOM ...- 0s. c ses en. 31, 8 | Scurfy bark louse ......... 56
Pruning Fe PD ae es ae ko aS 28 SOCOM ier are oiaeers oie een waar 130
eSyaemrometer..... sc. ssc oe SrA Oe ISCCOIIME SH oe acts ot Hesorcwt 124, 163
Pyrethrum ....... Pe 283s POMUGer’ oe ise wis aie -'wlassis es 45

Soup WW hale vOilj seas 282

SOLARA Di Gaeuerataterasta cits stateieueteis 134

Qa SOM 2 sete ane Fee We. Saree

TA os a a ae 174 | Side grafting ............... 150
SSG IK nd DN 79g, | shot, hole funeus <... 7.2.5. 82
PHSCEES. ia. .0s Sie ere .175 | Sprayers ....-...+-...00, 93; 98
MSEC fo. oe ee Se 2.171 | Spraying ...-.-.-...e eee eee 92
Spraying calendar ......... 276

Snowy tree cricket ........ GL

R Stems ..... Sy Sata att bcos hae 118

Raspberry ..... Soa RS a os 3 ty ol sid op Shaves Oe oiih Gg Geka teem conc te 101, 118
BPE ISOS Ml catia ta siete ec elena 8s Storase)- DUG wc. 6. te eis s ale
LRS@OCIG “ob a ee ROM EOePAGW DERE Vette ms ore stem re oe keterens £25
ROD ASALETONM <<... ase cele eos 239 AISCASES iss oie sie teroet is SS 87
CUmlGi VATION. 2 2 iaieeiv alk ned see 243 AMSCCES Ge tonse Seheis RVs tak aot att 71
flat headed borer ........ 70 PLS Giesins departs et eweetore ater Oust ole"s 87
POMLTNT ENE OF eh 8c: ais, GSP soe ols ere 243 ronan snaX=)! ah darks Picea 222, 224
BARTOADDIN 9505) = sore wes 's\ oh oe ee eee CULVIVATIONN, S.icc us 4s ole nie 227
ARPA HD TTT elie av abe eecet erence whale e 244 MURAL CAMO es as 65 aia ces eee rater 130
RSCRMIEMD CIs; cle Misieid tne .crs pele sones we 241 SEO GK eats oesiets 135, 180, 160
MROLCGtION: wir he's cy cleanses Abed ISUTESCELIGY vere aa wre. tias wahoo wees 30
SSSMISTACIGS lalevs otis so a s'cleve etate'e 244 SSUICISETSL™ areravass si sietelststece: sn eyacers 168
CMAN TS) vio sven 8-0 sles stess vere . 246 SORtine taple 7 census cca 1149
AIMCO CLILE" iiare'c'c.p)se ize eben 246 | Sterile varieties ........,., 24

298

T

Tent Catcerp ular ie. see ces
METIS: 1 ae) steve senate: ete cecraevelic
AM eSTMGMETT chet ie eve me ohor ee
Li Ray Ore ite OO haa iginicny eons Alero)
TODAGCCA!<uUSts es eiccntes regan eee
TO PACCOy SGA: Py cosine eee arse cuore
Pranspination. wi...) sererenaeetee
Tree currants ..... ames ty
Moja) woe iwnavee! ep ume s Chicos
Ab yibeg | oXOU STON NT 8) Slats nya Orca ee) aia

WANGbICS! Vsiies vic eyes oe pp
Varieties for various states

INDEX.
, w . i
$4.) Walnut... eee 1.273
173 | Waxed string bandage ....284
40 Whip esrafting «......--...5 147
q | AWhite Srubi S922 ee . 12
283 Wet and dry bulb ....... Side ca)
983 | Windbreaks ............. » 161
125 Winter killing ........6..% » 80
935 | Winter protection ........ - -205
146 Woolly aphis .....5... 2.0. 57
55 | Woolly apple louse ........ Arie
123 =
284 Yellows of peach .......... 84

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