v\\

, ^ i » •**>^i \

' ■ V

v.?

\

^•%^.^.%\J

3SrEl"W EIDXOPIOIsr.

POPULAR

NATURAL HISTORY

Eev. J, G. WOOD, M.A,

Author of "The Illustrated Natural History" and "Tun
Illustrated Natural History of Man."

WITH FIVE HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS,

PHILADELPHIA:

PORTER & COATES.

PREFACE

It is now just twenty-five years ago when I was asked to
write, for the use of the young, a book on Zoology which should
be tolerably comprehensive, intelligible, and free from the con-
ventional errors which had been handed down from one writer
to another. Since that time the book has passed through many
editions, and now takes an entirely new shape, embodying the
most recent discoveries in Zoology, being much enlarged in size
and illustrated with many additional engravings. If it should
be as well received as its predecessors I shall be most satisfied.

J. G. W.

INTRODUCTION.

In order to understand any science rightly, it needs that the student
should proceed to its contemplation in an orderly manner, arranging
in his mind the various portions of which it is composed, and endeav-
oring, as far as possible, to follow that classification which best accords
with nature. The result of any infringement of this rule is always a
confusion of ideas, which is sure to lead to misapprehension. So, in
the study of living beings, it is necessary to adhere to some determi-
nate order, or the mind becomes bewildered among the countless myriads
of living creatures that fill earth, air, and water.

As a general arranges his army into its greater divisions, and each
division into regiments and companies, so does the naturalist separate
the host of living beings into greater and smaller groups. The present
state of zoological science gives five as the number of divisions of which
the animal kingdom is composed. These are called Vertebrates, Mol-
luscs, Articulates, Radiates, and Protozoa. Of each of these divisions
a slight description will be given, and each will be considered more at
length in its own place.

1st. The Vertebrates include Man and all the Mammalia, the
Birds, the Reptiles, and the Fishes.

The term "Vertebrate" is applied to them because they are fur-
nished with a succession of bones called " vertebrae," running along the
body and forming a support and protection to the nervous cord that
connects the body with the brain by means of numerous branches.

2d. The Molluscs, or soft-bodied animals, include the Cuttle-fish,
the Snails, Slugs, Mussels, etc. Some of them possess shells, while
others are entirely destitute of such defence. Their nervous system is
arranged on a different plan from that of the Vertebrates. They have
no definite brain and no real spinal cord, but their nerves issue from
certain masses of nervous substance technically called ganglia.

3d. The Articulates, or jointed animals, form an enormously large
division, comprising the Crustaceans, such as the Crabs and Lobsters,
the Insects, Spiders, Worms, and very many creatures so different from

b INTRODUCTION.

each other that it is scarcely possible to find any common character-
istics.

4th. The next division, that of the Radiates, is so named on ac-
count of the radiated or star-like form of the body, so well exhibited
in the Star-fishes and the Sea-anemones.

5th. The Protozoa, or primitive animals, are, as far as we know,
devoid of internal organs or external limbs, and in many of them the
signs of life are so feeble that they can scarcely be distinguished from
vegetable germs. The Sponges and Infusorial Animalcules are famil-
iar examples of this division.

Vertebrates. — The term " Vertebrate " is derived from the Latin
word vertere, signifying " to turn ;" and the various bones that are gath-
ered round and defend the spinal cord are named vertebrae because
they are capable of being moved upon each other in order to permit
the animal to flex its body.

MAMMALIA.

MAMMALIA.

The vertebrated animals fall naturally into four great classes. These
four classes are termed Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes, their
precedence in order being determined by the more or less perfect de-
velopment of their structure.

QUADRUMANA, OR THE MONKEY TRIBE.

The QuADRUMANOUS, or four-handed, animals are familiarly known
by the titles of Apes, Baboons, and Monkeys.

,.JIi!iJliIilii!ii;;ii;:;!:'''i;rii;';';,:;lli:lii!,^^^

Group of Monkeys in the Zoological Garden, Philadelphia.

The Apes are at once distinguished from the other Quadrumana by
the absence of those cheek-pouches which are so usefully employed as
temporary larders by those monkeys which possess them ; by the total
want of tails and of those callosities on the hinder quarters which are
so conspicuously characteristic of the baboons.

10

THE GORILLA.

The first in order, as well as the largest, of the Apes, is the enor-
mous ape from AYestern Africa, the Gorilla. The first modern writer
who brought the Gorilla before the notice of the public seems to he
Mr. Bowdich, the well-known African traveller ; for it is evidently of
the Gorilla that he speaks under the name of Ingheena. The natives
of the Gaboon and its vicinity use the name Gina when mentioning
the Gorilla. The many tales, too, that are told of the habits, the

gigantic strength,
and the general
appearance of the
Ingheena, are pre-
cisely those which
are related of sim-
ilar attributes in
the Gorilla.

The outline of
the Gorilla's face
is most brutal in
character, and en-
tirely destroys the
slight resemblance
tothe human coun-
tenance which the
full form exhibits.
As in the Chim-
pansee, an ape
which is placed in
the same genus
with the Gorilla,
the color of the
hair is nearly
black; but in some

m r. /mi. ^ •» x liarhts, and during

The Gorilla (Troglodytes Gorilla). .1 tp p^i •

^ ^ ^ ^ the life of the ani-

mal, it assumes a lighter tinge of grayish brown, on account of the
admixture of variously-colored hairs. On the top of the head and
the side of the cheeks it assumes a grizzly hue. The length of the
hair is not very great, considering the size of the animal, it being not
more than two or three inches.

As to the habits of the Gorilla many conflicting tales have been
told, and many have been the consequent controversies. In order to
settle the disputed questions, Mr. Winwood Keade undertook a journey
to Western Africa, where he remained for a considerable time. After
careful investigation, he sums up the history of the animal as follows :

THE GOEILLA. 11

" The ordinary cry of a Gorilla is of a plaintive character, but in
rage it is a sharp, hoarse bark, not unlike the roar of the tiger. Owing
to the negro propensity for exaggeration, I at first heard some very re-
markable stories about the ferocity of the Gorilla, but when I ques-
tioned the real hunters, I found them, as far as I could judge, like
most courageous men, modest, and rather taciturn than garrulous.
Their accounts of the ape's ferocity scarcely bear out those afforded
by Drs. Savage and Ford. They deny that the Gorilla ever attacks
man without provocation. * Leave Njina alone,' they say, ' and Njina
leave you alone.' But when the Gorilla, surprised while feeding or
asleep, is suddenly brought to bay, he goes round in a kind of half
circle, keeping his eyes fixed on the man, and uttering a complaining,
uneasy cry. If the hunter shoots at him, and the gun misses fire, or
if the ape is wounded, he will sometimes run away ; sometimes, how-
ever, he will charge, with his fierce look, his lowered lip, his hair fall-
ing on his brow. He does not, however, appear to be very agile, for
the hunters frequently escape from him.

" His charge is made on all-fours : he seizes the offensive object, and,
dragging it into his mouth, bites it. The story of his crushing a mus-
ket-barrel between his teeth is general, and a French officer told me
that a gun was exhibited at the French settlements in the Gaboon,
twisted 'comme une papillote.' This, however, is not very wonderful,
for the cheap Birmingham guns, with barrels made of ' sham-dam-skelp '
iron, which are sold to the natives, might easily be bent and twisted by
a strong-jawed animal. I heard a great deal about men being killed
by Gorillas, but wherever I went I found that the story retreated to
tradition. That a man might be killed by a Gorilla I do not affect to
doubt for a moment, but that a man has not been killed by one within
the memory of the living I can most firmly assert.

" I once saw a man who had been wounded by a Gorilla. It was
Etia, the Mchaga hunter, who piloted me in the forests of Ngumbi.
His left hand was completely crippled, and the marks of teeth were
visible on the wrist. I asked him to show me exactly how the Gorilla
attacked him. I was to be the hunter, he the Gorilla. I pretended to
shoot at him. He rushed toward me on all-fours, and, seizing ray
wrist with one of his hands, dragged it to his mouth, bit it, and then
made off. So, he said, the Njina had done to him. It is by these sim-
ple tests that one can best arrive at truth among the negroes. That
which I can attest from my own personal experience in my unsuccess-
ful attempts to shoot a Gorilla is as follows : I have seen the nests of
the Gorillas, as I have described them ; I cannot say positively whether
they are used as beds, or only as lying-in couches. I have repeatedly
seen the tracks of the Gorillas, and could tell by the tracks that the
Gorilla goes habitually on all-fours."

12

THE CHIMPANSEE.

Closely connected with the preceding animal is the large black ape
which is now well known by the name of Chimpansee.

This creature is found in the same parts of Western Africa as the
Gorilla, being very common near the Gaboon. It ranges over a consid-
erable space of country, inhabiting a belt of land some ten or more de-
grees north and south of the torrid zone.

Tlie title niger, or "black," sufficiently indicates the color of the

hair which envel-
ops the body and
limbs of the Chim-
pansee. The tint
of the hair is al-
most precisely the
same as that of
the gorilla, being
nearly entirely
black, the excep-
tion being a few
whiter hairs scat-
tered thinly over
the muzzle.

It is a remark-
able fact that the
Chimpansees are
partly ground-
lings, and are not
accustomed to ha-
bitual residence
among branches
of trees. Al-
though these apes
do not avail them-
selves of the pro-
tection which would be afforded by a loftier habitation, yet they are
individually so strong, and collectively so formidable, that they dwell
in security, unharmed even by the lion, leopard, or other members of
the cat tribes, which are so dreaded by the monkey tribes generally.

The food of these creatures appears to be almost entirely of a vegeta-
ble nature, and they are very unprofitable neighbors to any one who
has the misfortune to raise crops of rice, or to plant bananas, plantains,
or papaws, within an easy journey of a Chimpansee settlement. As is
the case with many of the monkey tribes, the animal will eat food of
a mixed character when it is living in a domesticated state.

Many specimens have been brought to Europe, and some to Eng-

The Chimpansee {Troglodytes niger).

THE ORANG-OUTAN. 13

laud ; but this insular climate seems to have a more deleterious effect
ou the constitution of this ape than even on that of the other Quad-
rumana.

As long as they resist the untoward influence of our climate, the
specimens which we have known have always been extremely gentle
and docile. Taught by the instinctive dread of cold, they soon ap-
preciate the value of clothing, and learn to wrap themselves up in
mats, rugs, or blankets with perfect gravity and decorum. Dress ex-
ercises its fascinations even over the ape, for one of these animals has
been known to take such delight in a new and handsome costume that
he repudiated the previous dress, and, in order to guard against the
possibility of reverting to the cast-off garment, tore it to shreds.

The head of the Chimpansee is remarkable for the large development
of the ears, which stand prominently from the sides of the head and
give a curiously peculiar expression to the contour of the head and face.

THE ORANG-OUTAN.

The Orang-outan is a native of Asia, and only to be found upon a
small portion of that part of the globe. Borneo and Sumatra are the
lands most favored by the Orang-outau, which inhabits the woody dis-
tricts of those islands, and there rules supreme, unless attacked by man.

There seem to be at least two species of this animal that are found
in Borneo, and some zoologists consider the Sumatran ape to be a third
species.

The natives distinguish the two Bornean species by the names of
Mias-kassar and Mias-pappan, the latter of which animals is the Simia
Satyrus, so well represented in the engraving.

The walk of the Orang-outan is little better than an awkward hob-
ble, and the creature shuffles along uneasily by help of its arms. The
hands are placed on the ground, and are used as crutches in aid of the
feet, which are often raised entirely from the ground, and the body
swung through the arms. Sometimes it bends considerably back-
ward, and, throwing its long arms over its head, preserves its equilib-
rium by their means.

Among the trees the Orang-outan is in its element, and traverses the
boughs with an ease and freedom that contrasts strongly with its awk-
ward movements whfen on the ground. It has a curious habit of mak-
ing for itself a temporary resting-place by weaving together the branches
so as to make a rude platform or scaffold, on which it reposes. The
powerful limbs of the animal enable it to execute this task in a very
short time.

The adult male animal is singularly hideous in aspect, owing much of
its repulsiveness to the great projection of the jaws and the callosities that

2

14

THE ORANG-OUTAN.

appear on the -cheeks. As is the case with all the larger apes, it be-
comes sullen and ferocious as it approaches its adult state, although in
the earlier years of its life it is docile, quiet, and even affectionate.
Several young specimens have been brought to Europe, and were quite
interesting animals, having many curious tricks, and exhibiting marks
of strong affection to any one who treated them kindly. One of these
animals learned to take its meals in a civilized manner, using a spoon
or a cup and saucer with perfect propriety.

When brought to a colder climate than that of its native land, the

The Orang-outan {Simia Satyius).

animal covets warmth, and is fond of wrapping itself in any woollen
clothes or blankets that it can obtain. On board ship it has been
known to rob the sailors or passengers of their bedding, and to resist
with much energy any attempt to recover the stolen property.

In its native woods the Orang-outan seems to be an unsocial animal,
delighting not in those noisy conversaziones which rejoice the hearts of
the gregarious monkeys and deafen the ears of their neighbors. It does
not even unite in little bands of eight or ten, as do many species, but
leads a comparatively eremitical existence among the trees, sitting in

THE GIBBONS. 15

dreamy indolence on the platform which it weaves, and averse to mov-
ing unless impelled by hunger, anger, or some motive equally powerful.
When it does move, it passes with much rapidity from tree to tree, or
from one branch to another, by means of its long limbs, and launches
itself through a considerable distance, if the space between the branches
be too great for its reach of arm.

The hair of the Orang-outan is of a reddish chestnut hue, deepening
here and there into brown. The texture of the hair is coarse, and its
length varies according to the part of the body on which it is placed.
Over the face, back, breast, shoulders, and arms, it falls in thick profu-
sion, becoming especially long at the elbow-joint, where the hairs of the
upper and fore-arm meet. The face is partly covered with a beard,
which seems to increase in size as the animal grows older. The hair
of the face takes a lighter tinge of red than that of the body, and
merges the red or auburn tint in the brown on the inside of the
limbs.

At a little distance the face appears to be black, but if examined
closely is found to present a bluish tint.

THE GIBBONS.

The Gibbons possess, although in a small degree, those singular cal-
losities on the hinder quarters which are so conspicuous in the baboon
family, and assume such strange tints. The Gorilla, Chimpansee, and
the Orangs are entirely destitute of these peculiarities, but the Gibbons
are found to possess them, although the callosities are very small, and
hidden by the fur from a casual view.

As in the great apes, the arms of the Gibbons are of enormous length
and endowed with exceeding power of muscle, though the strength which
resides in these largely-developed limbs is of a different character.

All the Gibbons are gifted with voices as powerful as their limbs, and
the creatures seem to lose few opportunities of exercising lungs or limbs.
The cry which these animals utter is a singular one, loud and piercing,
and has been represented by the syllables " wou-wou," which duplex
combination of intonations is often used as a general name common to
the whole family. Some writers express the sound by the words " oa-
oa," and others by " woo-woo," between which the reader is left to choose.

Of the habits of the Gibbons in a wild state very little is known, as
they are shy in their nature, and by means of their wonderful agility
escape among the trees in a manner that baffles pursuit or observation.
As to the species which is represented in the accompanying engraving,
it seems to be the most active of this agile family, and well deserves the
name that has been given to it. Rather more has been noticed of this
wonderful creature, and a further insight into its habits has been gained,

16

THE AGILE GIBBON.

by means of a female specimen, which was captured and brought safely
to London, where it lived for some time.

In their native woods these animals are most interesting to the ob-
server, if he is only fortunate enough to get near them without being
seen by the vigilant creatures. A good telescope affords an excellent
mode of watching the customs of animals that are too timid to permit
a human being to come near their haunts.

When startled, the Agile Gibbon flits at once to the top of the tree,

Agile Gibbon [Hylohates agilis).

and then, seizing the branch that seems best adapted to its purpose, \
swings itself once or twice to gain an impetus, and launches itself through
the air like a stone from a sling, gaining its force very much on the same
principle. Seizing another branch, toward which it had aimed itself, and
which it reaches with unerring certainty, the creature repeats the pro-
cess, and flings itself with ease through distances of thirty or forty feet,
flying along as if by magic. Those who have seen it urging its flight
over the trees have compared its actions and appearance to those of a

THE SIMPAL 17

bird. Indeed, these creatures seem to pass a life that is more aerial
than that of many birds, putting out of question the heavy earth-walk-
ing birds which have not the power of raising themselves from the
ground even if they had the will.

The color of this species is extremely variable, and the offspring is
not necessarily of the same color as the parent. This difference of tint
is not solely caused by age, for it frequently happens that a cream-col-
ored mother has a dark infant, and vice versa. Of the specimens in the
British Museum, hardly any two are alike in the tint of their soft woolly-
fur. Some are nearly black, some are brown, and some are of a light
cream-color.

A very different group of animals now comes before us, separated
even by the outer form from the apes.

The chief distinction which strikes the eye is the presence of a tail,
which is of some length, and in several species, among which we may
mention the Simpai itself, is extremely long and slender in proportion
to the body. The arms of these animals are not of that inordinate
length which is seen in the limbs of the apes, but are delicate and well
proportioned. The hinder paws, or hands, are extremely slender, their
thumbs being short, and are twice the length of the fore-paws.

Some of these monkeys are furnished with small cheek-pouches,
while others appear to be destitute of these natural pockets. The cal-
losities of the hinder quarters are well shown.

In this group of the Quadruraana, the characteristics of the apes
disappear, and the animals betray more clearly their quadrupedal na-
ture. Very seldom do they assume the erect attitiTde, preferring to run
on all-fours like a dog, that being their legitimate mode of progression.
Even when they do stand on their hind feet, the long tail at once de-
prives them of that grotesque semblance of the human form, which is
so painfully exhibited in the tailless apes. Besides these external dis-
tinctions, there are many remarkable peculiarities in the anatomy of
the internal organs, which also serve to settle the position of the ani-
mal in the order of nature. Among these internal organs, the stomach
displays the most remarkable construction, being very large, and di-
vided into compartments that bear some resemblance to those in the
stomach of ruminating animals.

These monkeys are distributed through several parts of the world,
the Simpai making its residence in Sumatra.

This is a beautiful little animal, and is pleasing both for elegance of
shape and the contrasting tints with which its fur is decorated. The
prevailing color of the body is a light chestnut, with a perceptible
golden tinge showing itself when the light falls obliquely on the fur.
The inside of the limbs and the abdomen are not so bright as the rest
of the body, but take a most sober tint of gray. At the top of the
2* B

18

THE HOONUMAN AND PROBOSCIS MONKEY.

head the hair is straight, and is set on nearly perpendicularly, so as to
form a narrow crest. The color of the crest, together with that of a
narrow band running over the eyes and temples, is black. From
this conspicuous peculiarity, the Simpai is also called the Black-crest-
ed Monkey. The name Presbytes signifies an old 'man, and is given
to these monkeys on account of the wizened, old-fashioned aspect of.
their countenances. The term " melalophos" is literally " black- crest-
ed," and therefore a very appropriate name for this species.

The length of this animal, measured from the nose to the root of
the tail, is about twenty inches, and that of the tail itself is not very
far from three feet. Its fur is very soft and glossy.

A well-known example of this group of monkeys is the Hoonuman
or Entellus. This is a considerably larger animal than the Simpai,

as the adult Hoonuman
measures three or four
feet from the nose to the
root of the tail, and the
tail itself rather exceeds
the body in length. The
color of this monkey when
young is a grayish brown,
excepting a dark-brown
line along the back and
over the loins. As the
animal increases in years,
the fur darkens in color,
chiefly by means of black
hairs that are inserted at
intervals. The face, hands,
and feet are black.
It is a native of India, and, fortunately for itself, the mythological
religion is so closely connected with it that it lives in perfect security.
Monkeys are never short-sighted in spying out an advantage, and the
Entellus monkeys are no exception to the rule. Feeling themselves
masters of the situation, and knowing full well that they will not be
punished for any delinquency, they take up their position in a village
with as much complacency as if they had built it themselves. They
parade the streets, they mix on equal terms with the inhabitants, they
clamber over the houses, they frequent the shops, especially those of
the pastrycooks and fruitsellers, keeping their proprietors constantly
^n the watch.

The Proboscis Monkey — or Kahau, as it is sometimes called, on
account of its cry bearing some resemblance to that word — is an inhab-
itant of Borneo, and probably of several neighboring countries. It is,

Entellus {Presbytes Entellus).

THE KAHAU.

19

as may be seen by the engraving, an animal of very unattractive fea-
tures, principally on account of its enormously lengthened nose. This
feature does not present itself in perfection until the Kahau has reached
its maturity.

In size, the Kahau is about equal to the Hoonuman, and seems to be
an active animal, leaping from branch to branch, through distances of
fifteen feet or more.

KA.HAU {Presbytes carvatus).

For the preternatural ugliness of the countenance the Kahau is par-
tially compensated by the beautiful coloring of its fur, which is thick,
but not woolly, nor very long. The principal color in the body is a
bright chestnut red, the sides of the face, part of the shoulders, and
under part of the body being of a golden yellow. A rich brown tint
is spread over the head and between the shoulders, the arms and legs
taking a whiter tinge than the shoulders.

20

THE COLOBUS AND THE WHITE-NOSE MONKEY.

THE COLOBUS.

The scientific name which is given to this genus of monkeys explains
— as is the proper office of names— one of the leading peculiarities of
the animals. The title "Colobus" is a Greek word, signifying "stunt-
ed," or " maimed," and is given to these animals because the thumbs
of the two fore-limbs give but little external indication of their presence,

so that the hand con-
sists merely of four
fingers. They are
exclusively African
animals. They are
rather handsome
creatures, and their
hair is sufficiently
long and silky to be
valuable as a fur.

The Ursine or
Bearlike Colobus
is so named because
the general color of
its long black fur,
and the form of the
monkey itself, with
the exception of the
tail, have something
of the bearish aspect.
The cheeks and chin
of this animal are
covered with white
hair ; there is a white
patch on the hind-
legs ; and, with the
exception of a few
inches at its root.

The True Colobus.

which retain the black hue of the body, the tail is of a beautiful
white, terminated with a long and full white tuft.

The little animal, the White-nose Monkey of Western Africa, is
a curious little creature, with an air of quaint conceit, for which it is
indebted to the fringe of white hairs that surrounds its face, and the
conspicuous white spot on the nose, which has earned for it the title of
White-nose. As is so often the case in these animals, the under side
of the body and inside of the limbs are of a much lighter tint than

THE GRIVET.

21

the upper portions. This distinction is peculiarly well marked in the
long tail, which is nearly black above, and beneath takes a grayish
hue.

It is a very graceful little creature, playful, but petulant and coquet-
tish, disliking to be
touched, but fond of
notice and nuts, and
often balanced in cu-
rious perplexity be-
tween its coy shyness
and the charms of an
offered dainty. When
in perfect health, it is
seldom still, but flits
with light grace from
one spot to another,
performing the most
difficult muscular ef-

1 \ ji The White-nose Monkey (Cfe»com</tecMsPetowHsto).

ease, and proiouudly

sensible of the admiration which its pretty antics never fail to excite

in the spectators.

It is by no means a large animal, its head and body only measur-
ing fifteen or sixteen inches, the tail being
little short of two feet in length.

We now arrive at a group of small
monkeys with exceedingly long names.
The term "Cercopithecus" is composed
from two Greek words, signifying " tailed
ape."

It is worth notice that the word
" monkey " is derived from the name of
one of this group, the Mona. The di-
minutive of Mona is Monikin, the tran-
sition from which word to our " monkey "
is sufficiently evident.

The GmvET — or Tota, as it is called
by some writers — is of a sombre green
color, the green being produced by alter-
nate rings of black and yellow on each
hair. The limbs and tail are of a grayer
tint than the rest of the body, the yellow portion of the hair being
changed to a dull white. The inside of the limbs and the abdomen are
slightly tinged with white. In the male animal the canine teeth are

Grivet {Cercopithecus Engythi-
ihia).

22

THE GREEN MONKEY AND THE VERVET.

rather protuberant, showing themselves beyond the lips. The naked
skin of the face, ears, and palms is black, dashed with that deep violet
hue that is found in so many of the monkeys. At each side of the
head the white hairs stand out boldly, whisker fashion, and give a
very lively character to the head. It is an African animal, and com-
mon in Abyssinia.

The Green Monkey is sometimes called the Callithrix, or Beauti-
ful-haired Monkey, on account of the exquisitely delicate marking of

each separate hair.
The inside of the
limbs is nearly
white, as is the
under surface of
the body, and the
outer side of the
limbs takes a gray- .
ish tinge. The
hairy fringe that
grows over the side
of the face is of
a delicate golden
yellow.

This monkey is
a native of Sene-
gal and the neigh-
boring parts, and
is frequently
brought to this
country.

The Vervet is
the last of this
group to be no-
ticed. This is rath-
er a variable an-

Green Monkey {Cercopithecus sabceus).

imal in point of color, some specimens being decidedly pale, while others
assume a blackish hue. In general, the color of the animal is as follows.
The prevailing tint of the fur is much the same as that of the Grivet, to
which animal the Vervet bears a strong resemblance. The head, the throat,
and breast are of a light dun, the paws being very dark. In the male
Vervet the canines are rather long, and show their points beyond the lips.

MACAQUES.

The various species of monkeys which are ranged under the common
title of Macaques are mostly well-known animals, being plentiful in

THE MAGOT AND THE WANDEROO.

23

The Thibet Macaque {Macacm Thibeianus).

their native lands, and frequently domesticated both in their own and
in foreign countries.

The Magot, or
Barbary Ape, is

one of the best
known of the mon-
key tribe; as it is
tolerably hardy,
it endures the
changeable and
chilly European
climates better
than most of its
race.

As it? name im-
plies, it is a na-
tive of Barbary,
where it is found
in great numbers,
but has also been
naturalized upon the Eock of Gibraltar. The Gibraltar Magots are
frequently mentioned in books of travel, and display great ingenuity
in avoiding pursuit and discovering food. They keep to the most in-
accessible portions of the rock, and scamper away hurriedly on the
slightest alarm. But with the aid of a moderately good telescope,
their movements may be watched, and are very amusing.

This monkey is not very widely spread, for, with the exception of the
Rock of Gibraltar, it seems to be confined to Northern Africa.

It is not a very large auimal, as -the full-grown males measure only
about a yard in length, and the females are rather smaller. The
general size of the Magot is about that of an ordinary bull-terrier
dog.

The color of the fur is tolerably uniform, differing chiefly in depth
of shade, and is of a clear grayish tint.

Its walk on level ground is rather awkward, the animal making use
of feet and hands for that purpose ; but it climbs with ease and agil-
ity up trees or rocks, and in a domesticated state is fond of running
up and down ropes and swinging itself about in its cage.

One of the last of the Macaques which we shall notice in this work
is the monkey which is well known under the name of Wanderoo, or
OuANDEROO, as it is sometimes written.

This very singular animal is a native of the East Indies, and is
found commonly enough in Ceylon. The heavy mass of hair that
surmounts the head and envelops the entire face gives it a rather

24

THE BLACK MACAQUE.

dignified aspect, reraiDdiDg the observer of the huge peruke under
whose learned shade the great legal chiefs consider judgment. The
hair on the top of the head is black, but the great beard that rolls
down the face and beneath the chin is of a gray tint, as if blanched
by the burden of many years. In some instances this beard is almost
entirely white, and then the Wanderoo looks very venerable indeed.
From the form of the tail, which is of a moderate length, and decor-

The Wanderoo {Silenus veter),
ated with a hairy tuft at its extremity, the Wanderoo is also known by
the name of the Lion-tailed Baboon.

The greater part of the fur of this animal is of a fine black, but the
color assumes a lighter hue on the breast and abdomen. The callos-
ities on the hinder quarters are of a light pink.

It is not a very large animal, being rather less than three feet from
the nose to the tip of the tail.

In the absence of a tail, and in general form, the Black Macaque
bears some resemblance to the Ma got, but in color and arrangement
of hair it is entirely distinct from that animal.

The tint of the fur is as deep a black as that of the Budeng, or

THE CHACMA.

25

Black Colobus. Both these monkeys are possessed of crests which
give a peculiar character to the whole aspect. That of the Black
Colobus, however, is reverted forward, and curves to a poiut over the
forehead, while that of the animal before us rises from the head and
bends backward over the neck in a manner not unlike that of the
cockatoo.

Like the Magot, the Black Macaque has been called an ape by
some writers, and a baboon by others, on account of the apology for
a tail with which its hinder quarters are terminated, but not decor-
ated. It is an inhabitant of the Philippines and the neighboring
countries.

BABOONS, OR DOG-HEADED MONKEYS.

A well-marked group of animals now comes before us, popularly
known by the name of Baboons.

One distinguishing characteristic of these creatures is that the
nostrils are situated
at the extremity of
the muzzle, instead
of lying nearly flat
upon its base, and
just under the eyes,
as in the apes and
other quadruman-
ous animals. The
muzzle, too, is pe-
culiar in its form,
being, as it were,
cut off abruptly,
leaving a round and
flattened extremity, j-

Of the Dog-head- -
ed Baboons, the spe-
cies which is most
celebrated for its feats of prowess is the well-known animal called the
Chacma, or Ursine Baboon.

This animal, when it has attained its full age, equals in size a large
mastiff" or an ordinary-sized wolf; while, in bodily strength and
prowess, it is a match for any two dogs that can be brought to at-
tack it.

The Chacma is a most accomplished robber, executing his burgla-
ries openly whenever he knows that he will meet with no formidable
opposition, and having recourse to silent craft when there are dogs to
watch for trespassers, and men with guns to shoot them.

The Baboon {Cynocephalus babouin).

26

THE MANDKILL.

With such consummate art do these animals plan, and with such
admirable skill do they carry out their raids, that even the watchful
band of dogs is comparatively useless; and the cunning robbers

The Chacma {Cynocephalus porcmnus).

actually slip past the vigilant sentries without the stirring of a grass
blade or the rustling of a dried twig, to give notice to the open ears
of the wakeful but beguiled sentries.

Few animals present a more grotesque mixture of fiintastic embellish-
ments and repulsive ferocity than the baboon which is known under
the name of Mandrill.

The colors of the rainbow are emblazoned on the creature's form,
but always in the very spots where one would least expect to see them.
A bright azure glows, not in its " eyes of heavenly blue," but on each
side of its nose, where the snout is widely expanded, and swollen into
two enormous masses. The surfaces of these curious and very unpre-
possessing projections are deeply grooved, and the ridges are bedizened
with the cerulean tint above mentioned. Lines of brilliant scarlet
and deep purple alternate with the blue, and the extremity of the
muzzle blazes with a fiery red like Bardolph's nose.

That all things should be equally balanced, the opposite end of the

THE MANDRILL.

27

body is also radiant with chromatic effect, being plenteously charged
with a ruddy violet, that is permitted to give its full effect by the pert,
upright carriage of the tail.

The general color of the fur is of an olive-brown tint, fading into
gray on the under side of the limbs, and the chin is decorated with a
small yellow pointed beard. The muzzle is remarkable for a kind of
rim or border, which is not unlike the corresponding part in a hog.
The ears are small, devoid of fur, and of a black color with a tinge
of blue.

Only the male Mandrill possesses these strange adornments in their

The Mandrill {Cynocephalus Mormon).

full beauty of size and color, the females being gifted only with the
blue tint upon the muzzle, and even that is of a much less brilliant
hue than in the male.

In this country the Mandrill is seldom seen to equal a tolerably
large terrier in size, but in its native land a full-grown male measures

28 THE PAPION.

more than five feet when standing upright, a stature which equals, if
not exceeds, that of the Chacma.

In its native land the usual food of the Mandrill is of a vegetable
nature, although, in common with the rest of the Baboons, it displays
a great liking for ants, centipedes, and similar creatures.

The tail of this animal is a remarkable feature, if it may be so termed,
in the general aspect of the baboon. It is short, set high on the back,
and curved upward in a manner that is most singular, not to say ludi-
crous, in the living animals, and conspicuously noticeable in the skeleton.

It is a very common animal in its own country, but, on account of its
great strength, cunning, and ferocity, it is not so often captured as might
be expected. Even when a specimen is made prisoner, it is generally a
very young one, which soon loses in captivity the individuality of its
being, and learns to accommodate itself to the altered circumstances
among which it is placed.

Another well-known species of the Dog-headed Baboons is the
Papion, an animal of rather more refined aspect than the Chacma,
or, more properly speaking, not quite so brutal.

The face, although unattractive enough, is yet not so repulsive as that
of the Chacma, and the colors are rather more bright than those of that
animal.

Great reverence was paid to these creatures, and specially to certain
selected individuals, which were furnished with a safe home in or near
the temples, liberally fed while living, and honorably embalmed when
dead. Many mummied forms of these baboons have been found in the
temple-caves of Egypt, swathed, and spiced, and adorned, just as if they
had been human beings.

Some authors say that the Thoth Baboon was an object of worship
among the Egyptians, but hardly with sufficient reason. Various ani-
mal forms were used as visible living emblems of the attributes of deity
and the qualities of the human intellect, but were no more objects of
idolatrous worship than the lion of England or the eagle of America.

The fur of the Papion is of a chestnut color, in some parts fading
into a sober fawn, and in others warmed with a wash of ruddy bay.
The paws are darker than the rest of the body. When young it is of
a lighter hue, and deepens in color until it reaches its full age. In the
prime of existence its colors are the lightest, but as years begin to lay
their burden on the animal, the hairs begin to be flecked with a slight
grizzle, and, in process of time, the snows of age descend liberally, and
whiten the whole fur with hoary hairs.

AMERICAN MONKEYS.

We have now taken a rapid survey of the varied forms which the
Quadrumaua of the Old World assume — forms so diversified that there

THE COAITA.

29

hardly seems to be scope for further modifications. Yet the prolific
power of nature is so inexhaustible that the depth of our researches
only brings to view objects of such infinite variety of shape that the
mind is lost in wonder and admiration. We will now take some of
the Quadrumana of the New World.

The CoAiTA — or Quata, as the word is frequently written — is one of
the best known of this group of animals, which are called by the name
of Spider Monkeys on account of their long sprawling limbs, and
their peculiar action while walking.

The name " Ateles," which is given to the entire genus to which this

The Black-handed Spider Monkey (Aides melanochir

animal belongs, signifies " imperfect," and has been applied to the crea-
tures because the fore-paws are devoid of useful thumbs. Sometimes
that member is almost entirely absent, and in other instances it only
just shows itself.
The Spider Monkeys are also remarkable for the long and prehensile

3 *

30 THE MAEIMONDA.

tail. With such singularly delicate seuse of touch is it furnished that
it almost seems to be possessed of the power of sight, and moves about
among the branches with as much decision as if there were an eye in its
tip. Should the monkey discover some prize, such as a nest of eggs, or
any little dainty, which lies in a crevice too small for the hand to enter,
it is in nowise disconcerted, but inserts the end of its tail into the cranny,
and hooks out the desired object.

There is a beautiful formation of the tail of this creature, by means
of which the grasp of that member retains its hold even after the death
of the owner. If a Spider Monkey be mortally wounded and not killed
outright, it curls its tail round a branch, and thus suspended yields up
its life. The tail does not lose its grasp when the life has departed ;
and the dead monkey hangs with its head downward until decomposi-
tion sets in and the rigid muscles are relaxed.

The Coaita is by no means a large animal, measuring very little more
than a foot from the nose to the root of the tail, while the tail itself is
two feet in length. Its color is very dark and glossy — so dark, indeed,
as to be almost black. The hair varies much in length and density.
On the back and the outside of the limbs it hangs in long drooping
locks, forming a thick covering through which the skin cannot be seen.
But on the abdomen the hair is quite scanty, and is so thinly scattered
that the skin is plainly visible. The skin of the face is of a dark cop-
per color.

Another example of this wonderful group of monkeys is found in the
IVIarimonda, an inhabitant, like the last-named animal, of Central
America, and found in greatest numbers in Spanish Guiana, where,
according to Humboldt, it fills the place of the Coaita.

The general shape, the formation of its limbs, and the long prehen-
sile tail, point it out at once as another of the Spider Monkeys. This
is certainly a very appropriate name for these animals. Their heads
are so small, their bodies so short, their limbs so slender, and their tails
so limb-like, that the mind unconsciously draws a parallel between these
monkeys and the long-legged spiders that scuttle so awkwardly over
the ground, and are so indifferent respecting their complement of
legs.

The resemblance holds good even when the monkey is at rest, or
when it only appears before the eye in an illustration. But when the
creature begins to walk on level ground, and especially if it be hur-
ried, its clumsy movements are so very spider-like that the similitude
is ten times more striking. Be it remarked that both creatures are
supposed to be placed in uncongenial circumstances. The spider is
deft and active enough among the many threads of its air-suspended
nets, as is the monkey among the slight twigs of the air-bathed branches.
But when both animals are subjected to circumstances which are di-

THE SPIDER MONKEY.

31

rectly opposed to their natural mode of existence, they become alike
awkward, and alike afford subjects of mirth.

The mode by which Spider Monkeys walk on level ground is rather
singular and difficult to describe, being different from that which is
employed by the large apes. They do not set the sole of either paw,
or hand, flat upon the ground, but, turning the hinder feet inward,

^i^i^i .'^

<:»»

Group of Spider Monkeys.

they walk upon their outer sides. The reverse process takes place
with the fore-paws, which are twisted outward, so that the weight of
the animal is thrown upon their inner edges.

It will easily be seen how very awkward an animal must be which
is forced to employ so complicated a means for the purpose of locomo-

32

THE SPIDER MONKEY.

tion. Although the Spider Monkey has been known to walk in a
manner much more steady than that of any other monkey, yet this
bipedal progression was only employed for a few paces, and with a ha-
ven of rest in view in the shape of a window-sill, on which the creature
could rest its hands. The tail is also curled over the head, like the
letter S, by way of a balance.

In captivity, the Marimonda is a gentle and affectionate animal, at-
taching itself strongly to those persons to whom it takes a fancy, and
playing many fantastic gambols to attract their attention. Its angry
feelings, although perhaps easily roused, do not partake of the petulant
malignity which so often characterizes the monkey race, and are quite

The Ursine Howler {Mycetes ursinus).

free from the rancorous vengeance which is found in the baboons.
Very seldom does it attempt to bite, and even when such an event
does take place, it is rather the effect of sudden terror than of delib-
erate malice.

On account of its amiable nature it is often brought into a domesti-
cated state, and, if we may give credence to many a traveller, is

THE UKSINE HOWLER. 33

trained to become not only an amusing companion, but a useful ser-
vant.

The color of this animal varies much, according to the age of the
individual.

When adult, the leading color is of a uniform dull black, devoid of
the glossy lustre which throws back the sunbeams from the coaita's
furry mantle. On the back, the top of the head, and along the spine,
the hair is of a dense, dead black, which seems to have earned for the
animal the very inapposite name with which its nomeuclators have
thought fit to dedecorate the mild and amiable Marimonda.

The throat, breast, insids of the limbs, and the under side of the tail
are much lighter in tint, while in some individuals a large, bright chest-
nut patch covers the latter half of the sides.

It seems to be of rather a listless character, delighting to bask in the
sun's rays, and lying in the strangest attitudes for hours without mov-
ing. One of the postures which is most in vogue is achieved by throw-
ing the head back with the eyes turned up, and then flinging the arms
over the head.

The animal shown on page 32 is an example of the celebrated
group of Howling Monkeys— or Alouattes, as they are termed by
some naturalists, whose strange customs have been so often noticed by
travellers, and whose reverberating cries rend their ears. Little chance
is there that the Howling Monkeys will ever fade from the memory of
any one who has once suffered an unwilling martyrdom from their
mournful yells.

Several species of Howling Monkeys are known to science, of which
the Araguato, as it is called in its own land, or the Ursine Howler,
as it is popularly named in this country, is, perhaps, the commonest
and most conspicuous. It is larger than any of the New World mon-
keys which have hitherto been noticed, its length being very nearly
three feet when it is fully grown, and the tail reaching to even a great-
er length.

The color of the fur is a rich reddish brown, or rather bay, enlivened
by a golden lustre when a brighter ray of light than usual plays over
its surface. The beard which so thickly decorates the chin, throat, and
neck is of a deeper color than the hair of the body.

Few animals deserve the name which they bear so well as the Howl-
ing Monkeys. Their horrid yells are so loud that they can be heard
plainly although the animals which produce them are more than a mile
distant ; and the sounds that issue from their curiously-formed throats
are strangely simulative of the most discordant outcries of various other
animals, the jaguar being one of the most favorite subjects for imitation.
Throughout the entire night their dismal ululations resound, persecut-
ing the ears of the involuntarily wakeful traveller with their oppress-

34

THE CAPUCIN MONKEYS.

ive pertinacity, and driving far from his wearied senses the slumber
which he courts, but courts in vain.

In order that an animal of so limited a size should be enabled to
produce sounds of such intensity and volume, a peculiar structure of
the vocal organs is necessary.

The instrument by means of which the Howlers make night dismal
with their funestral wailings is found to be the " hyoid bone," a portion
of the form which is very slightly developed in man, but very largely
in these monkeys. In man the bone in question gives support to the
tongue and is attached to numerous muscles of the neck. In the Howl-
ing Monkeys it takes a wider range of duty, and, by a curious modifica-
tion of structure, forms a bony drum, which communicates with the
windpipe and gives to the voice that powerful resonance which has
made the Alouattes famous.

The Caplcin Monkeys, an example of which is here given, are
active little animals, lively and playful. In habits, all the species

seem to be very
similar, so that
the description of
one will serve
equally for any
other. In conse-
quence of their
youth and sport-
ive manners they
are frequently
kept in a domes-
ticated state, both
by the native In-
dians and by Eu-
ropean settlers.
Like several oth-
er small monkeys,
theCapucin oi'ten
strikes up a
friendship for oth-
er animals that
may happen to

live in or near its home, the cat being one of the most favored of
its allies. Sometimes it carries its familiarity so far as to turn
the cat into a steed for the nonce, and, seated upon her back, to
perambulate the premises. More unpromising subjects for equestrian
exercise have been pressed into the service by the Capucin. Humboldt
mentions one of these creatures which was accustomed to catch a pig

The Capucin {Cebus leucogenys).

THE BLACK YARKE AND THE DOUROUCOULI. 35

every morning, and, mounting upon its back, to retain its seat during
the day. Even while the pig was feeding in the savannas its rider re-
mained firm, and bestrode its victim with as much pertinacity as did
Sinbad's old man of the sea.

There is some difficulty in settling the species of the Capucins, for
their fur is rather variable in tint, in some cases differing so greatly as
to make them look like another species. The general tint of the Capu-
cin is a golden olive, a whiter fur bordering the face in some individuals,
though not in all.

There are several monkeys known by the name of Sakis, among which
are reckoned the Cuxio, a rather odd little animal, and two other species,
which are easily distinguished from each other by the color of their
heads. The first of these animals is the Black Yarke, or White-
headed Saki, and the other the Cicajao, or Black-headed Sakl

The former of these Sakis is a rather elegant creature in form, and
of colors more varied than those of the Cuxio. The head is surrounded
with a thick and closely-set fringe of white hair, which is rather short
in the male, but long and drooping in the female. The top of the head
is of a deep black, and the remainder of the body and the tail are covered
with very long and rather coarse hair of a blackish brown. Under the
chin and throat the hairs are almost entirely absent, and the skin is of
an orange hue.

Besides the difference of length in the facial hairs of the female
Yarke, there are several distinctions between the sexes, which are so
decided as to have caused many naturalists to consider the male and
female to belong to different species. The hair of the female Yarke
is decorated near the tip with several rings of a rusty brow^n color,
while the hair of the male is entirely devoid of these marks.

The natural food of these animals is said to consist chiefly of wild
bees and their honeycombs. Perhaps the long furry hair with which
the Sakis are covered may be useful for the purpose of defending them
from the stings of the angry insects. On account of the full and bushy
tail with which the members of this group are furnished, they are pop-
ularly classed together under the title of Fox-tailed Monkeys.

The term " Nyctipithecus," or Night-monkey, which is used as the
generic title of the Douroucouli, refers to its habits, which are more
strictly nocturnal than those of the animals heretofore mentioned. The
eyes of this little creature are so sensitive to light that it cannot en-
dure the glare of day, and only awakes to activity and energy when
the shades of night throw their welcome veil over the face of nature.

In its wild state it seeks the shelter of some hollow tree or other
darkened place of refuge, and there abides during the hours of day-
light, buried in a slumber so deep that it can with difficulty be
aroused, even though the rough hand of its captor drag it from its

36 THE MARIKINA.

concealment. During sleep it gathers all its four feet closely together,
and drops its head between its fore-paws. It seems to be one of the
owls of the monkey race.

The food of this Douroucouli is mostly of an animal nature, and
consists chiefly of insects and small birds, which it hunts and captures
in the night season. After dark the Douroucouli awakes from the
torpid lethargy in which it has spent the day, and, shaking off its drow-
siness, becomes filled with life and spirit. The large dull eyes, that
shrank from the dazzling rays of the sun, light up with eager anima-
tion at eventide, the listless limbs are instinct with fiery activity, every
sense is aroused to keen perception, and the creature sets oflT on its
nightly quest. Such is then its agile address that it can capture even
the quick-sighted and ready-w^inged flies as they flit by, striking rapid
blows at them with its little paws.

The general color of the Douroucouli is a grayish white, over which
a silvery lustre plays in certain lights. The spine is marked with a
brown line, and the breast, abdomen, and inside of the limbs are
marked with a very light chestnut, almost amounting to orange. The
face is remarkable for three very distinct black lines, which radiate
from each other, and which have earned for the animal the title of
" Trivergatus," or " three-striped." There are but very slight external
indications of ears, and in order to expose the organs of hearing, it is
necessary to draw aside the fur of the head. On account of this pecu-
liarity, Humboldt separated the Douroucouli from its neighbors and
formed it into a distinct family, which he named "Aotes," or " earless."

Guiana and Brazil are the countries where this curious little animal
is found. Although by no means an uncommon species, it is not taken
very plentifully, on account of its monogamous habits. The male and
its mate may often be discovered sleeping snugly together in one bed,
but never in greater numbers, unless there may be a little family at
the time. Its cry is singularly loud, considering the small size of the
animal which utters it, and bears some resemblance to the roar of the
jaguar. Besides this deep-toned voice, it can hiss or spit like an angry
cat, mew with something of a cat-like intonation, and utter a guttural,
short, and rapidly-repeated bark. The fur is used for the purpose of
covering pouches and similar articles.

Among the various members of the monkey tribe there is hardly
any species that can compare with the exquisite little Marikina for
either grace of form or soft beauty of color.

The hair with which this creature is covered is of a bright and
lustrous chestnut, with a golden sheen playing over its long glossy
locks. To the touch, the fur of the Marikina is peculiarly smooth
and silken ; and from this circumstance it is sometimes called the
Silky Monkey.

THE MARMOSET. 37

Both for the texture and color of the hair, the name is happily
chosen, for the tint of the Marikina's fur is just that of the orange-
colored silk as it is wound from the cocoon, while in texture it almost
vies with the fine fibres of the unwoven silk itself.

Another name for the same animal is the Lion Monkey, because its
little face looks out of the mass of hair like a lion from out of his
mane.

The color of the hair is nearly uniform, but not quite so. On the
paws it darkens considerably, and it is of a deeper tint on the forehead
and the upper surface of the limbs than on the remainder of the body.
Some specimens are wholly of a darker hue. In no place is the fur
very short ; but on the head, and about the shoulders, it is of very
great length in proportion to the size of the animal.

The Marikina is rightly careful of its beautiful clothing, and is
fastidious to a degree about preserving its glossy brightness free from
stain. Whether when wild it keeps its own house clean, or whether
it has no house at all, is not as yet accurately ascertained, but in
captivity it requires that all cleansing shall be performed by other
hands. This slothi'ulness is the more peculiar, because the creature is
so sensitive on the subject that if it be in the least neglected, it loses
its pretty gayety, pines away, and dies.

It is fond of company, and can seldom be kept alone for any length
of time. The food of the Marikina
is chiefly composed of fruits and in-
sects ; but in captivity it will eat
biscuit and drink milk. It is a
very timid animal, unable to fight
a foe, but quick in escape and adroit
in concealment. Its voice is soft
and gentle when *the animal is
pleased, but when it is excited by
anger or fear, it utters a rather
sharp hiss. The dimensions of the (^\
Marikina are much the same as
those of the following animal.

The beautiful little creature . ^ ,

1 • 1 • n 1 u i.1 The Marmoset (Jacchusvulcans).

which IS so well known by the name "^ ^ '

of the Marmoset, or Ouistiti, is a native of Guiana. The fur is long

and exquisitely soft, diversified with bold stripes of black upon a

ground of white and reddish yellow. The tail is long and full ; its

color is w^hite, encircled with numerous rings of a hue so deep that it

may almost be called black. A radiating tuft of white hairs springs

from each side of the face, and contrasts well with the jetty hue of

the head.

4

38

THE MAEMOSET.

On account of the beauty of its fur, and the gentleness of its
demeanor when rightly treated, it is frequently brought from its
native land and forced to lead a life of compelled civilization in
foreign climes. It is peculiarly sensitive to cold, and always likes to
have its house well furnished with soft and warm bedding, which it
piles up in a corner, and under which it delights to hide itself.

The Marmosets do not seem to be possessed of a very large share of
intelligence, but yet are very engaging little creatures if kindly treated.
They are very fond of flies and other insects, and will often take a fl)H
from the hand of the visitor. One of these animals, with which I
struck up an acquaintance, took great pleasure in making me catch
flies for its use, taking them daintily out of my hand. When it saw
my hand sweep over a doomed fly, the bright eyes sparkled with eager
anticipation ; and when I approached the cage, the little creature

thrust its paw through
the bars as far as the
wires would permit,
and opened and closed
the tiny fingers wdth
restless impatience. It
then insinuated its
hand among my closed
fingers, and never fail-
ed to find and capture
the imprisoned fly.

Generally, the Mar-
moset preserves silence ;
but if alarmed or irri-
tated, it gives vent to
a little sharp whistle,
from which it has gain-
ed its name of Ouistiti.
It is sufiiciently active
when in the enjoyment
of good health, climb-
ing and leaping about
from bar to bar with
an agile quickness that
reminds the observer
of a squirrel.

Its food is both animal and vegetable in character, the animal
portion being chiefly composed of various insects, eggs, and, it may
be, an occasional young bird, and the vegetable diet ranging through
most of the edible fruits. A tame Marmoset has been known to

The Golden Marmoset [Midas chrysoleucus).

LEMURS.

39

pounce upon a living gold-fish and to eat it. In consequence of this
achievement, some young eels were given to the animal, and at first
terrified it by their strange writhings, but in a short time they were
mastered and eaten.

The length of the full-grown Marmoset is from seven to eight inches,
exclusive of the tail, which measures about a foot.

LEMURS.

The form of the monkeys known by the name of Lemurs is of
itself sufficient to show that we are rapidly approaching the more
quadrupedal mammalia.

The head of all the Lemurs is entirely unlike the usual monkey
head, and even in the skull the distinction is as clearly marked as in
the living being. Sharp, long, and pointed, the muzzle and jaws are
singularly fox-like, while the general form of these animals, and the

The Lemurine Night Ape [Nyctipithecus leniunnus).

mode in which they walk, would lead a hasty observer to place them
among the true quadrupeds. Yet, on a closer examination, the quad-
rumanous characteristics are seen so plainly that the Lemurs can but

40 THE RUFFED LEMUR AND THE SLENDER LORIS.

be referred to their proper position among, or rather at the end of, the
monkey tribe.

The word " Lemur " signifies " a night- wandering ghost," and has
been applied to this group of animals on account of their nocturnal
habits, and their stealthy, noiseless step, which renders their progress
almost as inaudible as that of the unearthly beings from whom they
derive their name.

The Ruffed Lemur is one of the handsomest of this family, chal-
lenging a rivalship even with the Ring-tailed Lemur in point of ap-
pearance.

The texture of the fur is extremely fine, and its color presents bold
contrasts betw^een pure white and jetty blackness. The face of the
Ruffed Lemur is black, and a fringe of long white hairs stands out
like a ruff round it.

As is the case with all the Lenuirs, it is a native of Madagascar and
of the adjacent islands, and seems to take the place of the ordinary
monkeys. Of all the Lemurs this species is the largest, its size equal-
ling that of a moderately-grown cat. Its voice is a sepulchral, deep
roar, peculiarly loud considering the size of the animal, and can be
heard at a great distance in the stilly night.

The Slender Loris is a small animal, measuring only nine inches
in length, i^nd possessed of limbs so delicately slender as to have earned
for it its popular name. Its color is gray, with a slight rusty tinge, the
under portions of the body fading into white. Round the eyes the fur
takes a darker hue, which is well contrasted by a white streak running
along the nose.

Small though it be, and apparently without the power to harm, it is
a terrible enemy to the birds and insects on which it feeds, and which
it captures, " like Fabius, by delay."

Night, when the birds are resting with their heads snugly sheltered
by their soft feathers, is the time when the Loris awakes from its daily
slumbers and stealthily sets forth on its search. Its movements are so
slow and silent that not a sound falls on the ear to indicate the presence
of a living animal.

Alas for the doomed bird that has attracted the fiery eyes of the
Loris! With movements as imperceptible and as silent as the shadow
on the dial, paw after paw is lifted from its hold, advanced a step, and
placed again on the bough, until the destroyer stands by the side of the
unconscious victim. Then the hand is raised with equal silence, until
the fingers overhang the bird and nearly touch it. Suddenly the slow
caution is exchanged for lightning speed, and with a movement so rapid
that the eye can hardly follow it the bird is torn from its perch, and
almost before its eyes are opened from slumber they are closed for ever
in death.

THE SLOW-PACED LORIS. 41

The Slow-paced Loris, or Kukang, is very similar in its habits to
the animal just mentioned, but differs from it in size, color, and several
parts of its form.

The fur is of a texture rather more woolly than that of the Slender
Loris, and its color has something of a chestnut tinge running through
it, although some specimens are nearly as gray as the Slender Loris.
A dark stripe surrounds the eyes, ears, and back of the head, reaching
to the corners of the mouth. From thence it runs along the entire
length of the spine. The color of this dark band is a deep chestnut.
This animal is rather larger than the preceding, being a little more than
a foot in length.

In the formation of these creatures some very curious sti'uctures are
found, among which is the singular grouping of arteries and veins in
the limbs.

Instead of the usual tree-like mode in which the limbs of most
animals are supplied with blood — one large trunk-vessel entering the
limb, and then branching off into numerous subdivisions — the limbs
of the Loris are furnished with blood upon a strangely modified system.
The arteries and veins, as they enter and leave the limb, are suddenly
divided into a great number of cylindrical vessels, lying close to each
other for some distance, and giving off their tubes to the different parts
of the limb. It is possible that to this formation may be owing the
power of silent movement and slow patience which has been men-
tioned as the property of these monkeys, for a very similar structure
is found to exist in the sloth.

The tongue of the Loris is aided iu its task by a plate of cartilage,
by which it is supported, and which is, indeed, an enlargement of the
tendinous band that is found under the root of the tongue. It is much
thicker at its base than at the extremity, which is so deeply notched
that it seems to have been slit with a knife. It is so conspicuous an
organ that it has been often described as a second tongue. The throat
and vocal organs seem to be but little developed, as is consistent with the
habits of an animal whose very subsistence depends upon its silence. Ex-
cepting when irritated, it seldom or never utters a sound, and even then
its vocal powers seem to be limited to a little monotonous, plaintive cry.

In captivity this Loris appears to be tolerably omnivorous, eating
both animal and vegetable food, preferring, however, the former. Liv-
ing animals best please its taste, and the greatest dainty that can be
afforded to the creature is a small bird, which it instantly kills, plucks,
and eats entirely, the bones included. Eggs are a favorite food with
it, as are insects. It will take butcher's meat if raw, but will not touch
it if cooked in any way. Of vegetable substances, sugar appears to
take its fancy the most, but it will eat fruits of various kinds, such as

oranges and plantains, and has been known to suck gum-arabic.
4 s-

42 THE INDEI AND THE TAESIER.

Another curious inhabitant of Madagascar is the Indri, or Avaht,
a creature that has sometimes been considered one of the lemurs, and
placed among them by systematic naturalists. From the curled and
woolly hair with which the body is covered it derives its name of
"Laniger," or " woolbearer." Just over the loins and partly down
the flanks the soft wool-like hair takes a firmer curl than is found to
be the case in any other part of the body or limbs. It is but a small
animal, the length of its head and body being only a foot, and its tail
Dine inches. The general color of the fur is a lightish brown, with a
white stripe on the back of the thigh, and a tinge of chestnut in the
tail. In some individuals a rusty red, mingled with a yellow hue, takes
the place of^he brown ; and in all the under parts are lighter than the
upper. Its face is black and the eyes are gray, with a greenish light
playing through their large orbs.

The name " Indri " is a native word, signifying, it is said, " man of
the woods." Its voice is not very powerful, but it can be heard at some
distance. It is of a melancholy, wailing character, and has beeu likened
to the cry of a child.

There are two animals which bear a close resemblance to each other,
namely, the Galago of Madagascar and the Tarsier. The ears of the
latter, however, are not so large as those of the Galago, and the tail is
less thickly covered with fur, being almost devoid of hair, except at
its extremity, where it forms a small tuft. The hands are of extraor-
dinary length, in proportion to the size of the creature. This peculi-
arity is caused by a considerable elongation of the bones composing the
"tarsus," or back of the hands and feet, and has earned for the animal
the title of Tarsier. This peculiarity is more strongly developed in
the hinder than in the fore-paws.

The color of the Tarsier is a grayish brown, with slight olive-tint
washed over the body. A stripe of deeper color surrounds the back
of the head, and the face and forehead are of a warmer brown than
the body and limbs. It is a native of Borneo, Celebes, the Philippine
Islands, and Banca. From the latter locality it is sometimes called
the Banca Tarsier. Another of the titles by which it is known is the

It is a tree-inhabiting animal, and skips among the branches with
little quick leaps that have been likened to the hoppings of a frog. In
order to give the little creature a firmer hold of the boughs about which
it is constantly leaping, the palms of the hands are furnished with sev-
eral cushions. The backs of the hands are covered with soft, downy
fur, resembling the hair with which the tail is furnished. Excepting
on the hands and tail, the fur is very thic k and of a woolly character,
but at the root of the tail and at the wrists and ankles it suddenly
changes to the short downy covering.

THE AYE-AYE.

43

The true position of that very rare animal the Aye-aye seems very-
doubtful, some naturalists placing it in the position which it occupies
in this work, and others, such as Van der Hoeven, considering it to
form a link between the monkeys and the rodent animals, the incisor
teeth bearing some resemblance to those of the rodents.

These curious teeth are
extremely powerful, and
are very deeply set in the
jawbones, their sockets ex-
tending nearly the entire
depth of the bone.

They are used just like
the rodent teeth, the ani-
mal biting deeply into the
trees, and so laying bare
the burrows of various
wood-boring grubs.

The color of the animal
is a dull black on the up-
per portions of the body,
the under parts, as well
as the cheeks and throat,
being of a light gray.
The paw^s are nearly
black. The fur of the
body is thickly set, and
is remarkable for an in-
ner coating of downy
hair of a golden tint,
which sometimes shows itself through the outer coating. On the tail
the hair is darker than on the body, greater in length, and in texture
much courser. The tail, which is jetty black, seems to be always
trailed at length, and never to be set up over the body like the well-
known tail of the squirrel. The ears are large, and nearly destitute
of hair.

The natural food of the Aye-aye, like that of the preceding animals,
is of a mixed character, the creature eating fruits and insects indiscrim-
inately. But in its wild state it is said to search the trees for insects as
well as fruits, and to drag their larvae from their concealment by means
of its delicate fingers.

The fine specimen in the Zoological Gardens, however, does not
touch insects, but feeds on a mixture of honey and hard-boiled eggs
beaten into a paste and moistened with milk. Still, she uses her teeth
freely on the branches that are placed in her cage, and very soon cuts

A YE- A YE {Cheiromys Madagascar iensis

44

THE FLYING LEMUR.

them to pieces, as if in search after grubs. She is very active, and
climbs about the cage or on the branches, in almost any position.
Like the squirrel, she covers herself with her bushy tail when in repose.

It is a nocturnal animal like the Galagos and Lemurs, and seeks its
prey by night only, spending the day in sleep, curled up in the dark
hollow of a tree, or in some similar spot, where it can retire from view
and from light.

As is shown by the scientific name of the Aye-aye, it is a native of
Madagascar, and even in that island is extremely scarce, appearing to

CoLUGO {Galeopithecus votans).

be limited to the western portions of the country, and to escape even
the quick eyes of the natives.

The eyes are of a brownish yellow color, and very sensitive to light,
as may be expected in a creature so entirely nocturnal in its habits. It
is not a very small animal, measuring almost a yard in total length, of
which the tail occupies one moiety.

The strange animal which is known by the name of the Flying
Lemur, or Colugo, affords an intermediate link of transition between
the four-handed and the wing-handed mammals.

By means of the largely-developed membrane which connects the
limbs with each other, and the hinder limbs with the tail, the Colugo

BATS. 45

is enabled to leap through very great distances, and to pass from one
bough to another with ease. This membrane is a prolongation of the
natural skin, and is covered with hair on the upper side as thickly as
any part of the body, but beneath it is almost naked. When the crea-
ture desires to make one of its long sweeping leaps, it spreads its limbs
as widely as possible, and thus converts itself into a kind of living kite,
as is shown in the figure. By thus presenting a large surface to the air,
it can be supported in its passage between the branches, and is said to
vary its course slightly by the movement of its arms. It is said that
the Colugo will thus pass over nearly a hundred yards.

Among other bat-like habits, the Colugo is accustomed to suspend it-
self by its hinder paws from the branch of a tree, and in this pendent
attitude it sleeps. Its slumbers are mostly diurnal, for the Colugo is a
night-loving animal, and is seldom seen in motion until the shades of
evening draw on. But on the approach of night, the Colugo awakes
from its drowsiness, and, unhooking its claws from the branch on
which it has hung suspended during the hours of daylight, sets off on
its travels in search of food.

It is found in many of the islands that belong to the Indian Arch-
ipelago, and is tolerably common.

The color of the fur is very uncertain, even in the same species, some
specimens being of a light brown, others of a gray tint, more or less
deep ; while many individuals have their fur diversified with irreg-
ular marblings or stripes, or spots of different shades and tints.

The Colugo is by no means a small animal, as, when it is full grown,
it equals a large cat in size.

CHEIROPTERA, OR WING-HANDED ANIMALS,
POPULARLY CALLED BATS.

In general form the Bats are clearly separated from any other group
of animals, and by most evident modifications of structure can be recog-
nized by the most cursory glance.

The first peculiarity in the Bat form which strikes the eye is the*wide
and delicate membrane which stretches round the body, and which is
used in the place of the wings with which birds are furnished.

In order to support this beautiful membrane, to extend it to its requi-
site width, and to strike the air with it for the purposes of flight, the
bones of the fore-part of the body, and especially those of the arms and
hands, undergo a singular modification.

The finger-bones are strangely disproportioned to the remainder of
the body, the middle finger being considerably longer than the head
and body together. The thumb is very much shorter than any of the
fingers, and furnished with a sharp and curved claw. By means of this

46

THE VAMPIKE BAT.

claw the Bat is enabled to proceed along a level surface, and to attach
itself to any object that may be convenient.

The lower portions of the body and limbs are singularly small in
proportion to the upper limbs. The legs are short and slender, and
so arranged that the feet are rather turned outward, for the purpose
of using the sharp claws freely. A kind of slender and spur-like bone
is seen to proceed from the heel of each foot.

The Vampire Bat is a native of Southern America, and is spread
over a large extent of country. It is not a very large animal, the
length of its body and tail being only six inches, or perhaps seven in
large specimens, and the spread of the wing two feet, or rather more.
The color of the Vampire's fur is a mouse tint, with a shade of brown.

The Vampire JjAT ( Vamj^ums spectrum).

Many tales have been told of the Vampire Bat and its fearful attacks
upon sleeping men — tales which, although founded on fact, were so sadly
exaggerated as to cause a reaction in the opposite direction. It was re-
ported to come silently by night, and to search for the exposed toes of
a sound sleeper, its instinct telling it whether the intended victim were
thoroughly buried in sleep. Poising itself above the feet of its prey,
and fanning them with its extended wings, it produced a cool atmo-
sphere, which, in those hot climates, aided in soothing the slumberer into
a still deeper repose. The Bat then applied its needle-pointed teeth to
the upturned foot, and inserted them into the tip of a toe with such
adroit dexterity that no pain was caused by the tiny wound. The lips
were then brought into action, and the blood was sucked until the Bat
was satiated. It then disgorged the food which it had just taken and
began afresh, continuing its alternated feeding and disgorging until the
victim perished from sheer loss of blood.

For a time this statement gained dominion, but after a while was less

THE LONG-EARED BAT.

47

and less believed, until at last naturalists repudiated the whole story as
a " traveller's tale." However, as usual, the truth seems to have lain
between the two extremes ; for it is satisfactorily ascertained, by
more recent travellers, that the Vampires really do bite both men
and cattle during the night, but that the wound is never known to
be fatal, and in most instances causes but little inconvenience to the
sufferer.

When they direct their attacks against mankind, the Vampires
almost invariably select the foot as their point of operation, and their
blood-loving propensities are the dread of both natives and Europeans.
With singular audacity, the Bats even creep into human habitations,
and seek out the exposed feet of any sleeping inhabitant who has in-
cautiously neglected to draw a coverlet over his limbs.

One of the most common, and at the same time the most elegant, of
the British Cheiroptera, is the well-known Long-eared Bat.

This pretty little creature may be found in all parts of England, and
on account of its singularly beautiful, ears and gentle temper has fre-
quently been tamed and domesticated. I have possessed several speci-
mens of this Bat, and in every case have been rewarded for my trouble
by the curious little traits of temper and disposition which have been
exhibited.

One of my Bat favorites was captured under rather peculiar circum-
stances.

It had entered a gro-
cer's shop, and to the con-
sternatiQji of the grocer
and his assistant had got
among the sugar loaves
which were piled on an
upper shelf So terrible
a foe as the Bat (nearly
two inches long) put to
rout their united forces,
and beyond poking at it
with a broom as it cowered Noctule, or Great Bat [Nodulinia Altivolans).
behind the sugar, no at-
tempts were made to dislodge it. At this juncture my aid was invoked,
and I accordingly drew the Bat from its hiding-place. It did its best
to bite, but its tiny teeth could do no damage even to a sensitive
skin.

The Bat was then placed in an empty mouse-cage, and soon became
sufficiently familiar to eat and drink under observation. It would
never eat flies, although many of these insects were offered, and seemed
to prefer small bits of raw beef to any other food. It was a trouble-

48 THE FLYING FOX.

some animal to feed, for it would not toucn tne meat uniess it were
freshly cut and quite moist, forcing me to prepare morsels fit for its
dainty maw six or seven times daily.

It spent the day at the top or on the side of its cage, being suspended
by its hinder claws, and would occasionally descend from its eminence
in order to feed or to drink. While eating, it was accustomed to lower
itself from the cage roof, and to crawl along the floor until it reached
the piece of meat: The wings were then thrown forward so as to
envelop the food, and under the shelter of its wings the Bat would
drop its head over the meat and then consume it. On account of the
sharp surface of its teeth, it could not eat its food quietly, but was
forced to make a series of pecking bites, something like the action of
a cat in similar circumstances.

It would drink in several ways, sometimes crawling up to the water-
v.essel and putting its head into the water, but usually lowering itself
down the side of the cage until its nose dipped in the liquid. When
it had til us satisfied its thirst, it would reascend to the roof, fold its
wings about itself, and betake itself to slumber once more.

I kept the little animal some time, but it did not appear to thrive,
having, in all probability, been hurt by the broom-handle which had
been used so freely against it, and at last was found dead in its cage
from no apparent cause. Although dead, it still hung suspended, and
the only circumstance that appeared strange in its attitude was that
the wings drooped downward instead of being wrapped tightly round
the body.

In the attitude of repose this Bat presents a most singular figure.
The wings are wrapped around and held firmly to the body; the
immense ears are folded back, and the pointed inner ear, or " tragus,"
stands boldly out, giving the creature a totally different aspect.

The Bats which have heretofore been mentioned feed on animal
substances, insects appearing to aff()rd the principal nutriment, and
raw meat or fresh blood being their occasional luxuries. But the Bats
of which the accompanying engraving (p. 49) is an example are chiefly
vegetable feeders, and in their own land are most mischievous among
the fruit trees.

They are the largest of the present Bat tribe, some of them measur-
ing nearly five feet in expanse of wing. Their popular name is Fly-
ing Foxes, a term which has been applied to them on account of the
red, fox-like color of the fur and the very vulpine aspect of the head.
Although so superior in size to the Vampires, the Flying Foxes are not
to be dreaded as personal enemies, for, unless roughly handled, they are
not given to biting animated beings.

But though their attacks are not made directly upon animal life,
they are of considerable importance in an indirect point of view, for

HABITS OF THE FLYING FOX.

49

they are aimed against the fruits and other vegetable substances by
which animal life is sustained.

I have often seen the Kalong, as this bat is often called, engaged in
eating fruit. It would accept a slice of apple or pear while suspended
by its hind-legs. It then bent its head upward, brought its winged arms
forward so as to enclose head and fruit together, and then would devour
its meal with a series of suapping bites.

The Kalougs do not seem to care much for dark and retired places
of abode, and pass the day— which is their night— suspended from the

Flying Fox, or Eoussette {Pteropus rubricoUis),

trunks of large trees, preferring those which belong to the fig genus.
On these boughs they hang in vast numbers, and by an inexperienced
observer might readily be taken for bunches of large fruits, so closely
and quietly do they hang. If disturbed in their repose, they set up a
chorus of sharp screams, and flutter about in a state of sad bewilder-
ment, their night-loving eyes being dazzled by the hateful glare of the

sun.

50

THE LION.

FELID^, OR THE CAT TRIBE.

The beautiful animals which are knowu by the general name of the
Cat tribe now engage our attention.

With the exception of one or two of the enigmatical creatures which
are found in every group of beings, whether animal, vegetable, or min-
eral, the Cats — or Felid^, as they are more learnedly termed — are as
distinct an order as the monkeys or the bats. Pre-eminently carnivor-
ous in their diet, and destructive in their mode of obtaining food, their
bodily form is most exquisitely adapted to carry out the instincts which
are implanted in their nature.

All the members of the Cat tribe are light, stealthy, and silent of
foot, quick of ear and eye, and swift of attack. Most of them are
possessed of the power of climbing trees or rocks, but some few species,
such as the Lion, are devoid of this capability.

Of the magnificent and noble creatures called Lions, several species
are reported to exist, although it is thought by many experienced

Male and Female Lion in the Zoological Garden, Philadelphia.

judges that there is really but one species of Lion, which is modi-
fied into permanent varieties according to the country in which it
lives.

THE SOUTH AFRICAN LION.

51

The best kuown of these species or varieties is the South African
Lion, of which so mauy aueedotes have beeu uarrated.

The color of the Lion is a tawny yellow, lighter on the under parts of
the body, and darker above. The ears are blackish, and the tip of the
tail is decorated with a tuft of black hair. This tuft serves to distin-
guish the Liou from any other member of the Cat tribe. The male
Lion, when fully grown, is furnished with a thick and shaggy mane
of very long hair, which falls from the neck, shoulders, and part of

The Lion {Leo barbarm).

the throat and chin, varying in tint according to the age of the ani-
mal, and possibly according to the locality which it inhabits. The
Lioness possesses no mane, and even in the male Lion it is not prop-
erly developed until the animal has completed his third year.

When fully grown, the male Lion measures some four feet in height
at the shoulder, and about eleven feet in total length.

The Lioness is a smaller animal than her mate, and the difference
of size appears to be much greater than really is the case, because she

52 THE TIGER.

is devoid of the thick mane which gives such grandeur and dignity to
her spouse.

In the attack on large animals, the Lion seldom attempts an unaided
assault, but joins in the pursuit with several companions. Thus it is
that the stately giraffe is slain by the Lion, five of which have been
seen engaged in the chase of one giraffe, two actually pulling down
their prey, while the other three were w^aiting close at hand. The
Lions were driven off, and the neck of the giraffe was found to be
bitten through by the cruel teeth of the assailants.

Owing to the uniform tawny color of the Lion's coat, he is hardly
distinguishable from surrounding objects even in broad daylight, and
by night he walks secure. Even the practised eyes of an accomplished
hunter have been unable to detect the bodies of Lions which were lap-
ping water at some twenty yards' distance, betraying their vicinity by
the sound, but so blended in form with the landscape that they afford-
ed no mark for the rifle even at that short distance.

LTpon the African continent the Lion reigns supreme, sole monarch
over the feline race. But in Asia his claims to undivided royalty are
disputed by the Tiger, an animal which equals the Lion in size, strength,
and activity, and certainly excels him in the elegance of its form, the
grace of its movements, and the beauty of its fur. The range of the
Tiger is not so widely spread as that of the Lion, for it is never found
in any portions of the New AVorld or in Africa, and, except in certain
districts, is but rarely :;een even in the countries where it takes up its
residence. Some portions of country there are which are absolutely
infested by this fierce animal, whose very appearance is sufficient to
throw the natives into a state of abject terror.

In its color the Tiger presents a most beautiful arrangement of mark-
ings and contrast of tints. On a bright tawny yellow ground, sundry
dark stripes are placed, arranged, as may be seen by the engraving,
nearly at right angles with the body or limbs. Some of these stripes
are double, but the greater number are single dark streaks. The under
parts of the body, the chest, throat, and the long hair which tufts each
side of the face, are almost white, and upon these parts the stripes be-
come very obscure, fading gradually into the light tint of the fur. The
tail is of a whiter hue than the upper portions of the body, and is dec-
orated in like manner with dark rings.

So brilliantly adorned an animal would appear to be very conspic-
uous among even the trees and bushes, and to thrust itself boldly upon
the view. But there is no animal which can hide itself more thoroughly
than the Tiger, or which can walk through the underwood with less
betrayal of its presence.

The vertical stripes of the body harmonize so well with the dry,
dusky jungle grass among which this creature loves to dwell that the

THE TIGER. 4;- .^

s^rass and fur are hardly distinguishable from each other except by a
quick and experienced eye. A Tiger may thus lie concealed so cleverlv
that, even when crouching among low and scanty vegetation, it may be
almost trodden on without being seen.

The Tiger is very clever in selecting spots from whence it can watch
the approach of its intended prey, itself being crouched under the shade
of foliage or behind the screen of some friendly rock. It is fond of
lying in wait by the side of moderately-frequented roads, more partic-
ularly choosing those spots where the shade is the deepest, and where
water may be found at hand wherewith to quench the thirst that it al-

The Tiger [Tigris regalis).

ways feels when consuming its prey. From such a point of vantage it
will leap with terrible effect, seldom making above a single spring, and,
as a rule, always being felt before it is seen or beard.

It is a curious fact that the Tiger generally takes up his post on the
side of the road which is opposite his lair, so that he has no need to
turn and drag his prey across the road, but proceeds forward with his
acquisition to his den. Should the Tiger miss his leap, he generally
seems bewildered and ashamed of himself, and, inst(^ad of returning to
the spot to make a second attempt, sneaks off discomfited from the
scene of his humiliation. The spots where there is most danger of
meeting a Tiger are the crossings of nullahs or the deep ravines
through which the watercourses run. In these localities the Tiger is
sure to find his two essentials, cover and water. So apathetic are the
natives, and so audacious are the Tigers, that at some of these crossings

5«

54 THE LEOPARD.

a n/an or a bullock may be carried off daily, and yet no steps will be
taken to avert the danger, with the exception of a few amulets sus-
pended about the person. Sometimes the Tigers seem to take a panic
and make a general emigration, leaving, without any apparent reason,
the spots which they had long infested, and making a sudden appear-
ance in some locality where they have but seldom before been seen.

Many modes are adopted of killing so fearful a pest as the Tiger,
and some of these plans are very ingenious — such as tlie spring-bow,
which is discharged by the movements of the animal itself; the pitfall,
from which it cannot escape ; the leaves smeared with bird-lime, by
which the Tiger blinds itself, and so falls an easy prey; the fall-trap ;
and many others. Among Europeans, however, the Tiger is hunted
in due form, the sportsmen being mounted on elephants, and furnished
with a perfect battery of loaded rifles. The shell bullet, which ex-
plodes as it enters the body, has come much into vogue.

The Tiger is a capital swimmer, and will take to the water with
perfect readiness, eithej* in search of prey or to escape the pursuit of
enemies.

It swims rather high in the water, and therefore affords a good mark
to those who are quick of aim. The natatory abilities are by no means
small, and while swimming it can strike out with its paws most effect-
ively, inflicting deep wounds wherever its outspread talons make good
their aim. So cunning is the animal that if there should be no cause
for hurry it will halt on the river's brink, and deliberately put its paw
into the water, so as to ascertain the force of the stream. This point
being made clear, it proceeds either up or down the river, as may best
suit its purpose, and so makes allowance for the river stream or the
ocean tide.

Unlike the Tiger, which is confined to the Asiatic portion of the
world, the Leopard is found in Africa as well as in Asia, and is
represented in America by the Jaguar, or, perhaps more rightly, by
the Puma.

This animal is one of the most graceful of the graceful tribe of Cats,
and, although far less in dimensions than the tiger, challenges competi-
tion with that animal in the beautiful markings of its fur and the easy
elegance of its movements. It is possessed of an accomplishment which
is not within the powers of the lion or tiger, being able to climb trees
with singular ability, and even to chase the tree-loving animals among
their familiar haunts. On account of this power, it is called by the
natives of India " Lakree-baug," or Tree-tiger. Even in Africa it is
occasionally called a '* Tiger," a confusion of nomenclature which is
quite bewildering to a non-zoologist, who may read in one book that
there are no tigers in Africa, and in another may peruse a narrative
of a tiger-hunt at the Cape. Similar mistakes are made with regard to

THE LEOPARD. 65

the American Felidse, not to mention the numerous examples of mis-
called animals that are insulted by false titles in almost every part of
the globe. For in America the Puma is popularly known by the name
of the Lion or the Panther — or " Painter," as the American forester
prefers to call it — while the Jaguar is termed the " Tiger."

The Leopard {Leopardus varius).

In Africa the Leopard is well known and much dreaded, for it pos-
sesses a most crafty brain, as well as an agile body and sharp teeth and
claws. It commits sad depredations on flocks and herds, and has suf-
ficient foresight to lay up a little stock of provisions for a future day.

When attacked it will generally endeavor to slink away, and to es-
cape the observation of its pursuers ; but if it is wounded, and finds
no means of eluding its foes, it becomes furious, and charges at them
with such determinate rage that, unless it falls a victim to a well-aimed
shot, it may do fearful damage before it yields up its life. In conse-
quence of the ferocity and courage of the Leopard, the native African
races make much of those warriors who have been fortunate enough to
kill one of these beasts.

In its own country the Leopard is as crafty an animal as the British
fox, and, being aided by its active limbs and stealthy tread, gains quiet
admission into many spots where no less cautious a creature could plant

56

THE OUNCE.

a step without giving the alarm. It is an inveterate chicken-stealer,
creeping by night into the hen-roosts, in spite of the watchful dogs that
are at their posts as sentinels, and destroying in one fell swoop the en-
tire stock of poultry that happen to be collected under that roof Even
should they roost out of doors they are no less in danger, for the Leop-
ard can clamber a pole or tree with marvellous rapidity, and with its
ready paw strike down the poor bird before it is fairly awakened.

There are two titles for this animal — namely, the Leopard and Pan-
ther, both of which creatures are now acknowledged to be but slight
varieties of the same species. The Ounce, however, which was once

The Ounce [Leopardus uncia).

thought to be but a longer-haired variety of the leopard, is now known
to be truly a separate species.

In general appearance it bears a very close resemblance to the leop-
ard, but may be distinguished from that animal by the greater fulness
and roughness of its fur, as well as by some variations in the markings
with which it is decorated. The spots exhibit a certain tendency to
form stripes, and the tail is exceedingly bushy when compared with
that of a leopard of equal size. The general color of the body is
rather paler than that of the leopard, being a grayish white, in which
a slight yellow tinge is perceptible. The Ounce is an inhabitant of

THE PUMA. 57

some parts of Asia, aud specimens of this fine animal have been
brought from the shores of the Persian Gulf In size it equals the or-
dinary leopard of Asia or Africa.

Passing to the New World, we find the feline races well represented
by several most beautiful and graceful creatures, of which the Jaguar
is the largest and most magnificent example.

Closely resembling the Leopard in external appearance and in its
arboreal habits, it seems to play the same part in America as the
leopard in the Transatlantic continents. It is a larger animal than
the leopard, and may be distinguished from that animal by several
characteristic differences.

In the first place, across the breast of the Jaguar are drawn two or
three bold black streaks, which are never seen in the leopard, and
which alone serve as an easy guide to the species. But the chief
point of distinction is found in a small mark that exists in the centre
of the dark spots which cover the body and sides. In many instances
this central mark is double, and, in order to give room for it, the
rosettes are very large in proportion to those of the leopard. Along
the spine runs a line, or chain, of black spots and dashes, extending
from the back of the head to the first foot or eighteen inches of the
tail.

In its native land the Jaguar ranges the dense and perfumed forests
in search of the various creatures which fall victims to its powerful
claws. The list of animals that compose its bill of fare is a large and
comprehensive one, including horses, deer, monkeys, capybaras, tapirs,
birds of various kinds, turtles, lizards, and fish, thus comprising exam-
ples of all the four orders of vertebrated animals. Nor does the Jaguar
confine itself to the vertebrates. Various shell-fish, insects, and other
creatures fall victims to the insatiate appetite of this ravenous animal.

It seems strange that such powerful creatures as horses should be
reckoned among the prey of the Jaguar, for it would seem unlikely
that the muscular force of the animal could be equal to the task of
destroying and carrying away so large a quadruped as a horse. Yet
such is truly the case; and the Jaguars commit infinite havoc among
the horses that band together in large herds on the plains of Paraguay.
A Jaguar has been known to swim across a wide river, to kill a horse,
to drag it for some sixty yards to the waterside, to plunge with it into
the stream, to swim across the river with its prey, to drag it out of the
water after reaching the opposite bank, and finally to carry it off into
a neighboring wood.

The favorite food of the Jaguar — when he can get it — is the flesh
of the various monkeys. But to catch a monkey is not the easiest task
in the world, and in general can only be achieved by leaping upon the
prey from a place of concealment, or by surprising the monkeys while

68

THE JAGUAR.

The Jaguar {Leopardus onca).

sleeping. Sometimes it is fortunate enough to get among a little band
of monkeys before they are aware of the presence of the dreaded fere,

and then seizes the

opportunity of deal-
ing a few fierce
strokes of its terrible
paw among the part-
ly-awakened sleepers,
thus dashing them to
the ground, whither it
descends to feast at
leisure on the ample
repast.

Of turtles and their
eggs the Jaguar is
particularly fond, and
displays great ingen-
uity and strength in
the securing, killing and eating them. Watching the turtle as she walks
riverward or seaward, as the case may be, after depositing her eggs under
a slightcovering of earth, there to be warmed into being by the genial rays
of the sun, the Jaguar springs upon her, and with a quick and adroit move-
ment of the paws turns the turtle on its back. There the poor reptile lies,
helpless, and waiting until its captor is pleased to consummate his work
by killing and eating the animal which he has thus ingeniously inter-
cepted. Tearing away as much as possible of the softer parts that lie by
the tail, the Jaguar inserts his supple paw, armed with its sharp talons,
and scoops out, as neatly as if cut by knives, the flesh together with the
vital organs of the devoted chelonian.

Few animals have been known by such a variety of names as the
Puma of America. Travellers have indifferently entitled it the
American Lion, the Panther, the Cougar, the Carcajou (which is an
entirely different animal), the Gouazoura,. the Cuguacurana, and many
other names.

It is rather a large animal, but, on account of its small head, appears
to be a less powerful creature than really is the case. The total length
of the Puma is about six feet and a half, of which the tail occupies
rather more than two feet. The tip of the tail is black, but is desti-
tute of the long tuft of black hair which is so characteristic of the
Lion.

The color of the Puma is a uniform light tawny tint, deeper in some
individuals than in others, and fading into a grayish white on the under
parts. It is remarkable that the young Puma displays a gradual
change in its fur, nearly in the same way as has been narrated of the

THE OCELOT. 59

Hon cub. While the Puma cubs are yet in their first infancy, their
coat is marked with several rows of dark streaks extending along the
back and sides, and also bears upon the neck, sides, and shoulders
many dark spots resembling those of the ordinary leopard. But as

^4^-

The Puma {Leopanhis concoJor).

the animal increases in size the spots fade away, and when it has attain^
ed its perfect development are altogether lost in the uniform tawny hue
of the fur.

The flesh of this animal is said, by those who have made trial of it, to
be a pleasant addition to the diet scale, being white, tender, and of
good flavor. When taken young, the Puma is peculiarly susceptible
of domestication, and has been known to follow its master just like a
dog. The hunters of the Pampas are expert Puma-slayers, and achieve
their end either by catching the bewildered animal with a lasso, and
then galloping ofl* with the poor creature hanging at the end of the
leather cord, or by flinging the celebrated bolas — metal balls or stones
fastened to a rope — at the Puma, and laying it senseless on the ground
with a blow from the heavy weapon.

Many of the members of the large genus Leopardus are classed
together under the title of Ocelots, or, more popularly, of Tiger Cats.
They are all most beautiful animals, their fur being diversified with
brilliant contrasts of a dark spot, streak, or dash upon a lighter ground,
and their actions filled with easy grace and elegance.

The Common Ocelot is a native of the tropical regions of America,
where it is found in some profusion. In length it rather exceeds four
feet, of which the tail occupies a considerable portion. Its height
averages eighteen inches. The ground-color of the fur is a very light
grayish fawn, on which are drawn partially broken bands of a very

60

THE CHATI.

deep fawn color, edged with black, running along the line of the body.
The band that extends along the spine is unbroken. On the head,
neck, and the inside of the limbs the bands are broken up into spots and
dashes, which are entirely black, the fawn tint in their centre being
totally merged in the deeper hue ; the ears are black, with the exception

The Ocelot {Leopardus Furdalis).
of a conspicuous white spot upon the back and near the base of each
ear. Owing to the beauty of the fur, the Ocelot skin is in great request
for home use and exportation, and is extensively employed in the manu-
facture of various fancy articles of dress or luxury.

In its habits the Ocelot is quick, active, and powerful, proving itself
at all points a true leopard, although but in miniature.

The eye of the Ocelot is a pale yellowish brown and tolerably full
with the Imear pupil smaller than is found in the ordinary Felidie

There are several species of these pretty and agile animals, among
which the most conspicuous are the Common, the Gray, and Painted
Ocelots, and the Margay, or Marjay, as it is sometimes called. The
habits of these animals are very similar.

Although so gentle in its demeanor when domesticated as to have
earned for itself the name of "ME.," or "placid," the Chati is, when
wild, a sufficiently destructive animal. It is not quite so larae as the
ocelots, with which creatures it is a compatriot.

HABITS OF THE CHATI. 61

The color of the Chati resembles that of the leopard, only it is paler
in general hue. The dark patches that diversify the body are very
irregular ; those which run along the back are solid and of a deep
black, while those which are placed along the sides have generally a
deep fawn-colored centre. Toward the extremity of the tail the spots
change into partial rings, which nearly, but not quite, surround the
tail. All specimens, however, are not precisely alike, either in the color
or the arrangement of the markings, but those leading characteristics
which have just been mentioned may be found in almost every
individual.

When at large in its native woods, it wages incessant and destructive
warfare against small quadrupeds and birds, the latter creatures being
its favorite prey. The Chati is a vexatious and expensive neighbor to
any one who may keep fowls, for it seems to like nothing so well as a
plump fowl, and is unceasing in its visits to the henroost. It is so act-
ive and lithe an animal that it can climb over any palisade and in-
sinuate itself through a surprisingly small aperture ; and it is so wary
and cautious in its nocturnal raids that it generally gives no other in-
dication of its movements than that which is left next morning by
the vacant perches, and a few scattered feathers flecked with blood-
spots.

During the day it keeps itself closely hidden in the dark shades of
the forest, sleeping away its time until the sun has set and darkness
reigns over its world. It then awakes from its slumber, and issues
forth upon its destructive quest. On moonlight nights, however, it
either stays at home or confines its depredations to the limits of its na-
tive woods, never venturing near the habitations of man. Stormy and
windy nights are the best adapted for its purpose, as it is sheltered from
sight by the darkness, and from hearing by the rushing wind, which
drowns the slight sounds of its stealthy footsteps. On such nights it
behoves the farmer to keep a twofold watch, and see well to his doors
and windows, or he may chance to find an empty henroost in the
morning.

In two years no less than eighteen of these animals were caught by
a landowner within a space of five miles round his farm, so that their
numbers must be truly great. They do not congregate together, but
live in pairs, each pair seeming to appropriate its own hunting-
ground.

In captivity it is a singularly gentle, and even aflfectionate, animal,
possessed of most engaging habits and full of pretty, graceful tricks.
One of these creatures, which was captured by the above-mentioned
landowner, became so entirely domesticated that it was permitted to
range at liberty. But although so gentle and tractable toward its
owner that it would sleep on the skirts of its master's gown, its poul-

v^

62

THE WILD CAT.

try-lovins habits were too deeply implaured to be thoroughly eradi-
cated and it was quietly destructive among his neighbors* fowls. This
propensitv cost the creature its life, for the irritated farmers caught
it iu the verv deed of robbing their henroosts, and killed it ou the spot.

The Wiij> Cat Fdis Catus).

The native name for the Ciiati is Chibiguazu. It was found by ex-
perimenting on the captured Chatis that the flec?h of eats and of vari-
ous reptiles was harmful to their constitution. Cats' flesh gave them a
kind of mange, which sov)n killed them, while that of snakes, vipei-s,
and loads caused a continual and violent vomiting, under which they
lost flesh and died. Fowls, however, and most birds, were ravenously
devoureil, being caught by the head and killed by a bite and a shake.
The Chatis always stripped the feathers from the birds before begin-
ning to eat them.

Few of the Felidse are so widely spread or so generally known as
the Wild Cat. It is found not only in this country, but over near-
ly the whole of Europe, and has been seen in Northern Asia and
Nepaul.

Whether the Wild Cat be the original progenitor of our Domestic
Cat is still a mooted point, and likely to remain so, for there is no small
difficulty in bringing proofs to bear on such a
subject. There are several ])oints of distinction
between the Wild and the Domestic Cat, one of
the most decided differences being found iu the
shape and comparative length of their tails.

As maybe seen from the accompanying figure,
the tails of the two animals are easily distinguish-
The upper figure represents the tail of the Do-

Cats' Tails.
ed from each other.
mestic Cat, which is

long, slender, and tapering, while the lower rep-

THE DOMESTIC CAT AND THE COMMON LYNX,

63

resents the tail of the Wild Cat, which is much shorter and more
bushy.

In the eyes of any one who nas really examined and can support the
character of the Domestic Cat, she must appear to be a sadly calum-
niated creature. She is generally
contrasted with the dog, much to
her disfavor. His docility, affec-
tionate disposition, and forgiveness
of injuries, his trustworthy cha-
racter, and his wonderful intel-
lectual powers, are spoken of, as
truly they deserve, with great en-
thusiasm and respect. But these
amiable traits of character are
brought into violent contrast with
sundry ill-conditioned qualities ^he Cat {Feli, domesiica).

which are attributed to the Cat, and wrongly so. The Cat is held up
to reprobation as a selfish animal, seeking her own comfort and disre-
gardful of others, attached only to localities, and bearing no real affec-
tion for her owners. She is said to be sly and treacherous, hiding her
talons in her velvety paws as long as she is in a good temper, but ready
to use them upon her best friends if she is crossed in her humors.

Whatever may have been the experience of those who gave so slan-
derous a character to the Cat, my own rather wide acquaintance with
this animal has led me to very different conclusions. The Cats with
which I have been most familiar have been as docile, tractable, and
good-tempered as any dog could be, and displayed an amount of in-
tellectual power \Yhich would be equalled by very few dogs, and sur-
passed by none.

Returning once more to the savage tribe of animals, we come to a
small but clearly-marked group of Cats, which are distinguishaLle from
their feline relations by the sharply-pointed erect ears, decorated with
a tuft of hair of varying dimensions. These animals are popularly
known by the title of Lynxes. In all the species the tail is rather
short, and in some, such as the Peeshoo, or Canada Lynx, it is ex-
tremely abbreviated.

By name, if not by sight, the Common Lynx of Europe is familiar
to us, and is known as the type of a quick-sighted animal. The eyes
of "the Lynx and the ears of the " Blind Mole" are generally placed on
a par with each other as examples of especial acuteness of either sense.

The European Lynx is spread over a great portion of the Conti-
nent, being found in a range of country which extends from the Pyre-
nees to Scandinavia. It is also found in the more northern forests of
Asia.

64 THE CANADA LYNX.

Tlie usual color of the Lynx is a rather dark gray, washed with red,
ou which are placed sundry dark patches, large and few upon the body,

The European Lynx {Lyncus vmjatus).
and many and small upon the limbs. On the body the spots assume
an oblong or oval shape, but upon the limbs they are nearly circular.
The tail of the Lynx is short, being at the most only seven or eight
inches in length, and sometimes extending only six inches. The length
of the body and head is about three feet.

The fur of the Lynx is valuable for the purposes to which the feline
skin is usually destined, and commands a fair price in the market.
Those who hunt the Lynx for the purpose of obtaining its fur choose
the winter mouths for the time of their operations, as during the cold
season the Lynx possesses a richer and a warmer fur than is found upon
it during the warm summer months.

The New World possesses its examples of the Lyncine group as well
as the Old World, and even in the cold regions of North America a
representative of these animals may be found. This is the Canada
Lynx, commonly termed the "Peeshoo" by the French colonists, or
even dignified with the title of Le Chat.

The hair of this animal is longer than that of its southern relatives,
and is g.';ierally of a dark gray, flecked or besprinkled with black.
Large and indistinct patches of the fur are of a sensibly darker tint
than tlie generality of its coat. Most of the hairs are white at their
extremities, which will account for the apparent changes in color which
will be seen even in the same species at different times. In some speci-
mens the fur takes a slight tinge of ruddy chestnut, the limbs are darker
than the rest of the body, and the ears are slightly tinged with white.
It is probable that the same individual undergoes considerable changes,
both in the color and length of its fur, according to the time of year.

The limbs of this Lynx are very powerful, and the thick, heavily-
made feet are furnished with strong white claws that are not seen un-

THE CHETAH.

65

less the fur be put aside. It is not a dangerous animal, and, as far as
is known, feeds on the smaller quadrupeds, the American hare being
its favorite article of diet.

While running at speed it presents a singular appearance, owing to
its peculiar mode of leaping in successive bounds, with its back slightly

The Canada Lynx {Lyncus Canademis).

arched, and all the feet coming to the ground nearly at the same time.
It is a good swimmer, being able to cross the water for a distance of
two miles or more. Powerful though it be, it is easily killed by a blow
on the back, a slight stick being a sufficient weapon wherewith to de-
stroy the animal. The flesh of the Peeshoo is eaten by the natives,
and is said, though devoid of flavor, to be agreeably tender. The
range of this animal is rather extensive, and in the wide district where
it takes up its residence is found in sufficient plenty to render its fur an
important article of commerce. The length of this animal slightly ex-
ceeds three feet.

The Chetah, Youze, or Hunting Cat, as it is indifferently named,
is, like the leopard, an inhabitant of Asia and Africa. It is rather a
large animal, exceeding an ordinary leopard in stature.

The title "jubata," or "crested," is given to the Chetah on account
of a short, mane-like crest of stiff* long hairs which passes from the back
of the head to the shoulders.

6 * E

GQ

CUNNING OF THE CHETAH.

The Chetah is one of those animals which gain their living by min-
gletl craft and agility. Its chief food is obtained from the various deer
and antelopes which inhabit the same country, and in seizing and slay-
ing its prey no little art is required. The speed of this animal is not
ve'ry great, and it lias but little endurance ; so that an antelope or a

The Chetah (Guepardajubata).

stag could set the spotted foe at defiance, and in a quarter of an hour
place itself beyond his reach. But it is the business of the Chetah to
hinder the active and swift-footed deer from obtaining those invaluable
fifteen minutes, and to strike them down before they are aware of his
presence.

In order to obtain this end, the Chetah watches for a herd of deer or
antelopes, or is content to address himself to the pursuit of a solitary in-
dividual, or a little band of two or three should they be placed in a
position favorable for his purpose. Crouching upon the ground so as
to conceal himself as much as possible from the watchful eyes of the
intended prey, the Chetah steals rapidly and silently upon them, never
venturing to show himself until he is within reach by a single spring.
Having singled out one individual from the herd, the Chetah leaps
upon the devoted animal and dashes it to the ground. Fastening his
strong grip in the throat of the dying animal, the Chetah laps the hot
blood, and for the while seems forgetful of time or place.

USE OF THE CHETAH IN HUNTING. 67

Of these curious habits the restless and all-adapting mind of man has
taken advantage, and has diverted to his own service the -wild destructive
properties of theChetah. In fact, man has established a kind of quad-
rupedal falconry, the Chetah taking the place of the hawk, and the
chase being one of earth and not of air. The Asiatics have brought
this curious chase to great perfection, and are able to train Chetahs for
this purpose in a wonderfully perfect manner.

When a Chetah is taken out for the purpose of hunting game, he is
hooded and placed in a light native car, in company with his keepers.
When they perceive a herd of deer or other desirable game, the keep-
ers turn the Chetah's head in the proper direction, and remove the
hood from his eyes. The sharp-sighted animal generally perceives
the prey at once ; but if he fails so to do, the keepers assist him by
quiet gestures.

No sooner does the Chetah fairly perceive the deer than his bands
are loosened, and he gently slips from the car. Employing all his in-
nate artifices, he approaches the game, and with one powerful leap
flings himself upon the animal which he has selected. The keepers
now hurry up, and take his attention from the slaughtered animal by
offering him a ladleful of its blood, or by placing before him some food
of which he is especially fond, such as the head and neck of a fowl.
The hood is then slipped over his head, and the blinded animal is con-
ducted, patient and unresisting, to the car, where he is secured until
another victim may be discovered.

The natural disposition of this pretty creature seems to be gentle
and placid, and it is peculiarly susceptible of domestication. It has
been so completely trained as to be permitted to wander where it
chooses like a domestic dog or cat, and is quite as familiar as that an-
imal. Even in a state of semi-domestication it is sufficiently gentle.
One sleek and well-conditioned specimen with which I made acquaint-
ance behaved in a very friendly manner, permitting me to pat its soft
sides or stroke its face, and uttering short self-sufficient sounds, like the
magnified purr of a gratified cat. Unfortunately, the acquaintance
was rudely broken up by an ill-conditioned Frenchman, who came to
the front of the cage, and with his stick dealt the poor animal a severe
thrust in the side. The Chetah instantly lost its confident expression,
and was so irritated by this rough treatment that it would not permit
a repetition of the former caresses.

Some time ago, while engaged in examining the larger Felidse, I
wished to investigate the structure of the Chetah's foot, some persons
having said that its claws were retractile like those of the cat, while
others stated that they were constructed like those of the dog. So I
went into the Chetahs' cage at the Zoological Gardens, and rather to
the surprise of the animals. Thinking that the Cat tribe were toler-

<78 HYENAS.

ably alike in disposition, and supposing that if I went up to either of
them they would be alarmed, I sat down with ray back against the
wall, and quietly waited, taking no notice whatever of the Chetahs.

In a short time the curiosity of the cat-nature overcame distrust ;
the two Chetahs came closer and closer, until at last the male, who was
larger and stronger than his mate, began to sniifat ray hand with out-
stretched neck. Finding that no harra ensued, he came a little closer,
and I began to stroke his nose lightly. This he rather liked, and be-
fore long I was able to stroke his head, chin, neck, and back, the ani-
mal being as pleased as a cat would have been. Presently he came
and sat down by me, and I then got from his neck to his legs, just as
Rarey used to " gentle " a horse.

The next move was to lift up his foot and put it down again, and
then, taking hold lightly of his wrist, to press the fore-finger on the
base of the claws so as to press them from their sockets. This rather
startled him, and with a sharp hissing sound he struck smartly for-
ward. As he struck I slipped my hanrl up his leg, so that the blow
was ineffectual, and presently made another attempt. He now found
out that no harra was intended, and in a very short tirae I had his paw
on niy knee, and was allowed to push out the claws as I liked, proving
that they were as retractile as those of a cat. The oddest part of the
proceeding was that he appropriated me to himself, and would not al-
low his mate to come near nie, exemplifying the jealousy of all ani-
mals when brought into contact with raau.

The spots which so profusely stud the body and lirabs are nearly
round in their form and black in their tint. Excepting upon the fiice,
there seem to be no stripes like those of the tiger, but upon each side
of the face there is a bold black streak which runs from the eye to the
corner of the raouth. The hair about the throat, chest, and flanks is
rather long, and gives a very determinate look to the animal.

The Chetah is known as an inhabitant of many parts of Asia, in-
cluding India, Sumatra, and Persia, while in Africa it is found in Sen-
egal and at the Cape of Good Hope.

HYENAS.

The group of animals which are so well known by the title of Hy-
7!<:nas are, although raost repulsive to the view and most disgusting in
their habits, the very saviours of life and health in the countries where
they live, and where there is necessity for their existence. In this
land, and at the present day, there is no need of such large animals as
the Hycenas to perform their necessary and useful task of clearing the
earth from the decaying carcases which cumber its surface and poison
Its air, for in our utilitarian age even the very hairs from a cow's hide

THE STRIPED HY^NA.

69

are turned to account, and the driest bones are made to subserve many
uses.

In those countries, as well as in our own, there are carnivorous and
flesh-burying insects, which consume the smaller animal substances; but
the rough work is left to those industrious scavengers the Hyaenas,
which content themselves with the remains of large animals.

In the semi-civilized countries of Africa and Asia, the Hysena is a
public benefactor, swallowing with his accommodating appetite almost
every species of animal substance that can be found, and even crush-
ing to splinters between his iron jaws the bones which would resist the
attacks of all other carnivorous animals.

Useful as is the Hysena when it remains within its proper bound-
aries and restricts itself to its proper food, it becomes a terrible pest

The Striped Hy^na [Hycena striata).

when too numerous to find suflicient nourishment in dead carrion. In-
cited by hunger, it hangs on the skirts of villages and encampments,
and loses few opportunities of making a meal at the expense of the in-
habitants. It does not openly oppose even a domestic ox, but endeav-
ors to startle its intended prey, and cause it to take to flight before it
will venture upon an attack. In order to alarm the cattle it has a cu-
rious habit of creeping as closely as possible to them, and then spring-
ing up suddenly just under their eyes. Should the startled animals
turn to flee, the Hyaena will attack and destroy them, but if they
should turn to bay will stand still and venture no farther. It will not
even attack a knee-haltered horse. So it often happens that the Hy-
aena destroys the healthy cattle which can run away, and is afraid to
touch the sickly and maimed beasts which cannot flee, and are forced
to stand at bay.

The Striped Hy.ena is easily to be distinguished from its relations

70

THE SPOTTED HYAENA.

by the peculiar streaks from which it derives its name. The general
color of the fur is a grayish brown, diversified with blackish stripes,
which run along the ribs and upon the limbs. A large singular black
patch extends over the front of the throat, and single black hairs are
profusely scattered among the fur. When young, the stripes are more
apparent than in the adult age, and the little animal has something of
a tigrine aspect about its face.

In proportion to its size, the Hyaena possesses teeth and jaws of
extraordinary strength, and between their tremendous fangs the thigh-
bones of an ox fly in splinters with a savage crash that makes the
spectator shudder.

The muzzle is but short, and the rough thorn-studded tongue is used,
like that of the feline groups, for rasping every vestige of flesh from
the bones of the prey.

The Spotted Hy^na — or Tiger Wolf, as it is generally called — is,
for a Hysena, a fierce and dangerous animal, invading the sheeplblds

The Spotted Hy^na {Crocuta maculata).
and cattlepens under the cover of darkness, and doing in one night
more mischief than can be remedied in the course of years.

The spots, or rather the blotches, with which its fur is marked, are
rather scanty upon the back and sides, but upon the legs are much
more clearly marked, and are set closer together. The paws are nearly
black. ^ -^

THE CIVET. 71

The Tiger Wolf is celebrated for the strauge unearthly sounds which
it utters when under the influence of strong excitement. The animal
is often called the " Laughing Hysena " on account of the maniacal,
mirthless, hysterical laugh which it pours forth, accompanying this
horrid sound with the most absurd gestures of body and limbs. During
the time that the creature is engaged in uttering these wild, fearful peals
of laughter, it dances about in a state of ludicrously frantic excitement,
running backward and forward, rising on its hind legs, and rapidly
gyrating on those members, nodding its head repeatedly to the ground,
and, in fine, performing the most singular antics with wonderful
rapidity.

CIVETS.

The Civet, sometimes, but wrongly, called the Civet Cat, is a native
of Northern Africa, and is found plentifully in Abyssinia, where it is
eagerly sought on account of the peculiarly scented substance which
is secreted in certain glandular pouches. This Civet perfume was
formerly considered as a most valuable medicine, and could only be
obtained at a very high price ; but in the present day it has nearly
gone out of fashion as a drug, and
holds its place in commerce more
as a simple perfume than as a
costly panacea.

The substance which is so prized
on account of its odoriferous qual-
ities is secreted in a double pouch,
which exists under the abdomen. The Ciyi:t {Viverra Oivetta).

close to the insertion of the tail. As this curious production is of
some value in commerce, the anin)al which furnishes the precious
secretion is too valuable to be killed for the sake of its scent-pouch,
and is kept in a state of captivity, so as to afford a continual supply
of the odoriferous material.

The claws of the Civet are only partially retractile. The eyes are of
a dull brown, very protuberant, and with a curiously changeable pupil,
which by day exhibits a rather broad linear pupil, and glows at night
with a brilliant emerald refulgence. The body is curiously shaped,
being considerably flattened on the sides, as if the animal had been
pressed between two boards.

Altogether, the Civet is a very handsome animal, the bold dashing
of black and white upon its fur having a very rich effect. The face
has a curious appearance, owing to the white fur which fringes the
lips, and the long pure white whisker hairs of the lips and eyes.
When young it is almost wholly black, with the exception of the
white whisker hairs and the white fur of the lips.

THE BLOTCHED GENETT AND THE CACOMIXLE.

GENETTS.

A small but rather important group of the Viverrine animals is that
tlio members of which are known by the name of the Genetts.
These creatures are all nocturnal in their habits, as are the civets, and,
like those animals, can live on a mixture of animal and vegetable
food, or even on vegetable food alone. The Genetts possess the musk-
secreting apparatus, which much resembles the pouch of the Civet,
although in size it is not so large, nor does it secrete so powerfully
smelling a substance as that of the civets. The secreting organ, al-
though it resembles a pouch, is not so in reality, being simply com-
posed of two glands, united to each other by a strip of skin.

The best known of these animals is the Common or Blotched
Genett, an inhabitant of Southern Africa and of various other parts
of the world, being found even in the South of France. It is a very
beautiful and graceful animal, and never fails to attract attention from
an observer. The general color of the fur is gray, with a slight ad-
mixture of yellow. Upon this groundwork dark patches are lavishly
scattered, and the full, furry tail is covered with alternate bands of

black and white.
The muzzle would
be entirely black
but for a bold
patch of white fur
on the upper lip,
and a less deci-
dedly white mark
by the nose. The
feet are supplied
with retractile
claws, so that the
animal can deal a
severe blow with
its outstretched
talons, or climb
trees with the
same ease and ra-
pidity which is
found in the cat
tribe.

Very different from the Genetts in its appearance is the Cacomixle,
although it is closely allied to them.

It is remarkable as being a Mexican representative of the Genett

The Blotched Genett {Genetla Tigr

THE ICHNEUMONS. 73

group of animals, although it can hardly be considered as a true Genett
or a true Moongus. The color of this animal is a light uniform dun, a
dark bar being placed like a collar over the back of the neck. In some
specimens this bar is double, and in all it is so narrow that when the
animal throws its head backward the dark line is lost in the lighter fur.

The Cacomixle {Bassams Astuta).

Along the back runs a broad, singular, darkish stripe. The tail is
ringed something like that of the Ringed Lemur, and is very full.
The term " Cacomixle " is a Mexican word, and the animal is some-
times called by a still stranger name, "Tepemaxthalon." The scientific
title, " Bassaris," is from the Greek, and signifies " a fox."

ICHNEUMONS.

The Ichneumons appear to be the very reptiles of the mammalian
animals, in form, habits, and action irresistibly reminding the spectator
of the serpent. The sharp and pointed snout, narrow body, short legs,
and flexible form permit them to insinuate themselves into marvellously
small crevices, and to seek and destroy their prey in localities where it
might well deem itself secure.

The common Ichneumon — or Pharaoh's Rat, as it is popularly but
most improperly termed — is plentifully found in Egypt, where it plays
a most useful part in keeping down the numbers of the destructive
quadrupeds and dangerous reptiles. Small and insignificant as this
animal appears, it is a most dangerous foe to the huge crocodile, feed-
ing largely upon its eggs, and thus preventing the too rapid increase of
7

74

THE COMMON ICHNEUMON.

these fierce and fertile reptiles. Snakes, rats, lizards, mice, and various
birds fall a prey to this Ichneumon, which will painfully track its prey
to its hiding-place, and wait patiently for hours until it makes its appear-
ance, or will quietly creep up to the unsuspecting animal, and, flinging
itself boldly upon it, destroy it by rapid bites with its long sharp teeth.

The IcHxNEUMON (Ilerpestes Ichneumon).

Taking advantage of these admirable qualities the ancient Egyptians
were wont to tame the Ichneumon and admit it to the free range of their
houses, and on account of its habits paid it divine honors as an out-'
ward emblem of the Deity, considered with regard to his sin-destroying
mercy.

Although the diminutive size of this creature renders it an impotent
enemy to so large and well-mailed a reptile as the crocodile, yet it
causes the destruction of innumerable crocodiles annually by break-
ing and devouring their eggs. The egg of the crocodile is extremely
small when the size of the adult reptile is taken into consideration, so
tliat the Ichneumon can devour several of them at a meal.

The color of this animal is a brown, plentifully grizzled with gray,
each hair being ringed alternately with gray and brown. The total
length of the animal is about three feet three inches, the tail measur-
ing about eighteen inches. The scent-gland of the Ichneumon is very
large in proportion to the size of its bearer, but the substance which it

THE MOONGUS AND THE CRYPTOPROCTA. 75

secretes has not as yet been held of any commercial value. The claws
are partially retractile.

The word " Ichneumon " is Greek, and literally signifies " a tracker."

The MooNGUS, sometimes called the Indian Ichneumon, is in its
Asiatic home as useful an animal as the Egyptian Ichneumon in Africa..
In that country it is an indefatigable destroyer of rats, mice, and the
various reptiles, and is on that account highly valued and protected.
Being, as are Ichneumons in general, extremely cleanly in manners,
and very susceptible of domestication, it is kept tame in many families,
and does good service in keeping the houses clear of the various an-
imated pests that render an Indian town a disagreeable, and sometimes
a dangerous, residence.

In its customs it very much resembles the cat, and is gifted with all
the inquisitive nature of that animal. When first introduced into a new
locality it runs about the place, insinuating itself into every hole and
corner, and snifiing curiously at every object with which it comes in
contact. Even in its wild state it exliibits the same qualities, and by
a careful observer may be seen questing about in search of its food,
exploring every little tuft of vegetation that comes in its way, running
over every rocky projection, and thrusting its sharp snout into every
hollow. Sometimes it buries itself entirely in some little hole, and
when it returns to light drags with it a mole, a rat, or some such crea-
ture, which had vainly sought security in its narrow domicile.

While eating, the Ichneumon is very tetchy in its temper, and will
very seldom endure an interruption of any kind. In order to secure
perfect quiet while taking its meals, it generally carries the food into
the most secluded hiding-place that it can find, and then commences
its meal in solitude and darkness. The color of the Moongus is a gray,
liberally flecked with darker hairs, so as to produce a very pleasing
mixture of tints. It is not so large an animal as its Egyptian rela-
tive.

The last of the great Viverrine group of animals is the Crypto-
PROCTA, a creature whose rabbit-like mildness of aspect entirely belies
its nature.

It is a native of Madagascar, and has been brought from the south-
ern portions of that wonderful island. It is much to be wished that
the zoology of so prolific a country should be thoroughly explored, and
that competent naturalists should devote much time and severe labor
to the collection of specimens, and the careful investigation of animals
while in their wild state.

Gentle and quiet as the animal appears, it is one of the fiercest lit-
tle creatures known. Its limbs, though small, are very powerful, their
muscles being extremely full and well knit together. Its appetite for
blood seems to be as insatiable as that of the tiger, and its activity is

76 THE GKEYHOUND AND THE NEWFOUNDLAND.

very great, so that it may well be iniagiued to be a terrible foe to any
animals on whom it may choose to make an attack. For this savage
nature it has received the name of "Ferox," or "fierce." Its generic
name of Cryptoprocta is given to it on account of the manner in which
the hinder quarters suddenly taper down and merge themselves in the
tail. The word itself is from the Greek, the former half of it sigui-
lying "hidden," and the latter half "hind-quarters."

The color of the Cryptoprocta is a light brown, tinged with red. The
ears are very large and rounded, and the feet are furnished with strong
claws. The toes are five in number on each foot.

DOGS.

The large and important group of animals which is known by the
general name of the I^og Tribe embraces the wild and domesticated
Dogs, the Wolves, Foxes, Jackals, and that curious South African an-
imal, the Hunting Dog. Of these creatures, several have been brought
under the authority of man, and by continual intermixtures have as-
sumed that exceeding variety of form which is found in the different
" breeds " of the domestic Dog.

The original parent of the Dog is very doubtful, some authors con-
sidering that it owes its parentage to the Dhole, or the Buansuah of
India, others thinking it to be an offspring of the Wolf, and others at-
tributing to the Fox the honor of being the progenitor of our canine
friend and ally.

All the various Dogs which have been brought under the subjection
of man are evidently members of one single species, Caiiis familiar is,
being capable of variation to an almost unlimited extent.

It is hardly possible to conceive an animal which is more entirely
formed for speed and endurance than a Mell-bred Greyhound.

The chief use— if use it can be termed — of the Greyhound is in
coursing the hare, and it exhibits in this chase its marvellous swiftness
and its endurance of fatigue.

The narrow head and sharp nose of the Greyhound, useful as they
are for aiding the progress of the animal by removing every imped-
nnent to its passage through the atmosphere, yet deprive it of a most
valuable faculty, that of chasing by scent. The muzzle is so narrow
in proportion to its length that the nasal nerves have no room for
proper development, and hence the animal is very deficient in its
powers of scent. The same circumstance may be noted in many
other animals.

The large and handsome animal which is called, from its native
country, the Newfoundland Dog, belongs to the group of spaniels,
all of which appear to be possessed of considerable mental powers,

THE NEWFOUNDLAND.

77

and to be capable of instruction to a degree that is rarely seen in
animals.

As is the case with most of the large Dogs, the Newfoundland per-
mits the lesser Dogs ta take all kinds of liberties without showing the
least resentment, and if it is worried or pestered by some forward puppy

The Greyhound {Canis famUiaris).

looks down with calm contempt and passes on its way. Sometimes the
little conceited animal presumes upon the dignified composure of the
Newfoundland Dog, and in that case is sure to receive some quaint
punishment for its insolence. The story of the big Dog that dropped
the little Dog into the water and then rescued it from drowning is so
well known that it needs but a passing reference. But I know of a Dog,
belonging to one of my friends, which behaved in a very similar man-
ner. Being provoked beyond all endurance by the continued annoy-
ance, it took the little tormentor in its mouth, swam well out to sea,
dropped it in the water, and sw'am back again.

Another of the animals, belonging to a workman, was attacked by a
small and pugnacious bull-dog, which sprang upon the unoffending
canine giant, and, after the manner of bull-dogs, " pinned " him by
the nose, and there hung, in spite of all endeavors to shake it off.
However, the big Dog happened to be a clever one, and, spying a pail-
ful of boiling tar, he bolted toward it, and deliberately lowered his foe
into the pail. The bull-dog had never calculated on such a reception,

7*

78 POMERANIAN FOX DOG AND THE FIELD SPANIEL.

and made its escape as fast as it could run, bearing with it a scaldiiij
memento of the occasi(m.

The Newfoundland Dog {CanisfamiUaris).

Of late years a Dog has come into fashion as a house-dog or as a
companion. This is the Pomeranian Fox Dog, commonly known as
the " Loup-loup."

It is a great favorite with those who like a dog for a companion and
not for mere use, as it is very intelligent in its character, and very hand-
some in aspect. Its long white fur and bushy tail give it quite a dis-
tinguished appearance, of which the animal seems to be thoroughly
aware. Sometimes the coat of this animal is a cream color, and very
rarely is deep black. The pure white, however, seems to be the favor-
ite. It is a lively little creature, and makes an excellent companion in
a country walk.

Of tlie Spaniel Dogs there are several varieties, which may be
classed under two general heads— namely, Sporting and Toy Spaniels,
the former being used by the sportsman in finding game for him, and
the latter being simply employed as companions.

The Field Spaniel is remarkable for the intense love which it
bears for hunting game, and the energetic manner in which it carries
out the wishes of its master. There are two breeds of Field Spaniels,
the (me termed the ** Springer" being used for heavy work among
thick and thorny coverts, and the other being principally employed
in woodcock-shooting, and called in consequence the " Cocker." The

THE MALTESE DOG AND THE POODLE.

79

Blenheim and King Charles Spaniels derive their origin from the
Cocker.

While hunting, the Spaniel sweeps its feathery tail rapidly from side
to side, and is a very pretty object to any one who has an eye for baauty
of movement. It is a rule that,
however spirited a Spaniel may be,
it must not raise its tail above the
level of its back.

A very celebrated but extremely
rare " toy " Dog is the Maltese
Dog, the prettiest and most lov-
able of all the little pet Dogs.

The hair of this tiny creature is
very long, extremely silky, and al-
most unique in its glossy sheen, so
beautifully fine as to resemble spun
glass. In proportion to the size of S
the animal, the fur is so long that
when it is in rapid movement the
real shape is altogether lost in the
streaming mass of flossy hair. One
of these animals, which barely ex-
ceeded three pounds in weight, meas-
ured no less than fifteen inches in
leno^th of hair across the shoulders.

The Pomeranian Dog {Canh famili-
aris).

The tail of the Maltese Dog curls strongly over the back, and adds its
wreath of silken fur to the already superfluous torrent of glistening
tresses.

As the name implies, it was originally brought from Malta. It is a
very scarce animal, and at onetime was thought to be extinct; but
there are still sp?cimens to be obtained by those who have no ob-
jection to pay the price which is demanded for these pretty little crea-
tures.

Of all the domesticated Dogs the Poodle seems to be, take him all
in all, the most obedient and the most intellectual. Accomplishments
the most difiicult are mastered by this clever animal, which displays an
ease and intelligence in its performances that appear to be far beyond
the ordinary canine capabilities.

A barbarous custom is prevalent of removing the greater portion of
the Poodle's coat, leaving him but a rufl* round the neck and legs,
and a puff* on the tip of the tail, as the sole relic of his abundant fur.

Such a deprivation is directly in opposition to the natural state of
the Dog, which is furnished with a peculiarly luxuriant fur, hanging
in long ringlets from every portion of the head, body, and limbs. The

80

THE MEXICAN LAPDOG.

Poodle is not the only Dog that suffers a like tonsorial abridgment
of coat ; for under the dry arches of the many bridges that cross the
Seine, in Paris, may be daily seen a mournful spectacle. Numerous
dogs of every imaginable and unimaginable breed lie helpless in the
shade of the arch, their legs tied together, and their eyes contemplating

The Irish Water Spaniel {Canis famili<tris).

with woeful looks the struggles of their fellows, who are being shorn
of their natural covering, and protesting with mournful cries against
the operation.

The very tiniest of the dog family is the Mexican Lapdog, a crea-
ture so very minute in its dimensions as to appear almost fabulous to
those who have not seen the animal itself

One of these little canine pets is to be seen in the British Museum,
and always attracts much attention from the visitors. Indeed, if it
were not in so dignified a locality, it would be generally classed with
the mermaid, the flying serpent, and the Tartar lamb as an admirable
example of clever workmanship. It is precisely like those white wool-
len toy Dogs which sit upon a pair of bellows, and when pressed give
forth a nondescript sound intended to do duty for the legitimate canine
Imrk. To say that it is no larger than these toys would be hardly true,
for I have seen in the shop- windows many a toy Dog which exceeded
in size the veritable Mexican Lapdog.

The magnificent animal which is termed the Bloodhound, on ac-

THE BLOODHOUND.

81

count of its peculiar facility for tracking a wounded animal through
all the mazes of its devious course, is very scarce in England, as there
is now but little need of these Dogs.

In the " good old times " this animal was largely used by thief-takers,
for the purpose of tracking and securing the robbers who in those days
made the country unsafe and laid the roads under a black-mail. Sheep-
stealers, who were much more common when the offence was visited with
capital punishment, were frequently detected by the delicate nose of the
Bloodhound, which would, when once laid on the scent, follow it up with

The Bloodhound {(Janis familiaris)

unerring precision, unravelling the single trail from among a hundred
crossiug footsteps, and only to be baffled by water or blood.

The Bloodhound is generally irascible in temper, and therefore a
rather dangerous animal to be meddled with by any one excepting its
owner. So fierce is its desire for blood, and so utterly is it excited when
it reaches its prey, that it will often keep its master at bay when he ap-
proaches, and receive his overtures witli such unmistakable indications
of anger that he will not venture to approach until his Dog has satis-
fied its appetite on the carcase of the animal which it has brought to
the ground. When fairly on the track of the deer, the Bloodhound
utters a peculiar, long, loud, and deep bay, which, if once heard, will
never be forgotten.

The color of a good Bloodhound ought to be nearly uniform, no
white being permitted, except on the tip of the tail. The prevailing

82

THE FOXHOUND AND THE POINTER.

tiDt is a blackish tan or a deep fawn. The tail of this Dog is long
and sweeping.

Of all the Dogs which are called by the common title of *
the Foxhound is the best known. It is supposed ihat the

bound,"
modern

The Foxhound ( Cam's familiansj
Foxhound derives its origin from the old English hound, and its
various points of perfection from judicious crosses with other breeds.
For example, in order to increase its speed the greyhound is made to
take part in its pedigree, and, the greyhound having already some ad-
mixture of the bull-dog blood, there is an infusion of stubbornness as well
as of mere speed.

According to the latest authorities, the best average height for Fox-
hounds is from twenty-one to twenty-five inches, the female being gen-
erally smaller than the male. However, the size of the Dog does not
matter so much ; but it is expected to match the rest of the pack in
height as well as in general appearance.

There are two breeds of the Pointer — namely, the modern English
Pointer and the Spanish Pointer. The latter of these Dogs is now sel-
dom used in the field, as it is too slow and heavily built an animal for
the present fast style of sporting.

The modern English Pointer is a very different animal, built on a
much lighter model, and altogether with a more bold and dashing air
about it. While it possesses a sufficiently wide muzzle to permit the
ievelopment of the olfactory nerves, its limbs are so light and wiry

CHARACTEKISTICS OF THE POINTER.

83

that it can match almost any dog in speed. Indeed, some of these an-
imals are known nearly to equal a greyhound in point of swiftness.

This quality is specially useful, because it permits the sportsman to
walk forward at a moderate pace, while his Dogs are beating over the
field to his right and left. The sagacious animals are so obedient to
the voice and gesture of their master, and are so well trained to act
with each other, that at a wave of the hand they will separate, one go-
ing to the right and the other to the left, and so traverse the entire

■3^ *^

The Pointer {Canis familiar in).

field in a series of " tacks," to speak nautically, crossing each other
regularly in front of the sportsman as he walks forward.

When either of them scents a bird, he stops suddenly, arresting even
his foot as it is raised in the air, his head thrust forward, his body and
limbs fixed, and his tail stretched out straight behind him. This atti-
tude is termed a " point," and on account of this peculiar mode of in-
dicating game the animal is termed the " Pointer." The Dogs are so
trained that when one of them comes to a point he is backed by his
companion, so as to avoid the disturbance of more game than is neces-
sary for the purpose of the sportsman.

The most useful variety of the canine species is the sagacious crea-
ture on whose talent and energy depends the chief safety of the
flock.

As the Sheep-dog is constantly exposed to the weather, it needs the

84

THE BULL-DOG.

protection of very thick and closely-set fur, which in this Dog is
rather woolly in its character, and is especially heavy about the neck
and breast.

The muzzle of this Dog is sharp, its head is of moderate size, its eyes
are very bright and intelligent, as might be expected in an animal of
so much sagacity and ready resource in time of need. Its feet are
strongly made, and sufficiently well protected to endure severe work
among the harsh stems of the heather on the hills or the sharply-cut-
ting stones of the high-road. Probably on account of its constant ex-
ercise in the open air, and the hardy manner in which it is brought

The Shepherd's Dog {Cards familians).

up, the Sheep-dog is perhaps the most untiring of our domesticated
animals.

As a general rule, the Sheep-dog cares very little for any one but
his master, and, so hr from courting the notice or caresses of a stran-
ger, will coldly withdraw from them and keep his distance. Even with
other Dogs he rarely makes companionship, contenting himself with
the society of his master alone.

The Bull-dog is said, by all those who have had an opportunity of
judgnig Its capabilities, to be, with the exception of the game-cock, the
most courageous animal in the world.

Its extraordinary courage is so well known as to have passed into a
proverb, and to have so excited the admiration of the British nation

THE BULL-DOG.

85

that we have been pleased to symbolize our peculiar tenacity of pur-
pose under the emblem of this small but most determined animal. In
height the Bull-dog is but insignificant, but in strength and courage
there is no Dog that can match him. Indeed, there is hardly any
breed of sporting-dog which does not owe its high courage to an infu--

— -<.^^^-

The Bull-Dog {Canis familiaris).
sion of the Bull-dog blood ; and it is chiefly for this purpose that the
pure breed is continued.

It is generally assumed that the Bull-dog must be a very dull and
brutish animal, because almost every specimen which has come before
the notice of the public has held such a character.

My own experience does not at all coincide with this notion. I once
possessed one of these animals, and a better dog I never had. He was
gentle almost to a fault, never taking offence except at an insult by a
big dog. He was docile, obedient, and wonderfully intelligent, a good
retriever, and one of the most accomplished water-dogs I ever saw.
Active and broad-chested as a greyhound, his leaping-powers were as-
tonishing, and his brown eyes had a look in them that was almost
human.

The shape of this remarkable animal is worthy of notice. The
fore-quarters are particularly strong, massive, and muscular, the chest
wide and roomy, and the neck singularly powerful. The hind-quar-
ters, on the contrary, are very thin and comparatively feeble, all the
vigor of the animal seeming to settle in its fore-legs, chest, and head.

86

THE MASTIFF.

ludeed, it gives the spectator an impression as if it were composed of
two different Dogs, the one a large and powerful animal, and the other
d weak and puny quadruped, which had been put together by mis-
take.

The ]\Iastiff, which is the largest and most powerful of the indi-
genous English Dogs, is of a singularly mild and placid temper, seem-
ing to delight in employing its great powers in affording protection to
the weak, whether they be men or dogs.

Yet, with all this nobility of its gentle nature, it is a most determined
and courageous animal in fight, and when defending its master or his

v-^^sx ^

The Old English Mastiff {Canis familiaris).

property becomes a foe which few opponents would like to face. These
qualifications of mingled courage and gentleness adapt it especially for
the service of watch-dog, a task in which the animal is as likely to fail
by overweening zeal as by neglect of its duty. It sometimes happens
that a watch-dog is too hasty in its judgment, and attacks a harmless
stranger on the supposition that it is resisting the approach of an enemy.
The head of the Mastiff bears a certain similitude to that of the
bloodhound and the bull-dog, possessing the pendent lips and squared
muzzle of the bloodhound, with the heavy muscular development of
the bull-dog. The under-jaw sometimes protrudes a little, but the
teeth are not left uncovered by the upper lip, as is often the case
with the latter auimai. The fur of the Mastiff is alwavs smooth, and

THE TERRIER 87

its color varies between a uniform reddish fawn and different brindlings
and patches of dark and white. The voice is peculiarly deep and mel-
low. The height of this animal is generally from twenty-five to twenty-
eight inches, but sometimes exceeds these dimensions. One of these
Dogs was no less than thirty-three inches in height at the shoulder,
measured fifty inches round his body, and weighed a hundred and
seventy-five pounds.

The Terrier, with all its numerous variations of crossed and mon-
grel breeds, is more generally known in England tliau any other kind
of Dog. Of the recognized breeds, four are generally acknowledged —
namely, the English and Scotch Terriers, the Skye, and the little Toy
Terrier.

The English Terrier possesses a smooth coat, a tapering muzzle, a
high forehead, a bright intelligent eye, and a strong muscular jaw. As
its instinct leads it to dig in the ground, its shoulders and fore-legs are
well developed, and it is able to make quite a deep burrow in a mar-
vellously short time, throwing out the loose earth with its feet, and
dragging away the stones and other large substances in its mouth.
It is not a large Dog, seldom weighing more than ten pounds, and
often hardly exceeding the moiety of that weight.

The color of the pure English Terrier is generally black and tan, the
richness of the two tints determining much of the animal's value. The
nose and the palate of the Dog ought to be always black, and over each
eye a small patch of tan color. The tail ought to be rather long and
very fine, and the legs as light as is consistent with strength.

The quaint-looking Skye Terrier has of late years been much af-
fected by all classes of dog-owners, and for many reasons deserves the
popularity which it has obtained.

When of pure breed the legs are very short, and the body extremely
long in proportion to the length of the limb ; the neck is powerfully
made, but of considerable length ; and the head is also rather elon-
gated, so that the total length of the animal is three times as great as
its height. The " dew-claws " are wanting in this variety of domestic
Dog. The hair is long and straight, falling heavily over the body and
limbs, and hanging so thickly upon the face that the eyes and nose are
hardly perceptible under their luxuriant covering. The quality of the
hair is rather harsh and wiry in the pure-bred Skye Terrier.

The size of this animal is rather small, but it ought not to imitate the
minute proportions of many " toy " Dogs. Its weight ought to range
from ten to seventeen or eighteen pounds. Even amongst these an-
imals there are at least two distinct breeds, while some dog-fanciers
establish a third.

It is an amusing and clever Dog, and admirably adapted for the
companionship of mankind, being faithful and affectionate in disposi-

88

THE JACKAL.

tion, and as brave as any of its congeners, except that epitome of
courao-e, the bull-dog. Sometimes, though not frequently, it is em.

^s^^^

Smooth am) bcouji Tlrkiers [Canis familiaris).

ployed for sporting purposes, and is said to pursue that vocation
with great credit.

There are several species of the Jackal, one of which will be noticed
and figured in this work.

The Common Jackal — or Kholah, as it is termed by the natives —
is an inhabitant of India, Ceylon, and neighboring countries, where it is
found in very great numbers, forcing itself upon the notice of the trav-
eller not only by its bodily presence, but by its noisy howding, where-
with it vexes the ears of the wearied and sleepy wayfarer as he en-
deavors in vain to find repose. Nocturnal in their habits, the Jackals
are accustomed to conceal themselves as much as possible during the
daytime, and to issue out on their hunting expeditions together with
the advent of night.

Always ready to take advantage of every favorable opportunity, the
Jackal is a sad parasite, and hangs on the skirts of the larger carnivora
as they roam the country for prey, in the hope of securing some share
of the creatures which they destroy or wound. On account of this
companionship between the large and small marauders, the Jackal
has popularly gained the name of the Lion's Provider. But, in due
justice, the title ought to be reversed, for the lion is in truth the Jackal's
provider, and is often thereby deprived of the chance of making a

WOLVES.

89

second meal on an animal which he has slain. Sometimes, it is said,
the Jackal does provide the Lion with a meal by becoming a victim to
the hungry animal in default of better and more savory prey.

Jackals (O

unis aureus]

The name of "aureus," or "golden," is derived from the yellowish
tinge of the Jackal's fur. In size it rather exceeds a large fox, but its
tail is not proportionately so long or so bushy as the well-known
" brush " of the fox.

WOLVES.

Few animals have earned so widely popular or so little enviable a
fame as the Wolves. Whether in the annals of history, in fiction, in
poetry, or even in the less honored but hardly less important litera-
ture of nursery fiibles, the Wolf holds a prominent position among
animals.

There are several species of Wolf, each of which species is divided
into three or four varieties, which seem to be tolerably permanent, and
by many observers are thought to be sufficiently marked to be consid-
ered as separate species. However, as even the members of the same
litter partake of several minor varieties in form and color, it is very
possible that the so-called species may be nothing more than very

yO THE COMMON WOLF.

distinctly-marked varieties. These voracious aud dangerous animals
are found in almost every quarter of the globe, whether the country
which they infest be heated by the beams of the tropical sun or frozen
by the lengthened winter of the northern regions. • Mountain and plain,
forest and field, jungle and prairie, are equally infested with Wolves,
which possess the power of finding nourishment for their united bands

The Wolf iCanis lupus).

in localities where even a single predaceous animal might be peiplexed
to gain a livelihood.

The color of the Common Wolf is gray, mingled with a slight tint-
ing of fawn, and diversified with many black hairs that are interspersed
among the lighter-colored fur. In the older animals the gray appears
to predominate over the fawn, while the fur of the younger Wolves is
of a warmer fawn tint. The under parts of the animal, the lower jaw,
and the edge of the upper lip are nearly white, while the interior facing
of the limbs is of a gray tint. Between the ears the head is almost
entirely gray, and without the mixture of black hairs which is found
in greatest profusion along the line of the spine.

When hungry — and the Wolf is almost always hungry — it is a bold
and dangerous animal, daring almost all things to reach its prey, and
venturing to attack large and powerful animals, such as the buflfalo, the
elk, or the wild horse. Sometimes it has been known to oppose itself
to other Carnivora, and to attack so unpromising a foe as the bear.

It is by no means nice in its palate, and will eat almost any living
animal, from human beings down to frogs, lizards, and insects. More-
over, it is a sad cannibal, and is thought by several travellers who have
noted its habits to be especially partial to the flesh of its own kind.
A. weak, sickly, or wounded Wolf is sure to fall under the cruel teeth
of its companions, who are said to be so fearfully ravenous that if one

FOXES.

91

of their companions should chance to besmear himself with the blood
of the prey which has just been hunted down, he is instantly attacked
and devoured by the remainder of the pack.

In their hunting expeditions the Wolves usually unite in bands,
larger or smaller in number according to circumstances, and acting

^»

The Wolf

simultaneously for a settled purpose. If they are on the trail of a
flying animal, the footsteps of their prey are followed up by one or two
of the Wolves, while the remainder of the band take up their positions
to the right and left of the leaders, so as to intercept the quarry if it
should attempt to turn from its course. Woe be to any animal that is
unlucky enough to be chased by a pack of Wolves ! No matter how
swift it may be, it will most surely be overtaken at last by the long,
slouching, tireless gallop of the Wolves ; and, no matter what may be
its strength, it must at last fail under the repeated and constant attacks
of the sharp teeth.

According to some systematic naturalists, the Foxes are placed in
the genus Ca7iis, together with the dogs and the wolves. Those em-
inent zoologists, however, who have arranged the magnificent collec-
tions in the British Museum have decided upon separating the Foxes
from the dogs and wolves, and placing them in the genus Vtilpes. To

92

SCENT OF THE FOX.

this decision they have come for several reasons, among which may be
noted the shape of the pupil of the eye, which in the Foxes is elonga-
ted, but in the animals which compose the genus Canis is circular.
The ears of the Foxes are triangular in shape and pointed, and the
tail is always exceedingly bushy.

A very powerful scent is poured forth from the Fox in consequence
of some glands which are placed near the root of the tail, and furnish
the odorous secretion. Glands of a similar nature, but not so well de-
veloped, are found in the wolves.

It is by this scent that the hounds are able to follow the footsteps
of a flying Fox, and to run it down by their superior speed and endur-
auce. The Fox, indeed, seems to be aware that its pursuers are guided

The Fox {Vulpes vulgaris).

in their chase by this odor, and puts in practice every expedient that
its fertile brain can produce in order to break the continuity of the
scent or to overpower it by the presence of other odors which are more
powerful, though not more agreeable.

Even when tamed it preserves its singular cunning. A tame Fox
that was kept in a stable-yard had managed to strike up a friendship
with several of the dogs, and would play with them, but could never
mduce the cats to approach him. Cats are very sensitive in their nos-
trils, and could not endure the odor. They would not even walk upon
any spot where the Fox had been standing, and kept as far aloof as
possible from him.

The crafty animal soon perceived that the cats would not come near

BURROW OF THE FOX.

93

hira, and made use of his knowledge to cheat them of their breakfast.
As soon as the servant poured out the cats' allowance of milk, the Fox
would run to the spot and walk about the saucer, well knowing that
none of the rightful owners would approach the defiled locality. Day
after day the cats lost their milk, until the stratagem was discovered
and the milk was placed in a spot where it could not be reached by
the Fox.

The Fox resides in burrows, which it scoops out of the earth by the
aid of its strong digging paws, taking advantage of every peculiarity

The Common Fox.

of the ground, and contriving, whenever it is possible, to wind its sub-
terranean way among the roots of large trees or between heavy stones,
lu these "earths," as the burrows are called in the sportsman phrase-
ology, the female Fox produces and nurtures her young, which are
odd little snub-nosed creatures, resembling almost any animal rather
than a Fox. She watches over her offspring with great care, and teaches
them by degrees to subsist on animal food, which she and her mate
capture for that purpose.

The color of the common Fox is a reddish fawn, intermixed with
black and white hairs. The hair is long and thick, being doubly thick
during the colder months of the year, so that the fur of a Fox which
is killed in the winter is more valuable than if the animal had been
slain in the hot months. The tail, which is technically termed the
"brush," is remarkably bushy, and partakes of the tints which pre-

94 THE ARCTIC FOX AND THE FENNEC.

dominate over the body, except at the tip, which is white. The height
of this animal is about a foot, and its length about two feet and a half,
exclusive of the tail.

One of the most celebrated species of the Foxes is the Arctic Fox,
called by the Russians Peszi, and by the Greenlanders Terrienniak.
This animal is in very great repute in the mercantile world on account
of its beautiful silky fur, which in the cold winter months becomes per-
fectly white. During the summer the fur is generally of a gray or
dirty brown, but is frequently found of a leaden gray, or of a brown
tint with a wash of blue. Toward the change of the season the fur
becomes mottled, and by reason of this extreme variableness has caused
the animal to be known by several different titles. Sometimes it is
called the White Fox, sometimes the Blue Fox, sometimes the Sooty
Fox, sometimes the Pied Fox, and sometimes the Stone Fox.

This animal is found in Lapland, Iceland, Siberia, Kamtschatka,
and North America, in all of which places it is eagerly sought by the
hunters for the sake of its fur. The pure white coat of the winter sea-
son is the most valuable, and the bluish-gray fur of the summer months
is, next to the white, the color that is most in request.

In size the Arctic Fox is not the equal of the English species, weigh-
ing only eight pounds on an average, and its total length being about
three feet. The eye is of a hazel tint, and very bright and intelligent.
It lives in burrows, which it excavates in the earth during the summer
months, and prefers to construct its simple dwellings in small groups
of twenty or thirty.

The Fennec, or Zerda, is an inhabitant of Africa, being found in
Nubia and Egypt. It is a very pretty and lively little creature, run-
ning about with much activity, and anon sitting upright and regarding
the prospect with marvellous gravity. The color of the Fennec is a
very pale fawn or " Isabel " color, sometimes being almost of a creamy
whiteness. The tail is bushy, and partakes of the general color of the
fur, except at the upper part of the base and the extreme tip, which are
boldly marked with black. The size of the adult animal is very incon-
siderable, as it measures scarcely more than a foot in length, exclusive
of the bushy tail, which is about eight inches long.

It is said that the Fennec, although it is evidently a carnivorous
animal, delights to feed upon various fruits, especially preferring the
date. Such a predilection is according to vulpine and canine analogies,
for the common English Fox is remarkably fond of ripe fruits, such as
grapes or strawberries, and the domestic dog is too often a depredator
of those very gardens which he was enjoined to keep clear from robbers.
But that the animal should enjoy the power of procuring that food in
which it so delights is a very extraordinary circumstance, and one
which would hardly be expected from a creature which partakes so

THE ASSE.

95

largely of the vulpine form and characteristics. The date-palm is a
tree of a very lofty growth, and the rich clusters of the fruit are placed
at the very summit of the bare, branchless stem. Yet the Fennec is said

Fennec and Octocyon.

to possess the capability of climbing the trunk of the date-palm, and of
procuring for itself the coveted luxury.

Like the veritable Foxes, the Fennec is accustomed to dwell in sub-
terranean abodes, which it scoops in the light sandy soil of its native
land.

As is the case with the greater number of predaceous animals, the
Fennec is but seldom seen during the daytime, preferring to issue forth
upon its marauding expeditions under the friendly cover of night. Even
when it has spent some time in captivity, it retains its restless nocturnal
demeanor, and during the hours of daylight passes the greater portion
of its time in semi-somnolence or in actual sleep.

The little animal which is known by the name of the Asse, or the
Caama, is an inhabitant of Southern Africa, and is in great request
for the sake of its skin, which furnishes a very valuable fur.

It is a terrible enemy to ostriches and other birds which lay their

96 WEASELS.

eggs in the ground, and is in consequence detested by the birds whose
nests are devastated. The ingenuity of the Caama in procuring the
contents of an ostrich's egg is rather remarkable. ^ The shell of the egg
is extremely thick and strong, and, as the Caama is but a small animal,
its teeth are unable to make any impression on so large, smooth, hard,
and rounded an object. In order, therefore, to obviate this difficulty,
the cunning animal rolls the egg along by means of its fore-paws, and
pushes it so violently against any hard substance that may lie conve-
nieutlv in its path, or against another egg, that the shell is broken and
the contents attainable.

The fur of this animal is highly esteemed by the natives for the pur-
pose of making " karosses," or mantles. As the Asse is one of the
smallest of the Foxes, a great number of skins is needed to form a
single mantle, and the manufactured article is therefore held in high
value by its possessor. Indeed, so valuable is its fur that it tempts
manv of the Bechuana tribes to make its chase the business of their
lives, and to expend their whole energies in capturing the animal from
whose body the much-prized fur is taken.

The continual persecution to which the Caama is subjected has almost
exterminated it in the immediate vicinity of Cape Town, where it was
formerly seen in tolerable plenty. Gradually, however, it retreats more
and more northward before the tread of civilized man, and at the
present day is but very rarely seen within the limits of the colony.

WEASELS.

Next in order to the dogs is placed the large and important family
of the Weasels, representatives of which are found in almost every
portion of the earth. There is something marvellously serpentine in
the aspect and structure of the members of this family — the Mustelidse,
as they are called, from the Latin word Mustela, which signifies " a
weasel." Their extremely long bodies and very short legs, together
with the astonishing perfection of the muscular powers, give them the
capability of winding their little bodies into the smallest possible
crevices, and of waging successful battle with animals of twenty times
their size and strength.

First on the list of Weasels are placed the agile and lively Martens,
or Marten-Cats, as they are sometimes termed. Two species of
British Martens are generally admitted into our catalogues, although
the distinction of the species is even as yet a mooted point.

The Pine Marten is so called because it is generally found in those
localities where the pine trees abound, and is in the habit of climbing
the pines in search of prey. It is a shy and wary animal, withdrawing
itself as far as possible from the sight of man, and, although a fierce

THE PINE MAKTEN.

97

and dangerous antagonist when brought to bay, is naturally of a timid
disposition, and shuns collision with an enemy.

It is a tree-loving animal, being accustomed to traverse the trunks
and branches with wonderful address and activity, and being enabled
by its rapid and silent movements to steal unnoticed on many an un-
fortunate bird, and to seize it in its deadly gripe before the startled
victim can address itself to flight. It is a sad robber of nests, rifling
them of eggs and young, and not unfrequently adding the parent bird
to its list of victims.

The damage which a pair of Martens and their young will inflict
upon a poultry-yard is almost incredible. If they can only gain an
entrance into the fowl-house, they will spare but very few of the

The Pine Maeten {Martes Ahietum).

inhabitants. They will carry ofi" an entire brood of young chickens,
eat the eggs, and destroy the parents.

The magpie's nest is a very favorite resort of the Marten, because
its arched covering and small entrance afford additional security. A
boy who was engaged in bird-nesting, and had climbed to the top of a
lofty tree in order to plunder a Magpie's nest, was made painfully
sensible of an intruder's presence by a severe bite which was inflicted
upon his fingers as soon as he inserted his hand into the narrow
entrance. This adventure occurred in Belvoir Park, County Down,
in Ireland.

The length of the Pine Marten is about eighteen inches, exclusive
of the tail, which measures about ten inches. The tail is covered with
long and rather bushy hair, and is slightly darker than the rest of the
body, which is covered with brown hair. The tint, however, is variable
in different specimens, and even in the same individual undergoes con-
siderable modifications, according to the time of year and the part of
9 G

98 THE SABLE.

the world in which it is found. It has rather a wide range of locality,
being a native of the northern parts of Europe and of a very large
portion of Northern America.

One of the most highly valued of the Weasels is the celebrated
Sable, which produces the richly-tinted fur that is in such great
request. Several species of this animal are sought for the sake of
their fur. They are very closely allied to the Martens that have
already been described, and are supposed by some zoologists to belong
to the same species. Besides the well-known Maries Zibellina, a North

American species is known, to-
gether with another, which is an
inhabitant of Japan. These two
creatures, although they are very
similar to each other in general
aspect, can be distinguished from
each other by the different hue of

T^Sable {Maries ZihdUna). J^f ^ J^^^ ^°^ ^^f ' the American

Sable being tinged with white upon
those portions of its person, and the corresponding members of the
Japanese Sable being marked with black.

The Sable is spread over a large extent of country, being found in
Siberia, Kamtschatka, and Asiatic Russia. Its fur is in the greatest
perfection during the coldest months of the year, and offers an induce-
ment to the hunter to brave the fearful inclemency of a northern
winter in order to obtain a higher price for his small but valuable com-
modities. A really perfect Sable-skin is but seldom obtained, and will
command an exceedingly high price. An ordinary skin is considered to
be worth from five to thirty or thirty-five dollars, but, if it should be of
the very best quality, is valued at sixty or seventy-five dollars.

In order to obtain these much-prized skins, the Sable-hunters are
forced to undergo the most terrible privations, and often lose their lives'
in the snow-covered wastes in which the Sable loves to dwell. A
sudden and heavy snowstorm will obliterate in a single half hour every
trace by which the hunter had marked out his path, and, if it should
be of long continuance, may overwhelm him in the mountain " drifts "
which are heaped so strangely by the fierce tempests that sweep over
those fearful regions.

The Sables take up their abode chiefly near the banks of rivers and
in the thickest parts of the forests that cover so vast an extent of
territory in those uncultivated regions. Their homes are usually made
in holes which the creatures burrow in the earth, and are generally
made more secure by being dug among the roots of trees. Sometimes,
however, they prefer to make their nests in the hollows of trees, and
there they rear their young. Some authors, however, deny that the

THE POLECAT.

99

Sable inhabits subterranean burrows, and assert that its nest is always
made in a hollow tree. The nests are soft and warm, being composed
chiefly of moss, dried leaves, and grass.

The Sables are taken in various modes. Sometimes they are captured
in traps, which are formed in order to secure the animal without damag-
ing its fur. Sometimes they are fairly hunted down by means of the
tracks which their little feet leave in the white snow, and are traced to
their domicile. A net is then placed over the orifice, and by means of
a certain pungent smoke which is thrown into the cavity, the inhabitant
is forced to rush into the open air, and is captured in the net. The
hunters are forced to support themselves on the soft and yielding
surface of the snow by wearing " snowshoes," or they would be lost in
the deep drifts, which are perfectly capable of supporting so light and
active an animal as the Sable, but would engulf a human being before
he had made a second step.

It now and then happens that the Sable is forced to take refuge in
the branches of a tree, and in that case it is made captive by means of
a noose which is dexterously flung over its head.

On examining the fur of the Sable, it will be seen to be fixed to the
skin in such a manner that it will turn with equal freedom in all di-
rections, and lies smoothly in whatever position it may be pressed. The
fur is rather long in proportion to the size of the animal, and extends
down the limbs to the claws. The color is a rich brown, slightly
mottled with white about the head, and taking a gray tinge on the
neck.

The Polecat has earned for itself a most unenviable fame, having

The Polecat {Putorius fcetidus).

long been celebrated as one of the most noxious pests to which the
farmyard is liable. Slightly smaller than the marten, and not quite so

100 PKEY OF THE POLECAT.

powerful, it is found to be a more deadly eueray to rabbits, game, and
poultry than is any other animal of its size.

It is wonderfully bold when engaged upon its marauding expeditions,
and maintains an impertinently audacious air even when it is inter-
cepted in the act of destruction. Not only does it make victims of the
smaller poultry, such as ducks and chickens, but attacks geese, turkeys,
and otlier larger birds with perfect readiness. This ferocious little
creature has a terrible habit of destroying the life of every animal
that may be in the same chamber with itself, and if it should gain ad-
mission into a henhouse will kill every one of the inhabitants, although
it may not be able to eat the twentieth part of its victims. It seems
to be very fond of sucking the blood of the animals which it destroys,
and appears to commence its repast by eating the brains. If several
victims should come in its way, it will kill them all, suck their blood,
and eat the brains, leaving the remainder of the body untouched.

This animal is famous not only for its bloodthirsty disposition, but
for the horrid odor which exhales from its body, and which seems to
be partially under the control of the owner. When the Polecat is
wounded or annoyed in any way, this disgusting odor becomes almost
unbearable, and has the property of adhering for a long time to any
substance with which it may come in contact.

The Polecat does not restrict itself to terrestrial game, but also wages
war against the inhabitants of rivers and ponds. PVogs, toads, newts,
and fish are among the number of the creatures that fall victims to its
rapacity. Even the formidably-defended nests of the wild bees are
said to yield up their honeyed stores to the fearless attack of this ra-
pacious creature.

As to rabbits, hares, and other small animals, the Polecat seems to
catch and devour them almost at will. The hares it can capture either
by stealing upon them as they lie asleep in their " forms," or by pa-
tiently tracking them through their meanderings, and hunting them
down fairly by scent. The rabbits flee in vain for safety into their sub-
terranean strongholds, for the Polecat is quite at home in such local-
ities, and can traverse a burrow with greater agility than the rabbits
themselves. Even the rats that are. found so plentifully about the
waterside are occasionally pursued into their holes and there captured.
Pheasants, partridges, and all kinds of game are favorite prey with
Polecats, which secure them by a happy admixture of agility and craft.
So very destructive are these animals that a single family is quite suf-
ficient to depreciate the value of a warren or a covert to no small ex-
tent.

The Polecat is a tolerably prolific animal, producing four or five
young at a litter. The locality which the mother selects for the nur-
sery of her future family is generally at the bottom of a burrow, which

THE FEKRET AND THE MINK. 101

is scooped iii light and dry soil, defended if possible by the roots of
trees. In this subterranean abode a warm nest is constructed, composed
of various dried leaves and of moss, laid with singular smoothness.
The young Polecats make their appearance toward the 'end of May or
the beginning of June.

The Ferret is well known as the constant companion of the rat-
catcher and the rabbit-hunter, being employed for the purpose of fol-

The Ferret [Mustela Furo).

lowing its prey into their deepest recesses, and of driving them from
their strongholds into the open air, when the pursuit is taken up by its
master. The mode in which the Ferret is employed is too well known
to need a detailed description.

It is a fierce little animal, and is too apt to turn upon its owner and
wound him severely before he suspects that the creature is actuated by
any ill-intentions. I once witnessed a rather curious example of the
uncertainty of the Ferret's temper. A lad who possessed a beautiful
white Ferret had partially tamed the creature, and thought that it was
quite harmless. The Ferret was accustomed to crawl about his person,
and would permit itself to be caressed almost as freely as a cat. But
on one unfortunate morning, when its owner was vaunting the perform-
ances of his protegee — for it was a female — the creature made a quiet
but rapid snap at his mouth, and drove its teeth through both his
lips, making four cuts as sharply defined as if they had been made
with a razor.

On account of its water-loving propensities, the Mink is called by
various names that bear relation to water. By some persons it is
called the Smaller Otter, or sometimes the Musk Otter, while it is
kn@wn to others under the title of the Water-Polecat. It also goes by
the name of the Nurek Vison.

The Mink is spread over a very large extent of country, being found

102 THE COMMON WEASEL.

in the most northern parts of Europe, and also in North America.
Its fur is usually brown, with some white about the jaws, but seems to
be subject to considerable variations of tinting. Some specimens are
of a much paler brown than others ; in some individuals the fur is
nearly black about the head, while the white patch that is found on
the ciiin is extremely variable in dimensions. The size, too, is rather
variable.

It frequents the banks of ponds, rivers, and marshes, seeming to
prefer the stillest Avaters in the autumn, and the rapidly-flowing cur-
rents in spring. As may be supposed from the nature of its haunts, its
food consists almost wholly of fish, frogs, crawfish, aquatic insects, and
other creatures that are to be found either in the waters or in their close
vicinity. The general shape of its body is not quite the same as that of
the marten or ferret, and assumes something of the otter aspect. The
teeth, however, are nearer those of the polecat than of the otter, and its
tail, although not so fully charged with hair as the corresponding mem-
ber in the polecat, is devoid of that muscular power and tapering form
which is so strongly characteristic of the otter. The feet are well
adapted for swimming, on account of a slight webbing between the toes.

The fur of this animal is excellent in quality, and is by many per-
sons valued very highly. By the furriers it passes under the name of
" Moenk," and it is known by two other names, " Tutucuri " and " Noers."
As it bears a great resemblance to the fur of the sable, it is often fraud-
ulently substituted for that article— a deception which is the more to
be regretted, as the fur of the Mink is a really excellent one, handsome
in its appearance, and extremely warm in character. By some authors
the identity of the Mink with the water-polecat has been doubted, but,
as it appears, without sufficient reason.

There is hardly any animal which, for its size, is so much to be
dreaded by the creatures on which it preys as the Common Weasel.
Although its diminutive proportions render a single Weasel an insig-
nificant opponent to man or dog, yet it can wage a sharp battle even
with such powerful foes, and refuses to yield except at the last necessity.

The proportions of the Weasel are extremely small, the male being
rather larger than the opposite sex. In total length, a full-grown male
does not much exceed ten inches, of which the tail occupies more than
a fifth, while the female is rather more than an inch shorter than her
mate. The color of its fur is a bright reddish brow^n on the upper
parts of the body, and the under portions are of a pure white, the line
of demarcation being tolerably well defined, but not very sharply cut.

It IS a terrible foe to many of the smaller rodents, such as rats and
mice, and performs a really good service to the farmer by destroying
many of these farmyard pests. It follows them wherever they may be,
and mercdessly destroys them, whether they have taken up their sum-

ITS MODE OF ATTACK. 103

mer abode in the hedge-rows and river-banks, or whether they have re-
tired to winter-quarters among the barns and ricks. Many farmers are
in the habit of destroying the Weasels, which they look upon as " ver-
min," but it is now generally thought that, although the Weasel may
be guilty of destroying a chicken or duckling now and then, it may yet
plead its great services in the destruction of mice as a cause of acquittal.
The Weasel is specially dreaded by rats and mice, because there is no
hole through which either of these animals can pass which will not quite
as readily suffer the passage of the Weasel ; and, as the Weasel is most
determined and pertinacious in pursuit, it seldom happens that rats or
mice escape when their little foe has set itself fairly on their track.

The Weasel has been seen to catch and to kill a bunting by creeping
quietly toward a thistle on which the bird was perching, and then to

The Weasel {Mustela Vulgaris).

leap suddenly upon it before it could use its wings. When it seizes an
animal that is likely to make its escape, the Weasel flings its body over
that of its victim, as if to prevent it from struggling. In single combat
with a large and powerful rat, the Weasel has but little hope of success
unless it should be able to attack from behind, as the long, chisel-edged
teeth of the rat are terrible weapons against so small an animal as the
Weasel. The modes of attack employed by the two animals are of a
different character, the rat making a succession of single bites, while
the Weasel is accustomed to fasten its teeth on the head or neck of its
opponent, and there to retain its hold until it has drained the blood of
its victim. The fore-legs of the Weasel are of very great service in
such a contest, for when it has fixed its teeth it embraces its opponent
firmly in its fore-limbs, and, rolling over on its side, holds its antagonist
in its unyielding grasp, which is never relaxed as long as a spark of life
is left.

Like the polecat and others of the same group of animals, the Weasel

104 THE STOAT.

is most destructive in its Dature, killing many more animals than it can
devour, simply for the mere pleasure of killing. It is curious to notice
how the savage mind, whether it belongs to man or beast, actually revels
in destruction, is maddened to absolute frenzy by the sight of blood,
and is urged by a kind of fiery delirium to kill and to pour out the
vital fluid. Soldiers in the heat of action have often declared that
everything which they saw was charged with a blood-red hue, but that
the details of the conflict had entirely passed from their minds. A sin-
gle Weasel, urged by some such destructive spirit, has been known to
make its way into a cage full of freshly-caught song-birds, and to de-
stroy every single bird. The little assassin was discovered lying quite
at its ease in a corner of the cage, surrounded with the dead bodies of
its victims.

To persons who have had but little experience in the habits of wild
animals, it is generally a matter of some surprise that the celebrated
Ermine fur, which is in such general favor, should be produced by one
of those very animals which we are popularly accustomed to rank among
" vermin," and to exterminate in every possible way. Yet so it is.
The highly-prized Ermine and the much-detested Stoat are, in fact,
one and the same animal, the difference in the color of their coats be-
ing caused solely by the larger or smaller proportion of heat to which
they have been subjected.

In the summer-time, the fur of the Stoat — by which name the an-
imal will be designated, whether it be wearing its winter or summer

dress — is not unlike
that of the weasel, al-
though the dark parts
of the fur are not so
ruddy or the light por^
Srp-5 tions of so pure a white
as in that animal. The
toes and the edges of
the ears are also white.
^ TiiK Stoat ok Krmine (Winter Dress). The change of color

which takes place during the colder months of the year is now as-
certained, with tolerable accuracy, to be caused by an actual whitening
of the fur, and not by the gradual substitution of white for dark hairs,
as was for some time supposed to be the case.

The hairs are not entirely white, even in their most completely
blanched state, but partake of a very delicate cream-yellow, especially
upon the under portions, while the slightly bushy tip of the tail retains
its original black tinting, and presents a singular contrast to the remain-
der of the fur. In these comparatively temperate latitudes, the Stoat
is never sufficiently blanched to render its fur of any commercial value.

THE RATEL. 105

As may be supposed from th^ extreme delicacy of the skin in its wintry
whiteness, the capture of the Stoat for the purpose of obtaining its fur
is a mattter of no small difficulty. The traps which are used for the
purpose of destroying the Stoat are formed so as to kill the animal by
a sudden blow, without wounding the skin, and many of the beautiful
little creatures are taken in ordinary snares.

In this country, where the lowest temperature is considerably above
that of the ordinary wintry degrees, the Stoat is very uncertain in its
change of fur, and seems to yield to or to resist the effects of the cold
weather according to the individuality of the particular animal.

The Stoat is considerably larger than the weasel, measuring rather
more than fourteen inches in total length, of which the tail occupies
rather more than four inches. There is, however, considerable differ-
ence in the size of various individuals.

It is a most determined hunter, pursuing its game with such perti-
nacious skill that it very seldom permits its intended prey to es-
cape, and by dint of perseverance can capture even the swift-footed
hare.

When the female Stoat is providing for the wants of a young family,
she forages far and wide for her offspring, and lays up the produce of
her chase in certain cunningly-contrived larders. In a wood belonging
to Lord Bagot, a Stoat nursery was discovered, having within it no less
than six inhabitants, a mother and her five young. Their larder was
supplied with five hares and four rabbits, neither of which had been in
the least mangled, with the exception of the little wound that had
caused its death.

In the clumsy-looking animal which is called the Ratel, a beauti-
ful adaptation of nature is manifested. Covered from the tip of the
nose to the insertion of the claws with thick, coarse, and rough fur,
and provided, moreover, with a skin that lies very loosely on the
body, the Katel is marvellously adapted to the peculiar life which it
leads.

Although the Ratel is in all probability indebted for its food to va-
rious sources, the diet which it best loves is composed of the combs and
young of the honey-bee. So celebrated is the animal for its predi-
lection for this sweet dainty that it has earned for itself the title of
Honey Ratel, or Honey Weasel. The reason for its extremely thick
coating of fur is now evident. The animal is necessarily exposed to
the attacks of the infuriated bees when it lays siege to their fastnesses,
and if it were not defended by a coating which is impenetrable to their
stings, it would soon fall a victim to the poisoned weapons of its myriad
foes.

During the daytime the Ratel remains in its burrow, but as evening
begins to draw near it emerges from its place of repose, and sets off

106

THE WOLVERENE.

on its bee-hunting expeditions. As the animal is unable to climb trees,
a bees' nest that is made in a hollow tree-limb is safe from its attacks.
But the greater number of wild bees make their nests in the deserted
mansions of the termite, or the forsaken burrows of various animals.
It is said that the Ratel finds its way to the bees' nests by watching
the direction in which the bees return toward their homes.

The color of the Ratel is black upon the muzzle, the limbs, and the
■whole of the under portions of the body ; but upon the upper part of
the head, neck, back, ribs, and tail, the animal is furnished with a thick
covering of long hairs, which are of an ashy gray color. A bright
gray stripe, about an inch in width, runs along each side and serves
as a line of demarcation between the light and the dark portions of the
fur. The ears of the Ratel are extremely short. The lighter fur of
the back is variously tinted in different individuals, some being of the
whitish gray which has been already mentioned, and others remark-
able for a decided tinge of red. The length of the Cape Ratel is
rather more than three feet, inclusive of the tail, which measures eight
or nine inches in length. In its walk it is plantigrade, and has so
much of the ursine character in its movements that it has been called
the Indian or Honey Bear. It is sometimes known under the title of
" Bharsiah."

The animal which has just been described is an inhabitant of South-
ern Africa, being found in great profusion at the Cape of Good Hope.
There is, however, an Indian species of Ratel, which very closely re-
sembles the African animal, and in the opinion of some writers is iden-
tical with it.

The Wolverene — more popularly known by the name of the Glut-
ton— has earned for itself a world-wide reputation for ferocity, and has

given occasion to
some of the older wri-
ters on natural his-
tory to indulge in the
most unshackled lib-
erty of description.

It is known that

the Glutton feeds

largely on the

smaller quadrupeds,

and that it is a

most determined foe

to the beaver in the

The Wolverene (Gulo luscus). summer months.

During the winter it has little chance of catching a beaver, for the

animals are quietly ensconced in their home, and their houses are

THE SKUNK AND THE TELEDU. 107

rendered so strong by the intense cold that the Glutton is unable to
break through their ice-hardened walls.

The Wolverene is an inhabitant of Northern America, Siberia, and
a great part of Northern Europe. It was once thought that the Glut-
ton and the Wolverene were distinct animals, but it is now ascertained
that they both belong to the same species.

The general aspect of this animal is not unlike that of a young bear,
and probably on that account it was placed by Linnaeus among the
bears under the title of Ursus Luscm. The general color of the Wol-
verene is a brownish black; the muzzle is black as far as the eyebrows,
and the space between the eyes of a browner hue. In some specimens
a few white spots are scattered upon the under jaw. The sides
of the body are washed with a tint of a warmer hue. The paws are
quite black, and the contrast between the jetty fur of the feet and the
almost ivory whiteness of the claws is extremely curious. These white
claws are much esteemed among the natives for the purpose of being
manufactured into certain feminine adornments.

The Skunk, which is so celebrated for the horrible odor which em-
anates from it, belongs to the Weasel tribe.

Scarcely less remarkable for its ill-odor than the skunk, the Teledu
is not brought so prominently before the public eye as the animal which
has just been mentioned.

It is a native of Java, and seems to be confined to those portions
of the country that are not less than seven thousand feet above the
level of the sea. On certain portions of these elevated spots, the
Teledu — or Stinkard, as it is popularly called— can always be found.
The earth is lighter on these spots than in the valleys, and is better
suited to the habits of the Teledu, which roots in the earth after the
manner of hogs, in search of the worms and insects which constitute
its chief food. This habit of turning up the soil renders it very ob-
noxious to the native agriculturists, as it pursues the worms in their
subterraneous meanderings, and makes sad havoc among the freshly-
planted seeds. It is also in the habit of doing much damage to the
sprouting plants by eating off their roots.

We are indebted to Mr. Horsfield for an elaborate and interesting
account of the Teledu, an animal which he contrived to tame and to
watch with singular success. The following passages are selected from
his memoir :

"The Mydaus forms its dwelling at a slight depth beneath the sur-
face, in the black mould, with considerable ingenuity. Having selected
a spot defended above by the roots of a large tree, it constructs a cell
or chamber of a globular form, having a diameter of several feet, the
sides of which it makes perfectly smooth and regular ; this it provides
with a subterraneous conduit or avenue, about six feet in length, the

108 THE TELEDU.

external entrance to which it conceals with twigs and dry leaves. Dur-
ing the day it remains concealed, like a badger in its hole ; at night
it proceeds in search of its food, which consists of insects and other
larvge, and of worms of every kind. It is particularly fond of the
common lumbrici, or earth-worms, which abound in the fertile mould.
These animals, agreeably to the information of the natives, live in pairs,
and the female produces two or three young at a birth.

" The motions of the Mydaus are slow, and it is easily taken by the
natives, who by no means fear it. During my abode on the Mountain
Prahu, I engaged them to procure me individuals for preparation ; and
as they received a desirable reward, they brought them to me daily in
greater numbers than I could employ. Whenever the natives surprise
them suddenly, they prepare them for food ; the flesh is then scarcely
impregnated with the offensive odor, and is described as very delicious.
The animals are generally in excellent condition, as their food abounds
in fertile mould.

" On the Mountain Prahu, the natives, who were most active in sup-
plying me with specimens of the Mydaus, assured me that it could only
propel the fluid to the distance of about two feet. The fetid matter it-
self is of a viscid nature ; its effects depend on its great volatility, and
they spread through a great extent. The entire neighborhood of a vil-
lage is infected by the odor of an irritated Teledu, and in the immedi-
ate vicinity of the discharge it is so violent as in some persons to pro-
duce syncope. The various species of Mephitis in America differ from
the Mydaus in the capacity of projecting the fetid matter to a greater
distance.

" The Mydaus is not ferocious in its manners, and, taken young, like
the badger, might be easily tamed. An individual which I kept some
time in confinement afforded me an opportunity of observing its dispo-
sition. It soon became gentle and reconciled to its situation, and did
not at any time emit the offensive fluid. I carried it with me from
Mountain Prahu to Bladeran, a village on the declivity of that moun-
tain, where the temperature was more moderate. While a drawing was
made, the animal was tied to a small stake. It moved about quietly,
burrowing the ground with its snout and feet, as if in search of food,
without taking notice of the bystanders, or making violent efforts to
disengage itself; on earth-worms (lumbrici) being brought, it ate vora-
ciously; holding one extremity of a worm with its claws, its teeth were
employed in tearing the other. Having consumed about ten or twelve,
it became drowsy, and, making a small groove in the earth, in which it
placed its snout, it composed itself deliberately, and was soon sound
asleep."

The color of the Teledu is a blackish brown, with the exception of
the fur upon the top of the head, a stripe along the back, and the tip

THE BADGER.

109

of the short tail, which is a yellowish-white. The under surface of the
body is of a lighter hue. The fur is long and of a silken texture at
the base, and closely set together, so as to afford to the animal the warm
covering which is needed in the elevated spots where it dwells. The
hair is especially long on the sides of the neck, and curls slightly up-
ward and backward, and on the top of the head there is a small trans-
verse crest. The feet are large, and 'the claws of the fore-limbs are
nearly twice as long as those of the hinder paws.

In the whole aspect of the Teledu there is a great resemblance to the
badger, and, indeed, the animal looks very like a miniature badger, of
rather eccentric colors.

Although one of the most quiet and inoffensive of our indigenous
animals, the Badger has been subjected to such cruel persecutions as
could not be justified even if the creature were as destructive and noi-
some as it is harmless or innocu-
ous. For the purposes of so-called
"sport," the Badger was captured
and put into a cage, ready to be
tormented at the cruel will of
every ruffian who might choose to
risk his dog against the sharp teeth
of the captive animal.

Being naturally as harmless an
animal as can be imagined, it is a
terrible antagonist when provoked
to use the means of defence with
which it is so well provided. Not
only are the teeth long and sharp,
but the jaws are so formed that when the animal closes its mouth the
jaws "lock" together by a peculiar structure of their junction with
the skull, and retain their hold without any need of any special effort
on the part of the animal.

Unlike the generality of the weasel tribe, the Badger is slow and
clumsy in its actions, and rolls along so aw'kwardly in its gait that it
may easily be mistaken for a young pig in the dark of the evening, at
which time it first issues from its burrow. The digging capacities of
the Badger are very great, the animal being able to sink itself into the
ground with marvellous rapidity. For this power it is indebted to the
long curved claws with which the fore-feet are armed, and to the great
development of the muscles that work the fore-limbs.

In its burrow the female Badger makes her nest and rears her young,
which are generally three or four in number.

The food of the Badger is of a mixed character, being partly vegeta-
ble and partly animal. Snails and worms are greedily devoured by

10

The Badger {Meles Taxus).

110

THE OTTEK.

this creature, and the wild bees, wasps, and other fossorial Hymeno-
ptera find a most destructive foe in the Badger, which scrapes away the
protecting earth and devours honey, cells, and grubs together, without
being deterred from its meal by the stings of the angry bees.

As is the case with the generality of weasels, the Badger is furnished
with an apparatus which secretes a substance of an exceedingly ofi?ensive
odor, to which circumstance is probably owing much of the popular
prejudice against the "stinking brock."

The colors of the Badger are gray, black, and w hite, which are some-
what curiously distributed. The head is white, with the exception of
a rather broad and very definitely-marked black line on each side, com-
mencing near the snout and ending at the neck, including the eye and
the ear in its course. The body is of a reddish gray, changing to a
white gray on the ribs and tail. The throat, chest, abdomen, legs, and
feet are of a deep blackish brown. The average length of the Bad-
ger is two feet six inches, and its height at the shoulder eleven
inches.

Although by no means a large animal, the Otter has attained a

The Utter {Lutm vulgaris),

universal reputation as a terrible and persevering foe to fish. Be-
ing possessed of a very discriminating palate, and invariably choosing
the finest fish that can be found in the locality, the Otter is the object

THE CHINESE OTTER. Ill

of the profoundest hate to the proprietors of streams aod to all human
fishermen.

When the Otter is engaged in eating the fish it has captured, it holds
the slippery prey between its fore-paws, and, beginning with the back
of the neck, eats away the flesh from the neck toward the tail, reject-
ing the head, tail, and other portions.

For the pursuit of its finny prey the Otter is admirably adapted by na-
ture. The body is lithe and serpentine ; the feet are furnished with a
broad web that connects the toes, and is of infinite service in propel-
ling the animal through the water; the tail is long, broad, and flat,
proving a powerful and effectual rudder, by which its movements are
directed ; and the short, powerful legs are so loosely jointed that the
animal can turn them in almost any direction. The teeth are sharp and
strong, and of great service in preventing the slippery prey from escaping.

The color of the Otter varies slightly according to the light in which
it is viewed, but is generally of a rich brown tint, intermixed with
whitish gray. This color is lighter along the back and the outside of
the legs than on the other parts of the body, which are of a paler
grayish hue. Its habitation is made on the bank of the river which
it frequents, and is rather inartificial in its character, as the creature
is fonder of occupying some natural crevice or deserted excavation
than of digging a burrow for itself. The nest of the Otter is com-
posed of dry rushes, flags, or other aquatic plants, and is purposely
placed as near the water as possible, so that in case of a sudden alarm
the mother Otter may plunge into the stream together with her young
family, and find a refuge among the vegetation that skirts the river-
banks. The number of the young is from three to five, and they make
their appearance about March or April.

The fur of the Otter is so warm and handsome that it is in some
request for commercial purposes. The entire length of the animal is
rather under three feet and a half, of which the tail occupies about
fourteen or fifteen inches. On the average it weighs about twenty-
three pounds, but there are examples which have far surpassed that
weight. Mr. Bell records an instance of a gigantic Otter that was
captured in the river Lea, between Hertford and Ware, and which
weighed forty pounds.

Although so fierce and savage an animal when attacked, the Otter
is singularly susceptible of human influence, and can be taught to
catch fish for the service of its masters rather than for the gratification
of its own palate. The Chinese or Indian Otter afl^ords an excel-
lent instance of this capability ; for in every part of India the trained
Otters are almost as common as trained dogs in England. It seems
odd that the proprietors of streams should not press the Otter into
their service instead of destroying it, and manage to convert into a

112 BEARS.

faithful friend the animal which at present is considered but as a ruth-
less enemy.

BEARS.

The Bears and their allies form a family which is small in point
of numbers, but is a very conspicuous one on account of the large
size of the greater part of its members.

The Aswail, or Sloth Bear {Melursus Lyhius),

These animals are found on almost every portion of the earth's sur-
face, and are fitted by nature to inhabit the hottest and the coldest
parts of the world. India, Borneo, and other burning lands are the
homes of sundry members of this family, such as the Bruang and the
Aswail; while the snowy regions of Northern Europe and the icebound
coasts of the Arctic Ocean are inhabited by the Brown Bear and the
Nennook or Polar Bear.

The paws of the Bears are armed with long and sharp talons, which
are not capable of retraction, but which are most efficient weapons of
offence when urged by the powerful muscles which give force to the
Bear's limbs. Should the adversary contrive to elude the quick and
heavy blows of the paw, the Bear endeavors to seize the foe round the
body, and by dint of sheer pressure to overcome its enemy. In guard-
ing Itself from the blows which are aimed at it by its adversary the

THE BROWN BEAR. 113

Bear is singularly adroit, warding off the fiercest strokes with a dex-
terity that might be envied by many a pretender to the pugilistic
art.

Several species of Bears are now recognized by systematic natural-
ists, the principal examples of which will be noticed in the following
pages.

The Bear which is most popularly known in this country is the
Brown Bear, a creature which is found rather plentifully in for-
ests and the mountainous districts of many portions of Europe and
Asia. As may be supposed from its title, the color of its fur is brown,
slightly variable in tint in different individuals, and often in the same
individual at various ages. If captured when young, the Brown
Bear is readily tamed and is capable of mastering many accomplish-
ments.

The size to which a well-fed and undisturbed Brown Bear will grow
is really surprising, for, although it loses its growing properties after its
twentieth year, it seems permanently to retain the capability of enlarge-
ment, and when in a favorable situation will live to a very great age.
The weight of an adult Brown Bear in good condition is very great,
being sometimes from seven to eight hundred pounds when the crea-
ture is remarkably fine, and from five to six hundred pounds in ordi-
nary cases. Mr. Falk remarks that a Bear which he killed was so
enorinously heavy that when slung on a pole it was a weighty burden
for ten bearers.

Ants form a favorite article of diet with a Bear, which scrapes their
nests out of the earth with its powerful talons, and laps up the ants and
their so-called " eggs " with its ready tongue. Bees and their sweet
produce are greatly to the taste of the Bear, which is said to make
occasional raids upon the beehives, and to plunder their contents.

Vegetablas of various kinds are also eaten by the Bear, and in the
selection of thess dainties the animal evinces considerable taste. Ac-
cording to Mr. Llo/d, " the Bear feeds on roots, and the leaves and
small limbs of the aspen, mountain-ash, and other trees; he is also
fond of succulent plants, such as angelica, mountain-thistle, etc. To
berries he is likewise very partial, and during the autumnal months,
when they are ripe, he devours vast quantities of cranberries, blueber-
ries, raspberries, strawberries, cloudberries, and other berries common
to the Scandinavian forests. Kipe corn he also eats, and sometimes
commits no small havoc amongst it; for, seating himself, as it is said,
on his haunches in a field of it, he collects with his outstretched arms
nearly a sheaf at a time, the ears of which he then devours."

During the autumn the Bear becomes extremely fat, in consequence
of the ample feasts which it is able to enjoy, and makes its preparations
for passing the cold and inhospitable months of winter. About the end

10* H "

114

THE BROWN BEAR.

of October the Bear has completed its winter house, and ceases feeding
for the year.

A curious phenomenon now takes place in the animal's digestive
organs, which gives it the capability of remaining through the entire
winter in a state of lethargy, without food, and yet without losing
condition.

From the end of October to the middle of April the Bear remains in
his den, in a dull lethargic state of existence ; and it is a curious fact
that if a hibernating Bear be discovered and killed in its den, it is
quite as fat as if it had been slain before it retired to its resting-place.

Experienced hunters
buy that even at the
end of its five months'
sleep the Bear is as
fat as at its beginning.
Sometimes it is said
that the Bear par-
tially awakes, and in
that case it immedi-
f^^s's^^^'^^^BI^^HfmBH^^BHHIl^^^ ately loses its sleek

condition, and be-
comes extremely thin.
During the winter the
Bear gains a new skin

"^^ '' ^ ' ^■' "Z"' . X on the balls of the

The Brown Bbau {Ursus Arc(os), ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^loyd

suggests that the curious habit of sucking the paws, to which Bears are
so prone, is in order to facilitate the growth of the new integument.

The Bear is possessed of several valuable accomplishments, being a
wonderful climber of trees and rocks, an excellent swimmer, and a good
digger.

The number of cubs which the female Bear produces is from one to
four, and they are very small during the first few^ days of their existence.
They make their appearance at the end of January or the beginning
of February, and it is a curious fact that, although the mother has at
the time been deprived of food for nearly three mouths, and does not
take any more until the spring, she is able to afl'ord ample nourishment
to her young without suffering any apparent diminution in her condi-
tion. It is said, by those who have had personal experience of the
habits of the Bear, that the mother takes the greatest care of her off-
spring during the summer, but that when winter approaches she does
not suffer them to partake of her residence, but prepares winter-quar-
ters for them in her immediate neighborhood. During the winter
another little family is born, and when they issue forth from their

THE SYRIAN BEAR AND THE GRIZZLY BEAR. 115

home they are joined by the elder cubs, and the two families pass the
next winter in the mother's den.

The Syrian Bear, which is otherwise known by the name of
DuBB, or RiTCK, is doubly interesting to us, not only on account of
its peculiarly gentle character, but from the fact that it is the animal
which is so often mentioned in the scriptural writings.

The color of this animal is rather peculiar, and varies extremely
during the different periods of its life. While it is in its earliest years,
the color of its fur is a grayish brown, but as the animal increases in
years the fur becomes gradually lighter in tint, and when the Bear has
attained maturity is nearly white. The hair is long and slightly curled,
and beneath the longer hair is a thick and warm covering of closely-set
woolly fur, which seems to defend the animal from the extremes of heat
or cold. Along the shoulders and front of the neck, the hair is so per-
pendicularly set, and projects so firmly, that it gives the appearance of
a mane, somewhat resembling that of the hysena.

At the present day the Syrian Bear may be found in the mountain-
ous parts of Palestine, and has been frequently seen upon the higher
Lebanon mountains.

The fur of this Bear is rather valuable on account of its warmth and
beauty, and the fat and the gall are also held in much esteem for vari-
ous purposes, chiefly medicinal.

America furnishes several species of the Bear tribe, two of which,
the Grizzly Bear and the Musquaw, or Black Bear, are the most
conspicuous.

The Black Bear is found in many parts of Northern America, and
was formerly seen in great plenty. But, as the fur and the fat are arti-
cles of great commercial and social value, the hunters have exercised
their craft with such determination that the Black Bears are sensibly
diminishing in number. The fur of the Black Bear is not so roughly
shaggy as that of the European or the Syrian Bear, but is smooth and
glossy in its appearance, so that it presents a very handsome aspect
to the eye, while its texture is as thick and warm as that of its rougher
furred relations.

There are few animals which are so widely and deservedly dreaded
as the Grizzly Bear. This terrible animal is an inhabitant of many
portions of Northern America, and is the acknowledged superior of
every animal that ranges over the same country.

The other members of the ursine family are not given to attacking
human beings, unless they are alarmed or wounded, but the Grizzly — or
" Ephraim," as the creature is familiarly termed by the hunters — dis-
plays a most unpleasant readiness to assume the offensive as soon as it
perceives a man, be he mounted or on foot, armed or otherwise.

So tenacious of life is the Grizzly Bear that unless it receives a wound

116

THE SUN-BEAK AND THE NENNOOK.

iu the head or heart it will continue its furious struggles, even though
it be riddled with bullets and its body pierced with many a gaping
wound. These warlike capacities render the creature respected by the
natives and colonists, and the slaughter of a Grizzly Bear in fair fight is
considered an extremely high honor. Among the native tribes that
dwell in the northern portions of America, the possession of a necklace

formed from the claws
of the Grizzly Bear is
considered as enviable
a mark of distinction as
a blue ribbon among
the English. No one
is permitted to wear
such an ornament un-
less the Bear has fallen
under his hand; conse-
quently, the value of the
decoration is almost in-
calculable. So largely
is this mark of distinc-
tion prized that the In-
dian who has achieved
such a dignity can hard-
ly be induced to part
with his valued ornament by any remuneration that can be offered.

The color of the Grizzly Bear is extremely variable — so much so,
indeed, that some zoologists have suggested the existence of two
distinct species. Sometimes the color of the fur is a dullish brown,
plentifully flecked with grizzled hairs, and in other specimens the entire
fur is of a beautiful steely gray.

There is a small group of these animals called Sun-Beaes, from
their habit of basking in the sun instead of hiding in their dens during
the hours of daylight. A very curious example of the Sun-Bears is
found in the species which is known by the name of the Bruang or
Malayan Sun-Bear, and has been rendered famous by the spirited
description of its appearance and habits which has been given by Sir
Stamford Raflles.

There is generally an aquatic member of each group of animals
throughout the vertebrate kingdom, and among the Bears this part is
filled by the Nennook, or Polar Bear, sometimes called, on account
of its beautiful silvery fur, the White Bear. As has already been
mentioned, the Bears are good swimmers, and are able to cross channels
of considerable width, but we have, in the person of the Nennook, an
animal that is especially formed for traversing the waters and for

The Grizzly Bear ( Ursus ferox

THE POLAR BEAR.

117

passing its existence among the ice-mountains of the northern re-
gions.

So active is this Bear, and so admirable are its powers of aquatic
locomotion, that it has been known to plunge into the water in chase
of a salmon, and to return to the surface with the captured fish in its
mouth. And when it is engaged in the pursuit of seals, as they are
sleeping on a rock or an ice-raft, it is said to employ a very ingenious
mode of approach. Marking the position in which its intended prey
lies, it quietly slips into the water, and, diving below the surface, swims
in the intended direction until it is forced to return to the surface in
order to breathe. As soon as it has filled its lungs with fresh air it
again submerges it-
self and resumes its
course, timing its
submarine journeys
so well that when it
ascends to the surface
for the last time it is
in close proximity to
the slumbering seal.
The fate of the un-
fortunate victim is
now settled, for it
cannot take refuge
in the water with-
out falling into the
clutches of its pur- ^"^^ Polar Bear {Thalfrrdos maritimus).

suer, and if it' endeavors to escape by land it is speedily overtaken
and destroyed by the swifter-footed Bear.

So powerful an animal as the Polar Bear must necessarily be very
dangerous when considered in the light of a foe. Sometimes it runs
away as soon as it sees or smells a human being, but at others it is
extremely malicious, and will attack a man without any apparent
reason. As is the case with nearly all the Bears, it is very tenacious
of life, and even when pierced with many wounds will fight in the
most desperate manner, employing both teeth and claws in the combat,
and only yielding the struggle with its life.

The color of the Neunook's fur is a silvery white, tinged with a slight
yellow hue, rather variable in diflTerent individuals. Even in specimens
that were confined in the Zoological Gardens there was a perceptible
difference in the tint of their fur, the coat of one of them being of a
purer white than that of the other. The yellowish tinge which has
just been mentioned is very similar to the creamy yellow hue which
edges the ermine's fur. The feet are armed with strong claws of no

118

THE KACOON.

very great length, and but slightly curved. Their color is black, so
that they form a very bold contrast with the white fur that falls over
the feet. Even at a considerable distance, and by means of its mere
outline, the Polar Bear may be distinguished from every other member
of the Bear tribe by its peculiar shape. The neck is, although
extremely powerful, very long in proportion to the remainder of the
body, and the head is so small and sharp that there is a very snake-
like aspect about that portion of the animal's person.

The young of the Nennook are generally two in number, and, when
they make their first appearance outside the snow-built nursery in
which their few months of existence have been passed, are about the
size of shepherds' dogs and in excellent condition.

Preserving somewhat of the ursine aspect and much of the ursine
habits, the Racoon — or Mapach, as it is sometimes named — is an
active, spirited, and amusing animal. As it is readily tamed, although
rather subject to occasional infirmity of temper, and is inquisitive,
quaint, and lively withal, it is a great favorite with such persons as
have kept it in captivity.

The color of this animal is rather peculiar, and not very easy to
describe. The general tint of the body and limbs is an undecided
blackish gray, the gray and black predominating according to the posi-
tion of the observer and the arrangement of the fur. Tlie hairs that

form the coat of the Racoon
are of two kinds, the one of
a soft and woolly character,
lying next to the skin, and
the other composed of long
and rather stiflT hairs that
project through the wool for
some distance. The woolly fur
is of a uniform gray, while the
longer hairs are alternately
marked with black and gray-
ish w^iite. Upon the top of
the head and across the eyes
the fur is of a very dark black-
ish brown, and upon the knee-joint of each leg it is of a darker tint than
on the rest of the body. The tail is rather short and bushy in cha-
racter, and is marked with five, or sometimes six, blackish rings upon
a ground of dark gray.

As is indicated by the peculiar nature of its teeth, the Racoon is
capable of feeding on animal or vegetable food, but seems to prefer the
latter. Indeed, there seem to be few things which the Racoon will
not eat. One of these animals ate a piece of cedar pencil which it

The Racoon {Procyoit Lotor).

THE RACOON. 119

snatched out of my hand, and tried very hard to eat the envelop of a
letter on which I was making notes. Not succeeding in the attempt, it
consoled itself by tearing the paper into minute morsels, employing
teeth and paws in the attempt. It did its best to get a ring off ray
finger by hitching one of its crooked claws into the ring and pulling
with all its strength, wiiich was very considerable in proportion to the
size of the animal. Its brown eyes lighted up with animation when
engaged in play, and it was very fond of pushing its paw through the
bars of its cage in order to attract attention.

In its native state it is a great devourer of oysters, crabs, and other
similar animals, displaying singular ingenuity in opening the stubborn
shells of the oysters, or in despatching the crabs without suffering from
their ready claws. Sometimes it is said to fall a victim to the oyster,
and to be held so firmly by the closing shells that it cannot extricate
itself, and perishes miserably by the rising tide. Its oyster-eating
propensities have been questioned, but are now clearly proven. The
sand and soil that fringe the oyster-beds are frequently seen to be cover-
ed with the foot-marks of this animal.

It is always fond of water, drinking largely, and immersing its food,
so as to moisten it as much as possible. When engaged in this curious
custom it grasps the food in both its fore-paws, and shakes it violently
backward and forward in the water. On account of this remarkable
habit it has been dignified with the title of Lotor, " a washer." The
German naturalists term it Wasch-B'dr, or Washing Bear.

Roving at night through the woods, and being gifted with singular
subtlety as well as agility, it is frequently chased by the residents, who
think a 'Coon-hunt to be one of the most exciting of sports. Certainly,
to judge from the animated descriptions of such scenes, the whole affair
must be marvellously picturesque to the eye as well as exciting to the
mind. The usual plan of hunting the 'Coon is to set an experienced
dog on its trail, and to chase it until it takes refuge in a tree. A blaz-
ing fire of pins chips is then built under the tree, which illuminates its
branches and renders the smallest leaf perceptible. A good climber
then ascends the tree, and speedily dislodges the concealed animal.

In size the Racoon equals a small fox, to which animal it bears a
slight external resemblance. The number of its young is usually two
or three, and they make their appearance in the month of May.

The animals which compose the curious genus that is known by the
name of Narica are easily recognized on account of the singular
length of the nose, which is prolonged so as to form a miniature and
mobile proboscis. In their general habits and diet they very strongly
resemble the racoons, and are as admirable climbers of trees as can be
found in the animal kingdom.

The extraordinary snout with which the Coaitis are gifted is very

120

THE COAITI-MONDI.

i!|Si;Vi!^t>

useful to the possessor, being employed for the purpose of rooting in
the ground in search of worms and insects, together with other import-
ant uses. When they drink, the Coaitis lap the water after the manner
of dogs, and when so engaged turn up their flexible snout, so as to keep
that useful member from being wetted more than is necessary. They are
inhabitants of Southern America, and are found in small companies
upon the trees among which they reside, and on the thin branches of
which they find the greater part of their food. Two examples of the
Coaitis will be briefly described.

The CoAiTi-MONDi, or Ked Coaiti, derives its name from the reddish
chestnut hue which prevails over the greater portion of the fur, and is

only broken by the black ears and
legs, the maroon-colored bands
upon the tail, and the white hairs
which edge the upper jaw and
entirely cover the lower. The
texture of the fur is rather harsh
and wiry, and of no very great
importance in commerce. Upon
the paws are certain curious tu-
bercles, which alone would serve
to identify the animal were it
entirely destroyed with the excep-
tion of a single foot. It is ex-
tremely active in the ascent and
descent of trees, and pursues its prey among the limbs with great cer-
tainty. Its food Consists of sundry vegetable and animal substances,
but the creature seems to prefer the latter to the former.

It is a nocturnal animal, and does not show its true liveliness until
the shades of evening begin to draw on, but lies curled up in a curious
but comfortable attitude, its long and bushy tail serving for blanket
and pillow. Toward evening, however, the Coaiti rouses itself from
its lethargy, and becomes full of life and vigor, careering about the
branches with extraordinary rapidity of movement and certainty of
hold, and agitating its mobile nose with unceasing energy, as if for the
purpose of discovering by the snout the presence of some welcome food.
It is a merciless robber of birds' nests, and will eat parent, eggs, or
young with equal appetite.

Althouirh possessed of a very irritable temper, the Coaiti is tamed
without difficulty to a certain extent, but is always capricious in its
affections, and cannot be trusted without danger. When attacked by
men or do.irs, the Coaiti fights desperately, and can inflict such dangerous
wounds with its double-edged canine teeth that it is, although so small
an animal, no despicable antagonist.

The Coaiti-Mo.sdi {Nasua Rufa).

THE BROWN COAITI AND THE KINKAJOU.

121

Another species of Coaiti inhabits the same regions as the last-men-
tioned animal. This is the Narica, or Quasje, which is sometimes
called the Brown Coaiti, in order to distinguish it from the red
species. Sometimes the name is spelled " Quaschi."

The singular creature which is known under the title of Kinkajou,
or Potto, is an inhabitant of Southern America, and is spread over

The Kinkajou or Potto [C'ercoleptes caudivolvulus).

a very large extent of country, so that it is known in different places
under different appellations, such as Honey Bear, Manaviri, or Gu-
chumbi. When fully grown, the Kinkajou is equal to a large cat in
size, but is very much stronger in proportion to the dimensions of its
body. The color of the animal is a very light dun, obscurely traversed
by narrow darker bands, that run over the back toward the ribs and
partly follow their course. Another darker band is observable round
the neck, but all these marks are so very indistinct that they can only
be seen in a favorable light.

The most remarkable point in this animal is the extreme length and
flexibility of the tongue, which it is able to protrude to a marvellous
extent, and which it can insinuate into the smallest crevices in search
of the insects which have taken shelter therein. It is said that the an-
imal employs its long tongue for the purpose of thrusting that organ
into the bee-cells and licking out the sweet contents of the waxen treas-
11

122

THE COMMON MOLE.

ury. With its tongue it can perform many offices of an elephant's
trunk, and will frequently seize and draw toward its mouth the articles
of food which may be beyond the reach of its lips. It has also been
seen to use its tail for the same purpose.

Assisted by its prehensile tail, the Kinkajou is an admirable and
fearless climber, possessing the capability of suspending its body by the
hinder feet and the tail, and remaining in this inverted attitude for a
considerable space of time. It is evidently nocturnal in its habits,
being sadly distressed by the effect of daylight upon its eyes.

It is easily tamed, and when domesticated is of a sportful nature,
delighting to play with those persons whom it knows and trusts, and
making pretence to bite, after the manner of puppies and kittens. It
is very susceptible to kindness, and is fond of the caresses which are
offered by its friends. In its wild state, however, it is a rather fierce
animal, and when assaulted offers such a spirited resistance, even to
human foes, that it will beat off any but a determined man, supposing
him to be unarmed and unassisted.

INSECTIYORA.

The animals which are comprised in the Insect-eating group are well
represented in England, in which country we find the Mole, the vari-
ous Shrews, and the Hedgehog, as examples of the Talpid^, or the
family of the Moles.

Some of these creatures, such as the shrew, present so close an ex-
ternal resemblance to the common mice that they are popularly sup-
posed to belong to the same class, and are called by the same general
name. Many species live beneath the surface of the earth, and seek
in that dark hunting-ground the prey which cannot be enticed to the
NiX-^s.' '^N\^"-^^ "- ^^ surface in sufficient numbers to

^>^v^^^^ — \$5^^^\ supply adequate nourishment for

the ever-hungry worm-devourers.
Of all the insect-eating animals,
there is none wdiich is better known
by name than the Common Mole,
and very few which are less known
^y^^. ..-_. ^ ^ l^y their true character.

The Mole {Td^a Europcea). " On inspecting a living Mole that

has been captured on the surface of earth, and comparing it with the
multitudinous creatures that find their subsistence on the earth's sur-
face, rejoicing in the full light of day, and free to wander as they please,
we cannot but feel some emotions of surprise at the sight of a creature
which is naturally debarred from all these sources of gratification, and
which passes its life in darkness below the surface of the ground.

SENSES OF THE MOLE. 123

Yet this pity, natural though it be, will be entirely thrown away, for
there is scarcely any creature that lives which is better fitted for enjoy-
ment, or which is urged by more fiery passions. Dull and harmless as
it may appear to be, it is in reality one of the most ferocious animals
in ^existence, and will engage in the fiercest combats upon very slight
provocation. While thus employed, its whole faculties are so entirely
absorbed in its thirst for revenge that it will leave the subterraneous
shafts which it has been so busily excavating, and join battle with its
foe in the full light of day. Should one of the combatants overpower
and kill the other, the victorious Mole springs upon the vanquished
enemy, tears its body open, and, eagerly plunging its nose into the
wound, drinks the blood of its slaughtered enemy, and feasts richly on
the sanguine banquet.

With the exception of sight, the senses of the Mole seem to be re-
markably developed.

The sense of smell is singularly acute, and enables the animal to dis-
cover the presence of the earthworms on which it feeds, and to chase
them successfully through their subterrauean meanderings.

The hearing of the Mole is proverbially excellent ; and it is probable
that the animal is aided in its pursuit of worms by the sense of hear-
ing as well as by that of smell. Much of the Mole's safety is prob-
ably owing to its exquisite hearing, which gives it timely notice of the
approach of any living being, and enables it to secure itself by rapidly
sinking below the surface of the earth. "To tread so softly that the
blind Mole may not hear a footfiill " is an expression which has become
a household word.

The sense of touch is peculiarly delicate, and seems to be chiefly res-
ident in the long and flexible nose, which is employed by the Mole for
other purposes than that of scent. When the creature is placed upon
the surflice of the ground, and is about to sink one of its far-famed tun-
nels, it employs its nose for that purpose almost as effectually as its
armed fore-paws.

It seldom happens that all the senses of an animal are developed to
an equal extent, so that where one or two are singularly acute, it is
generally at the expense of the others. Such is the case with the
Mole ; for, although the scent, touch, and hearing are remarkable for
their excellence, the sight is so extremely defective that it may almost
be considered as a nullity. It is true that the Mole possesses eyes ; but
those organs of vision are so small, and so deeply hidden in the fur, that
they can be of but little use to the owner, except to mark the distinc-
tions between light and darkness. The eyes are so exceedingly small
that their very existence has been denied, and it is only by a careful
search that they can be seen at all.

The fore-paws are extremely large, and furnished with strong and

124 HABITS OF THE MOLE.

flattened nails. They are turned rather obliquely, as seen in the figure,
in order to give free scope to their exertions. The paws are devoid of
the soft fur that shields the rest of the body, and are covered with 9
thick but naked skin. It is chiefly to these paws that any mould is
found adherent when the Mole is captured, for the soft and velvet-like
fur permits no earthy stain to defile its glossy smoothness.

The Mole is said to be an excellent swimmer, and to be able to cross
rivers when led to such an act by any adequately powerful motive.
How far true this assertion may be I cannot prove by personal experi-
ence ; but I think it is likely to be possible, for I have seen a Mole swim
across the bend of a brook — a distance of some few yards — and perform
its natatory achievement with great ease. I was not near enough to
ascertain the mode of its progression, but it seemed to use its fore-paws
as the principal instruments of locomotion. This circumstance took
place in Wiltshire.

From all accounts, the Mole seems to be a thirsty animal, and to
stand in constant need of water, drinking every few hours in the course
of the day. In order to supply this want it is in the habit of sinking
well-like pits in different parts of its " runs," so that it may never be
without the means of quenching its thirst. Everything that the Mole
does is marked with that air of desperate energy which is so character-
istic of the animal. The laborers in different parts of England all unite
in the same story, that the Mole works for three hours " like a horse,"
and then rests for three hours, laboring and resting alternately through
the day, and with admirable perception of time.

The Avell-known " mole-hills," which stud certain lands, and which
disfigure them so sadly, however much their unsightliness may be com-
pensated by their real usefulness, are of various kinds, according to the
sex and age of the miner. The small hillocks which follow each other
in rapid succession are generally made by the female Mole before she
has produced her little family, and when she is not able to undergo the
great labor of digging in the harder soil. Sometimes the " run " is so
shallow as to permit the superincumbent earth to fall in, so that the
course which the Mole has followed is little more than a trench. This
is said to be produced by the little coquetries that take place between
the Mole and its future mate, when the one flies in simulated terror, and
the other follows with undisguised determination. Deeper in the soil
is often found a very large burrow, sufficiently wide to permit two
Moles to pass each other. This is one of the 'high-roads which lead
from one feeding-ground to another, and from which the different
shafts radiate.

But the finest efforts of talpine architecture are to be found in the
central fortress, from which the various roads diverge, and the nest
which the maternal Mole forms for the security of her young.

ITS FOKTEESS AND NEST. 125

The fortress is of a very peculiar construction, and is calculated to
permit the ingress or egress of the Mole from almost any direction, so
that when its acute senses give notice of the approach of an enemy, it
can make its retreat without difficulty.

The first operation is to build a tolerably large hill of compact and
well-trodden earth. Near the summit of this mound the excavator
runs a circular gallery, and another near the bottom, connecting the
two galleries with five short passages. It then burrows into the centre
of the mound, and digs a moderately large spherical hole, which it
connects with the lower gallery by three passages. A very large pas-
sage, which is a continuation- of the high-road, is then driven into the
spherical chamber by dipping under the lower gallery, and is connected
with the circular chamber from below. Lastly, the Mole drives a
great number of runs, which radiate from the rest in all directions, and
which "all open into the lower circular gallery. It will be seen, from
this short description, that if a Mole should be surprised in its nest, it
can withdraw throuo^h its central chamber and so reach the hio^h-road
at once, or can slip through either of the short connecting galleries and
escape into any of the numerous radiatory runs.

In the central or middle chamber of the edifice the Mole places a
quantity of dried grass or leaves, upon which it sleeps during its hours
of repose. This complicated room is seldom used during the summer
months, as at that time the Mole prefers to live in one of the ordinary
hillocks.

The nest which the female contrives is not so complicated as the
fortress, but is well adapted for its purpose. The hillock in which the
nest is made is always a very large one, and is generally placed at some
distance from the fortress. Its interior is very large, and is generally
filled with dried grass, moss, or other similar substances, and it is said
that in some of these nests have been found certain roots on which the
young Moles can feed. This statement, however, is scarcely credible.
The young are usually born about April, but their appearance in the
world is not so determinately settled as that of many animals, as young
Moles are found continually from March until August. The average
of their number is four or five, although as many as seven young have
been found in one nest. There is but one brood in a year.

The color of the Mole is usually of a blackish gray, but it is extremely
variable in the tinting of its fur, and it is not uncommon to find in a
single locality specimens of every hue from brown to white. There are
specimens in the British Museum of almost every tint, and I have long
had in my possession a cream-colored mole-skin, which was obtained, I
believe, in Wiltshire, as it was furnished by a mole-catcher that resided
in that county. The fur is so beautifully smooth and soft that it has
sometimes, though rarely, been employed as an article of wearing ap-
11*

126 THE MUSK EAT AND THE SHREW MOUSE.

parel, or used as a light and delicate coverlet. The fur, or " felt," is
best and most glossy if the animal is taken in the winter.

Passing in a regular gradation from the moles to the shrews and
hedgehogs, we pause for a while at the powerfully-scented animal that
is called, by virtue of its perfumed person, the Musk Eat of India, and
is also known by the titles of Mondjourou and Sondeli.

This animal is a native of various parts of India, and is very well
known on account of the extremely powerful scent which exudes from
certain glands that are situated in the under parts of the body and on
the flanks.

The odoriferous substance which is secreted by the above-mentioned
glands is of a musky nature, and possesses the property of penetrating
and adhering to every substance over which the Musk Rat has passed.
The musky odor clings so pertinaciously to the objects which are im-
pregnated with its tainting contact that in many cases they become
entirely useless. Provisions of all kinds are frequently spoiled by the
evil odor with which they are saturated ; and of so penetrating a na-
ture is the musky scent that the combined powers of glass and cork
are unable to preserve the contents of bottles from its unpleasant in-
fluence. Let a Sondeli but run over a bottle of wine, and the con-
tained liquid will be so powerfully scented with a musky savor that
it will be rendered unfit for civilized palates, and must be removed
from the neighborhood of other wines, lest the contaminating influence
should extend to them also.

In color it is not unlike the common shrew of England, having a
slight chestnut or reddish tinge, upon a mouse-colored ground, fading
into gray on the under parts of the body. In size, however, it is much
the superior of that animal, being nearly as large as the common brown
or " Hanoverian " rat. The hair is very short, and the peculiar red-
dish-brown hue of the fur is caused by the diflTerent tintings of the
upper and under fur.

During the autumnal months of the year, the country roads and by-
paths are frequently rendered remarkable by the presence of little
mouse-like animals, with long snouts, that lie dead upon the ground,
without mark of external injury to account for the manner of their
decease.

These are the bodies of the Shrew Mouse of England, otherwise
known by the name of Erd Shrew.

The head of the Shrew is rather long, and its apparent length is in-
creased by the long and flexible nose which gives so peculiar an aspect
to the animal, and serves to distinguish it at a glance from the com-
mon mouse, which it so nearly resembles in general shape and color.
The object of this elongated nose is supposed to be for the purpose of
enabling the animal to root in the ground after the various creatures

THE WATEK SHREW. 127

on which it feeds, or to thrust its head among the densest and closest
herbage. Many insects and their hirvse are found in such localities,
and it is upon such food that the Shrew chiefly subsists. Worms are
also captured and eaten by the Shrew, which in many of its habits is
not unlike the mole.

The bite of the Shrew is so insignificant as to make hardly any im-
press even on the delicate skin of the human hand. Popular prej-
udice, however, here steps in, and attributes to the bite of the Shrew
such venomous properties that in many districts of England the viper
is less feared than the little harmless Shrew.

The very touch of the Shrew's foot is considered a certain herald of
evil, and animals or men which had been " shrew-struck " were sup-
posed to labor under a malady which was incurable except by a rather
singular remedy, which partakes somewhat of a homoeopathic j^rinciple,
that "similia similibus curantur."

The curative power which alone could heal the shrew-stroke lay in
the branches of a shrew-ash, or an ash tree which had been imbued
with the shrewish nature by a very simple process. A living Shrew
was captured and carried to the ash tree which was intended to receive
the healing virtues. An auger-hole was made in the trunk, the poor
Shrew was introduced into the cavity, and the auger-hole closed by a
wooden plug. Fortunately for the wretched little prisoner, the entire
want of air would almost immediately cause its death. But were its
little life to linger for ever so long a time in the ash trunk, its incarcer-
ation would still have taken place, for where superstition raises its cruel
head humanity is banished.

The nest of the Shrew is not made in the burrow, as might be sup-
posed, but is built in a suitable depression in the ground, or in a hole
in a bank. It is made of leaves and other similar substances, and is
entered through a hole at the side. In this nest are produced the
young Shrews, from five to seven in number, and, as may be imag-
ined, extremely diminutive in size. They are generally born in the
spring.

The total length of the adult Shrew is not quite four inches, of which
the tail occupies very nearly the moiety.

Similar to the Erd Shrew in general aspect, but easily to be distin-
guished from that animal by its color and other peculiarities, the
Water Shrew stands next on our list.

The fur of the Water Shrew is nearly black upon the upper portions
of the body, instead of the reddish-brown color which tints the fur of
the Erd Shrew. The under parts of the body are beautifully white,
and the line of demarcation between the two colors is very distinctly
drawn. The fur is very soft and silken in texture, and, when the
animal is submerged under the surface of the water, possesses the use-

128 THE OAKED SHREW.

fill property of repelling moisture and preserving the body of the
animal from the injurious effects of the water.

When the Water Shrew is engaged in swimming, those parts of the
fur which are submerged below the surface appear to be studded with
an infinite number of tiny silver beadlets, that give to the whole animal
a very singular aspect. This phenomenon is produced by the minute
air-bubbles that cling to the fur, and which exude from the space that
is left between the hairs. In fact, the Shrew Mouse, when immersed,
bears a curious resemblance to the well-known water spider.

A further distinction, and one which is more valuable than that
which is furnished by the color of the fur, is the fringe of stiff white
hairs which edges the tail and the toes.

In all its movements the Water Shrew is extremely graceful and
active, displaying equal agility whether its movements be terrestrial
or aquatic.

I have repeatedly observed the proceedings of a little colony of these
animals, and was able to sit within a yard or two of their haunts with-
out their cognizance of my person. They are most sportive little
creatures, and seem to enjoy a game of play with thorough apprecia-
tion, chasing each other over the ground and through the water,
running up the stems of aquatic plants, and tumbling off the leaves
into the water, scrambling hastily over the stones around which the
stream ripples, and playing a thousand little pranks with the most
evident enjoyment. Then they will suddenly cease their play, and
begin to search after insects with the utmost gravity, rooting in the
banks and picking up stray flies, as if they never had any other busi-
ness in view.

From repeated observations, it seems that the Water Shrew is not
entirely confined to the neighborhood of water, neither is it totally
dependent for its subsistence on aquatic insects, for it has been frequently
seen at some distance from any stream or pond. It must be remarked, -
however, that a very small rivulet is amply sufficient for the purpose of
the Water Shrew% which will take up its residence for several years in
succession on the banks of a little artificial channel that is used only
for the purpose of carrying water for the irrigation of low-lying
fields.

The largest of the British Shrews is that species which is called the
Oared Shrew, on account of the oar-like formation of the feet and
tail, which are edged with even longer and stiffer hairs than those
which decorate the same parts in the Water Shrew.

As may be imagined from this structure, the habits of the animal
are aquatic in their nature^ and its manners are so closely similar to
those of the preceding species that it may easily be mistaken for that
animal, when seen at a little distance, so as to render the difference in

COLOR OF THE SHREWS.

129

size less conspicuous, and the color of the under portions of the body
less apparent.

It has already been stated that the back of the Water Shrew is of
a velvety black, and the abdomen and under portions of the body of

The Common Oared and Water Shrews (G^ossopus cUiatus).

a beautiful and clearly-defined white. In the Oared Shrew, however,
the black is profusely sprinkled with white hairs, and the fur of the
abdomen and flanks is blackish gray instead of pure white. The
middle of the abdomen, however, together with that of the throat, is
strongly tinged with yellow, the throat being more of an ashy yellow
than the abdomen.

Although not so common as the Erd and the Water Shrew, it is of
more frequent occurrence than is generally supposed, and has been
found in many parts of England where it was formerly supposed to
be wanting. The total length of the Oared Shrew is about five inches
and a quarter, the head and body measuring rather more than three
inches, and the tail about two inches. Its nose is not quite so sharp or
narrow as that of the Water Shrew, and the ears are decorated with a
slight fringe of white hair. The latter third of the tail is flattened, as
if for swimming, while the remaining two-thirds are nearly cylindrical,
but are slightly squared, as has already been mentioned of the common
Shrew.

T

130

THE ELEPHANT SHREW.

The elongation of the nose, which has already been noticed in the
Tupaias of Sumatra, seems to have reached the utmost limit in those
curious inhabitants of the Cape that are called, from their elephantine
elongation of nose, the Elephant Shrews. Several species of
Elephant Shrews are known to exist, all of which, with one exception,
are inhabitants of Southern Africa. The solitary exception, MacrosceUdes
Boretti, is found in Algeria.

The peculiarly long nose of the Elephant Shrew is perforated at its
extremity by the nostrils, which are rather obliquely placed, and is sup-

Elephant Shrews {MacrosceUdes Froboscideus).

posed to aid the animal in its search after the insects and other crea-
tures on which it feeds. The eyes are rather large in proportion to the
size of the animal.

The tail is long and slender, much resembling the same organ in the
common mouse, and in some specimens, probably males, is furnished at
the base with glandular follicles, or little sacs. The legs are nearly of
equal size, but the hinder limbs are much longer than the fore-legs, on
account of the very great length of the feet, which are capable of afford-
ing support to the creature as it sits in an upright position. As might
be presumed from the great length of the hinder limbs, the Elephant
Shrew is possessed of great locomotive powers, and when alarmed can
skim over the ground with such celerity that its form becomes quite ob-

THE PEN-TAIL AND THE HEDGEHOa. 131

scared by the rapidity of its movement through the air. Its food con-
sists of insects, which it captures iu open day.

Although the Elephant Shrew is a diurnal animal, seeking its prey
in broad daylight, its habitation is made below the surface of the ground,
and consists of a deep and tortuous burrow, the entrance to which is a
perpendicularly-sunk shaft of some little depth. To this place of refuge
the creature always flies when alarmed, and, as it is so exceedingly swift
in its movements, it is not readily captured or intercepted.

The color of the fur is a dark and rather cloudy brown, which is
warmed with a reddish tinge upon the side and flanks, and fades on
the abdomen and inner portions of the limbs into a grayish-white. The
generic name, 3facroseelides, is of Greek origin, in allusion to the great
length of its hinder limbs, and signifies " long-legged." It is but a small
animal, as the length of the head and body is not quite four inches in
measurement, and the tail is about three inches and a quarter.

The extraordinary animal which has been recently brought before
the notice of zoologists, under the characteristic name of Pen-tail, is
a native of Borneo, from which country it was brought by Mr. Hugh
Low.

It is about the size of a small rat, but appears to be of greater di-
mensions on account of its extremely long tail with the remarkable
appendage at its extremity. The tail is of extraordinary length when
compared with the size of the body, and is devoid of hair except at its
extremity, where it is furnished with a double row of stiff* hairs on each
side, which stand boldly out like the barbs of a quill pen or the feathers
of an arrow. The remainder of the tail is covered with scales, which
are square in their form, like those of the long-tailed rats, and of con-
siderable size. The color of the tail is black, and the bristly barbs are
white, so that this member presents a peculiarly quaint aspect.

The fur which covers the body of the Pen-tail is extremely soft in
texture, and is of a blackish-brown tint above, fading into a yellowish
gray beneath. As the tips of the hair are tinged with a yellow hue,
the precise tint of the fur is rather indeterminate, and is changeable ac-
cording to the position of the hairs which are exposed to view. The
specimen which is preserved in the British Museum was captured by
Mr. Low in the house of Sir James Brook, the first rajah of Sarawak.

The common Hedgehog, Hedgepig, or Urchin, is one of the most
familiar of English indigenous mammalia, being found in every part of
Great Britain which is capable of affording food and shelter.

The hard round spines which cover the upper part of its body are
about an inch in length, and of a rather peculiar shape. This form
is wonderfully adapted to meet the peculiar objects which the spine is
intended to fulfil, as will be seen in the following account.

The spines assume a nearly horizontal position upon the back of the

132

SPINES OF THE HEDGEHOG.

animal whenever it chooses to relax .the peculiar muscles which govern
them, and which serve to retain the creature in its coiled attitude. The
point of the quill or spine is directed toward the tail. The quill is not
unlike a large pin, being sharply pointed at one extremity, furnished
at the other with a round bead-like head, and rather abruptly bent
near this head. If the skin be removed from the Hedgehog, the
quills are seen to be pinned, as it were, through the skin, being retained

The Hedgehog {Erinuceus Europceus).

by their round heads, which are acted upon by the peculiar muscles
which have already been mentioned.

It is evident, therefore, that whenever the head of the quill is drawn
backward by the contraction of the muscle, the point of the quill is
erected in proportion to the force which is exerted upon the head, so
that when the animal is rolled up, and the greatest tension is employed,
the quills stand boldly out from the body, and present the bayonet-like
array of points in every direction.

These curiously-formed spines are useful to the Hedgehog for other
purposes than the very obvious one of protecting the creature from the
attacks of its foe. They are extremely elastic, as is found to be the
case with hairs and quills of all descriptions, and the natural elasticity
is increased by the sharp curve into which they are bent at their inser-
tion into the skin. Protected by this defence, the Hedgehog is enabled
to throw itself from considerable heights, to curl itself into a ball as it
descends, and to reach the ground without suffering any harm from its
fall. A Hedgehog has been seen repeatedly to throw itself from a
wall, some twelve or fourteen feet in height, and to fall upon the hard
ground without appearing to be even inconvenienced by its tumble. On
reaching the ground it would unroll itself and trot off with perfect un-
concern.

Marching securely under the guardianship of its thorn-spiked armor,

ITS FOES. 133

the Hedgehog recks little of any foe, save man. For, with this single
exception, there are, in England at least, no enemies that need be
dreaded by so well-protected an animal. Dogs, foxes, and cats are
the only creatures which possess the capability of killing and eating
the Hedgehog, and of these foes it is very little afraid. For dogs are
but seldom abroad at night while the Hedgehog is engaged in its noc-
turnal quests after food ; and the fox would not be foolish enough to
waste its time and prick its nose in weary endeavors to force its in-
tended prey out of its defences. Cats, too, are even less adapted to
such a proceeding than dogs and foxes.

It is indeed said that the native cunning of the Fox enables it to
overreach the Hedgehog, and to induce it to unroll itself by an ingeni-
ous, but, I fear, an apocryphal, process. Reynard is said, whenever he
finds a coiled-up Hedgehog, to roll it over and over with his paw toward
some runnel, pond, or puddle, and then to souse it unexpectedly into
the water. The Hedgehog, fearing that it is going to be drowned,
straightway unrolls itself, and is immediately pounced on by the cun-
ning fox, which crushes its head with a single bite, and eats it after-
ward at leisure. In America the puma is said to eat the Hedgehog
in a very curious manner. Seizing the animal by the head, it gradu-
ally draws the animal through its teeth, swallowing the body and strip-
ping off the skin.

Man, however, troubles himself very little about the Hedgehog's
prickles, and, when disposed to such a diet, kills, cooks, and eats it
without hesitation.

The legitimate mode of proceeding is to kill the animal by a blow
on the head, and then to envelop it, without removing the skin, in a
thick layer of well-kneaded clay. The enwrapped Hedgehog is then
placed on the fire, being carefully turned by the cook at proper inter-
vals, and there remains until the clay is perfectly dry and begins to
crack. When this event has taken place, the cooking is considered to
be complete, and the animal is removed from the fire. The clay cover-
ing is then broken ofi*, and carries away with it the whole of the skin,
which is adherent by means of the prickles. By this mode of cookery
the juices are preserved, and the result is pronounced to be supremely
excellent.

This primitive but admirable form of cookery is almost entirely con-
fined to gipsies and other wanderers, as in these days there are few civ-
ilized persons who would condescend to partake of such a diet. Util-
itarians, however, can render the creature subservient to their purposes
by using it as a guardian to their kitchens. Its insect-devouring pow-
ers are of such a nature that it can be made a most useful inhabitant
of the house, and set in charge of the " black beetles."

The rapidity with which it extirpates the cockroaches is most mar-

12

134 A TAME HEDGEHOG.

vellous, for their speed and wariness are so great that the Hedgehog
must possess no small amount of both qualities in order to destroy
them so easily. A Hedgehog which resided for some years in our
house was accustomed to pass a somewhat nomad existence, for as soon
as it had eaten all the cockroaches in our kitchen it used to be lent to
a friend, to whom it performed the same valuable service. In a few
months those tiresome insects had again multiplied, and the Hedgehog
was restored to its former habitation.

The creature was marvellously tame, and would come at any time
to a saucer of milk in broad daylight. Sometimes it took a fancy to
promenading the garden, when it would trot along in its own quaint
style, poking its sharp nose into every crevice, and turning over every
fallen leaf that lay in its path. If it heard a strange step, it would
immediately curl itself into a ball, and lie in that posture for a few
minutes until its alarm had passed away, when it would cautiously un-
roll itself, and peer about with its bead-like eyes for a moment or two,
and then resume its progress.

From all appearances it might have lived for many years had it not
come by its death in a rather singular manner. There was a wood-
shed in the kitchen-garden, where the bean and pea sticks were laid
up in ordinary during the greater part of the year, and it seemed, for
some unknown reason, to afford a marvellous attraction to the Hedge-
hog. So partial to this locality was the creature that whenever it was
missing we were nearly sure to find it among the bean-sticks in the
wood-shed. One morning, however, on searching for the animal, in
consequence of having missed its presence for some days, we found it
hanging by its neck in the fork of a stick, and quite dead. The poor
creature had probably slipped while climbing among the sticks, and
had been caught by the neck in the bifurcation.

The Hedgehog is accused of stealing and breaking eggs, to which
indictment it can but plead guilty.

It is very ingenious in its method of opening and eating eggs — a feat
which it performs without losing any of the golden contents. Instead
of breaking the shell and running the chance of permitting the con-
tents to roll out, the clever animal lays the egg on the ground, holds
it firmly between its fore-feet, bites a hole in the upper portion of the
shell, and, inserting its tongue into the orifice, licks out the contents
daintily.

Not contenting itself with such comparatively meagre diet as eggs,
the Hedgehog is a great destroyer of snakes, frogs, and other animals,
crunching them together with their bones as easily as a horse will eat
a carrot. Even the thick bone of a mutton-chop, or the big bone of
the fish, is splintered by the Hedgehog's teeth with marvellous ease.
On one account it is rather a valuable animal, for it will attack a viper

HOME OF THE HEDGEHOG. 135

as readily as a grass-snake, trusting apparently to its prickly armor as
a defence against the serpent's fangs.

Whether, in its wild state, it is able to catch the little birds, is not
accurately known, but in captivity it eats finches and other little birds
with great voracity. One of these animals, that was kept in a state of
domestication, ate no less than seven sparrof\vs in the course of a single
night, and another crushed and ate in the course of twenty-four hours
more than as many sparrow-heads, eating bones, bill, and neck with
equal ease.

Its legitimate prey is found among the insect tribe, of which it con-
sumes vast numbers, being able not only to chase and capture those
which run upon the ground, but even to dig in the earth and feed
upon the grubs, worms, and various larvse which pass their lives be-
neath the surface of the ground. A Hedgehog has been seen to
exhume the nest of the bumblebee, which had been placed in a slop-
ing bank, as is often the case with the habitation of these insects,
and to eat bees, grubs, and honey, unmindful of the anger of the
survivors, who, however, appeared to be but little affected by the in-
roads which the Hedgehog was making upon their offspring and
their stores.

The home of the Hedgehog is made in some retired and well-pro-
tected spot, such as a crevice in rocky ground, or under the stones of
some old ruin. It greatly affects hollow trees, wherever the decayed
wood permits it to find an easy entrance, and not unfrequently is found
coiled up in a warm nest which it has made under the large gnarled
roots of some old tree, w^here the rains have washed away the earth
and left the roots projecting occasionally from the ground. Besides
these legitimate habitations, the Hedgehog is frequently found to in-
trude itself upon the homes of other animals, and has been often cap-
tured within rabbit burrows. Perhaps it may be led to these localities
by the double motive of obtaining shelter from weather and enemies,
and of making prey of an occasional young rabbit.

In its retreat the Hedgehog usually passes the winter in that semi-
animate condition which is known by the name of hibernation.

The hibernation of the Hedgehog is more complete than that of the
dormouse or any other of our indigenous hibernating quadrupeds, for
they always have a stock of food on which they can rely, and of which
they sparingly partake during the cold mouths of the year. The
Hedgehog, however, lays up no such stores, nor, indeed, could it do so,
for, as has already been mentioned, its food is almost entirely of an an-
imal nature.

The sight of the Hedgehog does not appear to be so excellent as its
powers of scent, which are admirably developed, as may be seen by
opening the side of a Hedgehog's face.

136 MACROPID^.

One of these animals has been seen to chase a partridge across a
road, following her through the hedge with perfect precision ; and an-
other was observed to discover the presence of mankind by means of
its powers of scent, as it was in a position from whence it could not see
its fancied enemies. The Hedgehog had already passed the observers,
who remained perfectly quiet in order to watch its proceedings, but af-
ter it had run for a few^ paces, it suddenly stopped, seemed suspicious
of some danger, stretched its nose in the air, and stood on its guard.
In a few moments it seemed to have set itself at ease, and resumed its
course. The spectators then slightly shifted their position, so as to
bring the animal again within the range of their "wind," when the
creature repeated the same process, and did not appear entirely at its
ease for some little time.

MAGROPID^.

The extraordinary animals which are grouped together under the
title of Macropidse are, with the exception of the well-known Opossum
of Virginia, inhabitants of Australasia and the islands of the Indian
Archipelago.

The peculiarity which gives the greatest interest to this group of an-
imals is that wonderful modification of the nutrient organs which has
gained for them the title of Maesupialia, or pouched animals — a name
which is derived from the Latin word marsupiiim, which signifies " a
purse" or "pouch." This singular structure is found only in the fe-
male Marsupials, and in them is variously developed according to
the character of the animal and the mode of life for which it is in-
tended.

The low^er part of the abdomen is furnished with a tolerably large
pouch, in the interior of which the mammae, or teats, are placed.
When the young, even of so large an animal as the kangaroo, make
their appearance in the world, they are exceedingly minute — the young
kangaroo being only an inch in length — and entirely unable to endure
the rough treatment which they would meet with were they to be nur-
tured according to the manner in which the young of all other animals
are nourished. Accordingly, as soon as they are born they are trans-
ferred by the mother into the pouch, when they instinctively attach
themselves to the teats, and there hang until they have attained con-
siderable dimensions. By degrees, as they grow older and stronger,
they loosen their hold, and put their little heads out of the living
cradle, in order to survey the world at leisure. In a few weeks more
they gain sufficient strength to leave the pouch entirely, and to frisk
about under the guardianship of their mother, who, however, is always
ready to receive them again into their cradle if there is any rumor of

THE OPOSSUM MOUSE. 137

danger, and, if any necessity for flight should present itself, flies from
the dangerous locality, carrying her young with her.

At the head of the Macropidse are placed a small but interesting
band of marsupial animals, which are called Phalangistines, on account
of the curious manner in which two of the toes belonging to the hinder
feet are joined together as far as the " phalanges." The feet are all
formed with great powers of grasp, and their structure is intended to
fit them for procuring their food among the branches of the trees, on
which they pass the greater portion of their existence.

First and least of the Phalangistines, is the beautiful little animal
which is called the Opossum Mouse in some parts of the country, and
the Flying Mouse in others.

This pretty little creature is about the size of our common mouse,
and when it is resting upon a branch, with its parachute, or umbrella
of skin, drawn close to the body by its own elasticity, it looks very like
the common mouse of Europe, and at a little distance might easily be
taken for that animal. In total length it rather exceeds six inches,
the length of its head and body being about three inches and a half,
and that of the tail not quite three inches. On account of its minute
size this animal is also called the Pigmy Petaurist.

In the color of the upper portions of the body the Opossum Mouse
is of the well-known mouse tint, slightly sprinkled with a reddish hue;
but on the abdomen and under portions of the skin parachute, the fur
is beautifully white. The line of demarcation between the hair is very
well defined, and there is a narrow stripe of darker brown that marks
out the line of juncture. When the animal is at rest, the parachute
closes by its own elasticity, and gathers itself into folds, which have a
very pretty effect, on account of the delicate white fur which becomes
exposed by the action, and which undulates in rich and graceful folds,
alternating with the dark fur of the back and the still darker stripe
that forms the line of demarcation.

The tail of the Opossum Mouse is nearly as long as the body, very
slender, and remarkable for the manner in which the hairs are affixed
to it. The hairs that fringe the greater part of the tail are about one-
sixth of an inch in length, reddish gray in color, rather stiff*, and are set
on the tail in a double row, like the barks of a feather. A similar
formation has already been described in the history of the pen-tail of
Sarawak. This mode of arrangement is called " distichous."

The food of the Petaurists is generally of a vegetable character,
consisting of leaves, fruits, and buds, but the sharply-pointed molars
of the Opossum Mouse approach so closely to the insectivorous type
that the creature is probably able to vary a vegetable diet by occasional
admixture with animal food.

The parachute-like expansion of the skin is of very great service to
12*

138 THE AKIEL AND THE VULPINE PHALANGIST.

the animal when it wishes to pass from one branch or from one tree to
another without the trouble of descending and the laborious climbing
up again. Trusting to the powers of its parachute, the little creature
will boldly launch itself into the air, stretching out all its limbs, and
expanding the skin to the utmost. Upborne by this membrane, the
Opossum Mouse can sweep through very great intervals of space, and
possesses no small power of altering its course at will. It cannot,
however, support itself in the air by moving its limbs, like the bats,
nor can it make any aerial progress when the original impetus of its
leap has expired.

The beautiful little animal which has been called by the expressive
name of Ariel is about the size of a small rat, and in the hue of the
upper portions of the body is not unlike that animal.

The color of the fur upon the upper portions of the body is a light
brown, which darkens considerably upon the parachute membrane.
On the under surface it is white, the white fur just turning over the
edge of the parachute, and presenting a pretty contrast with the dark
brown color of its upper surface. The tail is nearly of the same color
as the body, with the exception of the tip, which is dark. On account
of its graceful movements, and the easy undulating sweep of its passage
through the air, it has earned for itself the appropriate name of Ariel,
in remembrance of the exquisite and tricksy sprite that animates the
world-celebrated drama of the Tempest

It is not an uncommon animal, and is frequently seen at Port
Essington.

Fox-like in nature as well as in form, the Vulpine Phalangist
has well earned the name which has been given to it by common
consent. It has also been entitled the Vulpine Opossum, and in its
native country is popularly called by the latter of these names.

It is an extremely common animal, and is the widest diffused of all
the Australian opossum-like animals. Like the preceding animals, it
is a nocturnal being, residing during the day in the hollows of decaying
trees, and only venturing from its retreat as evening draws on. The
nature of its food is of a mixed character, for the creature is capable
of feeding on vegetable food, like the Petaurists, and also displays a
considerable taste for animal food of all kinds. If a small bird be
given to a Vulpine Phalangist, the creature seizes it in its paws, man-
ipulates it adroitly for a while, and then tears it to pieces and eats it.
It is rather a remarkable fact that the animal is peculiarly fond of the
bram, and always commences its feast by crushing the head between its
teeth and devouring the brain.

In all probability, therefore, the creature makes no small portion
of Its meals on various animal substances, such as insects, reptiles, and
eggs. As to the birds on which it so loves to feed, it may very prob-

THE VULPINE PHALANGIST. 139

ably, although so slow an aDimal, capture them in the same manner as
has been related of the lemurs — viz., by creeping slowly and cautiously
upon them as they sleep, and swiftly seizing them before they can
awaken to a sense of their danger. It is a tolerably large animal,
equalling a large cat in dimensions, and is, therefore, able to make dire
havoc among such prey whenever it chooses to issue forth with the in-
tention of making a meal upon some small bird that may chance to be
sleeping in fancied security.

The fore-paws of the Vulpine Phalangist are well adapted for such
proceedings, as they are possessed of great strength and mobility, so
that the animal is able to take up any small object in its paws, and to
hold it after the manner of the common squirrel. When feeding, it
generally takes its food in its fore-paws, and so conveys it to its mouth.
In captivity it does not seem to be a very intelligent animal, even when
night brings forth its time of energy, and it but little responds to the
advances of its owner, however kind he may be. It will feed on bread
and milk, or fruits, or leaves, or buds, or any substance of a similar
nature, but always seems best pleased when it is supplied w^ith some
small birds or animals, and devours them with evident glee.

The flesh of the Vulpine Phalangist is considered to be very good,
and the natives are so fond of it that, notwithstanding the laziness that
is ingrained in their very beings, except when they are under the influ-
ence of some potent excitement, they can seldom refrain from chasing
an " opossum," even though they have been well fed by the white set-
tlers. When the fresh body of a Vulpine Phalangist is opened, a kind
of camphorated odor is diffused from it, which is probably occasioned
by the foliage of the camphor-perfumed trees in which it dwells, and
the leaves of which it eats.

The fur of this animal is not valued so highly as that of the Tapoa,
probably because it is of more common occurrence, for the color of the
hair is much more elegant, and its quality seems to be really excellent.
Some few experiments have been made upon the capabilities of this fur,
and, as far as has yet been accomplished, with very great success. Good
judges have declared that articles which had been made from this fur
presented a great resemblance to those which had been made from An-
gola wool, but appeared to be of superior quality. The hat-makers
have already discovered the value of the fur, and are in the habit of
employing it in their trade.

The natives employ the skin of the " opossum " in the manufacture
of their scanty mantles, as well as for sundry other purposes, and pre-
pare the skins in a rather ingenious manner. As soon as the skin is
stripped from the animal's body, it is laid on the ground, with the
hairy side downward, and secured from shrinking by a number of lit-
tle pegs which are fixed around its edges. The inner side is then con-

140 THE KOALA.

tinually scraped with a shell, and by degrees the skin becomes perfectly
clean and pliable. When a sufficient number of skins are prepared,
they are ingeniously sewn together Avith a thread that is made from
the tendons of the kangaroo, which, when dried, can be separated into
innumerable filaments. A sharpened piece of bone stands the sable
tailor in place of a needle. From the skin of the same animal is also
formed the " kumeel," or badge of manhood, a slight belt, which no
one is permitted to wear until he has been solemnly admitted among
the assembly of men.

In its color the Vulpine Phalangist is rather variable, but the gen-
eral hue of its fur is a grayish brown, sometimes tinted with a ruddy
hue. The tail is long, thick, and woolly in its character, and in color
it resembles that of the body, with the exception of the tip, which is
nearly black. The dimensions of an old male are given by Mr. Ben-
nett as follows : Total length, two feet seven inches, the head being four
inches in length and the tail nearly a foot.

The quaint-looking animal which is popularly known by the native
name of Koala, or the Australian Bear, is of some importance in
the zoological world, as it serves to fill up the gulf that exists between
the phalangistines and the kangaroos.

The Koala is nocturnal in its habits, and is not very frequently found,
even in the localities which it most affects. It is not nearly so widely
spread as most of the preceding animals, as it is never known to exist
in a wild state except in the south-eastern regions of Australia.

Although well adapted by nature for climbing among the branches
of trees, the Koala is by no means an active animal, proceeding on its
way with very great deliberation, and making sure of its hold as it goes
along. Its feet are peculiarly adapted for the slow but sure mode in
which the animal progresses among the branches by the structure of
the toes of the fore-feet or paws, which are divided into two sets, the
one composed of the two inner toes, and the other of the three outer,
in a manner which reminds the observer of the feet of the scansorial
birds and the chameleon. This formation, although well calculated to
serve the animal when it is moving among the branches, is of but little
use when it is upon the ground, so that the terrestrial progress of the
Koala is especially slow, and the creature seems to crawl rather than
walk.

It seems to be a very gentle creature, and will often suffer itself to be
captured without offering much resistance, or seeming to trouble itself
about its captivity. But it is liable, as are many gentle animals, to
sudden and unexpected gusts of passion, and when it is excited by
rage it puts on a very fierce look, and utters sharp and shrill yells in
a very threatening manner. Its usual voice is a peculiar soft bark.

This animal is rather prettily colored, the body being furnished with

THE KANGAKOO.

141

fur of a fine gray color, warmed with a sliglit reddish tinge in the adult
animal, and fading to a whitish gray in the young. The claws are
considerably curved and black, and the ears are tufted with long white
hairs. In size it equals a small bull-terrier dog, being, when adult,
rather more than two feet in length, and about ten inches in height
when standing. The circumference of the body is about eighteen
inches, including the fur.

On account of the tree-climbing habits of the Koala, it is sometimes
called the Australian Monkey as well as the Australian Bear.

The animals which come next under consideration are truly worthy
of the title of Macropidse, or long-footed, as their hinder feet are most
remarkable for their comparative length, and in almost every instance
are many times longer than the fore-feet. This structure adapts them
admirably for leaping, an exercise in which the Kangaroos, as these
creatures are familiarly termed, are pre-eminently excellent.

Among the largest of the Macropidse is the celebrated Kangaroo,
an animal which is found spread tolerably widely over its native land.

The Kangaroo [Macropus major).
This species has also been called by the name of giganteus, on ac-
count of its very great size, which, however, is sometimes exceeded by
that of the Woolly Kangaroo. The average dimensions of an adult male
are generally as follows: The total length of the animal is about seven

142 THE KANGAKOO.

feet six iDches, counting from the nose to the tip of the tail ; the head
and body exceed four feet, and the tail is rather more than three feet
in length. The circumference of the tail at its base is about a foot.
When it sits erect after its curious tripedal fashion, supported by its
hind-quarters and tail, its height is rather more than fifty inches; but
when it wishes to survey the country, and stands erect upon its toes, it
surpasses in height many a well-grown man. The female is very much
smaller than her mate, being under six feet in total length, and the dif-
ference in size is so great that the two sexes might be well taken for
different species.

The weight of a full-grown male — or "Boomer," as it is more famil-
iarly called — is very considerable, one hundred and sixty pounds hav-
ing often been attained, and even greater weight being on record. The
color of the animal is brown, mingled with gray, the gray predom-
inating on the under portions of the body and the under faces of the
limbs. The fore-feet are black, as is also the tip of the tail.

As the Kangaroo is a valuable animal, not only for the sake of its
skin, but on account of its flesh, which is in some estimation among
the human inhabitants of the same land, it is eagerly sought after by
hunters, both white and black, and affords good sport to both on ac-
count of its speed, its vigor, and its wariness. The native hunter, who
trusts chiefly to his own cunning and address for stealing unobserved
upon the animal and lodging a spear in its body before it is able to
elude its subtle enemy, finds the Kangaroo an animal which will test
all his powers before he can attain his object, and lay the Kangaroo
dead upon the ground.

The male Kangaroo, or " Boomer," is a dangerous antagonist to man
and dog, and unless destroyed by missile weapons will often prove more
than a match for the combined efforts of man and beast.

When the animal finds that it is overpowered in endeavor by the
swift and powerful Kangaroo dogs, which are bred for the express pur-
pose of chasing this one kind of prey, it turns suddenly to bay, and
placing its back against a tree-trunk, so that it cannot be attacked from
behind, patiently awaits the onset of its adversaries. Should an un-
wary dog approach within too close a distance of the Kangaroo, the
animal launches so terrible a blow with its hinder feet that the long
and pointed claw, with which the hinder foot is armed, cuts like a
knife, and has often laid open the entire body of the dog with a single
blow. The claw which is thus used is so long, hard, and sharp that it
is sometimes used as a head to a spear.

When running, the creature has a curious habit of looking back
every now and then, and has sometimes unconsciously committed sui-
cide % leaping against one of the tree-stumps which are so plentifully
found in the districts inhabited by the Kangaroo.

THE KANGAKOO EAT AND THE WOMBAT. 143

The doe Kangaroo displays very little of these running or fighting
capabilities, and has been known, when chased for a very short dis-
tance, to lie down and die of fear. Sometimes, when pursued, she
contrives to elude the dogs by rushing into some brushwood, and then
making a very powerful leap to one side, so as to throw the dogs off the
scent. She lies perfectly still as the dogs rush past her place of con-
cealment, and when they have fairly passed her she quietly makes good
her escape in another direction. When young, and before she has
borne young, the female Kangaroo affords good sport, and is called,
from her extraordinary speed, the " Flying Doe."

The Kangaroo is a very hardy animal and thrives well in England,
where it might probably be domesticated to a large extent if neces-
sary, and where it would enjoy a more genial climate than it finds
in many districts of its native land. One of the fiavored localities of
this species is the bleak, wet, and snow-capped summit of Mount Wel-
lington.

The eye of the Kangaroo is very beautiful, large, round, and soft, and
gives to the animal a gentle, gazelle-like expression that compensates
for the savage aspect of the teeth, as they gleam whitely between the
cleft lips.

The Kangaroo Rat, called by the natives the Potoroo, is a native
of New South Wales, where it is found in very great numbers.

It is but a diminutive animal, the head and body being only fifteen
inches long, and the tail between ten and eleven inches. The color of
the fur is brownish black, pencilled along the back with a gray white.
The under parts of the body are white, and the fore-feet are brown.
The tail is equal to the body in length, and is covered with scales,
through the intervals of which sundry short, stiff, and black hairs
protrude.

This little animal frequents the less open districts, and is very quick
and lively in its movements, whether it be indulging in its native game-
someness or engaged in the search for food. Roots of various kinds are
the favorite diet of the Kangaroo Rat, and in order to obtain these
dainties the animal scratches them from the ground with the powerful
claws of the fore-feet.

It is not so exclusively nocturnal as many of the preceding animals,
and seems to be equally lively by day as by night. When the animal
is sitting upon its hinder portions, the tail receives part of the weight of
the body, but is not used in the same manner as the tail of the true
Kangaroos, which, when they are moving slowly and leisurely along,
are accustomed to support the body on the tail, and to swing the hinder
legs forward like a man swinging himself upon crutches.

The Wombat — or Australian Badger, as it is popularly called by
the colonists — is so singularly unlike the preceding and succeeding an-

144

THE BANDICOOT.

imals in its aspect and habits that it might well be supposed to belong
to quite a different order.

As might be imagined from its heavy body and short legs, the Wom-
bat is by no means an active animal, but trudges along at its own pace,
with a heavy rolling waddle or hobble, like the gait of a very fat bear.
It is found in almost all parts of Australia. The fur of the Wombat is
warm, long, and very harsh to the touch, and its color is gray, mottled
with black and white. The under parts of its body are grayish white,

The Wombat {Phascolomys ur sinus).

and the feet are black. The muzzle is very broad and thick. The
length of the animal is about three feet, the head measuring seven
inches.

It is nocturnal in its habits, living during the day in the depths of
a capacious burrow, which it excavates in the earth to such a depth
that even the persevering natives will seldom attempt to dig a Wom-
bat out of its tunnel.

The creature seems to be remarkably sensitive to cold, considering
the severe weather which often reigns in its native country. It is fond
of hay, which it chops into short pieces with its knife-edged teeth. The
natives say that if a Wombat is making a journey and happens to come
across a river, it is not in the least discomfited, but walks deliberately
into the river, across the bed of the stream, and, emerging on the oppo-
site bank, continues its course as calmly as if no impediment had been
placed in its way.

The Bandicoots form a little group of animals that are easily recog-
nizable by means of their rat-like aspect, and a certain peculiar but inde-

THE LONG-NOSED BANDICOOT AND THE CHCEROPUS. 145

scribable mode of carrying themselves. The gait of the Bandicoot is
very singular, being a kind of mixture between jumping and running,
which is the result of the formation of the legs and feet.

The food of the Long-nosed Bandicoot is said to be of a purely
vegetable nature, and the animal is reported to occasion some havoc
among the gardens and granaries of the colonists. Its long and pow-
■erful claws aid it in obtaining roots, and it is not at all unlikely that
it may, at the same time that it unearths and eats a root, seize and de-
vour the terrestrial larvae which are found in almost every square inch
of ground. The lengthen ad nose and sharp teeth, which present so
great a resemblance to the same organs in insectivorous shrews, afford
good reasons for conjecturing that they may be employed in much the
same manner.

The Chceropus was formerly designated by the specific title of ecau-
datus, or " tailless," because the first specimen that had been captured
was devoid of caudal appendage, and therefore its discoverers natural-
ly concluded that all its kindred were equally curtailed of their fair
proportions. But as new specimens came before the notice of the zoo-
logical world, it was found that the Choeropus was rightly possessed of
a moderately long and somewhat rat-like tail, and that the taillessness
of the original specimen was only the result of accident to the indi-
vidual, and not the normal condition of the species. The size of the
Choeropus is about equal to that of a small rabbit, and the soft,
woolly fur is much of the same color as that of the common wild
rabbit.

It is an inhabitant of New South AVales, and was first discovered by
Sir Thomas Mitchell on the banks of the Murray River, equally to the
astonishment of white men and natives, the latter declaring that they
had never before seen such a creature. The speed of the Choeropus is
considerable, and its usual haunts are among the masses of dense scrub
foliage that cover so vast an extent of ground in its native country.
Its nest is similar to that of the bandicoot, being made of dried grass
and leaves rather artistically put together, the grass, however, predom-
inating over the leaves. The locality of the nest is generally at the
foot of a dense bush, or of a heavy tuft of grass, and it is so carefully
veiled from view by the mode of its construction that it can scarcely
be discovered by the eyes of any but an experienced hunter.

The head of the Choeropus is rather peculiar, being considerably
lengthened, cylindrically tapering toward the nose, so that its form has
been rather happily compared to the neck and shoulders of a cham-
pagne bottle. The hinder feet are like those of the bandicoots, and
there is a small swelling at the base of the toes of the fore-feet, which
is probably the representative of the missing joints, more especially
as the outermost toes are always extremely small in the bandicoots, to

13 tr

146

THE COMMON DASYURE.

which the Choeropus is nearly allied. The ears are very large in pro-
portion to the size of the animal. The pouch opens backward.

The food of the Choeropus is said to be of a mixed character, and to
consist of various vegetable substances and of insects.

The teeth of the Dasyurines, sharp-edged and pointed, indicate the
carnivorous character of those animals to which they belong.

In the Common Dasyure the general color of the fur is brown, of
a very dark hue, sometimes deepening into positive black, diversified

•^iss^ ''-■^V'"^^^**^>«M^*^%'^Vf^7^^W'* ^^^^ many spots of white,

scattered apparently at
random over the whole of
the body, and varying
in both their position and
dimensions in almost
every individual. In
some specimens the tail is
washed with white spots
similar to those of the
body, but in many ex-
amples is uniformly dark.
In all the Dasyures this
member is moderately
long, but not prehensile,
and is thickly covered
with hair — a peculiarity
which has caused zool-
hair-tail," to these animals.
This species is the animal which is known in Australia by the popular
name of Native Cat.

They are all inhabitants of Australasia, the Common Dasyure being
found numerously enough in New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, and
some parts of Australia. The habits of all the Dasyures are so very
similar that there is no need of describing them separately. They
are all rather voracious animals, feeding upon the smaller quadrupeds,
birds, insects, and other living beings which inhabit the same country.
The Dasyure is said to follow the example of several allied animals,
and to be fond of roaming along the sea-coasts by night in search of
food.

The Dasyures are all nocturnal animals, and very seldom make
voluntary excursions from their hiding-places so long as the sun is
above the horizon. They do not, like the Tasmanian wolf and the
Ursine Dasyure, lie hidden in burrows under the earth, or in the depths
of rocky ground, but follow the example of the Petaurists, and make
their habitations in the hollovvs of decayed trees.

The Dasyure {Dasyurus mverrinus).
ogists to give the title of Dasvure, or

YELLOW-FOOTED POUCHED MOUSE AND THE MYRMECOBIUS. 147

The Yellow-footed Pouched Mouse is a very pretty little creature,
its fur being richly tinted with various pleasing hues.

The face, the upper part of the head, and the shoulders are dark
gray, diversified with yellow hairs, and the sides of the body are
warmed with a wash of bright chestnut. The under parts of the body,
the chin, and the throat are uniform white, and the tail is black. There
is often a slight tufting of hair on the extremity of the tail. The total
length of the animal is about eight inches, the head and body being
rather more than four inches and a half in length, and the tail a little
more than three inches.

The Myrmecobius is remarkable for several p'arts of its structure,
and more especially so for the extraordinary number of its teeth, and
the manner in which they are placed in the jaw. Altogether, there are
no less than fifty-two teeth in the jaws of an adult and perfect specimen
of the Myrmecobius, outnumbering the teeth of every other animal,
with the exception of one or two cetacea and the armadillo. There
is no pouch in this animal, but the tender young are defended from
danger by the long hairs which clothe the under portions of the body.

It is a beautiful little animal, the fur being of agreeable tints and
diversified by several bold stripes across the back. The general color
of the fur is a bright fawn on the shoulders, which deepens into
blackish brown from the shoulders to the tail, the fur of the hinder
portions being nearly black. Across the back are drawn six or seven
white bands, broad on the back and tapering off toward their extrem-
ities. The under parts of the body are of a yellowish white. The tail
is thickly covered with long bushy hair, and has a grizzled aspect,
owing to the manner in which the black and white hairs of which it
is composed are mingled together. Some hairs are annulated with
white, redrust, and black, so that the tints are rather variable, and
never precisely the same in two individuals.

The length of the body is about ten inches, and the tail measures
about seven inches, so that the dimensions of the animal are similar to
those of the common water vole of Europe.

It is an active animal, and w^hen running its movements are very
similar to those of the common squirrel. When hurried it proceeds
by a series of small jumps, the tail being elevated over its back after
the usual custom of squirrels, and at short intervals it pauses, sits
upright, and casts an anxious look in all directions before it again takes
to flight. Although not a particularly swift animal, it is not an easy
one to capture, as it immediately makes for some place of refuge, under
a hollow tree or a cleft in rocky ground, and when it has fairly placed
itself beyond the reach of its pursuers, it bids defiance to their eflforts
to drive it from its haven of safety. Not even smoke — the usual
resort of a hunter when his prey has gone to " earth " and refuses to

148 THE VIRGINIAN OPOSSUM.

come out again — has the least effect on the Myrmecobius, which is
possessed either of sufficieDt smoke-resistiog powers to endure the sti-
fling vapor with impunity, or of sufficient courage to yiehl its life in
the recesses of its haven rather than deliver itself into the hands of
its enemies. * •

The food of the Myrmecobius is supposed to consist chiefly of ants
and similar diet, as it is generally found inhabiting localities where ants
most abound. For this kind of food it is well fitted by its long tongue,
which is nearly as thick as a common black-lead pencil, and is capable
of protrusion to some distance. In confinement a specimen of the
Myrmecobius Avas Accustomed to feed on bran, among other sub-
stances. It is known that in the wild state it will eat hay, as well
as the "manna" that exudes from the branches of the Eucalypti.

It is a very gentle animal in its disposition, as, when captured, it does
not bite or scratch, but only vents its displeasure in a series of little
grunts when it finds that it is unable to make its escape. The number
of its young is rather various, but averages from five to eight. The
usual habitation of the Myrmecobius is placed in the decayed trunk
of a fallen tree, or, in defiiult of such lodging, is made in a hollow
in the ground. It is a native of the borders of the Swan River.

There are very few of the marsupi-
ated animals which are more remark-
able for their form, their habits, or
their character than the Opossums of
America. They are nearly all admi-
rable climbers, and are assisted in their
-^ scansorial efforts by their long prehen-
j/x>^.^^^~i^~-> sile tails, which are covered with scales,

^^■"^ -s , ^z through the interstices of which a few

The Opossum (DideJphys Vir- short black hairs protrude. The hinder
giniana). £^^^ ^^^ ^1^^ ^^.^^ adapted for climbing,

as the thumb is opposable to the other toes, so that the animal is able to
grasp the branch of a tree with considerable force, and to suspend its
whole body together with the additional weight of its prey or its young.
The Virginian or Common Opossum is, as its name implies, a native
of Virginia as well as of many other portions of the United States of
America. In size it equals a tolerably large cat, being rather more
than three feet in total length, the head and body measuring twenty-
two inches, and the tail fifteen. The color of this animal is a grayish
white, slightly tinged with yellow, and diversified by occasional long
hairs that are white toward their base, but of a brownish hue toward
their points. These brown-tipped hairs are extremely prevalent upon
the limbs, which are almost wholly of the brown hue, which also sur-
rounds the eye to some extent. The under fur is comparatively soft and

MEEIAN'S OPOSSUM. 149

woolly, but the general character of the fur is harsh and coarse. The
scaly portion of the tail is white.

It is a voracious and destructive animal, prowling about during the
hours of darkness, and prying into every nook and corner in hope of
finding something that may satisfy the cravings of imperious hunger.
Young birds, eggs, the smaller quadrupeds — such as young rabbits,
which it eats by the brood at a time, cotton rats, and mice — reptiles of
various kinds, and insects, fall victims to the appetite of the Virginian
Opossum, which is often not content with the food whichjt finds in the
open forests, but must needs insinuate itself into the poultry-yard and
make a meal on the fovvls and their eggs.

Besides the varied animal diet in which the Opossum indulges, it also
eats vegetable substances, committing as much havoc among plantations
and fruit trees as among rabbits and poultry. It is very fond of maize,
procuring the coveted food by climbing the tall stems, or by biting them
across and breaking them down. It also eats acorns, beech-nuts, chest-
nuts, and wild berries, while its fondness for the fruit of the ** persim-
mon" tree is almost proverbial. While feeding on those fruits it has
been seen hanging by its tail, or its hinder paws, gathering the "per-
simmons " with its fore-pav^s, and eating them while thus suspended.
It also feeds on various roots, which it digs out of the ground with
ease.

Its gait is usually slow and awkward, but when pursued it runs with
considerable speed, though in a sufficiently clumsy fiishion, caused by
its habit of usiug the limbs of the right and left sides simultaneously in
a kind of amble. As, moreover, the creature is plantigrade in its walk,
it may be imagined to be anything but elegant in its mode of progress
upon the ground. Although it is such an adept at " 'possuming," or
feigning death, it does not put this ruse in practice until it has used
every endeavor to elude its pursuers, and finds that it has no possibil-
ity of escape. It runs sulkily and sneakingly forward, looking on
every side for some convenient shelter, and seizing the first oppor-
tunity of slipping under cover.

The nest of the Opossum is always made in some protected situation,
such as the hollow of a fallen or a standing tree, or under the shelter
of some old projecting roots.

In Merian's Opossum there is no true pouch, and the place of that
curious structure is only indicated by a fold of skin, so that during the
infancy of its young the mother is obliged to have recourse to that sin-
gular custom which has gained for it the title of dorsigerus, or " back-
bearing." At a very early age the young Opossums are shifted to the
back of their mother, where they cling tightly to her fur with their
little hand-like feet, and further secure themselves by twining their
own tails round that of the parent. The little group which is here

13*

150

MERIAN'S OPOSSUM.

given was sketched from a stuffed specimen in the British Museum,
where the peculiar attitude of mother and young is wonderfully pre-
served, when the very minute dimensions of the young Opossums are
taken into consideration.

Many other species of Opossums are in the habit of carrying their
young upon their backs, even though they may be furnished with a
well-developed pouch ; but in the pouchless Opossums the young are

Merian's Opossum (Philander dordgerus).

placed on the back at a very early age, and are retained there for a
considerable period.

It is a very small animal, measuring when adult only six inches from
the nose to the root of the tail, the tail itself being more than seven
inches in length, thus exceeding the united measurement of the head
and body. Its general appearance is much like that of a very large
mouse or a very small rat.

The fur of the Merian's Opossum is very short, and lies closely upon
the skin. On the upper portions of the body its color is a pale gray-
ish brown, fading below into a yellowish white. Round the eyes is a
deep-brown mark, which extends forward in front of each eye, and
forms a small dark patch. The forehead, the upper part of the head,
and the cheeks, together with the limbs and feet, are of a yellow^ish
white, tending to gray.

Toward the base the tail is clothed with hair of the same texture

THE COMMON SEAL.

151

and color as that of the upper part of the body, but toward its extrem-
ity it becomes white. Its native country is Surinam.

PHOCID^, OR SEALS.

We now arrive at a very wonderful series of animals, which, although
they breathe atmospheric air like other mammalia, are yet almost en-
tirely aquatic in their habits, and are never seen except in the water or
its immediate vicinity. The first family of these aquatic mammalia is
that which is formed of the animals which are popularly known by the
name of Seals.

The Common Seal is spread very widely over many portions of the
globe, and is of very frequent occurrence upon our own coasts, where

The Marbled Seal.
it is found in considerable numbers, much to the annoyance of the fish-
ermen, who look upon it with intense hatred, on account of the havoc
which it makes among the fish.

It is rather a handsome animal, with its beautifully-mottled skin and
large intelligent eyes, and, although not so large as other species which
are also found upon the British coasts, yields to none of them in point
of beautv. The color of its fur is generally of a grayish yellow,
sprinkled with spots of brown, or brownish black, which are larger

152 THE COMMON SEAL.

aud more conspicuous along the back than upon the sides. The under
portions of the body are of a much lighter hue. The feet are short,
and the claws of the hinder feet are larger than those of the anterior
limbs. The total length of the adult Seal is seldom more than five
feet, the head being about eight or nine inches long.

This creature is wonderfully active both in water and on land, al-
though its bodily powers are but awkwardly manifested when it is re-
moved from the watery element in which it loves to roam. It is a per-
severing hunter of fish, chasing and securing them in a manner that
greatly excites the wrath of the fishermen, who see their best captives
taken away from them without the possibility of resistance. So cunning as
well as active is the Common Seal that one of these animals will coolly
hang about the fishing-grounds throughout the season, make itself fa-
miliar with all the turns and angles of the nets, and avail itself of

The Seal [Phoca vituUna).

their help in capturing the fish on which it is desirous to make a
meal.

On the British coasts the chase of the Seal is of but local import-
ance, but on the shore of Newfoundland it assumes a different aspect,
and becomes an important branch of commercial enterprise, employing
many vessels annually. In a successful season the number of Seals
which are taken amounts to many hundred thousand. A large quan-
tity of oil is obtained from the bodies of the Seals, and is used for va-
rious purposes, while their skins are of considerable value either when
tanned into leather or when prepared with the fur and used for making
various articles of dress and luxury.

The Common Seal is very easily tamed, and speedily becomes one of
the most docile of animals, attaching itself with strong affection to its
human friends, and developing a beautifully gentle and loving nature,
hardly to be expected in such an animal. Many of these creatures
have been taken when young, and have been strongly domesticated
with their captors, considering themselves to belong of right to the

THE WALRUS.

153

household, and taking their share of the fireside with the other mem-
bers of the family.

Of late days performing Seals have come into vogue under various
titles, among which the " Talking Fish " is well known. These clever
animals have been taught to perform sundry ingenious feats, requiring
not only an intelligent mind to comprehend, but an activity of body
to execute apparently incompatible with the conformation of the an-
imal.

Among all the strange forms which are found among the members
of the Seal family, there is none which presents a more terribly gro-
tesque appearance than that of the Walkus, Morse, or Sea Horse,
as this extraordinary animal is indifferently termed.

The most conspicuous part of this animal is the head, with its pro-
tuberant muzzle bristling with long wiry hairs, and the enormous ca-
nine teeth that project from the upper jaw. These huge teeth meas-
ure, in large specimens, from fourteen inches to two feet in length, the
girth at the base being nearly seven inches, and their weight upward
of teu pounds each. In ordinary specimens, however, the length is
about one foot. In some examples they approach each other toward
their points, and in others they diverge considerably, forming, in the
opinion of some writers, two distinct species. As, however, the rel-
ative position of these teeth varies slightly in every specimen that has
yet been examined, tha structure seems to be of hardly sufficient im-

The Walrus or Morse [Trichecus Bosmams).

portance for the establishment of a separate species. The ivory which
is furnished by these extraordinary w^eapous is of very fine quality, and
commands a high price in the market.

154

THE WALEUS.

A Walrus is a valuable auimal, for even in this country its skin,
teeth, and oil are in much request, while among the Esquimaux its
body furnishes them with almost every article in common use. Among
civilized men, the skin of the Walrus is employed for harness aud other
similar purposes where a thick and tough hide is required. The tooth
furnishes very good ivory, of a beautiful texture, and possessing the ad-
vantage of retaining the white hue longer than ivory which is made from
the elephant tusk. The oil is delicate, but there is very little to be ob-
tained from each Walrus, the layer of fatty matter being scarcely more
than a hand's-breadth in thickness. Among the Esquimaux the Wal-
rus is put to a variety of uses. Fish-hooks are made from its tusks, the
intestines are twisted into nets, its oil and flesh are eaten, and its bones

The Walrus or Morse.

and skin are also turned to account by these rude but ingenious work-

men.

The Walrus is found in vast herds, which frequent the coasts of the
arctic and antarctic regions, and which congregate in such numbers
that their united roarings have often given timely warning to fog-
bewildered sailors, and acquainted them with the near proximity of
shore. These herds present a curious sight, as the huge, clumsy an-
imals are ever in movement, rolling and tumbling over each other in
a strange fashion, and constantly uttering their hoarse bellowings.

The movements of the Walrus when on land are of a very clumsy
character, as might be supposed from the huge, unwieldy body of the
animal, and the evident insufficiency of the limbs to urge the weightv
body forward with any speed. When this creature is hurried or

THE ELEPHANT SEAL. 155

alarmed, it coDtrives to get over the ground at a pace that, although
not very rapid, is yet wonderfully so when the size of the animal is
taken into account. The movement is a mixture of jerks and leaps,
and the Walrus is further aided in its progress by the tusks. Should
it be attacked, and its retreat cut off, the Walrus advances fiercely
upon its enemy, striking from side to side with its long tusks, and
endeavoring to force a passage into the sea. If it should be suc-
cessful in its attempt, it hurries to the water's edge, lowers its head,
and rolls unceremoniously into the sea, where it is in comparative
safety.

This animal attains to a very great size — so great, indeed, that its
dimensions can hardly be appreciated except by ocular demonstration.
A full-grown male Walrus is generally from twelve to fifteen feet in
length, while there are many specimens that have been known to attain
a still greater size. The skin is black and smooth, and is sparingly cov-
ered with brown hairs, which become more numerous on the feet.

Another powerful and grotesque Seal now engages our attention.
This is the Elephant Seal, or Sea Elephant, so called not only
on account of the strange prolongation of the nose, which bears some
analogy to the proboscis of the
elephant, but also on account of
the animal's elephantine size.
Large specimens of this mon-
strous Seal measure as much as
thirty feet in length, and fifteen
or eighteen feet in circumference
at the largest part of their bodies.

The color of the Sea Elephant is
rather variable, even in individuals
of the same sex and age, but is gen-
erally as follows: The fur of the
male is usually of a bluish gray,
which sometimes deepens into dark The Sea Elephant [Morunga probos-
brown, while that of the female is

darker, and variegated with sundry dapplings of a yellow hue. This
animal is an inhabitant of the southern hemisphere, and is spread
through a considerable range of country. It is extensively hunted
for the sake of its skin and its oil, both of which are of very excellent
quality, and, from the enormous size of the animal, can be procured in
large quantities. It is not exclusively confined to the sea, but is also
fond of haunting fresh-water lakes or swampy ground.

It is an emigrating animal, moving southward as the summer comes
on, and northward when the cold weather of the winter months would
make its more southern retreats unendurable. Its first emigration

156 WHALES.

is generally made in the middle of June, when the females become
mothers, and remain in charge of their nurseries for nearly two
months. During this time the males are said to form a cordon be-
tween their mates and the sea, in order to prevent them from desert-
ing their young charges. At the expiration of this time the males re-
lax their supervision, and the whole family luxuriates together in the
sea, where the mothers soon regain their lost condition. They then
seek the shore afresh, and occupy themselves in settling their mat-
rimonial alliances, which are understood on the principle that the
strongest shall make his choice among the opposite sex, and that the
weakest may take those that are rejected by his conquerors, or none at
all, as the case may be.

During the season of courtship the males fight desperately with each
other, inflicting fearful wounds with their tusk-like teeth, while the fe-
males remain aloof, as quiet spectators of the combat. They are polyg-
amous animals, each male being lord over a considerable number of
females, whom he rules with despotic sway. AVhen the victorious com-
batants have chosen their mates they are very careful about their safety,
and refuse to quit them if they should be in any danger. Knowing
this fact, the seal-hunters always direct their attacks upon the females,
being sure to capture the male afterward. If they were to kill the
male at first, his harem would immediately disperse and fly in terror,
but as long as he lives they will continue to crowd round him.

Although these animals are of so great dimensions and bodily
strength, and are furnished with a very formidable set of teeth, they
are not nearly such dangerous antagonists as the walrus, and are most
apathetic in their habits. When roused from sleep they open their
mouths in a threatening manner, but do not seem to think of using their
teeth ; and if they find that their disturbers do not run away, they take
that office upon themselves, and move ofl^ deliberately for the water. As
they proceed their huge bodies tremble like masses of jelly, in conse-
quence of the fat with which they are so heavily laden. So plentiful
is this fat that a single adult male will furnish about seventy gallons
of clear and scentless oil.

WHALES.

The Cetacea, or Whales, are more thoroughly aquatic than any
other animals which have already been described, and are consequently
framed in such a very fish-like manner that they have generally been
considered as fishes by those who are but little acquainted with the
animal kingdom. The whole livelihood of whales is obtained in
the waters, and their entire structure is only fitted for traversing the
waves, so that if they should happen to be cast upon the shore they

THE GREENLAND WHALE. 157

have no means of regaining their native element, and are sure to perish
miserably from hunger.

When the Whales breathe, they are forced to rise to the surface of
the sea, and there make a number of huge respirations, which are
technically called " spoutings," because a column of mixed vapor and
water is ejected from the nostrils, or " blow-holes," and spouts upward
to a great height, sometimes as much as twenty feet. In order to enable
the animal to respire without exposing itself unnecessarily, the " blow-
holes " are placed on the upper part of the head, so that when a whale
is reposing itself on the surface of the sea, there is very little of its
huge carcase visible, except the upper portion of the head and a part
of the back. The " spoutings " are made with exceeding violence, and
can be heard at some distance.

The limbs of the AVhales are so modified in their form that they can
hardly be recognized by their external appearance alone as the limbs
of a veritable mammal. In shape they closely resemble the fins of
fish, and it is not until they are stripped of the thick skin which envelops
them that the true limb is developed. They are, in fact, abnormal
developments of the legs in order to suit an aquatic life, just as are the
wings of the bat for an aerial life. The chief use of these organs
seems to be that they assist the animal in preserving its position in the
water, for the huge carcase rolls over on its back as soon as it is depriv-
ed of the balancing-power of its fins. They are also employed for the
purpose of grasping the young whenever the mother Whale is anxious
for the safety of her offspring, but they are of little use in urging the
animal through the water, that duty being almost entirely performed
by the tail.

The skin of the Whale is devoid of hair, and is of a rather peculiar
structure, as is needful to enable it to resist the enormous pressure to
which it is constantly subjected at the vast depths to which the animal
descends. The skin is three-fold, consisting first of the scarf-skin, or
epidermis ; secondly, of the retemucosum^ which gives color to the
animal ; and thirdly, of the true skin, which is modified in order to
meet the needs of the creature which it defends. The blubber, indeed,
is nothing more than the true skin, which is composed of a number of
interlacing fibres, capable of containing a very great amount of oily
matter. This blubber is never less than several inches in thickness,
and in many places is nearly tw^o feet deep, and as elastic as caoutchouc,
offering an admirable resistance to the force of the waves and the
pressure of the water. In a large Whale the blubber will weigh
thirty tons.

The Greenland Whale, Northern Whale, or Right Whale,
as it is indiflTerently termed, is an inhabitant of the Northern Seas,
where it is still found in great abundance, although the constant persecu-
14

158 THE GREENLAND WHALE.

tions to which it has been subjected have considerably thinned its
numbers.

This animal is, when fully grown, about sixty or seventy feet in
length, and its girth about thirty or forty feet. Its color is velvety
black upon the upper part of the body, the fins and the tail ; gray
upon the junction of the tail with the body and the base of the fins,

and white upon the abdomen and the

— '=' fore-part of the lower jaw. The velvety

'- aspect of the body is caused by the oil

which exudes from the epidermis and

% aids in destroying the friction of the

water. Its head is remaikably large,

being one-third of the length of the

entire bulk. The jaw opens very far

back, and in a large Whale is about

The Greenland Whale sixteen feet in length, seven feet wide,

{Balaena mystketus). ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ twelve feet in height, affording

space, as has been quaintly remarked, for a jolly-boat and her crew to

float in.

The most curious part of the jaw and its structure is the remarkable
substance which is popularly known by the name of whalebone.

The whalebone, or baleen, is found in a series of plates, thick and
solid at the insertion into the jaw, and splitting at the extremity into a
multitude of hair-like fringes. On each side of the jaw there are
more than three hundred of these plates, which in a fine specimen
are about ten 6r twelve feet long, and eleven inches wide at their
base. The weight of baleen which is furnished by a large Whale is
about one ton. This substance does not take its origin directly from
the gum, but from a peculiar vascular formation which rests upon it.
These masses of baleen are placed along the sides of the mouth for the
purpose of aiding the Whale in procuring its food and separating it
from the water.

The mode of feeding which is adopted by the Whale is as follows :
The animal frequents those parts of the ocean which are the best sup-
plied with the various creatures on which it feeds, and which are all
of very small size, as is needful from the size of its gullet, which is
not quite two inches in diameter. Small shrimps, crabs, and lobsters,
together with various molluscs and medusa, form the diet on which the
vast bulk of the Greenland Whale is sustained. Driving with open
mouth through the congregated shoals of these little creatures, the
Whale engulfs them by millions in its enormous jaws, and continues
its destructive course until it has sufficiently charged its mouth with
prey. Closing its jaws and driving out through the interstices of the
whalebone the water which it has taken together with its prey, it re-

THE SPERMACETI WHALE. ' 159

tains the captured animals, which are entangled in the whalebone, and
swallows them at its ease.

The Whale is an animal of very great value to civilized and to sav-
age men. The oil which is procured in great quantities from its blub-
ber and other portions of its structure is almost invaluable to us, while
the bones and baleen find their use in every civilized land. To the
natives of the polar regions, however, the Whale is of still greater
value, as they procure many necessaries of life from various parts of
its body, eat the flesh, and drink the oil. Repulsive as such a diet
may appear to us, who live in a comparatively warm region, it is an
absolute necessity in those ice-bound lands, such oleaginous diet being
needful in order to keep up the heat of the body by a bountiful sup-
ply of carbon.

As far as is yet known, the Greenland Whale produces only a sin-
gle cub at a birth. When first born, the young Whale is without the
baleen, depending upon its mother for its subsistence like any other
young mammal. The maternal Whale keeps close to her oflTspring
until the baleen is grown, and does not forsake it until it is capable of
supporting itself. The young Whales, before the baleen has developed
itself, are technically termed " suckers," and when the baleen is six
feet in length they are called by the name of "size."

The Cachalot, or Spermaceti Whale, is one of the largest of the
Whales, an adult male — or " old bull," as it is called by the whalers —
measuring from seventy to eighty feet in length, and thirty feet in cir-
cumference. The head is enormously long, being almost equal to one-
third of the total length. Upon the back there is rather a large hump,
which rises abruptly in front and tapers gradually toward the tail. The
color of the Cachalot is a blackish gray, somewhat tinged with green
upon the upper portions of the body. Round the eyes and on the ab-
domen it is of a grayish white.

This species is chiefly notable on account of the valuable substances
which are obtained from its body, including oil and spermaceti. The
oil is obtained from the blubber, which is not very thick in this animal,
being only fourteen inches in depth on the breast and eleven inches on
the other parts of the body, and is therefore not so abundant in pro-
portion to the size of the animal as that which is extracted from the
Greenland Whale. Its superior quality, however, compensates fully
for its deficiency in quantity. The layer of blubber is by the whalers
technically called the " blanket," probably in allusion to its ofiSce in
preserving the animal heat.

The spermaceti is almost peculiar to a few species of the genus Ca-
todon, and is obtained as follows :

The enormous and curiously-formed head is the great receptacle of
the spermaceti, which lies, in a liquid oily state, in two great cavities

160

THE SPERMACETI WHALE.

that exist in the huge raass of tendinous substance of which the head
is chiefly composed. When the whale is killed and towed to the ship's
side, the head is cut ofl" and affixed to tackles for the purpose of sup-
porting it in a convenient position for the extraction of this valuable
substance. A large hole is cut in the top of the head, and a number

Spermaceti AVhale {Cdtodon Macrocephalus).

of sailors lower their buckets into the cavity and bale out the liquid
matter.

When first exposed to the air it has a clear oily appearance, but af-
ter it has been subjected to the action of the atmosphere for a few
hours, the spermaceti begins to separate itself from the oil, and in a
short time is sufficiently firm to be removed and put into a different
vessel.

The amount of spermaceti which is produced from the head of a
single Whale is very large indeed. From a Cachalot that only meas-
ured sixty-four feet in length, and was therefore by no means a large
one, twenty-four barrels of spermaceti and nearly one hundred barrels
of oil were obtained.

Ambergris, that curious substance whose origin so long baffled the
keenest inquirers, and which was formerly only found at rare inter-
vals floating on the waves or cast upon the shore, is now often dis-
covered within the intestines of the Cachalot, and is supposed to be a
morbid secretion peculiar to the animal, and analogous to biliary cal-
culi. Fifty pounds weight of this substance have been found in a sin-
gle Whale, and on one occasion a single piece of ambergris of the same
weight was discovered on the coast of the Bermudas by some sailors,
who immediately deserted their ship and escaped to England with

THE SPERMACETI WHALE. 161

their valuable prize. The value of the ambergris is rather variable,
but it is always a costly article.

The Spermaceti Whale, when it is in the open seas, lives chiefly on the
" squids," or cuttle-fish, which swarm in the ocean, and when it ap-
proaches laud feeds on various fish. It seems, however, to dislike the
propinquity of the shore, aud is very seldom taken in " soundings." It
is a gregarious animal, being seldom seen alone, but in large herds, tech-
nically called " schools," and consisting of several hundred in number.
The " schools " are generally divided into two bands, the one consisting
of young males and the other of females. Each band of females is un-
der the command of several large males,
who exercise the strictest discipline over -==^^fc

their harems, and will not permit any in-
truder to join their society. From their
office, these leaders are called the school-
masters.

The teeth of the Spermaceti Whale
are conical and slightly curved, some-
times reaching the length of some eight
or nine inches. To Europeans these The Spermaceti Whale {Cd-
teeth are of great value, but to the ^^^^'^ 3Iacrocephalus).

Fijians, Tongans, etc., they are almost priceless, a single tooth being
thought a present fit for one king to make to another, or to be laid up
in the temple as an oflTering to the idol.

The Spermaceti Whale does not seem to choose any particular por-
tion of the year for the production of its young, but is found at all sea-
sons in charge of its offspring. Moreover, young Whales, or " cubs,"
are found at all sizes and ages simultaueously roaming the seas, either
in company with their parents or turned loose upon the world to shift
for themselves. There is but a single cub at a birth. The milk of the
animal is exceedingly rich and thick, as indeed is the case with the
milk of all Whales.

This animal is very widely spread over the world, as it is found
in almost every one of the aqueous portions of the globe, with the ex-
ception of the Polar Seas. Several of these creatures have been discov-
ered off our own coasts, and a few have been stranded on the beach. A
Cachalot measuring fifty-four feet in length was driven ashore in the
Firth of Forth in 1769, and its appearance off the Orkneys is said to
be no very uncommon occurrence.

DOLPHINS.

The members of this family do not possess the enormous head which
characterizes the true whales, and have teeth in both jaws, although
14* L

162 THE NAEWHAL.

they are liable to fall out at an early age. The blow-holes are
united together, so as to form a single semilunar opening, which is set
transversely on the crown of the head.

The word Narwhal is derived from the Gothic, signifying " beaked
whale," and is a very appropriate term for the Sea Unicorn, as the
animal is popularly entitled. The head of the Narwhal is round, and
convex in front, the lower jaw being without teeth, and not so wide as
the upper jaw. From the upper jaw of the Narwhal springs the curious
weapon which has gained for the animal a world-wide reputation.

In the upper jaw of the young or the female Narwhal are found two
small or hollow tusks, imbedded in the bone, which, in the female,

are generally undeveloped throughout the
whole of the animal's existence, but in the
male Narwhal are strangely modified. The
right tusk remains in its infantine state,
excepting that the hollow becomes filled
with bony substance ; but the left tusk rap-
idly increases in length, and is developed
into a long, spiral, tapering rod of ivory,
_ ,^ ,,, sometimes attainins^ to the length of eight

Mo^eros) or t«» <■<=«'• The tuAs are supposed to be

formed by an excessive growth of the ca-
nine teeth, and not of the incisors, as might be supposed from the
position which they occupy in the jaw.

The food of the Narwhal consists chiefly of marine molluscs and of
occasional fish, but is found to be generally composed of the same kind
of squid, or cuttle-fish, which supplies the gigantic spermaceti whale
with subsistence. As the remains of several flat fish have been discov-
ered in the stomach of the Narwhal, it was supposed by some authors
that the animal made use of its tusk as a fish-spear, transfixing them as
they lay "sluddering" on the mud or sand, after their usual fashion,
thus preventing their escape from the toothless mouth into which the
wounded fish are then received. However this may be, the force of the
tusk is terrific when urged with the impetus of the creature driving
through the water at full speed, for the whole combined power of the
weight and velocity of the animal is directed along the line of the tusk.
A Narwhal has been known to encounter a ship, and to drive its tusk
through the sheathing and deeply into the timbers. The shock was
probably fatal to the assailant, for the tooth was snapped by the sudden
blow, remaining in the hole which it had made, and acting as a plug
that eflfectually prevented the water from gaining admission into the
vessel.

The ivory of the Narwhal's tusk is remarkably good in quality, being
hard and solid, capable of receiving a high polish, and possessing the

THE PORPOISE.

163

property of retainiDg its beautiful whiteness for a very long period, so
that a large Narwhal horn is of no inconsiderable commercial value.

The native Greenlauders hold the Narwhal in high estimation ; for,
independently of its value, it is welcomed each succeeding year as the
harbinger of the Greenland whale.

The oil which is extracted from the blubber is very delicate, but is
not present in very great amount, as the coating of fatty substance is
seldom more than three inches in depth. About half a ton of oil is ob-
tained from a large specimen. The flesh is much prized by the natives,
and is not only eaten in its fresh state, but is carefully dried and pre-
pared over the fire.

The color of this animal is almost entirely black upon the upper sur-
face of the body, but is slightly varied by streaks and patches of a
deeper tint. The sides fade into grayish white, diversified with sun-
dry gray marks, and the under portions of the body are white.

Most familiar of all the Dolphin fraternity is the well-known Por-
poise, or Sea Hog, an animal which may be seen on any of our coasts.

The Porpoise or Porpesse [Phoccena communis).

tumbling about on the waves and executing various gambols in the ex-
uberance of its sportive feelings.

Porpoises are very gregarious animals, herding together in large
shoals, and sometimes swimming in " Indian file," as they shoot over
the surface of the sea, just showing their black and glossy backs above
the water, and keeping such excellent line that they seem to be an-
imated by one spirit and one will.

As might be presumed from the formidable array of sharp teeth with

164 THE DOLPHIN.

which the jaws are studded, and which are so arranged that the upper
and lower sets interlock when the animal closes its mouth, the food of
the Porpoise consists entirely of animal substances, and almost wholly
of fish, which it consumes in large quantities, much to the disgust of
human fishermen. Herrings, pilchards, sprats, and other salable fish
are in great favor with the Porpoise, which pursues its finny prey to
the very shores, and, driving among the vast shoals in which these fish
congregate, destroys enormous quantities of them. The fish are con-
scious of the presence of their destroyer, and flee before it in terror,
often flinging themselves into the certain death of nets or shallow wa-
ter in their hope to escape from the devouring jaws of the Porpoise.
Even salmon and such large fish fall frequent victims to their pursuer,
which twists, turns, and leaps with such continuous agility that it is
more than a match for its swift and nimble prey. Not even the marvel-
lous leaping powers of the salmon are suflicient to save them from the
voracious Porpoise, which is not to be baffled by any such impotent devices.

The Porpoise seems to keep closely to the coasts, and is seldom seen
in mid-ocean. It appears to be a migratory animal, as the season of
its disappearance from one locality generally coincides with that of its
arrival on some other coast. It is very widely spread, appearing to in-
habit with equal security the warm waters of the Mediterranean, the
cool seas of our own coasts, or the icy regions of the high latitudes.

The length of a full-grown Porpoise is extremely variable, the aver-
age being from six to eight feet. The color of the Porpoise is a blue-
black on the upper surface of the body, and a bright silvery white be-
low ; so that when the animal executes one of its favorite gyrations the
contrasting tints produce a strange effect as they rapidly succeed each
other. The iris of the eye is yellowish.

The word " Porpoise " is corrupted from the French term Porc-pois-
son — i. e., " Hog fish " — and bears the same signification as its German
name, Meerschwein.

The Dolphin is remarkable for the enormous number of teeth which
stud its mouth, no less than forty-seven being found on each side of
both jaws, the full complement being one hundred and ninety. In the
head of one specimen were found fifty teeth on each side of each jaiv,
making a complement of tw^o hundred in all. -Between each tooth
there is a space equal to the w^idth of a single tooth, so that when the
animal closes its mouth the teeth of both jaws interlock perfectly. All
the teeth are sharply pointed and flattened, and slightly curved back-
ward, so that the entire apparatus is wonderfully adapted for the re-
tention of the slippery marine creatures on which the Dolphin feeds.
Fish of various kinds form the usual diet of the Dolphin, which espe-
cially delights in the flat fishes of our coasts, and often prowls about
the shoals of herrings and pilchards that periodically reach our shores.

THE MANATEE.

165

The Dolphin is not a very large animal, measuring, when fully
grown, from six to ten feet in length, seven fe^ being the usual aver-
age. Its color is black upon the back, and silvery white upon the ab-
domen ; while the flanks are grayish white. The beautiful colors which
have been said to play about the
body of a dying Dolphin are not
entirely mythical, but belong
rightly to one of the fishes, the
coryphene, or dorado, which is
popularly called the Dolphin by
sailors. _ ^

The eyes of the Dolphin are "

small, and are supplied with eye- The Dolphin {Ddphinus Ddphis).
lids ; the pupil of the eye is heart-shaped. The ears have but a very
minute external aperture, barely admitting an ordinary pin.

It is a lively and playful animal, and, being remarkably active in
its native element, is fond of gambolling among the waves, and engag-
ing in various sports with its companions. Being of a very gregarious
nature, it is seldom seen alone, but prefers to associate in little flocks
or herds, and is in the habit of accompanying ships for considerable
distances, hovering about the vessel and executing various strange
manoeuvres.

The Dolphin produces only a single young one at a time, and nurses
her offspring with exceeding tenderness and assiduity.

The common Dolphin is found in the European seas, and in the At-
lantic and the Mediterranean, and may possibly have a still wider
range.

SIRENIA.

The Manatee, or Lamantine, is a very strange-looking creature,
appearing like a curious mixture of several dissimilar animals, the seal
and the hippopotamus being predominant.

There are several species of Manatee, two of which are found in
America and one in Africa, but always on those shores which are
washed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. The common Manatee
is generally about nine or ten feet in length, and is remarkable for the
thick fleshy disc which terminates the muzzle, and in which the nostrils
are placed. It is found in some plenty at the mouths of sundry large
rivers, such as the Orinoco or the Amazon, and feeds upon the algae
and other herbage which grows so plentifully in those regions. By
some writers the animal is said to leave the water entirely, and to
search for its food upon the land, but this assertion is now ascertained
to be incorrect. It is, however, in the habit of crawling partly out of
the water, and has a strange custom of elevating its head and shoul-

166

THE RODENTS.

ders above the surface in such a manner that it bears some resemblance
to a human beino^.

The Manatee [Munatus Australis).

EODENTS.

The Rodents, or gna\Ying animals, derive their name from the pe-
culiar structure of their teeth, which are specially fitted for gnawing
their way through hard substances. The jaws of the Rodents are
heavily made, and very large in proportion to the head, their size
being needful not only for the support of the gnawing teeth, but for
their continual development. There are no canines, but a wide gap
exists between the incisors and the molars, which are nearly flat on
their surfaces, and are well suited for grinding the soft substances on
which these animals feed.

The structure of the chisel-edged incisor teeth is very wonderful, and
may be easily understood by inspecting the teeth of a rat, mouse, hare,
or rabbit.

As the teeth are continually worn out by the severe friction which
they undergo unceasingly, there must needs be some provision for re-
newing their substance, or the creature would soon die of starvation.
In order to obviate this calamity, the base of the incisor teeth pass
deeply into the jaw-bone, where they are continually nourished by a
kind of pulpy substance from which the tooth is formed, and which
adds fresh material in proportion to the daily waste.

vSomething more is needed for the well-being of the animal than the

THE BROWN RAT. 167

mere growth of its teeth ; for unless their chisel -like edges were con-
tinually kept sharp, they would be of little use for cutting their way
through the hard substances which the Rodents are in the habit of
gnawing. This result is attained as follows:

The enamel which covers the front face of the incisor teeth is much
harder than that which is laid upon the remaining surfaces, while the
dentine which makes up the solid mass of each tooth is also harder in
front than behind. It is evident that when these teeth are employed
in their usual task, the softer enamel and dentine are worn away very
much more rapidly than the remainder of the teeth, so that the pecu-
liar chisel-edge of the teeth is continually preserved. Following —
perhaps unconsciously — the structure of these teeth, our cutlers have
long been accustomed to make their chisels on the same principle, a
thin plate of steel being strengthened with a thick backing of iron.

The Rodent animals are widely spread over the entire globe, and
are very numerous, comprising nearly one-third of the mammalia.

Few animals are so well known or so thoroughly detested as the
common Brown Rat, or Norway Rat, as it is sometimes erroneously
called.

It is an exceedingly voracious animal, eating all kinds of strange
food, and not sparing its own species in times of scarcity. The havoc
which an army of Ruts will make among the
corn-ricks is almost incredible, while they carry
on their depredation with so much secrecy that
an unpractised eye would think the stacks to be
sound and unharmed. Fortunately, they can
easily be dislodged from any rick by taking it
down and replacing it on proper "staddles,"
taking great care that no stray weeds or
branches afford a foothold to these persevering The Rat (Mus Decima-
marauders. While the rick is being rebuilt, '"'^^'

no particular care need be taken to shake the Rats out of the sheaves,
for, as they are thirsty animals, they will be forced to leap from the
stack in search of water, and then will not be able to return.

Mice can subsist in a stack by means of the rain and dew which
moisten the thatch, and may often be seen licking the straws in order
to quench their thirst. But the Rats are less tolerant of thirst, and are
forced to evacuate their premises. When mice and Rats are found
inhabiting the same stack, the former animals reside in the upper parts,
and the Rats in the lower.

Rats are not without their use, especially in large towns, which but
for their never-failing appetites would often be in very sad case.
Taking, for example, London itself, we find that the sewers which
underlie its whole extent are inhabited by vast hordes of Rats, which

168

THE MOUSE.

perform the office of scavengers by devouring tbe mass of vegetable
and animal offal which is daily cast into those subterranean passages,
and which would speedily breed a pestilence were it not removed by
the ready teeth of the Rats. So that, when kept within proper bounds,
the Rat is a most useful animal, and will continue to be so until the
drainage of towns is constructed in a different manner.

Rats are very cleanly animals, always washing themselves after
every meal, and displaying the greatest assiduity in making their toilet.
They also exhibit considerable delicacy of palate wherever they find a
sufficiency of provisions, although they are in no way nice in their diet
when pressed by hunger. If, for example, a party of Rats discover an
entrance into a butcher's storehouse, they are sure to attack the best
parts of the meat, utterly disdaining the neck, the shin, or other coarse
pieces.

There is one peculiarity in the structure of Rats which is worthy of
notice. These animals are able not only to ascend a perpendicular
tree or wall by the aid of their sharp hooked claws, but also to
descend headforemost with perfect ease. In order to enable them
to perform this feat, their hind-legs are so made that the feet can
be turned outward, and the claws hitched upon any convenient pro-
jections.

However unpromising a subject the Rat may appear, it has often
been tamed, and is a very much more educatable animal than could be
supposed. It will obey its master's commands with promptitude, and
has been known to learn very curious tricks.

" Y" little vulgar Mouse," as it is quaintly termed by old Topsel, is
a truly pretty little creature, with its brown-gray back, gray throat and

abdomen, soft velvety fur, its lit-
tle bright black bead-like eyes, and
squirrel-like paws. A detailed
description of so familiar an an-
imal would be quite unnecessary,
and we will therefore proceed to
its habits and manners.

Like the Rat, it frequents both
town and country, doing an in-
finity of damage in the former,
but comparatively little harm in
the latter. In the country it at-

rp . T., , ,, ,,, , taches itself mostly to farmyards,

Ihe Mouse (i/us MitscuUis). , .^ . ^ . .-, - i

' where it gams access to the ricks,

and when once firmly established is not so easily dislodged as its larger

relative the Rat. However, if the rick be kept under cover, the Mice

cannot make any lengthened stay, for the cover keeps off the rain, on

THE HARVEST MOUSE.

169

which they chiefly depend for drink, and they are then obliged to leave
the stack in search of water. If the rick be placed on staddles, it will
then be safe from these little pests.

They are odd little animals, and full of the quaintest garaesoraeness,
as may be seen by any one who will only sit quite still and watch them
as they run about a room which they specially affect. They are to the
full as inquisitive as cats, and will examine any new piece of furniture
with great curiosity.

The Mouse is a marvellously prolific animal, producing its young
several times in the course of the year, and at a very early age. The
nests are made in any sheltered spot, and formed from any soft sub-
stance, such as rags, paper, or wool, that the mother can procure.

The Harvest Mouse {Miciomys minutu.s).

Smallest, and perhaps the prettiest, of the British mammalia, the
elegant little Harvest Mouse next claims our attention. The total
length of this tiny creature is not quite five inches, its tail being nearly
two inches and a half in length. The color of its fur is a delicate
reddish brown, the base of each hair taking the darker tint and the

15

170

THE HAMSTER.

point warming into red, while the under parts of the abdomen are
white. The line of demarcation between the brown and white is well
defined.

The description wliich is given of the Harvest Mouse and its wonder-
ful nest by the Rev. Gilbert \yhite is so well known that it need only
be casually mentioned. I have fortunately had opportunities of
verifying his observations by means of a nest which was found in a
field in Wiltshire by some mowers.

Independently of its small size, the Harvest Mouse may be distin-
guished from a young ordinary Mouse by its short ears, narrow head,
slender body, and less projecting eyes.

The short, stui'dy, stupid rodent which is so famous under the name
of the Hamster is widely spread over many parts of Northern Europe,
where it is an absolute pest to the agriculturists, who wage unceasing
war against so destructive an animal. Before proceeding to the habits
and character of the Hamster, a short description of its external
appearance will be necessary.

The color of its fur is a grayish fawn on the back, deepening into
black on the under portions of the body, and softening into a yellow
hue upon the head and face. The otherwise uniform tinting of the fur
is relieved by some patches of whitish yellow upon the cheeks, shoul-
ders, and sides. The creature is furnished with two large cheek-pouches,
which are capable of containing a considerable amount of food, and
which can be inflated with air at the pleasure of the animal. The
length of the adult Hamster is about fifteen inches, the tail being only
three inches long.

The Hamster is most destructive to the crops, whether of corn, peas,
or beans, and when the autumn approaches begins to plunder the fields

in a most systematic
manner, for the pur-
pose of laying up a
winter store of pro-
visions. By dint of
dexterous manage-
ment, the animal fills
its cheek-pouches
with grain, pressing
it firmly with its
paws, so as to lose no
space, and then car-
ries ofl" its plunder to
its subterranean treasury, where it disgorges the contents of the
pouches, and returns for another supply. The husbandmen are so
well aware of this propensity that they search after the habitation of

The Hamster {Qicetus frumentark

THE WATER VOLE. 171

the Hamster after the harvest is over, and often recover considerable
quantities of the stolen grain. The destructive capability of the an-
imal may be gathered from the fact that a single Hamster has been
known to hoard no less than sixty pounds of corn in its home, while
a hundredweight of beans have been recovered from the storehouses
of another specimen.

The skin of the Hamster is of some value in commerce, so that the
hunters make a double use of a successful chase, for they not only re-
cover the stolen property of the agriculturist, but gain some profit by
selling the skins.

There are many animals which have been saddled with a bad reputa-
tion merely on account of an unfortunate resemblance to another animal
of really evil character. Among these misused innocents the Water
Vole — popularly called the Water Rat — is very conspicuous, as the
poor creature has been commonly supposed to be guilty of various
poaching exploits which were really achieved by the ordinary brown rat.

It is quite true that rats are often seen on the river-banks in the act
of eating captured fish, but these culprits are only the brown rats which
have migrated from the farmyards for the summer months, and intend
to return as soon as autumn sets in. The food of the true Water Rat
— or Water Vole, as it is more correctly named — is chiefly of a vegeta-
ble nature, and consists almost entirely of various aquatic plants and
roots. The common " mare's tail,'' or Equisetum, is a favorite article
of diet with the Water Vole, and I have often seen it feeding on the
bark of the common rush. Many years ago I shot a Water Vole as it
was sitting upon a water-lily leaf and engaged in eating the green seeds ;
and on noticing the kind of diet on which the animal was feeding, I de-
termined to watch the little creatures with more care. My own testi-
mony coincides precisely with that of other observers, for I never yet
saw the true snub-nosed, short-eared, yellow-toothed Vole engaged in
eating animal food, although the brown rat may be often detected in
such an act.

Many communications have been made to me on the subject, written
for the most part by persons who have seen water-side rats engaged in
catching and eating fish, and have thought that the delinquents were the
true Water Vole. Indeed, the Vole is allied very closely to the beavei',
and partakes of the vegetarian character of that animal.

The color of the Water Vole is a chestnut brown, dashed with gray
on the upper parts and fading to gray below. The ears are so short that
they are hardly perceptible above the fur. The incisor teeth are of a
light yellow, and are very thick and strong. The tail is shorter than
that of the common rat, hardly exceeding half the length of the head
and body. The average length of a full-grown Water Vole is thirteen
inches, the tail being about four inches and three-quarters long.

172

THE CAMPAGNOL AND THE LEMMING.

The Campagnol, or Short-tailed Field Mouse, is even more
destructive in the open meadows than the common gray mouse in the
barns or ricks; for, not contenting itself with plundering the ripened
crops of autumn, it burrows beneath the ground at sowing time, and
devours the seed-wheat which has just been laid in the earth. Besides
these open-air depredations, it makes inroads into ricks and barns, and
by dint of multitudinous numbers does very great harm.

The color of the Campagnol is ruddy brown on the upper surface of
the body, and gray on the abdomen and chest. The ears are rounded
and very small, closely resembling those of the water vole. The tail is
only one-third the length of the body, and the total length of the an-
imal is rather more than five inches. As it belongs to the same genus

The Campagnol or Short-tailed Field Mouse {Arvicola arvdlis)

as the water vole, and is very closely related to that animal, it some-
times goes by the name of Field Vole.

At uncertain and distant intervals of time, many of the northern
parts of Europe, such as Lapland, Norway, and Sweden, are subjected
to a strange invasion. Hundreds of little, dark, mouse-like animals
sweep over the land, like clouds of locusts suddenly changed into quad-
rupeds, coming from some unknown home, and going no one knows
whither. These creatures are the Lemmings, and their sudden ap-
pearances are so entirely mysterious that the Norwegians look upoii
them as having been rained from the clouds upon the earth.

Driven onward by some overpowering instinct, these vast horaes.
travel in a straight line, permitting nothing but a smooth perpenaic-
ular wall or rock to turn them from their course. If they should hap-
pen to meet with any living being, they immediately attack, knowing

THE LEMMING.

173

no fear, but only urged by undiscriminating rage. Any river or lake
they swim without hesitation, and seem rather to enjoy the water than
to fear it. If a stack or a corn-rick should stand in their way they set-
tle the matter by eating their way through it, and will not be turned

/ -^

The Lemming {3Iy6des Lemmus).

from their direct course even by fire. The country over which they
pass is utterly devastated by them, and it is said that cattle will not
touch the grass on which a Lemming has trodden.

These migrating hosts are accompanied by clouds of predaceous birds
and by many predaceous quadrupeds, who find a continual feast spread
for them as long as the Lemmings are on their pilgrimage. While they
are crossing the rivers or lakes, the fish come in for their share of the
banquet, and make great havoc among their columns. It is a very re-
markable fact that the reindeer is often seen in chase of the Lemmings ;
and the Norwegians say that the deer is in the habit of eating them.
This statement, however, seems to be of rather doubtful character. The
termination of these extraordinary migrations is generally in the sea,
where the survivors of the much-reduced ranks finally perish. Mr.
Lloyd mentions that just before his visit to Wermeland the Lemming
had overrun the whole country. The primary cause of these strange
migrations is generally thought to be hunger. It is fortunate for the
country that these razzias occur only at rare intervals, a space of some
ten or fifteen years generally elapsing between them, as if to fill up the
places of those w^hich were drowned or otherwise killed in the preced-
ing migration.

The Lemmings feed upon various vegetable substances, such as grass,
reeds, and lichens, being often forced to seek the last-named plant be-
neath the snow, and to make occasional air-shafts to the surface. Even
when engaged in their ordinary pursuits, and not excited by the raigra-

15*

174

THE BEAVER.

torial instinct, they are obstinately savage creatures. Mr. Metcalfe de-
scribes them as swarming in the forest, sitting two or three on every
stump, and biting the dogs' noses as they came to investigate the cha-
racter of the irritable little animals. If they happened to be in a path-
way, they would not turn aside to permit a passenger to move by them,
but boldly disputed the right of way, and uttered defiance in little sharp,
squeaking barks.

The color of the Lemming is a dark browmish black, mixed irreg-
ularly with a tawny hue upon the back, and fading into a yellowish
white upon the abdomen. Its length is not quite six inches, the tail
being only half an inch long.

The Common Beaver has earned a world-wide reputation by the
wonderful instinct which it displays, independently of its very great
value in producing costly fur and perfume.

This animal occurs in the northern parts of Europe and Asia, but
is found in the greatest profusion in North America. In days long
gone by, the Beaver w-as an inhabitant of England.

The Beaver {Castor Fiber).

The Beavers live in societies, varying considerably in number, and
united together in the formation of w^orks which may fairly be consid-
ered as belonging to the profession of the engineer. They prefer to
make their habitations by small clear rivers and creeks, or close to
large springs, although they sometimes take up their abode on the
banks of lakes.

' Lest they should not have a sufficient depth of water in all weath-
ers and at all seasons, the Beavers are in the habit of building veritable
dams, for the purpose of raising the water to the required level. These
dams are composed of tree-branches, mud, and stones, and, in order ef-
fectually to resist the action of the water, are about ten or twelve feet

ITS DAM AND LODGE. 175

in thickness at the bottom, although they are only two feet or so wide
at the summit.

In forming the dam, the Beaver does not thrust the ends of the stakes
into the bed of the river, as is often supposed, but lays them down hor-
izontally, and keeps them in their place by heaping stones and mud
upon them. The logs of which the dam is composed are about three feet
in length, and vary extremely in thickness. Generally, they are about
six or seven inches in diameter, but they have been known to measure
no less than eighteen inches. An almost incredible number of these
logs is required for the completion of one dam, as may be supposed
from the fact that a single dam will sometimes be three hundred yards
in length, ten or twelve feet thick at the bottom, and of a height vary-
ing according to the depth of water.

Before employing the logs in this structure, the Beavers take care to
separate the bark, which they carry away, and lay up for a winter store
of food.

Near the dams are built the beaver-houses, or " lodges," as they are
termed — edifices as remarkable in their way as that which has just
been mentioned. They are composed chiefly of branches, moss, and
mud, and will accommodate five or six Beavers together. The form
of an ordinary-sized Beaver's lodge is circular, and its cavity is about
seven feet in diameter by three feet in height. The walls of this struc-
ture are extremely thick, so that the external measurement of the same
lodges will be fifteen or twenty feet in diameter, and seven or eight feet
in height. The roofs are all finished ofi* with a thick layer of mud,
laid on with marvellous smoothness, and carefully renewed every year.
As this compost of mud, moss, and branches is congealed into a solid
mass by the severe frosts of a North American winter, it forms a very
sufficient defence against the attacks of the Beaver's great enenj^, the
wolverene, and cannot readily be broken through, even with the help
of iron tools. The precise manner in which the Beavers perform their
various tasks is not easy to discern, as the animals work only in the
dark.

Around the lodges the Beavers excavate a rather large ditch, too
deep to be entirely frozen, and into this ditch the various lodges open,
so that the inhabitants can pass in or out without hindrance. This
precaution is the more necessary, as they are poor pedestrians, and
never travel by land as long as they can swim by water. Each lodge
is inhabited by a small number of Beavers, whose beds are arranged
against the wall, each bed being separate, and the centre of the cham-
ber being left unoccupied.

In order to secure a store of winter food, the Beavers take a vast
number of small logs, and carefully fasten them under water in the
close vicinity of their lodges. When a Beaver feels hungry he dives

176 THE ONDATRA.

to the store-heap, drags out a suitable log, carries it to a sheltered and
dry spot, nibbles the bark away, and then either permits the stripped
log to float down the stream or applies it to the dam.

We must now bestow a little time on the curious odoriferous sub-
stance which is called " castoreum " by the learned, and " bark-stone "
by the trappers. This substance is secreted in two glandular sacs which
are placed near the root of the tail, and gives out an extremely pow-
erful odor.

To the castoreum the trapper is mostly indebted for his success, for
the Beavers are strangely attracted by this substance, and if their nos-
trils perceive its distant scent, the animals will sit upright, sniff about
in every direction, and absolutely squeal with excitement. Taking
advantage of this curious propensity, the hunter always carries a sup-
ply of castoreum in a closed vessel, and when he comes to a convenient
spot for placing his trap, he sets the trap and then proceeds to man-
ufacture his bait. This process is simple enough, consisting merely of
taking a little twig of wood about nine inches long, chewing one end
of it, and dipping it in the castoreum. The trap is now laid so as to
be covered by about six inches of water, and the stick arranged so that
its perfumed tip projects from the water. Any Beaver which scents
this bait will most certainly come to it, and will probably be captured
in the trap.

The Ondatra, Musquash, or Musk Eat, is a native of Northern
America, where it is found in various places above the twentieth de-
gree of north latitude.

The color of this animal is a dark brown on the upper portions of
its body, tinged with a reddish hue upon its neck, ribs, and legs, the
abdomen being ashy gray ; the tail is of the same dark hue as the
body.^ In total length it rather exceeds two feet, of which measure-
ment the tail occupies about ten inches. The incisor teeth are bright
yellow, and the nails are white. The whole coloring of the animal is
so wonderfully like the hue of the muddy banks on which it resides
that a practised naturalist has often mistaken the Ondatras for mere
lumps of mud until they began to move, and so dispelled the illusion.
The hinder feet of the Ondatra are well webbed, and their imprint on
the soft mud is very like that of a common duck.

The food of the Ondatra in a wild state appears to be almost wholly
of a vegetable nature, although, when confined in a cage, one of these
animals has been seen to eat mussels and oysters, cutting open the soft-
est shells and extracting the inmates, and waiting for the hard-shelled
specimens until they either opened of their own accord or died. Al-
though the Ondatra is a clumsy walker, it will sometimes travel to
some distance from the water-side, and has been noticed on a spot
nearly three-quarters of a mile from any water. These animals have

THE PORCUPINE.

177

also been detected in ravaging a garden, which they had plundered
of turnips, parsnips, carrots, maize, and other vegetables. The mif-v
chievous creatures had burrowed beneath them, bitten through their
roots, and carried them away to their subterranean storehouses. The
maize they had procured by cutting the stalks near the level of the
ground.

The Ondatra lives mostly in burrows, which it digs in the banks of
the river in which it finds its food, but sometimes takes up its abode in
a different kind of habitation, according to the locality and the soil. In
the stiff clay banks of rivers the Ondatra digs a rather complicated
series of tunnels, so.me of them extending to a distance of fifteen or

The Musquash, or Musk Kat, or Ondatra (Fiber Zibel/iicus).

twenty yards, and sloping upward. There are generally three or four
entrances, all of which open under water, and unite in a single cham-
ber, where the Ondatra makes its bed. The couch of the luxurious an-
imal is composed of sedges, water-lily leaves, and similar plants, and is
so large as to fill a bushel basket. On marshy ground, and especially
if it be supplied by springs, the Ondatra builds little houses that rise
about three or four feet above the water, and look something like small
haycocks.

The Porcupine has long been rendered famous among men by the
extraordinary armory of pointed spears wdiich it bears upon its back,
and which it was formerly fabled to launch at its foes with fatal pre-
cision.

This animal inhabits many parts of the world, being found in Africa,

M

178 SPINES OF THE PORCUPINE.

Southern Europe, and India. The spines or quills with which it is fur-
nished vary considerably in length, the longest quills being flexible and
not capable of doing much harm to an opponent. Beneath these is a
plentiful supply of shorter spines, from live to ten inches in length,

^:<^

The Porcupine {Hystrix O-istdta).

which are the really effective weapons of this imposing array. Their
hold on the skin is very slight, so that when they have been struck into a
foe, they remain fixed in the wound, and, unless immediately removed,
work sad woe to the sufferer. For the quill is so constructed that it
gradually bores its way into the flesh, burrowing deeper at every move-
ment, and sometimes even causing the death of the wounded creature.
In Africa and India, leopards and tigers have frequently been killed in
whose flesh were pieces of Porcupine quills that had penetrated deeply
into the body, and had even caused suppuration to take place. In one
instance a tiger was found to have his paws, ears, and head filled with
the spines of a Porcupine, which he had vainly been endeavoring to kill.

The Porcupine is a nocturnal animal, seldom venturing out of its re-
treat as long as the sun is above the horizon, and is therefore not often
seen even in the localities which it most prefers. It is said not to re-
quire the presence of water, but to quench its thirst by eating the suc-
culent roots and plants which it digs out of the ground. Its food is
entirely of a vegetable nature, and consists of various kinds of herbage,
as well as of bark, fruit, and roots. This animal takes up its abode in
deep burrows which it excavates, and in which it is supposed to under-
go a partial hibernation.

As the spines of the Porcupines are of some commercial value, and
are used for many purposes, the chase of the animal is rather popular
in the countries which it inhabits, and derives a further interest from

THE CANADIAN PORCUPINE.

179

the fact that the Porcup'me, although a timid creature, can make a very
powerful resistance when it is driven to despair.

The upper parts of the body are covered with hair instead of quills,
and upon the head and neck there is a kind of crest, composed of very
long stiff hairs, which can be erected or depressed at pleasure. Like
the hedgehog, it can coil itself into a ball when it is surprised at a dis-
tance from its haven of refuge, and can present such an array of threat-
ening spikes that it is quite safe from any enemy excepting man. When,
however, the animal is at peace, it is capable of depressing the bristling
spears, and can squeeze itself through an opening which would appear
at first sight to be hardly large enough to permit the passage of an an-
imal of only half its size.

The total length of the common Porcupine is about three feet six
inches, the tail being about six inches long. Its gait is plantigrade,
slow, and clumsy, and as it walks its long quills shake and rattle in a
very curious manner. Its muzzle is thick and heavy, and its eyes small
ajul pig-like.

The Urson, Cawquaw, or Canadian Porcupine, is a native of
North America, where it is most destructive to the trees among which
it lives.

Its chief food consists of living bark, which it strips from the branches
as cleanly as if it had been furnished with a sharp knife. When it be-
gins to feed, it ascends the tree,
commences at the highest
branches, and eats its way reg-
ularly downward. Having fin-
ished one tree, it takes to another,
and then to a tliird, always choos-
ing those that run in the same
line ; so that its path through the
woods may easily be traced by the
line of barked and dying trees
which it leaves in its track. A
single Urson has been known to
destroy a hundred trees in a
single winter, and another is re-
corded as having killed some two
or three acres of timber.

The Urson is not so fully de- ti^^'canadian Po^ri^xK, or Urson
tended with spines as the preced- [Eretkizon dorsdtum).

ing animal, but is covered w^ith

long, coarse, blackish-brown hair, among which the short pointed
quills are so deeply set that, except in the head, tail, and hinder
quarters, they are scarcely perceptible. These spines are dyed of

180

THE AGOUTI.

various colors by the American Indians, and are then used in the
decoration of their hunting-pouches, moccasins, and other articles,
and after the quills are extracted the remainder of the fur is
sufficiently soft to be used for clothing. The flesh of the Urson is
considered eatable, and is said to bear some resemblance to flabby
pork.

The leno-th of the Urson is not quite four feet, the head and body
measuring rather more than three feet, and the tail about nine inches.
The teeth are of a bright orange.

The Agouti is a native of Brazil, Paraguay, Guiana, and other
neighboring countries, but its numbers have been considerably thinned

in many spots where cul-
tivation has been indus-
triously carried on. In
some of the Antilles,
where it formerly swarm-
ed, it is now nearly ex-
tirpated, and in St. Do-
mingo is but rarely seen.
All its movements are
sharp, quick, and active,
and even while sitting
upright and engaged in
fe(^ling itself by the as-
The Agouti (Da^yproda Agouti). sistance of its fore-paws,

its head is being continually turned from side to side, and its bright
eyes glance in every direction in order to guard against a surprise.
As it is a nocturnal animal, and spends the whole of the day in
its dark hiding-place, its ravages take place under cover of night,
and are the more difficult to be repelled. Its usual resting-place is in
the cleft of a rock, or in the hollow of some decaying tree, Avhere
twenty or thirty of these animals may be found living amicably to-
gether.

In these dark recesses the young Agoutis are born, and are laid upon
a soft bed of leaves, where they remain for a few weeks, and then sally
out with their parents on their nocturnal expeditions. There are gen-
erally two broods in each year, and the number of young at a birth is
from three to six.

The name Dasyproda, which has been given to the genus, refers to
the thick hair which falls over the hind-quarters, and nearly conceals
the little pointed stump of a tail. The hair of this part of the body
is a bright golden brown, but on the back and sides the fur has a curi-
ous speckled aspect, on account of the black, brown, and yellow tints
with whicb each hair is marked. On the greater part of the body the

THE CAPYBARA.

181

fur is only about one inch in length, but the golden brown hair of the
hinder parts is more than four inches long. In character it is coarse,
though glossy.

The Capybara is a native of tropical America, and is by far the
largest of all the living rodent animals, rather exceeding three feet in
total length, and being so bulkily made that when it walks its abdomen
nearly touches the ground. The muzzle of this animal is heavy and
blunt, the eyes are set high in the head and are moderate in size, the

^r

The Capybara (Hydrochoervs Capybara).

tail is wanting, and the toes are partially connected together by a de-
velopment of the skin. The color of the Capybara is rather indeter-
minate, owing to the manner in which the hairs are marked with black
and yellow, so that the general idea which its coat presents is of a dingy,
blackish gray with a tinge of yellow.

It is a water-loving animal, using its webbed feet with great power,
and fleeing instinctively to the stream when terrified by real or imag-
inary danger. It not only swims well, but is a good diver, and when
endeavoring to escape from a foe always tries to evade its pursuer by
diving as long as its breath will hold out, and permitting the top of its
head to appear above the surface only when it rises for the purpose of
respiration. As, how^ever, it can remain under water for a space of
eight or ten minutes, it finds no difficulty in escaping from any ordi-
nary foe, if it can only gain the shelter of the welcome stream. The
food of this animal is exclusively vegetable, and its curious teeth are
needed in order to bruise the herbage on which it feeds into a mass
sufficiently pulpy to enable it to pass through the very narrow
throat.

16

182 THE GUINEA PIG AND THE COMMON HARE.

Few animals have received less appropriate names than the Guinea
Pig ; for it is not a pig, but a rodent, and does not come from Guinea,
hut from Southern America. Being a very pretty little creature, it is
in some favor as a domestic pet : and, as it is remarkably prolific, it
very rapidly increases in numlaers, if it is well defended from cold and
preserved from damp.

The food of the Guinea Pig is exclusively of a vegetable nature,
and while feeding it generally sits on its hinder feet, and carries its
food to its mouth with its fore-paws.

An idea of the extreme fecundity of this animal may be formed
from the fact that it begins to breed at ten months of age, that each

brood consists of an aver-
age of six or eight, and
that in less than six
weeks after the birth of
the yotmg family they
are driven to shift for
y\ s themselves, and the
^-^•* mother is then ready for
'>^^H^^3iSC^-'2^^^'^''' " another brood. The

_, ., r, ,^^ ■ A ' \ yo^ng Guinea Pigs are

The Guinea Pig iCavia Aperea). t ° -xi ^i •

born with their eyes

open, and covered with hair„ and do not attain their full dimensions

until they have reached the age of eight or nine months.

The color of the Guinea Pig is very variable, but is generally com-
posed of white, red, and black, in patches of different size and shape
in each individual. The bare portions of the skin are flesh-colored,
and the eye is broAvn. The animal is of little direct use to mankind,
as its flesh is held in very low estimation, and its hair is so slightly
attached to the skin that its coat is useless to the furrier.

The Common Hare is known from the rabbit by the redder hue of
its fur, the great proportionate length of its black-tipped ears, which
are nearly an inch longer than the head, by its very long hind-legs,
and its large and prominent eyes. When fully grown it is of consid-
erable size, weighing on the average about eight or nine pounds, and
sometimes attaining the weight of tw-elve, or even thirteen, pounds. In
total length it rather exceeds two feet, the tail being about three inches
long. The color of the common Hare is grayish brown on the upper
portions of the body, mixed with a dash of yellow ; the abdomen is
white, and the neck and breast are yellowish white. The tail is black
on the upper surface and white underneath, so that w^hen the creature
runs it exhibits the white tail at every leap. Sometimes the color of
the Hare deepens into black, and there are many examples of albino
specimens of this animal.

THE RABBIT.

183

The Hare {Lepus timidus).

It is a woDderfully cunning animal, and is said by many who have
closely studied its habits to surpass the fox in ready ingenuity. Appear-
ing to understand the method by
which the hounds are enabled to
track its footsteps, it employs the
most crafty manoeuvres for the pur-
pose of throwing them off the scent.
Sometimes it will run forward for
a considerable distance, and then,
after returning for a few hundred
yards on the same track, will make
a great leap at right angles to its
former course, and lie quietly hid-
den while the hounds run past its
spot of concealment. It then jumps
back to its track, and steals quietly
out of sight in one direction, while
the hounds are going in the other.

The Hare does not live in burrows, like the rabbit, but only makes
a slight depression in the ground, in which she lies so flatly pressed to
the earth that she can hardly be distinguished from the soil and dried
herbage among which she has taken up her temporary abode.

It is a tolerably prolific animal, beginning to breed when only a year
old, and producing four or five young at a litter. The young Hares —
or " leverets," as they are technically termed — are born with their eyes
open, and covered with hair. For the space of four or five weeks they
remain under the care of their mother, but after that time they sep-
arate, and depend upon themselves for subsistence.

Resembling the hare in general appearance and in many of its habits,
the Rabbit is readily distinguished from that animal by its smaller
dimensions, its different color, its shorter and uniformly brown ears,
and its shorter limbs.

The Rabbit is one of the most familiar of British quadrupeds,
having taken firm possession of the soil into w^hich it has been
imported, and multiplied to so great an extent that its numbers can
hardly be kept within proper bounds without annual and wholesale
massacres. As it is more tamable than the hare, it has long been
ranked amongst the chief of domestic pets, and has been so modified by
careful management that it has developed itself into many permanent
varieties, which vvould be considered as different species by one who
saw them for the first time.

The burrows in which the Rabbit lives are extremely irregular in
their construction, and often communicate with each other to a re-
markable extent.

From many of its foes the Rabbit escapes by diving suddenly into

184 THE CHINCHILLA.

its burrow ; but there are some animals, such as the stoat, weasel, and
ferret, which follow it into its subterranean abode and slay it within the
precincts of its own home.

When the female Rabbit is about to become a mother, she quits the
ordinary burrows, and digs a special tunnel for the purpose of shelter-
ing her young family

" "^ '^^ ^ bodA^, so as to make a

Babbits (i.pus c^m,Wu«). g^ft and warm bed

for the expected occupants. The young Rabbits are about seven or
eight in number, and are born without hair and with their eyes closed.
Not until they have attained the age of ten or twelve days are they
able to open their eyelids and to see the world into which tliey have
been brought.

Rabbits are terribly destructive animals, as is too well known to all
residents near a warren, and are sad depredators in field, garden, and
plantation, destroying in very wantonness hundreds of plants which
they do not care to eat. They do very great damage to young trees,
delighting in stripping them of the tender bark as far as they can reach
while standing on their hind-feet. Sometimes they eat the bark, but in
many cases they leave it in heaps upon the ground, having chiselled it
from the tree on which it grew, and to which it afforded nourishment,
merely for the sake of exercising their teeth and keeping them in proper
order, just as a cat delights in clawing the legs of chairs and tables.

In its native state the fur of the Rabbit is nearly uniform brown, but
when the animal is domesticated its coat assumes a variety of hues, such
as pure white, jetty black, pied dun, slated gray, and many other tints.

The Chinchilla, so well known for its exquisitely soft and delicate
fur, belongs to the group of animals which are known to zoologists un-
der the title of Jerboidas, and which are remarkable for the great com-
parative length of their hinder limbs, and their long hair-clothed tails.

The Chinchilla is an inhabitant of Southern America, living chiefly
among the higher mountainous districts, where its thick silken fur is of
infinite service in protecting it from the cold. It is a burrowing an-
imal, digging its subterranean homes in the valleys which intersect the
hilly country in which it lives, and banding together in great numbers
in certain favored localities. The food of the Chinchilla is exclusively

THE GERBOAS.

185

of a vegetable nature, and consists chiefly of various bulbous roots.
While feeding it sits upon its hinder feet, and conveys the food to its
mouth with its fore-feet, which it uses with singular adroitness. It is a
most exquisitely cleanly animal, as might be supposed from the beauti-
ful delicacy of its fur, for we may always remark that whenever an an-
imal is remarkable for the coloring or the texture of its natural robes,

The Chinchilla {Chinchilla Idniger).

it is always most assiduous in preserving them from any substance that
might stain their purity or clog their fibres.

The fur of the Chinchilla is of a delicate clear gray upon the back,
softening into a grayish white on the under portions, and its texture is
marvellously soft and fine.

The Gerboas bear a curious resemblance to the kangaroos, not only
in their general appearance, but in many of their habits. Like those
animals, they leap over distances which are absolutely enormous when
the size of their bodies is taken into consideration ; they constantly sit
upright in order to observe surrounding objects, their food is of the same
nature, and they carry it to their mouths in a similar manner. Their
fore-limbs are extremely short, while their hinder legs are developed to
a very great extent, and they are all furnished with a long, hair-clad
tail, which serves to aid them in preserving their balance while shoot-
ing through the air.

The most familiar of these singular creatures is the Common Ger-
16 *

186

THE COMMON GEEBOA.

BOA of Northern Africa. This beautiful and active little animal is
hardly larger than an ordinary English rat, although its peculiar at-
titudes and its extremely long tail give it an appearance of greater
dimensions than it really possesses. The general color of its fur is a
light dun washed with yellow, the abdomen being nearly white. The
tail is of very great proportionate length, is cylindrical in shape, and
tufted at its extremity with stiff* black hairs, the extreme tip being
white.

The Gerboa is a burrowing animal, and lives in society, so that it
forms large natural " warrens " in those parts of the country where
it takes up its residence. It is much hunted by the natives, who set
some store by its rather unpalatable flesh, and is captured by stopping
up as many burrows as can conveniently be reached, and killing the

The Gerboa {Dipus JEgyptius).

Gerboas as they rush aff'righted from the open entrances. This is, in-
deed, almost the only successful mode of capturing these fleet and
agile creatures ; for if they can once leap away from the immediate
vicinity of their pursuers, they scour over the ground with such won-
derful speed that they can hardly be overtaken even by a trained grey-
hound.

The food of these animals consists chiefly of roots and similar sub-

THE COMMON DOKMOUSE. 187

stances, which they dig out of the earth, but they also feed od various
kinds of grain.

Next in order to the Gerboas is placed the small group of animals
which are sufficiently familiar by the name of Dormice. This term
signifies " sleepy mouse," and is most appropriate to the lethargic little
creatures, which spend the greater part of their time in somnolency.

The Common Dormouse is found abundantly in many districts of
England, as well as on the Continent, and is in great favor as a do-
mestic pet. The total length of this pretty little animal is rather more
than five inches, the tail being two and a half inches long. The color
of its fur is a light reddish brown upon the back, yellowish white upon
the abdomen, and white on the throat. These tints belong only to the
adult animal, as in the juvenile Dormouse the fur is nearly of the same
color as that of the common mouse, the ruddy tinge appearing only on

The Dormouse {Muscardinus aveUandrius).

the head and sides. It is not until the little creatures have nearly com-
pleted a year of existence that they assume the beautiful hues of adult
age. The tail is thickly covered with hair, which is arranged in a
double row throughout its length, and forms a slight tuft at the extrem-
ity. The head is rather large in proportion to the body, the ears are
large and broad, and the eye full, black, and slightly prominent.

The Dormouse is a nocturnal animal, passing the whole of the day
in its warm and neatly-constructed nest, which is generally built in the
most retired spot of some thick bush or small tree. It is a very active
little creature, leaping from branch to branch and traversing the intri-
cate mazes of the brushwood with such ready featness that it can scarce-
ly be taken by a human hand. The food of the Dormouse consists of
various fruits and seeds, such as acorns, nuts, haws, and corn.

188 THE FLYING SQUIKRELS.

As the auimal is one of the hibernators, it is in the habit of gather-
ing together a supply of dried food, to afford occasional nourishment
during the long wintry months when it lies in its bed, imprisoned in
the bauds of irresistible sleep. Like many other hibernating animals,
the Dormouse becomes exceedingly fat toward the end of autumn, and
is therefore enabled to withstand the severity of the winter season bet-
ter than if it retired into its home in only its ordinary condition. As
soon as the weather becomes cold the Dormouse retires into its nest, and
there slumbers throughout the entire winter, waking up for a short pe-
riod whenever a milder temperature breaks the severity of the frost,
and, after taking a little nourishment, sinking again into its former
lethargy.

The Dormouse is rather gregarious in its habits, so that whenever
one nest is discovered several others may generally be found at no great
distance. These nests are of considerable dimensions, being about six
mches in diameter, and are composed of grass, leaves, and similar sub-
stances. The entrance to the nest is at the side.

The young animals are generally three or four in number at a birth,
Mud make their appearance about the end of spring or the beginning
of summer. It is probable that there may be a second brood toward
the end of autumn, as Mr. Bell received from one locality in the month
of September one half-grown Dormouse, which had evidently been born
in the spring, and three very little specimens, which were apparently
not more than a week or two old. They are born blind, but are able
to see in a very few days, and in a remarkably short space of time be-
come independent of their parents.

The beautiful and active group of animals of which the English
Squirrel is so familiar an example are found in almost every portion
of the globe, and, with one or two exceptions, live almost exclusively
among the branches of trees. In order to enable them to maintain a
firm clasp upon the branches and bark, they are furnished with long
finger-like toes upon the fore-feet, which are armed with sharp curved
claws.

In the Flying Squirrels, of which the Taguan is a good exam-
])ie, the skin of the flanks is modified in a method similar to that which
has already been noticed in the Petaurists. The skin is so largely de-
veloped that when the animal is sitting at its ease, its paws but just ap-
pear from under the soft folds of the delicate and fur-clad membrane.
When the creature intends to make one of its marvellous leaps, it
stretches all its four limbs to their fullest extent, and is upborne through
the air on the parachute-like expansion which extends along its sides.

This animal is a native of India, where it is tolerably common.

It is rather a large species, as its total length is nearly three feet, the
tail occupying about one foot eight inches, measured to the extremity

THE JELEKANG.

189

of the long hairs with which it is so thickly clothed. The general color
of this animal is a clear chestnut, deepening into brown on the back,
and becoming more ruddv on the sides. The little pointed ears are

covered with short and soft
fur of a delicate brown, and
the tail is heavily clad with
bushy hairs, grayish black
^ on the basal portions of that
member, and sooty black
toward the extremity. The
parachute membrane is del-
icately thin, scarcely thicker
than ordinary writing-paper,
when it is stretched to its
utmost, and is covered with
hair on both its surfaces, the
fur of the upper side being
chestnut and that of the
The Taguan Flying Squirrel [Pteromys lower surface nearly white.
^^'«"''**^'^«)- A stripe of grayish-black

hairs marks the edge of the membrane, and the entire abdomen of
the animal, together with the throat and the breast, is covered with
beautiful silver grayish-white fur.

The true Squirrels possess no parachute flying membrane, as do the
Flying Squirrels, nor are they furnished with cheek-pouches, as is the
case with the Ground Squirrels in America.

One of the most handsome of the Squirrels is the Jelerang, or
Javan Squirrel, a native of Java, part of India, and Cochin China.
Its total length is about two feet, the tail and body being equal to each
other in measurement. In color it is one of the most variable of an-
imals, so that it has been more than once described under different
names.

In the British Museum are several specimens of this animal, and
all of them present many varieties in point of color, while some are so
very unlike each other that most persons would consider them to be
separate species. Some specimens of this animal are pale yellow,
while others are deep brown ; in some the color is tolerably uniform,
while in others it is variously pied, but in all there seems to be a toler-
ably decided contrast between a darker and lighter tint. From this
circumstance it has sometimes been termed Scmrus bicolor, or the Two-
colored Squirrel.

In general, the darker hue prevails on the back and upper portions
of the body, and the lighter tint is abruptly separated from it by a de-
cided line of demarcation. The usual color of the Jelerang is a dark

190

THE ENGLISH SQUIRREL.

brownish black on the back, the top of the head yellowish, and the
.sides and abdomen golden yellow.

The Jelerang is rather common in the countries which it inhabits,
and, as it is very retiring in its habits and dreads the proximity of
mankind, it is not so mischievous a neighbor as is the case with the
greater number of the Squirrels. It lives chiefly in the depths of the
forests, and feeds upon the wild fruits that grow without any aid from
the hand of mankind. It is easily tamed, and, being an active, amus-
ing animal, as well as possessed of a beautifully marked coat, is often
domesticated among the inhabitants of the same country. The flesh of
the Jelerang is thought to be very good, and is eaten by the natives.

Every one is familiar with the lively English Squirrel, which
makes the woods joyous with its active gambols, and is so often re-
paid for its gayety by being captured and compelled to make sport
for its owner within the narrow precincts of a wire cage.

This little an-
imal is plentiful in
many parts of
England, and in-
deed is generally
ibund wherever
tliere is a tolerably
large copse, or a
wood of moderate
dimensions. In
private grounds
and parks it luxu-
riates, knowing in-
stinctively that it
may wander at its
own will, uncheck-
ed and unharmed.
Among the tree
branches its pow-
The Squirrel {Sciurus Europceus). g].g of activity are

absolutely surprising, for it will fling itself through such distances, and
at such a height, that it seems likely to be dashed to pieces every in-
stant. Yet it very seldom makes a false step, and even if it should
lose its foothold, it is not at all disconcerted, but spreads out its legs
and bushy tail to their utmost expansion, so that it presents a large
surface to the air, and comes quite lightly to the earth, even though it
may have leaped from a considerable height.

On the ground it is not so much at its ease as when it is careering
amid the branches of some large tree, and, as soon as it feels alarmed,

ITS NEST AND FOOD. 191

always makes the best of its way toward the nearest tree-trunk. Its
gait is a kind of semi-gallop, and even when ascending a perpendicular
tree-stem it maintains the same galloping movements, and ascends to a
considerable height in a very small space of time.

During the hotter hours of the day the Squirrel is never seen, being
quietly asleep in its lofty nest ; but in the early morning, or in the
cooler hours of the afternoon, it comes from its retreat, and may be
seen leaping about the branches in search of the various fruits on
which it feeds.

The nest of the Squirrel is an admirable specimen of natural arch-
itecture, and is almost invariably placed in the fork of some lofty
branch, where it is concealed from the view of any one passing under
the tree, and is out of the reach of any ordinary foe, even if its
situation were discovered. Sometimes it is built in the hollow of a
decayed bough, but it is always admirably concealed from sight. In
form it is nearly spherical, and is made of leaves, moss, grass, and
other substances, woven together in so artistic a manner that it is
impermeable to rain, and cannot be dislodged from its resting-place by
the most violent wind. A single pair of Squirrels inhabit the same
nest, and seem to consider some particular tree as their home, remaining
in it year after year.

The female Squirrel produces about three or four young at a lit-
ter, the little ones being born in the middle of summer, and remaining
under the care of their parents until the spring of the succeeding year,
wlien they separate and shift for themselves.

The food of the Squirrel is usually of a vegetable nature, and consists
of nuts, acorns, wheat, and other fruits and seeds. Being a hibernating
animal, the Squirrel is in the habit of laying up a winter store of
provisions, and toward the end of autumn, while acorns and nuts are
in their prime, becomes very busy in gathering certain little treasures,
which it hides in all kinds of nooks, crevices, and holes, near the tree
in which it lodges. The creature must be endowed with a very accu-
rate memory, for it always remembers the spots where it has deposited
its store of food, and even when the snow lies thickly upon the earth,
and has covered the ground with a uniform white mantle, the Squirrel
betrays no parplexity, but whenever it requires nourishment goes
straight to the hidden storehouse, scratches away the snow, and dis-
inters its hidden treasures.

Sometimes the food of the Squirrel is not limited to vegetable
substances, as the animal possesses something of the carnivorous nature,
and has been often found guilty of killing and eating sundry animated
things. Young birds, eggs, and various insects are eaten by the Squirrel,
who has been detected in the very act of plundering a nest and carrying
off one of the young birds.

192

THE CHIPPING SQUIRKEL.

The usual color of the Squirrel's fur is a ruddy brown upon the back,
and a grayish white on the hinder portions of the body. It is, however,
a most variable animal in point of color, the tint of its fur changing
according to the country which it inhabits. Even in England the
ruddy fur is sometimes changed to gray during a severe winter, and in
Siberia it is generally of a bluish gray. The feathery tufts of hair
which fringe the ears are liable to great modification, being very long
and full in winter and in cold climates, and almost entirely lost during
the hotter summer months of our own country.

There are so many species of the Squirrel tribe that even a cursory
notice of each animal would be wholly impracticable in a work of the
present dimensions, and we must content ourselves with a brief descrip-
tion of those species which stand out more boldly from the rest by
reason of form, color, or peculiar habits.

The Hackee — or Chipping Squirrel, as it is sometimes termed —
is one of the most familiar of North American quadrupeds, and is

found in great
numbers in al-
most every lo-

P I'^^^'^^^^^S^^^^BIMKIS*^^ / "'I ^''^'^^* It is a
k .^l'^^'' • r^^^J^^^Bm^^^^ i^, ., / kIA, 'a truly beautiful

little creature,
and deserving of
notice both on
account of the
dainty elegance
//V 'f its form and
[/X the pleasing tints
with which its
coat is decked.
The general color
of the Hackee is
a brownish gray
on the ])ack,
warming into orange-brown on the forehead and the hinder quarters.
Upon the back and sides are drawn five longitudinal black stripes
and two streaks of yellowish white, so that it is a most conspicuous
little creature, and by these peculiar stripes may easily be distin-
guished from any other animal. The abdomen and throat are white.
It is slightly variable in color according to the locality in which it
exists, and has been known to be so capricious of hue as to furnish
specimens of pure white and jet black. As a fur it is extremely elegant,
and if it were not quite so common would long since have taken nearly
as hiojh a rank as the sable or ermine.

The Ground Squirrel or Hackee {Tdmias Lysteri).

THE PRAIRIE DOG. 193

The length of the Hackee is about eleven inches, the tail being about
four and a half inches long. It is, however, slightly variable in dimen-
sions as well as in color.

The Hackee is one of the liveliest and briskest of quadrupeds, and
by reason of its quick and rapid movements has been not inaptly com-
pared with the wren. It is chiefly seen among brushwood and small
timber ; and as it whisks about the branches or shoots through their
interstices with its peculiar quick, jerking movements, and its odd,
quaint, little clucking cry, like the chip-chipping of newly-hatched
chickens, the analogy between itself and the bird is very apparent.
As it is found in such plenty, and is a bold little creature, it is much
persecuted by small boys, who, although they are not big or wise
enough to be entrusted with guns wherewith to work the destruction
of larger game, arm themselves with long sticks, and by dexterous
management knock down many a Hackee as it tries to escape from its
pursuers by running along the rail fences. Among boys the popular
name of the Hackee is the " Chipmuck."

It is a burrowing animal, miking its little tunnels in various retired
spots, but generally preferring an old tree, or the earth which is shel-
tered by a wall, a fence, or a bank. The burrows are rather compli-
cated, and, as they run to some length, the task of digging the animal
out of its retreat is no easy one.

The well-known Prairie Dog, as it is called, is not a dog at all, but
belongs to the Marmots. It is found in very great plenty along the
coast of the Missouri and its tributaries, and also near the river Platte.
It congregates together in vast numbers in certain spots where the soil
is favorable to its subterranean habits of life, and the vegetation is suf-
ficiently luxuriant to afford it nourishment. The color of this animal
is reddish brown upon the back, mixed with gray and black in a rather
vague manner. The abdomen and throat are grayish white, and the
short tail is clothed for the first half of its length with hair of the same
tint as that of the body, and for the remaining half is covered with
deep blackish-brown hair, forming a kind of brush. The cheek-
pouches are rather small, and the incisor teeth are large and protrud-
ing from the mouth. The length of the animal rather exceeds sixteen
inches, the tail being a little more than three inches long. The cheek-
pouches are about three-quarters of an inch in depth, and are half that
measurement in diameter.

The Prairie Dog is a burrowing animal, and, as it is very gregarious
in its habits, the spot on which it congregates is literally honeycombed
with its tunnsls. There is, however, a kind of order observed in the
"dog towns," as these warrens are popularly called, for the animals
always leave certain roads or streets in which no burrow is made. The
affairs of the community seem to be regulated by a single leader, called

17 ivr

194

A PRAIRIE DOG COMMUNITY.

the Big Dog, who sits before the entrance of his burrow, and issues his
orders from thence to the community. In front of every burrow a small
heap of mould is raised, which is made from the excavated soil, and
which is generally employed as a seat for the occupant of the bur-
row.

As long as no danger is apprehended the little animals are all in
lively motion, sitting upon their mounds, or hurrying from one tunnel
to another as eagerly as if they were transacting the most important
business. Suddenly a sharp yelp is heard, and the peaceful scene is in
a moment transformed into a whirl of indistinguishable confusion.

The Prairie Dog or Wish-ton-wish (Spermophilns Ludovicidnus).

Quick barks resound on every side, the air is filled with a dust-cloud,
in the midst of which is indistinctly seen an intermingled mass of flour-
ishing legs and whisking tails, and in a moment the populous "town"
is deserted. Not a " dog " is visible, and the whole spot is apparently
untenanted. But in a few minutes a pair of dark eyes are seen gleam-
ing at the entrance of some burrow, a set of glistening teeth next shine
through the dusky recess, and in a few minutes first one and then an-
other Prairie Dog issues from his retreat, until the whole community is
again in lively action.

The title of Prairie Dog has been given to this animal on account of
the sharp yelping sounds which it is in the habit of uttering, and which
have some resemblance to the barking of a very small and very peev-
ish lap-dog. Every time that it yelps it gives its tail a smart jerk.
This peculiar sound is evidently employed as a cry of alarm ; for as
soon as it is uttered all the Prairie Dogs dive into their burrows, and

THE COMMON MARMOT.

195

do not emerge again until they hear the shrill whistle which tells them
that the danger is past.

The burrows of the Prairie Dogs are generally made at an angle of
forty degrees, and after being sunk for some little distance run hor-
izontally, or even rise toward the surface of the earth. It is well
known that these burrows are not only inhabited by the legitimate
owners and excavators, but are shared by the burrowing owl and the
rattlesnake. According to popular belief, the three creatures live very
harmoniously together; but careful observations have shown that the
snake and the owl are interlopers, living in the burrows because the
poor owners cannot turn them out, and finding an easy subsistence on
the young Prairie Dogs. A rattlesnake has been killed near a bur-
row, and when the reptile was dissected a Prairie Dog was found in
its stomach.

The Common Marmot is about the size of an ordinary rabbit, and
not very unlike that animal in color. The general tint of the fur is

THfc Marmot (At dnmys Maimotta).

grayish yellow upon the back and flanks, deepening into black-gray on
the top of the head, and into black on the extremity of the tail. It is
very common in all the mountainous districts of Northern Europe,
where it associates in small societies. The Marmot is an expert ex-
cavator, and digs very large and rather complicated burrows, always
appearing to reserve one chamber as a storehouse for the heap of dried
grasses and other similar substances which it amasses for the purpose
of sustaining life during the winter. The chamber in which the animal
lives and sleeps is considerably larger than the storehouse, measuring,
in some cases, as much as seven feet in diameter. The tunnel which

196

THE MOLE EAT.

leads to these chambers is only just large enough to admit the body of
the animal, and is about six feet in length.

To these burrows the Marmots retire about the middle of September,
and after closing the entrance with grass and earth enter into the lethar-
gic hibernating state, and do not emerge until the beginning of April.
Like other hibernating animals, they are very fat just before they take
up their winter quarters, and, as their fur is then in the best condition,
they are eagerly sought after by the human inhabitants of the same
country. The burrow of the Marmot is always dug in dry soil, and is
seldom known to be at all above, or very much below, the line of per-
petual snow.

At the end of the rodents are placed the singular animals which
are grouped together under the title of Aspalacidse, or Mole Rats,
the word Aspalax, or Spalax, being the Greek term for a mole.
The incisor teeth of these animals are extremely large, and project
beyond the lips. The external ears are either wholly wanting or are
of very small dimensions. The eyes are small, and in some species
are concealed by the skin. The body is heavily and clumsily made,
the tail is either very short or entirely absent, and the head is large
and rounded.

The common Mole Eat, which is also known by its Kussian name of
Slepez, is a native of Southern Russia, Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and
Syria. Like the ordinary mole, to which it bears no little external re-
semblance, it passes its existence in the subterranean tunnels which it
excavates by means of its powerful claws. As it but seldom ventures
into the light of day, it stands in no need of visual organs, but is com-

^ — ...^.-^^^-..-^^^^.^^ :^ .,- pensated for their absence

by the very large develop-
ment of the organs of
hearing. The place of
the eyes is taken by two
little round black specks,
which lie under the fur-
covered skin, so that even
if they were sensitive to
light, they would be un-
able to perceive the

T^TTT, ■»T^ T» /oi ^t, X bris^htestraysof the

The Mole Eat (Spahx Typhlus). ^,. . ^r^^

•^^ ^ noontide sun. Ihe ears,

however, are extremely large, and the hearing is exceedingly sensitive,

so that the animal receives earlier information of danger through its

sense of hearing than through that of sight, which latter faculty would

indeed be useless in its dark abode. Sometimes the Slepez leaves the

burrow and lies basking in the warm sunshine, but upon the least alarm

THE COAST RAT AND THE BAY BAMBOO RAT. 197

or unexpected sound it plunges into its tunnel, and will not again make
its appearance until it feels perfectly assured of safety.

The general color of the Slepez is a very light brown, slightly tinged
with red in some parts, and fading into an ashen gray in others. Its
total length is about ten or eleven inches, and the tail is wanting.
The head is broad, flat on the cro\vn, and terminates abruptly at the
muzzle. The feet are short, and the claws small.

The incisor teeth of the Coast Rat or Sand Mole are even larger
in proportion than those of the preceding animal, and those of the up-
per jaw are marked by a groove running throughout their length. The
fore-feet are furnished with long and powerful claws, that of the second
toe being the largest. The eyes are exceedingly small, the external
ears are wanting, and the tail is extremely short.

The Coast Rat is an inhabitant of the Cape of Good Hope and the
coasts of Southern Africa, where it is found in tolerable profusion, and
drives such multitudes of shallow tunnels that the ground which it fre-
quents is rather dangerous for horsemen, and not at all pleasant even to
a man on foot. The burrows are made at so short a distance from the
surface that the earth gives way under the tread of any moderately
heavy animal. Mr. Burchell, the well-known African traveller, nar-
rates that in traversing the great sand flats of Southern Africa he was
often endangered by his feet sinking into the burrows of the Coast Rat,
which had undermined the light soil in every direction. The animal
is rather slow of foot upon the surface of the ground, but drives its
subterranean tunnels with marvellous rapidity, throwing up little sandy
hillocks at intervals, like those of the common mole. On account of
this propensity it has received the name of Zand Mall, or Sand Mole,
from the Dutch boers who inhabit the Cape.

The color of the Sand Mole is a uniformly light grayish brown,
rather variable in tinting. As it is very soft and full in texture, and
can be obtained in great quantities, it might be profitably made a reg-
ular article of trade. The Sand Mole is as large as our ordinary wild
rabbit, being about fifteen inches in total length, the tail measuring
about three inches.

The Bay Bamboo Rat is one representative of the genus Rhizorays,
of which there are several species.

This animal is a native of Nepal, Malacca, and China, and is very
injurious to the bamboos, on the roots of which it feeds. In size it
equals a rather small rabbit, and in color it is of a uniform ruddy
brown, slightly paler on the throat and abdomen. The long incisor
teeth are faced with bright red enamel, which gives them a rather con-
spicuous appearance ; the tail is short and marked, and the claws are
rather small. The head is of a peculiar form.

17*

198 THE DOMESTIC OX.

OXEN.

In the large and important group of animals which now occupy our
attention, the incisor teeth are entirely absent in the upper jaw, and
are eight in number in the lower. There are six molars on each side
of each jaw. The two middle toes of each foot are separate, and are
furnished with hoofs instead of claws. From the frontal bones proceed
two excrescences, which are generally armed with horns, particularly
in the male animal. The structure of the stomach and gullet is very
remarkable, and is employed in producing that peculiar action which
is called " ruminating," or chewing the cud.

The Domestic Ox of Europe has been so modified in form, habits,
and dimensions by its long intercourse with mankind that it has de-

The Ox (Bos).

veloped into as many permanent varieties as the dog, the pigeon, or
the rabbit, and would in many cases be thought to belong to different
species. Among the principal varieties of this animal may be noticed
the Long-horned, the Short-horned, and the Polled or hornless breeds,
and the Alderuey cow, so celebrated for the quantity and quality of
the milk which it daily furnishes. In almost every part of the world
are found examples of the Ox, variously modified in order to suit the
peculiar circumstances amid which they are placed, but in all instances
they are susceptible of domestication, and are employed in the service
of mankind.

There are few animals which are more thoroughly useful to man than
the Ox, or whose loss we should feel more deeply in the privation of
so many comforts. Putting aside the two obvious benefits of its flesh

ITS USE IN THE MANUFACTURES. 199

and its milk — both of which are so needful for our comfort that we
almost forget to think about them at all — we derive very great benefit
from its powers while living, and from many portions of its body when
dead.

In many parts of England, Oxen are still employed in agricultural
labor, drawing the plough or wagon with a slow but steady ploughing
gait. The carpenter would find himself sadly at a loss were his supply
of glue to be suddenly checked by the disappearance of the animal,
from whose hoofs, ears, and hide-parings the greater part of that use-
ful material is manufactured. The harness-maker, carriage-builder,
and shoemaker would in that case be deprived of a most valuable ar-
ticle in their trade ; the cutler and ivory-turner would lose a consider-
able portion of the rough material upon which they work ; the builder
would find his best plaster sadly impaired without a proper admixture
of cow's hair; and the practical chemist would be greatly at a loss for
some of his most valuable pro-
ductions if the entire Ox tribe
were swept from the earth.
Not even the very intestines
are allowed to be wasted, but
are employed for a variety of
purposes and in a variety of
trades. Sometimes the bones
are subjected to a process f
which extracts every nutri- ^■
tious particle out of them, and ^-
even in that case the remain-
ing innutritious portions of ^^ ^^^'
the bones are made useful by being calcined, and manufactured into
the animal charcoal which has lately been so largely employed in many
of the arts and sciences.

The Domestic Cow is too well known to need any detailed description
of form and color. Few persons, however, except those who have been
personally conversant with this animal, have any idea of its intelligent
and affectionate nature.

As the Oxen, in common with the sheep, camel, giraffe, and deer, re-
quire a large amount of vegetable food, and are, while in their native
regions, subject to innumerable disturbing causes that would effectually
prevent them from satisfying their hunger in an ordinary manner, they
are furnished with a peculiar arrangement of the stomach and digestive
organs, by means of which they are enabled to gather hastily a large
amount of food in any spot where the vegetation is luxuriant, and to
postpone the business of mastication and digestion to a time when they
may be less likely to be disturbed. The peculiarity of structure lies

200

THE ZEBU.

chiefly in the stomach and gullet, which are formed so as to act as an
internal food-pouch, analogous in its use to the cheek-pouches of certain
monkeys and rodents, together with an arrangement for regurgitating
the food into the mouth at the will of the animal, previous to its masti-
cation and digestion.

The domestic cattle of India are commonly known by the name of
Zkbu, and are conspicuous for the curious fatty hump which projects
from the withers. These animals are further remarkable for the
heavy dewlap which falls in thick folds from the throat, and which
gives to the forepart of the animal a very characteristic aspect. The
limbs are slender, and the back, after rising toward the haunches,
falls suddenly at the tail.

The Zebu is a quiet and- intelligent animal, and is capable of being
trained in various modes for the service of mankind. It is a good

draught animal, and is
harnessed either to car-
riages or to ploughs,
which it can draw with
great steadiness, though
with but little speed.
Sometimes it is used for
riding, and is possessed
of considerable en-
dunince, being capable
of carrying a rider for
fifteen hours a day, at
an average rate of five
or six miles per hour.

The Zebu race has a
very wide range of lo-
cality, being found in India, China, Madagascar, and the eastern
coasr of Africa. It is believed, however, that its native land is
India, and that it must have been imported from thence into other
countries.

There are various breeds of Zebu, some being about the size of our
orainary cattle, and others varying in dimensions from a large Ox to a
small Newfoundland dog. One of the most familiar of these varieties
is the well-known Brahmin Bull, so called because it is considered to
ht- sacred to Bramah.

The more religious among the Hindoos— scrupulously observant of
the letter of a law which was intended to be universal in its applica-
tion, but to which they give only a partial interpretation — indulge this
itinmal in the most absurd manner. They place the sacred mark of
» iiva on its body, and permit it to wander about at its own sweet will,

The Zebu {Bos Indicus).

THE BUFFALO. . 201

pampered by every luxury, aud never opposed in any wish or caprice
which it may form. A Brahmin Bull will walk along the street with
a quaintly dignified air, inspect anything and anybody that may excite
his curiosity, force any one to make way for himself, and if he should
happen to take a fancy to the contents of a fruiterer's or greengrocer's
shop will deliberately make his choice and satisfy his wishes, none dar-
ing to cross him. The indulgence which is extended to this animal is
carried to so great a height that if a Brahmin Bull chooses to lie down
in a narrow lane, no one can pass until he gets up of his own accord.

The Buffalo is spread over a wide range of country, being found in
Southern Europe, North Africa, India, and a few other localities.

The Buffalo {Bubalus bufelua).

This animal is subject to considerable modifications in external
aspect, according to the climate or the particular locality in which it
resides, and has in consequence been mentioned under very different
names. In all cases the wild animals are larger and more powerful
than their domesticated relations, and in many instances the slightly
different ^hape and greater or lesser length of the horns, or the skin
denuded of hairs, have been considered as sufficient evidence of separate
species.

In India the long, smooth-horned variety chiefly prevails, and is
found in tolerable profusion. This animal frequents wet and marshy
localities, being sometimes called the Water Buffalo on account of its
aquatic predilections. It is a most fierce and dangerous animal, savage
to a marvellous degree, and not hesitating to charge any animal that
may arouse its ready ire. An angry Bufl^alo has been known to attack
a tolerably-sized elephant, and by a vigorous charge in the ribs to pros-
trate its huge foe. Even the tiger is found to quail before the BuflTalo,
and displays the greatest uneasiness in its presence.

202

THE AKNEE AND THE CAPE BUFFALO.

The Arnee lives in large herds, arranged after the manner of all
bovine animals, the females and young being always placed in the safest
spots, while the males post themselves in all positions of danger. These
herds are never seen on elevated ground, preferring the low marshy dis-
tricts where water and mud are abundant. In this mud they love to
wallow, and when suddenly roused from their strange pastime present
a most terrible appearance, their eyes glaring fiercely from amid the
mud-covered, dripping masses of hair. Sometimes the Buffalo is said
to fall a victim to its propensity for wallowing in the mud, and to be
stuck so firmly in the oozy slime, as it dries under the scorching sun-
beams of that burning climate, that it can be killed without danger. It
generally chews the cud while it is lying immersed in mud or water.

The Cape Buffalo is quite as formidable an animal as its Indian
relative, and much more terrible in outward aspect. The heavy

The Cape Buffalo {Buhalus Caffer).

bases of the horns, that nearly unite over the forehead, and under
which the little fierce eyes twinkle with sullen rays, give to the crea-
ture's countenance an appearance of morose, lowering ill-temper which
is in perfect accordance with its real character.

Owing to the enormous heavy mass which is situated on the forehead,
the Cape Buffalo does not see very well in a straight line, so that a
man may sometimes cross the track of one within a hundred yards,
and not be seen by the animal, provided that he walks quietly and
does not attract attention by the sound of his footsteps. This animal
is ever a dangerous neighbor, but when it leads a solitary life among
the thickets and marshy places, it is a worse antagonist to a casual
passenger than even the lion himself. In such a case, it has an unpleas-

THE BISON. 203

ant habit of remainiug quietly in its lair until the unsuspecting traveller
passes closely to its place of concealment, and then leaping suddenly
upon him like some terrible monster of the waters, dripping with mud
and filled with rage.

Many such tragical incidents have occurred — chiefly, it must be
acknowledged, owing to the imprudence of the sufferer — and there
are few coverts in Southern Africa whi(;h are not celebrated for some
aflTair of this kind. Sometimes the animal is so recklessly furious in
its unreasoning anger that it absolutely blinds itself by its heedless
rush through the formidable thorn-bushes which are so common in
Southern Africa. Even when in company with others of their own
species, they are liable to sudden bursts of emotion, and will rush
blindly on, heedless of everything but the impulse that drives them
forward. In one instance, the leader of the herd, being wounded,
dropped on his knees, and was instantly crushed by the tranjpling
hoofs of his comrades as they rushed over the prostrate body of their
chief.

The Gape Buffalo, although so terrible an animal, is not so large as
the arnee, being little larger than an ordinary ox, but possessed of
much greater strength. The strangely-shaped horns are black in color,
and so large that the distance between their points is not unfrequeutly
from four to five feet. On account of their great width at their bases,
they form a kind of bony helmet, which is impenetrable to an ordinary
rausket-ball, and effectually defend their owner against the severe
shocks which are frequently suffered by these testy animals.

The Bison is found only in Northern America, never appearing
north of lat. 33°. It gathers together in enormous herds, consisting of
many thousand in number, and, in spite of the continual persecution
to which it is subjected by man and beast, its multitudes are even now
hardly diminished. The Bison is one of the most valuable of animals
to the white hunter as well as to the aboriginal Red Indian, as its body
supplies him with almost every necessary of life.

The flesh of the fat cow Bison is in great repute, being juicy, tender,
and well savored, and possesses the invaluable quality of not cloying
the appetite, even though it be eaten with the fierce hunger that is
generated by a day's hunting. The fat is peculiarly excellent, and is
said to bear some resemblance to the celebrated green fat of the turtle.
The most delicate portion of the Bison is the flesh that composes the
" hump " which gives to the animal's back so strange an aspect ; and
the hunters are so fond of this delicacy that they will often slay a mag-
nificent Bison merely for the sake of the hump, the tongue, and the
marrow-bones, leaving the remainder of the body to the wolves and
birds.

The hide is greatly valued, both by Indians and civilized men, for

204

THE BISON.

the maDy purposes which it fulfils. From this hide the Indian makes
his teuts, many parts of his dress, his bed, and his shield. For nearly
the whole of these uses the skin is deprived of hair, and is so dressed
as to be impervious to water, and yet soft and pliable. The shield is
very ingeniously made by pegging out the hide upon the ground with

The Bison [Bison Americanus).

a multitude of little wooden skewers round its edge, imbuing it with
a kind of glue, and gradually removing the pegs in proportion to the
consequent shrinking and thickening of the skin. One of these shields,
although still pliable, is sufficiently strong to resist an arrow, and will
often turn a bullet that does not strike it fairly.

Vast quantities of Bisons are killed annually, whole herds being some-
times destroyed by the cunning of their human foes. The hunters, hav-
ing discovered a herd of Bisons at no very great distance from one of
the precipices which abound in the prairie-lands, quietly surround the
doomed animals, and drive them ever nearer and nearer to the preci-
pice. When they have come within half a mile or so of the edge,
they suddenly dash toward the Bisons, shouting, firing, waving hats in
the air, and using every means to terrify the intended victims. The
Bisons are timid creatures, and easily take alarm, so that on being
startled by the unexpected sights and sounds they dash off, panic-struck,

THE BISON.

205

in the only direction left open to them, and which leads directly ro the
precipice. When the leaders arrive at the edge they attempt to recoil,
but they are so closely pressed upon by those behind them that they
are carried forward and forced into the gulf below. Many hundreds
of Bisons are thus destroyed in the space of a few minutes.

The Bison is remarkably fond of wallowing in the mud, and when
he cannot find a mud-hole ready excavated sets busily to work to make
one for himself Choosing some wet and marshy spot, he flings him-
self down on his side, and whirls round and round until he wears
away the soil and forms a circular and rather shallow pit, into which
the water rapidly drains from the surrounding earth. He now redoubles
his efforts, and in a very short time succeeds in covering himself with
a thick coating of mud, which is probably of very great service in de-
fending him from the stings of the gnats and other noxious insects which
swarm in such localities.

The Bison is a marvellously active animal, and displays powers of run-
ning and activity which would hardly be anticipated by one who had

The Yak {Poephagus grunniens).

seen merely a stuffed specimen. The body is so loaded with hair that
it appears to be of greater dimensions than is really the case, and seems

18

206

THE YAK AND THE MUSK OX.

out of all proportion to the slender legs that appear from under it and
seem to bend beneath its weight. Yet the Bison is an enduring as well
as a swift animal, and is also remarkably sure of foot, going at full
speed over localities where a horse would soon be brought to a
halt.

The Yak, or Grunting Ox, derives its name from its very peculiar
voice, which sounds much like the grunt of a pig. It is a native of
the mountains of Thibet, and, according to Hodson, it inhabits all
the loftiest plateaus of High Asia, between the Altai and the Him-
alayas.

The heavy fringes of hair that decorate the sides of the Yak do not
make their appearance until the animal has attained three months in
age, the calves being covered with rough curling hair not unlike that
of a black Newfoundland dog. The beautiful white bushy tail of the
Yak is in great request for various ornamental purposes, and forms
quite an important article of commerce. Dyed red, it is formed into
those curious tufts that decorate the caps of the Chinese, and when
properly mounted in a silver handle, it is used as a fly-flapper in India
under the name of " chowrie." These tails are carried before certain
officers of state, their number indicating the rank.

The curiously-shaped horns of the Musk Ox, its long woolly hair
falling almost to the ground in every direction, so as nearly to conceal

its legs, together with the
peculiar form of the head
and snout, are unfailing
characteristics whereby it
can be discriminated from
any other animal. The
horns of the Musk Ox are
extremely large at their
J base, and form a kind of
,,|^ helmet upon the summit of
the forehead. They then
sweep boldly downward, and
are again hooked upward
toward the tips. This cu-
rious form of the horns is
noticed only in the male, as
the horns of the female are set very widely apart from the sides of the
forehead, and are simply curved. The muzzle is covered with hair,
with the exception of a very slight line around the nostrils.

This animal is an inhabitant of the extreme north of America, being
seldom seen south of the sixty-first degree of latitude, and ascending
as high as the seventy-fifth. It lives, in fact, in the same country which

T^

The Musk Ox (Oribos moschatvs).

THE GAZELLE.

207

IS inhabited by the Esquimaux, and is known to them under the name
of Oomiugnoak. It is a fleet and active animal, and traverses with
such ease the rocky and precipitous ground on which it loves to dwell
that it cannot be overtaken by any pursuer less swift than an arrow or
a bullet. It is a rather irritable animal, and becomes a dangerous foe
to the hunters by its habit of charging upon them while they are per-
plexed amid the cliffs and crevices of its rocky home, thus often escap-
ing unharmed by the aid of its quick eye and agile limbs. The flesh
of this animal is very strongly perfumed with a musky odor, very va-
riable in its amount and strength. Excepting, however, a few weeks
in the year, it is perfectly fit for food, and is fat and well flavored.

The Musk Ox is a little animal, but, owing to the huge mass of
woolly hair with which it is thickly covered, appears to be of consider-
able dimensions. The color of this animal is a yellowish brown, deep-
ening upon the sides.

ANTELOPES.

The Antelopes form a large and important group of animals, find-
ing representatives in many portions of the globe. Resembling the
deer in many respects, they are easily to be distinguished from those
animals by the character of the horns, which
are hollow at the base, set upon a solid core
like those of the oxen, and are permanently
retained throughout the life of the animal.
Indeed, the Antelopes are allied very closely
to the slieep and goats, and in some instances
are very goat-like in external form. In all
cases the Antelopes are light and elegant of
body, their limbs are gracefully slender, and
are furnished with small cloven hoofs. The
tail is never of any great length, and in many
species is very short. The horns, set above
the eyebrows, are either simply conical or are
bent so as to resemble the two horns of the
ancient lyre, and are therefore termed " ly-
rate" in technical language.

The well-known Gazelle is found in great numbers in Northern
Africa, where it lives in herds of considerable size, and is largely hunt-
ed by man and beast.

Trusting to its swift limbs for its safety, the Gazelle will seldom, if
ever, attempt to resist a foe, unless it be actually driven to bay in some
spot from whence it cannot escape, but prefers to flee across the ^andy
plains, in which it loves to dwell, with the marvellous speed for which

The Antelope.

208

THE SPKING-BOK.

it has long been proverbial. The herd seems to be actuated by a strong
spirit of mutual attachment, which preserves its members froni being
isolated from their companions, and which, in many instances, is their
only safeguard against the attacks of the smaller predaceous animals.
The lion and the leopard can always find a meal whenever they can
steal upon a band of Gazelles without being discovered by the sentries
which watch the neighborliood with jealous precaution ; for the Gazelles
are too weak to withstand the attack of such terrible assailants, and
do not even attempt resistance.

The eye of the Gazelle is large, soft, and lustrous, and has long been
celebrated by the poets of its own land as the most flattering simile of

a woman's eye. The
color of this pretty
little animal is a
light fawn upon the
back, deepening into
dark brown in a wide
band which edges the
flanks, and forms a
line of demarcation
between tiie yellow-
brown of the upper
portions of the body
and the pure white of
the abdomen. The
face is rather curi-
ously marked with
two stripes of con-
trasting colors, one a dark black-brown line that passes from the eye to
the curves of the mouth, and the other a white streak that begins at the
horns and extends as far as the muzzle. The hinder quarters, too, are
marked with white, which is very perceptible when tiie animal is walk-
ing directly from the spectator.

The Spring-bok derives its very appropriate title from the extra-
ordinary leaps which it is in the constant habit of making whenever it.
is alarmed.

As soon as it is frightened at any real or fancied danger, or whenever
it desires to accelerate its pace suddenly, it leaps high into the air
with a curiously easy movement, rising to a height of seven or eight
feet without any diflficulty, and being capable on occasions of reaching
the height of twelve or thirteen feet. When leaping, the back is great-
ly curved, and the creature presents a very curious aspect, owing to the
sudden exhibition of the long white hairs that cover the croup, and are
nearly hidden by the folds of skin when the creature is at rest, but

The Gazelle (Gazella Dorcas).

THE GEMS-BOK.

209

which come boldl}'^ into view as soon as the protecting skin-fold is
obliterated by the tension of the muscles that serve to propel the an-
imal in its aerial course.

The Spriug-bok is a marvellously timid animal, and will never cross
a road if it can avoid the necessity. When it is forced to do so, it
often compromises the dif-
ficulty by leaping over
the spot which has been
tainted by the foot of
man. The color of the
Spring-bok is very pleas-
ing, the ground tinting
being a warm cinnamon-
brown upon the upper
surface of the body and ^^
pure white upon the ab-
domen, the two colors be-
ing separated from each
other by a broad band of
reddish brown. The fl^sh ^""^ Spring-'bok {Antidorcas Euchore).

of the Spring-bok is held in some estimation, and the hide is in great
request for many useful purposes.

Inhabiting the vast plains of Southern Africa, the Spring-bok is
accustomed to make pilgrimages from one spot to another, vast herds
being led by their chiefs, and ravaging the country over which they
pass as if they were locusts.

The Gems-bok, or Kookaam, is a large and powerful member of the
Antelope tribe, equalling the domestic ass in size, and measuring about
three feet ten inches at the shoulder. The manner in which the hide
is decorated with boldly- contrasted tints gives it a very peculiar aspect.
The general hue is gray, but along the back, upon the hinder quarters,
and along the flanks, the color is deep black. A black streak also
crosses the face, and, passing under the chin, gives it the appearance
of wearing harness. It has a short, erect mane and long sweeping
black tail, and its heavy horns are nearly straight from base to tip.

The long and sharply-pointed horns with which its head is armed
are terrible weapons of offence, and can be wielded with marvellous
skill. Striking right and left with these natural bayonets, the adult
Gems-bok is a match for most of the smaller carnivora, and has even
been known to wage a successful duel with the lordly lion, and fairly
to beat off its antagonist. Even when the lion has overcome the
Gems-bok, the battle may sometimes be equally claimed by both sides,
for in one instance the dead bodies of a lion and a Gems-bok were found
lying on the plain, the horns of the Anteh^pe being driven so firmly
18 «- 0

210

THE GEMS-BOK AND THE ORYX.

into the lion's body that they could not be extracted by the efforts of
a single man. The lion had evidently sprung upon the Gems-bok,
which had received its foe upon the points of its horns, and had sacri-
ficed its own life in destroying that of its adversary.

As is the case with many long-horned animals, one of the horns,
usually the left, is shorter than the other. In a fine pair of Gems-bok
horns in my collection, the left horn is nearly three inches shorter than
the right.

Although the Gems-bok is nearly independent of water, it stands as
much in need of moisture as any other animal, and would speedily per-
ish in the arid des-
erts were it not di-
rected by its in-
stincts toward
certain succulent
plants which are
placed in those re-
gions, and which
possess the useful
power of attracting
and retaining every
particle of moisture
which may happen
to settle in their
vicinity. The most
common and most
valuable of these
plants is a bulbous
root, belonging to
the Liliacea, called,
from its peculiar
property of retain-
ing the moisture,
the AVater-root.
Only a very small
portion of the valuable plant appears above the ground, and the
water-bearing bulb is so encrusted with hardened soil that it must
be dug out with a knife. Several other succulent plants also possess
similar qualities, among which may be noticed a kind of little melon
which is spread over the whole of the great Kalahari desert.

Resembling the Gems-bok in many particulars, the Oryx can be
easily distinguished from its predecessor by the shape of the horns,
which, instead of being nearly straight, are considerably bent, and
sweep toward the back in a noble curve.

The Gems-bok {Oryx, Guzella).

THE CHAMOIS.

211

It uses these horns with as much address as its near relative the
gems-bok, and if it should be lying wounded on the ground, the hunter
must beware of approaching the seemingly quiescent animal, lest it
should suddenly strike at him with its long and keenly-pointed horns,
while its body lies prostrate on the earth. Should it be standing at
bay, it is a very dangerous opponent, having a habit of suddenly low-
ering its head and charging forward with a quick, lightning-like speed,
from which its antagonist cannot escape without difficulty.

The color of this animal is grayish white upon the greater part of its
person, and is diversified by sundry bold markings of black and ruddy
brown, which are spread over the head and body. The height of the
Oryx is rather more than three feet six inches, and the long curved
horns are upwards of three feet in length. These horns are set closely
together upon the head, from whence they diverge gradually to their
extremities. These weapons are covered with rings at their bases, but
at their tips the^are smooth and exceedingly sharp. Their color is
black.

Goat-like in aspect, and very hircine in many of its habits, tlie
Chamois is often supposed to belong to the goats rather than to the
Antelopes.

It is, however, a true Antelope, and may readily be distinguished
from any of its relations by the peculiar form of the horns, which rise
straight from the top of the head
for some inches, and then sud-
jienly curve backward, so as to
form a pair of sharp hooks. In
descending a precipitous rock,
the Chamois is greatly aided by
the false hoofs of the hinder
feet, which it hitches upon every
little irregularity in the stony
surface, and which seem to re-
tard its progress as it slides
downward, guided by the sharp
hoofs of the fore-feet, which are
placed closely together, and
pushed well in advance of the
body. Thus flattened against
the rock, the Chamois slides downwards until it comes to a ledge
broad enough to permit it to repose itself for a while before descend-
ing farther. In this manner the active creature will not hesitate to
descend some twenty or thirty yards along the face of an almost per-
pendicular cliif, being sure to make good its footing on the first broad
ledge that may present itself.

The Chamois {Rapicapm Tragus).

212 THE CHAMOIS.

The Chamois is one of the most wary of Antelopes, and possesses the
power of scenting mankind at an almost incredible distance. Even the
old and half-obliterated footmarks which a man has made in the snow
are sufficient to startle the sensitive fears of this animal, which has been
observed to stop in mid-career down a mountain-side, and to bound
away at right angles to its former course, merely because it had come
across the track which had been left by the steps of some mountain-
traveller. Like all animals which live in herds, however small, they
always depute one of their number to act as sentinel. They are not,
however, entirely dependent on the vigilance of their picket, but are
always on the alert to take alarm at the least suspicious scent, sight, or
sound, and to communicate their fears to their comrades by a peculiar
warning whistle. As soon as this sound is heard, the entire herd take
to flight.

Their ears are as acute as their nostrils, so that there are few animals
which are more difficult of approach than the Chamois. Only those who
have been trained to climb the giddy heights of the Alpine mountains,
to traverse the most fearful precipices with a quiet pulse and steady
head, to exist for days amid the terrible solitudes of ice, rock, and snow,
and to sustain almost every imaginable hardship in the pursuit of their
game, — only these, or in very rare instances those who have a natural
aptitude for the sport, and are, in consequence, soon initiated into its
requisite accomplishments, can hope to come within even long rifle range
of a Chamois when the animal is at large upon its native cliffs.

The food of the Chamois consists of the various herbs which grow
upon the mountains, and in the winter season it finds its nourishment
on the buds of sundry trees, mostly of an aromatic nature, such as the
fir, pine, and juniper. In consequence of this diet the flesh assumes a
rather powerful odor, which is decidedly repulsive to the palates of some
persons, while others seem to appreciate the peculiar flavor, and to value
it as higlily as the modern gourmand appreciates the " gamey " flavor
of long-kept venison. The skin is largely employed in the manufacture
of a certain leather, which is widely famous for its soft though tough
character. The color of the Chamois is yellowish brown upon the
greater portion of the body, the spinal line being marked with a black
streak. In the winter months the fur darkens and becomes blackish
bro^yn. The face, cheeks, and throat are of a yellowish-white hue, di-
versified by a dark brownish-black band which passes from the corner
of the mouth to the eyes, when it suddenly dilates and forms a nearly
perfect ring round the eyes. The horns are jetty black and highly pol-
ished, especially toward the tips, which are extremely sharp. There
are several obscure rings on the basal portions, and their entire surface
is marked with longitudinal lines.

Several varieties of the Chamois are recorded, but the distinctions

THE GNOO.

213

between them lie only in the comparative length of the horns and the
hue of the coat. The full-grown Chamois is rather more than two feet
in height, and the horns are from six to eight inches long.

Of all the Antelopes, the Gnoo presents the most extraordinary con-
formation. At the first sight of this curious animal the spectator seems
to doubt whether it is a horse, a bull, or an Antelope, as it appears to
partake nearly equally of the nature of these three animals.

The Gnoos, of which there
are several species, may be
easily recognized by the fierce-
looking head, their peculiarly
shaped horns, which are bent
downward and then upward
again with a sharp curve, by
their broad nose and long
hair-clad tail. They live to-
gether in considerable herds,
often mixing with zebras, os-
triches, and giraflTes in one huge
army of living beings. In their
habits they are not unlike the
wild cattle which have already
been described. Suspicious,
timid, curious of disposition, and irritable of temper, they display
these mingled qualities in a very ludicrous manner whenever they are
alarmed by a strange object.

" They commence whisking their long white tails/' says Gumming,
"in a most eccentric manner; then, springing suddenly into the air,
they begin pawing and capering, and pursue each other in circles at
their utmost speed. Sudtlenly they all pull up together to overhaul
the intruder, when some of the bulls will often commence fighting in
the most violent manner, dropping on their knees at every shock ; then,
quickly wheeling about, they kick up their heels, whirl their tails with
a fantastic flourish, and scour across the plain, enveloped in a cloud of
dust." On account of these extraordinary manoeuvres, the Gnoo is
called Wildebeest by the Dutch settlers. The Gnoos in the Zoological
Gardens may often be seen at their gambols.

The color of the ordinary Gnoo ( Connochetes Gnu) is brownish black,
sometimes with a blue-gray wash. The mane is black, with the excep-
tion of the lower part, which is often grayish white, as is the lower part
of the tail. The nose is covered with a tuft of reversed hair, and there
is a mane upon the chest.

The Gnoo is about three feet nine inches high at the shoulders, and
measures about six feet six inches from the nose to the root of the tail.

The Gnoo {Connochtlts Gnu).

214

THE KOODOO.

By far the most striking and imposing of all South African Ante-
lopes, the Koodoo, now claims our attention.

This truly magnificent creature is about four feet in height at the
shoulder, and its body is rather heavily made, so that it is really a large
animal. The curiously-twisted horns are nearly three feet in length,
and 4re furnished witli a strong ridge or keel, which extends through-
out their entire length. It
is not so swift or enduring
as many Antelopes, and
can be run down without
difficulty, provided that
the hunter be mounted on
a good horse, and the
ground be tolerably fair
and open. Its leaping
powers are very great, for
one of these animals has
been known to leap t^ a
height of nearly ten feet
without the advantage of
a run.

The flesh of the Koodoo
is remarkably good, and
the marrow of the princi-
pal bones is thought to be

one of Africa's best lux-
The Koodoo {Strepsiceros Kudu). ^^^-^^^ g^ ^.^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^_

tives of this dainty that they will break the bones and suck out the
marrow without even cooking it in any way whatever. The skin
of this animal is extremely valuable, and for some purposes is al-
most priceless. There is no skin that will make nearly so good a "fore-
slock," or whip-lash, as that of the Koodoo ; for its thin, tough sub-
stance is absolutely required for such a purpose. Shoes, thongs, cer-
tain parts of harness, and other similar objects are manufactured from
the Koodoo's skin, which, when properly prepared, is worth a sovereign
or thirty shillings even in its own land.

The Koodoo is very retiring in disposition, and is seldom seen except
by those who come to look for it. It lives in little herds or families of
five or six in number, but it is not uncommon to find a solitary hermit
here or there, probably an animal which has been expelled from some
family, and is awaiting the time for setting up a family of his own. As
it is in the habit of frequenting brushwood, the heavy spiral horns would
appear to be great hindrances to their owner's progress ; such is not,
however, the case, for when the Koodoo runs, it lays its horns upon its

THE ELAND.

215

back, and is thus enabled to thread the tangled bush without difficulty.
Some writers say that the old males will sometimes establish a bachelors'
club, and live harmoniously together without admitting any of the op-
posite sex into their society.

The color of the Koodoo is a reddish gray, marked with several
white streaks running boldly over the back and down the sides. The
females are destitute of horns.

The Eland, Impoofo, or Canna, is the largest of the South African
Antelopes, being equal in dimensions to a very large ox.

A fine specimen of an adult bull Eland will measure nearly six feet
in height at the shoulders, and is more than proportionately ponderous
in his build, being heavily burdened with fat as well as with flesh.
Owing to this great weight of body, the Eland is not so enduring as
the generality of Antelopes, and can usually be ridden down without
much trouble. Indeed, the chase of the animal is so simple a matter
that the hunters generally contrive to drive it toward their encamp-
ment, and will not kill it until it has approached the wagon so closely
that they will have but little trouble in conveying its flesh and hide to
their wheeled treasure-house.

The flesh of the Eland is peculiarly excellent ; and, as it possesses
the valuable quality of being tender immediately after the animal is
killed, it is highly
appreciated in the
interior of South Af-
rica, where usually all
the meat is as tough
as shoe-leather, and
nearly as dry. In
some strange manner,
the Eland contrives
to live for months to-
gether without drink-
ing, and even when the
herbage is so dry that
it crumbles into pow-
der in the hand, the
animal preserves its
good condition, and
is, moreover, found to
contain water in its
stomach if opened. For its abstinence from liquids the Eland com-
pensates by its ravenous appetite for solid food, and is so large a feeder
that the expense of keeping it would be almost too great for any one
who endeavored to domesticate it in England with any hope of profit.

The Eland (Oirm OmrM).

216

THE NYLGHAU.

Passing from Africa to Asia, we find a curious and handsome Ante-
lope, partaking of many of the characteristics which are found in the
Koodoo and Bosch-bok. This is the Nylghau, an inhabitant of the
thickly-wooded districts of India.

This magnificent Antelope is rather more than four feet high at

the shoulders, and its
^^^^-- general color is a slate-

blue. The face is marked
wnth brown or sepia ; the
long neck is furnished
with a bold dark mane,
and a long tuft of coarse
hair hangs from the
throat. The female is
smaller than her mate,
and hornless. Her coat
is generally a reddish
gray, instead of partak-
ing of the slate-blue tint
^ ^^ ^„ , . which colors the form of

^ -^ ' the male. Ihe hmd-legs

of this animal are rather shorter than the fore-legs. Its name,
Nylghau, is of Persian origin, and signifies " blue ox."

It does not seem to be of a social disposition, and is generally found
in pairs inhabiting the borders of the jungle. There are, however,
many examples' of solitary males. It is a shy and wary animal, and
the hunter who desires to shoot it is obliged to exert his bush-craft to
the utmost in order to attain his purpose. To secure a Nylghau re-
quires a good marksman as well as a good stalker, for the animal is
very tenacious of life, and if not struck in the proper spot will carry
oflT a heavy bullet without seeming to be much the worse at the time.
The native chiefs are fond of hunting the Nylghau, and employ in the
chase a whole army of beaters and trackers, so that the poor animal
has no chance of fair play. These hunts are not without their excite-
ment, for the Nylghau's temper is of the shortest, and when it feels
itself aggrieved, it suddenly turns upon its opponent, drops on its
knees, and leaps forward with such astounding rapidity that the attack
can hardly be avoided, even when the intended victim is aware of the
animal's intentions.

The Nylghau is not of very great value either to individual hunters
or for commercial purposes. The hide is employed in the manufacture
of shields, but the flesh is coarse and without flavor. There are, how-
ever, exceptions to be found in the "hump" of the male, the tongue,
and the marrow-bones, which are thought to be rather delicate articles

THE IBEX.

217

of diet. Its gait is rather clumsy, but very rapid, and generally
consists of a peculiar long swinging canter, which is not easily over-
taken.

GOATS AND SHEEP.

Closely allied to each other, the Goats and Sheep can easily be sep-
arated by a short examination. In the Goats, which will first come un-
der consideration, the horns are erect, decidedly compressed, curved
backward and outward, and are supplied with a ridge or heel of horny
substance in front. The males generally possess a thickly-bearded chin,
and are all notable for a powerful and very rank odor which is not pres-
ent in the male sheep.

Of the genus Capra, which includes several species, the Ibex, or
Steinbock, is a familiar and excellent example.

This animal, an inhabitant of the Alps, is remarkable for the ex-
ceeding development of the horns, which are sometimes more than
three feet in length, and of such
extraordinary dimensions that
they appear to a casual observer
to be peculiarly unsuitable for an
animal that traverses the craggy
regions of Alpine precipices.

To hunt the Ibex successfully
is as hard a matter as hunting
the chamois, for the Ibex is to the
full as wary and active an animal,
and is sometimes apt to turn the
tables on its pursuer, and assume
an offensive deportment. Should
the hunter approach too near the
Ibex, the animal will, as if sud-
denly urged by the reckless cour-
age of despair, dash boldly for-
ward at its foe, and strike him

The Ibex {Capra Ibex).

from the precipitous rock over which he is forced to pass. The diffi-
culty of the chase is further increased by the fact that the Ibex is a
remarkably endurant animal, and is capable of abstaining from food
or water for a considerable time.

It lives in little bands of five or ten in number, each troop being un-
der the command of an old male, and preserving admirable order
among themselves. Their sentinel is ever on the watch, and at the
slightest suspicious sound, scent, or object, the warning whistle is
blown, and the whole troop make instantly for the highest attainable
point. Their instinct always leads them upward, an inborn " exeel-

19

218

THE GOAT.

sior" being woven into their very natures, and as soon as they perceive
dauo-er they invariably begin to mount toward the line of perpetual
snow. The young of this animal are produced in April, and in a few
hours after their birth they are strong enough to follow their parent.

The color of the Ibex is a reddish brown in summer and gray brown
in winter ; a dark stripe passes along the spine and over the face, and
the abdomen and interior faces of the limbs are washed with whitish
gray. The horns are covered from base to point with strongly-marked
transverse ridges, the number of which is variable, and is thought by
some persons to denote the age of the animal. In the females the
horns are not nearly so large or so heavily ridged as in the male. The
Ibex is also known under the name of Bouquetin.

There is an enormous number of varieties of the common domestic
Goat, many of them being so unlike the original stock from which
they sprang as to appear like different species. For the present, we
_ will turn to the common Goat of

Europe, with which we are all so,
familiar. This animal is often seen
domesticated, especially in and about
stables, as there is a prevalent idea
that the rank smell of the Goat is
beneficial to horses. Be this as it
may, the animal seems quite at
home in a stable, and a very firm
friendship often arises between the
Goat and one of the horses. Some-
times it gets so petted by the fre-
quenters of the stables that it be-
comes presumptuous, and assaults
any one whom it may not happen
to recognize as a friend. Happily,
a Goat, however belligerent he may be, is easily conquered if his beard
can only be grasped, and when he is thus captured, he yields at once
to his conqueror, assumes a downcast air, and bkats in a very pitiful
tone, as if asking for mercy.

In its wild state the Goat is a fleet and agile animal, delighting in
rocks and precipitous localities, and treading their giddy heights with
a foot as sure and an eye as steady as those of the chamois or ibex.
Even in domesticated life, this love of clambering is never eradicated,
and wherever may be an accessible roof or rock, or even a hill, there
the Goat may generally be found.

The varieties of the Goat are almost numberless, and it will be im-
possible even to notice more than one or two of the most prominent ex-
am pl-^s. One of the most valuable of these varieties is the celebrated

The Goat {Hircus jEgdgrus).

THE SHEEP.

219

The Female Goat.

Cashmir Goat, whose soft silky hair furnishes material for the soft and
costly fabrics which are so highly valued in all civilized lauds.

This animal is a native of Thibet and the neighboring locality, but
the Cashmir shawls are not manufactured in the same land which sup-
plies the material. The fur of the Cashmir Goat is of two sorts — a soft,
woolly under-coat of grayish
hair, and a covering of long
silken hairs that serves to
defend the interior coat from
the effects of winter. The
woolly under-coat is the sub-
stance from which the Cash-
mir shawls are woven, and in
order to make a single shawl a
yard and a half square, at least
ten Goats are robbed of their
natural covering. Beautiful
as are these fabrics, they would
be sold at a very much lower price but for the heavy and numerous
taxes which are laid upon the material in all the stages of its man-
ufacture, and after its completion upon the finished article. Indeed, the
buyer of an imported Cashmir shawl is forced to pay at least a thou-
sand per cent, on his purchase.

From time immemorial the Sheep has been subjected to the ways
of man, and has provided him with meat and clothing, as well as with

many articles of do-
mestic use. The
whole carcase of the
Sheep is as useful
as that of the ox,
and there is not a
single portion of its
body that is not con-
verted to some ben-
eficial purpose. The
animal, as we now
possess it, and which
has diverged into
such innumerable
varieties, is never
found in a state of
absolute wildness,
and has evidently derived its origin from some hitherto undomesticated
species. In the opinion of many naturalists, the mouflon may lay claim

The Cashmir Goat.

220 THE MERINO SHEEP.

to the pareutage of our domestic Sheep, but other writers have separated
the moiiflons from the Sheep, aud placed them in a different genus.

Although the Sheep is generally considered to be a timid animal,
aud is really so when forced into adverse circumstances and deprived
of its wonted liberty, it is truly as bold an animal as can well be seen,
and often gives many proofs of its courage. If, for example, a travel-
ler comes unexpectedly upon a flock of the little Sheep that range the
Welsh mountains, they will not flee from his presence, but draw to-
gether into a compact body, and watch him with stern and unyielding
gaze. Should he attempt to advance, he would be instantly assailed by
the rams, which form the first line in such cases, and would fare but
badly in the encounter. A dog, if it should happen to accompany the
intruder, would probably be at once charged and driven from the spot.

Even a single ram is no mean antagonist when he is thoroughly
irritated, and his charge is really formidable. Sheep differ from goats
in their manner of fighting ; the latter animals rear themselves on
their hind-legs, and then plunge sideways upon their adversary, while
the former animals hurl themselves forward, and strike their opponent
with the whole weight as well as impetus of the body. So terrible is
the shock of a ram's charge that it has been known to prostrate a bull
at the first blow. Nor is the Sheep combative only when irritated by
opposition or when danger threatens itself A Sheep that had been
led into a slaughter-house has been known to turn fiercely upon the
butcher as he was about to kill one of its companions, and to butt
him severely in order to make him relinquish his grasp of its friend.

In the British Isles the sheep breeds freely, producing generally one
or two lambs every year, and sometimes presenting its owner with three
at a birth. One instance is on record of a wonderfully prolific ewe.
She had hardly passed her second year when she produced four lambs.
The next year she had five ; the year after that she bore twins ; and
the next year five again. On two successive years she bore twins.
Two out of the four and three out of the five were necessarily fed
by hand.

We will now advert shortly to some of the principal breeds or varie-
ties of the Sheep.

Of all the domestic varieties of this useful animal, the Spanish or
Merino Sheep has attracted the greatest attention.

Originally, this animal is a native of Spain, a country which has
been for many centuries celebrated for the quantity and quality of its
wool. The Merino Sheep, from whom the long and fine Spanish
wool was obtained, were greatly improved by an admixture with the
Cotswold Sheep of England, some of which were sent to Spain in
1464, and the fleece was so improved by the crossing that the famous
English wool was surpassed by that which was supplied by Spain.

MANNEE OF KEEPING IT. 221

In Spain the Merinos are kept in vast flocks, and divided into two
general heads, the stationary and the migratory. The former animals
remain in the same locality during the whole of their lives, but the
latter are accustomed to undertake regular annual migrations. The
summer months they spend in the cool mountainous districts, but as
soon as the weather begins to grow cold the flocks pass into the warmer

The Merino or Spanish Sheep.

regions of Andalusia, where they remain until April. The flocks are
sometimes ten thousand in number, and the organization by which they
are managed is very complex and perfect. Over each great flock is
set one experienced shepherd, who is called the " mayoral," and who
exercises despotic sway over his subordinates, Fifty shepherds are
placed under his orders, and are supplied with boys and intelligent

Under the guardianship of their shepherds, the Merino sheep, which
have spent the summer in the mountains, begin their downward journey
about the month of September; and after a long and leisurely march
they arrive at the pasture-grounds, which are recognized instinctively
by the sheep. In these pasturages the winter folds are prepared, and
here are born the young Merinos, which generally enter the world in
March or the beginning of April. Toward the end of that month the
Sheep begin to be restless, and, unless they are at once removed, will
often decamp of their own accord. Sometimes a whole flock will thus
escape, and, guided by some marvellous instinct, will make their way
to their old quarters, unharmed, except perchance by some prowling
wolf, who takes advantage of the shepherd's absence.

The very young lambs are not without their value, although they
furnish no wool, for their skins are prepared and sent to France and
England, where they are manufactured into gloves, and called by the
name of " kid."

19*

222 THE GIRAFFE.

GIRAFFES.

Tallest of all earthly dwellers, the Giraffe erects its stately head
far above any other animal that walks the face of the globe. It is an
inhabitant of various parts of Africa, and is evidently a unique being,
comprising in itself an entire tribe. The color of the coat is slightly
different in the specimens which inhabit the northern and the southern
portions of Africa, the southern animal being rather darker than its
northern relative.

The height of a full-grown male Giraffe is from eighteen to twenty
feet, the female being somewhat less in her dimensions. The greater
part of this enormous stature is obtained by the extraordinarily long neck,
which is nevertheless possessed of only seven vertebrae, as in ordinary
animals. Those bones are, however, extremely elongated, and their artic-
ulation is admirably adapted to the purpose which they are called upon
to fulfil. The back of the Giraffe slopes considerably from the shoul-
ders to the tail, and at first sight the fore-legs of the animal appear to
be longer than the hinder limbs. The legs themselves are, however,
of equal length, and the elevation of the shoulders is due to the very
great elongation of the shoulder-blades. Upon the head are two ex-
crescences which resemble horns, and are popularly called by that
name. They are merely growths or developments of certain bones of
the skull, somewhat similar to the bony cores on which the hollow
horns of the oxen and antelopes are set. These quasi-horns are cov-
ered with skin, and have on their summits a tuft of dark hair. On
the forehead, and nearly between the eyes, a third bony 2:)rojection is
seen, occupying the same position that was traditionally accredited to
the horn of the unicorn.

The singular height of this animal is entirely in accordance with its
habits and its mode of acquiring food. As the creature is accustomed
to feed upon the leaves of trees, it must necessarily be of very consid-
erable stature to be able to reach the leaves on which it browses, and
must also be possessed of organs by means of which it can select and
gather such portions of the foliage as may suit its palate. The former
object is gained by the great length of the neck and legs, and the lat-
ter by the wonderful development of the tongue, which is so marvel-
lously formed that it is capable of a considerable amount of prehen-
sile power, and can be elongated or contracted in a very wonderful man-
ner. Large as is the animal, it can contract the tip of its tongue into
so small a compass that it can pass into the pipe of an ordinary pocket-
key, while its prehensile powers enable its owner to pluck any selected
leaf with perfect ease. In captivity the Giraffe is rather apt to make
too free a use of its tongue, such as twitching the artificial flowers and
foliage from ladies' bonnets, or any similar freak.

ITS FOOD.

223

For grazing upon level ground the Giraffe is peculiarly unfitted, and
never attempts that feat excepting when urged by hunger or some very
pressing cause. It is, however, perfectly capable of bringing its mouth
to the ground, although with considerable effort and much straddling
of the fore-legs.
By placing a lump
of sugar on the
ground, the Giraffe
may be induced to
lower its head to
the earth, and to
exhibit some of
that curious mix-
ture of grace and
awkwardness which
characterizes this
singular animal.

In its native coun-
try its usual food
consists of the
leaves of a kind of
acacia, named the
Kameel-dorn, or
Camel-thorn {Aca-
cia giraffe). The
animal is exceed-
ingly fastidious in
its appetite, and
carefully rejects
every thorn, scru-
pulously plucking
only the freshest
and greenest leaves.
When supplied
with cut grass, the
Giraffe takes each
blade daintily be-
tween its lips, and
nibbles gradually

The Giraffe {Gimffa Camelopdrdalis).

from the top to the stem, after the manner in which we eat asparagus.
As soon as it has eaten the tender and green portion of the grass, it
rejects the remainder as unfit for consumption. Hay, carrots, onions,
and different vegetables form its principal diet while it is kept in a
state of captivity.

224 MODE OF TEAPPING THE GIKAFFE.

As far as is at present known, the Giraffe is a silent animal, like the
eland and the kangaroo, and has never been heard to utter a sound,
even when struggling in the agonies of death. When in its native
land, it is so strongly perfumed with the foliage on which it chiefly feeds
that it exhales a powerful odor, which is compared by Captain Cum-
niing to the scent of a hive of heather honey.

To man it falls an easy prey, especially if it can be kept upon level
ground, where a horse can run without danger. On rough soil, how-
ever, the Giraffe has by far the advantage, as it leaps easily over the
various obstacles that lie in its way, and gets over the ground in a cu-
riously agile manner. It is not a very swift animal, as it can be easily
overtaken by a horse of ordinary speed, and is frequently run down by
native hunters on foot. When running, it progresses in a very awk-
ward and almost ludicrous manner, by a series of frog-like leaps, its
tail switching and twisting about at regular intervals, and its long
neck rocking stiffly up and down in a manner that irresistibly reminds
the observer of those toy birds whose head and tail perform alternate
obeisances by the swinging of a weight below. As the tail is switched
sharply hither and thither, the tuft of the bristly hairs at the extrem-
ity makes a hissing sound as it passes through the air.

Besides the usual mode of hunting and stalking, the natives employ
the pitfall for the purpose of destroying this large and valuable an-
imal. For this purpose a very curiously-constructed pit is dug, being
about ten feet in depth, proportionately wide, and having a wall or
bank of earth extending from one side to the other, and about six or
seven feet in height. When the Giraffe is caught in one of these pits,
its fore-limbs fall on one side of the wall and its hind-legs on the other,
the edge of the wall passing under the abdomen. The poor creature
is thus balanced, as it were, upon its belly across the wall, and, in spite
of all its plunging, is unable to obtain a foothold sufficiently firm to
enable it to leap out of the treacherous cavity into which it has fallen.
The pitfalls which are intended for the capture of the hippopotamus
and the rhinoceros are furnished wnth a sharp stake at the bottom,
which impales the luckless animal as it falls ; but it is found by expe-
rience that, in the capture of the Giraffe, the transverse wall is even
more deadly than the sharpened spike.

The Giraffe is generally found in little herds, sometimes containing
only five or six, and sometimes thirty or forty, members, the average
being about sixteen. These herds are always found either in or very
close to forests, where they can obtain their daily food, and where they
can be concealed from their enemies among the tree-trunks, to which
they bear so close a resemblance.

The flesh of the Giraffe is considered to be good when rightly pre-
pared, and its marrow is thought to be so great a delicacy that the

DEVELOPMENT OF DEER-HORNS.

225

natives eagerly suck it from the bones as they are taken from the an-
imal. When cooked it is worthy of a place on a royal table. The
flesh is well fitted for being made into jerked-meat. The thick, strong
hide is employed in the manufacture of shoe-soles, shields, and similar
articles.

DEER.

From the Antelope the Deer are readily distinguished by the cha-
ncter of the horns, which belong only to the male animals, are com-
posed of solid bony substances, and are shed and renewed annually
during the life of the animal.
The process by which the
horns are developed, die, and
are shed is a very curious
one, and deserves a short no-
tice before we proceed to con-
sider the various species of
Deer which will be noticed
in the present work. For a
familiar instance we will take
the common Stag or Red Deer
of 'Europe.

In the beginning of the
month of March he is lurk-
ing in the sequestered spots
of his forest home, harmless
as his mate and as timorous. The Deer.

Soon a pair of prominences make their appearance on his forehead,
covered with a velvety skin. In a few days these little prominences
have attained some length, and give the first indication of their true
form. Grasp one of these in the hand and it will be found burn-
ing hot to the touch, for the blood runs fiercely through the velvety
skin, depositing at every touch a minute portion of bony matter. More
and more rapidly grow the horns, the carotid arteries enlarging in order
to supply a sufficiency of nourishment, and in the short period of ten
weeks the enormous mass of bony matter has been completed. Such a
process is almost, if not entirely, without parallel in the history of the
animal kingdom.

When the horns have reached their due development, the bony rings
at their bases, through which the arteries pass, begin to thicken, and by
gradually filling up the holes compress the blood-vessels, and ultimately
obliterate them. The velvet, now having no more nourishment, loses
its vitality, and is soon rubbed off* in shreds against tree-trunks, branches,
or any inanimate object. The horns fall off in February, and in a very

226

THE MOOSE.

short time begin to be renewed. These ornaments are very variable at
the different periods of the animal's life, the nge of the Stag being well
indicated by the number of " tines " upon its horns.

The American Elk {Cervus Canadensis).

The Moose or Elk is the largest of all the Deer tribe, attaining the
extraordinary height of seven feet at the shoulders, thus equalling
many an ordinary elephant in dimensions. The horns of this animal
are very large and widely palmated at their extremities, their united
weight being so great as to excite a feeling of wonder at the ability of
the animal to carry so heavy a burden. They do not reach their full
development until the fourteenth year. The muzzle is very large and
is much lengthened in front, so as to impart a most unique expression
to the Elk's countenance. The color of the animal is a dark brown,
the legs being washed with a yellow hue. It is a native of Northern
Europe and America, the Moose of the latter continent and the Elk
of the former being one and the same species.

As the flesh of the Elk is palatable, and the skin and the horns extreme-
ly useful, the animal is much persecuted by hunters. It is a swift and en-
during animal, although its gait is clumsy and awkward in the extreme.
The only pace of the Elk is a long, swinging trot ; but its legs are so
long and its paces so considerable that its speed is much greater than
it appears to be. Obstacles that are almost impassable to a horse are

THE MOOSE.

227

passed over easily by the Elk, which has been kDo^vn to trot uninter-
ruptedly over a number of fallen tree-trunks, some of them five feet in
thickness. When the ground is hard and will bear the weight of so
large an animal, the hunters are led a very long and severe chase before
they come up with their prey; but when the snow lies soft and thick on
the ground, the creature soon succumbs to its lighter antagonists, who
supply themselves with snow-shoes and scud over the soft snow with a
speed that speedily overcomes that of the poor Elk, which sinks floun-

The Moose or Elk {Afces Makhis).

dering into the deep snow-drifts at every step, and is soon worn out by
its useless efforts.

It is as wary as any of the Deer tribe, being alarmed by the slightest
sound or the faintest scent that gives warning of an enemy. As the
Elk trots along its course is marked by a succession of sharp sounds,
which are produced by the snapping of the cloven hoofs, which separate
at every step, and fall together as the animal raises its foot from the
ground.

The enormous horns form no barrier to his progress through the
woods, for when the Elk runs he always throws his horns well back
upon his shoulders, so that they rather assist than impede him in tra-
versing the forest glades. The Elk is a capital swimmer, proceeding

228

THE REINDEER.

with great rapidity, and often taking to the water for its own amuse-
ment. During the summer months of the year it spends a considerable
portion of its time under water, its nose and horn being the only parts
of its form which appear above the surface. Even the very young
Moose is a strong and fearless swimmer.

The skin of the Elk is extremely thick, and has been manufactured
into clothing that would resist a sword-blow and repel an ordinary
pistol-ball. The flesh is sometimes dressed fresh, but is generally
smoked like haras, and is much esteemed. The large muzzle or upper
lip is, however, the principal object of admiration to the lovers of Elk-
flesh, and is said to he rich and gelatinous when boiled, resembling the
celebrated green fat of the turtle.

Two varieties of the Reindeer inhabit the earth, the one called
the Reindeer being placed upon the northern portions of Europe and
Asia, and the other, termed the Caribou, being restricted to North
America.

This animal is very variable in dimensions, specimens of very dif.
ferent height being in the British Museum. The color is also vari-

The Woodland Caribou {Edngi/er caribou).
able, according to the season of the year. In winter the fur is long,
and of a grayish-brown tint, with the exception of the neck, hinder

THE REINDEER. 229

quarters, abdomen, and end of nose, which are white. In the summer
the gray-brown hair darkens into a sooty brown, and the white portions
become gray.

The Reindeer { Tarandm Rdngifer).

The Laplanders place their chief happiness in the possession of
many Reindeer, which are to them the only representatives of wealth.
Those who possess a herd of a thousand or more are reckoned among
the wealthy of their country ; those who own only a few hundreds are
considered as persons of respectability ; while those who possess only
forty or fifty are content to act as servants to their richer countrymen,
and to merge their little herds in those of their employers. In the
waste, dry parts of Lapland grows a kind of white lichen, which forms
the principal food of the Reindeer during winter, and is therefore high-
ly prized by the natives. Although this lichen may be deeply covered
with snow, the Reindeer is taught by instinct to scrape away the super-
incumbent snow with its head, hoofs, and snout, and to lay bare the
welcome food that lies beneath. Sometimes the surface of the snow is
so firmly frozen that the animal can make no impression ; and under
these circumstances it is in very poor case, many of the unfortunate
creatures dying of starvation, and the others being much reduced in
condition.

The Reindeer is extensively employed as a beast of draught and
carriage, being taught to draw sledges and to carry men or packages
upon its back. Each reindeer can draw a weight of two hundred and
fifty, or even three hundred, pounds, its pace being between nine and
ten miles per hour. There is, however, a humane law which prohibits
20

230

THE RED DEEK.

a weight of more than one hundred and ninety pounds upon a sledge,
ur one hundred and thirty upon the back. It is a very enduring an-
imal, as it is able to keep up this rate of progress for twelve or more
hours together.

The eyes of the Reindeer are very quick, and his hearing is also
acute; but his sense of smell is more wonderfully developed than
cither of the other senses.

We now come to the Deer which inhabit the warm or temperate
regions of the world, and which include the greater portion of the
family.

The Stag or Red Deer is spread over many parts of Europe and
Asia, and is indigenous to the British Islands, where it stiU lingers,
though in vastly reduced numbers.

The Stag or Ked Deer.

In the olden days of chivalry and Robin Hood, the Red Deer were
plentiful in every forest, and especially in that sylvan chase which was
made by the exercise of royal tyranny at the expense of such sorrow

THE RED DEER.

231

and suffering. Even in the New Forest itself the Red Deer is seldom
seen, and those few survivors that still serve as relics of a bygone age
are scarcely to be reckoned as living in a wild state, and approach
nearly to the serai-domesticated condition of the Fallow Deer. Many
of these splendid animals are preserved in parks or paddocks, but
they no more roam the wide forests in unquestioned freedom. In Scot-
land, however, tlie Red Deer are still to be found, as can be testified
by many a keen hunter of the present day, who has had his strength,
craft, and coolness thoroughly tested belore he could lay low in the

The Fallow Deer [Dama Vulgaris).

dust the magnificent animal whose head with its forest of horns now
graces his residence.

The great speed of the Stag is proverbial, and needs no mention. It
is an admirable swimmer, having been known to swim for a distance
of six or seven miles, and in one instance a Stag landed in the night upon
a beach which he could not have reached without having swum for a
distance of ten miles. The gallant beast was discovered by some dogs
as he landed, and, being chased by them immediately after his fatiguing
aquatic exploit, w^as overcome by exhaustion, and found dead on the
following morning.

The color of the Stag varies slightly according to the time of the
year. In the summer the coat is a warm reddish brown, but in the
winter the ruddy hue becomes gray. The hind-quarters are paler than
the rest of the fur. The young Red Deer are born about April, and
are remarkable for the variegated appearance of their fur, which is
mottled with white upon the back and sides. As the little creatures
increase in dimensions, the white marking gradually fades, and the fur
assumes the uniform reddish brown of the adult animal.

232

THE FALLOW DEER.

The Fallow Deer may readily be distinguished from the stag
by the spotted coat, the smaller size, and the spreading, palmated
horns.

The color of the Fallow Deer is generally of a reddish brown, spot-
ted with white, and with two or three white lines upon the body. There
is, however, another variety, which scarcely exhibits any of the white
spots, and is of a deep blackish brown.

It is from the Fallow Deer that the best venison is procured, that of
the stag being comparatively hard and dry. The skin is well known

The Axis Deer {Axis maculata).

as furnishing a valuable leather, and the horns are manufactured into
fenife-handles and other articles of common use. The shavings of the

THE AXIS DEER AND THE ROEBUCK.

233

horns are employed for the purpose of making ammonia, which has
therefore long been popularly known under the name of hartshorn.
The height of the adult Fallow Deer is three feet at the shoulders. It
is a docile animal, and can readily be tamed. Indeed, it often needs
no taming, but becomes quite familiar with strangers in a very short
time, especially if they should happen to have any fruit, bread, or bis-
cuit, and be willing to impart some of their provisions to their dappled
friends.

The well-known Axis, Chittra, or Spotted Hog Deer, of India
and Ceylon, belongs to the Rusine Deer.

The horns, like those of the sambur, a common Indian Deer, are
placed on long footstalks and simply forked at their tips. The color
of this pretty animal is rather various, but is generally a rich golden
brown, with a dark-brown stripe along the back, accompanied by two
series of white spots, which at first sight appear to be scattered irreg-
ularly, but are seen on a careful inspection to be arranged in oblique
curved lines. There is also a white streak across the haunches. There
are, however, many varieties of the Axis Deer, which difier in size as
well as in color. The height of the adult Axis is almost equal to that
of the Fallow Deer.

The Roebuck is smaller than the Fallow Deer, being only two feet
and three or four inches in height at the shoulder, but, although so
small, can be really a
formidable animal, on
account of its rapid
movements and great
comparative strength.

It is not found in large
herds like the Fallow
Deer, but is strictly
monogamous, the single
pair living together, con-
tented with each other's
society. The horns of
this animal have no
basal snag, and rise
straight from the fore-
head, throwing out one

antler in front, and one \\K'^v^\s'4 %•

or two behind, according '^'^^ Roebuck {Capreolus Caprcea),

to the age of the individual. From the base of the horn to the first
antler the horn is thickly covered with wrinkles. It is a most active
little Deer, always preferring the highest grounds, thence forming a
contrast to the Fallow Deer, which loves the plains. It is seldom seen

20*

234

THE MUSK DEER.

in England in a wild state, but may still be met with in many parts
of Scotland.

The color of the Roebuck is very variable, but is generally as follows :
The body is always of a brown tint as a ground hue, worked with either
red or gray, or remaining simply brown. Round the root of the tail is
a patch of pure white hair, and the abdomen and inside of the limbs
are grayish white. The chin is also white, and there is a white spot on
each side of the lips.

The MoscHiNE Deer are readily known by the absence of horns in
both sexes, the extremely long canine teeth of the upper jaw in the
males, and the powerfully odorous secretion in one of the species, from
which they derive their popular as well as their scientific title. There
are at least eight or nine species of these curious animals.

The most celebrated of these little Deer is the common MrsK Deer,
which is a native of the northern parts of India, and is found spread

throughout a very large range
of country, always preferring
the cold and elevated moun-
tainous regions. The height
of the adult Musk Deer is
about two feet three inches at
the shoulders; the color is a
light brown, marked with a
shade of grayish yellow. In-
habiting the rocky and moun-
tainous locations of its native
The Mush Deer {Moschus Moschifcrvs). home, it is remarkably active
and sure-footed, rivalling even the chamois or the goat in the agility
with which it can ascend or descend the most fearful precipices. The
great length of the false hoofs adds much to the security of the Musk
Deer's footing upon the crags.

It is only in the male that the long tusks are seen, and that the per-
fume called musk is secreted. The tusks are sometimes as much as
three inches in length, and therefore project considerably beyond the
jaw. In shape they are compressed, pointed, and rather sharp-edged.
The natives say that their principal use is in digging up the kastoree
plant, a kind of subterranean bulb on which the Musk Deer feeds, and
which imparts the peculiar perfume to the odorous secretion. The
musk is produced in a glandular pouch placed in the abdomen, and
when the animal is killed for the sake of this treasure, the musk-bag
is carefully removed, so as to defend its precious contents from exposure
to the air. When recently taken from the animal, the musk is of so
powerful an odor as to cause headache to those who inhale its over-
powering fragrance. The affluence of perfume that resides in the

THE KANCHIL AND THE CAMEL. 235

musk is almost incredible, for a small piece of this wonderful secretion
may remain in a room for many years, and at the end of that time
will give forth au odor which is apparently not the least diminished
by time.

Another member of the Moschine group is the Kanchil, or Pigmy
Musk (Trdgulus Pygmceus), a deer which is found in the Asiatic islands,
and which is as celebrated for its cunning as is the fox among ourselves.

This animal is not nearly so large as the Musk Deer, and, although
somewhat similar in color, may be disting4.iished by a broad black
stripe which runs along the back of the neck and forms a wide band
across the chest. Instead of living in the cold and lofty mountain-
ranges which are inhabited by the Musk Deer, the Kanchil prefers
the thickly-wooded districts of the Javanese forests. Like many
other animals, the Kanchil is given to " 'possuming," or feigning
death, when it is taken in a noose or trap, and as soon as the suc-
cessful hunter releases the clever actor from the retaining cord, it
leaps upon its feet and darts away before he has recovered from his
surprise.

From the earliest times that are recorded in history, the Camel is
mentioned as one of the animals which are totally subject to the sway
of man, and which in Eastern countries contribute so much to the
wealth and influence of their owners.

There are two species of Camel acknowledged by zoologists — namely,
the common Camel of Arabia, which has but one hump, and the
Mecheri, or Bactrian Camel, which possesses two of these curious
appendages.

As the animal is intended to traverse the parched sand-plains, and
to pass several consecutive days without the possibility of obtaining
liquid nourishment, there is an internal structure which permits it to
store up a considerable amount of water for future use. For this
purpose the honeycomb-cells of the " reticulum" are largely develop-
ed, and are enabled to receive and to retain the water which is received
into the stomach after the natural thirst of the animal has been supplied.
After a Camel has been accustomed to journeying across the hot and
arid sand wastes, it learns wisdom by experience, and contrives to lay
by a much greater supply of water than would be accumulated by a
young and untried animal. It is supposed that the Camel is able in
some way to dilate the honeycomb-cells, and to force them to receive a
larger quantity of the priceless liquid.

A large and experienced Camel will receive five or six quarts of
water into its stomach, and is enabled to exist for as many days with-
out needing to drink. Aided by this internal supply of water, the
Camel can satiate it^ hunger by browsing on the hard and withered
thorns that are found scattered thinly through the deserts, and suffers

236

THE CAMEL.

no injury to its palate from their iron-like spears, that would direfully
wound the mouth of any more sensitive creature. The Camel has been
known to eat even pieces of dry wood, and to derive apparent satisfac-
tion from its strange meal.

The feet of the Camel are well adapted for walking upon the loose,
dry sand, than which substance there is no more uncertain footing.
The toes are very broad, and are furnished with soft, wide cushions,
that present a considerable surface to the loose soil, and enable the

The Camel {Camelus Ardbicus).

animal to maintain a firm hold upon the shifting sands. As the Camel
is constantly forced to kneel in order to be loaded or relieved of its
burden, it is furnished upon the knees and breast with thick callous
pads, which support its weight without injuring the skin. Thus fitted
by nature for its strange life, the Camel faces the desert sands with
boldness, and traverses the arid regions with an ease and quiet celerity
that has gained for the creature the title of " Ship of the Desert."

The Camel is invariably employed as an animal of carriage when
in its native land, and is able to support a load of five or six hundred
pounds' weight without being overtaxed.

The pace of the Camel is not nearly so rapid as is generally sup-
posed, and even the speed of the Heirie, or swift Camel, has been
greatly exaggerated.

The speed of the Heirie is seldom more than *eight or ten miles per

THE BACTRIAN CAMEL. 237

hour, but the endurance of the animal is so wonderful that it is able to
keep up this pace for twenty hours without stopping.

The " hump " of the Camel is a very curious part of its structure,
and is of great importance in the eyes of the Arabs, who judge of the
condition of their beasts by the size, shape, and firmness of the hump.
They say, and truly, that the Camel feeds upon his hump ; for in pro-
portion as the animal traverses the sandy wastes of desert lands, and
suffers from privation and fatigue, the hump diminishes. At the end
of a long and painful journey the hump will often nearly vanish, and it
cannot be restored to its pristine form until the animal has undergone
a long course of good feeding. When an Arab is about to set forth on
a desert journey, he pays great attention to the humps of his Camels,
aud watches them with jealous care.

Independently of its value as a beast of burden, the Camel is most
precious to its owners, as it supplies them with food and clothing. Its
milk mixed with meal is a favorite dish among the children of the
desert, and is sometimes purposely kept until it is sour, in which state
it is very grateful to the Arab palate, but especially nauseous to that
of an European. The Arabs think that any man is sadly devoid of
taste who prefers the sweet new milk to that which has been mellowed
by time. A kind of very rancid butter is churned from the cream by
a remarkably simple process, consisting of pouring the cream into a
goatskin sack and shaking it constantly until the butter is formed.

The long hair of the Camel is spun into a coarse thread, and is em-
ployed in the manufacture of broadcloths and similar articles. At cer-
tain times of the year the Camel sheds its hair, in order to replace its
old coat by a new one, and the Arabs avail themselves of the looseness
with which the hair is at these times adherent to the skin to pluck it
away without injuring the animal.

The height of an ordinary Camel at the shoulder is about six or
seven feet, and its color is a light brown, of various depths in different
individuals, some specimens being nearly black, and others almost white.
The Dromedary is the lighter breed of Camel, and is used chiefly for
riding, while the ordinary Camel is employed as a beast of burden.
Between the two animals there is about the same difference as between
a drayhorse aud a hunter, the Heirie being analogous to the racehorse.

The Bactrtan Camel is readily to be distinguished from the ordi-
nary Camel by the double hump which it bears on its back, and which
is precisely analogous in its structure and office to that of the Arabian
Camel.

The general formation of this animal, its lofty neck, raising its head
high above the solar radiations from the heated ground, its valve-like
nostrils, that close involuntarily if a grain of drifting sand should in-
vade their precincts, its wide cushion-like feet, and its powers of absti-

238

THE VICUGNA.

nence pr{3ve that, like its Arabian relative, it is intended for the pur-
pose of traversing vast deserts without needing refreshment on the way.
This species is spread througli Central Asia, Thibet, and China, and is

domesticated through a
large portion of the
world. It is not so en-
during an animal as
the Arabian species, re-
quiring a fresh supply
of liquid eveiy three
days ; while the Ara-
bian Camel can exist
without water for five,
or even six, days.

The height of the
Bactrian Camel is
rather more than that
of the Arabian spe-
cies, and its color is
generally brown, which
sometimes deepens into
sooty black, and some-
times fades into a dirty
white.

The true Camels are
exclusively confined to
the Old World, but find
representatives in the New World in four acknowledged species of
the genus Llama.

These animals are comparatively small in their dimensions, and pos-
sess no hump, so that they may be easily distinguished from the Camels.
Their hair is very woolly, and their countenance has a very sheep-like
expression, so that a full-haired Llama instantly reminds the spectator
of a long-legged, long-necked sheep. The feet of the Llamas are very
different from those of the camels, as their haunts are always found to
be upon rocky ground, and their feet must of necessity be accommodated
to the soil on which they are accustomed to tread. The toes of the
Llama are completely divided, and are each furnished with a rough
cushion beneath, and a strong, claw-like hoof above, so that the mem-
ber may take a firm hold of rocky and uneven ground.

Four species of Llamas are now acknowledged — namely, the Vicugna,
the Guanaco, the Yamma, and the Alpaca.

The Vicugna is found in the most elevated localities of Batavia and
Northern Chili, and is a very wild and untamable animal, having re-

The Bactrian Camel {Camelus Bactridnus).

THE GUANA CO.

239

sisted all the attempts of the patient natives to reduce it to a state of
domestication. It is extremely active and sure-footed in its mountain
home, and, being equally timid and wary, is seldom captured in a living
state. It lives in herds near the region of perpetual snow, and in its
habits bears some resemblance to the chamois. The short, soft, silken
fur of this animal is very valuable. The color of the Vicugna is a
nearly uniform brown, tinged with yellow on the back, and fading

The LtvAma.

into gray on the abdomen. Its height at the shoulder is about two
feet six inches.

The GuANACO is spread over a very wide range of country, extend-
ing over the whole of the temperate regions of Patagonia. The color
of this species is a reddish brown, the ears and hind-legs gray. The
neck is long in comparison with the size of the body, and the height at
the shoulder is about three feet six inches.

The Guanaco lives in herds varying from ten to thirty or forty, but
is sometifnes seen in flocks of much greater numbers, resembling sheep
not only in their gregarious habits, but in the implicit obedience with
which they rely upon their leader. Should they be deprived of his
guardianship, they become so bewildered that they run aimlessly from
spot to spot, and can easily be destroyed by experienced hunters.

240

THE YAMMA AND THE ALPACA.

The Guanaco is wonderfully sure-footed upon rocky ground, and is
also a good swimmer, taking voluntarily to the water, and swimming
from one island to another. When near the sea it will drink the salt
water, and has often been observed in the act of drinking the briny
waters of certain salt springs.

The Yamma, or Llama, is of a brown or variegated color, and its
legs are long and slender. In former days this animal was the
only beast of burden which was possessed by the natives, and it was
largely used by the Spaniards (who described it as a sheep) for the
same purpose. It is able to carry a weight of one hundred pounds,

The Alpaca Llama {Llama Pacos).

and to traverse about fourteen or fifteen miles per diem. As a beast
of burden it is now being rapidly supplanted by the ass, while the
European sheep is gradually taking its place as a wool-bearer. The
flesh of the Llama is dark and coarse, and is accordingly held in bad
repute.

The Alpaca, or Paco, is, together with the last animal, supposed
by several zoologists to be only a domesticated variety of the Guanaco.
Its color is generally black, but is often variegated with brown and
white. The wool of this species is long, soft, silky, and extremely vab
uable in the commercial w^orld.

HORSES.

The Horse has from time immemorial been made the companion
and servant of man, and its original progenitors are unknown. It is

THE ARAB HORSE.

241

supposed, however, that the Horse must have derived its origin from
Central Asia, and from thence have spread to almost every portion of
the globe.

The elegant, swift, and withal powerful, Horses of which England is
so proud, and which are employed in the chase or the course, owe their
best qualities to the judicious admixture of the Arabian blood. The
Arab Horse has long been celebrated for its swift limbs, exquisite
form, and affectionate disposition.

There are several breeds of Arab horses, only one of which is of
very great value. This variety, termed the Kochlani, is so highly

The Arab Horse in his Native Plains.

prized that a mare of the pure breed can hardly be procured at any
cost, and even the male animal is not easy of attainment. The ped-
igree of these Horses is carefully preserved, and written in most florid
terms upon parchment. In some cases the genealogy is said to extend
for nearly two thousand years. The body of the Arab Horse is very
light, its neck long and arched, its eye full and soft, and its limbs del-
icate and, slender. The temper of the animal is remarkably sweet,
for, as it has been born and bred among the family of its owner, even
the little children that roll about among its legs are as carefully shield-
ed from injury as though they were its own offspring. So attached to
its owner is this beautiful Horse that if he should be thrown from its

21 Q

242

THE RACEHORSE.

back, the aoimal will stand quietly by its prostrate master aod wait
until he gains strength to remount.

The training of the Kochlani is not so severe as is generally imag-
ined, for the presence of water and abundant pasturage is absolutely
necessary in order to rear the animal in a proper manner. Not until
the strength and muscles of the animal are developed is a trial per-
mitted, and then it is truly a terrible one. When the mare — for the
male animal is never ridden by the Arabs — has attained her full de-
velopment, she is mounted for the first time, and ridden at full speed
for fifty or sixty miles without respite. Hot and fainting, she is then
forced into deep water, which compels her to swim, and if she does
not feed freely immediately after this terrific trial, she is rejected as
unworthy of being reckoned among the true Kochlani.

For the animals which will stand this terrible test the Arab has al-
most an idolatrous regard, and will ofttimes spare an enemy merely on
account of his steed.

The Racehorse of England is perhaps, with the exception of the
foxhound, the most admirable example of the perfection to which

Saunterer, an English Racehorse.

a domesticated animal can be brought by careful breeding and
training.

KIND TEEATMENT A NECESSITY. 243

"Whatever may have been its original source, the Racer has been
greatly improved by the mixture of Arab blood, through the means
of the Godolphin and Darley Arabians. The celebrated horse Eclipse
was a descendant, on the mother's side, of the Godolphin Arabian, that
wonderful animal which was rescued from drawing a cart in Paris, and
which was afterwards destined to play so important a part in regener-
ating the breed of English Racers. He was also descended, on his
father's side, from the Darley Arabian.

The best-bred Horses are generally the most affectionate and docile,
although their spirit is very high and their temper hot and quick.
There are few animals which are more affectionate than a Horse,
which seems to feel a necessity for attachment; and if his sympathies
be not aroused by human means, he will make friends with the near-
est living being. Cats are great favorites with Horses, and even the
famous Chillaby — called, from his ferocity, the Mad Arabian — had
his little friend in the shape of a lamb, which would take any lib-
erties with him, and was accustomed to butt at tlie flies as they came
too near his strange ally. The Godolphin Arabian was also strongly
attached to a cat, which usually sat on his back or nestled in the man-
ger. When he died the cat pined away, and soon followed her loved
friend.

These examples are sufficient to show that the ferocity of these an-
imals was caused by the neglect or ignorance of their human associates,
who either did not know how to arouse the affectionate feelings of the
animal or brutally despised and crushed them. The Horse is a much
more intellectual animal than is generally supposed, as will be acknow-
ledged by any one who has possessed a fiivorite Horse and treated it with
uniform kindness.

There is no need for wliip or spur when the rider and steed under-
stand each other, and the bridle is reduced almost to a mere form, as
the touch of a finger or the tone of a voice js sufficient to direct the
animal. We are all familiar with the elephantine drayhorses that
march so majestically along with their load of casks, and which instan-
taneously obey the singular sounds which continually issue from the
throats of their conductors, and back, stop, advance, or turn to the
right or left, without requiring the touch of a rein or the blow of a
whip. The infliction of pain is a clumsy and a barbarous manner of
guiding a Horse, and we shall never reap the full value of the animal'
until we have learned to respect its feelings, and to shun the infliction
of torture as a brutal, a cowardly, and an unnecessary act. To mal-
treat a child is always held to be a dastardly and unmanly act, and it
is equally cow^ardly and unworthy of the human character to maltreat
a poor animal which has no possibility of revenge, no hope of redress,
and no words to make its wrongs known. Pain is pain, whether

244

SUCCESS OF KAREY'S METHOD.

inflicted on man or beast, and we are equally responsible in either

case.

As an unprejudiced observer, with no purpose to serve, and without
bias in either direction, I cannot here refrain from observing that Mr.
Rarey's method of bringing the Horse under subjection is a considerable
step in the right direction, and a very great improvement on the cruel
and savage method which is so often employed by coarse and ignorant
men, and truly called " breaking." Having repeatedly witnessed the
successful operations of that gentleman in subduing Horses that had
previously defied all eiforts, I cannot be persuaded that it is a cruel
process. The method by which it is achieved is now sufficiently famil-

Floea Temple, an American Trotting-horse.

iar, and I will only observe that the idea is a true and philosophical
one. The Horse is mostly fierce because it is nervous, and bites and
kicks, not because it is enraged, but because it is alarmed. Restore
confidence, and the creature becomes quiet, without any desire to use
its hoofs and teeth in an aggressive manner. It is clearly impossible
to do so as long as the animal is at liberty to annihilate its teacher,
and the strap is only used until the Horse is convinced that the presence
of a human form or the touch of a human hand has nothing of the
terrible in it. Confidence soon takes the place of fear, and the animal

THE SHETLAND PONY AND THE DOMESTIC ASS.

245

seems to receive its teacher at once into its good graces, following him
like a dog, and rubbing its nose against his shoulder.

Several breeds of partially wild Horses are still found in the British
Islands, the best known of which is the Shetland Pony.

This odd, quaint, spirited little animal is an inhabitant of the islands
at the northern extremity of Scotland, where it runs wild, and may be
owned by any one who can catch and hold it. Considering its dimin-
utive proportions, which average only seven or eight hands in height,
the Sheltie is wonderfully strong, and can trot away quite easily with
a tolerably heavy man on its back. One of these little creatures carried
a man of twelve stone weight for a distance of forty miles in a single
day. The head of this little animal is small, the neck short and well
arched, and covered with an abundance of heavy mane, that falls over
the face and irresistibly reminds the spectator of a Skye terrier. It is
an admirable draught-horse when harnessed to a carriage of proportion-
ate size ; and a pair of these spirited little creatures, w hen attached
to a lady's low carriage, have a remarkably piquant and pretty
appearance.

Man has so lonjr held the Domestic Ass under his control that its
original progenitors have entirely disappeared from the face of the
earth.

There are, as it is well known, abundant examples of wild Asses
found in various lands, but it seems that these animals are either the
descendants of domesti-
cated Asses which have
escaped from captivity,
or the offspring of wild
and domesticated an-
imals. In size and gen-
eral appearance the Ass
varies greatly, according
to the country which it
inhabits and the treat-
ment to which it is sub-
jected. The Spanish
kind, for example, is
double the size of the
ordinary English Ass,
and even the latter an-
imal is extremely vari-
able in stature and general dimensions. As a rule, the Ass is large
and sleek-haired in warm countries, and small and woolly-haired in
the colder parts of the globe.

Strong, sure-footed, hardy, and easily maintained, the Ass is of infi-
21 *

The Ass (Asinvs vulgaris).

246 THE DZIGGETAI.

iiite use to the poorer classes of the community, who Deed the services
of a beast of burden and cannot afford to purchase or keep so expensive
an animal as a horse.

It is a very great mistake to employ the name of Ass or donkey as a
metaphor for stupidity, for the Ass is truly one of the cleverest of our
domesticated animals, and will lose no opportunity of displaying his
capability whenever his intelligence is allowed to expand by being
freed from the crushing toil and the constant pain that are too often
the concomitants of a donkey's life. Every one who has petted a
favorite donkey will remember many traits of its mental capacities ;
for, as in the case of the domestic fool of the olden days, there is far
more knavery than folly about the creature.

In the East the Ass is used even more extensively than in Europe,
and is generally employed for carrying burdens or for the saddle, the
horse being used more for ostentation or for warfare than for the mere
conveyance of human beings from one spot to another.

The color of the Ass is a uniform gray, a dark streak passing along
the spine, and another stripe being drawn transversely across the shoul-
ders. In the quagga and zebra these stripes are much more extended.
The Wild Asses are all celebrated for their extreme fleetiiess and
sureness of foot, and among them the Dziggetai, Khur, or Koulan
deserves especial mention.

This animal is so wonderfully swift that it cannot be overtaken even
by a fleet Arabian horse, and if it can get upon hilly or rocky ground,
_ it bids defiance to all wingless enemies.

Not even the greyhound can follow it with
any hope of success when it once leaves
level ground. This great speed renders it
a favorite object of chase with the na-
tives of the country which it inhabits,
and, whether in Persia or India, it is held
to be the noblest of -game. Sometimes the
falcon is trained to aid in the chase of the
(S:i Z^j™ Wild Ass, but the usual method of secur-
ing this animal is to drive it toward rocky
ground, and to kill it with a rifle bullet as it stands in fancied security
upon some lofty crag.

It lives in troops, descending to the plains during the winter months,
and returning to the cooler hills as soon as the summer begins to be un-
pleasantly warm.

It is very common in Mesopotamia, and is always a most shy and
wary as well as swift animal. Each troop is under the command of a
leader, who sways his subjects with unlimited authority, and takes upon
himself to make all needful arrangements for their welfare.

THE KIANG, THE QUAGOA, AND THE ZEBRA.

247

The color of this animal is pale reddish brown in the summer, fading
into a gray-brown in the winter, and marked with a black stripe along
the spine, becoming wider upon the middle of the back.

Another species of Wild Ass is the Kiang, or Wild Ass of Thibet,
sometimes, but erroneously, called the Wild Horse of Thibet, because its
noise resembles the neighing of that animal rather than the braying of
the Ass.

Africa produces some most beautiful examples of the Wild Asses,
equalling the Asiatic species in speed and beauty of form, and far sur-
passing them in richness of color and boldness of marking.

The QuAGGA looks at first sight like a cross between the common
wild ass and the zebra, as it only partially possesses the characteristic
zebra stripes, and is decorated merely upon the hind and fore parts of
the body. The streaks are not so deep as they are in the zebra, and
the remainder of the body is brown, with the exception of the abdo-
men, legs, and part of the tail, which are whitish gray. The Quagga
lives in large herds, and is much persecuted by the natives of South-
ern Africa, who pursue it for the sake of its skin and its flesh, both of
which are in high estimation.

Among all the species of the Ass tribe, the Zebra is by far the most
conspicuous and the most beautifuL

The general color of the Zebra is a creamy white, marked regularly
with velvety black stripes that cover the entire head, neck, body, and

The Zebra {Asinus Zebra).

limbs, and extend down to the very feet. It is worthy of note that the
stripes are drawn nearly at right angles to the part of the body on which
they occur, so that the stripes of the legs are horizontal, while those of

248 PACHYDERMATA.

the body are vertical. The abdomen and inside faces of the thighs
are cream-white, and the end of the tail is nearly black. This arrange-
ment of coloring is strangely similar to that of the tiger, and has earned
for the animal the name of " Hippotigris," or Horse-tiger, among some
zoologists, ancient and modern. The skin of the neck is developed into
a kind of dewlap, and the tail is sparingly covered with coarse black
iiair. By the Cape colonists it is called Wilde Paard, or " Wild Horse."

At the best of times the flesh of the Zebra is not very inviting, being
rather tough, coarse, and of a very peculiar flavor. The boers, who
call themselves by the title of " baptized men," think they would be
derogating from their dignity to partake of the flesh of the zebra, and
generously leave the animal to be consumed by their Hottentot ser-
vants. AVhen wounded the Zebra gives a kind of groan, which is
said to resemble that of a dying man.

In disposition the Zebra is fierce, obstinate, and nearly untamable.
The efforts used by Mr. Karey in reducing to obedience the Zebra of the
Zoological Gardens are now matter of history. The little brindled an-
imal gave him more trouble than the huge savages on whom he had so
successfully operated, and it overset some of his calculations by the fact
that it was able to kick as fiercely from three legs as a horse from four.

In its habits the Zebra resembles the Dziggetai, as it is always found
in hilly districts, and inhabits the high craggy mountain-ranges in
preference to the plains. It is a mild and very timid animal, fleeing
instinctively to its mountain-home as soon as it is alarmed by the sight
of a strange object.

PACHYDERMATA, OR THICK-SKINNED ANIMALS.

The important family of the Elephantidse includes, according to the
catalogue of the British Museum, the Elephants, Tapirs, 8wine, Hyrax,
Rhinoceros, and Hippopotamus. All these animals, however difl^erent
their aspect, are nearly related to each other by means of certain mem-
bers of the family, which, although now extinct, have been recovered
through the assistance of geological researches.

Of Elephants, two distinct species are found in different continents,
the one inhabiting Asia, and the other taking up its residence in Africa.
According to some zoologists, these animals belong to different genera,
but the distinctions between the two creatures are not sufficiently deter-
mined to warrant such a suggestion. Although the Asiatic and Af-
rican Elephants are very similar in external form, they may at once
oe distinguished from each otlier by the size of the ear. In the Asiatic
animal the ears are of moderate size, while in the African Elephant
they are of enormous magnitude, nearly meeting on the back of the
head, and hanging with their tips below the neck.

STKUCTURE Or THE ELEPHANT. 249

The molar teeth also afford excellent indications of the country to
which their owner has belonged, for the enamel upon the surface of the
teeth of the Asiatic Elephant is moulded into a number of narrow
bands like folded ribbons, while that of the African species is formed
into five or six diamond- or lozenge-shaped folds. Indeed, each molar
tooth seems to be composed of a number of flat, broad teeth, which are
fastened closely together, so as to form a single large mass. Only a
portion of each tooth is externally visible, the remainder being hidden
in the jaw, and moving forward as the exposed portion is worn away.
When the whole tooth is thus worn out it fill Is from the jaw, and its
place is taken by another, which has been forming behind it. In this
manner the Elephant sheds its molar teeth six or seven times in the
course of its life. The tusks, however, are permanent, and are re-
tained during the whole of the animal's existence. In the Indian Ele-
phant only the males are furnished with tusks, and not every individ-
ual of that sex, whereas in the African species both sexes are supplied
with these valuable appendages, those of the male being much larger
and heavier than those of his mate.

The strangest portion of the Elephant's form is the trunk or probos-
cis. This wonderful appendage is in fact a development of the upper
lips and the nose, and is perforated through its entire length by the nos-
trils, and furnished at its extremity with a kind of finger-like append-
age, which enables the animal to pluck a single blade of grass or to
pick a minute object from the ground. The value of the proboscis to
the Elephant is incredible ; without its aid the creature would soon
starve. The short, thick neck would prevent it from stooping to graze,
while the projecting tusks would effectually hinder it from reaching
any vegetables which might grow at the level of its mouth. And, as
it would be unable to draw water into its mouth without the use of the
trunk, thirst would in a very short time end its existence.

In order to support the enormous weight of the teeth, tusks, and pro-
boscis, the head is required to be of very large dimensions, so as to af-
ford support for the powerful muscles and tendons which are requisite
for such a task. It is also needful that lightness should be combined
with magnitude, and this double condition is very beautifully fulfilled.
The skull of the Elephant, instead of being a mere bony shell round
the brain, is enormously enlarged by the separation of its bony plates,
the intervening space being filled with a vast number of honeycomb-like
bony cells, th-^ir walls being hardly thicker than strong paper, and their
hollows filled during the life of the animal with a kind of semi-liquid
fat or oil. The brain lies in a comparatively small cavity within this
cellular structure, and is therefore defended from the severe concus-
sions which it would otherwise experience from the frequency with
which the animal employs its head as a battering-ram.

250 THE ASIATIC ELEPHANT.

In order to support the enormous weight which rests upon them, the
legs are very stout, and are set perpendicularly, without that bend in the
hinder-leg which is found in most animals. There is an elongated can-
non bone in the Elephant, so that the hind-legs are without the so-called
knee-joint. This structure, however, is of infinite use to the animal
when it climbs or descends steep acclivities — a feat which it can per-
form with marvellous ease. It may seem strange, but it is nevertheless
true, that localities which would be totally inaccessible to a horse are
traversed by the Elephant with perfect ease.

In descending from a height, the animal performs a very curious
series of manoeuvres. Kneeling down with its fore-feet stretched out
in front, and its hinder-legs bent backward, as is their wont, the Ele-
phant hitches one of its fore-feet upon some projection or in some crev-
ice, and, bearing fijmly upon this support, lowers itself for a short dis-
tance. It then advances the other foot, secures it in like manner,
and slides still farther, never losing its hold of one place of vantage
until another is gained. Should no suitable projection be found, the
Elephant scrapes a hole in the ground with its advanced foot, and
makes use of this artificial depression in its descent. If the declivity
be very steep, the animal will not descend in a direct line, but makes
an oblique track along the face of the hill. Although the description
of this curious process occupies some time, the actual feat is performed
with extreme rapidity.

Though the foot of an Elephant is extremely large, it is most admira-
bly formed for the purpose which it is destined to fulfil, and does not, as
might be supposed, fall heavily upon the ground. The hoof that in-
closes the foot is composed of a vast number of horny plates, that aYe
arranged on the principle of the common carriage-spring, and seem to
guard the animal from the jarring shock of the heavy limb upon the
soil. Those who for the first time witness the walk or the run of the
Elephant are always surprised at the silent ease of the creature's free,
sweeping step. As there is no short ligament in the head of the thigh-
bone, the hind-foot is swung forward at each step, clearing the ground
easily, but being scarcely raised above the surface of the earth.

Having thus given a short sketch of the characteristics which are
common to both species of Elephants, I will proceed to a short account
of the Asiatic animal.

The Asiatic Elephant bears a world-wide fame for its capabilities
as a servant and companion of man, and for the extraordinary develop-
ment of its intellectual faculties. Hundreds of these animals are annual-
ly captured, and in a very short period of time become wholly subjected
to their owners, and learn to obey their commands with implicit sub-
mission. Indeed, the power of the human intellect is never so conspic-
uous as in the supremacy which man maintains over so gigantic and

ITS APTITUDE IN LEARNING.

251

clever an animal as the Elephant. In all work which requires the ap-
plication of great strength combined with singular judgment, the Ele-
phant is supreme, but as a mere puller and hauler it is of no very great
value. lu piling logs, for example, the Elephant soon learns the proper
mode of arrangement, and will place them upon each other with a reg-
ularity that wouM not be surpassed by human workmen. Sir Emerson

The Asiatic Elephant {Elephas Indicus).

Tennent mentions a pair of Elephants that were accustomed to labor
conjointly, and which had been taught to raise their wood-piles to a con-
siderable height by constructing an inclined plane of sloping beams, and
rolling the logs up the beams.

There are two modes of capturing the Asiatic Elephant, the one by
pursuing solitary individuals and binding them with ropes as they wan-
der at will through the forests, and the othc-r by driving a herd of Ele-

252 METHODS BY WHICH

phants into a previously-prepared pound, and securing the entrance so
as to prevent their escape.

In the former method the hunters are aided by certain trained
females, termed " koomkies," which enter into the spirit of the chase
with wonderful animation, and help their riders in every possible man-
ner. When the koomkies see a fine male Elephant, they advance care-
lessly toward him, plucking leaves and grass, as if they were perfectly
indifferent to his presence. He soon becomes attracted to them, when
they overwhelm him with endearing feminine blandishments, and occupy
his attention so fully that he does not observe the proceedings of the
" mahouts," or riders. These men, seeing the Elephant engaged with
the " koomkies," slip quietly to the ground and attach their rope nooses
to his legs, fastening the ends of the cords to some neighboring tree.
Should no suitable tree be at hand, the koomkies are sagacious enough
to comprehend the dilemma, and to urge their victim toward some
large tree which is sufficiently strong to withstand his struggles. As
soon as the preparations are complete the mahouts give the word of
command to the koomkies, who move away, leaving the captive
Elephant to his fate.

Finding himself deserted and bound, he becomes mad with rage, and
struggles with all his force to get free. In these furious efforts the
Elephant displays a flexibility and an activity of body that are quite
surprising, and are by no means in accordance with the clumsy, stiff
aspect of its body and limbs. It rolls on the ground in despair, it rends
the air with furious cries of rage, it butts at the fatal tree with all its
force in hope of bringing it to the ground, and has been known to stand
with its hind-legs fairly off the ground in its furious endeavors to break
the rope. After a while, however, it finds its exertions to be totally
useless, and yields to its conquerors.

The second mode of capturing Elephants is more complicated. The
inclosure into which the Elephants are driven is termed a "keddah,"
and is ingeniously constructed of stout logs and posts, which are sup-
ported by strong buttresses, and are so arranged that a man can pass
through the interstices between the logs. When the keddah is set in
good order, a vast number of hunters form themselves into a huge cir-
cle, inclosing one or more herds of Elephants, and moving gradually
toward the inclosure of the keddah, and arranging themselves in such
a manner as to leave the entrance toward the keddah always open.
When they have thus brought the herd to the proper spot, a business
which will often consume several weeks, the Elephants are excited by
shouts, the waving of hands and spears, etc., to move toward the in-
closure, which is cunningly concealed by the trees among which it is
built. If the operation should take place at night, the surrounding
hunters are supplied with burning torches, while the keddah is care-

THE ELEPHANT IS CAPTURED. 253

fully kept in darkness. Being alarmed by the noise and the flames,
the Elephants rush instinctively to the only open space, and are thus
fairly brought within the precincts of the keddah, from which they
never again emerge save as captives.

The terrified animals run round and round the inclosure, and often
attempt a desperate charge, but are always driven back by the torch-
bearers, who wave their flaming weapons and discourage the captured
animals from their meditated assault. At last the poor creatures are
so bewildered and fatigued that they gather together in the centre of
the keddah, and are then considered to be ready for the professional
elephant-hunters. These courageous men enter the keddah either on
foot or upon the back of their koomkies, and contrive to tie every
one of the captives to some spot from whence it cannot move. Most
ingenious stratagems are employed by the hunters in this perilous
task, the details of which may be found in many works on the subject.

The Elephant is always guided by a mahout, who sits astride upon
its neck and directs the movements of the animal by means of his voice,
aided by a kind of spiked hook, called the haunkus, which is applied
to the animal's head in such a manner as to convey the driver's wishes
to the Elephant. The persons who ride upon the Elephant are either
placed in the howdah, a kind of wheelless carriage strapped on the
animal's back, or sit upon a large pad, which is furnished with cross
ropes in order to give a firm hold. The latter plan is generally preferred,
as the rider is able to change his position at will, and even to recline
upon the Elephant's back if he should be fatigued by the heavy rolling
gait of the animal. The Elephant generally kneels in order to permit
the riders to mount, and then rises from the ground with a peculiar
swinging motion. Very small Elephants are furnished with a saddle
like that which is used upon horses, and is fitted with stirrups. The
saddle, however, cannot be conveniently used on animals that are more
than six feet in height.

The size of Elephants has been greatly exaggerated, as sundry
writers have given fourteen or sixteen feet as an ordinary height, and
have even mentioned instances where Elephants have attained to that
of twenty feet. It is true that the enormous bulk of the animal makes
its height appear much greater than is really the case. Eight feet is
about the average height of a large Elephant, and scarcely any
Elephant measures much more than ten feet high at the shoulder.

The general color of the Elephant is brown, of a lighter tint when
the animal is at liberty, and considerably deeper when its hide is sub-
jected to rubbing with a cocoa-nut brush and plenty of oil. Sometimes
an albino or White Elephant is seen in the forests, the color of the
animal being a pinky white, and aptly compared to the nose of a white
horse. The king of Ava, one of whose titles is "Lord of the White

22

254

THE AFRICAN ELEPHANT.

Elephants/' generally contrives to monopolize every White Elephant,
and employs them for purposes of state, decorating them with strings
of priceless gems, pearls, and gold coins, and lodging them in the
most magnificent of houses, where their very eating-troughs are of
silver.

The African Elephant is spread over a very wide range of
country, extending from Senegal and Abyssinia to the borders of the

The African Elephant {Loxodonta Africana).

Cape Colony. Several conditions are required for its existence, such
as water, dense forests, and the absence of human habitations.

Although it is very abundant in the locality which it inhabits, it is
not often seen by casual travellers, owing to its great vigilance and its
wonderful power of moving through the tangled forests without noise
and without causing any perceptible agitation of the foliage. In spite
of its enormous dimensions, it is one of the most invisible of forest
creatures, and a herd of Elephants, of eight or nine feet in height, may
stand within a few yards of a hunter without being detected by him,
even though he is aware of their presence.

The Kaffirs are persevering elephant-hunters, and are wonderfully

ITS FLESH AS A DELICACY. 255

expert in tracking any individual by the " spoor," or track, which is
made by its footsteps. The foot of a male is easily to be distinguished
by the roundness of its form, while that of the female is more oval,
and the height of the animal is also ascertained by measurement of the
footmarks, twice the circumference of the foot being equal to the height
at the shoulder.

The death of a large Elephant is great matter of congratulation
among the natives, who rejoice at the abundant supply of food which
will fall to their share. Almost every portion of the animal is used
by the Kaffirs, whose strong jaws are not to be daunted by the toughest
meat, and whose accommodating palates are satisfied with various por-
tions which would be rejected by any civilized being.

Some portions of the Elephant are, however, grateful even to Euro-
pean palates, and the foot, when baked, is really delicious. This part
of the animal is cooked by being laid in a hole in the earth, over which
a large fire has been suffered to burn itself out, and then covered over
with the hot earth. Another fire is then built on the spot, and permit-
ted to burn itself out as before, and when the place is thoroughly cool,
the foot is properly cooked. The flesh of the boiled foot is quite soft
and o-elatinoLis, somethino* resemblinoj calf's head, and is so tender that
it can be scooped away with a spoon. The trunk and the skin around
the eye are also enumerated as delicacies, but have been compared by
one who has had practical experience as bearing a close resemblance to
shoe-leather both in toughness and evil flavor.

The natives employ many methods of capturing Elephants, the pit-
fall being the most deadly. Even this insidious snare is often rendered
useless by the sagacity of the crafty old leaders of the herds, who pre-
cede their little troops to the water, as they advance by night to drink,
and, carefully beating the ground with their trunks as they proceed,
unmask the pitfalls that have been dug in their course. They then
tear away the covers of the pits and render them harmless. These
pits are terrible affairs when an animal gets into them, for a sharp
stake is set perpendicularly at the bottom, so that the poor Elephant
is transfixed by its own weight and dies miserably. Each pit is about
eight feet long by four in width.

The ivory of the African Elephant is extremely valuable, and vast
quantities are imported annually into this country. The slaughter of
an Elephant is therefore a matter of congratulation to the white hunter,
who knows that he can obtain a good price for the tusks and teeth of
the animal which he has slain. A pair of tusks weighing about a hun-
dred and fifty pounds will fetch nearly two hundred dollars when sold,
so that the produce of a successful chase is extremely valuable. One
officer contrived to purchase every step in the army by the sale of the
ivory which he had thus obtained. Ou an average, each pair of tusks,

256 THE TAPIR.

taking the small with the great, will weigh about a hundred and twenty
pounds.

One of the links which unite the elephants to the swine and rhino-
ceros is to be found in the genus Tapirus. The animals which belong
to this genus are remarkable for the prolonged upper lip, which is
formed into a kind of small proboscis, not unlike that of the elephant,
but upon a smaller scale, and devoid of the finger-like appendage at
the extremity. Only two species are at present existing.

The common or American Tapir, sometimes called the Mborebi, is
a native of tropical America, where it is found in great numbers, in-
habiting the densely-wooded regions that fringe the banks of rivers.
It is a great water-lover, and can swim or dive with perfect ease. The
tough, thick hide with which the Tapir is covered is of great service
in enabling the animal to pursue its headlong course through the forest
without suffering injury from the branches. When it runs, it carries
its head very low, as does the wild boar under similar circum-
stances.

The color of the adult Tapir is a uniform brown, but the young is
beautifully variegated with yellowish fawn spots and stripes upon a
rich brown-black ground, reminding the observer of the peculiar tint-
. J ing of the Hood's marmot. The neck is

Vl/' '^fc J" ^tl^>i'"^d ^vith a «hort and erect black
mane.

The Tapir can easily be brought under
the subjection of man, and is readily tamed,
becoming unpleasantly familiar w'ith those
'- persons whom it knows, and taking all
o kinds of liberties with them, which would
be well enough in a little dog or a kitten,
KuDA-AYER OR MALAYAN but are quite out of place with an animal
Tapir {Tapirus Malaydnus). ^^ jj^^gg ^g ^ donkey.

The second species of Tapir is found in Malacca and Sumatra, and
is a most conspicuous animal, in consequence of the broad band of
white that encircles the body, and which at a little distance gives it the
aspect of being muffled up in a white sheet.

The ground color of the adult Malayan Tapir is a deep sooty
black, contrasting most strongly with the grayish white of the back
and flanks. The young animal is as beautifully variegated as that of
the preceding species, being striped and spotted with yellow fawn upon
the upper parts of the body, and with white below. There is no mane
upon the neck of the Malayan Tapir, and the proboscis is even longer
in proportion. In size it rather exceeds the preceding animal. In
many of its habits the Malayan animal is exactly similar to the species
which inhabits America, but it is said that, although the Kuda-Ayer

THE DOMESTIC HOG. 257

is very fand <jf the water, it does not attempt to swim, but contents it-
self with walking on the bed of the stream. Although a sufficiently
common animal in its native country, it is but seldom seen, owing to
its extremely shy habits, and its custom of concealing itself in the
thickest underwood.

The hide of the Tapir is employed by the natives for several useful
purposes, but the flesh is dry, tasteless, and not worth the trouble of
cooking. The term " Kuda-Ayer " is a Malayan word, signifying
"river-horse," and the animal is also known by the name of Tennu.

In the Swine, the snout is far less elephantine than in the preceding
animals, and, though capable of considerable mobility, cannot be curled
round any object so as to raise it from the ground. Nor, indeed, is
such a power needed, as the Swine employ the snout for the purpose
of rooting in the earth, and of distinguishing, by its tactile powers
and the delicate sense of smell which is possessed by these animals,
those substances which are suitable for food.

There are many species as well as varieties of Swine, which are
found in different parts of the earth, the first and most familiar of
which is the Domestic Hog of Europe.

This species is spread over the greater portion of the habitable globe,
and was in former days common in a wild state even in England, from
whence it has only been ex-
pelled within a comparatively
late period. The chase of the
wild boar was a favorite amuse-
ment of the upper classes, and
the animal was one of tho33
which were protected by the
terribly severe forest laws
which were then in vogue.

At the present time the wild

Swine have ceased from out of

England, in spite of several ,,, t> ,0, r \

*= ' i Ihe Boar [Sus scrofo).

eiiorts that have been made to

restore the breed by importing specimens from the Continent and turn-
ing them into the forests. There are, however, traces of the old wild
boars still to be found in the forest pigs of Hampshire, with their high
crests, broad shoulders, and thick bristling manes. These animals are
very active, and are much fiercer than the ordinary Swine.

In this country the Hog is used not only for food, but for the sake
of the hide, which, when prepared after a peculiar fashion, is found to
niake the best leather for saddles. The bristles which are so largely
used in the manufacture of brushes are almost exclusively imported
from the Continent.

22- R

25S

THE BABYROUSSA.

Id its wild and domesticated state the Hog is a most prolific animal,
producing from eight to twelve pigs twice in each year, when it is in
full vigor and in good health. Gilbert White records a sow which
when she died was the parent of no less than three hundred pigs.

There is a prevalent idea that whenever the Hog takes to the water
he cuts his own throat with the sharp hoofs of his fore-feet. This, how-
ever, is by no means the case, for the animal is an admirable swimmer,
and will often take to the water intuitively. In one of the Moray Isl-
ands three domestic pigs belonging to the same litter swam a distance
of five miles, and it is said that if they had belonged to a wild fam-
ily they would have swum to a much greater distance.

-3/^i/^^:^-^

The Essex Pig.

The flesh and fat of the Hog are especially valuable on account of
their aptitude for taking salt without being rendered hard and indigest-
ible by the process ; and the various breeds of domesticated Swine are
noted for their adaptation to form pork or bacon in the shortest time
and of the best quality. A full account of the various English vari-
eties, together with the mode of breeding them and developing their
peculiar characteristics, may be found in many books which are de-
voted especially to the subject.

One of the most formidable-looking of Swine is the Babyeoussa of
Malacca. This strange creature is notable for the curious manner in
which the tusks are arranged, four of these weapons being seen to pro-
ject above the snout. The tusks of the lower jaw project upward on
each side of the upper, as is the case with the ordinary boar of Europe,
but those of the upper jaw are directed in a very strange manner. Their
sockets, -instead of pointing downward, are curved upward, so that the
tooth, in filling the curvatures of the socket, passes through a hole in

urusi

THE BOSCH VARK. 259

the upper lip, and curls boldly over the face. The curve, as well as the
comparative size, of these weapons is extremely variable, and is seldom
precisely the same in any two individuals. The upper tusks do not seem
to be employed as offensive weapons ; indeed, in many instances they
would be quite useless for such a purpose, as they are so strongly curved
that their points reach nearly to
the skin of the forehead. The
female is devoid of these curi-
ous appendages.

The skin of the Babyroussa
is rather smooth, being sparsely
covered with short bristly hairs.
The object of the upper tusks
is at present unknown, al-
though certain old writers as-
serted that the animal was ac-
customed to suspend himself to ^""^ Babyroussa {Babirussa Alf.
branches by means of the appendage. The Babyroussa lives in herds
of considerable size, and is found inhabiting the marshy parts of its
native land.

* The Bosch Vark, or Bush Hog, of Southern Africa, is a very for-
midable animal in aspect, as well as in character, the heavy, lowering
look, the projecting tusks, and the callous protuberance on the cheek
giving it a ferocious expression which is no way belied by the savage
and sullen temper of the animal. The Bosch Vark inhabits the forests,
and is generally found lying in excavations or hollows in the ground,
from which it is apt to rush if suddenly disturbed, and to work dire
vengeance upon its foe. In color it is extremely variable, some species
being of a uniform dark brown, others of a brown variegated with white,
while others are tinged with bright chestnut. The young is richly mot-
tled with yellow and brown. For the following account of the habits
of the Bosch Vark I am indebted to Colonel Drayson's MS. :

" Where the locality is sufficiently retired and wooded to afford shel-
ter to the bush bucks which I have mentioned, we may generally ex-
pect to find traces of the Bush Pig. His spoor is like the letter M
without the horizontal marks, the extremities of the toes forming two
separate points, which is not the case with the Antelopes, at least very
rarely so, the general impression of their feet being like the letter A
with a division down the centre, thus /|\.

" The Bush Pig is about two feet six inches in height and five feet in
length ; his canine teeth are very large and strong, those in the upper
jaw projecting horizontally ; those in the lower, upward. He is cov-
ered with long bristles, and, taking him all in all, he is about as formi-
dable-looking an animal, for his size, as can be seen.

260

THE PECCARY.

" The Bosch Varks traverse the forests in herds, and subsist on roots
and young shrubs. A large hard-shelled sort of orange, with an in-
terior filled with seeds, grows in great quantities on the flats near the
Natal forests; this is a favorite fruit of the wild pigs, and they will
come out of the bush of an evening and roam over the plains in search
of windfalls from these fruit trees.

" The Kaflir tribes, although they refuse to eat the flesh of the do-
mestic pig, will still feast without compunction on that of its bush
brother.

" In the bush I always found the Kafiirs disinclined to encounter a
herd of these wild Swine, stating as their reason for doing so that the
animals were very dangerous ; they also said that the wounds given by
the tusks of this wild pig would not readily heal. The Berea bush of
Natal was a favorite resort of these wild pigs, but, although their spoor
could be seen in all directions, the animals themselves were not so
frequently encountered.

" The Kaffirs are much annoyed by these wild pigs, which force a
passage through the imperfectly made fences, and root up the seeds or
destroy the pumpkins in the various gardens. As a defence, the Kaf-
firs leave nice enticing little openings in different parts of their fences,
and the pigs, taking advantage of these ready-made doorways, fre-
quently walk through them, and are then engulfed in a deep pit in
which is a pointed stake, and they are assagaied with great delight by
the expecting Kaffirs, who are on the alert, and who hear the cries of
distress from Piggy himself.

" The tusks are considered great ornaments, and are arranged on a
piece of string and worn round the neck."

America possesses a representative of the porcine group in the Pec-
caries, two species of which animals inhabit the Brazils.

The common Peccary,
or Tajacu, although it is
of no very great dimen-
sions, resembling a small
pig in size, is yet a ter-
rible animal. Ever fierce
and irritable of temper,
the Peccary is as formida-
ble an antagonist as can
be seen in any land, for
it knows no fear and will
attack any foe without
hesitation. Although the
Peccary is a very harmless animal to outward view, being only three
feet long and weighing fifty or sixty pounds, and its armature consists

vw-

The Peccary {Dicotyles Tajacu).

THE RHINOCEROS. 261

of some short tusks that are barely seen beyond the lips, yet these little
tusks are as fearful weapons as the longer teeth of the Bosch Vark, for
they are shaped like a lancet, being acutely pointed and double-edged,
so that they cut like knives and inflict very terrible wounds.

No animal seems to be capable of withstanding the united attacks of
the Peccary, even the jaguar being forced to abandon the contest and
to shrink from encountering the circular mass of Peccaries as they
stand with angry eyes and gnashing teeth ready to do their worst on
the foe.

The usual resting-place of the Peccary is in the hollow of a fallen
tree, or in some burrow that has been dug by an armadillo and for-
saken by the original inhabitant. The hollow tree, however, is the
favorite resort, and into one of these curious habitations a party of
Peccaries will retreat, each backing into the aperture as far as he can
penetrate the trunk, until the entire hollow is filled with the odd little
creatures. The one who last enters becomes the sentinel, and keeps a
sharp watch on the neighborhood.

The color of the Peccary is a grizzled brown, with the exception of a
white strip that is drawn over the neck and has earned for the animal
the name of the Collared Peccary.

Several species of the Rhinoceros are still inhabitants of the earth.
Of the existing species, two or three are found in various parts of Asia
and its islands, and the remainder inhabit several portions of Africa.
Before examining the separate species, we will glance at some of the
characteristics which are common to all the members of this very con-
spicuous group.

The so-called horn which projects from the nose of the Rhinoceros
is a very remarkable structure, and worthy of a brief notice. It is in
no way connected with the skull, but is simply a growth from the skin,
and may take rank with hairs, spines, or quills, being, indeed, formed
after a similar manner. If a Rhinoceros' horn be examined — the
species of its owner is quite immaterial — it will be seen to be polished
and smooth at the tip, but r6ugh and split into numerous filaments at
the base. These filaments, which have a very close resemblance to
those which terminate the plates of whalebone, can be stripped upward
for some length ; and if the substance of the horn be cut across, it will
be seen to be composed of a vast number of hairy filaments lying side
by side.

The skin of the Rhinoceros is of very great thickness and strength,
bidding defiance to ordinary bullets, and forcing the hunter to provide
himself with balls w^hich have been hardened with tin or solder. The
extreme strength of the skin is well known to both the Asiatic and Af-
rican natives, who manufacture it into shields, and set a high value on
these weapons of defence.

262

THE INDIAN KHINOCEKOS.

In every species of Khinoceros the sight appears to be rather imper-
fect, the animal being unable to see objects which are exactly in its
front. The scent and hearing, however, are very acute, and seem to
warn the animal of the approach of danger.

The Asiatic species of Rhinoceros are remarkable for the heavy folds
into which the skin is gathered, and which hang massively over the
shoulders, throat, flanks, and hind-quarters. Upon the abdomen the
skin is comparatively soft, and can be pierced by a spear which would
be harmlessly, repelled from the thick folds of hide upon the upper

.||l|||||||{l| 'illl«i)»<'i|M^

ill!

The Indian Rhinoceros {Rhinoceros unicornis).

portions of the body. In the Indian Rhinoceros this weight of hide
is especially conspicuous, the skin forming great flaps that can easily be
lifted up by the hand. In a tamed state the Rhinoceros is pleased to
be caressed on the softer skin under the thick hide, and in the wild
state it suffers sadly from the parasitic insects that creep beneath the
flaps, and lead the poor animal a miserable life, until they are stifled
in the muddy compost with which the Rhinoceros loves to envelop its
body. The horn of the Indian species is large in width, but inconsid-
erable in height, being often scarcely higher than its diameter. Yet
with his short heavy weapon the animal can do terrible execution, and

THE LITTLE BLACK RHINOCEROS AND THE KEITLOA. 263

is said, upon the authority of Captain Williamson, to repel the attack
of an adult male elephant.

The height of this animal when fully grown is rather more than
five feet, but the average height seems scarcely to exceed four feet.
In color it is a deep brown black, tinged with a purple hue, which is
most perceptible when the animal has recently left its bath. The color
of the young animal is much paler than that of the mother, and par-
takes of a pinky hue.

Of African Rhinoceroses four species are clearly ascertained, and it
is very probable that others may yet be in existence. Two of the known
species are black and the other two white, the animals differing from
each other not only in color, but in form, dimensions, habits, and dis-
position. The commonest of the African species is the Borele, Rhin-
ASTER, or Little Black Rhinoceros of Southern Africa — an animal
which may easily be distinguished from its relations by the shape of
the horns and the upper lip. In the Borele the foremost horn is of
considerable length and bent rather backward, while the second horn
is short, conical, and much resembles the weapon of the Indian animal.
The head is rather rounded, and the pointed upper lip overlaps the
lower and is capable of considerable extension.

The skin of this animal does not fall in heavy folds, like that of the
Asiatic species, but is nevertheless extremely thick and hard, and will
resist an ordinary leaden bullet, unless it be fired from a small dis-
tance. The skin is employed largely in the manufacture of whips, or
jamboks.

The food of the Black Rhinoceros, whether the Borele or the Keitloa,
is composed of roots, which the animal ploughs out of the ground with
its horn, and of the young branches and shoots of the wait-a-bit thorn.
It is rather remarkable that the black species is poisoned by one of
the Euphorbiacese, which is eaten with impunity by the two white an-
imals.

When wounded, the Black Rhinoceros is truly a fearful opponent,
and it is generally considered very unsafe to fire at the animal unless
the hunter be mounted on a good horse or provided with an access-
ible place of refuge — an old experienced hunter said that he would
rather face fifty lions than one wounded Borele — but Mr. Oswell, the
well-known African sportsman, always preferred to shoot the Rhino-
ceros on foot. The best place to aim is just behind the shoulder, as if
the lungs are wounded the animal very soon dies. There is but little
blood externally, as the thick loose skin covers the bullet-hole and pre-
vents any outward effusion. When mortally wounded the Rhinoceros
generally drops on its knees.

The Keitloa can readily be recognized by the horns, which are of
considerable length, and nearly equal to each other in measurement.

264

THE WHITE KHINOCEROS AND THE HYRAX.

This is always a morose and ill-tempered animal, and is even more to
be dreaded than the borele, on account of its greater size, strength, and
length of horn. The upper lip of the Keitloa overlaps the lower even
more than does that of the borele ; the neck is longer in proportion,
and the head is not so thickly covered with wrinkles. At its birth the
horns of this animal are only indicated by a prominence on the nose,
and at the age of two years the horn is hardly more than an inch in
length. At six years of age it is nine or ten inches long, and does not
reach its full measurement until the lapse of considerable time.

The Keitloa or ISloajs's KHiNOCEiios {Bhinoeeros Keitloa).

Tlie common White Khinoceros [Rhinoceros Simtis) is considerably
hu-ger than the two preceding animals, and, together with the kobaoba,
or long-horned white Rhinoceros, is remarkable for its square muzzle
and elongated head. The foremost horn of this animal is of very con-
siderable length, attaining a measurement of more than three feet
when fully grown. The second horn is short and conical, like that
of the borele.

One of the most curious little animals in existence is the Hyrax,
interesting not so much from its imposing external appearance as for
its importance in filling up a link in the chain of creation.

About as large as a tolerably-sized rabbit, covered with thick soft fur,
inhabiting holes in the banks, possessing incisor-like teeth, and, in fine,
being a very rabbit in habits, manners, and "appearance, it was long

KLIP DAS, SYRIAN HYRAX, AND HIPPOPOTAMUS. 265

classed among the rodents and placed among the rabbits and hares.
It has, however, been discovered in later years that this little rabbit-
like animal is no rodent at all, but is one of the Pachydermata, and
that it forms a natural transition from the rhinoceros to the hippo-
potamus. On a close examination of the teeth, they are seen to be
wonderfully like those of the hippopotamus, their edges being bevelled
off in a similar manner, and therefore bearing some resemblance to the
chisel-edged incisors of the rodents. There are several species of
Hyrax, one of which inhabits Northern Africa and Syria, while two
are found in Abyssinia and South Africa.

The South African Hyrax is termed by the colonists Klip Das, or
Rock Rabbit, and is found in considerable numbers among the moun-
tainous districts of its native land, being especially common on the
sides of the Table Mountain. It is eaten largely by the natives, who
succeed in killing it in spite of its extreme wariness and activity.

Among the crevices and fissures in the rock the Hyrax takes up its
abode, and may often be seen sitting in the warm rays of the sun, or
feeding with apparent carelessness on the aromatic herbage of the
mountain-side. It is, however, perfectly secure, in spite of its apparent
negligence, for a sentinel is always on guard, ready, by a peculiar shrill
cry, to warn his companions of the approach of danger. Sometimes
the Hyrax is seen at a considerable height, but is often observed near
the seashore, seated on rocks which are barely above high-water mark.

Besides mankind, the Hyrax has many foes, such as the birds of prey
and carnivorous quadrupeds, and is destroyed in considerable numbers.
The fore-feet of this animal are apparently furnished with claws like
those of the rabbit, but on a closer inspection the supposed claws are
seen to be veritable hoofs, black in color, and very similar to those of
the rhinoceros in form. The Hyrax is an agile little creature, and
can climb a rugged tree-trunk with great ease. It is rather hot in its
temper, and if irritated becomes highly excited, and moves its teeth
and feet with remarkable activity and force.

The Syrian Hyrax is the animal which is mentioned under the
name of " coney " in the Old Testament, and is found inhabiting the
clefts and caverns of rocks. In its habits and general appearance it
is very similar to the Cape Hyrax, and needs no further description.

The last on the list of the pachydermatous animals is the well-known
Hippopotamus, or River Horse.

This enormous quadruped is a native of various parts of Africa, and
is always found either in water or in its near vicinity. In absolute
height it is not very remarkable, as its legs are extremely short, but the
actual bulk of its body is very great indeed. The average height of
a full-grown Hippopotamus is about five feet. Its naked skin is dark
brow^n, curiously marked with innumerable lines like those on " crackle "

23

266

THE HIPPOPOTAMUS.

china or old oil-paiutiugs, and is also dappled with a number of sooty
black spots, which cannot be seen except on a close inspection. A vast
number of pores penetrate the skin, and exude a thick, oily liquid,
which effectually serves to protect the animal from the injurious effects
of the water in which it is so constantly immersed. Some years ago,
when the male Hippopotamus in the Zoological Gardens was young
and gentle, I patted his back, and entirely spoiled a pair of new kid
gloves. The mouth is enormous, and its size is greatly increased by
the odd manner in which the jaw is set in the head.

Within the mouth is an array of white gleaming tusks, which have
a terrific appearance, but they are solely intended for cutting grass and
other vegetable substances, and are seldom employed as weapons of of-

The Hippopotamus or Zeekoe {Hippopotamus amphibms).
fence, except when the animal is wounded or otherwise irritated. The
incisor teeth of the lower jaw lie almost horizontally, with their points
directed forward, and are said to be employed as crow-bars in tearing
up the various aquatic plants on which the animal feeds. The canines
are very large and curved, and are worn obliquely, in a manner very
similar to the rodent type of teeth. Their shape is a bold curve, form-
ing nearly the half of a circle, and their surface is deeply channeled and
ridged on the outer line of the curve, and smoother on the face.

Possessed of an enormous appetite, having a stomach that is capable
of containing five or six bushels of nutriment, and furnished with such
powerful instruments, the Hippopotamus is a terrible nuisance to the

THE PHATAGIN. 267

ovvuers of cultivated lands that happeu to be near the river in which
the animal has taken up his abode.

The Hippopotamus is — as the import of its name, Kiver Horse, im-
plies— most aquatic in its habits. It generally prefers fresh water, but
is not at all averse to the sea, and will sometimes prefer salt water to
fresh. It is an admirable swimmer and diver, and is able to remain
below the surface for a very considerable length of time. In common
with the elephant, it possesses the power of sinking at will, which is the
more extraordinary when the huge size of the animal is taken into con-
sideration. Perhaps it may be enabled to contract itself by an exer-
tion of the muscles whenever it desires to sink, and to return to its
former dimensions when it wishes to return to the surface. It mostly
affects the stillest reaches of the river, as it is there less exposed to the
current, and not so liable to be swept down the stream while asleep. The
young Hippopotamus is not able to bear submersion so long as its parent,
and is therefore carefully brought to the surface at short intervals for
the purpose of breathing. During the first few months of the little an-
imal's life, it takes its stand on its mother's neck, and is borne by her
above or through the water as experience may dictate or necessity
require.

The Hippopotamus is a gregarious animal, collecting in herds of
twenty or thirty in number, and making the air resound with its
resonant snorts. The snort of this creature is a most extraordinary
sound, and one that is well calculated to disturb the nerves of sensitive
persons, especially if heard unexpectedly. The animals at the Zoolog-
ical Gardens make the very roof ring with the strange unearthly sounds
which they emit. In the native state it is very difficult to ascertain
even approximately the number of a herd, as the animals are contin-
ually diving and rising, and never appear simultaneously above the
surface of the water.

DASYPID.^.

This small but important family includes the Manis, the Armadillo,
the Ant-eater, and the Platypus, or Duck-bill.

The Phatagin is one of the numerous species that compose the
strange genus of Manis. All these animals are covered with a series
of horny plates, sharp-pointed and keen-edged, that lie with their points
directed toward the tail, and overlap each other like the tiles upon the
roof of a house.

The fore-claws of the Phatagin are very large, and are employed for
the purpose of tearing down the nests of the termite — or white ant, as
it is more popularly called— so as to enable it to feed upon the inmates
as they run about in confusion at the destruction of their premises.

268

THE BAJJERKEIT.

Ants, termites, and various insects are the favorite food of the Pha-
tagin, which sweeps them up by means of its long and extensile tongue,
caring nothing for their formidable jaws, the bite of which is powerful
enough to drive a human being almost distracted with pain. The
claws are employed not only in destroying the nest of the termite, but
in digging burrows for its own residence — a task for which they are

The Phatagin {Manis tetradactyla).

well adapted by reason of their great size and strength, and by the
vigor of the limbs to which they are attached.

The Phatagin is a native of Western Africa, and is of considerable
dimensions, reaching five feet in average length, of which the tail occu-
pies three feet. From the great length of the tail, it is sometimes called
the Long-tailed Manis.

The Bajjerkeit, or Short-tailed Manis, is a native of various
parts of India, and is also found in Ceylon. Of this species Sir Emer-
son Tennent gives the following short account : " Of tjie Edentates, the
only example in Ceylon is the scaly ant-eater, called by the Singalese,
Caballaya, but usually known by its Malay name of Pengolin, a word
indicative of its faculty of 'rolling itself up' into a compact ball by
bending its head toward its stomach, arching its back into a circle, and
securing all by a powerful hold of its mail-covered tail. When at lib-
erty, they burrow in the dry ground to a depth of seven or eight feet,
where they reside in pairs, and produce annually two or three young.

" Of two specimens which I kept alive at different times, one from
the vicinity of Kandy, about two feet in length, was a gentle and affec-

THE COMMON AKMADILLO.

269

donate creature, which, after wandering over the house in search of
ants, would attract attention to its wants by climbing up my knee, lay-
ing hold of my leg by its prehensile tail. The other, more than double
that length, was caught in the jungle near Chilaw, and brought to me
in Colombo. I had always understood that the Pengolin was unable
to climb trees, but the one last mentioned frequently ascended a tree in
my garden in search of ants, and this is effected by means of its hooked
feet, aided by an oblique grasp of the tail. The ants it seized by ex-
tending its round and glutinous tongue along their tracks. Generally
speaking, they were quiet during the day, and grew restless as evening
and night approached."

The Armadillos are inhabitants of Central and Southern America,
and are tolerably common throughout the whole of the land in which
they live. The general structure of the armor is similar in all the spe-
cies, and consists of three large plates of horny covering, one being placed

The Armadillo (Daeypus sexcinctus).
on the head, another on the shoulders, and the third on the hind-quar-
ters. These plates are connected by a series of bony rings, variable in
number, overlapping each other, and permitting the animal to move
freely.

The Common Armadillo, or Poyou, is about twenty inches in total
length, the tail occupying some six or seven inches. It is very com-
mon in Paraguay, but is not easily captured, owing to its remarkable
agility, perseverance, and wariness. Encumbered as it appears to be
with its load of plate-armor, it runs with such speed that it can hardly
be overtaken by a quick-footed man ; and if it should contrive to reach
its burrow, it can never be got out except by dint of hard work.
23*

270

THE TAMANOIE.

The food of the Armadillo is nearly as varied as that of the swine,
for there are few eatable siibstauces, whether vegetable or animal,
which it will not devour, provided they are not too hard for its
little teeth. Various- roots, potatoes, and maize are among its articles
of vegetable diet, and it will also eat eggs, worms, insects, and small
reptiles of every description. Whenever wild cattle are slain the Ar-
madillo is sure to make its appearance in a short time for the purpose
of devouring the offal which the hunter leaves on the ground. It is
not at all particular in taste, and devours the half-putrid remains with
great eagerness, becoming quite fat on the revolting diet.

As the Armadillo is a nocturnal animal, its eyes are more fitted for
the dark than for the bright glare of sunlight, which dazzles the crea-
ture and sadly bewilders it. If it should be detected on the surface of
the ground, and its retreat intercepted before it can regain its hole, the
Armadillo rolls itself up as best it can, and, tucking its head under the
chest, draws in its legs and awaits the result. Even when taken in
hand it is not without a last resource, for it kicks so violently with
its powerful legs that it can inflict severe lacerations with the sharp
claws.

The Ant-eaters, as their name imports, feed very largely on ants,
as well as on termites and various other insects, their long flexible
tongue acting as a hand for the purpose of conveying food into the
mouth. The tongue of the Ant-eater, when protruded to its fullest
extent, bears some resemblance to a great earth-worm, and as it is em-
ployed in its food-collecting task it coils and twists about as if it pos-
sessed a separate vitality of its own.

The Tamanoir, or Great Ant-eater, or Akt Bear, is entirely
destitute of teeth, possesses a wonderfully elongated and narrow head,

and is thickly cover-
ed with long coarse
hair, w^hich on the
tail forms a heavy
plume. The color of
this animal is brown,
washed with gray on
the head and face,
and interspersed
with pure white hairs
The Tamanoir, OR Ant Bear (i)%rmecop/ia^a>6ato). OQ ^jjg }-jead body

and tail. The throat is black, and a long triangular black mark arises
from the throat und passes obliquely over the shoulders. There are
four toes on the fore-feet, and five on the hinder. In total length it
measures between six and seven feet, the tail being about two feet six
inches long.

THE MIDDLE ANT-EATER AND THE LITTLE ANT-EATER. 271

The claws of the fore-feet are extremely long and curved, and are
totally unfitted for locomotion. AVhen the animal is not employing
these instruments in destroying, it folds the long claws upon a thick
rough pad which is placed in the palm, and seems to render the exer-
tion of walking less difficult. As, however, the Ant Bear is forced to
walk upon the outer edge of its fore-feet, its progress is a peculiarly
awkward one, and cannot be kept up for any long time. The creature
seems to possess considerable grasping power in the toes of the fore-
limbs, being able to pick up a small object Jn its paws. Though not a
fighter, it can defend itself right well by means of these powerful in-
struments, and can not only strike with considerable violence, but when
attacked by a dog or similar enemy, it clasps him in such a terrific
grip that the half-suffocated animal is only too glad to be able to es-
cape.

The Ant Bear is said to make no burrow, but to content itself with
the shade of its own plumy tail whenever it retires to rest. While
sleeping the creature looks very like a rough bundle of hay thrown
loosely on the ground, for the hair of the mane and tail is so long and
so harsh that it can hardly be recognized at the first glance for the ver-
itable coat of a living animal. The eye of this creature has a peculiar
and indescribably cunning expression. The Tamanoir is a native of
Guinea, Brazil, and Paraguay.

The Middle Ant-eater, or Tamandue, is not so large as the pre-
ceding animal, from which it is readily distinguished by the tail, which
is long and tapering, and almost devoid of hair except at the base.
The tail, indeed, is used as an organ of prehension, to assist it in climb-
ing trees — a feat which it sometimes performs, although not so often as
the Little Ant-eater.

This animal produces a strong scent of musk, which is generally
excited when it is enraged. The scent is not pleasant, like that of the
musk deer, but very disagreeable, and can be perceived at a consider-
able distance.

The Little Ant-eatee is a truly curious animal. The head of
this creature is comparatively short ; its body is covered with fine silken
fur, and its entire length does not exceed twenty or twenty-one inches.
The tail is well furred, excepting three inches of the under surface at
the extremity, which is employed as the prehensile portion of that
member, and is capable of sustaining the weight of the body as it
swings from a branch. On looking at the skeleton, a most curious
structure presents itself. On a side view, the cavity of the chest is
completely hidden by the ribs, which are greatly flattened, and overlap
each other so that on a hasty glance the ribs appear to be formed of one
solid piece of bone. There are only two claws on the fore-feet, and four
on the hinder limbs.

272 THE MULLINGONG.

The Little Ant-eater is a native of tropical America, and is always
to be found on trees, where it generally takes up its residence, and
where it finds its sustenance. It possesses many squirrel-like customs,
using its fore-claws with great dexterity, and hooking the smaller
insects out of the bark crevices in which they have taken unavailing
refuge. While thus employed it sits upon its hind-limbs, supporting
itself with its prehensile tail. The claws are compressed, curved, and
very sharp, and the little animal can use these instruments with some
force as offensive weapons, and can strike smart blows with them. It
is a bold little creature, attacking the nests of wasps, putting its little paw
into the combs, and dragging the grubs from their cells.

Like its larger relations, it is nocturnal in its habits, and sleeps during
the day with its tail safely twisted round the branch on which it sits.
The generic name, Cyclothurus, signifies " twisted tail," and is very
appropriate to the animal.

There are few animals which have attracted such universal attention,
from both scientific men and the reading world in general, as the
MuLLiNGONG, DucK-BiLL, or Platypus, of Australia. This little
creature, the largest being but twenty-two inches in length, has excited
more interest than animals of a thousand times its dimensions, on
account of its extraordinary shape and singular habits. It is most
appropriately called the Duck-bill, on account of the curious develop-
ment of the intermaxillary bones, which are very much flattened and
elongated, and their ends turned inward in a kind of angular hook.
The lower jaw is also lengthened and flattened, although not to such
an extent as the upper, and the bones are covered with a naked skin.

In the stuffed and dried specimens the " beak " appears as if it were
composed of the black leather taken from an old shoe, but in the living
animal it presents a very different aspect, being soft, rounded, and of
a pinky hue at its tip, mottled with a number of little spots. Dr.
Bennett, to whom the zoological world is so much indebted for his re^
searches into the habits of this curious animal, kindly showed me some
excellent drawings, which gave a very different idea of the animal
from that which is obtained by the examination of stuffed skins. The
beak is well supplied with nerves, and appears to be a sensitive organ
of touch, by means of which the animal is enabled to feel as well as to
smell the insects and other creatures on which it feeds.

The MuUingong is an essentially aquatic and burrowing animal, and
is formed expressly for its residence in the water or under the earth.
The fur is thick and soft, and is readily dried while the animal enjoys
good health, although it becomes wet and draggled when the creature
is weakly. The opening of the ears is small and can be closed at will,
and the feet are furnished with large and complete webs, extending be-
yond the claws in the fore-limbs, and to their base in the hind-legs. The

THE MULLINGONG.

273

fore-feet are employed for digging as well as for swimming, and are
therefore armed with powerful claws rather more than half an inch in
length, and rounded at their extremities. With such force can these
natural tools be used that the Duck-bill has been seen to make a bur-
row two feet in length through hard gravelly soil in the space of ten
minutes. While digging the animal employs its beak as well as its feet,
and the webbed membrane contracts between the joints so as not to be
seen. The hind-feet of the male are furnished with a spur, about an
inch in length, curved, perforated, and connected with a gland situated
near the ankle. It was once supposed that this spur conveyed a poison-

■!6^t-J^

The Duck-bill or Mvliasgosg {Pl<(typiis Ayiatinus).

ous liquid into the wound which it made, but this opinion has been dis-
proved by Dr. Bennett, who frequently permitted, and even forced, the
animal to wound him with its spurs, and experienced no ill-consequences
beyond the actual wound. The animal has the power of folding back
the spur so as to conceal it entirely, and is then sometimes mistaken for
a female.

The color of the adult animal is a soft dark brown, interspersed with
a number of glistening points which are produced by the long and shin-
ing hairs which protrude through the inner fur.

274 THE ECHIDNA AND THE COMMON SLOTH.

The food of the Mullingong consists of worms, water insects, and lit-
tle molluscs, which it gathers in its cheek-pouches as long as it is en-
gaged in its search for food, and then eats quietly when it rests from its
labors. The teeth — if teeth they may be called — of this animal are
very peculiar, consisting of four horny channeled plates, two in each
jaw, which serve to crush the fragile shells and coverings of the animals
on which it feeds. It seems seldom to feed during the day or in the
depth of night, preferring for that purpose the first dusk of evening or
the dawn of morning. During the rest of the day it is generally asleep.
While sleeping it curls itself into a round ball, the tail shutting down
over the head and serving to protect it.

The young Mullingongs are curious little creatures, with soft, short,
flexible beaks, naked skins, and almost unrecognizable as the children
of their long-nosed parents. When they attain to the honor of their
first coat, they are most playful little things, knocking each other about
like kittens, and rolling on the ground in the exuberance of their mirth.
Their little twinkling eyes are not well adapted for daylight, nor, from
their position, can they see spots directly in their front, so that a pair of
these little creatures that were kept by Dr. Bennett used to bump them-
selves against the chairs, tables, or any other object that might be in
their way. They bear a further similitude to the cat in their scru-
pulous cleanliness and the continual washing and pecking of their
fur.

The Echidna is found in several parts of Australia, where it is pop-
ularly called the hedgehog, on account of the hedgehog-like spines with
which the body is so thickly covered, and its custom of rolling itself up
when alarmed. A number of coarse hairs are intermingled with the
spines, and the head is devoid of these weapons. The head is strangely
lengthened, in a manner somewhat similar to that of the Ant-eater, and
there are no teeth of any kind in the jaws.

The food of the Echidna consists of ants and other insects, which it
gathers into its mouth by means of the long extensile tongue. It is a
burrowing animal, and is therefore furnished with limbs and claws of
proportionate strength. Indeed, Lieutenant Breton, who kept one of
these animals for some time, considers it as the strongest quadruped in
existence in proportion to its size. On moderately soft ground it can
hardly be captured, for it gathers all its legs under its body, and em-
ploys its digging claws with such extraordinary vigor that it sinks into
the ground as if by magic. The Echidna is tolerably widely spread
over the sandy wastes of Australia, but has not been seen in the more
northern portions of that country.

In the last group of the mammalia we find a very remarkable struc-
ture, adapted to serve a particular end, and misunderstood by zoologists.
The Common Sloth, sometimes called the Two-toed Sloth, is a na-

THE COMMON SLOTH.

275

tive of the West Indies, where it is not very often seen, although it is
not a very uncommon animal.

The peculiarity to be noticed in all the Sloths, of which there are
several species, is that they pass the whole of their lives suspended,
with their backs downward, from the branches of trees. The Sloth
never gets upon a bough, but simply hooks his curved talons over it,
and hangs in perfect security. In order to enable the animal to sus-
pend itself without danger of falling, the limbs are enormously strong,
the fore-legs are remarkable for their length, and the toes of all four
feet are furnished with strong curved claws. Upon the ground the
Sloth is entirely out of its element, as its limbs are wholly unadapted
for supporting the weight of the body, and its long claws cannot be

The Sloth [Cholcepus didactylus).

employed as adjuncts to the feet. The only manner in which a Sloth
can advance when he is unfortunately placed in such a position is by
hitching his claws into any depression that may afford him a hold, and
so dragging himself slowly and painfully forward. On the trees, how-
ever, he is quite a different creature, full of life and animation, and
traversing the branches at a speed which is anything but slothful. The
Sloth travels best in windy weather, because the branches of trees are
blown against each other, and permit the animal to pass from one tree
to another without descending to the ground.

The food of the Sloth consists of leaves, buds, and young shoots. It
appears to stand in no need of water, being satisfied with the moisture
which clings to the herbage on which it feeds. In gathering the leaves
and drawing the branches within reach, the Sloth makes great use of
its fore-paws, which, however helpless upon the ground, can here be

276 THE AI.

managed with great dexterity. It is very tenacious of life, and is
protected from any injury which it might receive from falls by the pe-
culiar structure of its skull. In length it is about two feet.

The Ai, or Three-toed Sloth, is an inhabitant of South America,
and is more common than the preceding animal, from which it can
easily be distinguished by the third toe on its feet. The color of this
animal is rather variable, but is generally of a brownish gray, slightly
variegated by differently-tinted hairs, and the head and face being
darker than the body and limbs. The hair has a curious hay-like
aspect, being coarse, flat, and harsh toward the extremity, although
it is very fine toward the root. Owing to the color and structure of
the hair, the Ai can hardly be distinguished from the bough under
which it hangs, and owes much of its safety to this happy resemblance;
for its flesh is very good, and, in consequence, the poor creature^ is
dreadfully persecuted by the natives, as well as by the white hunters.
The cry of this creature is low and plaintive, and is thought to resem-
ble the sound Ai. The head is short and round, the eyes deeply sunk
in the head, and nose large and very moist.

The young of the Ai, as well as those of the other Sloths, cling to
their mother as soon as they are born, and are carried about by her
until they are able to transfer their weight from their parent to the
branches. Several other species of Sloths are known to exist, but all
are similar in appearance and habits.

BIRDS.

U

BIRDS.

The most conspicuous external characteristic by which the Birds
are distinguished from all other inhabitants of earth is the feathery robe
which invests their bodies, and which serves the double purpose of cloth-
ing and progression.

The fuller and more technical description of the Birds runs as follows :
They are vertebrate animals, but do not suckle their young. The young
are not produced in an actively animated state, but inclosed in the egg,
from which they do not emerge until they have been warmed into inde-
pendent life by the effects of constant warmth. Generally, the eggs are
hatched by means of the natural warmth which proceeds from the
mother-bird ; but in some instances, such as that of the Tallegalla of
Australia, the eggs are placed in a vast heap of dead leaves and grass,
and developed by means of the heat which is exhaled from decaying
vegetable substances.

BIRDS OF PREY.— VULTURES.

By common consent Vultures take the first rank among Birds, and
in the catalogue of the British Museum the Lammergeyer, or Beard-
ed Vulture, stands first upon the list.

This magnificent bird is a native of Southern Ei^rope and Western
Asia, and often attains a very great size, the expanse of its wings being
sometimes as much as ten feet, and its length nearly ibur feet.

The name of Bearded Vulture has been given to the Lammergeyer
on account of the tufts of long and stiff bristle-like luiirs which take rise
at the nostrils and beneath the bill, and form a very prominent charac-
teristic of the species.

The color of the Lammergeyer is a gray-brown, curiously dashed

with white upon the upper surface, in consequence of a white streak

which runs along the centre of each feather. The under surface of

the body, together with the neck, is nearly white, tinged with a wash

of reddish brown, which is variable in depth in different individuals.

In the earlier stages of its existence the Lammergeyer is of a much

darker hue, and the white dashes upon the back are not so purely

white or so clearly defined. The head and neck are dark brown, and

the brown hue of the back is of so deep a tint that the young bird has

been classed as a separate species, under the title of Vidtur niger, oi

Black Vulture,

279

280

THE CONDOR.

Although not exceeding the Laramergeyer in dimensions, the CoN«
DOR has long been celebrated as a giant among birds, the expanse of
its wings being set dowii at eighteen or twenty feet, and its length ex-
aggerated in the same proportion. In reality, the expanse of a large
Condor's wings will very seldom reach eleven feet, and the average ex-
tent is from eight to nine feet.

The general color of the Condor is a grayish black, variable in depth
and glossiness in different individuals. The upper wing-coverts are

marked with
white, which
take a grayer tint
in the female,
and the exterior
edges of the sec-
ondaries are also
white. The
adult male bird
may easily be
distinguished by
the amount of
white upon the
feathers, so that
the wings are
marked with a
large white
patch. Around
the neck is set a
beautifully white
downy collar of
soft feathers,
2^ wliich does not
g entirely inclose
^ t h e neck, but
fe leaves a small
naked band in
The Young Male Condor. front. This

featherless band is, however, so small that it is not perceptible except
by a close examination.

The crest of the male Condor is of considerable size, occupying the
top of the head and extending over a fourth of the basal portion of
the beak.

The Condor is an inhabitant of the mountain-chain of the Andes,
and is celebrated not only for its strength and dimensions, but for its
love of elevated localities. When enjoying the unrestricted advantages

THE KING VULTUEE. 281

of its native home, it is seldom found lower than the line of perpetual
snow, and seems to seek lower and more temperate regions only when
driven by hunger to make a raid on the flocks or the wild quadrupeds
of its native country. Although preferring carrion to the flesh of
recently-killed animals, the Condor is a terrible pest to the cattle-
keeper, for it will frequently make an attack upon a cow or a bull,
and by dint of constant worrying force the poor beast to succumb.
Two of these birds will attack a vicugna, a deer, or even the formida-
ble puma, and, as they direct their assaults chiefly upon the eyes, they
soon succeed in blinding their prey, who rapidly falls under the terrible
blows which are delivered by the beaks of its assailants.

The Condor deposits its eggs — for it makes no nest whatever — upon
a bare shelf of some lofty rock. The eggs are two in number, grayish
white in color, and are laid about November or December. When the
young Condor is hatched it is nearly naked, but is furnished with a
scanty covering of down, which in a short time becomes very plentiful,
enveloping the body in a complete vestment of soft black plumage.
The deep black-gray of -the adult bird is not attained until a lapse of
three years, the color of the plumage being a yellowish brown.

The King Vulture has gained its regal title from a supposition,
which is prevalent among the natives of the country which it inhabits,
that it wields royal sway over the aura, or zopilote Vultures, and that
the latter birds will not venture to touch a dead carcase until the King
Vulture has taken his share. There is some truth for this supposition,
for the King Vulture will not permit any other bird to begin its meal
until its own hunger is satisfied. The same habit may be seen in many
other creatures, the more powerful lording it over the weaker, and
leaving them only the remains of the feast instead of permitting them
to partake of it on equal terms. But if the King Vulture should not
happen to be present when the dead animal has reached a state of
decomposition which renders it palatable to vulturine tastes, the sub-
ject Vultures would pay but little regard to the privileges of their
absent monarch, and would leave him but a slight prospect of getting
a meal on the remains of the feast.

Waterton, who often mentions this species in his interesting works,
gives several curious instances of the sway which the King Vulture
exercises over the inferior birds. " When I had done with the carcase
of the large snake, it was conveyed into the forest, as I expected that
it would attract the king of the Vultures, as soon as time should have
rendered it suflficiently savory. In a few days it sent forth the odor
which a carcase should send forth, and about twenty of the common
Vultures came and perched on the neighboring trees. The king of
the Vultures came too, and I observed that none of the common ones
seemed inclined to begin breakfast until His Majesty had finished.
24*

282

THE KING VULTURE.

Wiieu he had consumed as much snake as nature informed him would
do him good, he retired to the top of a high mora tree, and then all the
common Vultures fell to and made a hearty meal."

The King Vulture is a native of tropical America, and is most
common near the equator, though it is found as far as the thirtieth

degree of south latitude, and
the thirty-second of north
latitude. Peru, Brazil, Gui-
ana, Paraguay, and Mexico
are the chosen residences of
this fine species. It is a forest-
loving bird, caring nothing for
the lofty home of the condor,
but taking up its residence
upon the low and heavily-
wooded regions in close prox-
imity to swampy and marshy
places, where it is most likely
to find abundance of dead and
putrefying animal substances.
Its nest, or rather the spot on
which it deposits its eggs, is
within the hollow of some de-
caying tree. The eggs are two
in number.

In its adult state the King
Vulture is a most gorgeously-
decorated bird, though its gen-
eral aspect and the whole ex-
pression of its demeanor are
rather repulsive tlian other-
wise. The greater part of
The King \vL,TVRi: {Sarcorhamphus Papa), the feathers upon the back

are of a beautiful satiny
white, tinged more or less deeply with fawn, and the abdomen is of a
pure white. On account of its color, the bird is termed the White
Crow by the Spaniards of Paraguay. The long pinions of the wing
and tail are deep black, and the base of the neck is surrounded with
a thick ruff or collar of downy gray feathers.

The most brilliant tints are, however, those of the naked skin of the
head and neck. " The throat and back of the neck," says Waterton,
"are of a fine lemon-color; both sides of the neck, from the ears down-
ward, of a rich scarlet ; behind the corrugated part there is a white
spot. The crown of the head is scarlet ; betwixt the lower mandible

THE FULVOUS VULTURE.

283

and the eye, and close by the ear, there is a part which has a fine sil-
very-blue appearance. Just above the white spot a portion of the skin
is blue, and the rest scarlet ; the skin which juts out behind the neck,
and appears like an oblong carbuncle, is blue in part, and part orange.
The bill is orange and black, the caruncles on the forehead orange, and
the cere orange, the orbits scarlet, and the irides white."

These gorgeous tints belong only to the adult bird of four years old,
and in the previous years of its life the colors are very obscure. In
the first year, for example, the general color is deep blue-gray, the ab-
domen white, and the crest hardly distinguishable for eitlier its color
or its size. In the second year of its age the plumage of the bird is
nearly black, diversified with white spots, and the naked portions of
the head and neck are violet-black interspersed with a few dashes of
yellow. The third year gives the bird a very near approach to the
beautiful satin fawn of the adult plumage, the back being of nearly
the same hue as that of the four-year-old bird, but marked with many
of the blue-black feath-
ers of the second year.
When full grown, the
King Vulture is about
the size of an ordinary
goose.

The Fulvous or
Griffin Vulture is
one of the most familiar
of these useful birds,
being spread widely
over nearly the whole
of the Old World, and
found in very many por-
tions of Europe, Asia,
and Africa.

It is one of the large
Vultures, measuring
four feet in length, and
its expanse of wing be-
ing exceedingly wide.
Like many of its rela-
tions, it is a high-roving
bird, loving to rise out
of the ken of ordinary eyes, and from that vast elevation to view the
panorama which lies beneath its gaze — not, however, for the purpose
of admiring the beauty of the prospect, but for the more sensual object
of seeking for food. Whenever it has discovered a dead or dying an-

The Fulvous or Griffin Vulture ( Gyps fulms).

284 THE VULTURE.

imal, the Vulture takes its stand on some adjoining tree or rock, and
there patiently awaits the time when decomposition shall render the
skin sufficiently soft to permit the entrance of the eager beak. As
soon as its olfactory organs tell of that desired change, the Vulture
descends upon its prey, and will not retire until it is so gorged with food
that it can hardly stir. If it be suddenly attacked while in this condi-
tion, it can easily be overtaken and killed ; but if a pause of a few min-
utes only be allowed, the bird ejects by a spasmodic effort the load of
food which it has taken into its interior, and is then ready for flight.

A controversy has long raged concerning the manner in which the
Vulture obtains knowledge of the presence of food. Some naturalists
assert that the wonderful powers of food-finding which are possessed
by the Vulture are owing wholly to the eyes, while others as warmly
attribute to the nose this curious capability. Others, again, desirous
of steering a middle course, believe that the eyes and the nostrils give
equal aid in this never-ending duty of finding food, and many exper-
iments have been made with a view to extracting the real truth of the
matter. The following account has been kindly transmitted to me by
Colonel Drayson, R. A., who has already contributed much original in-
formation to the present work :

" Having shot an ourebi early in the morning, and when about three
miles from home, I was not desirous of carrying the animal behind my
saddle during the day's shooting, and I therefore sought for some method
of concealment by which to preserve the dead quarry from jackals and
Vultures. An ant bear's hole offered a very convenient hiding-place,
into which the buck was pushed, and the carcase was covered over
with some grass cut for the purpose. As usual in South Africa,
there were some Vultures wheeling round at an enormous height
above the horizon ; these I believed would soon come down and
push aside the grass and tear off the most assailable parts of the
buck. There was, however, no better means of protection, so I left
the animal and rode away. When at about a quarter of a mile
from the ant bear's hole, I thought that it might be interesting to
watch how the Vultures would approach and commence operations,
so I ' off-saddled ' and kept watch.

" After about half an hour, I saw a Vulture coming down from the
sky followed by two or three others. They came down to the spot
where the buck had been killed, and flew past this. They then re-
turned, and again overshot the mark. After circling several times
within a radius of four hundred yards, they flew away. Other Vul-
tures then came and performed similar manoeuvres, but not one ap-
peared to know where the buck was concealed. I then rode off to a
greater distance, but the same results occurred.

" In the evening I returned for my buck, which, however, was totally

THE TUKKEY BUZZARD.

285

useless in consequence of the intense heat of the sun, but which had not
been touched by the Vultures."

One of the best known of the Vultures is the Turkey Buzzard,
more rightly termed the Carrion Vulture. Its name of Turkey
Buzzard is earned from the strange resemblance which a Carrion Vul-
ture bears to a turkey, as it walks slowly and with a dignified air,
stretching its long bare neck, and exhibiting the fleshy appendages
which bear some likeness to the wattles of the turkey. This bird is
found chiefly in North America, but is also an inhabitant of Jamaica,
where it is popularly known as the John Crow.

The nest of the Turkey Buzzard is a very inartistical afl^air, consist-
ing merely of some suitable hollow tree or decayed log, in which there

Turkey Buzzard

{Catharista Aura).

Black Vulture

( Vultur niger).

may be a depression of sufficient depth to contain the eggs. In this
simple cradle the female deposits from two to four eggs, which are of
a dull cream-white, blotched with irregular chocolate splashes, which
seem to congregate toward the larger end. The young birds are
covered with a plentiful supply of white down.

The adult Turkey Buzzard is a rather large bird, measuring two feet
six inches in length, and six feet ten inches across the expanded wings.
The weight is about five pounds. The general color of the plumage is
black, mingled with brown, the secondaries being slightly tipped with
white, and a few of the coverts edged with the same tint. On the neck,
the back, the shoulders, and the scapularies, the black hue is shot with
bronze, green, and purple. Beneath the thick plumage is a light coat-
ing of soft white down, which apparently serves to preserve the crea-
ture at a proper temperature. The bare skin of the neck is not as
wrinkled as in several Vultures, and the feathers make a complete

286

AKABIAN VULTUKE AND ALPINE VULTUKE.

ring round the neck. There is but little difference in the plumage of
the two sexes, but the bill of the male is pure white.

We now arrive at the true Vultures, the best known of which is the
common Arabian Vulture, a bird which is spread over a very large
portion of the globe, being found in various parts of Europe, Asia, and
Africa.

It is a large bird, measuring nearly four feet in length, and the ex-
pansion of its wings being proportionately wide. The general color of
this species is a chocolate brown, the naked portions of the neck and
head are of a bluish hue, and it is specially notable for a tuft of long
soft feathers which spring from the insertion of the wings. In spite of
its large size and great muscular powers, the Arabian Vulture is not a
dangerous neighbor even to the farmer, for, unless it is pressed by severe
hunger, it seems to have rather a dread of living animals, and contents
itself with feeding on any carrion which may come in its way. Some-
times, however, after a protracted fast, its fears are overruled by its
hunger, and the bird makes a raid upon the sheep-folds or the goat-flocks,
in the hope of carrying off" a tender lamb or kid.

The usual haunts of this species are situated on the mountain-tops,
and the bird does not descend into the valleys except when pressed by
hunger.

The specific title of 3Io7iachus, or " monk," has been given to this
species on account of the hood-like ruff" around its neck, which is thought
to bear a fanciful resemblance to the hood of a monk.

The Alpine or Egyptian Vulture is, as its name imports, an in-
habitant of Egypt and Southern Europe. It is also found in many

parts of Asia, and, as it has
once been captured on our
shores, has been placed in the
list of British birds.

The general color of the
adult bird is nearly white
with the exception of the
quill feathers of the wing,
which are dark brown. The
face, bill, and legs are bright
yellow, so that the aspect of
the bird is sufl[iciently curious.
The sexes are clothed alike
when adult. On account of
the color of its plumagp, the Egyptian Vulture is popularly termed the
White Crow by the Dutch colonists, and Akbobas, or " White
Father," by the Turks. It is also familiarly known by the name of
Pharaoh's Chicken, because it is so frequently represented in the

The Alpine or Egyptian Vulture

(Neophron percnopterus).

THE GOLDEN EAGLE. 287

hieroglyphical inscriptions of Egypt. When young the color of its
plumage is a chocolate brown, tte neck and shoulders are covered with
gray-tipped feathers, and the beak and feet are a very dull ochry yellow.
The white plumage of the adult state is not attained until the bird has
completed its third year.

As is the case with the Vultures in general, the Egyptian Vulture is
protected from injury by the strictest laws, a heavy penalty being laid
upon any one who should wilfully destroy one of these useful birds.
Secure under its human protection, the bird walks fearlessly about the
streets of its native land, perches upon the houses, and, in common
with the pariah dogs, soon clears away any refuse substances that are
thrown into the open streets in those evil-smelling and undrained local-
ities. This bird will eat almost anything which is not too hard for its
beak, and renders great service to the husbandman by devouring
myriads of lizards, rats, and mice, which would render all cultivation
useless were not their numbers kept within limits by the exertion of
this useful Vulture. It has also been seen to feed on the nara, a rough
water-bearing melon, in common with cats, leopards, mice, ostriches,
and many other creatures. The eggs of the ostrich are said to.be a
favorite food with the Egyptian Vulture, who is unable to break their
strong shells with his beak, but attains his object by carrying a great
pebble in the air and letting it drop upon the eggs.

The wings of this species are extremely long in proportion to the
size of the bird, and their lofty soaring flight is peculiarly graceful.
It is but a small bird in comparison with many of those which have
already been mentioned, being not much larger than the common rook
of Europe. The nest of the Egyptian Vulture is made upon the shelf
or in the cleft of a lofty rock, and the gray-white eggs are three or
four in number. It is a curious fact that during the season of repro-
duction the male bird slightly changes his aspect, the yellow bill,
becoming orange, and retaining that tint until the breeding season is
over. Like many rapacious animals and birds, the Egyptian Vulture
does not disdain to feed on insects, and has been observed in the act
of following a ploughman along his furrow^s, picking up the worms
and frrubs after the fashion of the common rook.

EAGLES.

Next in order to the Vultures are placed the splendid birds which
are so familiar to us under the general title of Eagles, and which
form the first group of the great family Falconidse, which includes the
Eagles, Falcons, and Hawks.

The first, and one of the finest, of thes^ grand birds is the well-known
Golden Eagle. This magnificent bird is spread over a large portion

288

THE GOLDEN EAGLE.

of the world, being found in the British Islands, and in various parts
of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. The color of this bird is a
rich blackish brown on the greater part of the body, the head and

neck being covered with
feathers of a rich golden
red, which have earned
for the bird its popular
name. The legs and
sides of the thighs are
gray-brown, and the tail
is a deep gray, diversified
with several regular dark-
brown bars. In its imma-
ture state the plumage of
the Golden Eagle is differ-
ently tinged, the whole of
the feathers being reddish
brown, the legs and sides
of the thighs nearly white,
ajid the tail white for the
first three-quarters of its
length. So different an
aspect does the immature
bird present that it has
often been reckoned as
a separate species, and
named accordingly. It is a truly magnificent bird in point of size,
for an adult female measures about three feet six inches in length,
and the expanse of her wings is nine feet. The male is less by nearly
six inches.

In England the Golden Eagle has long been extinct, but it is still
found in some plenty in the highlands of Scotland and Ireland, where
it is observed to frequent certain favorite haunts, and to breed regular-
ly in the same spot for a long series of years. The nest is always made
upon some elevated spot, generally upon a ledge of rock, and is most
inartistically constructed of sticks, which are throw^n apparently at
random, and rudely arranged for the purpose of containing the eggs
and young. A neighboring ledge of rock is generally reserved for a
larder, where the parent Eagles store up the food which they bring from
the plains below.

In hunting for their prey, the Eagle and his mate mutually assist
each other. It may here be mentioned that the Eagles are all monog-
amous, keeping themselves to a single mate, and living together in
perfect harmony through their lives. As the rabbits and hares are

Eagles.
Ring-tail Eafflc. 2.

Sea Eagle.

THE OSPREY.

289

generally under cover during the day, the Eagle is forced to drive them
from their place of concealment, and manages the matter in a very
clever and sportsmanlike manner. One of the Eagles conceals itself
near the cover which is to be beaten, and its companion then dashes
among the bushes, screaming and making such a disturbance that the
terrified inmates rush out in hopes
of escape, and are immediately
pounced upon by the watchful
confederate.

The prey is immediately taken
to the ne^t, and distributed to the
young if there should be any ea-
glets in the lofty cradle.

Owing to the expanse of the
wings and the great power of the
muscles, the flight of this bird is
peculiarly bold, striking, and
graceful. It sweeps through the
air in a succession of spiral
curv^es, rising with every spire, and
making no perceptible motion with
its wings, until it has attained an
altitude at which it is hardly vis-
ible. From that post of vantage
the Eagle marks the ground be-
low, and swoops down with light-
ning rapidity upon bird or beast
that may happen to take its fancy.

It is not, however, so active at ris- ^ ^ ^ / . ., ,

/. ■ , J -1x1 The GoT.D'E^ Eagi.^ (Aquila clirysaetos).

ing irom the ground as might be \ i ^y ^

imagined, and can be disabled by a comparatively slight injury on the
wing. One of these birds, that was detected by a young shepherd-boy
in the act of devouring some dead sheep, was disablec^ by a pebble hurl-
ed at him from a sling, and was at last ignominiously stoned to death.

The Eagle is supposed to be a very long-lived bird, and is thought
tocompassacenturyof existence when it is living wild and unrestrained
in its native laud. Even in captivity it has been known to attain a
good old age, one of these birds which lived at Vienna being rather
more than a hundred years old when it died.

One of the most interesting of the predaceous birds which belong
to Great Britain is the celebrated Osprey, or Fishing Haw^k. This
fine bird was formerly very common in England, but is now but rarely
seen within the confines of the British Isles, although isolated species
are now and then seen.

2i T

290 THE OSPREY.

As the bird is a fish-eater, it is geDerally observed on the seacoast
or on the banks of some large river, but has occasionally been observed
in some comparatively waterless situation, where it has probably been
driven by stress of weather. In some parts of Scotland the Osprey
still holds its own, and breeds year after year on the same spot, gen-
erally choosing the summit of an old ruined building or the top of a

large tree for that purpose. The
nest is a very large one, composed
almost wholly of sticks, and con-
tains two or three whitish eggs,
largely blotched with reddish
brown, the dark patches being
collected toward the large end
of the egg. As is the case with
the Eagles, the Osprey is mo-
nogamous ; but on the death of
either of the pair the survivor
The Osprey or Fish Hawk {Pandion ^^^^ f^^^^ another mate, and is
haliaetus). ^ • i ^ i i v

straightway consoled by a new

alliance. From all accounts it is an affectionate and domestic bird,
paying the greatest attention to its mate and home, and displaying a
constancy which is not to be surpassed by that of the turtle-dove, so
celebrated for matrimonial felicity.

The flight of the Osprey is peculiarly easy and elegant, as might be
expected from a bird the length of whose body is only twenty-two inches
and the expanse of wing nearly five feet and a half. Living almost
wholly on fish, the Osprey sails in wide undulating circles, hovering
over the water and intently watching for its prey. No sooner does a
fish come into view than the Osprey shoots through the air like a
meteor, descends upon the luckless fish with such force tliat it drives
a shower of spray in every direction, and, soon emerging, flies away to
its nest, bearing its prey in its grasp. In order to enable it to seize and
retain so slippery a creature as a fish, the claws of the Osprey are long,
curved, and very sharp, the soles of the feet are rough, and the outer
toe is capable of great versatility. When the bird has settled upon its
nest, or upon any spot where it intends to eat its prey, it does not relin-
quish its hold, but, as if fearful that the fish should escape, continues
its grasp, and daintily picks away the flesh from betw^een its toes.

Harmless though the Osprey be — except to the fish — it is a much
persecuted bird, being not only annoyed by rooks and crows, but rob-
bed by the more powerful white-headed Eagle. Mr. Thompson records
an instance where an Osprey, which had been fishing in Loch Kuthven,
was greatly harassed by an impertinent Royston crow, which attacked
the noble bird as soon as it had caught a fish, and, as if knowing that

THE BALD EAGLE.

291

it was incapable of retaliation, actually struck it while on the wing.
The Osprey kept quietly on its way, but was so wearied by the re-
peated attacks of the crow that when pursued and pursuer had van-
ished out of sight, the poor Osprey had not been able to commence his
repast.

The general color of the Osprey is dark brown, but it is pleasingly
variegated with various shades of black, gray, and white. The crown
of the head and the nape ot the neck are covered with long gray-white
feathers, streaked with dark brown. The under surface of the body is
white, with the exception of a light-brown band which extends across
the chest. The primaries are brown tipped with black, and the tail is
barred above with a light and a deep brown, and below with brown and
white. The legs, toes, and cere are blue, the eyes golden yellow, and
the beak and claws black.

The noble bird which is represented below is celebrated as being
the type which has been chosen by the Americans as the emblem of
their nation.

The name of Bald or White-headed Eagle has been applied to
this bird on account of the snowv-white color, of the head and neck —

The Bald or White-headed Eagle {Haiiaetus Leucocephalus).

a peculiarity which renders it a most conspicuous bird when at large in
its native land. The remainder of the body is a deep chocolate brown,
inclining to black along the back. The tail and upper tail-coverts are
of the same white hue as the head and neck. In its earlier stages of
existence the creature is of more sombre tints, not obtaining the beauti-
fully white head and tail until it is four years of age.

The nest of the Bald Eagle is generally made upon some lofty tree,
and in the course of years becomes of very great size, as the bird is in

292 THE COMMON BUZZARD.

the habit of laying her eggs year after year in the same nest, and mak-
ing additions of new building materials at every fresh breeding season.
She commences this task at a very early period of the year, deposit-
ing her eggs in January, and hatching her young by the middle of
February.

It is always a very affectionate bird, tends its young as long as they
are helpless and unfledged, and will not forsake them even if the tree
on which they rest be enveloped in flames.

The Bald Eagle often takes advantage of the fishing talents of the
Osprey by robbing the lesser bird of its prey. The Eagle is, in truth,
no very great fisher, but is very fond of fish, and finds that the easiest
mode of obtaining the desired dainty is to rob those who are better qual-
ified than himself for the sport.

The Bald Eagle is very accommodating in his appetite, and will eat
almost anything that has ever possessed animal life. He is by no means
averse to carrion, and has been seen seated regally upon a dead horse,
keeping at a distance a horde of vultures which were collected round
the carcase, and not permitting them to approach until he had gorged
himself to the full. Another individual was seen by Wilson under sim-
ilar circumstances. He had taken possession of a heap of dead squir-
rels that had been accidentally drowned, and prevented any other bird
or beast of prey from approaching his treasure. He is especially fond
of lambs, and is more than suspected of aiding the death of many a
sickly sheep by the dexterous use of his beak and claws.

The Bald Eagle is found throughout the whole of North America,
and may be seen haunting the greater part of the sea-coasts as well as
the mouths of the large rivers.

The Common Buzzard is one of the handsomest of the F.ilconidae,
and is one which, although banished from the greater part of England,
is still found plentifully in many parts of Scotland and Ireland.

The plumage of this bird is looser and more downy than is seen in the
generality of the hawk tribe, and bears a certain resemblance to that of
the owl. This peculiarity is explained by the habits of the bird, which
will presently be narrated. The average length of a Buzzard is from
twenty to twenty-two inches, and the tinting of its plumage is extremely
variable, even in adult birds. The usual coloring is as follows : The
back and whole of the upper surface are a rich brown, becoming
lighter on the head and neck, and diversified with longitudinal streaks
of the darker hue. The tail is also dark brown, but is varied with
stripes of a lighter color, and the primary feathers of the wings are
nearly black. The under portions of the body are gray-white, marked
on the neck, chest, and abdomen with spots and streaks of brown. The
claws are black, the bill is a deep blue-black, and the legs, toes, and
ears are yellow.

THE KITE.

293

• ' The nest of the Buzzard is made either in some suitable tree or upon
the rocks, according to the locality, and is generally composed of grass
and heather stems, intermingled with long, soft roots, and lined with
wool, heather, leaves, and other substances.

The flight of the Buzzard is rather variable. At times the bird
seems inspired with the very soul of laziness, and contents itself with
pouncing leisurely upon its prey and returning to
the branch on which it has been perched. Some-
times, however, and especially in the breeding sea-
son, it rises high in the air, and displays a power
of wing and an easy grace of flight which would
hardly be anticipated from its formerly sluggish
movements. This fine bird may still be seen in
the New Forest, where I have often watched its
airy circling flight.

The Kite may be known, even on the wing,
from all other British birds of prey, by its beau-
tifully easy flight and the long forked tail. In-
deed, while flying the Kite bears no small resem-
blance to a very large swallow, excepting that the
flight is more gliding and the wings are seldom
flapped.

It was in former days one of the commonest of
the British birds, swarming in every forest, build-
ing its nest near every village, and being the great-
est pest of the farmer and poultry-keeper, on ac-
count of its voracity, craft, and swiftness. Even The American Buz-
the metropolis was filled with these birds, which
acted the same part that is played by vultures in more eastern lands,
and were accustomed to haunt the streets for the purpose of eating the
ofllil which was so liberally flung out of doors in the good old times,
and which, but for the providential instincts of the Kites, would have
been permitted to decompose in the open streets.

In the present day, however, the Kite is comparatively seldom seen
in England, and when observed is of suflScient rarity to be mentioned
in the floating records of natural history.

The flight of this bird is peculiarly easy and graceful, as the wings
are seldom flapped, and the Kite sails through the air as by the mere
power of volition. From the gliding movements of the Kite when on
the wing it has derived the name of Gled, from the old Saxon word
glida. When in pursuit of prey the Kite sails in circles, at a consid-
erable height from the ground, watching with its penetrating gaze the
ground beneath, and sweeping with unerring aim upon any bird, quad-
ruped, or reptile that may take its fancy.
2o®

294

FOOD AND NEST OF THE KITE.

The food of the Kite is rather general in its nature, consisting of va-
rious quadrupeds, young rabbits, hares, rats, mice, and moles, of which
latter animals no less than twenty-two were discovered in the nest of a
single Kite, showing how rapid and noiseless must be its movements
when it can secure so wary and keen-eared an animal as a mole. It
does not chase the swift-winged birds through the air, but pounces on

many a partridge as it sits on the
ground, and is remarkably fond
of taking young and unfledged
birds from their nests ; reptiles
of different kinds, such as
snakes, frogs, lizards, and newts,
also form part of its food, and it
will not disdain to pick up a bee
or a grasshopper when it can find
no larger prey. The Kite is also
a good fisher, waging nearly as
successful war against the finny
inhabitants of the rivers or
ponds as the Osprey itself,
sweeping suddenly down upon
the fish as they rise to the sur-
face in search of food or in their
accustomed gambollings, and
bearing them away to the shore,
where it settles down and eats
them in peace.

The nest of the Kite is built
chiefly with sticks as a founda-
tion, upon which is placed a
The Mississippi Kite. j^^.^^ of moss, wool, hair, and

other soft and warm articles. The locality which is chosen for the nest
is generally in some thick wood, and the bird prefers a strong, forked
branch for the resting-place. The eggs are generally two in number,
and sometimes three, of a grayish or light-brownish white color, speckled
with reddish chestnut blotches, which, as is the case with so many hawks'
eggs, are gathered toward the larger end.

The ordinary length of the common Kite is about twenty inches,
but the sexes are rather variable in that respect, the females being al-
ways larger than the males. The coloring of the bird is very elegant,
although composed of few tints, and is remarkable more on account of the
delicate gradations and contrasts of hue than for any peculiar brilliancy
of the feathers. The general aspect of the Kite is reddish brown,
which on a close inspection is resolved into the following tints : The

THE SWALLOW-TAILED KITE. 295

back and upper portions are dark brown, relieved by a reddish tinge
upon the edges of tlie feathers ; the primaries are black, and the upper
tail-coverts chestnut. There is a little white upon the edges of the
tertiaries, and the head and back of the neck are covered with grayish-
white feathers, the centre of each feather being streaked with brown.
The forked tail is reddish brown, barred on the under surface with
dark brown stripes, the centre lieathers being the darkest. The chin
and throat are colored like the head, and the abdomen and under por-
tions are reddish brown. The under tail-coverts are white, with a
slight reddish tinge, and the under surface of the rectrices is also
white, but washed with gray.

The beautiful bird which is so well known under the appropriate title
of the Swallow-tailed Kite is ^n inhabitant of various parts of
America, though it has occasionally been noticed on the British shores.

This bird bears so strong an external resemblance to the swallow that
it might easily be taken for a common swallow or swift, as it flies cir-
cling in the air in search of the insect prey on which it usually feeds.
Even the flight is very much of the same character in both birds, and
the mode of feeding very similar. The usual food of the Swallow-
tailed Kite consists of the larger insects, which it either catches on the
wing or snatches I'rom the leaves as it shoots past the bushes. Rep-
tiles, such as small snakes, lizards, and frogs, also form part of the
food of this elegant bird. While it is engaged in the pursuit of such
prey, or in catching the large insects upon the branches, it may be ap-
proached and shot without much difficulty, as it is so intent upon its
prey that it fails to notice its human foe.

The nest of the Swallow-tailed Kite is generally found on the very
summit of some lofty rock or pine, and is almost invariably in the near
vicinity of water. It is composed of small sticks externally, and is
lined with grasses, moss, and feathers. The eggs are rather more nu-
merous than is generally the case with the hawks, being from four to
six in number. Their color is white with a greenish tinge, and they
are marked with some dark brown blotches which are gathered toward
the larger end. There is only one brood in the year, and when the
young birds are first hatched th^y are covered with a uniformly buft-
colored downy coat. The color of the adult bird is variable, consist-
ing mostly of white and black, but, on account of the bold manner in
which their hues are contrasted, is remarkably pleasing in its effect.
The back, the upper part of the wings, with the exception of the inner
webs of the tertiaries, upper tail-coverts, and rectrices, are a deep pur-
ple-black, the head, neck, and all other parts of the plumage being
pure white. The legs and toes are blue with a green tinge, the cere is
blue, and the beak blue-black. The claws are orange-brown. The
length of this bird averages twenty inches.

296

THE JER-FALCOK

The true Falcons are known by their strong, thick, and curved beak,
the upper mandible having a projecting tooth near the curve, which
fits into a corresponding socket in the under mandible. The talons
are strongly curved, sharp-pointed, and are either flat or grooved in
their under' sides. The Falcons all obtain their prey by striking it
while on the wing ; and with such terrible force is the attack made
ihat a Peregrine Falcon has been known to strike the head completely
from the shoulders of its quarry, while the mere
force of its stroke, without the use of its claws,
is sufficient to kill a pigeon or a partridge and
send it dead to the ground.

In striking their prey the Falcons make no
use of the beak, reserving that weapon for the
purpose of completing the slaughter when they
and the wounded quarry are struggling on the
ground.

Among the true Falcons the Jer-falcon is
the most conspicuous on account of tlie superior
dimensions of its bo_dy and the striking power
of its wing.

This splendid bird is a native of Northern
Europe, being mostly found in Iceland and
Norway, and it also inhabits parts of both
Americas. Some naturalists believe that the
Norwegian and Icelandic birds ought to be
reckoned as different species, but others think
The Rofgh-leggtcdFal- that any differences between them are occa-

COyi [talco laqopus). . i , *^ -, t. • • i i . r. i

^ ^ ' sioned by age and sex. It is said tliat of the
two birds the Iceland variety is the more powerful, of bolder flight, and
greater age, and therefore better adapted for the purpose of falconry.
Som-timos it is seen in the northern parts of the British Islands, having
evidently flown over the five hundred miles or so of sea that divides
Scotland from Iceland ; tiiis journey, however, is no difficult task for
the Jer-falcon, who is quite capable of paying a mornini^ visit to these
islands and returning to its home on the same day. In 1859 one of these
birds was shot in Northumberland, and others have been observed in
the more southern counties. Toward the south, however, it has seldom
if ever been observed.

The color of the adult Jer-falcon is nearly white, being purely white
on the under surface and flecked with narrow transverse bars of gray-
ish brown upon the upper parts. The sharp claws are black, the beak
of a bluish tint, and the cere, tarsus, and toes yellow. When young,
however, the bird presents a very different aspect, and would hardly be
recognized as belonging to the same species. In its earlier stages of

THE PEREGRINE FALCON.

297

life it is almost wholly of a grayish-brown tint, the feathers beiug
slightly marked with a little white upon their edges. As the bird
increases in age the white edges become wider, and by degrees the
entire feather is of a snowy
whiteness. The name Jer- fal-
con is supposed to be a cor-
ruption of " Geier-falcou," or
Vulture Falcon.

Less powerful but more
graceful than the Jer-falcon, the
Peregrine Falcon has ever
held the first place among the
hawks that are trained for the
chase.

When thorouirhly tamed the
Peregrine Falcon* displays a The Winter Falcon (Fa/co %maizs).

very considerable amount of attachment to its owner, and even while
flying at perfect liberty will single him out from a large company, fly
voluntarily toward him, and perch lovingly on his hand or shoulder.

It will chase and kill many of the coast birds, such as the dunlin, the
gull, and the plover. The curlew is a very favorite prey, and, being a
strong-winged bird, affords great sport. It is rather remarkable that
the dunlin, together with birds of similar habits, flies instinctively to
the sea, lake, or river when attacked by the Peregrine Falcon, as if

The Peregrine Falcon or Great-footed Hawk {Falco perecjrinus).

knowing that the winged hunter is very unwilling to swoop upon any
object that is flying upon the surface of the water. The Falcon has
been seen to drive a dunlin repeatedly into the sea before it could
intercept the poor bird between the dry land and its watery refuge:
It will also strike at the gray crows or at herons, but unless specially
trained to the pursuit will not trouble itself further about them. '
The full speed of the Peregrine Falcon has been computed at a hun-
dred and fifty miles per hour, and a single chase will often occupy a

298 THE HOBBY.

space of eight or ten miles. Its power of wiug is useful not only in
enabling it to wage successful pursuit of swift-winged birds, but in giv-
ing it sufficient buoyancy to carry off' the prey which it has secured.
So strong is the Peregrine's wing that it has often been observed to bear
in its talons a bird larger than itself, and carry it to the nest without
difficulty. Even a guillemot has been struck and carried off* by the
Peregrine.

The eggs of this bird are generally two or three in number, although
a fourth is sometimes known to be laid in the same nest. The color
of the egg is a very pale reddish brown, usually mottled with a darker
tint.

In its adult state the Peregrine Falcon is very elegantly colored.
Tlie top of the head, the back of the neck, the primaries, and a stripe
beneath the eye are of a deep black-brown ; the upper parts of the
body are ashy brown, the latter tint becoming fainter in each success-
ive moult, and being always marked with a series of dark bars upon
its back, tail, and wing-coverts ; the breast is white, deepening 'into a
chestnut hue, and being barred transversely with reddish brown upon
the breast, and marked on the front of the throat with longitudinal
dashes of very dark brown. The remainder of the under plumage is
grayish white, profusely barred with dark brown. When young the
plumage is altogether of a more ruddy hue, and the birds are termed,
in the language of falconry, Red Tercels or Red Falcons, according to
their sex.

The small but exquisitely-shaped Hobby is found spread over the
greater part of the Old World, specimens having been taken in Northern
Africa and in many portions of Asia, as well as in Europe, which seems
to be its chief residence. It was formerly very common in England,
but is year by year less seldom seen in that island, as is the case with
all its predaceous relations. From all accounts it seems to be rather a
local bird, being partially influenced by the nature of the ground and
the quantity of food which it is able to procure.

This bird appears to favor inland and well-wooded lands rather than
the seashore or the barren rocks, thus presenting a strong contrast to
the Peregrine Falcon. We may find an obvious reason for this prefer-
ence in the fact that a considerable proportion of its food is composed
of the larger insects, especially of the fjit-bodied beetles, which it seizes
on the wing. Chafers of various kinds are a favorite prey with the
Hobby, and in several cases the stomachs of Hobbies that had been
shot were found to contain nothing but the shelly portions of the larger
dung-chafer (Geotrupes stercorarius). As, therefore, the common cock-
chafer is a leaf-eating insect and frequents forest lands for the purpose
of attaining its food, the Hobby will be found constantly in the same
locality for the object of feeding on the cock-chafer. And as the

THE MERLIN.

299

dung-chafer swarms wherever cattle are most abundantly uourished,
the Hobby is attracted to the same spot for the sake of the plentiful
supply of food which it can obtain.

Although of the smallest of the British Falconidse, being only from
ten to thirteen inches in length, according to the sex of the individual,
the Merlin is one of the most dashing and brilliant of all the hawks
which frequent Great Britain.

This beautiful little bird is almost invaluable to the young falconer,
as it is so docile in disposition and so remarkably intelligent in character
that it repays his
instructions much
sooner than any of
the more showy but
less teachable fal-
cons. Every move-
ment of this admi-
rable little hawk is
full of life and vi-
vacity; its head
turns sharply from
side to side as it
sits on its master's
hand ; its eyes al-
most flame with
fiery eagerness, and
it ever and anon
gives vent to its
i m p a ti e n c e by a
volley of ear-pier-
cing shrieks.

Before the young
bird, is able to tear
to pieces its winged
prey, it should al-
ways be accustom-
ed to have its food
placed upon the
stuffed skin of a
partridge, and
when it has at-
tained sufficient
strength the breast of a real partridge should be cut open, and a small
portion of its ordinary food placed within the aperture, so as to encour-
age the bird to tear away the flesh in order to satiate its hunger. The

Merlj^s {Hypoti wichib cesalon)

300 THE STONE FALCON.

next step is to substitute an entire partridge for the ordinary diet, and by
degrees to teach it to pounce upon the dead bird as it is flung to a daily-
increasing distance. It is a good pigeon-hunter; and if the owner
choose to train it for smaller game, it is unrivalled as a chaser of
thrushes, larks, and similar birds, owing to the pertinacity with which
it carries on the pursuit, and the resolutely agile manner w^ith which it
will thread the mazes of branch and leaf in chase of a bird which seeks
for refuge in the covert.

The Merlin frequently breeds in England, and makes its nest on the
ground, generally choosing for that purpose some spot where large
stones are tolerably plentiful and may serve as a protection to the nest,
as well as for a perch, on which the Merlin, like the Harrier, loves to
sit and survey the prospect. From this habit of perching on pieces
of stone it has derived the name of Stone Falcon, a title which has
been applied to this bird in Germany and France as well as in Eng-
land. Sometimes, but not often, the nest is made on some rocky shelf
on a precipice. The eggs are four or five in numb3r, of a light reddish
brown hue, covered with mottlings and splashings of a deeper tint.

The color of the Merlin is very pleasing, but not very easy to de-
scribe, as it is not so conspicuous as in many of the hawks, and more-
over is rather different in the two sexes.

The top of the head is a slaty gray, marked with dark streaks run-
ning along the line of the head ; the beak and upper portions of the
body are of a similar slaty gray, but without the dark lines. The
shafts of each feather are, however, of a dark brown, and give a very
rich and peculiar coloring to those portions of the plumage. The
pinions are black ; the upper surface of the tail is neirly gray, with
the exception of three faint dark bands, the last being the broadest,
and the tip white. The chin and throat are white, and the under
parts of the body are reddish fawn, thickly marked with patches of
a darker color and streaks of deep brown. The cere, legs, and toes
are yellow, the claws black, and the beak a slaty gray, deepening
toward the point, and slightly marked with longitudinal dark lines.
Round the neck runs a band of pale reddish brown, which also extends
to the cheeks, and there forms a patch on each side.
, This description belongs to the male bird, the coloring of the female
being of a rather different nature. The beautiful blue-gray which
tints the upper parts of the male bird is in the female of a dark red-
dish brown, marked with slender longitudinal streaks covered by the
black-brown shafts of each feather. The secondaries and the wing-
coverts are of the same hue as the back. The tail is brown, varied
Kvith five narrow streaks of dark brown, and the under surface of the
■body is a very pale brown, marked with longitudinal dashes of a darker
iiue. The young of both sexes are nearly alike for the first year, after

THE KESTREL.

301

which time the males assume their peculiar coloring, and the females
retain the same tints.

The common Kestrel is one of the most familiar of the British
hawks, being seen in almost every part of the country where a mouse,
a lizard, or a beetle may be found.

It may easily be distinguished while on the wing from any other
hawk by the peculiar manner in which it remains poised in air in a
single spot, its head invari-
ably pointing toward the
wind, its tail spread, and its
wings widely extended, almost
as if it were a toy kite raised
in the air by artificial means,
and preserved in the same
spot by the trammels of a
string. While hanging thus
strangely suspended in the
air, its head is bent down-
ward, and its keen eyes glance
restlessly in every direction,
watching every blade of grass
beneath its ken, and shooting
down with unerring certainty
of aim upon any unhappy
field-riiouse that may be fool-
ish enough to poke his red
face out of his hole while the

Kestrel is on the watch. rr^ ^ ,r^ ,>,,,. x

rr«i u X? XX ^^ • The Kestrel (Tinnunctdm Ahmdarius).

ihe number or neld-mice ^ ^

consumed by this hawk is very great, for it is hardly possible to open
the stomach of a Kestrel without finding the remains of one or more
of these destructive little animals. On account of its mouse-eating
propensities, the Kestrel is a most useful bird to the farmer, who in
his ignorance confounds all hawks together, and now shoots the Kes-
trel which catches mice because kites used formerly to steal chickens.

In the use of its claws the Kestrel is remarkably quick and ready,
and, being also a swift-winged bird, it is in the habit of chasing cock-
chafers and other large beetles on the wing, and catching them neatly
with its claws as it shoots past their course. Without pausing in its
flight, the bird transfers the insect from the foot to the mouth, and eats
it without taking the trouble to alight. With such eagerness does it
pursue this kind of prey — which we may suppose to be taken as a des-
sert after a more substantial meal upon mouse-flesh — that it continues
its chase far into the evening, and may be seen in hot pursuit of the
26

302 THE KESTREL.

high-flying beetles h)ng after dusk. Caterpillars and other larvte are
also eaten by the Kestrel, which does not disdain to alight on the ground
and draw the earthworms out of their holes.

Mice, however, are always its favorite diet; and, as the multiplica-
tion of these little pests is much increased by the abundant food which
they find in cultivated grounds, and stacks and barns, the Kestrel has
learnt to attach itself to human residences, instead of becoming self-ban-
ished, as is the case with almost every other hawk. There is hardly a
village where the Kestrel may not be seen hovering with outspread
wings and surveying the fields below.

With the aid of a good telescope, every movement of the bird may be
discovered as it hangs in the air, and the sight is a very interesting one.
Its wings keep up a continual shivering, its widely-spread tail is occa-
sionally moved so as to suit the slight changes of the breeze, the spirited
little head is in perpetual motion, and the dark brown eyes gleam with
animation as they keep their restless watch. It seems from various ob-
servations that each Kestrel has its regular beat or hunting-grounds,
au'l may be observed punctually repairing to the same spot at the
same hour, much after the manner of the golden eao-le.

The Kestrel is known by various names in different parts of the
country.

Its most common name is Windhover, in allusion to its peculiar mode
of flight. For the same reason it is termed Stannel, Stand-gall, or
Stand-gale, and has also obtained the title of Vanner Hawk.

The nest of the Kestrel is generally placed upon the topmost bough
of some lofty tree, although it is sometimes found upon a ledge of some
precipitous cliff, should the bird have taken up its residence in a moun-
tainous country. Many of these birds have built their nests upon the
rocky heights of Dovedale in Derbyshire, and may be seen hovering in
mid-air near the spot where their young are nourished. The nest itself
is a very simple construction of sticks and moss ; and the bird is so
averse to trouble that it often takes possession of the deserted nest of
the carrion crow. I have several times been greatly surprised in my
nest-hunting expeditions by finding the ruddy eggs of the Kestrel lying
in the nest which I thought to be only that of the crow. This bird 'also
deposts its eggs in the crannies of old ruined buildings and lofty towers,
but I have never as yet been fortunate enough to find them in such a
situation.

The color of the male Kestrel is briefly as follows : The head, cheeks,
and back of the neck are ashen gray, marked with narrow longitudinal
streaks of deeper gray. The back and upper portions of the body, to-
gether with the tertiaries and wing-coverts, are bright ruddy fawn, dot-
ted with little triangular black spots, caused by the extreme tips of the
feathers being black. The larger quill feathers of the wing are black-

THE GOSHAWK.

303

gray, marked with a paler hue ; the under portions of the body are pale
reddish fawn, marked with dark streaks on the chest and spotted on the
abdomen ; the thighs and under tail-coverts are of the same hue as the
abdomen, but without the spots. The upper surface of the tail is of the
same hue as the head, marked with a single broad band of black near
its extremity and tipped with white, while its under surface is gray-
white, marked with a number of narrow irregular bars of a darker hue,
in addition to the black band and white tip, which are the same as on
the upper surface. The legs, toes, cere, and orbits of the eyes are yel-
low, the claws are black, and the beak is slaty blue, deepening toward
the point.

The females and young males are differently marked, and are alto-
gether of a darker and more ruddy hue. The head and neck are ruddy
fawn, marked with many transverse
.darker stripes, and the back, upper
portions, and tail are red-brown cov-
ered with numerous irregular blue-
black bars. The males do not as-
sume their appropriate plumage until
they have completed their first year.
The length of the male bird is about
thirteen inches, and that of the fe-
male fifteen inches.

We now come to a large and im-
portant genus of Hawks, which is
represented in England by the Gos-
hawk.

This handsome bird is even larger
than the jer-falcon, the length of an
adult male being eighteen inches, and
that of his mate rather more than two
feet. It is not, however, so powerful
or so swift-winged a bird as the jer-
falcon, and its mode of taking prey
is entirely different.

When trained, the Goshawk is best
employed at hares, rabbits, and other
furred game, and in this particular
sport is unrivalled. Its mode of hunting is singularly like that of the
chetah, Avhich has already been mentioned on page 67. Like that
animal, it is not nearly so swift as its prey, and therefore is obliged
to steal upon and seize its victim by a sudden and unexpected pounce.
When it has once grasped its prey it is rarely found to loose its hold,
even after the most violent struggles or the most furious attack.

The Goshawk {Astur palumbarius).

304

THE SPARROW HAWK.

This species is found spread over nearly the whole of Europe and;
Asia, and has also been seen in Northern Africa. The nest of this
bird is generally placed on the topmost boughs of some lofty tree, and
the eo-o-s are of a uniform spotless blue-white. Their number is from
three to four, and the young are hatched about May or the beginning
of June.

In color the adult birds of both sexes are very similar to each other,
the tinting of the plumage being, briefly, as follows: The top of the
head and the entire upper portions of the body and wings are gray-
brown, and the under portions of the body, together with a baud over
the cheeks and the back of the neck, are nearly white, diversified with
numerous irregular spots, splashes, and partial bars of black. The
cheeks and ear-coverts are dark grayish brown; the upper surface of
the tail is the same hue as the back, and barred with dark brown ; the
under tail coverts are white. The cere, legs, and toes are yellow, the
claws black, and the beak blue-black. In the female the gray-brown
of the back is a more ruddy hue, and in the young the plumage is
curiously diversified with reddish white, buflf, and gray.

The well-known Sparrow Hawk is almost as familiar to us as the
kestrel, the two birds being, indeed, often confounded with each other

by those who ought to know better.
This fine and active little bird is an
inhabitant of many portions of the
world, being very common in nearly
all parts of Europe, equally so in
Egypt and Northern Africa, and
being found very frequently in India
and other Asiatic countries.

The courage of the Sparrow Hawk
is of the most reckless character, for
the bird will fly unhesitatingly at
almost any other inhabitant of air,
no matter what its size may be.

In consequence of the headlong
courage possessed by this handsome
little hawk, it is very valuable to
the falconer if properly trained, for
it will dash at any quarry which
maybe pointed' out to it. Unfortu-
nately, however, the Sparrow Hawk
is one of the most difficult and re-
fractory of pupils, being shy to a
singular degree, slow at receiving a lesson, and quick at forgetting it.
Besides, its temper is of a very crabbed and uncertain nature, and it

The Sparrow Hawk {Accipiter

THE SECRETARY BIRD.

305

is so quarrelsome that if several of these birds should be fastened to
the same perch, or placed iu the same cage, they will certainly fight
each other, and, in all probability, the conqueror will eat his van-
quished foe. Such an event has actually occurred, the victrix — for it
was a female — killing and devouring her intended spouse.

One of these birds afforded an excellent example of the shyness above
mentioned. Althougli he was most kindly treated and liberally fed,
he used to scream in tlie most ear-piercing manner when approached,
even by the person who generally carried his food. The only compan-
ion whose presence he would tolerate was a little Skye terrier named
Rosy, and the two strangely-matched comrades used to execute the
most singular gambols together, the dog generally taking the initiative
and persecuting the Hawk, until she forced him to fly.

The nest of the Sparrow Hawk is placed in some elevated spot, and
contains three or four eggs, rather variable in their marking, but always
possessing a cer- ^^^ ..-.=_

tain unmistak- ^^^^^ ^^^^

able character.
The ground tint
of the egg is a
grayish white,
slightly tinged
with blue, and a
number of bold
blotches of a
very dark brown
are placed upon
the s u r f a c e ,
sometimes scat-
tered rather ir-
regularly, but
generally form-
ing a broad ring
round the larger
end. The bird
seldom troubles
itself to build a
new nest, but
takes possession
of the deserted
tenement of a
crow or rook.

The very re-
markable Secretary Bird derives its name from the curious feathery
26 « U .

The Secretary Bird {Serpentarius Secretarius).

306 THE HEN HARRIER.

pinnies which project from each side of its head, and bear a fanciful
resemblance to pens carried behind the ear by human secretaries.

It is an inhabitant of Southern Africa, and is most valuable in de-
stroying the serpent race, on which creatures it most exclusively feeds.
Undaunted by the deadly teeth of the cobra, the Secretary Bird comes
boldly to the attack, and, in spite of all the efforts of the infuriated and
desperate reptile, is sure to come off victorious. Many other creatures
fall victims to the ravenous appetite of the Secretary, and in the stom-
ach of one of these birds which was found by Le Vaillant were discov-
ered eleven rather large lizards, eleven small tortoises, a great number
of insects nearly entire, and three snakes as thick as a man's arm.

The nest of the Secretary is built on the summit of a lofty tree, and
contains two or three large white eggs.

The ordinary length of the adult Secretary Bird is about three feet,
and its color is almost wholly a slaty gray. The peculiar feathers
which form the crest are black, as are the primaries and the feathers
of the thigh. There is a lighter patch toward the abdomen. The tail
is black, with the exception of the two central rectrices, which are gray,
with a white tip and a broad black bar toward their extremities, v

We now arrive at the Harriers, probably so called because they
" harry " and persecute the game. Several species of this genus are found
in England, the most common of which is the Hen Harrier.

The Harrier may readily be distinguished from the other hawks by
the manner in which the feathers radiate around the eyes, forming a
kind of funnel-shaped depression, somewhat similar to, but not so per-
fect as, that of the owl. The flight of the Harrier is very low, being
seldom more than a few yards above the ground, and as the bird flies
along it beats every bush and pries into every little covert in search of
prey. There are few of the smaller animals that do not fall victims to
the Hen Harrier, which is always ready to pick up a field-mouse, a
lizard, a small snake, a newt, or a bird, and will pounce upon even so
large a bird as a partridge or a pheasant. Sometimes it sits on a stone
or small hillock, and from that post keeps up a vigilant watch on the
surrounding country, swooping off as soon as it observes indications of
any creature on which it may feed.

The flight of the Hen Harrier, although it is not remarkable for its
power, is yet very swift, easy, and gliding, and, as the bird quarters the
ground after its prey, is remarkably graceful. The Harriers prefer to
live on moors and similar localities, where they can pursue their rather
peculiar mode of hunting, and where thev may find a secluded spot
for a secure home. Like the kestrel, the Hen Harrier appears to have
regular hunting-grounds, and is very punctual in its visits. The nest
of this bird is generally placed under the shadow of some convenient
turze-bush, and is composed of a few sticks thrown loosely together, in

OWLS.

307

which are deposited four or five very pale blue eggs. The young are
hatched about the middle of June.

The two sexes differ very greatly in color, and until comparatively
recent times were recorded as distinct species. The general color of
the adult male is ashen
gray from the beak and
upper parts, the only ex-
ception being the prima-
ries, which are black. The
throat and chin are nearly
of the same hue as the
beak, but the chest and
abdomen are white, with a
slight blue tinge, which is
lost upon the plumage of
the thigh. On the under
surface of the tail are sev-
eral indistinct dark bars,
and the hair-like feathers
between the eye and the
base of the beak are
black. The legs, toes,
and cere are yellow, the
claws black, and the beak
nearly black, with a bluish
tinge. The length of the

male bird is about eigh- The Blue Hawk or Hen Harrier {Circus
teen inches. cyaneus).

The female is a much darker bird, the back and upper portions be-
ing of a deep dusky brown, and the primaries being but a little darker
than the plumage of the back. The feathers of the under parts are
lighter brown, with pale margins, so as to present a kind of mottled
buff and chestnut aspect; the upper surface of the tail is marked with
partial dark bands, and its under surface is very distinctly bound with
broad bands of black and grayish white. The funnel-shaped depres-
sion round the eyes — technically called the concha, or shell — is brown
toward the base of the feathers, but merges into a white eyebrow
above, reaching to the cere. Her length is about two inches more than
that of the male, and her spread of wing is about three feet six inches.

OWLS.

There are few groups of birds which are so decidedly marked as the
Owls, and so easy of recognition. The round, puffy head, the little

308

THE SNOWY OWL.

hooked beak just appearing from the downy plumage with which it is
surrounded, the large, soft, blinking eyes, and the curious disc of feathers
which radiate from the eye and form a funnel-shaped depression, are
such characteristic distinctions that an Owl, even of the least owl-like
aspect, can at once be detected and referred to its proper place in the
animal kingdom.

These birds are, almost without an exception, nocturnal in their
habits, and are fitted for their peculiar life by a most wonderfully
adapted form and structure. The eyes are so made as to take in every
ray of light, and are so sensitive to its influence that they are unable to
endure the glare of daylight, being formed expressly for the dim light
of evening or earliest dawn. An ordinary Owl of almost any species,
when brought into the full light of day, becomes quite bewildered with
the unwonted glare, and sits blinking uncomfortably in a pitiable
manner.

The Snowy Owl is one of the handsomest of this group — not so
much on account of its dimensions, which are not very considerable,

but by reason of the beautiful white
mantle with which it is clothed, and
the large orange eyeballs.

This bird is properly a native of
the North of Europe and America,
but has also a few domains in the
more northern parts of England, be-
ing constantly seen, though rather a
scarce bird, in the Shetland and
Orkney Islands, where it builds and
rears its young. Like the hawk owl,
it is a day-flying bird, and is a terrible
foe to the smaller mammalia and to
various birds.

In proportion to its size the Snowy
Owl is a mighty hunter, having been
detected in chasing the American
hare, and carrying off* wounded grouse
before the sportsman can secure his
prey. According to Yarrell, the
Swedish name of Harfang, which has
been given to this bird, is derived
froni its habit of feeding on hares. It is also a good fisherman,
posting itself on some convenient spot overhanging the water, and
securing its finny prey with a lightning-like grasp of the claw. Some-
times it will sail over the surfoce of the stream and snatch the fish as
they rise for food, but its general mode of angliug is that which has

The Snowy Owl (Nydea nivea).

THE BURROWING OWL. 309

just been mentioned. It is also a great eater of lemmings, and in the
destruction of these quadrupedal pests does infinite service to the agri-
culturist and the population in general.

The color of an old Snowy Owl is pure white without any markings
whatever, but in the earlier years of its life its plumage is covered with
numerous dark brown spots and bars, caused by a dark tip to each
feather. Upon the breast and abdomen these markings form short
abrupt curves, but on the back and upper surface they are nearly^
straight. The beak and claws are black. The length of the male
Snowy Owl is about twenty-two inches, and that of the female twenty-
six or twenty-seven.

The quaint, long-legged little Owl which is represented on page 310
is a native of many parts of America, where it inhabits the same local-
ity with the prairie dog. The description of that curious marmot and
its peculiar burrow may be found on pages 193-195.

The prairie-dogs and Burrowing Owls live together very harmoni-
ously, and this strange society is said also to be augmented by a third
member — namely, the rattlesnake. It is now, however, ascertained
with tolerable accuracy that the rattlesnake is nothing but a very un-
welcome intruder upon the marmot, and, as has been shown by the
Hon. G. F. Berkeley's experiments, is liable to be attacked and de-
stroyed by the legal owner of the burrow. If all had their rights, it
would seem that the Owl is nearly as much an intruder as the snake,
and that it only takes possession of the burrow excavated by the prai-
rie-dog in order to save itself the trouble of making a subterranean
abode for itself. Indeed, there are some parts of the country where
the Owl is perforce obliged to be its own workman, and, in default of
convenient " dog " burrows, is fain to employ its claws and bill in ex-
cavating a home for itself.

The tunnel which is made by the Owl is not nearly so deep or so
neatly constructed as that which is dug by the marmot, being only
eighteen inches or two feet in depth, and very rough in the interior.
At the bottom of this burrow is placed a tolerably-sized heap of dried
grass, moss, leaves, and other soft substances, upon which are deposited
its white-shelled eggs.

The Coquimbo Owl is by no means a nocturnal bird, facing the glare
of the mid-day sun without inconvenience, and standing at all times
in the day or evening on the little heaps of earth which are thrown up
at the entrance of the burrow. It is a lively little bird, moving about
among the burrows with considerable vivacity, rising on the wing if
suddenly disturbed, and making a short undulating aerial journey be-
fore it again settles upon the ground. When it has alighted from one
of these little flights it turns round and earnestly regards the pursuer.
Sometimes it will dive into one of the burrows, heedless of prior occu-

310

THE VIRGINIAN EARED-OWL.

pants, and thus it is that marmot, owl, and snake come to be found in

the same burrow.

The color of the Burrowing Owl is a rather rich brown upon the

upper parts of the body, diversified with a number of small gray-white

spots, and altogether
darker upon the upper
surface of the wings.
The under parts are gray-
ish white. The length of
the bird is not quite elev-
en inches. The cry of this
curious bird is unlike that
of anyother Owl, and bears
a very great resemblance
to the short, sharp bark
of the prairie dog.

We now arrive at a
large group of Owls
which are remarkable for
two tufts of feathers
which rise from the
A^ head, and occupy nearly
the same relative position
The Coquimbo ok Burrowing Owl {Athene ^s the ears of quadrupeds.
cuniculana). ^, >> .1

inese "ears, as they are

called, have, however, nothing to do with the organs of hearing, but are
simply tufts of feathers, which can be raised or depressed at the will of
the bird, and give a most singular expression to the countenance.

The Virginian Eared-Owl is found spread over the greater portion
of North America, and in former days did great damage among the
poultry of the agriculturists, being a bold as well as a voracious bird.
Now, however, the ever-ready rifle of the farmer has thinned its num-
bers greatly, and has inspired the survivors with such awe that they
mostly keep clear of cultivated lands, and confine themselves to seek-
ing after their legitimate prey.

It is a terrible destroyer of game, snatching up grouse, partridges,
hares, ducks, sparrows, squirrels, and many other furred and feathered
creatures, and not unfrequently striving after larger quarry. The wild
turkey is a favorite article of diet with this Owl ; but on account of
the extreme wariness of the turkey nature, the depredator finds an un-
seen approach to be no easy matter. The usual mode in which the
Owl catches the turkey is to find out a spot where its intended prey is
quietly sleeping at night, and then to swoop down suddenly upon the
slumbering bird before it awakes. Sometimes, however, the Owl is

THE BEOWN OWL.

311

baffled iu a very curious manner. When the turkey happens to be
roused by the rush of the winged foe, it instinctively ducks its head
and spreads its tail flatly over its back. The Owl, impinging upon
the slippery plane of stift* tail feathers, finds no hold for its claws, and
glides off the back of its intended victim, which immediately dives
into the brushwood before the Owl can recover from the surprise of its
unexpected failure.

The flight of this bird is remarkably powerful, easy, and graceful,
as may be gathered from the enormous expanse of wing in comparison
with the weight and dimensions of the body.
Its voice is of a hollow and weird-like character,
and when heard by night from some spot on
which the Owl has silently settled is apt to
cause many a manly cheek to pale. As Wil-
son well observes, the loud and sudden cry of
"Waugh O! Waugh O!" is sufficient to alarm
a whole garrison of soldiers. Probably on ac-
count of the peculiar sounds which are uttered
by this bird, the Cree Indians know it by the
name of Ottoumck-oho.

The Virginian Horned Owl takes up \is res-
idence in the deep swampy forests, where it re-
mains hidden during the day, and comes out at
night and morning, heralding its approach with
its loud unearthly cries, as of an unquiet, wan-
dering spirit. Sometimes, according to Wilson,
" he has other nocturnal solos, one of which very
strikingly resembles the half-suppressed screams
of a person suffocating or throttled." The Virginian Eared-

The common Brown Owl— or Tawny Owl, ^wl {Bubo Virgmianm).
as it is often named — is, with the exception of the Barn Owl, one of
the best known of the British Owls.

Although rather a small bird, being only about fifteen inches in total
length, it is possessed of a powerful pounce and an audacious spirit, and
when roused to anger or urged by despair is a remarkably unchancy
antagonist.

The food of this Owl is of a very varied nature, consisting of all the
smaller mammalia, many reptiles, some birds, fishes when it can get
them, and insects. It seems to be a good fisherman, and catches its
finny prey by waiting on the stones that project a little above the
water, and adroitly snatching the fish from the stream by a rapid
movement of the foot. Sometimes it flies at much higher game, espe-
cially when it has a young family to maintain, and will then attack
birds and quadrupeds of very great size when compared with its own

312 THE SCOPS EARED-OWL AND THE WHITE OWL.

dimensions. In a single nest of this bird have been found, according
to a writer in the Field, three young Owls, five leverets, four young
rabbits, three thrushes, and one trout weighing nearly half a pound.

The voice of the Brown Owl is a loud monotonous hoot that may be
often heard in the evening in localities where the bird has made its
home.

The nest is usually placed in the hollow of a tree, and contains sev-
eral white eggs. The fcolor of the Brown or Tawny Owl is an ashen
gray upon the upper parts of the body, variegated with chocolate and
wood-brown. Several whitish-gray bars are seen upon the primaries,
and there are several rows of whitish spots upon the wings and scapularies.
The facial disc is nearly white, edged with brown, and the under surface
of the body is of the same hue, covered with longitudinal mottlings of
variously-tinted brown. The claws are nearly white at their base,
darkening toward their extremities, and the beak is nearly of the
same color. The eyes are of a very dark black-blue.

This species is found in many parts of Europe, and is said to be one
of the indigenous birds of Japan.

We now come to an example of the British Owls, a bird that has at-
tracted great notice on account of its singular aspect.

The Scops Eared-owl has been once or twice found in Yorkshire,
but usually resides in the southern parts of the Continent. It is re-
markable for the regularity with which it
utters its monotonous cry, as if a person
Avere constantly repeating the letter Q; at
regular intervals of two seconds. It does
not seem to prey upon mice and other an-
imals, like most of its relations, but feeds
on large insects, such as beetles and grass-
hoppers. The size of this owl is very small,
as it measures only seven inches in length;
the third primary feather is the longest. It
ays from two to four white eggs in a simple
nest made*in a hollow tree or in a cleft in
the rock.

The best known of the British Owls is
the White, Barn, or Screech Owl, by
either of which appellations the bird is

^"T>Ji'^:^"i:^::;:!- f^^f'^^y ^-o.- over the whole of Eng-

land.

This delicately-colored and soft-plumed bird is always found near

human habitations, and is generally in the vicinity of farmyards, where

It loves to dwell, not for the sake of devouring the young poultry, but

of eating the various mice which make such havoc in the ricks, fields,

THE WHITE OWL. 313

and barns. The " feathered cat," as this bird has happily been termed,

is a terrible foe to mice, especially to the common field-mouse, great

numbers of which are killed daily by a single pair of Owls when they

are bringing up their young family. In the evening dusk, when the

mice begin to stir abroad in search of a mole, the Owl starts in search

of the mi(,.9, and with noiseless flight

quarters the ground in a sportsmanlike

and systematic manner, watching with

its great round eyes every movement

of a grass-blade, and catching with its

sensitive ears every sound that issues

from behind. Never a field-mouse can

come within ken of the bird's eye, or

make the least rustling among the leaves

within hearing of the Owl's ear, that is n. ^ -d.^ r\'^^''^%c, • n \

^ , ^ ^ , ^ , T rr,, 1 T^HE Barn Owl [Strix flammea).

not detected and captured. Ihe claws

are the instruments by which the Owl seizes its victim, and it does not

employ the beak until it desires to devour the prey.

This bird is easily tamed when taken young, and is a very amusing
pet. If properly treated, and fed with appropriate diet, it will live for
a considerable time without requiring very close attendance. Even if
it be set at liberty, and its wings permitted to reach their full growth,
it will voluntarily remain with its owner, whom it recognizes with evi-
dent pleasure, evincing its dislike of strangers by a sharp hiss and an
impatient snap of the bill.

The nest of this species is placed either in a hollow tree or in a crevice
of some old building, where it deposits its white, rough-surfaced eggs
upon a soft layer of dried " castings." These nests have a most ill-con-
ditioned and penetrating odor, which taints the hand which is intro-
duced, and cannot be removed without considerable care and several
lavations. The young are curious little puffs of white down, and the
Barn Owl is so prolific that it has been kno>vn to be sitting on one brood
of eggs while it is feeding the young of a previous hatching.

As may be supposed from its popular title of White Owl, this species
is very light in its coloring. The general color of this bird is buff of
different tints, with gray, white, and black variegations. The head
and neck are light bufl^, speckled slightly with black and white spots,
and the back and wings are of a deeper buff*, spotted with gray, black,
and white. The tail is also buff", with several broad bars of gray. The
facial disc is nearly white, becoming rusty brown toward the eye, and
a deeper brown round the edge.

The under surface of the male bird is beautifully white, the claws
are brown, the beak nearly white, and the eyes blue-black. The sexes
are very similar in their coloring, but the females and young males
27

314

GOAT-SUCKEKS.

may be distinguished by the under surface of the body, which is fawn
instead of white.

GOAT-SUCKERS.

With the owls closes the history of those birds which are called pre-
daceous, although to a considerable extent nearly all birds are somewhat
predaceous, even if they prey upon smaller victims than do the vultures,
eagles, falcons, or owls. Next to the predaceous birds come the passeres,
distinguished by their cereless and pointed beak, their legs feathered
as far as the heel, their tarsus covered in front with shield-like scales,
and their slightly-curved and sharply-pointed claws. This order is a
very large one, and embraces a vast variety of birds.

First among the Passerine birds are placed the Fissirostres, or cleft-
beaked birds, so called from the enormous gape of the mouth, a structure

which is intended to aid
them in the capture of the
agile prey on which they
feed.

The Goat-suckers, as
they are familiarly termed
— from a stupid notion that
was formerly in gTeat vogue
ami)ng farmers, and is not
even yet quite extinct, that
these birds were in the habit
of sucking the wild goats,
cows, and sheep — are placed
first among the Fissiros-
tres on account of the won-
derfully perfect manner in
which their structure is
adapted to the chasing and
securing of the swift-wing-
ed insects on which they
feed. The color of all
these birds is sombre,
black, brown, and gray
being the prevailing tints.
The gape of the mouth is
so large that when the bird
opens its beak to its fullest
extent, it seems to have been severely wounded across the mouth, and
the plumage is lax and soft like that of the owl.

There are many well-known proverbs relating to the power of

The Night-hawk or Goat-sucker

{Caprimulgus),
1. Male. 2. Female.

THE GOAT-SUCKER. 315

calumny and the readiness with which an evil report is received and
retained, notwithstanding that it has repeatedly been proved to be
false and libellous. The common Goat-sucker is a good instance
of the truth of this remark, for it was called Aigoiheles, or Goat-sucker,
by Aristotle in the days of old, and has religiously been supposed to
have sucked goats ever afterward. The Latin word caprimulgns bears
the same signification. It was even supposed that after the bird had
succeeded in sucking some unfortunate goat the fount of nature was
immediately dried up, and the poor beast also lost its sight. Starting
from this report, all kinds of strange rumors flew about the world, and
the poor Goat-sucker — or Nightjar, as it ought more rightly to be
called — has invariably been hated as a bird of ill-omen to man and
beast.

As usual, mankind reviles its best benefactors, for there are very
few creatures which do such service to mankind as the Nightjar.
Arriving in this country in the month of May or June, it reaches our
shores just in time to catch the cockchafers as they fly about during
the night in search of their food, and does not leave us until it has
done its best to eat every chafer that comes across its path.

The Nightjar also feeds on moths of various kinds, and catches them
by sweeping quickly and silently among the branches of the trees near
which the moth tribes most love to congregate. While engaged in
their sport they will occasionally settle on a bank, a wall, a post, or
other convenient perch, crouch downward until they bring their head
almost on a level with their feet, and utter the peculiar churning note
which has earned for them the name of Churn-owls, Jar-owls, and
Spinners. Their cry has been rather well compared to that sound
which is produced by the larger beetles of the night, but of course
much louder, and with the addition of the characteristic "chur-r-r! —
chur-r-r !" Sometimes, although but seldom, the Nighjar utters its cry
while on the wing. When it settles it always seats itself along a
branch, and almost invariably with its head pointing toward the trunk
of the tree.

There is also a strange squeaking sound which is emitted by the
Nightjar while playing round the trees at night, and which is supposed
to be a cry of playfulness or a call to its mate.

Unlike the Falconidie, the Goat-sucker catches its prey, not with its
claw's, but with its mouth, and is aided in retaining them in that very
wide receptacle by the glutinous secretion with which it is lined, and
the " vibrissse " or hair-like feathers which surround its margin. On
an examination of the foot of this bird, the claw of the middle toe is
seen to be serrated like the teeth of a comb, a structure which has
never yet been satisfactorily explained, notwithstanding the various
theories which have been put forward concerning its use. The hind-

316

SWALLOWS.

toe of each foot is very mobile, aud can be brought round to the
remaining toes, so that all the claws take their hold in the same
direction. Apparently, this structure is intended to enable the bird
to run along the branches of trees in its nocturnal chase after beetles
and other insects.

The Nightjar makes no nest, but, choosing some sheltered hollow

under the shade of a
grass tuft, a bunch of
fern, bramble, or other
defence, there lays two
eggs on the bare ground.
The color of the egg is
grayish white, plentifully
mottled with pale buff
and gray. The young
are very similar to those
of the cuckoo. The
plumage of the Nightjar
is very rich in its color-
of buff,
white,
brown, and chestnut be-
ing arranged in pleasing
but most intricate pat-
terns, and easier to be
understood from a pencil
illustration than a de-
scription of the pen.

The Whip-poor-will
also belongs to this group
of birds, and is familiar-

ing, the tints
gray, black

The Whip-poor-will {Capr-imulgus vocifer,
1. Male. 2. Female.

ly known by the peculiar melancholy cry, which very much resembles
the other odd names by which it is called.

SWALLOWS.

The close-set plumage of the Swallow tribe, their long sickle-like
wings, their stiff;- firm tail, forked in most of the species, and their slight
legs and toes, are characteristics which mark them out as birds which
spend the greater part of their existence in the air, and exercise their
wings far more than their feet.

They all feed upon insects and capture their prey in the air, ascend-
ing at one time to such a height that they are hardly perceptible to the
naked eye, and look merely like tiny dots moving upon the sky ; while

THE SWIFT.

317

at other seasons they skim the earth and play for hours together over
the surface of the water, in chase of the gnats that emerge in myriads
from the streams. The gape of the mouth is therefore exceedingly
great in these hirds, reaching as far as a point below the eyes. The
bill itself is very short, flattened, pointed, slightly curved downward,
and broad at the base.

The group which is scientifically termed the Hirundinidse is a very
Jarge one, and is divided into two lesser groups, the members of one
being classed together under the title of Swifts, while the others are
known by the name of Swallows. With the former birds we have first
to deal.

The Sw^iFTS are readily distinguished from the Swallows by the very
great comparative length of the first two primary feathers of the wing,
which are either equal to each other or have the second feather longer
than the first. The secondaries are remarkably small, being nearly
concealed under the coverts. There are ten primaries in the wing, and
the same number of quill feathers in the tail.

The Swift {Cypselus apus).

The true S>vifts — of which England aflTords two examples, one very
familiarly known, and the other a very rare and almost unnoticed spe-
cies— are remarkable for the feathered tarsus, the long wings, and the
peculiar form of the feet. In this member all the toes are directed
forward — a structure which is admirably adapted to the purpose which
it fulfils. The Swifts build their nests— or rather lay their eggs, for
the nest is hardly worthy of the name — in holes under the eaves of

318 THE SWIFT.

houses, or in similar localities, and would find themselves greatly incon-
venienced when seeking admission into their domiciles but for the
shape of the feet, which enables them to cling to the slightest projec-
tion, and to clamber up a perpendicular surface with perfect ease and
safety.

Devoid of all pretensions to the brilliantly-tinted plumage which dec-
orates so many of its relations, and clad only in sober black and gray,
the common Swift is, nevertheless, one of the most pleasing and inter-
esting of the British birds, resting its claims to favorable notice upon
its graceful form and its unrivalled powers of wing.

There are very few birds which are so essentially inhabitants of the air
as our common Swift, which cuts the atmosphere with its sabre-like
wings with such marvellous ease and rapidity that at times its form is
hardly discernible as it shoots along, and it leaves the impression of a
dark black streak upon the eyes of the observer. The plumage of
this bird is constructed especially with a view to securing great speed,
as may be seen by an inspection of the closely-set and firmly-webbed
feathers with which the entire body and limbs are clad. The muscles
which move the wings are enormously developed, and in consequence
the breast-bone is furnished with a remarkably strong and deep
" keel."

The flight of the Swift is quite peculiar to the bird, and cannot be
mistaken for even that of the swallow by any one who has a practical
acquaintance with the habits of the two species. The Swnft does not
flap its wings so often as the swallow, and has a curious mode of shoot-
ing through the air as if hurled from some invisible bow, and guiding
itself in its headlong course by means of its wings and tail.

This indefatigable bird is an early riser, and very late in returning
to rest— later, indeed, than any of the diurnal birds. Though engaged
in flight during the livelong day, the Swift appears to be proof against
fatigue, and will, during the long summer days, remain upon the wing
until after nine in the evening. As the days become shorter the Swift
is found to retire earlier, but during its stay in this country it is almost
invariably later than other birds, sometimes being on the wing together
with the owl. Indeed, the air seems to the Swift even a more familiar
element than the earth, and the bird is able to pass the whole of
Its life, and to perform all the bodily functions, except those of
sleep, while upborne on the untiring pinions with which it is furnished.
The Swift that has a nest to take care of is forced to descend at inter-
vals for the purpose of supplying its family with food, but, except when
urged by such considerations, it is able to remain in the air for many
successive hours without needing to rest.

The Swifts may generally be found near buildings, rocks, and clifls,
for m such localities they build their nests, and from their home they

THE ESCULENT SWALLOW. 319

seldom wander to any great distance as long as they remain in the
country.

In general, the Swift loves to build its nest in a hole under a roof,
whether slated, tiled, or thatched, preferring, however, the warm, thick
straw-thatch to the tile or slate. Sometimes it makes a hole in the
thatch, through which it gains access to the nest, but in most instances
it makes use of some already-existing crevice for that purpose. In all
cases the nest is placed above the entrance, and may generally be found
about eighteen inches or two feet from the orifice. Even by the touch
the eggs of the Swift may be discerned from those of any other bird,
as their length is singularly disproportionate to their width.

The sound which these birds utter is of the most piercing description,
and can be heard at a very great distance, thus betraying them when
they are hawking after the high-flying insects at such an altitude that
their forms are hardly perceptible to the unassisted eye.

The nest is a very firmly made but yet rude and inartificial structure.
The materials of which it is made are generally straw, hay, and feathers,
pieces of rag, or any soft and warm substance which the bird may find
in its rambles, and when woven into a kind of nest are firmly cemented
together with a kind of glutinous substance secreted by certain glands.
In Norway and Sweden the Swift builds in hollow trees. The eggs are
from two to five in number, not often, however, exceeding three, and in
color they are pure white. In this country the Swift pays but a very
short visit, as the bird evidently requires a v§ry high temperature, and
is forced to depart as soon as the weather becomes chilly. Generally
the Swifts leave England by the end of August, but there are often in-
stances where a solitary bird has delayed its voyages for some good
reason.

Among the many " travellers' tales " which called forth such repudi-
ation and ridicule from the sceptical readers of the earlier voyagers, the
accounts of the Chinese cuisine were held to be amongst the most ex-
travagant.

That civilized beings should condescend to eat dogs and rats specially
fattened for the table was an idea from which their own better sense re-
volted ; that the same nation should reckon sharks' fins and sea-slugs
among their delicacies was clearly an invention of the writer ; but that
the Chinese should make soup out of birds' nests was an absurdity so
self-evident that it destroyed all possibility of faith in the writers' pre-
vious assertions.

The birds that make these remarkable nests belong to several species,
four of which have been acknowledged. These are the Esculent
Swallow, the Linchi {Collocalia fuciphaga), the White-backed Swal-
low [Collocalia troglodytes), and the Gray-backed Swallow {Colloccdia
Francica).

320

THE SWALLOW.

Tliese nests could hardly be recognized as specimens of bird-archi-
tecture by any one who had not previously seen them, as they look
much more like a set of sponges, corals, or fungi than nests of birds.
They are most irregular in shape, are adherent to each other, and are
so rudely made that the hollow in which the eggs and young are in-
tended to live is barely per-
ceptible. They are always
placed against the face of a
perpendicular rock, gener-
ally upon the side of one
of the tremendous caverns
in Java and other places
where these strange birds
love to dwell. The men
who procure the nests are
lowered by ropes from
above, and their occupation
is always considered as per-
ilous in the extreme.

The nests are of very
different value, those which
have been used in rearing a
brood of young being com-
paratively low in price,
while those which are quite
new and nearly white are
held in such esteem that
they are worth their weight
in silver.

In the British Museum
may be seen a very fine
specimen of the nest of the
Esculent Sw-allow, comprehending a mass of the nests still adhering to
the rock. It is rather remarkable that the birds have a habit of
building these curious nests in horizontal layers.

The Esculent Swallow is a small bird, and its color is brown on the
upper parts of the body, and white beneath. The extremity of the tail
is grayish white. The British Museum possesses specimens of all the
Swallows which are known to make these curious edible nests.

The elegantly-shaped and beautifully-colored Swallow may be
readily distinguished from any of its British relations by the Very
great elongation of the feathers which edge its tail, and which form
nearly two-thirds of the bird's entire length.

It is the most familiar of all the Hiruudinidse of England, and from

Swallows.
1. Barn Swallow. 2. Female,
Swallow. 4. Bank Swallow.

3. White-bellied

ITS NEST. 321

its great familiarity with man, and the trustfulness with which it fixes
its domicile under the shelter of human habitations, is generally held
as an almost sacred bird, in common with the robin and the wren.

The Swallow wages a never-ceasing war against many species of in-.
sects, and seems to be as capricious in its feeding as are the roach and
other river fish.

The nest of the Swallow is always placed in some locality where it is
effectually sheltered from wind and rain. Generally it is constructed
under the eaves of houses, but, as it is frequently
built within disuTsed chimneys, it has given to the
species the popular title of Chimney Swallow. The
bird is probably attracted to the chimney by the
warmth of some neighbor fire.

The nest is composed externally of mud or clay,
which is brought by the bird in small lumps and
stuck in irregular rows so as to build up the sides
of its little edifice. There is an attempt at smooth-
ing the surface of the nest, but each lump of clay
is easily distinguishable upon the spot where it has The Chimney
been stuck. While engaged at the commencement Swallow.

of its labors, the Swallow clings perpendicularly to the wall of the
house or chimney, clinging with its sharp little claws to any small pro-
jection, and sticking itself by the pressure of its tail against the wall.
The interior of the nest is lined with grass and other soft substances.

There are sometimes "two broods in the year, and when the second
brood has been hatched at a very late period of the year, the young
are frequently deserted and left to starve by their parents, who are un-
able to resist the innate impulse that urges them to seek a warmer cli-
mate. When fully fledged, and before they are foiiced to migrate, the
young birds generally roost for the night in osiers and other water-lov-
ing trees.

Except in confinement, the Swallow knows not the existence of frost
or the extreme of heat, passing from Europe to Africa as soon as the
cold weather begins to draw in, and migrating again to the cooler climes
as soon as the temperature of its second home becomes inconvenient to
its sensitive existence. The time of its arrival in England is various,
and depends almost entirely on the state of the weather. Solitary in-
dividuals are now and then seen in very early months, but, as a general
fact, the Swallow does not arrive until the second week in April; the
time of its departure is generally about the middle of September, al-
though some few lingerers remain in the country for more than a month
after the departure of their fellows.

Guided by some wondrous instinct, the Swallow always finds its way
back to the nest which it had made, or in which it had been reared, as

V

322 THE FAIRY MARTIN.

has frequently been proved by affixing certain marks to individual
birds and watching for their return. Bonietimes it happens that the
house on which they had built has been taken down during their
absence, and in that case the distress of the poor birds is quite pit-
iable. They fly to and fro over the spot in vain search after their
lost homes/and fill the air with the mournful cries that tell of their
sorrow.

The Swallow is widely spread over various parts of the world, being
familiarly known throughout the whole of Europe, not excepting Nor-
wav, Sweden, and the northern portions of the Continent. It is also
seen in Western Africa, and Mr. Yarrell mentions an instance where
it was observed in the island of St. Thomas, which is situated upon the
equator. The martin and the swift were seen at the same place.

The color of the Swallow is very beautiful. Upon the forehead the
feathers are of a light chestnut, which gives place to deep glossy steel-
blue upon the upper portions of the body and wings. The primaries
and secondaries are black, as are the tail-feathers, with the exception
of a few white patches. The throat is chestnut, and a very dark-blue
band crosses the upper part of the chest. The under parts are white,
and the beak, legs, and toes black. The female is distinguished by
the smaller chestnut on tho forehead, the lighter tint of the feathers,
and the narrowness of the dark band across the chest.

Many examples of white Swallows are on record, and specimens may
be seen in almost every collection of British birds.

Among the most ingenious of bird architects, the Fairy Martin
holds a very high place, in virtue of the singular nest which it con-
structs.

The nest of the Fairy Martin has a very close resemblance to a com-
mon oil-flask, and reminds the observer of the flask-shaped nests which
are constructed by the pensile oriole and similar birds, although made
of harder materials. The Fairy Martin builds its curious house of
mud and clay, which it kneads thoroughly in its beak before bringing
it to the spot where it will be required. Six or seven birds work am-
icably at each nest, one remaining in the interior and enacting the part
of chief architect, while others act as hodsmen and bring material as
fast as it is required. Except upon wet days this bird works only in the
evening and early morning, as the heat of the midday seems to dry the
mud so rapidly that it cannot be rightly kneaded together. The
mouths, or " spouts," of these nests vary from eight to ten inches in
length, and point indifferently in all directions. The diameter of the
widest portion of the nest is very variable, and ranges between four
and seven inches.

The exterior of the nest is as rough as that of the nest of the
common swallow of England, but the interior is comparatively smooth,

THE SAND MARTIN

323

and is lined with feathers and fine grass. The eggs are generally four
or five in number, and the bird rears two broods in the course of the
year.

The pretty little Sand Martin is, in spite of its sober plumage and
diminutive form, a very interesting bird, and one which adds much to
the liveliness of any spot where it may take up its abode.

In size it is less than any other of the British Hirundinidse, being
less than five inches in total length. The color of this bird is very
simple, the general tint of the entire upper surface of the head and
body being a soft brown, relieved from too great uniformity by the sooty
black quill feathers of the wings and tail. The under surface is pure
white, with the exception of a band of brown across the upper part of

The Sand Martin (Cotile riparia).

the chest. The young bird possesses a lighter plumage than the adult,
owing to the yellowish white tips of the back, tertiaries, and upper
coverts. The beak is dark brown, and the eyes hazel.

Although its little beak and slender claws would seem at first sight
to be utterly inadequate for the performance of miner's work, the Sand
Martin is in its way as good a tunnel-driver as the mole or the rat, and
can manage to dig a burrow of considerable depth. The soil which it
most loves is light sandstone, because the labor which is expended in the
tunnelling is very little more than that which would be required for
softer soils, and the sides of its burrow are sufficiently firm to escape
the likelihood of breaking down.

The depth of the burrow is extremely variable, some tunnels being

324 THE HOUSE MARTIN.

only eighteen inches or two feet deep, while others run to a depth of
nearly five feet. During some five years' experience and constant
watching of these birds in Derbyshire, I generally found that the hand
could reach to the end of the burrows and remove the eggs, provided
that the birds had not been forced to change the direction of the tunnel
by the intervention of a stone or a piece of rock too hard for their bills
to penetrate.

As is o-enerally the case with burrowing birds, the Sand Martin takes
very little trouble about the construction of its nest, but contents itself
with laying down a small handful of various soft substances, such as
moss, hay, and feathers. The eggs are very small and fragile, and are
not easily removed from the burrow without being fractured. Their
color, when freshly laid, is a delicate semi-transparent pink, which
darkens to a dull opaque gray when incubation has proceeded to some
extent, and changes to a beautiful white when the contents are removed
from the shell. Their number is from four to six.

The food of this bird is composed of insects, and, in spite of the
small dimensions of the little creature, it will pursue, capture, and eat
insects of considerable dimensions and strength of wing, such as wasps
and dragon-flies. Gnats and similar insects, however, form the staple
of its diet.

This bird generally makes its appearance in England about the begin-
ning of April, and has even been noticed before the end of March,
so that its arrival is earlier than that of the swallow or martin. It
departs about the beginning of September, and like other of the British
Hirundinidse, makes its way to Africa, where it remains until the
succeeding year.

Resembling the common swallow in habits and general appearance,
the House Martin may easily be distinguished from that bird by the
large white patch upon the upper tail-coverts, a peculiarity which is
even more notable when the bird is engaged in flight than when it is
seated on the ground or clinging to its nest. In the dusk of evening
the Martins may often be seen flying about at so late an hour that their
bodies are almost invisible in the dim and fading twilight, and their
presence is only indicated by the white patches upon their backs, which
reflect every fading ray and bear a singular resemblance to white moths
or butterflies darting through the air.

This beautiful little bird is found in all parts of England, and is
equally fiimiliar with the swallow and sand martin. It places its clay-
l)uilt nest principally under the shelter afforded by human habitations,
and becomes so trustful and fearless that it will often fix its nest close
to a window, and will rear its young without being dismayed at the near
j)resence of human beings.

The nests of this species are extremely variable in shape and size, no

THE HOUSE MAKTIN.

325

two being precisely similar in both respects. Generally the edifice is
cup-shaped, with the rim closely pressed against the eaves of some
friendly house, and having a small semicircular aperture cut out of the
edge in order to permit the ingress and egress of the birds. Sometimes,
however, the nest is supported on a kind of solid pedestal, composed of
mud, and often containing nearly as much material as would have
made an ordinary nest.
These pedestals are gener-
ally constructed in spots
where the Martin finds that
her nest does not receive
adequate support from the
wall.

There are generally sev-
eral broods in the course
of the year, two being the
usual number, but three, or
even four, being sometimes
noticed. In such cases, how-
ever, the young birds seldom
reach maturity, for they are
hatched at such a late period
of the year that the parents
are unable to withstand the
instinct which leads them to
migrate, and in obeying the
promptings of this principle

leave their unfortunate fam- ^ , , -r.

•1 , -1 • 11 £■ The Purple Martin, Male and Female.

ily to perish miserably oi '

hunger. The parents do not seem to grieve over their dead children,
and when they return to the nest in the succeeding season, they uncon-
cernedly pull the dry and shrivelled bodies out of the nest, and rear-
range it in readiness for the next brood.

The general coloring of this bird is composed of rich blue-black and
white, arranged in bold masses, so as to present a fine contrast of two
very opposite tints. The head and upper portions of the body are of a
very deep glossy blue, with the exception of the quill feathers of the
wings and tail, which are sooty black, and the upper tail-coverts, which
are snowy white. The chin, breast, and abdomen are of the same pure
white as the upper tail-coverts, except in the young birds, which are
grayish white beneath. The female bird is rather gray on the under
portions of the body. A number of tiny white feathers are spread over

the legs and toes, and the beak is black and the eyes brown,
of the Martin is rather more than five inches.

The

total

length

28

326

THE GARRULOUS ROLLER.

ROLLERS.

The Rollers evidently form one of the connecting-links between the
swallows and the bee-eaters, as may be seen by the shape of their feet,
which have the two hinder toes partially joined together, while those
of the bee-eaters are wholly connected, or, as it were, soldered to-
gether. The Rollers, as is evident from their long pointed wings, stiif
tail, and comparatively feeble legs and feet, are to a great extent feed-
ers on the wing, although they do not depend wholly on their powers
of flight for subsistence, but take many insects, worms, and grubs from
the ground.

Although tolerably common on several parts of the Continent, the
Garrulous Roller is at the present time a very rare visitant to this

country. There seems, how-
ever, to be reason to believe
that in former days, when
England was less cultivated
and more covered with path-
less woods, the Roller was
frequently seen in the an-
cient forests, and that it
probably built its nest in
the hollows of trees, as it
does in the German forests
at the present day.

Africa is the legitimate
The Garrulous Roller {Coracms garmla). home of the Roller, which

passes from that land in the
early spring, and makes its way to Europe via Malta and the Mediter-
ranean islands, which afford it resting-places during its long journey.

Accordingly, in those islands the Rollers are found in great plenty,
and, as they are considered a great delicacy when fat and in good con-
dition, they are killed in considerable numbers, and exposed for sale
like pigeons, whose flesh they are said greatly to resemble. Even in
its flight it possesses something of the pigeon character, having often
been observed while flying at a considerable elevation to " tumble "
after the manner of the well-known tumbler pigeons. It is rather
curious that throughout Asia Minor the Rollers and magpies were
always found in close proximity to each other.

The food of the Roller is almost wholly of an insect nature, but is
diversified with a few berries and other vegetable productions. It has
even been known to become carnivorous in its habits, for, according to
reraminck, it sometimes feeds on the smaller mammalia.

THE GREEN TODY AND THE TROGONS. 327

Worms, slugs, millipedes, and similar creatures also fall victims to
its voracity.

In the coloring of its plumage it is truly a gorgeous bird. The gen-
eral tint of the head, neck, breast, and abdomen is that peculiar green-
blue termed " verditer " by artists, changing into pale green in certain
lights, and deepening into rich azure upon the shoulders. The back is
a warm chestnut-brown, changing to purple upon the upper tail-coverts.
The tail is of the same verditer hue as the head and neck, with the ex-
ception of the exterior feathers, which are furnished with black tips.
The quill feathers of the wings are of a dark blue-black, becoming
lighter at their edges, and the legs are covered with chestnut-brown
feathers like those of the back. These gorgeous hues are not attained
until the bird has passed through the moult of its second year. Both
male and female are nearly equally decorated, the latter being slightly
less brilliant than her mate. It is not a very large bird, scarcely ex-
ceeding a foot in total length.

The curious little birds which are termed Todies bear a considerable
resemblance to the kingfishers, from which they may easily be distin-
guished by the flattened bill.

The Todies are natives of tropical America, and are very conspicuous
among the brilliant-plumaged and strangely-shaped birds of that part
of the world.

The Green Tody is a very small bird, being hardly larger than the
common wren of England, but yet very conspicuous on account of the
brilliant hues with which its plumage is decorated. The whole of the
upper surface is a light green; the flanks are rose-colored, deepening
into scarlet upon the throat and fading into a pale yellow upon the
abdomen and under the tail-coverts.

TROGONS.

For our systematic knowledge of the magnificent tribe of the Tro-
GONS we are now almost wholly indebted to Mr. Gould, who by the
most persevering labor and the most careful investigations has reduced
to order this most perplexing group of birds, and brought into one vol-
ume a mass of information that is rarely found in similar compass.
There are few groups of birds which are more attractive to the eye
than the Trogons, with all their glowing hues of carmine, orange,
green, and gold ; and few there are which presented greater diffi-
culties to the ornithologist until their various characteristics were
thoroughly sifted and compared together. The two sexes are so dif-
ferent from each other, both in the color and shape of the feathers,
that they would hardly be recognizable as belonging to a single species,
and even the young bird is very differently colored from his older relatives.

328

THE RESPLENDENT TROGON.

These beautiful birds are found in the Old and the New Worlds,
those which inhabit the latter locality being easily distinguishable by
their deeply-barred tails. Those of the Old World are generally found
in Ceylon, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, while only a single species, the
Nurina Trogon, is as yet known to inhabit Africa.

The Trogons are mostly silent birds, the only cry used being that of
the male during the season of pairing. It is not a very agreeable

sound, being of a sombre
and melancholy cast, and
thought to resemble the
word " courou-courou."

Several of the Trogons
are distinguished from
their relatives by the
length and downy loose-
ness of many of the feath-
ers, more especially the
lance-shaped feathers of
the shoulders and the
elongated upper tail-cov-
erts. On account of this
structure of the plumage,
they are gathered into a
separate genus under the
appropriate title of Calu-
rus, or Beautiful-tailed
Trogons.

The Resplendent Trogon ( Calurus respkndens). ^he Resplendent Tro-
gon is a native of Central America, and was in former days one of
the most honored by the ancient Mexican monarchs, who assumed the
sole right of wearing the long plumes, and permitted none but the
members of the royal family to decorate themselves with the flowing
feathers of this beautiful bird.

This species is fond of inhabiting the densest forests of Southern
Mexico, and generally haunts the topmost branches of the loftiest trees,
where it clings to the boughs like a parrot, and traverses their ramifi-
cations with much address.

The color of the adult male bird is generally of a rich golden green
on the upper parts of the body, including the graceful rounded crest,
the head, neck, throat, chest, and long lancet-shaped plumes of the
shoulders. The breast and under parts are brilliant scarlet, the cen-
tral feathers of the tail are black, and the exterior white, with black
bars. The wonderful plumes which hang over the tail are generally
about three feet in length, and in particularly fine specimens have

THE LAUGHING JACKASS. 329

been known to exceed that measurement by four inches, so that the
entire length of the bird may be reckoned at four feet. The bill is
light yellow.

As is often the case with birds, where the male is remarkable for the
beauty of his plumage, the female is altogethet- an ordinary and com-
paratively insignificant bird.

KINGFISHEB^.

The Kingfishers form a tolerably well-marked group of birds, all
of which are remarkable for their long bills and the comparative short-
ness of their bodies, which give them a peculiar bearing that is not to
be mistaken.

The bills of these birds are all long and sharp, and in most cases are
straight. Their front toes are always joined together more or less, and
the number of the toes is very variable in form and arrangement, some
species possessing them in pairs, like those of the parrots, others hav-
ing them arranged three in front and one behind, as is usually the case
with birds, while a few species have only three toes altogether, two in
front and oile behind. The wings are rounded. As may be gathered
from their popular name, they feed mostly upon fish, which they cap-
ture by pouncing upon the finny prey.

Our first example of the Kingfisher is the Laughing Jackass, or
Giant Kingfisher, its former title being derived from the strange
character of its cry.

This bird is an inhabitant of Australia, being found chiefly in the
south-eastern district of that country and in New South Wales. In
Van Diemen's Land Mr. Gould believes that it does not exist. In no
place is it found in any great numbers ; for, although it is sufiiciently
common, it is but thinly dispersed over the country. It is a rather
large bird, being eighteen inches in total length, and is powerful in
proportion, being able to wage successful war against creatures of con-
siderable size.

Although one of the true Kingfishers, it so far departs from the
habits of the family as to be comparatively careless about catching
fish, and often resides in the vast arid plains where it can find no streams
sufficiently large to harbor fish in their waters. Crabs of various kinds
are a favorite food with this bird, which also eats insects, small mam-
malia, and reptiles. Mr. Gould mentions an instance where he shot
one of these birds for the sake of possessing a rare and valuable spe-
cies of rat which it was carrying off* in its bill. It is also known to
eat snakes, catching them with great dexterity by the tail, and crush-
ing their heads with its powerful beak. Sometimes it is known to
pounce upon fish, but it usually adheres to the above-mentioned diet.

* 28*

330

THE LAUGHING JACKASS.

The cry of this bird is a singular, dissonant, abrupt laugh, even more
startling than that of the hysena, and raising strange panics in the
heart of the novice who first hears it while bivouacking in the " bush."
Being of a mightily inquisitive nature, the Laughing Jackass seems to
find great attraction in the glare of a fire, and in the evening is apt to
glide silently through the branches toward the blaze, and, perching
upon a neigliboriug bough, to pour forth its loud, yelling cry. The

" old hands " are in no
wise disconcerted at the
sudden disturbance, but
shoot the intruder on
the spot, and in a very
few minutes convert him
into a savory broil over
the fire which he had
come to inspect.

At the rising and the
setting of the sun the
Laughing Jackass be-
comes very lively, and
is the first to welcome
The Laughing Jackass {Dacelo gigas). ^he approach of dawE

and to chant its strange exulting paeans at the return of darkness,
From this peculiarity it has been called the Settler's Clock. In allusion
to the cry of this bird, which has been compared by Sturt to the yelling
chorus of unquiet demons, the natives call it by the name Gogobera.

The home of the Laughing Jackass is usually made in the hole of a
gum tree (Eucalyptus), where it makes no sort of nest, but simply lays
its eggs upon the soft decaying wood. The eggs are pearly white, and the
bird keeps a vigilant watch over the burrow which holds its treasures,
fiercely combating any creature that may approach the entrance, and aim-
ing the most desperate blows with its long, pointed, and powerful beak.

It is a really handsome bird, and, although not possessing such an
array of brilliant plumage as falls to the lot of many Kingfishers, is yet
very richly colored. The bird is decorated with a dark brown crest,
and the general tint of the back and upper surface is olive brown. The
wings are brown-black, a few of the feathers being slightly tipped with
verditer, and the breast and under portions are white, washed with pale
brown, which forms a series of faint bars across the breast. The tail is
rather long, and rounded at the extremity, and is of a rich chestnut
color, banded with deep black and tipped with white.

The common Kingfisher is by fi\r the most gorgeously-decorated
of all our indigenous birds, and can bear comparison with many of the
gayly-decorated inhabitants of tropical climates.

THE KINGFISHER. 331

It is a sufficiently common bird, although distributed very thinly
over the whole country, and considering the great number of eggs
which it lays, and the large proportion of young which it rears, is
probably more plentiful than is generally supposed to be the case.
The straight, glancing flight of the Kingfisher, as it shoots along the
river-bank, its azure back gleaming in the sunlight with meteoric
splendor, is a sight familiar to all those who have been accustomed
to wander by the sides of rivers, whether for the purpose of angling
or merely to study the beauties of nature. So swift is the flight of this
bird, and with such wonderful rapidity does it move its short wings, that
its shape is hardly perceptible as it passes through the air, and it leaves
upon the eye of the observer the impression of a blue streak of light.

The food of this bird consists chiefly, though not exclusively, of fish,
which it takes, kills, and eats in the following manner :

Seated upon a convenient bough or rail that overhangs a stream
where the smaller fish love to pass, the Kingfisher waits very patiently
until he sees an unsuspecting minnow or stickleback pass below his
perch, and then with a rapid movement drops into the water like a
stone and secures his prey. Should it be a small fish, he swallows it at
once ; but if it should be of rather large dimensions, he carries it to a
stone or stump, beats it two or three times against the hard substance,
and then swallows it without any trouble.

With the fish it generally feeds its young, being able to disgorge at
will the semi-digested food which it has swallowed, after the manner
of most birds of prey. Fish, however, do not constitute its sole nourish-
ment, as it is known to eat various insects, such as dragon-flies and
water-beetles, and will often in cold weather pay a visit to the seashore
for the purpose of feeding upon the little crabs, shrimps, and sandhop-
pers that are found upon the edge of the tide.

The nest of the Kingfisher is always made in some convenient bank,
at the extremity of a hole w-hich has previously been occupied and de-
serted by the water-rat or other mining quadrupeds, and been enlarged
and adapted for use by the Kingfisher. Now and then the nest of this
bird has been found built in the deserted hole of a rabbit-warren. It
is always found that the tunnel slopes gently upward, and that the
bird has shaped the extremity into a globular form in order to contain
the parent bird, the nest, and eggs. Sometimes the nest is placed
in the natural crevices formed by the roots of trees growing on the
water's edge. In many cases it is easily detected, for the birds are
very careless about the concealment of their nest even before the eggs
are hatched ; and after the young have made their appearance in the
world they are so clamorous for food and so insatiable in their appetite
that their noisy voices can be heard for some distance, and indicate with
great precision the direction of their home.

332

THE KINGFISHER

Some writers say that the interior of the burrow is kept so scrupu-
lously clean that it is free from all evil scents. My own experience,
however, contradicts this assertion, for after introducing the hand into
a Kingfisher's nest I have always found it imbued with so offensive an
odor that I was fain to wash it repeatedly in the nearest stream. As
the Kingfisher is so piscatorial in its habits, it would naturally be im-
agined that the nest would be placed
in close connection with the stream
from which the parent birds obtained
their daily food. I have, however,
several times seen a Kingfisher's nest,
and obtained the eggs, in spots that
were not within half a mile of a fish-
inhabited stream. The bird is greatly
attached to the burrow in which it has
once made its nest, and will make use
of the same spot year after year, even
though the nest be plundered and the
eggs stolen.

The eggs are from six to eight in
number, rather globular in form, and
of an exquisitely delicate pink in color
while fresh, changing to a pearly white
when the contents are removed. As
soon as the young are able to exert
themselves, they perch on a neighbor-
ing twig or other convenient resting-place, and squall incessantly for
food. In a very short time they assume their yearling plumage,
which is very nearly the same as that of the adult bird, and soon
learn to fish on their own account.

The nest of the Kingfisher has long been known to consist of the
bones, scales, and other indigestible portions of the food, which are
ejected from the mouth by "castings," like those of the hawk or
owl; but until Mr. Gould recently procured a perfect Kingfisher's
nest, its shape and the manner of construction were entirely unknown.
His account of its discovery, and the ingenious manner in which
it was procured, is so interesting tliat it must be given in his own
words :

"Ornithologists are divided in opinion as to whether the fish-bones
found in the cavity in which the Kingfisher deposits its eggs are to be
considered in the light of a nest or as merely the castings from the
bird during the period of incubation. Some are disposed to consider
these bones as entirely the castings and faeces of the young brood of
the year before they quit the nest, and that, the same hole being fre-

The Belted Kingfisher

{A Iced 0 alcyon).

COMPOSITION OF ITS NEST. 333

quented for a succession of years, a great mass is at length formed ;
while others believe that they are deposited by the parents as a plat-
form for the eggs, constituting, in fact, a nest ; in which latter view I
fully concur, and the following are my reasons for so doing :

"Oil the 18th of the past month of April, during one of my fishing
excursions on the Thames, I saw a hole in a precipitous bank, which
I felt sure was a nesting-place of the Kingfisher, and on passing a
spare top of my fly-rod to the extremity of the hole, a distance of
nearly three feet, I brought out some freshly-cast bones of fish, con-
vincing me that I was right in my surmise. On a subsequent day, the
9th of May, I again visited the spot with a spade, and after moving
nearly two feet square of the turf dug down to the nest without dis-
turbing the entrance-hole or the passage which led to it. Here I found
four eggs placed on the usual layers of fish-bones ; all of these I re-
moved with care, and then filled up the hole, beating the earth down
as hard as the bank itself, and replacing the sod on the top in order that
barge-horses passing to and fro might not put a foot in the hole. A
fortnight afterward the bird was seen to leave the hole again, and my
suspicion was awakened that she had taken to her old breeding-quarters
a second time.

"The first opportunity I had of again visiting this place, which was
exactly twenty-one days from the date of my former exploration and
taking the eggs, I again passed the top of my fly-rod up the hole, and
found not only that the hole was of the former length, but that the
female was within. I then took a large mass of cotton-wool from my
collecting-box and stuflfed it to the extremity of the hole, in order to
preserve the eggs and nest from damage during my again laying it open
from above. On removing the sod and digging down as before, I came
upon the cotton-wool, and beneath it a well-formed nest of fish-bones,
the size of a small saucer, the walls of which were fully half an inch
thick, together with eight beautiful eggs and the old female herself.
This nest and eggs I removed with the greatest care, and I now have
the pleasure of exhibiting it to the society before its transmission to the
British Museum, the proper resting-place of so interesting a bird's nest.
This mass of bones, then, weighing seven hundred grains, had been cast
up and deposited by the bird, or the bird and its mate, besides the un-
usual number of eight eggs, in the short space of twenty-one days.

"To gain anything like an approximate idea of the number of fish
that had been taken to form this mass, the skeleton of a minnow, their
usual food, must be carefully made and weighed, and this I may prob-
ably do upon some future occasion. I think we may now conclude,
from what I have adduced, that the bird purposely deposits these bones
as a nest ; and nothing can be better adapted, as a platform, to defenrl
the eggs from the damp earth."

334 THE BEE-EATER.

The voice of the Kingfisher is a peculiarly shrill and piping cry
that can be heard at some distance, and is not easily mistaken for any
other sound.

The color of this bird is very gorgeous, and rather complicated in
its arrano-ement. The top of the head and back of the neck are dark
green, flecked with many spots of verditer blue upon the tips of the
feathers. The upper part of the back is also dark green, and the low-
er part is light violet or blue, gleaming vividly under a strong light,
and being very conspicuous as the bird is on the wing. The tail is
deep indigo, and the quill feathers of the wing are dark blackish
green, lightened by a brighter hue of green on the outer webs, and set
off by the verditer blue spots of the tertiaries. A white patch or streak
passes from the eye to the back of the neck, and a dark green streak
is drawn immediately under the white patch. The throat and chin
are yellowish white, and the whole of the under surfiice is chestnut.
The eyes are crimson, and the bill is black, with the exception of the
orange-tinted base of the lower mandible. The total lejigth of the
bird is about seven inches.

BEE-EATERS.

The Bee-eaters may at once be distinguished by the shape of the
bill, which is curved, and by the formation of the wings, which are
long and pointed, and give to their owners a wonderful command of
the air while engaged in chasing their winged prey.

The common Bee-eater of Europe is found very frequently in
many parts of the Continent, and has several times been taken in
England. It is, however, a scarce bird in Great Britain, and is of
sufficient rarity to excite some curiosity whenever it is found within the
confines of our shores.

The food of the Bee-eater consists wholly of insects, hive-bees and
others of the hyraenopterous order being the favorite article of diet.
In chasing these insects, which are for the most part very active of
flight, the Bee-eater displays very great command of wing, and while
urging its pursuit can twist and turn in the air with as much ease and
skill as is exhibited by the swallow or the roller.

To the apiarian who resides in the same country with the Bee-eater
the bird is a terrible foe, as it has an insatiable appetite for the honey-
making insects, and haunts every spot where it is likely to meet them.
The hives are constantly visited by the Bee-eaters, who are ingenious
enough to resort to the turpentine pines for the sake of catching the
bees that come to carry away the exudations for the purpose of convert-
ing them into " propolis," or that substance with which they harden the
edges of their cells, caulk the crevices of the hives, and perform many

SLENDER-BILLED BIRDS. 335

other useful tasks. It does not, however, confine itself to the hymen-
opterous insects, but is fond of beetles, cicadse, grasshoppers, and similar
creatures.

The nest of the Bee-eater is not unlike that of the kingfisher, being
placed at the extremity of a burrow made in some convenient bank.
The burrow is excavated by the bird itself, and it often happens that
the Bee-eaters are as gregarious in their nesting as in their flight,
honeycombing the clay banks in a manner very similar to that of the
sand martin. The burrows do not run to any great depth, seldom
exceeding six or eight inches in length. The nest is composed of moss,
and contains about five or six beautifully white and pearly eggs.

The colors of the adult male bird are extremely varied and very
beautiful. The top of the head is rich chestnut-brown, extending to
the neck, back, and wing-coverts. Over the rump the chestnut changes
to light reddish yellow. The primaries and secondaries of the wing
are bright blue-green, tipped with black, and their shafts painted with
the same color, and the tertiaries are green tliroughout their entire
length. The upper tail-coverts are of the same hue as the wings, and
the tail is likewise green, tinted with a darker hue, graphically called
by Mr. Yarrell " duck-green." The chin and throat are a reddish
yellow, and round the throat runs a band of deep blue-black. The
under part of the body is green with a blue tinge, and the under surface
of the wings and tail is grayish brown. The ear-coverts are black and
the eye is light scarlet, which contrasts beautifully with the chestnut,
black, and yellow of the head and neck.

The female may be distinguished from the male by the paler hue of
the reddish yellow on the throat, and the reddish tinge that runs
throughout the green of the body and wings. In size the Bee-eater
is nearly equal to the English starling.

SLENDER-BILLED BIRDS.
UPUPID^ OR HOOPOES.

The large group of birds which are termed Tenuirostral, or
"slender-billed,"-always possess a long and slender beak, sometimes
curved, as in the creepers, hoopoes, and many humming-birds, and some-
times straight, as in the nuthatch and other humming-birds. The feet
are furnished with lengthened toes, and the outer toe is generally
connected at the base with the middle toe.

The first family of the Tenuirostres is called after the hoopoe, and
termed Upupidse. In all these birds the bill is curved throughout its
entire length, long, slender, and sharply pointed. The wings are
rounded, showing that the birds are not intended for aerial feats, and

336

THE HOOPOE.

the tail is rather long. The legs are short, and the claws strong and
decidedly curved.

The common Hoopoe enjoys a very wide range of country, being
found in Northern Africa, where its principal home is generally
stationed, in several parts of x\sia, and nearly the whole of Europe.

On account of Its
very striking and re-
markable form it has
attracted much no-
tice, and has been
the subject of innu-
merable legends and
strange tales, nearly
all of which relate
to its feathery ci'est.
The Turks call the
Hoopoe Tir- Chaous,
or " Courier-Bird,""
because its feathery
crown bears some
resemblance to the
plume of feathers
The Hoopoe [ Upapa epops). which the chaous, or

courier, wears as a
token of his office. The Swedes are rather fearful of the Hoopoe,
and dread its presence, which is rare in their country, as a presage
of war, considering the plume as analogous to a helmet. Even in our
own country the uneducated rustics think it an unlucky bird, most
probably on account of some old legend which, although forgotten,
has not lost completely its power of exciting prejudice.

The food of the Hoopoe is almost entirely of an insect nature,
although the bird will frequently vary its diet with tadpoles and other
small creatures. Beetles and their larvae, caterpillars, and grubs of all
kinds are favorite food with the Hoopoe, which displays much ingenuity
in digging them out of the decayed wood in which they are often found.
The ](it-nnt (^Formica fuliginosa), which greatly haunts the centre of
decaying trees, is also eaten by this bird.

The nest is made in hollow trees, and copsists of dried grass-stems,
feathers, and other soft substances. The eggs are of a light gray color,
and in number vary from four to seven. They are laid in May, and
the young make their appearance in June. It is worthy of notice
that the beak of the young Hoopoe is short and quite straight, not
attaining its long curved form until the bird has attained its full growth.
The nest of the Hoopoe has a very pungent and disgusting odor.

THE COLLAEED SUN-BIRD. 337

Tiie general colors of the Hoopoe are white, buff, and black, distrib-
uted in the following manner: The plumes of the crest, which is com-
posed of a double row of feathers, are of a reddish buff, each feather
being tipped with black. The remainder of the head, neck, and breast
is purplish buff, and the upper part of the beak purple-gray. Three
semicircular black bands are drawn across the back, and the quill
feathers of the wings are marked with broad bands of black and white.
The tail is also black, with the exception of a shai ply-defined white
semicircular band that runs across the centre.

The under portions of the body are pale yellowish buff, and the under
tail-coverts are white. In their colors the two sexes are rather differ-
ent from each other, the male being of a more ruddy hue than Ins
mate, and having a larger crest. The total length of the adult
Hoopoe is not quite thirteen inches.

SUN-BIRDS.

The beautiful and glittering Sun-birds evidently represent in the
Old World the humming-birds of the New. In their dimensions,
color, general form, and habits, they are very similar to their bril-
liant representatives in the western hemisphere, although not quite
so gorgeous in plumage or so powerful and enduring of wing. They
are termed Sun-birds because the hues with which their feathers are so
lavishly embellished gleam out with peculiar brilliancy in the sunlight.

These exquisite little birds feed on the juice of flowers and the minute
insects that are found in their interior, but are not in the habit of feed-
ing while on the wing, hovering over a flower and sweeping up its nectar
with the tongue, as is the case among the humming-birds.

The Collared Sun-bird is an inhabitant of many parts of Africa,
stretching from the northern portions of that continent as far as the
western coasts. It is extremely plentiful in the larger forests of the
Cape and the interior, but there is very little information concerning
its habits, saving that they resemble those of its relations. The nidifi-
cation of this species differs according to the locality, for it places its
nest in the interior of hollow trees wherein it resides in the forests, and
is content with the shelter of a thick bough when there are no decaying
trees within reach.

The male Collared Sun-bird is a most beautiful little creature, be-
decked with glowing tints of wonderful intensity. The general color of
the upper parts of the body and breast is a rich golden green, the upper
surface of the wings and tail being blackish brown with green reflections.
Across the breast are drawn several colored bands, which have earned
for the bird its popular and expressive name, as all names should be.
A narrow band of bright steel-blue runs across the upper part of the
29 W

338 THE JAVANESE SUN-BIRD AND THE DICTUM.

breast, being rather wide in the centre and narrowing rapidly toward
the sides of the neck. Below this blue band runs a broad belt of rich
carmine, and immediately below the carmine is a third narrow band of
l)rio-ht golden yellow. From the sides of the breast proceed several
.small feathery plumes of the same golden hue. The remainder of
the abdomen is grayish brown, and the upper tail-coverts are violet-
,purple.

The female is rather less in dimensions than her mate, and is very
sober in her attire, wearing a suit of uniform olive-brown, darker upon
the wings and tail, and very pale behind. The total length of this
species is rather more than four and a half inches.

The Javanese Sun-bird is a native of the country from which it
derives its name. It is a very pretty little creature, although its colors
are not so resplendent as in several of the species. The upper parts of
the body are shining steely-purple, and the under surface is olive-yellow.
The throat is chestnut, and a bright violet streak runs from the angle
of the mouth to the breast.

The beautiful little Dictum, although very common throughout the
whole of Australia, and a remarkably interesting bird, was, when
Mr. Gould wrote his animated description, so little known among
the colonists that there was no popular name for the bright little
creature.

This tiny bird is fond of inhabiting the extreme summits of the tall-
est trees, and habitually dwells at so great an elevation that its minute
form is hardly perceptible, and not even the bright scarlet hue of the
throat and breast can betray its position to the unaccustomed eye of a
passenger below.

The flight of the Dic?eum is very quick and darting, and it makes
more use of its wings and less of its feet than any of the insect-hunting
birds. The nest is remarkably pretty, being woven as it were out of
white cotton cloth, and suspended from a branch as if the twigs had
been pushed through its substance, and is of a peculiar purse like shape.
The material of which it is woven is the soft cottony down which is
found in the seed-vessels of many plants. The eggs are four or five in
number, and their color is a dull grayish white, profusely covered with
minute speckles of brown.

The head, back, and upper parts of the adult male are deep black,
with a beautiful steely-blue gloss, the sides are brownish gray, and the
throat, breast, and under tail-coverts are a bright glaring scarlet. The
abdomen is snowy white, with the exception of a tolerably large black
patch on its centre. The female is more sombre in her apparel, the
head and back being of a dull sooty black, and the steel-blue reflection
only appearing on the upper surface of the wings and tail. The throat
and centre of the abdomen are buff", the sides are pale grayish brown,

THE POE BIRD.

339

and the under tail-coverts scarlet, of a less brilliant hue than in the
male. In its dimensions the Dicseum is hardly so large as our common
wren.

HONEY-EATERS.

The true Honey-eaters form a very numerous group of birds, all of
which are graceful in their forms and pleasing in the color of their plum-
age, while in some instances the hues with which they are decorated are
so bright as to afford ground for classing them among the really beauti-
ful birds. They all feed on similar substances, which, as indicated by
their name, consist chiefly of honey and the sweet juices of flowers,
although they also vary their diet by insects and other small living
beings.

Among this group of birds the Poe Bird, or Tue, or Parson Bird,
is one of the most conspicuous, being nearly as remarkable for its pecu-

The Poe Bird {Pro&thtinadti a ZetUindioc).

liar coloring as the rifle bird itself, although the hues of its feathers are
not quite so resplendently brilliant as in that creature.

The Poe Bird is a native of New Zealand, where it is far from un-
common, and is captured by the natives for the purpose of sale. Many

340 HUMMING-BIRDS.

individuals are brought over to Sydney, where, according to Dr. Ben-
nett, they are kept in cages, and are very amusing in their habits, be-
ing easily domesticated and becoming very familiar with those who
belong to the household. Independently of its handsome and rather
peculiar color, which makes it very effective in a room, it possesses
several other qualifications which render it a very desirable inhabitant
'of an aviary. Its native notes are very fine, the bird being considered
a remarkably fine songster, and it also possesses the power of mimicking
in a degree surpassing that of the common magpie or raven, and hard-
ly yielding to even the famous mocking-bird himself. It learns to speak
with great accuracy and fluency, and readily imitates any sound that
may reach its ear, being especially successful in its reproduction of the
song of other birds.

While at liberty in its native land it is remarkable for its quick,
restless activity, as it flits rapidly about the branches, pecking here
and there at a stray insect, diving into the recesses of a newly-opened
flower, and continually uttering its shrill, sharp whistle. Although
one of the large group of Meliphagidse, or Honey-eaters, the Poe Bird
feeds less upon honey than upon insects, which it discovers with great
sharpness of vision and catches in a particularly adroit manner. It
will also feed upon worms, and sometimes varies its diet by fruits.

In New Zealand it is often killed for the sake of its flesh, which is
said to be very delicate and well flavored.

The general color of the Poe Bird is a very deep metallic green, be-
coming black in certain lights, and having a decided bronze reflection
in others. The back is deep brown, also with a bronze reflection, and
upon the shoulders there is a patch of pure white. On the back of
the neck the feathers are long and lancet-shaped, each feather having
a very narrow white streak along its centre. From each side of the
neck depends a tuft of snowy curling downy feathers, spreading in fan-
like fashion from their bases. This creature is called the Parson Bird
because these white tufts are thought to bear some resemblance to
the absurd parallelograms of white lawn that are denominated
" bauds."

HUMMING-BIRDS, OR TROCHILID^.

" Bright Humming-bird of gem-like plumeletage,
By western Indians ' Living Sun-beam ' named."— Bailey, Myotic.

The wonderful little Humming-birds are found only in America and
the adjacent islands, where they take the place of the' sun-birds of the
Old World. It is rather remarkable that as yet no Humming-birds
have been discovered in Australia.

These little winged gems are most capricious in their choice of lo-

HUMMING-BIRDS.

341

cality, some being spread over a vast range of country, while others
are confined within the limits of a narrow belt of earth hardly more
than a few hundred yards in width, and some refuse to roam beyond
the narrow precincts of a single mountain. Some of these birds are
furnished with comparatively short and feeble wings, and, in conse-
quence, are obliged to remain in the same land throughout the year,
while others are strong of flight and migrate over numerous tracts of
country. They gather most thickly in Mexico and about the equator,
the number of species diminishing rapidly as they recede from the equa-
torial line.

The name of Humming-birds is given to them on account of the
humming or buzzing sound which they produce with their wings, es-
pecially while they are hovering in their curious fiishion over a
tempting blossom, and feeding on its contents while suspended in the
air.

The legs of these birds are remarkably weak and delicate, and the
wings are proportionately strong — a combination which shows that the
creatures are intended to pass more of
their time in the air than on foot. Even
when feeding they very seldom trouble
themselves to perch, but suspend them-
selves in the air before the flower on
which they desire to operate, and with
their long slender tongues are able to
feed at ease without alighting. In the
skeleton — especially in the shape of the
breast-bone and wings, as well as in the
comparatively small size of the feet —
the Humming-birds bear some analogy to the swifts, and, like those
birds, never lay more than two eggs.

The flight of these birds is inconceivably rapid — so rapid, indeed,
that the eye cannot follow it when the full speed is put forth ; and
with such wonderful rapidity do the little sharp-cut wings beat the air
that their form is quite lost, and while the bird is hovering near a sin-
gle spot the wings look like two filmy gray fans attached to the sides.
While darting from one flower to another the bird can hardly be seen
at all, and it seems to come suddenly into existence at some spot, and
as suddenly to vanish from sight. Some Humming-birds are fond of
towering to a great height in the air, and descending from thence to
their nests or to feed, while others keep near the ground, and are sel-
dom seen at an elevation of many yards.

The food of the Humming-bird is much the same as that of the
honey-suckers, except, perhaps, that they consume more honey and
fewer flies. Still, they are extremely fond of small insects, and if

29*

HUMMING-BIRDS.

342

THE HUMMING-BIRD.

kept away from this kind of diet soon pine away, in spite of unlimited
supplies of syrup and other sweet food.

In order to enable the Humming-bird to extract the various sub-
stances on which it feeds from the interior of the flowers, the beak is
always loug and delicate, and in shape is extremely variable, probably

on account of the
particular flowers on
which the bird feeds.
In some instances
the bill is nearly
straight, in others it
takes a sharp sickle-
like downward curve,
while in some it pos-
sesses a double curve.
The general form of
the beak is, however,
a very gently down-
ward curve, and in
all instances it is
pointed at its ex-
tremity. At the
base the upper man-
HuMMiNG-BiRDs. ^i^lc is widcr than

the lower, which is received into its hollow. The nostrils are placed at
the base of the beak, and defended by a little scale-like shield.

The plumage is set very closely on the body, and is possessed of a
metallic brilliancy in every species, the males being always more gor-
geously decorated than their mates.

The tongue is a very curious structure, being extremely long, fil-
amentous, and double nearly to its base. At the throat it is taken up
by that curious forked bony structure called the hyoid bone, the forks
of which are enormously elongated, and, passing under the throat and
round the head, are terminated upon the forehead. By means of this
structure the Humming-bird is enabled to project the tongue to a great
distance from the bill, and to probe the inmost recesses of the largest
flowers. The common woodpecker has a very similar description of
tongue, and employs it in a similar manner.

In their habits the Humming-birds are mostly diurnal, although
many species are seen only at dawn and just after sunset. Many, in-
deed, live in such dense recesses of the tropical woods that the beams of
the sun never fairly penetrate into their gloomy depths, and the Hum-
ming-bird dwells in a permanent twilight beneath the foliage. It is
worthy of notice that the name Trochilidse is not a very apt one, as the

THE SLENDER SHEAR-TAIL. 343

Trochilus was evidently a bird which had nothing in common with the
Humming-bird, and was most probably the ziczac of Egypt.

The upper figure in the illustration on page 342 represents the Cora
Humming-bird, a native of Peru. The head and back are gold-green,
the wings are purple, and the throat is violet or crimson according to
the direction of the light.

In the centre is the Double-crest, a Brazilian species. It derives
its name from the crest-like feathers that start from either side of the
head. The top of the head is azure, and the throat fiery crimson. The
sides of the face and the chin are velvet black.

The Bar-tail occupies the right of the illustration. It is a native
of Bolivia, and derives its name from the black tips of the crimson tail-
feathers. The body is green.

On the left is Gould's Humming-bird, a lovely little creature re-
markable for the beautiful neck-tufts, with their pure white feathers
tipped with green. It is found in the Amazon district.

The Slender Shear-tail is an inhabitant of Central America, and
appears to be rather a local bird. It is supposed not to be found south
of the Isthmus of Panama, or to extend more than eighteen degrees

HUMMINO-BIRDS.

northward. As its wings are rather short and not remarkable for
strength, it is conjectured to be a non-migratory bird. The country
where it is seen in the greatest plenty is Guatemala.

The sexes of this creature are very different in their form and the
color of their plumage, and could hardly be recognized as belonging to
the same species. In the adult male bird the upper parts of the body
are a deep shining green, becoming brown on the head, and changmg
into bronze on the back and wing-coverts. The wings are purple-brown.
The long and deep forked tail is black, with the exception of a little
brown upon the inner web of the two uttermost feathers. The chin is black

344 THE COPPER-BELLIED PUFF-LEG.

glossed with green, the throat is deep metallic purple, and upon the up-
per part of the chest is placed a large crescent-shaped mark of buff. The
abdomen is bronze, with a gray spot in its centre, and there is a buff
spot on each flank. The under tail-coverts are of a greenish hue.

The female does not possess the long tail, and her colors are golden-
green above and reddish buff below. The tail is very curiously marked.
The central feathers are entirely gold-green ; the exterior feathers are
rusty red at their base, black for a considerable portion of their length,
and tipped with white.

Several of the Humming-birds are remarkable for a tuft of pure
white downy feathers which envelops each leg, and which has obtained
for them the popular title of Puff-legs, because the white tufts bear
some resemblance to a powder-puff. The Copper-bellied Puff-leg
is an inhabitant of Santa Fe de Bogota, and is a very common bird in
that locality. It may easily be found, as it is a remarkably local bird,
being confined to a narrow strip or belt of land which possesses the req-
uisite characteristics of temperature and vegetation.

It is a very beautiful little bird, and both the sexes are nearly similar
in their color and general appearance, except that in the female the
puffs of white down are not so large or so conspicuous as in her mate.
In the adult male the top of the head, the sides of the neck, and the
back are green washed with a decided tint of bronze, except upon the
upper tail-coverts, where the green is very pure and of a metallic bril-
liancy. As is generally the case with Humming-birds, the fine and
sharply-cut wings are brown washed with purple. The tail is black,
with a purple gloss in a side light. The throat is of a beautiful shining
metallic green, and the general color of the breast and under portions
of the body is green glossed with gold, with the exception of the abdo-
men, where the green takes a coppery hue, from which the bird has
received its popular name. The " puffs " are of a snowy whiteness, and
look like refined swan's-down.

The female is very similar in color, except that the hues of the throat
are not possessed of so metallic a brilliancy, and, as has already been
stated, the leg-tufts are comparatively small.

We have in the Racket-tailed Humming-birds one of those singular
forms which are so often found among these strange little birds.

The White-booted Racket-tail inhabits the Columbian Andes,
and is very common near Santa Fe de Bogota. It is a hill-loving bird,
being generally found at an elevation of five or ten thousand feet above
the level of the sea. It is thought to be confined within the third and
tenth degrees of north latitude. This bird is remarkably swift of wing,
its darting flight reminding the spectator of the passage of an arrow
through the air. At one time it will hover close to the ground, hang-
ing over some favorite flower and extracting the sweet contents of the

THE WHITE-BOOTED EACKET-TAIL.

345

blossoms, and at the next moment it will shoot to the very summit of
some lofty tree, as if impelled from a bow, and leave but the .mpres-
sion of an emerald-green line of light upon the observer s eye Whde
hovering over the flowers the long racket-shaped feathers of the tail

WniTE-BOOTEP Racket-taii, {SpaJhura Underv^oodii), Mai.e ask Femaee.
are in constant motion, waving gently in the air, "^^^^^g 'f^'^j^f Jf/^
opening and closing in the most graceful "'^^'^f .■•• ^"*„f ,^" ^T^Ct
darts off with its peculiar arrowy flight, the tail feathers he straight

behind it.

346 THE KUBY AND TOPAZ HUMMING-BIRD.

The male of this species is bronze-green upon the greater part of the
body, the green taking a richer and redder hue upon the upper tail-
coverts. The throat and breast are brilliant emerald green. The wings
are purple-brown, and the tail is brown, with the exception of the rack-
ets, which are black "shot" with green. The feet are yellow, and upon
the legs are placed two beautiful white puffs. The whole length of the
bird is rather more than three inches. The female bird does not possess
the racket-shaped tail-feathers, and is of a bronze-green upon the upper
surface. The tail is brown, with the exception of the two middle
feathers, which are bronze-green like the body. The two exterior
feathers are tipped with white, and the others with bronze-green. The
under surface is white, diversified with bronze-green spots on the breast
and flanks. The puffs are smaller than in the male.

The Spangled Coquette is an excellent example of the very re-
markable genus to which it belongs. All the Coquettes possess a well-
defined crest upon the head and a series of projecting feathers from the
neck, some being especially notable for the one ornament, and others
for the other.

The crown of the head and the crest are light ruddy chestnut, each
feather having a ball-like spot of dark bronze-green at the tip. The
throat and face are shining metallic green, below which is a small tuft
of pointed white feathers that have a very curious effect as they pro-
trude from beneath the gorget. The upper parts are bronze-green as
far as the lower part of the back, where a band crosses from side to
side, and the rest of the plumage is dark ruddy chestnut as far as the
tail. The tail is also chestnut-brown with a slight wash of metallic
green. The female has no crest or green gorget.

The Ruby and Topaz Humming-bird derives its name from the
coloring of its head and throat, the former being of a deep ruby tint,
and the latter of a resplendent topaz. Sometimes it is called the Ruby-
headed Humming-bird, and it is also known under the name of the
Aurora. It is very common in Bahia, the Guianas, Trinidad, and the
Caracas, and, as it is in great request for the dealers, is killed by
thousands annually. There is no species so common in ornamental
cases of Humming-birds as the Ruby and Topaz. It makes a very
beautiful nest, round, cup-like, and delicately woven of cotton and
various fibres, and covered externally with little leaves and bits of
lichen.

The plumage of this species is extremely variable, but may be
described briefly as follows : The forehead, the crown, and the nape
of the neck are metallic ruby-red, and the chin, throat, and chest are
effulgent topaz. The upper parts of the body are velvetv bronze-brown,
and the wings are purple-brown. The tail is rich chestnut-red, tipped
with black, and the abdomen is a dark olive-brown. The female has

THE VERVAIN HUMMING-BIRD.

347

none of the ruby patches on the head, but retains a little of the topaz
on the throat.

The Ruby-throated Humming-bird inhabits North America, and
derives its name from the brilliant ruby hue of the feathers that adorn
its throat. It is one of the com
nionest as well as the most beau-
tiful of this lovely group.

The beautiful little Vervain
Humming-bird is one of the mi-
nutest examples of feathered life
that are at present known to zoolo-
gists. In total length this bird does
not measure three inches ; while,
as the tail occupies nearly an inch
and the head half an inch, the act-
ual length of the body will be
seen to be not quite an inch and
a half. It is a native of Jamaica,
and has been admirably described
by Mr. Gosse while treating of the
birds which inhabit that island.

The name of Vervain Hum-
ming-bird has been given to this
tiny creature because it is in the
habit of feeding on the blossoms
of the AVest Indian vervain, but it
is also known under a variety of
other titles, and has been de-
scribed by many scientific writers
under different uames.

The general color of this beautiful little bird is a brilliant metallic
green, the wings being, as usual, purple-brown, and the tail deep black.
The throat and chin are white, sprinkled profusely with little black
spots, and the breast is pure white. The abdomen is also white, but
diversified with a slight green tip to each feather, and the flanks are
bright metallic green, nearly as resplendent as upon the back. The
under tail-coverts are white, with a few very pale green spots. The
colors of the female are rather more dull than those of her mate, the
green being tinged with yellow, and the under parts without the green
spots. The first half of the tail is yellowish green, and all the feathers
of the tail, with the exception of the two central feathers, are furnished
with white tips.

The nest of the Vervain Humming-bird is very small, in accordance
with the dimensions of the architect, is round and cup-like in shape,

The Ruby and Topaz Humming-bird

{Chrysolampis moschitus).

348

THE CREEPER.

'^"''^'Wm

and beautifully constructed of cotton fibres and other soft and warm
substances. As is the case with the nests of almost all the species of
Trochilidte, the rim is so made as to curve slightly inward, and is, in
all probability, constructed for the purpose of preventing the eggs from
rolling out of the nest when the " procreant cradle" is rocked by the
tempestuous winds of the tropics.

We now arrive at the Certhid^ or Creepers, the best known of
which is the English Creeper.

This little bird is one of the prettiest and most interesting of the
feathered tribes that are found in England. It is a very small bird,

hardly so large as a sparrow,
^^^1/y ',^J\'llinilLfL'.l'J'!!l¥€l~. aiid beautifully slender in

shape. The bill is rather
long, pointed, and curved,-
and the tail feathers are stiif
and pointed at their extrem-
ities. Tlie food of the Creep-
er consists chiefly of insects,
although the bird will some-
times vary its diet by seeds
and otlier vegetable sub-
stances. Tlie insects on
which it feeds live princi-
pally under the bark of
various rough-skinned trees,
and when it is engaged in
seeking after its food it runs
spirally up the trunk with
wonderful ease and celerity,
probing every crevice with
ready adroitness, its whole frame instinct with sparkling eagerness,
and its little black eyes glancing with the exuberance of its delight.
While running on the side of the tree which is nearest to the spectator,
it presents a very curious appearance, as its dark-brown back and quick
tripping movements give it a great resemblance to a mouse, and ever
and anon, as it comes again into sight from the opposite side of the
trunk, its b3autifully white breast gleams suddenly in contrast with the
sombre-colored bark. Its eyes are wonderfully keen, as it will discern
insects of so minute a form that the human eye can hardly perceive
them, and it seems to possess some instinctive mode of detecting the
presence of its insect prey beneath moss or lichens, and will persever-
ingly bore through the substance in which they are hidden, never fail-
ing to secure them at last.

The Creeper is a very timid bird ; and if it is alarmed at the sight of

The Common Tree Creeper {Certhia
familiar is).

THE NUTHATCH.

349

a human being, it will either fly oflT to a distant tree, or will qu-ietly slip
round the trunk of the tree on which it is running and keep itself care-
fully out of sight. It soon, however, gains confidence, and, provided
that the spectator remains perfectly quiet, the little head and white
breast may soon be seen peering anxi(jusly round the trunk, and in a
few minutes the bird will resume its progress upon the tree, and run
cheerily up the bark, accompanying itself with its faint trilling song.
It seldom attempts a long flight, seeming to content itself with flitting
from tree to tree.

The nest of the Creeper is usually made in the hollow of some decay-
ing tree, and is composed of grasses, leaves, and vegetable fibres, and
lined with feathers. The eggs are very small, about seven or eight in
number, and of an ashen-gray color, sprinkled with little gray-brown
spots. Sometimes it builds in the hole of an old wall, and has been
known to make its nest in a disused spout.

The Nuthatches are represented in England by the common Nut-
hatch of the woods. They are
all remarkable for their pecu-
liarly stout and sturdy build,
their strong, pointed, cylindri-
cal beaks, and their very short
•tails.

The Nuthatch, although by no
means a rare bird, is seldom seen
except by those who are ac-
quainted with its haunts, on ac-
count of its shy and retiring
habits. As it feeds mostly on
nuts, it is seldom seen except in
woods or their immediate vicin-
ity, although it will sometimes
become rather bold, and frequent
gardens and orchards where nuts
are grown. The bird also feeds
upon insects, which it procures
from under the bark after the
manner of the creepers, and it
is not unlikely that many of
the nuts wdiich are eaten by the
Nuthatch have been inhabited
by the grub of the nut weevil.
It will also feed upon the seeds
of different plants, especially preferring those which it pecks ofl' the
fir-cones.

30

The N uthatch [Sitta Europcea).

350 THE LYRE-BIKD.

In order to extract the kernel of the nut, the bird fixes the fruit
securely iu some convenient crevice, and, by dint of repeated ham-
merings with its beak, breaks a large ragged hole in the shell, through
which the kernel is readily extracted. The blows are given not merely
by the stroke of the beak, but the bird grasps firmly with its strong
claws, and, swinging its whole body upon its feet, delivers its stroke
with the full weight and sway of the body.

The nest of the Nuthatch is placed in the hollow of a decaying tree,
and the bird always chooses some hole to which there is but a small
entrance. Should the orifice be too large to please its taste, it ingeni-
ously builds up the hole with clay and mud, probably to prevent the in-
trusion of any other bird. If any foe should veutuie too near the nest,
the mother-bird becomes exceedingly valiant, and, dashing boldly at her
enemy, bites and pecks so vigorously with her powerful beak, hissing
and scolding the while, that she mostly succeeds in driving away the
assailant. The nest is a very inartificial structure, made chiefly of
dried leaves laid loosely upon the decaying wood, and rudely scraped
into the form of a nest.

In its color the Nuthatch is a rather pretty bird, of pleasing though
not of brilliantly-tinted plumage. The general color of the upper parts
is a delicate bluish gray, the throat is white, and the abdomen and un-
der parts are reddish brown, warming into rich chestnut on the flanks.
From the angle of the mouth a narrow black baud passes toward the
back of the neck, enveloping the eye in its course and terminating sud-
denly before it reaches the shoulders. The tail is black on the base
and gray toward the tip, except the two outer tail feathers, which
have each a black spot near the extremity. The shafts are also
black.

We now arrive at the family of the Wrens, iu which group we find
two birds so dissimilar in outward appearance as apparently to belong
to different orders, the one being the common Wren of England, and
the other the celebrated Lyre-bird of Australia.

This bird, which also goes under the name of Native Pheasant
among the colonists, and is generally called Bullen-bullen by the
natives, on account of its peculiar cry, would, if it had been known to
the ancients, have been consecrated to Apollo, its lyre-shaped tail and
flexible voice giving it a double claim to such honors. The extra-
ordinary tail of this bird is often upward of two feet in length, and
consists of sixteen feathers, formed and arranged in a very curious and
graceful manner. The two outer feathers are broadly webbed, and, as
may be seen in the illustration, are curved in a manner that gives to
the widely-spread tail the appearance of an ancient lyre. AVhen the
tail is merely held erect and not spread, the two lyre-shaped feathers
cross each other, and produce an entirely different outline. The two

ITS HABITS.

351

central tail feathers are narrowly webbed, and all the others are mod-
ified with long slender shafts, bearded by alternate feathery filaments,
and well representing the strings of the lyre.

The tail is seen in its greatest beauty between the months of June
and September, after which time it is shed, to make its first reappeai^
ance in the ensu-
ing February or
March. The hab-
its of this bird
are very curious,
and are so well
and graphically
described by Mr.
Gould that an
account of them
must be given in
his own words :

" The great
stronghold of the
Lyre-bird is the
colony of New
South Wales,
and, from what
I could learn, its
range does not
extend so far to
the eastward as
Moretou Bay,
neither have I
been able to
trace it to the
westward of Port
Phillip, on the

southern coast ; but further research only can determine these points.
It inhabits equally the bushes on the coast and those that clothe the
sides of the mountains in the interior. On the coast it is especially
abundant at the Western Port and Illawarra ; in the interior the cedar
brushes of the Liverpool range, and, according to Mr. G. Bennett, the
mountains of the Tiimat country, are among the places of which it is
the denizen.

" Of all the birds I have ever met with, the Menura is far the most
shy and difiicult to procure. AVhile among the mountains I have been
surrounded by these birds, pouring forth their loud and liquid calls for
days together, without being able to get a sight of them, and it was

The Lyre-bird {Menura superba).

352 THE LYRE-BIRD.

only by the most determined perseverance and extreme caution that I
was enabled to effect this desirable object, which was rendered more
difficult by their often frequenting the almost inaccessible and precip-
itous sides of gullies and ravines, covered with tangled masses of creepers
and umbrageous trees ; the cracking of a stick, the rolling down of a
small stone, or any other noise, however slight, is sufficient to alarm it;
and none but those who have traversed these rugged, hot, and suffocating
bushes can fully understand the anxious labor attendant on the pursuit
of the Menura.

" At Illawarra it is sometimes successfully pursued by dogs trained
to rush suddenly upon it, when it immediately leaps upon the branch
of a tree, and, its attention being attracted by the dog below barking,
it is easily approached and shot. Another successful mode of procuring
specimens is by wearing the tail of a fuU-plumaged male in the hat,
keeping it constantly in motion, and concealing the person among the
bushes, when, the attention of the bird being arrested by the apparent
intrusion of another of its own sex, it will be attracted within the
range of the gun. If the bird be hidden from view by surrounding
objects, any unusual sound, such as a shrill whistle, will generally
induce him to show himself for an instant, by causing him to leap with
a gay and sprightly air upon some neighboring branch to ascertain the
cause of the disturbance ; advantage must be taken of this circum-
stance immediately, or the next moment he may be halfway down the
gully.

"The Menura seldom, if ever, attempts to escape by flight, but easily
eludes pursuit by its extraordinary powers of running. None are so
efficient in obtaining specimens as the naked black, whose noiseless
and gliding steps enable him to steal upon it unheard or unperceived,
and with a gun in his hand he rarely allows it to escape, and in many
instances, he will even kill it with his own weapons.

" The food of the Menura appears to consist principally of insects,
particularly of centipedes and coleoptera. I also found the remains
of shelled snails in the gizzard, which is very strong and muscular."

The nest of the Lyre-bird is a large, loosely-built, domed structure,
composed of small sticks, roots, and leaves, and is of an oven-like
shape, the entrance being in front. The lining is warm and soft, being
composed of downy feathers.

The egg of this singular bird is quite as curious as its general form,
and presents the curious anomaly of an egg as large as that of a com-
mon fowl, possessing all the characteristics of the insessorial egg. The
general color of the egg is a deep chocolate tint, marked with purple
more or less deep in different specimens, and its surface is covered with
a number of stains and blotches of a darker hue, which are gathered
toward the larger end, as is usual in spotted eggs.

THE WREN.

353

We are all familiar with the Wren.

The long and harsh name of " Troglodytes," which has been given
to this bird, signifies a diver into caves, and has been attributed to the
Wren on account of its shy and retiring habits, and its custom of hid-
ing its nest in some hollow or crevice where it may escape observation.
The Wren is seldom to be seen in the open country, and does not ven-
ture upon any lengthened flight, but confines itself to the hedgerows
and brushwood, where it may often be observed hopping and skipping
like a tiny feathered mouse among — ^UT^ '

the branches. It especially haunts ^ ^^^^ ^ *|y
the hedges which are flanked by ^i&i '' " '
ditches, as it can easily hide itself W
in such localities, and can also ob- J,
tain a plentiful supply of food. By
remaining perfectly quiet, the ob-
server can readily watch its move-
ments, and it is really an interest-
ing sight to see the little creature
flitting about the brushwood, flirt-
ing its saucily expressive tail, and
uttering its quick and cheering
note.

The voice of the Wren is very
sweet and melodious, and of a
more powerful character than would be imagined from the dimensions
of the bird. The Wren is a merry little creature, and chants its gay
song on the slightest encouragement of weather. Even in winter there
needs but the gleam of a few stray sunbeams to set the Wren a-singing,
and the cold Christmas season is often cheered with its happy notes.

The nest of the Wren is rather an ambitious structure, being a com-
pletely domed edifice, and built in a singularly ingenious manner. If,
however, the bird can find a suitable spot, such as the hole of a decay-
ing tree, the gnarled and knotted branches of old ivy, or the overhang-
ing eaves of a deserted building where a natural dome is formed, it is
sure to seize upon the opportunity and to make a dome of very slight
workmanship. The dome, however, always exists in some form.

The materials of which the nest is composed are always leaves, moss,
grass, and lichens, and it is almost always so neatly budt that it can
hardly be seen by one who was not previously aware of its position.
The opening of the nest is always at the side, so that the eggs are se-
curely shielded from the effects of weather.

As to the locality and position in which the nest is placed no definite
rule is observed, for the Wren is more capricious than the generality
of birds in fixing upon a house for her young. Wrens' nests have been
30* X

The Wren {Troglodytes vulgaris).

354 THE TAILOR-BIRD.

found in branches, hedges, hayricks, waterspouts, hollow trees, barns,
and outhouses. Sometimes the Wren becomes absolutely eccentric in
its choice, and builds its nest in spots which no one would conjecture
that a bird would select. A Wren has been known to make its nest in
the body of a dead hawk which had been killed and nailed to the side
of a barn. Another Wren chose to make her house in the throat of
a dead calf which had been hung upon a tree, and another of these
curious little birds was seen to build in the interior of a pump, gaining
access to her eggs and young through the spout.

The eggs of the Wren are very small, and are generally from six to
eight in number.

During the winter the Wren generally shelters itself from the weather
in the same nest which it had inhabited" during the breeding season,
and in very cold seasons it is not an uncommon event to find six or
seven Wrens all huddled into a heap for the sake of warmth, and pre-
senting to the eye or hand of the spectator nothing but a shapeless
mass of soft brown feathers. It is probable that these little gatherings
may be composed of members of the same family.

The color of the Wren is a rich reddish brown, paling considerably
on the under surface of the body, and darkening into dusky brown
upon the quill feathers of the wings and tail. The outer webs of the
former are sprinkled with reddish-brown spots, and the short tail
feathers are barred with the same hue. The bill is slender, and rather
long in proportion to the general dimensions of the bird. The total
length of the Wren is rather more than four inches. White and pied
varieties are not uncommon.

We now arrive at the very large family of the Warblers.

The first example of the Warblers is the celebrated Tailor-bird of
India and the Indian Archipelago.

The Tailor-bird is a sober little creature, not more conspicuous than
a common sparrow, and is chiefly remarkable for its curious nest,
which is made in a singular and most ingenious manner. Taking two
leaves at the extremity of a slender twig, the bird literally sews them
together at their edges, its bill taking the place of the needle and veg-
etable fibres constituting the thread. A quantity of soft cottony down
is then pushed between the leaves, and a convenient hollow scraped
out in which the eggs may lie and the young birds may rest at their
ease. Sometimes, if the leaf be large enough, its two edges are drawn
together, but in general a pair of leaves is needed. A few feathers are
sometimes mixed with the down.

This curious nest is evidently hung at the very extremity of the twigs
in order to keep it out of the way of the monkeys, snakes, and other
enemies which might otherwise attack and devour mother and young
toyrether.

THE GOLDEN-CRESTED WREN.

355

The tiny Golden-crested Wren, as it is popularly called, is very
common throughout England, and may be seen hopping and flitting
merrily among the branches in copses, orchards, and plantations. Al-
though from its diminutive size it has gained the title of Wren, it has
no claim to that designation, and is more rightly termed the Kinglet,
or Regulus.

The Golden-crested Wren is notable for the crest of golden-colored
feathers which is placed upon the crown of its head, which it can raise
or depress at pleasure, _^^ ^

and which gives so • ?^^^^^^^Hj&lll^^^^*^^^ ^S^

pert and changeful
an expression to the
little creature. But
for this golden crest,
which is not at all
conspicuous when the
feathers are lowered,
the bird might easily
be mistaken for a
tree-creeper as it
runs up and down
the branches, search-
ing in the crevices of
the bark for the little
insects on which it
feeds. The first spe-
cimen that I ever saw
was traversing the
branches of a fine
" Blenheim Orange "
apple tree in an ad-
joining garden, and
by my inexperienced eyes was at first taken for a very young creeper.
Like the creeper, it can even run up a perpendicular wall, peering into
every little crevice, and stocking up the moss and lichens for the pur-
pose of obtaining the insects and their eggs that are lying concealed.
It will also eat the chrysalides that are found so abundantly upon the
walls.

All the movements of the Golden-crested Wren are full of spring
and fiery activity, and the manner in which it will launch itself from
one tree to another, and then, without a pause, commence traversing
the branches, is a sight well worth seeing. Perhaps the bird is seen to
best advantage among the fir trees, where it finds great scope for its
active habits. Up one branch it scuds, down another, then whisks

The Tailor-bird {Orthotomus longicaudus

356

THE FIKE-CRESTED WREN.

itself through the air to a fresh tree, and then flings itself back again
to its former perch. Along the twigs it runs with astonishing rapidity,
sometimes clinging with its head downward, sometimes running round
and round them spirally, always twisting its pert little head in every
direction, 'and probing each hole and crevice with its sharp, slender lit-
tle bill. The roughest-barked trees are its favorite resort, because in
such localities it finds its best supply of insect food.

The nest of this beautiful little bird is exquisitely woven of various
soft substances, and is generally suspended to a trunk where it is well

sheltered from the weather. I
have often found its nest, and in
every instance have noticed that
it is shaded by leaves, the project-
ing portion of a branch, or some
such protection. In one case the
nest, which was suspended to a fir
branch, was almost invisible be-
neath a heavy bunch of large
cones that drooped over it, and
forced the bird to gain admission
by creeping along the branch to
which the nest was suspended.
The edifice is usually supported
by three branches, one above and
one at either side. The nest is
usually lined with feathers, and
contains a considerable number
of eggs, generally from six to ten.
These eggs are hardly bigger than
peas, and, as may be supposed, their
shells are so delicately thin that to extract the interior without damag-
ing them is a very difficult matter.

The entire length of this bird is about three inches and a half, and its
general color is brownish above, marked with olive-green, and flanked
with white on the wing-coverts. The under surface is yellowish gray,
the beak is black, and the eye hazel-brown. The forehead is marked
with grayish white ; the crest is brilliant yellow tipped with orange,
and on each side of it runs a black line. The female is not so brilliant
in her coloring, and the crest is wholly of a pale yellow.

The Fire-crested Wren is very similar to the preceding species,
but may be distinguished from it by the ruddy hue of the forehead, the
fiery orange of the crest, and the decidedly yellow hue of the sides of
the neck. It is an inhabitant of England, but is a much rarer bird than
the Golden-crest. Owing to the great resemblance between the two

Wrens.

THE BLACKCAP WARBLER AND THE NIGHTINGALE. 357

species, they have often been mistaken for each other, and it is only
within a comparatively recent period that their diversity was estab-
lished.

With the exception of the nightingale, the Blackcap Warbler is
the sweetest and richest of all the British song-birds, and in many
points the voice of the Blackcap is even superior to that of the far-famed
Philomel.

The Blackcap derives its name from the tuft of dark feathers Avhich
crowns the head, and which in the males is coal black, but in the fe-
males deep reddish brown. It is rather late in arriving, seldom being
seen or heard until the end of April, and it remains with us until the
middle of September. As several specimens of this pretty bird have
been noticed in England in the months of December and January, it is
probable that some individuals may not migrate at all, but remain in
this country throughout the entire winter. Should it do so, it might
easily escape notice, as it would not be likely to sing much during the
cold months, and, owing to its retiring habits, it is at all times more
likely to be heard than seen.

The food of the Blackcap consists chiefly of insects, but it also pays
attention to the ripe fruit in the autumn, being especially fond of rasp-
berries. Perhaps it may choose this fruit on account of the little white
maggots that are so often found in the centre of the over-ripe rasp-
berry.

The nest of the Blackcap is generally placed only a foot or so above
the ground, within the shelter of a dense bush or tuft of rank herbage,
and is composed of vegetable fibres and hairs rather loosely put to-
gether. The eggs are four or five in number, and are of a pale reddish
bTown, dappled with a deeper hue of brown. The general color of the
Blackcap is gray, with a wash of dark green upon the upper surface
and ashen-gray upon the lower surface. The total length of the bird is
not quite six inches, its extent of wings nearly nine inches, and its weight
not quite half an ounce.

The well-known and far-famed Nightingale is, happily for us, an
inhabitant of England, visiting us about the middle of April and re-
maining until the breeding season is over.

It seems to be rather a local bird, some parts of England appearing
to be quite unsuited to its habits. The northern counties are seldom
visited by this bird, and in Ireland and Scotland it is almost unknown.

The food of the Nightingale consists principally of various insects,
and it is so powerfully attracted by the common mealworm that one of
these creatures employed as a bait is sure to attract the bird to its de-
struction. It appears to make great havoc among the caterpillars,
which come out to feed at night, and are to be seen so abundantly
on damp warm evenings. In the autumn it is somewhat of a fruit'

358

THE NIGHTINGALE.

eater, and has been seen in the act of eating "blackheart" cherries,
plucking them from the tree and carrying them to its young.^ In captivity
it is best fed upon mealworms, raw beef scraped with a knife and given
very fresh, hard-boiled egg and water, all mixed into a kind of paste.

As is well known, the song of the Nightingale is mostly uttered after
sunset, but the bird may be heard in full song throughout the day.
Toward the end of June, when the young birds are hatched, the song
changes into a kind of rough croaking sound, which is uttered by way
of warning, and accompanied with a sharp snapping sound of the beak.

The time when the Nightingales
sing loudest and most constantly
is during the week or two after
their arrival, for they are then
engaged in attracting their mates,
and sing in fierce rivalry of each
other, hoping to fascinate their
brides by the splendor of their
voices. When once the bird has
procured a partner, he becomes
deeply attached to her, and if
he should be captured soon pines
away and dies, full of sorrowful
remembrances. The bird-deal-
ers are therefore anxious to
catch the Nightingale before
the first week has elapsed, as
they can then, by dint of care
and attention, preserve the bird
in full song to a very late period.
Mr. Yarrell mentions an instance
upon a hundred and fourteen suc-

The Nightingale {Luscinia Philomela)

Nightingale san^

where a caged
cessive days.

The nest of the Nightingale is always placed upon or very near the
ground, and is generally carefully hidden beneath heavy foliage. One
such nest that I discovered in Wiltshire was placed among the knotted
and gnarled roots of an old ivy-covered thorn-stump that still main-
tained its place within a yard of a footpath. The nest is made of grass
and leaves, and is of exceedingly slight construction— so slight, indeed,
that to remove it without damage is a very difhcult process, and requires
the careful use of the hands. The eggs are generally four, but some-
times five, in number, and are of a peculiar smooth olive-brown, which
distinguishes them at once from the egg of any other British bird of
the same size.

The color of the Nightingale is a rich hair-brown upon the upper

THE WHEATEAR AND THE REDSTART. 359

part of the body and grayish white below, the throat being of a lighter
hue than the breast and abdomen. The entire length of the bird rather
exceeds six inches.

.A small but very interesting group of birds now claims our attention.
These are the Erythaciuse, or Redbreast kind, including the Redbreast,
the Wheatear, and other birds.

The Wheatear, or Fallow Chat, is a well-known visitant of the
British Isles, and on account of the delicate flavor of its flesh when
fat is sadly persecuted throughout the whole time of its sojourn.

Being in great favor for the table, where it is popularly known as
the English ortolan, and consequently fetching a good price in the
market, it is caught in great numbers, and sold to the game-dealers of
London. The trap by which it is captured is a remarkably simple
affair, consisting merely of an oblong piece of turf cut from the soil
and arranged crosswise over the cavity from which it was taken. A
horsehair noose is supported under the turf by means of a stick, and
the trap is complete, needing no bait or supervision. It is the nature
of the Wheatear to run under shelter at the least alarm, a passing
cloud sufficing to drive it under a stone or into a 'hole in a bank.
Seeing, therefore, the sheltering turf, the Wheatear runs beneath it,
and is caught in the noose. These simple traps are much used by the
shepherds, who can make and attend to four or five hundred m a day,
and have been known to catch upward of a thousand Wheatears within
twenty-four hours.

As a general rule, the nest of the W^heatear is hidden in the most
perfect manner, the bird ordinarily choosing to place its domicile with-
in the recesses of large stone heaps, in deep rocky crannies, and in
similar localities; so that, even if it should be discovered, the work of
obtaining it is very severe. In some parts of the cliff*-bound seacoast,
the Wheatear's nest is so deeply buried in the rocky crevices that the
only mode of obtaining the eggs is to hook out the nest by means of a
bent wire at the end of a long stick.

The upper part of the body is light silver gray, and the quill
feathers of the wings, together with their coverts, are deep black. The
middle tail feathers and the tips of the various rectrices are of the same
hue, and a black streak passes from the edge of the beak .to the ear,
enveloping the eye, and spreading widely upon the ear-cov^erts. The
breast is buff*, with a decided orange tinge, and the abdomen is beauti-
fully white. The female is not quite so handsome, the wings, tail, and ear-
coverts being dark brown, and the lighter portions of the body tinged
with brown. The total length of the bird is about six inches and a half.

The specific title of phcenieura, which is given to the Redstart,
signifies " ruddy-tail," and is attributed to the bird in consequence of
the light ruddy chestnut feathers of the tail and upper tail-coverts.

360

THE KEDSTAKT.

It is a handsomely-colored and elegantly-shaped bird, and is a great
ornament to our fields and hedgerows. The name of "Redstart" is a
very appropriate one, and has been given to the bird in allusion to the
peculiar character of its flight. While walking quietly along the
hedgerows, the observer may often see a bird flash suddenly out of the
leafage, flirt its tail in the air, displaying strongly a bright gleam of
ruddy hue, and after a sharp dash of a few yards turn into the hedge
again with as much suddenness as it had displayed in its exit. These
manoeuvres it will fepeat frequently, always keeping well in front, and
at last it will quietly slip through the hedge, double back on the oppo-
site side, and return to the spot whence it had started.

No one need fancy, from seeing the bird in the hedge, that its nest is
in close proximitv, for the Redstart seldom builds in such localities.

The Eedstart {RuticiUa pfioentcuia).

haunting them only for the sake of obtaining food for its young. The
nest is almost invariably built in the hole of an old wall, in a crevice
of rock, a heap of large stones, in a hollow tree, or in very thick ivy.
The eggs are generally five in number, although they vary from four
to seven, and are of a beautiful blue, with a slight tinge of green.
They are not unlike those of the common hedge-sparrow, but are
shorter and of a different contour.

The Redstart has a very sweet song, which, although not very
powerful, is soft and melodious, bearing some resemblance to that of
the nightingale.

The food of the Redstart is mostly of an insect nature, and is obtained
in various ways. Sometimes the bird dashes from its perch upon a
passing insect, after the manner of the flycatcher ; sometimes it chases
beetles and other creeping insects upon the leaves and branches of the
hedges; sometimes it hunts for worms, grubs, and snails from the
ground; and it often picks maggots out of fungi, decaying wood,
mosses, and lichens. Soft ripe fruit is also eaten by the Redstart, which,
-however, ought to be allowed its free range of the'garden in recompense

THE REDBREAST.

361

for the great service which it has performed in the earlier portion of
the year by devouring the myriad insects that feed upon the bk)&soms
of fruit-trees. The softer berries form part of the Redstart's diet,
but the bird does not seem to care about the hard seeds.

There are few birds which are more familiar to us than the Red-
breast, or Robin, a bird which is interwoven among our earliest rec-
ollections through the medium of The Children in the Wood and the
mournful ballad of The Death and Burial of Cock Robin.

Although the Redbreast remains in England throughout the winter,
it is very susceptible to cold, and one of the first birds to seek for shel-
ter, its appear-
ance among the
outhouses being
always an indi-
cation of com-
ing inclemency.
In cold weather
the Redbreast
seldom perches
upon twigs and
branches, but is
accustomed to
crouch in holes
or to sit upon
the ground. The
bird seems to
be strongly at-
tached to man
and his home,
and will follow
the ploughman
over the fields The Redbreast {Erythams ruheadu).

picking up the worms which he turns up with the ploughshare, or en-
ter his house and partake of his evening meal.

The nest of this bird is generally placed near the ground in a thick
ieafy bush or in a bank, and is composed of dry leaves, moss, grass,
hair, and feathers. I have seen the nest very well concealed among
the thick ivy that had wreathed round a tree-trunk, and placed about
eight feet from the ground. The bird seldom flics directly to its nest
or leaves it directly, but alights at a little distance, and creeps through
the leaves or branches until it enters its home.

The eggs of the Redbreast are generally five in number, as is the
case with most of the song-birds, find their color is grayish white, cov-
ered with variously-sized spots of pale rusty red. The song of this
31

362

THE HEDGE ACCENTOR.

bird is very sweet and pleasing, and it is a pretty sight to observe two
or more Redbreasts perched on different trees and answering each other
with their musical cries. Whenever the Redbreast perches on the top
of a tree or other elevated spot and begins to sing merrily, it is an un-
failing indication that the weather of the coming day promises to be
fair. The bird sings throughout the greater part of the year, beginning
early in spring and continuing very late into the autumn. Even in the
winter months a bright sunny day is apt to excite the Robin to perch
upon a twig and pour forth a sweet though broken melody.

The colors of the male Robin are bright olive-brown on the back
and orange-red on the throat, chin, breast, forehead, and round the eye.
A stripe of blue-gray runs round the red, and the abdomen and lower
part of the breast are white. The bill and eyes are black. The female
is colored after the same manner, but the tints are not so vivid as in
her mate. The total length of the bird is nearly six inches, and its
weight about half an ounce.

Of the pretty though sober-plumaged Accentors we have one or two
British examples, that which is best known being the Hedge Accentor,
or Hedge Sparrow, as it is often, though wrongly, called, it by no means
belonging to the same group of birds.

The Hedge Accentor is very common through the whole of England,
and may be heard in the gardens, copses, and hedgerows, chanting its

pleasing and plaintive melody with-
out displaying much fear of its au-
ditors.

It is especially adapted for living
among hedges, as it possesses a sin-
gular facility in threading its way
through the twigs, stems, and
branches. It seems equally at
home in dried brushwood, and
may often be seen traversing the
interior of a woodpile with perfect
ease. The nest is one of the ear-
TuL Hedge Accentor or Sparrow liest to be built, and is frequently
{Accentor modularius). completed and the eggs laid before

the genial warmth of spring has induced the green leaves to burst
their enclosures.

The nest is generally placed at a very low elevation, seldom more
than two or three feet from the ground, and is rather large in propor-
tion to the size of the bird. The materials of which the structure is
made are various mosses, wool, and hair, and the eggs are usually five
in number, of a bright bluish green color. Sometimes, but very rarely,
six eggs are found in a single nest.

THE GREAT TITMOUSE. 363

The song of the Hedge Accentor is sweet, but not varied or power-
ful, and has a peculiar plaintive air about it. The bird is a persever-
ing songster, continuing to sing throughout a large portion of the year,
and only ceasing during the time of the ordinary moult. Like many
other warbling birds, it possesses considerable powers of imitation, and
can mock with some success the greater number of British song-birds.

The color of the Hedge Accentor is bluish gray, covered with small
brown streaks upon the head and the back and sides of the neck. The
back and wings are brown, streaked with a deeper tint of the same hue,
and the quill feathers of the wings and tail are of a rather darker
brown, and not quite so glossy. The chin, throat, and upper part of
the breast are gray, and the lower part of the breast and the abdomen
are white with a wash of pale buff. The legs and toes are brown, with
a decided orange tinge, and the beak is dark brown. The total length
of the bird is nearly six inches.

The group of birds distinguished by the name of Parinse, or Tit-
mice, is easily recognizable, having all a kind of fiamily resemblance
which guards the observer from mistaking them for any other bird.

They are all remarkable for their strong, stout little beaks, the
boldly-defined color of their plumage, and the quick irregularity of
their movements. Their feet and claws, though slight and apparently
weak, are really extremely strong, enabling the bird to traverse the
boughs with great rapidity, and to cling suspended from the branches.

The Great Titmouse {Parus major).

The first example of these birds is the Great Titmouse, an inhab-
itant uf England and many parts of Europe.

364 THE BLUE TITMOUSE.

It does not migrate, finding a sufficiency of winter food in its native
laud. During the summer it generally haunts the forests, gardens, or
shrubberies, and may be seen hopping and running about the branches
of tlie trees in a most adroit manner, searching for insects, and occa-
sionally knocking them out of their hiding-places by sharp blows of
the bill. The beak of the Great Titmouse is, although so small, a very
formidable one, for the creature has often been known to set upon the
smaller birds and kill them by repeated blows on the head, afterward
pulling the skull to pieces and picking out the brains. During the
winter the Great Titmouse draws near to human habitations, and by
foraging among the barns and outhouses seldom fails in discovering an
ample supply of food.

The nest is always made in some convenient hollow, generally that
of a tree, but often in the holes of old walls and in the cavities that are
formed by thick gnarled roots in the sides of a bank. Hollow trees,
however, are the favorite nesting-places of this bird, which is able to
shape the hollow to its liking by chiselling away th3 decaying wood with
its sharp, strong beak. The materials of which the nest is made vary
according to the locality. There are generally from eight to twelve
eggs in each nest, and their color is whitish gray, covered with mottlings
of a rusty red, which are thickly gathered toward the larger end.

The coloring of this species is very bold, and is briefly as follows:
The top of the head and the throat, as far as the middle of the neck,
together with a rather broad streak down the centre of the chest and
abdomen, are rich purple-black, relieved by a spot of pure white on the
nape of the neck, and a large flask-shaped patch under each eye. The
back and shoulders are ashy green ; the greater wing-coverts are blue-
black, each feather being tipped with white, so as to form a bar across
the wings. The quill feathers are dark green-gray, the primaries being
edged with grayish white. The tail-feathers are the same green-gray,
except that the extreme feathers are white on their outer ends. The
under parts are light sulphurous yellow, and the under tail-coverts are
white. The total length of the bird is not quite six inches.

The little Blue Titmouse is one of the most familiar birds of Eng-
land, as it is widelv spread throughout the land, and is of so bold a
nature that it exhibits itself fearlessly to any observer. In many of
its habits it resembles the last-mentioned species, but it nevertheless
possesses a very marked character, and has peculiarities which are all
its own. As it trips glancingly over the branches it hardly looks like
a bird, for its quick limbs and strong claws carry it over the twigs with
such rapidity that it resembles a blue mouse rather than one of the feath-
ered tribe. ^ Being almost exclusively an insect-eating bird, and a most
voracious little creature, it renders invaluable service to the agricultur-
ist and the gardener by discovering and destroying the insects which

THE LONG-TAILED TITMOUSE.

305

crowd upon the trees and plants in the early days of spring, and which,
if not removed, would effectually injure a very large proportion of the
fruit and produce.

The nest of this species may be found in the most extraordinary
localities, such as hollow trees, holes in old walls, the 'interior of dis-
used spouts, sides of gravel-pits, the hat of a scarecrow, the inside of a
porcelain jar, or the cylinder of a pump. One bird had actually chosen
a beehive as its residence, and had succeeded in building its nest and

rearing its young while sur-
rounded by the bees going
to and returning from their
work. Another Titmouse con-
trived to get into a weather-
cock on the summit of a spire,
and there made its nest in
security. The eggs are small
and rather numerous, being
generally about eight or ten,
but sometimes exceeding the
latter number.

The Long-tailed Tit-
mouse is familiarly known
throughout England, and is
designated under different ti-
tles, according to the locality
in which it resides, some of
its popular names being de-
rived from its shape and
others from its ci'est. In
The Blue Titmouse {Pams coendeuH). some parts of the country it
is called " Long Tom," while in others it goes by the name of " Bottle-
crested Tit " or " Poke-Pudding," the latter word being a provincial
rendering of the useful culinary apparatus termed a pudding-bag.

This pretty little bird is a notable frequenter of trees, hedgerows, and
orchards, and is remarkable for its sociable habits, being generally seen
in little troops of six or eight in number. It appears that the young
birds always remain with their parents throughout the whole of the first
year, so that when the brood happens to be a large one, as many as six-
teen Long-tailed Titmice may be seen hopping and skipping about to-
gether.

So far as is known, the Long-tailed Titmouse feeds exclusively on in-
sects, and on account of its microscopical eyes is able to see and to catch
the very minutest. The service which is rendered to agriculture by
even a single nest of these birds is almost invaluable, for at all sea-

31*

366 WAGTAILS.

ions of the year they continue to obtain their food, catching the perfect
insect in the summer, and feeding on the eggs, hidden larvae, and chrys-
alides in winter.

The nest of this species is undoubtedly the most wonderful example
of bird-architecture that is to be found in the British Islands, and is not
exceeded in beauty by the home of any bird whatever. In form it some-
what resembles an egg, and is built of moss, hair, a very little wool, the
cocoon webs of spiders, and the silken hammocks of certain caterpillars,
all woven into each other in the most admirable manner. The exterior
of the nest is spangled with silvery lichens, which generally correspond
ip color with the bark of the tree on which it is placed, and serve to
render it as little conspicuous as possible. The interior of the nest is
Vv'onderfully soft and warm, being literally crammed with downy
feathers to such an extent that the eggs are deeply buried in the
feathery bed, and cannot be counted until the whole lining of the nest
is removed. The nest is generally placed rather near the ground,
and is so well concealed that it is not easily seen except by experienced
eyes.

The number of eggs which this little bird lays is really surprising.
Very seldom does it content itself with eight, and double that number
has been frequently counted in a single nest. In consequence, the young
birds are packed like so many herrings in a barrel, and the ingenuity
which must be exerted by the parent birds in giving each little one its
food in proper rotation must be very great indeed.

The coloring of this species is as follows : The upper part of the head,
the cheeks, the throat, and the whole of the under surface are grayish
white, warming into a rosy hue upon the sides, flanks, and under tail-
coverts. A broad stripe of deep black passes over the eye and the
ear-coverts, and joins a large triangular patch of the same jetty hue,
which extends from the shoulders as far as the upper tail-coverts.* The
slioulders, the scapularies, and the lower part of the back are washed
with a decided tinge of a ruddy hue. The wings are mostly black,
with the exception of the tertiary quill feathers, which are edged with
white. The long central feathers of the tail are black, and the remain-
der are black on the inner webs and white on the outer. They are
regularly graduated in length, each pair being about half an inch
shorter than the preceding pair. Both sexes are similar in their
coloring. The total length of the bird is about five and a half
inches.

WAGTAILS.

We now arrive at a small group of birds which is sufficiently familiar
to every observer of nature through the different representatives which
mhabit this country. The Wagtails— so called from their well-known

THE PIED WAGTAIL.

367

habit of jerking their tails while running on the ground or on settling
immediately after a flight — are found in both hemispheres, and are all
well known by the habit from which they derive their popular title.
No less than nine species of this group occur in Britain, some of which
are nearly as well known as the common sparrow, while others are less
familiar to the casual observer.

The Pied Wagtail is the most common of all the British examples
of this genus, and may be seen at the proper season of the year near

The Pied Wagtail {Motacilla Yarrellii).

almost every pond or brook, or even in the open road, tripping daintily
over the ground, pecking away at the insects, and wagging its tail with
hearty good-will.

Mr. Yarrell mentions that this bird is an accomplished fisher, and
excels in snapping up the smaller minnows and fry as they come to
the surface of the water. It also haunts the fields where sheep, horses,
or horned cattle are kept, and hovers confidingly close to their hoofs,
pecking away briskly at the little insects which are disturbed by their
tread. It also delights in newly-mown lawns, and runs over the
smooth surface with great agility, peering between the grass-blades in
search of the insects which may be lying concealed in their green
shelter. The flight of the Pied Wagtail is short and jerking, the bird
rising and falling in a very peculiar manner with every stroke of the
wings.

The Pied Wagtail remains in England throughout the year, but
generally retires to the southern counties during the winter, as it would
otherwise be unable to obtain its food.

36S THE MEADOW PIPIT.

The nest of the Wagtail is generally placed at no great distance from
water, and is ahvavs built in some retired situation. Holes in walls,
the hollows of aged trees, or niches in old gravel-pits are favorite
localities with this bird. Heaps of large stones are also in great favor
with the Wagtail, and I have generally found that wherever a pile of
rough stones has remained for some time in the vicinity of water, a
Wagtail's nest is almost invariably somewhere within it. I have
also found the nest in heaps of dry brushwood piled up for the purpose
of l)eing cut into fiigots. In every case the nest is placed at a consid-
erable depth. The eggs are generally four or five in number, and their
color is gray-white, speckled with a great number of very small brown
spots.

The colorinsr of the Pied Wao^tail is almost entirely black and white,
verv boldly disposed, and distributed as follows : The top of the head,
the nape of the neck, part of the shoulders, the chin, neck, and throat,
are jetty black, contrasting boldly with the pure snowy w^hite of the
sides of 'the face and the white patch on the sides of the neck. The
upper tail-coverts and the coverts of the wings are also black. The
quill feathers of the wings are black, edged on the outer web with a
lighter hue. The two exterior feathers of the tail are pure white,
eilged on the inner web with white, and the remainder jetty black.
The under parts of the body are grayish white, taking a blue tint upon
the flanks. The entire length of the bird is between seven and eight
inch&s. This is the summer plumage of the male bird. In the winter
the chin and throat exchange their jetty hue for a pure white, leaving
only a collar of black round the throat. The female much resembles
her mate in the general coloring of her plumage, but is about half an
inch shorter.

The Pipits— or Titlarks as they are sometimes called — form a
well-marked group, which possesses the long hind toe of the hawk,
together with very similar plumage, and also bears the long tail
which is found in the wagtails. Several species of Pipit inhabit
P^nghind.

The best known is the common Meadow Pipit, or Meadow Titling,
a bird which may be seen throughout the year upon moors, waste-lands,
and marshy ground, changing its locality according to the season of
year. It is a pretty though rather sombre little bird, and is quick and
active in its movements, often jerking its long tail in a fashion that
reminds the observer of the wagtail's habits. It moves with consider-
al)le celerity, tripping over the rough and rocky ground which it
frequents, and picking up insects with the stroke of its unerring beak.
Its food, however, is of a mixed description, as in the crops of several
individuals were found seeds, insects, and water-shells, some of the latter
being entire.

THE DIPPER.

369

The nest of this species is placed on the ground, and is generally-
hidden in a large grass-tuft.

The Meadow Pipit {Anthns prafensis).

The very large family of the Thrushes now engages our attention.
Many of these birds are renowned for their song, and some of them
are remarkable for their imitative powers.

The Ant Thrushes find an English representative in the well-known
Dipper, or Water Ousel, of our river-banks.

Possessing neither brilliant plumage nor graceful shape, it is yet one of
the most interesting of British birds when watched in its favorite haunts.
It always frequents rapid streams and channels, and, being a very shy
and retiring bird, invariably prefers those spots where the banks over-
hang the water and are clothed with thick brushwood. Should the bed
of the stream be broken up with rocks or large stones, and the fall be
sufficiently sharp to wear away an occasional pool, the Dipper is all the
better pleased with its home, and may generally be found in such a
locality by a patient observer.

All the movements of this little bird are quick, jerking, and wren-
like— a similitude which is enhanced by its habit of continually flirt-
ing its apology for a tail. Caring nothing for the frosts of winter so
long as the water remains free from ice, the Dipper may be seen
throughout the winter months flitting from stone to stone with the
most animated gestures, occasionally stopping to pick up some morsel
of food, and ever and anon taking to the water, where it sometimes
dives entirely out of sight, and at others merely walks into the shallows
and there flaps about with great rapidity.

The food of the Dipper seems to be exclusively of an animal cha-

370

THE DIPPER.

The Dipper [Hydrobates cinclus).

racter, and \n the various specimens which have been examined consists
of insects in their different stages, small Crustacea, and the spawn and
fry of various fishes. Its fish-eating propensities have been questioned
by some writers, but the matter has been set entirely at rest by the dis-
covery of fish-bones and half-digested fish in the stomachs of Dippers
that had been shot. Generally, however, the food consists of water-
beetles, particularly of the genus known by the name of Hydrophilus,

a flat, oval -shaped insect with
hard wing-cases and oar-like
hind legs. The bird has also
been known to pick up the
caddis-worms, taking them on
shore, pulling and knocking
to pieces the tough case in
Nvhich the fat white grub is
enveloped, and swallowing the
contents.

The song of the Dipper is a
lively and cheerful perform-
ance, and is uttered most frequently in the bright frosty mornings.
Sometimes it will stand upon a stone when singing, and accompany
its song with the oddest imaginable gestures, hopping and skipping
about, twisting its head in all directions, and acting as if it were
performing for the amusement of the spectator.

The nest is not unlike that of the wren, being composed chiefly of
mosses built into a dome-like shape with a single aperture in the side.
It is generally placed near the water, and always under some sort of
cover, usually a hole in the bank.

The nest is not, however, always so close to the water, for I found
one near Swindon in the side of an old disused pit, at some little dis-
tance from the great Swindon reservoir. It was discovered more by
accident than by intention, the touch having given the first intimation
of its presence. The moss always remains in a green state, as it is placed
in a damp locality, so that it can with great difficulty be distinguished
from the vegetation of the spot whereon it is situated.

The eggs are pure white, and rather long in proportion to their
breadth. Their full number is five, and the young remain with
their parents for a considerable period, forming little companies of
five or six of these curious birds.

The general color of this bird is brown on the upper surface of the
body; the throat and upper parts of the chest are white, and the ab-
domen is rusty red. The young birds possess a rather variegated
plumage of black, brown, ash-color, and white. The total length
of the adult bird is about seven inches.

THE MOCKING BIRD. 371

The Mocking 'Bird of America is universally allowed to be the
most wonderful of all songsters, as it not only possesses a very fine
and melodious voice, but is also endowed with the capacity for imitat-
ing the notes of any other bird, and, indeed, of immediately reprodu-
cing with the most astonishing exactness any sound which it may hear.

All persons who come within the sound of the Mocking Bird's voice are
fascinated with the thrilling strains that are poured without effort from
the melodious throat, and every professed
ornithologist who has heard this wonder-
ful bird has exhausted the powers of his
language in endeavoring to describe the
varied and entrancing melody of the
Mocking Bird. Within the compass of
one single throat the whole feathered
race seems to be comprised, for the
Mocking Bird can with equal ease im-
itate, or rather reproduce, the sweet
and gentle twittering of the blue-bird,
the rich full song of the thrush, or the
harsh, ear-piercing scream of the eagle.

Let it but approach the habitation '^"^ Mocking^Bird {Mimus
of man, and it straightway adds a new ^

series of sounds to its already vast store, laying up in its most re-
tentive memory the various noises that are produced by man and his
surroundings, and introducing among its other imitations the barking
of dogs, the harsh " setting " of saws, the whirring buzz of the millstone,
the everlasting clack of the hoppers, the dull heavy blow of the mallet,
and the cracking of splitting timbers, the fragments of songs whistled
by the laborers, the creaking of ungreased wheels, the neighing of
horses, the plaintive " baa " of the sheep, and the deep lowing of the
oxen, together with all the innumerable and accidental sounds which
are necessarily produced through human means. Unfortunately,
the bird is rather apt to spoil his own wonderful song by a sudden in-
troduction of one of these inharmonious sounds, so that the listener,
whose ear is being delighted with a succession of the softest and richest-
toned vocalisms, will suddenly be electrified with the loud shriek of the
angry hawk or the grating whir of the grindstone.

The nest of this bird is usually placed in some thick bush, and is in
general very carefully concealed. Sometimes, however, when the bird
builds in localities where it knows that it will be protected from human
interference, it is quite indifferent about the concealment of its home,
and trusts to its own prowess for the defence of its mate and young.
The nest is always placed at a short distance from the ground, being
seldom seen at an elevation of more than ei^rht feet.

^72

THE MISSEL THRUSH.

The materials of which the nest is composed are generally dried
weeds aud very slender twigs as a foundation ; straw, hay, wool, dried
leaves, and moss as the main wall ; and fine vegetable fibres as the
linino". The eggs are four or five in number, and there are often two
broods in the course of the year. The color of the eggs is greenish
blue spotted with amber-brown.

The first example of the true Thrushes is the Missel Thrush, one of
tlie largest and handsomest of the species.

It is one of our resident birds, and on account of its great size, its
cojnbative nature, its brightly-feathered breast, its rich voice and gre-
^^^„_ garious habits, is one of

i^ ^"? -"'^ ^^^^ ^^^^ known of tbe

^'-^^•^ British birds. About the

beginning of April the
Missel Thrush sets about
its nest, and in general
builds a large weighty
edifice that can be seen
through the leafless
bushes from a great dis-
tance.

The materials of which
the nest is composed are
the most heterogeneous
that can be imagined.
Every substance that can be woven into a nest is pressed into the ser-
vice. Moss, hay, straw, dead leaves, and grasses are among the ruling
substances that are employed for the purpose, and the bird often adds
inanufiictured products, such as scraps of rag, paper, or shavings. I
once found one of these nests that was ingeniously placed in the crown
of an old hat which had evidently been flung into the tree by some
traveller. At first it hardly looked like a nest, but there were a few
bits of grass lying over the brim that had a very suspicious aspect,
»iid on climbing the tree the old hat was proved to have been made
the basis of a warm nest, with the proper complement of eggs.

Toward the end of the summer the Missel Thrushes assemble in flocks
of considerable size, and in the autumn often do great harm to gardens
and plantations by devouring the fruit. They are particularly fond of
ra8p])erries and cherries, and have been known to entirely ruin the crop
of these fruits. They are also fond of the berries of the mountain-ash
and the arbutus, and are so partial to the viscid berries of the mistletoe
plant that they have been called by its name. Insects of various kinds,
caterpillars, and spiders also form part of the Missel Thrush's diet, and a
partly-digested lizard has been found in the interior of one of these birds.

The Missel Thrush (Turdus viscivorus).

THE FIELDFARE AND THE BLACKBIRD. 373

Til e song of the Missel Thrush is rich, loud, clear, and ringing, and
is often uttered during the stormiest period of the year, the bird seem-
ing to prefer the roughest and most inclement weather for the exercise
of its voice.

Another large example of the British Thrushes is found in the
Fieldfare.

This bird is one of the migratory species, making only a winter visit
to this country, and often meeting a very inhospitable reception from
the gun of the winter sportsboy. Very seldom is it seen in this coun-
try till November, and is often absent until the cold month of Decem-
ber, when it makes its appearance in great flocks, searching eagerly for
food over the fields. When the snow lies heavily upon the fields, this
bird betakes itself to the hedgerows and outskirts of woods and copses,
and there feeds on the various berries that have survived the autumn.
During this inclement season the Fieldfare may be approached and shot
without much difficulty. Its shyness, however, depends greatly on the
amount of persecution which it has sustained.

In its color the Fieldfjire bears a decided resemblance to the gener-
ality of the Thrushes. The upper parts of the body as far as the shoul-
ders are ashen gray, dotted with dark-brown spots upon the head ; the
back and wings are rich brown, and the tail is dark blackish brown.
The chin and throat are a peculiar golden hue, not unlike amber, and
covered with numerous black streaks ; the breast is reddish brown, also
spotted with black, and the abdomen and under parts are white, spotted
on the flanks and under tail-coverts with brown of various shades. The
Fieldfare is not quite so
large a bird as the Missel
Thrush, being about ten
inches in total length.

Among the best-known
and best-loved of our
British songsters, the
Blackbird is one of the
most conspicuous.

This well-known bird
derives its popular name
from the uniformly black
hue of its plumage, which

is relieved only by the T he ' B^IcKBrnj, {Turdus memla).

bright orange-colored bill

of the male bird. The song of this creature is remarkable for its full
mellowness of note, and is ever a welcome sound to the lover of Nature
and her vocal and visual harmonies.

The Blackbird feeds usually on insects, but it also possesses a great

32

374

THE SONG THRUSH.

Jove of fruit, and in the autumn ravages the gardens and orchards in a
most destructive manner, picking out all the best and ripest fruit, and
wisely leaving the still iramatured produce to ripen on the branches.

The nest o^f this bird is made very early in the spring, and is always
carefully placed in the centre of some thick bush, a spreading holly tree
being a very favorite locality. It is a large, rough, but carefully-con-
structed habitation, being made externally of grass-stems and roots,
plastered on the interior with a rather thick lining of coarse mud,
which, when thoroughly dried, forms a kind of rude earthenware cup.
A lining of fine grass is placed within the earthen cup, and upon this
lininiT the five eggs are laid. These eggs are of a light grayish blue
ground-color, splashed, spotted, and freckled over their entire surface
with brown of various shades and intensity. The coloring of these
eggs is extremely variable, even those of a single nest being very dif-
ferent in their appearance.

The Blackbird is very courageous in defence of its nest, and will
attack almost any animal that threatens the security of its home. On
one occasion a prowling cat was forced to retreat ignominiously from
the united assaults of two Blackbirds near whose domicile she had ven-
tured.

The well-known Song Thrush — or Throstle, as it is sometimes
called — bears a deservedly high rank among our British birds of

It is plentifully found in most parts of England, and favors us with
its vocal efforts throughout a considerable portion of the year. The

song of the Thrush is peculiarly
rich, mellow, and sustained, and
is remarkable for the full purity
of its intonation and the variety
of its notes. The Thrush begins
to sing as soon as incubation com-
mences, and continues its song from
the beginning of the spring until
the middle of autumn. In many
cases the bird sings to a very late
period of the year, and has been
heard in the months of November
and December.

The food of the Thrush is mostly
of an animal character, and consists
largely of worms, snails, slugs, and
similar creatures. In eating snails
in its bill, battering them against
stone until the shells are entirely crushed, and then swallowing

UK Song Thrush {Tardus musicus).
it is very dexterous, Ukm^ them

THE GOLDEN ORIOLE.

375

the enclosed mollusc. When a Thrush has found a stone that suits
his purpose peculiarly well, he brings all his snails to the spot, and
leaves quite a large heap of empty snail-shells under the stone. One
of the best examples that I have ever seen was a large squared boulder-
stone, forming part of a rustic stile in Wiltshire. There was a large
pile of shells immediately under the stone, and the ground was strewed
for some distance with the crushed fragments, that had evidently been
trodden upon and carried away by the feet of passengers.

The Thrush does not, however, confine itself wholly to this kind of
diet, but in the autumn months feeds largely on berries and different
fruits, being very fond of cherries, and often
working great havoc in an orchard or fruit-
garden. But, in spite of its occasional in-
roads upon the gardens, it deserves the grat-
itude of the agriculturist on account of its
service in destroying the snails and other
garden pests, and may well be allowed to
take its autumnal toll of a few of the fruits
of which it has been such an efficient pre-
server.

The nest of the Thrush is rather large,
and is shaped like a basin. The shell of
the nest is composed of roots and mosses,
inside which is worked a rather thin but
wonderfully compact layer of cow-dung
and decayed wood, so strongly kneaded
that when dry it will hold water almost
as well as an earthenware vessel. There
are usually five eggs, of a beautiful blue
spotted with black. The spots are small,
round, and well marked, and are extremely variable in size and
number; they are always gathered toward the larger end of the

egg.

The Golden Oeiole is an extremely rare visitant of this country,
having been but seldom observed within our coasts, but is far from un-
common in many parts of the Continent, especially the more southern
portions of Europe, such as the shores of the Mediterranean and South-
ern Italy.

It derives its name from the bright golden yellow with which the
feathers of the adult male bird are lai^gely tinged ; but as the full
glory of its plumage is not displayed until the bird has entered its
third year, it is possible that many specimens may have visited this
country and again departed without having attracted particular atten-
tion.

The Song Thrush ( Tardus
musictts).

376

THE SP.OTTED FLYCATCHER.

It is rather gregarious in its habits, generally associating in little
fl(jcks, and frequenting lofty trees and orchards, where it can obtain
abundance of food.

The nest of tl) is bird is a very elegantly-formed and well-constructed
edifice, of a shallow cup-like shape, and usually placed in a horizontal

fork of a convenient branch.
The materials of which it is
made are mostly delicate
grass-stems, interwoven with
wool so firmly that the whole
structure is strong and warm.
The eggs are generally four
or five in number, and their
color is purplish white, spar-
ingly marked with blotches of
a deep red and ashen gray. It
is believed that there is but
one brood in the year, so that
the species does not multiply
very rapidly. Sometimes the
bird is said to build a deep
and purse-like nest, which is
suspended from a forked
branch instead of being
placed upon it.

The interesting family of
The Orchard Oriole. Flycatchers is composed of

1. Female. 2, 3. Males of the second and third » large number of spCcicS, CX-

years. 4. Male in complete plumage, a. Egg of tremelv Variable in size, form,

the Orchard Oriole. 6. Egg of the Baltimore Oriole. j i rrn j-

and color. I he average di-
mensions of these birds are about equal to those of a large sparrow,
and many are smaller than that bird, although two or three species
nearly ecjual the thrush in size.

Tl»e Spotted Flycatcher has received several local names in al-
lusion to its habits, the titles Wall Bird and Beam Bird being those
by which it is most frequently designated. It is one of the migrating
birds, arriving in this country at a rather late season, being seldom seen
before the middle, or even toward the end, of May.

This bird is fond of haunting parks, gardens, meadows, and shrub-
beries, always choosing those spots where flies are most common^ and
attaching itself to the same perch for many days in succession. When
the Flycatcher inhabits any place where it has been accustomed to live
undisturbed, it is a remarkably trustful bird, and permits the near ap
proach of man, even availing itself of his assistance.

THE FLYCATCHERS.

377

The Spotted Flycatcher builds a very neatly-made nest, and is in the
habit of fixing his home in the most curious and unsuspected localities.
The hinge of a door has on more than one occasion been selected for
the purpose, and in one instance the nest had retained its position al-
though the door was repeatedly opened and closed, until a more severe
shock than ordinary shook the eggs out of the nest and broke them.
It is fond of selecting some human habitation for the locality in which
to build its nest, and its titles of Beam Bird and Wall Bird have been
given to it because it is in the habit of making its home on beams or
in the holes of walls. The
branches of a pear, apri-
cot, vine, or honeysuckle
are favorite resorts of the
Spotted Flycatcher when
the tree has been trained
against a wall.

The nest is generally
round and cup-shaped,
and is made of fine
grasses, moss, roots, hair,
and feathers, the harder
materials forming the
walls of the nest, and
the softer being employed
as lining.

The eggs of the Spotted
Flycatcher are four or five
in number, and their color
is a very pale bluish white,
spotted with ruddy speck-
L'S. As the nest is made
at so late a period of the
vear, beiupf but just be- , rr . t,, , i or. w. . j v, x v,

' '^ 1.11 ^- Tvrant Flvcatcher. 2. Great Crested Flycatcher,

gun when some birds have 3. Small Green-crested Flycatcher. 4. Pewit Fly-
hatched their first brood, catcher. 6. Wood Pewit Flycatcher.

there is often not more than a single family in the course of the sea-
son. Sometimes, however, it has been known to hatch and rear a
second brood in safety.

The general color of the Spotted Flycatcher is a delicate brown on
the upper parts of the body, the quill feathers of the wings and tail
being, as is usually the case, of a blacker hue than the feathers of the
back. There are a few dark spots on the top of the head, and the
terti^l feathers of the wings are edged with light brown. The breast
is white, with a patch of very light dull brown across its upper portion,
32*

The Flycatchers.

378 THE PIED FLYCATCHER AND THE WAXEN CHATTERER.

and both the chin and breast are marked with dark brown longitudinal

streaks.

The other species of British Flycatchers is much more rare than
the bird just described, and may easily be distinguished from it by the
peculiarity of plumage from which it derives its popular title. The
Pied Flycatcher has been observed in most parts of England, but
seems to be of very rare occurrence, except in the counties of Cumber-
land and Westmoreland, where it is found in the vicinity of the lakes.
The coloring of this bird is as follows: In the adult male the top of
the head, back of the neck, back, and wings are dark blackish brown,
with the exception of a white patch upon the forehead, and a broad
stripe of white on the tertiary and greater wing-coverts. The tail is
black, except some bold white marks on some of the outer feathers,
and the whole of the under surface is pure white. The female is of a
delicate brown on the upper parts of the body, and those portions
which in the male are pure white are in the female of a dull whitish
gray. In dimensions the bird is not equal to the Spotted Flycatcher,
barely exceeding five inches in total length.

A small but interesting group of birds has been designated by the
name of Ampelinse, or Chatterers, in allusion to the loquacity for
which some of the species are remarkable. They all have a wide
mouth, opening nearly as far as the eyes, but without the bristly ap-
pendages which so often accompany a large extent of gape.

One well-known species, the Waxen
Chatterer, is a tolerably frequent
visitor of England, though it cannot
be reckoned among the common Brit-
ish birds. It is also known by the
name of the Bohemian Chatterer,
the latter name being singularly in-
^v ^iBfe^^^ appropriate, as the bird is quite as

^^^^m^M^^'^ ^'^^'^ ^^ Bohemia as in England.

It is a very gregarious bird, assera-
i)ling in very large flocks, and con-
gregating so closely too^ether that great
numbers have been killed at a single
discharge of a gun.

The lonjr, flat, scarlet appendages to

:>-M:

Thr Bohemian Waxwinq or
Waxen Chatterer {Ampelis
garrula).

the wings are usuallv confined to the

secondaries and tertiaries, at whose ex-
tremities they dangle as if they had
been formed separately and fastened to the feathers as an after- thought.
Indeed they so precisely resemble red sealing-wax that anv one on see-
ing the bird for the first time would probably suppose that a trick had

THE SHKIKES. 379

been played upon him by some one who desired to tax his credulity to
a very great extent.

It only comes to this country in the winter mouths, although there
has been an example of its appearance as early as August.

In its plumage the Bohemian AYaxwing is a very pretty and striking
bird, being as notable for the silken softness of its feathers as for its
pleasingly blended colors and the remarkable appendage from which
it derives its popular name. The coloring of the bird is very varied,
but may briefly be described as follows : The top of the head and the
crest are a light soft brown, warming into ruddy chestnut on the fore-
head. A well-defined band of black passes over the upper base of the
beak, and runs round the back of the head, developing the eyes on
each side, and there is a patch of the same jetty hue on the chin. The
general color of the bird is gray-brown ; the primary and secondary
feathers of the wings and tail are black tipped with yellow, the primary
wing-coverts are tipped with white, and the tertiaries are purplish
brown, also tipped with white. The under surface of the bird is sober
gray, and the under tail-coverts are rich ruddy brown. The length
of the Waxen Chatterer is about eight inches.

We now arrive at the family of Lanidse, or Shrikes, or Butcher
Birds, whose character is given in the names by which they are dis-
tinguished. The scientific
term Lanidoe is of Latin
origin, and is derived from
a word which signifies " la-
cerating " or *' tearing," in al-
lusion to the habits of the
bird. These birds are found
in all parts of the globe, and
in all countries are celebrated The Great American Shrike, or Butcher
for their sanguinary and sav- Bird.

age character. They are quite as rapacious as any of the hawk tribe,
and, in proportion to their size, are much more destructive and blood-
thirsty. They feed upon small and disabled mammalia and birds of
various kinds, especially preferring them while young and still un-
fledged, and upon several kinds of reptiles, and also find great part
of their subsistence among the members of the insect world.

In order to fit them for these rapacious pursuits, the bill is strong,
rather elongated, sharp-edged, curved at the tip, and armed on each
side with a well-marked tooth. The wings are powerful, the plumage
closely set, and the claws strong, curved, and sharp. The Shrikes are
separated for convenience of reference into two groups or sub-families,
namely, the true Shrikes, or Lauinse, and the Bush Shrikes, or Tham-
nophiliuai.

380 THE RED-BACKED SHRIKE.

The Red-Backed Shrike is a summer visitant to this country, and
is tolerably common. Its winter quarters seem to be situated in Africa,
and it reaches us at the end of April or the beginning of May, passing
through Italy on its passage.

During the time of its residence it may often be seen flitting about
the tops of hedges and small trees, evidently in search of its prey, and

may be recognized even at a considerable
distance by its habit of wagging its tail up
and down whenever it settles, in a man-
ner very similar to that of the wagtails.
Usually it is seen in pairs, but when the
eggs are laid, the male bird is generally
engaged in procuring food, while the
mother bird stays at home and attends
to her domestic affairs.

The food of the Red-Backed Shrike

"^^x^ T^^^^„.,^.^ o r.r..^ consists chiefly of the larger insects, such
The Loggertiead Shrike. . *' . , -, -, n i

as grasshoppers, beetles, and chaiers, and

it is in the habit of impaling them on the thorns near its nest, prob-
ably to save the mother bird the trouble of going to look for her
own meals.

The nest of this Shrike is situated in hedges or bushes, generally
from five to ten feet from the ground, the average elevation being
about seven feet. It is large, rather clumsy, and very easily seen
through the foliage, being made of thick grass-stems, moss, and roots
on the exterior, and lined with very fine grasses and hair. In some
places the nests are quite common, and I have found three in a hedge
surrounding a single field of no very great extent. The eggs are
generally five in number, and are rather variable in coloring, their
ground-color being always white, tinged in some cases with blue, in
others with green, and in a few specimens with rusty red. The spots
with which they are marked are quite as variable, sometimes being
numerous, dark, and gathered into a ring at the large end of the egg,
and sometimes only gray and light brown, scattered irregularly. In
all cases, however, they are gathered upon the large end of the egg.

In the adult male the head, neck, and upper parts of the shoulders
are pearly gray, with a black stripe across the base of the beak and run-
ning through the eye. The back and wing-coverts are ruddy chestnut,
fading into reddish gray upon the upper tail-coverts. The quill feath-
ers of the wings are black, edged with red upon their outer webs, and
the quill feathers of the tail are white at the basal half, and the remain-
der of each feather is black tipped with a very narrow line of white.
The chin and under tail-coverts are white, and the rest of the under sur-
face is pale rusty red. The strongly-notched and hooked beak is deep

THE JAY. 381

shiuing black. The female bird may be at once known by the absence
of the black streak across the eye, which in her case is replaced by a
light-colored stripe over the eye. The head and all the upper parts of the
body are reddish brown, and the red edges of the wing feathers are nar-
rower than in the male. The under side of the body is wholly grayish
white, covered with very numerous transverse lines of a darker hue.

We now arrive at a very large and important group, called, from the
shape of their beaks, the Conirostres, or Cone-billed Birds. In these
birds the bill varies in length and development, in some being exceed-
ingly short, while in others it is much elongated ; in some being straight
and simple, while in others it is curiously curved and furnished with
singular appendages ; in some being toothless, while in others there is a
small but perceptible tooth near the tip. In all, however, the bill
is more or less conical in form, being very thick and rounded at
the base, and diminishing to a point at the extremity. There are no
less than eight recognized families, of this large group, containing
some of the most important and most remarkable members of the
feathered race.

The first femily is that which is well known under the title of Cor-
vidse, or Crows, containing the crows, rooks, mag})ies, starlings, and
other familiar birds, together with the equally-celebrated bower birds
and less known paradise birds, troopials, and orioles. The beak of all
these birds is long, powerful, and somewhat compressed — i. e., flattened
at the sides — curved more or less on the ridge of the upper mandible,
and with a notch at the extremity.

The best known of the Garruline or talkative birds is our common
English Jay, one of the handsomest of our resident birds.

The ordinary note of the Jay is a rathei* soft cry, but the bird is a
most adroit imitator of various sounds, particularly those of a harsh
character. It has one especially harsh scream, which is its note of
alarm, and serves to set on the alert not only its own kind, but every
other bird that happens to be within hearing. The sportsman is often
baffled in his endeavors to get a shot at his game by the mingled curi-
osity and timidity of the Jay, which cannot hear a strange rustling or
see an unaccustomed object without sneaking silently up to inspect it,
and is so terribly frightened at the sight of a man, a dog, and a gun
that it dashes off in alarm, uttering its loud "squawk," which indicates
to every bird and beast that danger is abroad.

The Jay, like all the Crow tribe, will eat animal or vegetable sub-
stances with equal zest, and wnll plunder the hoards of small quadrupeds
or swallow the owner with perfect impartiality. Young birds are a
favorite food of the Jay, which is wonderfully clever at discovering
nests and devouring the fledgelings. Occasionally it feeds even upon
birds, and has been seen to catch a full-grown thrush. Eggs are also

382

THE JAY.

great dainties with this bird, particularly those of pheasants and par-
tridges, so that it is ranked among the " vermin " by all gamekeepers
or owners of preserves. So fond is it of eggs that it can almost invari-
ably be enticed into a trap by means of an egg or two placed as bait;

and it is a curious fact that the
Jay does not seem to be aware of
the right season for eggs, and sus-
pects no guile even when it finds
a nest full of fine eggs in the
depth of winter.

It also eats caterpillars, moths,
beetles, and various similar in-
sects, preferring the soft, fat, and
full-bodied species to those of a
more slender shape. Fruits and
berries form a considerable por-
tion of the autumnal food of this
bird, and it occasionally makes
great havoc in the cherry-orch-
ards, slipping in quietly at the
early dawn, accompanied by its
mate and young family, and strip-
ping the branches of the bark and
finest fruit. The kitchen-garden
also suffers severely from the attacks of the Jay, which has a great
liking for young peas and beans. It also eats chestnuts, nuts, and
acorns, being so fond of the last-mentioned fruit as to have received
the title of glandarlus, meaning " a lover of acorns.'" Sometimes it
becomes more refined in its taste, and eats the flower of several cru-
ciferous plants, which, according to Mudie, it plucks slowly and care-
fully, petal by petal.

The nest of the Jay is a flattish kind of edifice, constructed of sticks,
grass, and roots, the sticks acting as the foundations, and a rude super-
structure of the softer substances being placed upon them. It is always
situated at a considerable elevation from the ground. There are gen-
erally four or five eggs, and the bird mostly brings up two broods in the
year.

In size the Jay equals a rather large pigeon, and the coloring of
its plumage is very attractive. The general tint of the upper part
of the body is light reddish brown, with a perceptible purple tinge,
varying in intensity in difierent specimens. The primary wing-coverts
are bright azure banded with jetty black, and form a most conspicuous
ornament on the sides as the bird sits with closed wings. The head
is decorated with a crest, which can be raised or lowered at pleasure.

The Blue Jay {Corvus cristatnii).

THE RAVEN.

383

and the feathers of which it is composed are whitish gray spotted with
l)lack.

The true Crows are known by their beaks, which have no tooth in
the upper naandible, and by their wings, which are tolerably long and
ample. There are very many species spread over the world, and they
are well represented in our own country.

The first of these birds on our list is the celebrated Raven, our finest
representative of the family.

This truly handsome bird is spread over almost all portions of tlie
habitable globe, finding a livelihood wherever there are wide expanses
of uncultivated ground, and
being driven from its home
only by the advance of cul-
tivation and the consequent
inhabitance of the soil by hu-
man beings. It is a solitary
bird, living in the wildest
district that it can find, and
especially preferring those
that are intersected with
hills. In such localities
the Raven reigns supreme,
hardly the eagle himself
daring to contest the suprem-
acy with so powerful, crafty,
and strong-beaked a bird.

The food of the Raven is
almost entirely of an animal
nature, and there are few
living things which it will not eat whenever it finds an opportunity
of so doing. Worms, grubs, caterpillars, and insects of all kinds
are swallowed by hundreds, but the diet in which it most delights is
dead carrion. In consequence of this taste the Raven may be found
rather plentifully on the Scottish sheep-feeding grounds, where the
flocks are of such immense size that the bird is sure to find a suffi-
ciency of food among the daily dead; for its wings are large and
powerful, and its daily range of flight is so great that many thou-
sands of sheep pass daily under its ken, and it is tolerably sure in the
course of the day to find at least one dead sheep or lamb. Sometimes
the Raven accelerates matters ; for if it should find an unfortunate
sheep lying in a ditch — a misfortune to which these animals are espe-
cially prone — it is sure to cause the speedy death of the poor creature
by repeated attacks upon its eyes. Weakly or ailing sheep are also
favorite subjects with the Raven, who soon puts an end to their sufl?er-

TuE Raven {Corvus Corax).

384

THE CARRION CROW.

ings by the strokes of his long and powerful beak. Even the larger
cattle are not free from the assaults of this voracious bird, which per-
forms in every case the office of a vulture.

The cunning of the Raven is proverbial, and anecdotes of its extra-
ordinary intellectual powers abound in various works.

The Raven is an excellent linguist, acquiring the art of conversation
with wonderful rapidity, and retaining with a singularly powerful
memory many sounds which it has once learned. Whole sentences
are acquired by this strange bird, and repeated with great accuracy
of intonation, the voice being a good imitation of human speech, but
always sounding as if spoken from behind a thick woollen wrapper.
The Raven is celebrated for its longevity, many instances being
known where it has attained the age of seventy or eighty years with-
out losing one jot of its activity or the fading of one spark from its
eyes. What may be the duration of a Raven's life in its wild state is
quite unknown.

The color of the Raven is a uniform blue-black, with green reflections
in certain lights. The female is always larger than her mate.

The common Carrion Crow, so plentiful in this country, much re-
sembles in habits and appearance the bird which has just been described.

and may almost be reck-
oned as a miniature raven.
In many of its customs the
Crow is very raven-like,
especially in its love for
carrion and its propensity
for attacking the eyes of
any dead or dying ani-
mal. Like the Raven, it
has been known to attack
game of various kinds,
although its inferior size
forces it to call to its as-
sistance the aid of one or more of its fellows before it can successfully
cope with the larger creatures. Rabbits and hares are frequently the
prey of this bird, which pounces on them as they steal abroad to
feed, and is able to kill and carry them off without difficulty while
they are young. The Crow also eats reptiles of various sorts, frogs
and lizards being common dainties, and is a confirmed plunderer of
other birds' nests, even carrying away the eggs of game and poultry
by the simple device of driving the beak through them and flying
away with them when thus impaled. Even the large egg of the
duck has thus been stolen by the Crow. Sometimes it goes to feed
on the sea-shore, and there finds plenty of food among the crabs,

The Crow (Corviis Corone).

THE ROOK.

385

shrimps, and shells that are found near low-water mark, and inge-
niously cracks the harder-shelled creatures by flying with them to a
great height and letting them fall upon a convenient rock.

The nest of the Crow is invariably placed in some tree remote from
the habitations of other birds, and is a structure of considerable dimen-
sions and very conspicuous at a distance. It is always fixed on one of
the topmost branches, so that to obtain the eggs safely requires a steady
head, a practised foot, and a ready hand.

The materials of which the Crow's nest is made are very various, but
always consist of a foundation of sticks, upon which the softer substances
are laid. The interior of the nest is made of grasses, fibrous roots, the
hair of cows and horses — which the Crow mostly obtains from trees and
posts where the cattle are in the habit of rubbing themselves — mosses,
and wool.

The color of the Crow is a uniform blue-black, like that of the Raven,
but varieties are known in which the feathers have been pied, or even
cream-white.

The most familiar of all the British Corvidse is the common Rook, a
bird which has attached itself to the habitations of mankind, and in
course of time has partially domesticated itself in his dominions.

The habits of the Rook
are very interesting and
easily watched. Its ex-
treme caution is very re-
markable, when combined
with its attachment to hu-
man homes. A colony of
a thousand birds may form
a rookery in a park, pla-
cing themselves under the
protection of its owner,
and yet if they see a man
with a gun, or even with
a suspicious-looking stick,
they fly oflP their nests The Rook {Corvas /mgilegm).

with astounding clamor, and will not return until the cause of their
alarm is dissipated. During the " rook-shooting" time all the strong-
winged birds leave their nests at the first report of the gun, and,
rising to an enormous elevation, sail about like so many black midges
over their deserted homes, and pour out their complaints in loud and
doleful cries, which are plainly audible from even the great height at
which they are soaring.

The nest of the Rook is large and rather clumsily built, consisting
chieflv of sticks, upon which are laid sundry softer materials as a rest-
* 33 " Z *

386

THE JACKDAW.

iug-place for the eggs. The Rook is a very gregarious bird, buildiug
in numbers on the boughs of contiguous trees, and having a kind of
social compact that often rises into the dignity of law. For exam-
ple, the elder Rooks will not permit the younger members of the com-
munity to build their nests upon an isolated tree at a distance from
the general assemblage, and if they attempt to infringe this reg-
ulation always attack the offending nest in a body and tear it to
pieces.

The number of birds which are to be found in such rookeries is
enormously great, several thousands having been counted in a single
assemblage. In such cases they do great damage to the upper branches
of the trees, and in some instances have been known to kill the tree
by the continual destruction of the growing boughs.

The color of the Rook is a glossy, deep blue-black, the blue being
more conspicuous on the wing-coverts and the sides of the head and

neck. The length
of an adult Rook
is about eighteen
or nineteen inches.
The smallest of
the British Cor-
vidse is the well-
known Jackdaw,
a bird of infinite
wit and humor,
and one that has
an extraordinary
attachment for
man and his hab-
itations.

Tiie Jackdaw
may easily be dis-
tinguished from
either the rook or
the crow by the
gray patch upon
.p„^ J ^, the crown of the

IHE Jackdaw parvus .uonedala). ^ead and back of

t lie neck, ^yhlch is very conspicuous and can be seen at a considerable
dis ance. Ihe voice, too, is entirely different from the caw of the rook
or the hoarse cry of the crow; and, as the bird is very loquacious, it
soon announces itself by the tone of its voice. It generally takes up
Its home near houses, and is fond of nesting in old buildings, especially
preferring the steeples aud towers of churches and similar edifices, where

THE ROYSTON CROW.

387

its nest aud young are safe from the depredations of stoats, weasels, and
other destroyers.

The gray patch on the head and neck is not seen until the bird at'
tains maturity, the feathers being of the same black hue as on the re-
mainder of the body until the first moult, when the juvenile plumage
is shed and the adult garments assumed.

The nest of the Jackdaw is a very rude structure of sticks, lined, or
rather covered, with hay, wool, feathers, and all kinds of miscellaneous
substances of a warm kind for the eggs and young. It is placed in
various localities, generally in buildings or rocks, but has often been
found in hollow trees, and even in the holes of rabbit-warrens, the last-
mentioned locality being a very remarkable one, as the young birds
must be in constant danger of marauding stoats and weasels. In one
instance a quantity of broken glass was employed in the foundation
of the nest. The Jackdaw is not choice in the selection of feath-
ered neighbors, for I have found in the same tower the nests, of
pigeons, jackdaws, and starlings in amicable proximity to each
other. The eggs are smaller and much paler than those of the
rook or crow, but have a similar general aspect. Their number is
about five.

The RoYSTON Crow, or Hooded Crow, or Gray Crow, is a very
conspicuous bird, on ac-
count of the curiously pied
plumage with which it is
invested.

This bird is not very
common in England, but
is found plentifully in Ire-
land, Scotland, and the
Scottish Isles, having been
seen in large flocks of sev-
eral hundreds in number
on the east coast of Jura.
Generally it is not very
gregarious, the male and
female only being found The Royston ok Hooded Crow {Corvus comix)

in company, but it sometimes chooses to associate in little flocks of
fifteen or sixteen in number. It seems to prefer the seacoast to any
inland locality, as it there finds a great variety of food and is not much
exposed to danger. I have often seen these birds in the Bay of Dublin,
perched upon the rocks at low water, and searching for food among the
dank seaweed and in the rock-puddles that are left by the retreating
tide. They seemed always extremely bold, and would permit a very
close approach without exhibiting any alarm. The banks of the Med-

388

THE MAGPIE.

way between Rochester and Sheerness are much frequented by the
Hooded Crow.

The Hooded Crow never breeds in society, but always builds its nest
at some distance from the home of any other of the same species, so
that, although a forest or a range of cliffs may be inhabited by these
birds, the nests are scattered very sparingly over the whole extent.
The structure of the nest is somewhat similar to that of the crows
and rooks, being a mass of sticks and heather-stalks as a foundation,
upon which is placed a layer of wool, hair, and other soft substances.
Sometimes the bird builds a better and more compact nest with the
bark of trees, and in all cases this species breeds very early in the
season.

The Hooded Crow is boldly and conspicuously pied with gray and
black, distributed as follows: The head, back of the neck, and the
throat, together with the wings and tail, are a glossy bluish black,
while the remainder of the body is a peculiar gray with a slight black-
ish wash.

Who does not know the Magpie, the pert, the gay, the mischievous?
What denizen of the country is not familiar with his many exploits in

the way of barefaced and audacious theft,
his dipping flight, and his ingenuity in baf-
fling the devices of the fowler and the gun-
ner ? What inhabitant of the town has not
seen him cooped in his wicker dwelling, dul\
and begrimed with the daily smoke, but yet
})ert as ever, talkative, and a wonderful ad-
mirer of his dingy plumage and ragged tail?
The food of the Magpie is as multifarious
as that of the crow or raven, and consists of
various animal and vegetable substances.
It is a determined robber of other birds'
nests, dragging the unfledged young out of
their honies, or driving its bill through their
eggs, and thus carrying them away.

The nest of the Magpie is a rather com-
plicated edifice, domed, with an entrance at
the side, and mostly formed at the juncture
of three branches, so as to aflbrd an effectual protection against any foe
who endeavors to force admittance into so strong a fortress. Generally
the nest is placed at the very summit of some lofty tree, the bird usually
preferring those trees which run for many feet without a branch. The
tops of tall pines are favorite localities for the Magpie's nest, as the trunk
of these trees is bare of branches except at the summit, and the dark-
green foliage of the spreading branches is so thick that it affords an

The Magpie {Pica cauduta).

THE CHOUGH. 389

effectual shelter to the large and conspicuous edifice which rests upon
the boughs.

When tame it is a most amusing bird, teaching itself all kinds of odd
tricks, and learning to talk with an accuracy and volubility little inferior
to that of the parrot. It is, however, a most incorrigibly mischievous
bird, and unless subjected to the most careful supervision is capable of
doing a very great amount of damage in a wonderfully short space of time.
I have witnessed a multitude of these exploits, but, as I have already re-
lated many of them in My Feathered Friends, the reader is referred to
the pages of that little work for a tolerably long series of new and orig-
inal Magpie anecdotes.

The plumage of this bird is remarkably handsome in both color and
form. The head, neck, back, and upper tail-coverts are deep black,
with a light green gloss in certain lights ; and the same color is found
on the chin, the throat, the upper part of the breast, and the base, tips,
and outer edges of the primary quill feathers. The secondaries are also
black, but with a blue gloss, which becomes peculiarly rich od the ter-
tials and wing-coverts. The inner web of the primaries is white for a
considerable portion of its length, presenting a bold and conspicuous
appearance when the bird spreads its wiugs. The central feathers of
the tail are nearly eleven inches in length, and they decrease gradually
in size, those on the exterior being hardly five inches long. Their color
is a wonderfully rich mixture of the deepest blue, purple, and green,
the green being toward the base, and the blue and purple toward the
extremity. The under surface of the tail feathers is dull black. The
lower parts of the breast, abdomen, and flanks are snowy white.

Of the next little group of Corvidse, named the Pyrrhocoracinse, or
Scarlet Crows, in allusion to the red bill and legs of some of the species,
England possesses a good example in the common Chough. In all
these birds the beak is long and slender, slightly curved downward,
and with a small notch at the extremity.

The Chough is essentially a coast-bird, loving rocks and stones, and
having a great dislike to grass or hedges of every kind. When in
search of food it will venture for some little distance inland, and has
been observed in the act of following the ploughman after the manner
of the rook, busily engaged in picking up the grubs that are unearthed.
Sometimes it will feed upon berries and grain, but evidently prefers an-
imal food, pecking its prey out of the crevices among the rocks with
great rapidity and certainty of aim, its long and curved beak aiding it
in drawing the concealed insects out of their hiding-places.

As is the case with nearly all coast-birds, the Chough builds its nest
at no great distance from the sea, generally choosing some convenient
crevice in a cliff or an old ruin near the seashore. The nest is always
placed at a considerable elevation from the ground, and is made of

33*

390 THE EMERALD BIRD OF PARADISE.

sticks and lined with wool, hair, and other soft substances. The eggs
are usually five in number, and in color they are yellower than those
of the crow or rook, but are spotted with similar tints. The general
color of the Chough is black with a rich blue gloss, contrasting well
with the vermilion-red of the beak, legs and toes. The claws are
black, and the eyes are curiously colored with red and blue in concen-
tric circles. The total length of the adult male Chough is about seven-
teen inches, and the female is about three inches shorter.

The supremely glorious members of the feathered tribe which have
by common consent been termed Birds of Paradise are not very
numerous in species, but are so different in form and color, according
to the sex and age, that they have been considered far more numerous
than is really the case. The plumage of these birds is wonderfully rich
and varied, and not even the humming-birds themselves present such
an inexhaustible treasury of form and color as is found among the
comparatively few species of the Birds of Paradise. In all the feath-
ers glow with resplendent radiance ; in nearly all there is some strange
and altogether unique arrangement of the plumage ; and in many the
feathers are modified into plumes, ribbons, and streamers, that produce
the most surprising and lovely effects.

The Emerald Bird of Paradise is the species which is most gen-
erally known, and is the one of which were related many absurd tales.

The specific term, apoda, signifies " footless,"
and was given to tlie bird hy Linnseus in al-
lusion to those fables which were then cur-
rent, but which he did not believe.

This most lovely bird is a native of New
Guinea, where it is far from uncommon, and
is annually killed in great numbers for the
sake of its plumage, which always com-
mands a high price in the market. It is a
The Emerald Bird OF Par- very retiring bird, concealing itself during
ADisE [Paradiseapoda). ^he day in the thick foliage of the teak tree,
and only coming from the green shelter at the rising and setting of the
sun for the purpose of obtaining food. Almost the only successful
method of shooting the Emerald Paradise Bird is to visit a teak or
fig tree before dawn, take up a position under the branches, and there
wait patiently until one of the birds comes to settle upon the branches
or leaves the spot which has sheltered it during the night. This bird
is rather tenacious of life, and unless killed instantly is sure to make
its escape amid the dense brush-wood that grows luxuriantly beneath
the trees; and if the sportsman ventured to chase a wounded bird amid
the bushes, he would, in all probability, lose his way and perish of
hunger. Those sportsmen, therefore, who desire to shoot this bird al-

THE SATIN BOWER BIRD. 391

ways provide themselves with guns that will carry their charge to a
great distance, and employ very large shot for the purpose, as the bird
always perches on the summits of the loftiest trees of the neighbor-
hood, and would not be much damaged by the shot ordinarily used in
shooting.

This species is very suspicious, so that the sportsman must maintain
a profound silence, or not a bird will show itself or utter its loud full
cry, by which the hunter's attention is directed to his victim.

The large and important family of the Starlings now claims our
attention. These birds are seldom of great size, the common Starling
of England being about an average example of their dimensions. The
bill of the Starling tribe is straight until near its extremity, when it
suddenly curves downward, and is generally armed with a slight notch.
The first sub-family of these birds is that which is known by the name
of Glossy Starlings, so called on account of the silken sheen of their
plumage.

The best representative of this little group is the celebrated Satin
BowEP. Bird of Australia. This beautiful and remarkable bird is
found in many parts of New South Wales, and, although it is by no
means uncommon, is so cautious in the concealment of its home that
even the hawk-eyed natives seem never to have discovered its nest.

The chief peculiarity for which this bird is famous is a kind of
bower or arbor, which it constructs from twigs in a manner almost
unique among the feathered tribes. The mode of its construction,
together with the use to which the bird puts the building, may be learn-
ed from Mr. Gould's account :

"On visiting the cedar brushes of the Liverpool range, I discovered
several of these bowers or playing-places ; they are usually placed under
the shelter of the branches of some overhanging tree in the most retired
part of the forest ; they differ considerably in size, some being larger,
while others are much smaller. The base consists of an exterior and
rather convex platform of sticks, firmly interwoven, on the centre of
which the bower itself is built. This, like the platform on which it is
placed and with which it is interwoven, is formed of sticks and twigs,
but of a more slender and flexible description, the tips of the twigs
being so arranged as to curve inward and nearly meet at the top ; in
the interior of the bower the materials are so placed that the forks of
the twigs are always presented outward, by which arrangement not
the slightest obstruction is offered to the passage of the birds.

" For what purpose these curious bowers are made is not yet, perhaps,
fully understood ; they are certainly not used as a nest, but as a place
of resort for many individuals of both sexes, who when there assembled
run through and round the bower in a sportive and playful manner,
and that so frequently that it is seldom entirely deserted.

392 , THE STARLING.

" The interest of this curious bower is much enhanced by the manner
in which it is decorated, at and near the entrance, with the most gayly-
colored articles that can be collected, such as the blue tail-feathers of
the Rose Hill and Lory Parrots, bleached bones, the shells of snails,
etc. Some of the feathers are stuck in among the twigs, while others,
with the bones and shells, are strewed about near the entrance. The
propensity of these birds to fly ofl" with any attractive object is so well
known that the blacks always search the runs for any missing article."

So persevering are these birds in carrying off anything that may
strike their fancy that they have been known to steal a stone tomahawk,
some blue cotton rags, and an old tobacco-pipe. Two of these bowers
are now in the nest-room of the British Museum, and at the Zoological
Gardens the Bower Bird may be seen hard at work at its surface,
fastening the twigs or adorning the entrances, and ever and anon
running through the edifice with a curious loud full cry that always
attracts the attention of a passer-by. The Satin Bower Bird bears
confinement well, and, although it will not breed in captivity, it is very
industrious in building bowers for recreation.

The food of this bird seems to consist chiefly of fruits and berries,
as the stomachs of several specimens were found to contain nothing
hut vegetable remains. Those which are caged in Australia are fed
upon rice, fruit, moistened bread, and a very little meat at intervals —
a diet on which they thrive well. The plumage of the adult male is
a very glossy satin-like purple, so deep as to appear black in a faint
light, but the young males and the females are almost entirely of an
olive-green.

We now come to the true Starlings. In these birds the bill is
almost straight, tapering, and elongated, slightly flattened at the top,
and with a hardly perceptible notch.

The common Starling is one of the handsomest of our British birds,
the bright mottlings of its plumage, the, vivacity of its movements, and
the elegance of its form rendering it a truly beautiful bird.

It is very common in all parts of the British Isles, as well as in many
other countries, and assembles in vast flocks of many thousands in num-
ber, enormous accessions being made to their ranks after the breeding
season. These vast assemblies are seen to best advantage in the fenny
districts, where they couch for the night amid the osiers and aquatic
plants, and often crush whole acres to the ground by their united
weight. In their flight the Starlings are most wonderful birds, each
flock, no matter how large its dimensions, seeming to be under the
command of one single bird, and to obey his orders with an instanta-
neous action which appears little short of a miracle. A whole cloud
of Starlings may often be seen flying along at a considerable elevation
from the ground, darkening the sky as they pass overhead, when of a

ITS FOOD.

393

sudden the flock becomes momentarily indistinguishable, every
bird having simultaneously turned itself on its side, so as to present
only the edge of its wings to the eye. The whole body will then sep-
arate into several divisions, each division wheeling with the most won-
derful accuracy, and after again uniting their forces they will execute
some singular manoeuvre, and then resume their onward progress to the
feeding-ground or resting-place.

The nest of the Starling is a
very loose kind of affair, com
posed of straw, roots, and
grasses, thrust carelessly to-
gether, and hardly deserving
the name of a nest. In many
cases the bird is so heedless
that it allows bits of straw
and grass to hang from the
hole in which the nest is placed,
just as if it had intentionally
furnished the bird-nesting boy
with a clew to the position ot
the nest. Although this bird
makes its home in some retired
spot, such as the cleft of a rock,

a niche in some old ruin, a ^ ^ ^ ,^^ , .

, , . , 1 , The Common Starling (Sturnus vulgaris

ledge in a church-tower, or a

hole in a decaying tree, there are few nests more easy to discover ;
for not only does the bird leave indications of its home in the man-
ner already described, but is so very loquacious that it cannot resist
the temptation of squalling loudly at intervals, especially when re-
turning to its domicile laden with food for its young, and so betrays the
position of its home. The eggs are generally five in number, and of
the faintest imaginable blue.

The food of the Starling is very varied, but consists chiefly of insects.
These birds have a habit of following cows, sheep, and horses, flutter-
ing about them as they move, for the purpose of preying upon the in-
sects which are put to flight by their feet. The Starlings also perch
upon the backs of the cattle and rid them of the parasitic insects that
infest them. From the sheep the Starling often takes toll, pulling out
a beakful of wool now and then and carrying it away to its nest. It
is a voracious bird, the stomach of one having been found to contain
more than twenty shells, some of no small size and all nearly perfect,
a great number of insects, and some grain. Another Starling had
eaten fifteen molluscs of diflferent kinds, a number of perfect beetles,
and many grubs.

394 THE SOCIABLE WEAVER BIRD.

The color of this bird is very beautiful, and is briefly as follows :
The general tint is an extremely dark purplish green, having an al-
most metallic glitter in a strong light. The feathers of the shoulders
are tipped with buff, and the wing-coverts, together with the quill
feathers of the tail and wings, are edged with pale reddish brown. The
beak is a fine yellow. The feathers of the upper part of the breast are
elongated and pointed. This is the plumage of the adult male, and is
not brought to its perfection until three years have elapsed. The first
year's bird, before its autumnal moult, is almost wholly of a brownish
gray, and after its moult is partly brown and partly purple and green.
In the second year the plumage is more decided in its tints, but is va-
riegated with a great number of light-colored spots on the under and
upper surfaces, and the beak does not attain its beautiful yellow
tinge.

We now arrive at the large and important families of the Finches.
In all these birds the bill is conical, short, and stout, sharp at the ex-
tremity, and without any notch in the upper mandible.

The first group of the Finches is composed of a number of species
which, although for the most part not conspicuous for either size, beauty
of form, or brilliancy of color, are yet among the most remarkable of the
feathered tribe, on account of their architectural powers. Dissimilar in
shape, form, and material, there is yet a nameless something in the con-
struction of their edifices which at once points them out as the workman-
ship of the Weaver Birds. Some of them are huge, heavy, and massive,
clustered together in vast multitudes and bearing down the branches with
their weight. Others are light, delicate and airy, woven so thinly as to
permit the breeze to pass through their net-like interior, and dangling
daintily from the extremity of some slender twig. Others, again, are
so firmly built of flattened reeds and grass-blades that they can be de-
tached from their branches and subjected to very rough handling with-
out losing their shape, while others are so curiously formed of stiff grass-
stalks that their interior is studded with sharp points like the skin of a
hedgehog.

The true Weaver Birds all inhabit the hotter portions of the Old
World, the greater number of them being found in Africa, and the re-
mainder in various parts of India.

The Sociable Weaver Bird is found in several parts of Africa,
and has always attracted the attention of travellers from the very re-
niarkable edifice which it constructs. The large social nests of this
bird are so conspicuous as to be notable objects at many miles' dis-
tance, and it is found that they generally build in the branches of the
giraffe thorn or " kameeldorn," one of the acacia tribe.

The Sociable AVeaver Bird, which is by some writers termed the
" Sociable Grosbeak," in choosing a place for its residence, is careful

THE GROSBEAKS. 395

to select a tree which grows in a retired and sheltered situation, se-
cluded as far as may be from the fierce wind-storms which are so
common in hot countries. When a pair of these birds have deter-
mined to make a new habitation, they proceed after the following
fashion : They gather a vast amount of dry grasses, the favorite be-
ing a long, tough, and wiry species, called " Booschmauees-grass," and
by hanging the long stems over the branches and ingeniously interweav-
ing them they make a kind of roof, or thatch, which is destined to shel-
ter the habitations of the community.

In the under sides of this thatch they fasten a number of separate
nests, each being inhabited by a single pair of birds, and divided only
by its walls from the neighboring habitation. All these nests are placed
with their mouths downward, so that when an entire edifice is completed
it reminds the observer very strongly of a common wasps' nest. This
curious resemblance is often further strengthened by the manner in
which these birds will build one row of nests immediately above or
below^ another, so that the nest-groups are arranged in layers precisely
similar to those of the wasp or hornet. The number of habitations thus
placed under a single roof is often very great. Le Vaillant mentions
that in one nest which he examined there were three hundred and
twenty inhabited cells, each of which was in the possession of a distinct
pair of birds, and would at the close of the breeding season have quad-
rupled their numbers.

The number of eggs in each nest is usually from three to five, and
their color is bluish white, dotted toward the larger end with small
brown spots. The food of this bird seems to consist mostly of insects,
as, when the nests are pulled to pieces, wings, legs, and other hard por-
tions of various insects are often found in the interior of the cells. It
is said that the Sociable Weaver Birds have but one enemy to fear — in
the persons of the small parrots, who also delight in assembling together
in society, and will sometimes make forcible entries into the Weaver
Birds' nest and disperse the rightful inhabitants.

The color of the Sociable Weaver Bird is brown, taking a pale buff
tint on the under surface of the body, and mottled on the back with the
same hue. It is quite a small bird, measuring only five inches in length.

There are several allied species, which are remarkable for the struc-
ture of their nests. There is the Mahali Weaver Bird, whose nest
is shaped like a Florence flask, the Taha, the Kufous-necked Weaver,
and others, all of which suspend their nests to the ends of branches that
overhang water, thus ensuring safety against almost any enemy.

The Grosbeaks or Hawfinches now claim our attention. They
are all remarkable for their very large, broad, and thick beaks, a
peculiarity of construction which is intended to serve them in their
seed-crushing habits.

336

THE HAWFINCH.

The Pine Grosbeak

{Toxia enudeator).

England possesses a good example of this group in the well-known
Hawfinch or Grosbeak.

This bird was once thought to be exceedingly scarce, but is now known
to be anything but uncoinraon, although it is rarely seen, owing to its
very shy and retiring habits, which lead it to
eschew the vicinity of man and to bury itself
in the recesses of forests. So extremely wary
is the Hawfinch that to approach within gun-
shot is a very difficult matter, and can seldom
be accomplished without the assistance of a
decoy-bird or by imitating the call-note, which
_ , , . - bears some resemblance to that of a robin. It

t^jJ^ " ^^^^^ feeds chiefly on the various wild berries, not
^m rejecting even the hard stones of plums and

^BM the laurel-berries. In the spring it is apt to

wWBj make inroads in the early dawn upon the cul-

^3 tivated grounds, and has an especial liking for

peas, among which it often works dire havoc.
The nest of the Hawfinch is not remarkable
for either elegance or peculiarity of form. It is very simply built of
slender twigs, bits of dried creepers, gray lichens, roots, and hairs, and
is so carelessly put together that it can hardly be moved entire. The
eggs are from four to six in number, and their color is very pale olive-
green, streaked with gray and spotted with black dots. The birds pair
in the middle of April, begin to build their nests about the end of that

month, and the young are
hatched about the third'
week in May.

The true Finches are
known by their rather
short and conical beak,
their long and pointed
wings, and the absence
of nostrils in the beak.
England possesses many
examples of these birds.
The Chaffinch is one
of our commonest field-
birds, being spread over
the whole of England in
very great numbers.
The specific title of
^s given to the Chaffinch, signifies "a bachelor," and
refers to the annual separation of the sexes, which takes place in the

1. Seaside Finch,
nah Finch.

C(£lcb.<, which

Finches.

2. Sharp-tailed Finch.

3. Savan-

THE CHAFFINCH.

397

autumn, the females departing to some other region, and the males
congregating in vast multitudes, consoling themselves as they best can
by the pleasures of society for the absence of the gentler portion of
the community.

The note of this bird is a merry kind of whistle, and the call-note
is very musical and ringing, somewhat resembling the word " pinck,"
which has therefore often been applied to the bird as its provincial
name.

The nest of the Chaffinch is one of the prettiest and neatest among
the British nests. It is deeply cup-shaped, and the materials of which
it is composed are moss, wool, hair, _ _ ^^--

and lichens, the latter substances fz;^--~— -
being always stuck profusely over
the surface, so as to give it a re-
semblance to #he bough on which
it has been built. The nest is al-
most invariably made in the up-
right fork of a branch, just at its
junction with the main stem or
bough from which it sprang, and
is so beautifully worked into har-
mony with the bark of the partic-
ular tree on which it is placed
that it escapes the eye of any but
a practised observer. Great pains
are taken by the female in making
her nest, and the structure occu-
pies her about three weeks. The
eggs are from four to five in number, and their color is a pale brownish
buft', decorated with several largish spots and streaks of a very dark
brown.

The color of this pretty bird is as follows : At the base of the l)eak
the feathers are jetty black, and the same hue, but with a slight dash
of brown, is found on the wings and the greater wing-coverts. The
top of the head and the back of the neck are slaty gray, the back is
chestnut, and the sides of the head, the chin, throat, and breast are
bright ruddy chestnut, fading into a colder tint upon the abdomen.
The larger wing-coverts are tipped with white, the lesser covei-ts are en-
tirely of the same hue, and the tertials are edged with yellowish white.
The tail has the two central feathers grayish black, the next three pairs
black, and the remaining feathers variegated with black and white.
The total length of the bird is six inches. The female is colored some-
thing like the male, but not so brilliantly.

Of all the British Finches, none is so truly handsome as the Gold-

34

The Chaffinch {Fringilla coelebs)

398 THE GOLDFINCH AND THE GREENFINCH.

FINCH, a bird whose bright yellow-orange hues suffer but little even
when 'it is placed in close proximity to the more gaudy Finches of
tropical climates. Like the chaffinch, it is spread over the whole of
En<rland, and may be seen in great numbers feeding on the white this-
tlecfown.' There are few prettier sights than to watch a cloud of Gold-
finches fluttering along a hedge, chasing the thistledown as it is whirled
away by the breeze, and uttering all the while their sweet, merry notes.
The birds are not very shy, and by lying quietly in the hedge the
observer may watch them as they come flying along, ever and anon
perching upon the thistle-tops, dragging out a beakful of down, and
biting off the seeds with infinite satisfaction. Sometimes a Goldfinch
will make a dart at a thistle or burdock, and without perching snatch
several of the seeds from their bed, and, then alighting on the stem,
will run up it as nimbly as a squirrel and peck away at the seeds, quite
careless as to the attitude it may be forced to adopt. These beautiful
little birds are most useful to the farmer, for they not only devour mul-
titudes of insects during the spring months, but in the autumn they
turn their attention to the thistle, burdock, groundsel, plantain, and
other weeds, and work more effectual destruction than the farmer could
hope to attain with all his laborers. Several Goldfinches may often
be seen at one time on the stem and top of a single thistle, and two or
three are frequently busily engaged on the same plant of groundsel.

The nest of tlie Goldfinch is very neat and prettily made, sometimes
built in a hedge or thick bush, but mo;5tly placed toward the extremity
of athickly-foliaged tree-branch, such being a favorite for this purpose.
In this position the nest is so ingeniously concealed from the gaze of
every one beneath, by the disposition of the branches and leaves and
by the manner in which the exterior of the nest is made to harmonize
in tint with the bark, that it can scarcely be discerned even when the
observer has climbed the tree and is looking down upon the nest. The
bird, too, seldom flies directly in or out of the nest, but alights at a lit-
tle distance from her tree, and then slips quietly through the leaves
until she reaches her eggs or young.

The materials of which the exterior of the nest is made differ accord-
ing to the tree in which it is placed. In general, fine grasses, wool, hairs,
and very slender twigs are employed in constructing the walls, and the
interior is softly lined with feathers, down, and hairs. The eggs are
generally four or five in number, and delicately marked with small
dots and streaks of light purplish brown upon a white ground, having
a tinge of blue, something like " sky-blue " milk.

The Greenfinch is one of our commonest birds, being resident in
tliis country throughout the year, and not even requiring a partial
migration. It is found mostly in hedges, bushes, and copses, and, as
it is a bold and familiar bird, is in the habit of frequenting the habita-

THE COMMON LINNET.

399

tions of men, aud even building its nest within close proximity to houses
or gardens. When young the bird is fed almost wholly upon caterpil-
lars and various insects, and not until it has attained its full growth
does it try upon the hard seeds the large bill which has obtained for it
the title of Green Grosbeak.

The nest of this bird is generally built rather later than is usual with
the Finches, and is seldom completed until May has fairly set in. Its
substance is not unlike that of the chaffinch, being composed of roots,
wool, moss, and feathers. It is not, however, so neatly made or so finely
woven together as the nest of that bird. The eggs are from three to
five in number, and the color is bluish white, covered at the larger end
with spots of brown and gray.

Few birds are better known than the Common Linnet, although the
change of plumage to which it is subject in the different seasons of the
year has caused the same bird,
while in its winter plumage, to
be considered as distinct from the
same individual in its summer
dress. Except during the breed-
ing season the Linnets associate
in flocks, flying from spot to spot,
and feeding upon the seeds of va-
rious plants, evidently preferring
those of the thistle, dandelion, and
various cruciferous plants.

The nest of this bird is strangely
variable in the positions which it
occupies, sometimes being placed
,at a considerable height upon a
tree, and at other times built in
some bush quite close to the
ground, the latter being the usual
locality chosen by the bird. The
full number of the eggs is five, and the color is mostly blue, spotted
with dark brown and a rather faint and undecided purple.

The summer plumage of the male bird is as follows : On the top of
the head the feathers are grayish brown at their base, but are tipped
with bright vermilion — a tint which contrasts well with the ashen gray-
brown of the face and back of the neck. The upper parts of the body
are warm chestnut, and the wing is black, excepting the narrower ex-
terior webs, which are white. The chin and throat are gray, the breast
bright red slightly dappled with brown, and the under portions of the
body are gray-brown, taking a yellowish tint on the flanks. The tail
is rather forked, and the feathers are black edged with white.

Linnets {FringiUa cannabi

ina).

400

THE CANAKY BIRD AND THE SISKIN.

The Canary {Curdaelis canaria).

The pretty little Canary Bird, so prizad as a domestic pet, derives
its name from the locality whence it was originally brought.

Rather more than three hundred years ago a ship was partly laden

with little green birds captur-
ed in the Canary Islands, and,
the vessel having been wrecked
near Elba, the birds made their
escape, flew to the island, and
there settled themselves. Num-
bers of them were caught by
the inhabitants, and on account
of their sprightly vivacity and
the brilliancy of their voice they
soon became great favorites, and
rapidly spread over Europe.

The original color of the Ca-
nary is not the bright yellow
with which its feathers are gen-
erally tinted, but a kind of
dappled olive-green, black, and yellow, either color predominating
according to circumstances.

I have kept Can iries for many years, and could fill pages with an-
ecdotes and histories of them and
their habits, but, as I have already
written rather a long biography
of my Canaries in My Feathered
Friends, together with instructions
for the management and rearing
of these pretty birds, there is no,
need to repeat the account in the
present pages.

The Siskin is hardly to be con-
sidered more than an occasional
visitor in England, but in Scotland
it sometimes breeds, as may be seen
from the following extract :

"The Siskin is a common bird
in all the high parts of Aberdeen-
shire, which abound in fir-woods.
They build generally near the ex-
tremities of the branches of tall
fir trees or near the summit of
the tree. Sometimes the nest is
found in plantations of young fir-wood. In one instance I met with

The Siskin [Fringillus spiuus).

THE SPARROW.

401

a nest not three feet from the ground. I visited it every day until
four or five eggs were deposited. During incubation the female
showed no fear at my approacli. On bringing my hand close to the
nest she showed some inclination to pugnacity, and tried to frighten
me away with her open bill, following my hand round and round
when I attempted to touch her. At last she would only look anxiously
round to my finger without making any attack on me. The nest was
formed of small twigs of birch or heath outside and neatly lined with
hair." Its eggs are a bluish white spotted with purplish red.

The noisy, familiar, impatient Sparrow is one of those creatures that
have attached thejnselves to man and follow him wherever he goes.

Nothing seems to daunt this bold little bird, which is equally at
home in the fresh air of the country farm, in the midst of a crowded

^^>.J

^^^f^^s ,,..

The Sparrow^ {Pmser doviesficvs).

city, or among the strange sights and sounds of a large railway-station-
treating with equal indifference the slow-paced wagon-horses as they
deliberately drag their load over the country roads, the noisy cabs and
omnibuses as they rattle over the city pavements, and the snorting,
puffing engines as they dash through the stations with a velocity that
makes the earth tremble beneath their terrible rush.

Although its ordinary food consists of insects and grain, both of
which articles it can obtain only in the open country, it accommodates
itself to a town life with perfect ease, and picks up a plentiful subsist-
ence upon the various refuse that is thrown daily out of town-houses,
and which, before it is handed over to the dustman, is made by the
Sparrow to yield many a meal.

When in the country the Sparrow feeds almost wholly on insects and
3i * 2 A

402 THE YELLOW BUNTING.

grain, the former being procured in the spring and early summer, and
the latter in autumn and winter. As these birds assemble in large
(locks and are always very plentiful, they devour great quantities of
grain, and are consequently much persecuted by the farmer, and their
numbers thinned by guns, traps, nets, and all kinds of devices. Yet
their services in ins?ct-killing are so great as to render them most useful
birds to the agriculturist. A single pair of these birds have been
watched during a whole day, and were seen to convey to their young
no less than forty grubs per hour, making an average exceeding three
thousand in the course of the week. In every case where the Sparrows
have been extirpated, there has been a proportional decrease in the
crops from the ravages of insects. At Maine, for example, the total
destruction of the Sparrows was ordered by government, and the conse-
(juence was that in the succeeding year even the trees were killed by
caterpillars, and a similar occurrence took place near Auxerre.

The nest of the Sparrow is a very inartificial structure, composed of
hay, straw, leaves, and various similar substances, and always filled
with a prodigious lining of feathers. For, although the Sparrow is as
hardy a bird as can be seen, and appears to care little for snow or frost,
it likes a warm bed to which it may retire after the toils of the day,
and always stuffs its resting-place full of feathers, which it gets from
all kinds of sources. Even the roosting-places are often crammed with
feathers.

Generally the nest is built in some convenient crevice, such as an old
wall, especially if it be covered with ivy ; but the bird is by no means
particular in the choice of a locality, and will build in many other
situations. There are generally five eggs, though they sometimes reach
the number of six, and their color is grayish white, profusely covered
with spots and dashes of gray-brown. They are, however, extremely
variable, and even in the same nest it is not uncommon to find some
eggs that are almost black with the mottlings, while others have hardly
a spot about them. The Sparrow is a very prolific bird, bringing up
several broods in the course of a season, and has been known to rear
no less than fourteen young in a single breeding season.

The Buntings are known by their sharp conical bills, with the
edges of the upper mandible rounded and slightly turned inward, and
the knob on the palate. They are common in most parts of the world,
are gregarious during the winter months, and in some cases become so
fat upon the autumn grain that they are considered great dainties.

One of the most familiar of all these birds is the Yellow Bunting,
or Yellow Hammer, as it is often called.

This lively bird frequents our fields and hedgerows, and is remark-
able for a curious mixture of wariness and curiosity, the latter feeling
mipelling it to observe a traveller with great attention, and the former

THE ORTOLAN.

403

to keep out of reach of any missile. So, in walking along a country-
lane, the passenger is often preceded by one or more of these birds,
which always keeps about seventy or eighty yards in advance, and flutters
in and out of the hedges or trees with a peculiar and unmistakable flirt
of the wings and tail.

The song — if it may be so called — of the bird has a peculiar intona-
tion, which is almost articulate, and is variously rendered in different
parts of England. For example, among
the southern counties it is well repre-
sented by the words, "A little bit of
bread and no che-ee-ee-ee-se !" In Scot-
land it assumes a sense quite in accord-
ance with the character of its auditors,
and is supposed to say, " De'il, de'il, de'il
take ye-ee-ee-ee."

The nest of the Yellow Bunting is gen-
erally placed upon or very close to tiie
earth, and the best place to seek for the
structure is the bottom of a hedge where The Yellow Hammer {Em-
the grass has been allowed to grow freely benza citnndla).

and the ground has been well drained by the ditch. In rustic parlance,
a " rough gripe " is the place wherein to look for the Yellow Hammer's
nest. It is a neatly-built edifice, composed chiefly of grasses and lined
with hair. The eggs are five in number, and their color is white with
a dash of very pale purple, and dotted and scribbled all over with
dark purple-brown. Both dots and lines are most variable, and it also
frequently happens that an e^g appears with hardly a mark upon it,
while others in the same nest are entirely covered with the quaint-
looking decorations.

The general color of this bird is bright yellow, variegated with
patches of dark brown, and having a richly-mottled brownish yellow
on the back, with a decided warm ruddy tinge. The primary feathers
of the wing are black edged with yellow, and the remainder of the
feathers throughout, with all the wing-coverts, are deep brown-black
edged with ruddy brown. The chin, throat, and all the under parts
of the body are bright pure yellow, sobering into rusty brown on the
flanks. The female is similarly marked, but is not so brilliant in her
hues. The total length of the bird is about seven inches.

The Ortolan, or Garden Bunting, is widely celebrated for the
delicacy of its flesh, or rather for that of its fat, the fat of the Ortolan
being somewhat analogous to the green fat of the turtle in the opinion
of gourmands.

The Ortolan has occasionally been shot in England, but it is most
frequently found on the Continent, Avhere its advent is expected with

404

THE SKYLARK.

The Ortolan {Emheriz'i
hortidana).

o-reat anxiety, and vast numbers are annually captured for the table.
These birds are not killed at once, as they would not be in proper con-
dition, but they are placed in a dark room,
so as to prevent them from moving about,
and are fed largely with oats and millet un-
til they become mere lumps of fat, weigh-
ing nearly three ounces, and are then killed
and sent to table.

The coloring of this bird is as follows:
The head is gray with a green tinge, and
the back is ruddy brown beautifully mot-
tled with black. The wings are black, with
brown edges to the feathers ; the chin, throat,
and upper portions of the breast are green-
ish yellow ; and the abdomen is warm buff.
The total length of the Ortolan is rather
more than six inches.

The Larks may be readily recognized
by the very great length of the claw of the
hind toe, the short and conical bill, and the
great length of tlie tertiary quill feathers of the wing, which are often
as long as the primaries.

The first example of these birds is the well-known Skylark, so de-
servedly famous for its song and its aspiring character.

This most interesting bird is happily a native of our land, and has
cheered many a sad heart by its blithe, jubilant notes as it wings sky-
ward on strong pinions or flatters between cloud and earth, pouring
out its very soul in its rich, wild melody. Early in the spring the
Lark begins its song, and continues its musical efforts for nearly eight
months, so that on almost every warm day of the year on which a coun-
try walk is practicable the Sky-
lark's happy notes may be heard
ringing throughout the air, long
after the bird which utters them
has dwindle^ to a mere speck,
hardly distinguishable from a
midge floating in the sunbeams.
The nest of the Skylark is
always placed on the ground,
and generally in some little
rp ,. , ,, depression, such as the imprint

liiE bKYLAKK iAlaudu urv...), ,f ^ horse's hoof, the side of a
mole-hill, or the old furrow of a plough. It is very well concealed,
the top of the nest being only just on a level with the surface of

THE BULLFINCH,

405

the ground, and sometimes below it. I have known several instances
where the young Larks would suffer themselves to be fed by hand
as they sat in their nests, but the parent birds always seemed dis-
tressed at the intrusion into their premises. The materials of which
the nest is made are dry grasses, bents, leaves, and hair, the hair being
generally used in the lining. It will be seen that the sober coloring
of these substances renders the nest so uniform in tint with the sur-
rounding soil that to discover it is no easy matter. The eggs are four
or five in number, and their color is gray-yellow washed with light
brown and speckled with brown of a darker hue. They are laid in
May, and are hatched in about a fortnight.

Toward the end of autumn and throughout the winter tlie Larks be-
come very gregarious, " packing " in flocks of thousands in number,
and becoming very fat when snow should cover the ground, in which
case they speedily lose their condition. These flocks are often aug-
mented by the arrival of numerous little flocks from the Continent
that come flying over the sea about the end of autumn, so that the bird-
catchers generally reap a rich harvest in a sharp winter.

The next group is that of the Pyrrhulinaj, of which our Bullfinch
is a familiar example.

It cares little for open country, preferring cultivated grounds, woods,
and copses, and is very fond of orchards and fruit-gardens, finding there
its greatest supply of food. This
bird seems to feed almost wholly
on buds during their season, and
is consequently shot without mere y
by the owners of fruit-gardens.
The Bullfinch has a curious pro-
pensity for selecting those buds
which would produce fruit, so
that the leafage of the tree is not
at all diminished. Although the
general verdict of the garden-
keeping public goes against the
Bullfinch, there are, nevertheless,
some owners of gardens who are
willing to say a kind word for
Bully, and who assert that its mis-
chievous propensities have been
much overrated.

It is true that the bird will often-
times set hard to work upon a fruit tree and ruthlessly strip off every
single flower-bud, thereby destroying, to all appearance, the prospects
of the crop for that season. Yet there are cases when a gooseberry-

The Bullfinch {Pyrrhula rubicUla).

406 THE CROSSBILL.

bush has thus been completely disbudded, and yet borne a heavy crop
of fruit. The reason of this curious phenomenon may probably be
that some of the buds were attacked by insects, and that the kind of
pruning process achieved by the Bullfinch was beneficial rather than
liurtful to the plant.

The Bullfinch afibrds a curious instance of the change wrought by
domestication. In its natural state its notes are by no means remark-
able, but its memory is so good, and its powers of imitation so singu-
lar, that it can be taught to pipe tunes with a sweet and flute-like in-
tonation, having some of that peculiar " woody " quality that is ob-
servable in the flute.

Those who desire to find the nest of the Bullfinch must search in the
thickets and most retired parts of woods or copses, and thfey may per-
haps find the nest hidden very carefully away in some leafy branch at
no great height from the ground. A thick bush is a very favorite spot
for the nest, but I have more than once found one in hazel branches so
slender that the mere weight of the nest has bent them aside. The eggs
are very prettily marked with deep violet and purple-brown streaks
and mottlings upon a greenish white ground, and are easily recogniza-
ble by the more or less perfect ring which these form round the larger
end of the egg. The egg^ are geucsrally five in number.

The Crossbills, of which three species are known to inhabit Eng-
land, are most remarkable birds, and have long been celebrated on ac-
count of the singular form
of beak from which they
derive their name.

In all these birds the
two mandibles completely
CDss each other, so that
at first sight the struc-
ture appears to be a mal-
formation, and to prohibit

,p ^, ,^ , '^^^ the bird from picking up

The Crossbill {Lona a^vimstris). g,,^^ ^^ f^^^i/^ .^J^ i|^

any way. But when the Crossbill is seen feeding it speedily proves
Itself to be favored with all the ordinary faculties of birds, and to
be as capable of obtaining its food as are any of the straight-beaked
birds. *^ ^

The food of the Crossbill consists to a great extent, if not exclusively,
of seeds, which it obtains in a very curious manner. It is very fond of
ai)ple-pips, and, settling on the tree where ripe apples are to be found,
attacks the fruit with its beak, and in a very few moments cuts a hole
tairly mto the "core," from which it daintily picks out the seeds and
eats them, rejectmg the ripe pulpy fruit in which they had been en-

SCANSORES. 407

veloped. As the Crossbill is rather a voracious bird, the havoc which
it will make in an orchard may be imagined.

This bird is also very fond of the seeds of cone-bearing trees,
and haunts the pine-forests in great numbers. While engaged in eat-
ing it breaks the cones from branches, and, holding them firmly iu
its feet after the fashion of the parrots, inserts its beak below
the scales, wrenches them away, and with its tongue scoops out
the seed.

The Crossbill is not common in this country, although, when it does
make its appearance, it generally comes over in flocks. Usually it con-
sorts in little assemblies consisting of the parents and their young, but
it has often been known to associate in considerable numbers. It is a
very shy bird, and has a peculiar knack of concealing itself at a mo-
ment's notice, pressing itself closely upon the branches at the least
alarm, and remaining without a movement or a sound to indicate its
position until the danger has departed.

In Sweden and Norway the Crossbill is a very common bird, and the
north of Europe seems to be its proper breeding-place.

The nests are always placed in rather close proximity, so that if one
nest is found, others are sure to be at no great distance. The nest is
made of little fir-twigs, mosses, and wool, and is of a rather loose texture.
It is always found upon the part of the branch that is nearest the stem.
The fir is the tree that is almost always, if not invariably, employed by
this bird as its nesting-place. The eggs are generally three, but some-
times four, in number, and are something like those of the greenfinch,
but rather larger.

SCANSORES, OH CLIMBING BIRDS.

A large group of birds is arranged by naturalists under the title of
Scansores, or " climbing birds," and may be recognized by the struc-
ture of the feet. Two toes are directed forward and the other two
backward, so that the bird is able to take a very powerful hold of the
substance on which it is sitting; and this arrangement enables some
species, as the woodpeckers, to run nimbly up tree-trunks and to hold
themselves tightly on the bark while they hammer away with their
beaks, and other species, of which the parrots are familiar examples,
to clasp the bough as with a hand.

There are many strange and wonderful forms among the feathered
tribes, but there are, perhaps, none which more astonish the beholder
who sees them for the first time than the group of birds known by the
name of Hornbills.

They are all distinguished by a very large beak, to which is added a
singular helnut-like appendage, equalling the beak itself in some species.

408

THE RHINOCEKOS HORNBILL.

while in others it is so small as to attract but little notice. On account
of the enormous size of the beak and the helmet, which in some species
recede to the crown of the head, the bird appears to be overweighted
by the mass of horny substance which it has to carry, but on a closer
investigation the whole structure is found to be singularly light, and
yet very strong.

On cutting asunder the beak and helmet of a Hornbill, we shall find
that the outer shell of horny substance is very thin indeed — scarcely
thicker than the paper on which this description is printed — and that
the whole interior is composed of numerous honeycombed cells with
very thin walls and very wide spaces, the walls of the cells being so
arranged as to give very great strength when the bill is used for biting,
and with a very slight expenditure of material.

Perhaps the greatest development of beak and helmet is found in the
Rhinoceros Hornbill.

As is the case with all the Hornbills, the beak varies greatly in pro-
portion to the age of the
individual, the helmet
being almost impercepti-
ble when it is first hatch-
ed, and the bill not very
striking in its dimensions.
But as the bird gains in
strength, so does the beak
gain in size, and when it is
adult the helmet and beak
attain their full propor-
tions.

When at liberty in its
native forests the Hornbill
is lively and active, leap-
ing from bough to bough
with great lightness, and
appearing to be not in the
least incommoded by its
large beak. It ascends
the tree by a succession
of easy jumps, each of
which brings it to a high-
er branch, and when it has
„ , . attained the very summit

ot the tree It stops and pours forth a succession of loud roaring sounds
which can be heard at a considerable distance.

The food of the Hornbill seems to consist of both animal and

A^

The Rhinoceros Hornbill (Buceros Rhi

THE TOUCAN. 409

vegetable matters, and Lesson remarks that those species which in-
habit Africa live on carrion, while those that are found in Asia feed
on fruits, and that their ilesh acquires thereby an agreeable and
peculiar flavor. While on the ground the movements of the Hornbill
are rather peculiar, for instead of walking soberly along, as might be
expected from a bird of its size, it hops along by a succession of jumps.
It is but seldom seen on the ground, preferring the trunks of trees,
which its pow^erful feet are well calculated to clasp firmly.

The' very curious birds that go by the namQ of Toucans are not
one whit less remarkable than hornbills, their beak being often as
extravagantly large, and their
colors by far superior. They are
inhabitants of America, the great-
er number of species being found
in the tropical regions of that
country.

Of these birds there are many
species, of which no less than five
were living in the Zoological Gar-
dens in a single year. Mr. Gould,
in his magnificent work the Mon-
ograph of the Rhampliastidcp, fig-
ures fifty-one species, and ranks
them under six genera.

The most extraordinary part of
these birds is the enormous beak. The Toucan {Rhamphastos Arid).
which in some species, such as the Toco Toucan, is of gigantic di-
mensions, seeming big enough to give its owner a perpetual headache;
while in others, such as the Toucanets, it is not so large as to attract
much attention. As in the case of the hornbills, their beak is very
thin and is strengthened by a vast number of honeycomb-cells, so that
it is very light and does not incommode the bird in the least. The
beak partakes of the brilliant coloring which decorates the plumage, but
its beautiful hues are sadly evanescent, often disappearing or chang-
ing so thoroughly as to give no intimation of their former beauty.

The voice of the Toucan is hoarse and rather disagreeable, and is
in many cases rather articulate. In one species the cry resembles the
word " tucano," which has given origin to the peculiar name by which
the whole group is designated. The birds have a habit of sitting on
the branches in flocks, having a sentinel to guard them, and are fond
of lifting up their beaks, clattering them together, and shouting hoarse-
ly; from which custom the natives term them preacher-birds. Sometimes
the whole party, including the sentinel, set up a simultaneous yell,
which is so deafeningly loud that it can be heard at the distance of a

35

410 THE EINGED PARRAKEET.

mile. They are very loquacious birds, and are often discovered through
their perpetual chattering.

When settling itself to sleep the Toucan packs itself up in a very
systematic manner, supporting its huge beak by resting it on its back
and tucking it completely among the feathers, while it doubles its tail
across its back, just as if it moved on a spring hinge. So completely
is the bill hidden among the feathers that hardly a trace of it is visible,
in spite of its great size and bright color, and the bird when sleeping
looks like a great baU of loose feathers.

PARROTS.

The general form of the Parrots is too well known to need descrip-
tion. AH birds belonging to this large and splendid group can be
recognized by the shape of their beaks, which are large, and have the
upper mandible extensively curved and hanging far over the lower;
in some species the upper mandible is of extraordinary length. The
tongue is short, thick, and fleshy, and the structure of this member
aids the bird in no slight degree in its singular powers of articulation.
The wings and tail are generally long, and in some species, such as the
Macaws, the tail is of very great length, while in most of the Parra-
keets it is longer than the body.

The genus Palseornis, of which the Ringed Parrakeet is an
excellent example, is a very extensive one, and has representatives in
almost every hot portion of the world, even including Australia.

The Ringed Parrakeet is found in both Africa and Asia, the only
difference perceptible between the individuals brought from the two
continents being that the Asiatic species is rather larger than its African
relative. It has long been the favorite of hiau as a caged bird, and
is one of the species to which such frequent reference is made by the
ancient writers, the other species being the Alexandrine Ringed Parra-
keet (Pakeoniis Alexandrl).

This species of Parrakeet is not very good at talking, though it can
learn to repeat a few words, and is very apt at communicating its own
ideas by a language of gestures and information especially its own. It
is, however, very docile, and will soon learn any lesson that may be
imposed, even that most difficult task to a Parrot— remaining silent
while any one is speaking.

The general color of this species is grass-green, variegated in the
adult male as follows : The feathers of the forehead are light green,
which take a bluish tinge as they approach the crown and nape of the
neck, where they are of a lovely purple blue. Just below the purple
runs a narrow band of rose-color, and immediately below the rosy line
is a streak of black, which is narrow toward the back of the neck, but

THE GRASS PARRAKEET.

411

soon becomes broader, and envelops the cheek and chin. It does not
go quite round the neck, as there is an interval of nearly half an inch
on the back of the neck. The quill feathers of both wings and tail
are darkish green ; the wings are black beneath, and the tail yellowish.

One of the very prettiest and most interesting of the Parrot tribe is
the Grass or Zebra Parrakeet, deriving its names from its habits
and the markings of its plumage.

It is a native of Australia, and may be found in almost all the cen-
tral portions of that land, whence it has been imported in such great
numbers as an inhabitant of
our aviaries that when Dr.
Bennett was last in Eng-
land he found that he could
purchase the birds at a
cheaper rate in England than
in New South Wales. This
graceful little creature derives
its name of Grass Parrakeet
from its fondness for the grass-
lands, where it may be seen in
great numbers, running amid
the thick grass-blades, cling-
ing to their stems or feeding on
their seeds. It is always an
inland bird, being very sel-
dom seen between the moun-
tain-ranges and the coasts.

The voice of this bird is
quite unlike the rough screech-
ing sounds in which Parrots

seem to delight and is a ^^^^ Warbling Grass Parrakeet [Mel-
gentle, soft, warbhng kind of opsittacus undulatus).

song, which seems to be con-
tained within the body, and is not poured out with that decision which
is usually found in birds that can sing, however small their efforts
may be. This song, if it may be so called, belongs only to the male
bird, who seems to have an idea that his voice must be very agreeable
to his mate, for in light warm w^eather he will warble nearly all day
long, and often pushes his beak almost into the ear of his mate, so as
to give her the full benefit of his song.

The food of this Parrakeet consists almost chiefly of seeds, those of
the grass-plant being their constant food in their native country. In
England they take well to canary-seed, and it is somewhat remarkable
that tliey do not pick up food with their feet, but always with their

412 BLUE-AND-YELLOW MACAW AND THE CAROLINA PARROT.

beaks. It is a great mistake to confine these lively little birds in a
small cage, as their wild habits are peculiarly lively and active and
require much space. The difference between a Grass Parrakeet when
in a little cage and after it has been removed into a large house, where
it has plenty of space to move about, is really wonderful.

In its native land it is a migratory bird, assembling after the breed-
ing season in enormous flocks as a preparation for an intended journey.
The general number of the eggs is three or four, and they are merely
laid in the holes of the gum tree, without requiring a nest.

The Macaws are mostly inhabitants of Southern America, in which
country so many magnificent birds find their home.

They are all very splendid birds, and are remarkable for their great
size, their very long tails, and the splendid hues of their plumage. The

beak is also very large and powerful,
and in some species the ring round the
eyes and part of the face are devoid of
covering. As their habits are all very
similar, only one example has been fig-
ured. This is the great Blue-and-
Yellow Macaw, a bird which is
found mostly in Demerara. It is a
wood-loving bird, particularly haunt-
ing those places where the ground is
wet and swampy, and where grows a
certain palm, on the fruit of which it
chiefly feeds.

The wings of this species are strong,
and the long tail is so firmly set that
considerable powers of flight are man-
ifested. The Macaws often fly at a
very great elevation, in 'large flocks,
and are fond of executing sundry aerial
evolutions before they alight. With
one or two exceptions they care little
for the ground, and are generally seen
on the summits of the highest trees.

Another species of Macaw, the Car-
olina Parrot, is found in the more
northern portions of America. This
bird is much more hardy than the
ra™7 ^^^"'^''^ g^^^^^lity of the Parrot* tribe, and
has been noticed flymg along the
banks of the Ohio in the midst of a snow-storm and in full cry.
The Carolina Parrot is chiefly found in those parts of the coun-

The Bjji;- ax

{Ara Arcuauna).

THE GRAY PARROT. 413

try which abound most in rich alluvial soils on which grow the cockle-
burrs so dear to the Parrot and so hated by the farmer. The general
color of this bird is green, washed with blue and diversified with other
tints. The total length of this species is about twenty-one inches.

The true Parrots constitute a group which are easily recognized by
their short squared tails,
the absence of any crest
upou the head, and the
toothed edges of the upper
mandible.

The Gray Parrot has
long been celebrated for
its wonderful powers of
imitation and its excellent
memory.

It is a native of Western
Africa, and is one of the
commonest inhabitants of
our aviaries, being brought
over in great numbers by
sailors, and always finding
a ready sale as soon as the
vessel arrives in port.

Its power of imitating all
kinds of sounds is really
astonishing. I have heard
a parrot imitate, or rather ^he Carolina Parrot [Psiltaaus Carolinensis) .

reproduce, in rapid succession the most dissimilar of sounds, without
the least effort and with the most astonishing truthfulness. He could
whistle lazily like a street-idler, cry prawns and shrimps as well as any
costermonger, creak like an ungreased "sheave" in the pulley that is
set in the blocks through which ropes run for sundry nautical purposes,
or keep up a quiet and gentle monologue about his own accomplish-
ments with a simplicity of attitude that was most absurd.

Even in the imitation of louder noises he was equally expert, and
could sound the danger-whistle or blow ofi* steam with astonishing ac-
curacy. Until I came to understand the bird, I used to wonder why
some invisible person was always turning an imperceptible capstan in
my close vicinity, for the Parrot had also learned to imitate the grind-
ing of the capstan-bars and the metallic clink of the catch as it falls
rapidly upon the cogs.

As for the ordinary accomplishments of Parrots, he possessed them
in perfection, but in my mind his most perfect performance was the im-
itation of a dog having his foot run over by a cart-wheel. First there

35*

414

THE GKAY PAKROT.

came the sudden half-frightened bark as the beast found itself in un-
expected danger, and then the loud shriek of pain, followed by the
series of howls that is popularly termed " pen and ink." Lastly, the
howls grew fainter as the dog was supposed to be limping away, and
you really seemed to hear him turn the corner and retreat into the dis-
tance. The memory of the bird must have been most tenacious, and
its powers of observation far beyond the common order, for he could
nut have bec-u witness to such a canine accident more than once.

The Gray Parrot {Psittacus erythacus).

The food of this parrot consists chiefly of seeds of various kinds, and
in captivity may be varied to some extent. Hemp-seed, grain, canary-
seed, and the cones of fir trees are favorite articles of diet. Of the
cones it is especially fond, nibbling them to pieces when they are young
and tender, but when they are old and ripe breaking awav the hard
scales and scooping out the seeds with its very ^useful tongue. Haw-
thorn-berries are very good for the Parrot, as are several vegetables.

THE AMAZON GKEEN PARROT AND THE COCKATOOS. 415

These, however, should be given with great caution, as several, such as
parsley and chickweed, are exceedingly hurtful.

When proper precautions are taken, the Parrot is one of our hardi-
est cage-birds, and will live to a great
age even in captivity. Some of these
birds have been known to attain an
age of sixty or seventy years, and one
^ hich was seen by Le Vaillant had at-
tained the patriarchal age of ninety-three.
At sixty its memory began to fail, and at
sixty-five the moult became very irreg-
ular and the tail changed to yellow. At
ninety it was a very decrepit creature, al-
most blind and quite silent, having for-
gotten its former abundant stock of
words.

The general color of this bird is a very
pure ashen gray, except the tail, which is
deep scarlet. '^^^ Sulphur-crested Cock-

rA '• ^ /^ T» ATOO (Cacatua qalerita).

Two species of Green Parrot are ^ ^

tolerably common, the one being the Festive Green Parrot, and the
other the Amazon Green Parrot.

The Amazon Green Parrot is the species most commonly seen in
England. It is a native of Southern America, and especially frequents
the banks of the Amazon. It is not, however, so retiring in its habits
" as most Parrots, and will often leave the woods for the sake of prey-
ing upon the orange-plantations, among which it works great havoc. Its
nest is made in the decayed trunks of trees.

As a general fact, it is not so apt at learning and repeating phrases
as the Gray Parrot, but I have known more than one instance where
its powers of speech could hardly be exceeded, and very seldom rivalled.
One of these birds, which used to live in a little garden into which my
window looked, was, on our first entrance into the house, the cause of
much perplexity to ourselves and the servants. The nursery-maid's
name was Sarah, and the unfortunate girl was continually running up
and down stairs, fancying herself called by one of the children in dis-
tress. The voice of the Parrot was just that of a child, and it would
call "Sarah!" in every imaginable tone, varying from a mere enunci-
ation of the name, as if in conversation, to angry remonstrance, petu-
lant peevishness, or sudden terror.

The Cockatoos are very familiar birds, as several species are com-
mon inhabitants of our aviaries, where they create much amusement
by their grotesque movements, their exceeding love of approbation, and
their repeated mention of their own name. Wherever two or three of

416 HABITS OF THE COCKATOO.

these birds are found in the same apartment, however silent they may
be when left alone, the presence of a visitor excites them to immedi-
ate conversation, and the air resounds with "Cockatoo!" "Pretty
Cocky!" in all directions, diversified with an occasional yell if the
utterer be not immediately noticed.

They are confined to the Eastern Archipelago and Australia, in
which latter country a considerable number of large and splendid spe-
cies is found. The nesting-place of the Cockatoos is always in the
holes of decaying trees, and by means of their very powerful beaks
they tear away the wood until they have enlarged the hollow to their
liking. Their food consists almost wholly of fruits and seeds, and they
are often very great pests to the agriculturist, settling in large flocks

Cockatoos.

upon the fields of maize and corn, and devouring the ripened ears or
disinterring the newly-sown seeds with hearty good-will. The wrath
of the farmer is naturally aroused by these"^ frequent raids, and the
Cockatoos perish annually in great numbers from the constant perse-
cution to which they are subjected, their nests being destroved and
themselves shot and trapped.

To those, however, who own no land and are anxious about no crops,
a flock of Cockatoos is a most beautiful and welcome sight as the birds
flit among the heavy-leaved trees of the Australian forest, their pinky-
white plumage relieved against the dark masses of umbrageous shade
as they appear and vanish among the branches like the bright visions
of a dream.

LEADBEATER'S COCKATOO.

417

The remarkably handsome bird which is represented below is a na-
tive of Australia. It is called by several names, such as the Tricolor
Crested Cockatoo and the Pink Cockatoo, by which name it is
known to the colonists. The title of Leadbeater's Cockatoo was
given to the bird in honor of the well-known naturalist, who possessed
the first specimen brought to England.

It is not so noisy as the common species, and may possibly prove a
favorite inhabitant of our aviaries, its soft blush-white plumage ?nd
splendid crest well
meriting the atten-
tion of bird-fanciers.
The crest is remark-
able for its great de-
velopment, and for
the manner in which
the bird can raise it
like a fan over its
head or depress it
upon the back of its
neck at will. In
either case it has a
very fine effect, and
especially so when it
is elevated and the
bird is excited with
anger or pleasure.

The general color
of this bird is white
with a slight pinkish
flush. Round the
base of the beak
runs a very narrow
crimson line, and the
feathers of the crest
are long and pointed,
each feather being
crimson at the base,
then broadly barred
with golden yellow,
then with crimson,
and the remainder

is white. The neck, breast, flanks, and under tail-coverts are deeply
stained with crimson, and the under surface of the wing is deep crim-
son-red. The beak is pale grayish white, the eyes brown, and the feet

2 B

Leadbeater's Cockatoo (Cacafua Leodbeateri).

418 SULPHUR-CRESTED COCKATOO. AND THE WOODPECKERS.

and legs dark gray, each scale being edged with a lighter tint. In size
it is rather superior to the common White Cockatoo.

The species of Cockatoo which is most common in^ England is the
Sulphur-Crested Cockatoo, a representation of which will be found

on page 415.

This bird is an inhabitant of different parts of Australia, and is es-
pecially common in Van Piemen's Laud, where it may be found in
flocks of a thousand in number. Owing to the ease with which it is
obtained it is frequently brought to England, and is held in much es-
timation as a pet.

The color of this species is white, with the exception of the crest,
which is of a bright sulphur-yellow, and the under surface of the wings
and the basal portions of the inner webs of the tail-feathers, which are
of the same color, but much paler in hue. The total length of this
species is about eighteen inches.

We now take our leave of the Parrots, and come to a very interest-
ing family of scansorial birds, known popularly as Woodpeckers and
scientifically as Picidse.

As is well known, the. name of Woodpecker is given to these birds
from their habit of pecking among the decaying wood of trees in order
to feed upon the insects that are found within. They also chip away
the wood for the purpose of making the holes or tunnels wherein their
eggs are deposited. In order to enable them to perform these duties,
the structure of the Woodpecker is very curiously modified. The feet
are extremely powerful, and the claws are strong and sharply hooked
so that the bird can retain a firm hold of the tree to w^hich it is cling-
ing while it works away at the bark or wood with its bill. The tail,
too, is furnished with very stiff and pointed feathers, which are pressed
against the bark, and form a kind of support on which the bird can
rest a large proportion of its weight. The breast-bone is not so prom-
inent as in the generality of flying birds, in order to enable the AVood-
peckerto press its breast closely to the tree, and the beak is long, strong,
and sharp.

These modifications aid the bird in cutting away the wood, but there
is yet a provision needful to render the Woodpecker capable of seizing
the little insects on which it feeds, and which lurk in small holes and
crannies into which the beak of tlie Woodpecker could not penetrate.
This structure is shown when a Woodpecker's head is carefully dissect-
ed. The tongue or " hyoid " bones are greatly lengthened, and pass
over the top of the head, being fastened in the skull just above the
right nostril. These long, tendinous-looking bones are accompanied by
a narrow strip of muscle, by which they are moved.

The tongue is furnished at the tip with a long horny appendage cov-
ered with barbs and sharply pointed at the extremity, so that the bird

THE GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER.

419

is enabled to project this instrument to a considerable distance from the
bill, transfix an insect, and draw it into the mouth. Those insects that
are too small to be thus treated are captured by means of a glutinous
liquid poured upon the tongue from certain glands within the mouth,
and which cause the little insects to adhere to the weapon suddenly pro-
jected among them. Some authors deny the transfixion.

The Great Spotted Woodpecker is one of the five British species,
and is also known by the names of Frenchpie and Woodpie.

It is found in many parts of England, and, like the other Woodpeck-
ers, must be sought in the forests and woods rather than in orchards
and gardens. Like other shy birds, however, it soon finds out where
it may take up its abode unmolested, and will occasionally make its

Lewis's Woodpeckkr
{Piciu^ torquatus).

Red-bellied Woodpecker

{Ficus Carolinus).

nest in some cultivated ground, where it has the instinctive assurance
of safety, rather than entrust itself to the uncertain security of the
forest.

Although the Woodpeckers were formerly much persecuted under
the idea that they killed the trees by pecking holes in them, they are
most useful birds, cutting away the decaying wood as a surgeon removes
a gangrened spot, and eating the hosts of insects which encamp in dead
or dying wood, and would soon bring the whole tree to the ground.
They do not confine themselves to trees, but seek their food wherever
they can find it, searching old posts and rails, and especially delighting
in those trees that are much infested with the green-fly, or aphis, as the
wood-ants swarm in such trees for the purpose of obtaining the " honey-

420 THE GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER.

dew" as it distils from the aphides, aod then the Woodpeckers eat the
ants. Those destructive creatures generally called wood-lice, and known
to boys as " monkey-peas," are a favorite article of diet with the Wood-
peckers, to whom our best thanks are therefore due.

But the Woodpeckers, although living mostly on insects, do not con-
fine themselves wholly to that diet, but are very fond of fruits, always
choosing the ripest.

As is the case with all its congeners, the Great Spotted Woodpecker
lays its eggs in the hollow of a tree.

The locality chosen for this purpose is carefully selected, and is a
tunnel excavated, or at all events altered, by the bird for the special
purpose of nidification. Before commencing the operation the Wood-
peckers always find out whether the tree is sound or rotten, and they
can ascertain the latter fact even through several layers of sound wood.
When they have fixed upon a site for their domicile, they set deterrai-
nately to work, and speedily cut out a circular tunnel just large enough
to admit their bodies, but no larger. Sometimes this tuunel is tolerably
straight, but it generally turns off in another direction.

At the bottom of the hole the female bird collects the little chips of
decayed wood that have been cutoff during the boring process, and de-
posits her eggs upon them, without any attempt at nest-making. Some
excellent examples of these nests are in the British Museum. The eggs
are generally five in number, but six have been taken from the nest of
this species.

Generally the nests of birds are kept scrupulously clean, but that of
the Woodpecker is a sad exception to the rule, the amount of filth and
potency of stench being quite beyond human endurance. The color of
the eggs is white and their surface glossy, and they are remarkable,
when fresh, for some very faint and very narrow lines, which run
longitudinally down the shell toward the small end.

The general color of this species is black and white, curiously dis-
posed, with the exception of the back of the head, which is light scar-
let, and contrasts strongly with the sober hues of the body. Taking
the black to be the ground color, the white is thus arranged : The
forehead and ear-coverts, a patch on each side of the neck, the scap-
ularies and part of the wing-coverts, several little squared spots on the
wings, and large patches on the tail, are pure white. The throat and
the whole of the under surface are also white, but with a grayish
cast, and the under tail-coverts are red. The total length of the
adult male is rather more than nine inches. The female has no
red on the head, and the young birds of the first year are remark-
able for having the back of the head black and the top of the head
red, often mixed with a few little black feathers.

The Downy Woodpecker derives its name from the strip of loose,

THE RED-HEADED WCX)DPECKER.

421

downy feathers which passes along its back. It is a native of America,
and very plentiful in various parts of that country.

Although a little bird — less than seven inches in length — it is a truly
handsome one. The crown of the head is velvety black, its back deep
scarlet, and there is a white streak over the eye. The back is black,
but is divided by a lateral stripe of puffy or downy white feathers.
The wings are black, spotted with white, and the tail is also varie-
gated with the same tints. From the base of the beak a black streak
runs down the neck. The sides of the neck, the throat, and the whole
of the under parts of the body are white. The nostrils are thickly
covered with small bristly feathers, probably to protect them from the
chips of wood struck off by
the beak. The female is
known by the grayish white
of the abdomen and the ab-
sence of red upon its head.

America possesses many
species of these birds,
among which the Red-
Headed Woodpecker
deserves a short notice, as
being a good representa-
tion of the Black Wood-
peckei-s. It is one of the
commonest of American
birds, bold, fearless of
man, and even venturing
within the precincts of
towns.

The adult male is a
really beautiful bird, its
plumage glowing with
steely black, snowy white,
and brilliant scarlet, dis-
posed as follows : The
head and neck are deep

scarlet, and the upper Woodpecker

parts of the body are black, with a steel-blue gloss. The upper tail-
coverts, the secondaries, the breast, and abdomen are pure white. The
beak is light blue, deepening into black toward the tip ; the legs and
feet are blue-green, the claws blue, and round the eye there is a
patch of bare skin of a dusky color. The female is colored like her
mate, except that her tints are not so brilliant. The young of the first
year have the head and neck blackish gray, and the white on the wings
36

Woodpeckers.
1. Red-headed W^oodpecker. 2. Yellow-bellied
Woodpecker. 3. Hairy Woodpecker. 4. Downy

422 THE GKEEN WOODPECKER AND THE WRYNECK.

is variegated with black. The total length of this bird is between nine
and ten inches.

The commonest of the British Woodpeckers is that which is generally
known by the name of the Green Woodpecker. It has, however,
many popular titles, such as Rain-bird, Wood-spite, Hew-hole, and
Wood-walh This bird is our representative of the Gecinse, or Green
Woodpeckers.

Although the Green Woodpecker is a haunter of woods and forests,
it will sometimes leave those favored localities and visit the neighbor-
hood of man. The grounds between the Isis and Mertou College,
Oxford, are rather fiivorite resorts of this pretty bird.

The name of R;iin-bird has been given to this species because it
becomes very vociferous at the approach of wet weather, and is, as Mr.
Yarrell well observes, " a living barometer to good observers." Most
birds, however, will answer the same purpose to those who know how
and where to look for them. The other titles are equally appropriate,
Wood-spite being clearly a corruption of the German term specht,
Hew-hole speaks for itself, and Wood-wall is an ancient name for the
bird, occurring in the old English poets.

The other British species are the Great Black Woodpecker (Dryocopus
Martins), the Northern Three-toed Woodpecker [Flcoides tridactylus),
and the Lesser Spotted Woodpecker (Plcus minor).

The curious bird known under the popular and appropriate name of
the Wryneck is by some considered to be closely allied to the Wood-
peckers.

The Wryneck is a summer visitant to this country, appearing just
before the cuckoo, and therefore known in some parts of England as

the cuckoo's footman. There
is a Welsh name for this bird,
signifying "cuckoo's knave"
— Gwas-y-gog.

The tongue of this bird is
long, slender, and capable of
being projected to the distance
of an inch or so from the ex-
tremity of the beak, and its
construction is almost exactly
... - . the same as that of the tongue

ot the woodpecker. As might be supposed, it is emploved for the same
purpose, being used in capturing little insects, of which ants form its
favorite diet So fond, indeed, is the Wrvneck of these insects that in
some parts of England it is popularly known by the name of Emmet-
Aunter. In pursuit of ants it trips nimbly about the trunks and
branches of trees, picking them off neatly wiUi its tongue as thev run

TnE Wryneck [Yanx torquilla).

THE CUCKOOS. 423

their untiring couree. It also frequents ant-hills, especially when the
insects are bringing out their pupae to lie in the sun, and swallows ants
and pupse at a great pace. When the ants remain within their fortress
the Wryneck pecks briskly at the hillock until it breaks its way through
the fragile walls of the nest, and as the warlike insects come rushing
out to attack the intruder of their home and to repair damages, it
makes an excellent meal of them in spite of their anger and their
stings.

When ants are scarce and scantily spread over the ground, the
Wryneck runs after them in a very agile fashion ; but when it comes
upon a well-stocked spot, it stands motionless, with the exception of the
head, which is darted rapidly in every direction, the neck and central line
of the back twisting in a manner that reminds the observer of a snake.
When captured or wounded it will lie on its back, ruffle up its feathers,
erect its neck, and hiss so like an angry serpent that it is in some places
known by the name of the Snake-bird.

The nest of the Wryneck is hardly deserving of that name, being
merely composed of chips of decaying wood. The eggs are laid in the
hollow of a tree, not wholly excavated by the bird, as is the case with
the woodpeckers, its beak not. being sufficiently strong for such a task,
but adapted to the purpose from some already existing hole.

The number of eggs laid by the Wryneck is rather great, as many
as ten having often been found in a single nest. In one instance no less
than twenty-two eggs were taken at four intervals. Their color is
beautiful white with a pinky tinge, not unlike those of the kingfisher;
and, as this pink color is produced by the yolk showing itself through
the delicate shelly it is, of course, lost when the egg is emptied of its
contents. The plumage of this little bird, although devoid of bril-
liant hues and decked only with brown, black, and gray, is really
handsome, from the manner in which these apparently sombre tints
are disposed.

The Cuckoos constitute a large family, containing several smaller
groups and many species. Two representatives of the groups are
figured. All these birds have a rather long, slender, and somewhat
curved beak, which in some species takes a curve so decided that it
gives quite a predaceous air to its owner. Examples of the Cuckoo
tribe are to be found in almost every portion of the globe, and are
most plentiful about the tropics.

There are few birds which are more widely known by good and evil
report than the common Cuckoo.

It is well known that the female Cuckoo does not make any nest,
but places her egg in the nest of some small bird, and leaves it to the
care of its unwitting foster-parents. Various birds are burdened with
this charge, such as the hedge-warbler, the pied wagtail, the meadow-

424

THE CUCKOO.

pipit, the red-backed shrike, the blackbird, and various finches.
Generally, however, the first three are those preferred. Considering
the size of the mother-bird, the egg of the Cuckoo is remarkably
small, being about the same size as that of the skylark, although the
latter bird has barely one-fourth the dimensions of the former. The lit-
tle birds, therefore, which are always careless about the color or form of
an egg, provided that it be nearly the size of their own productions,

do not detect the imposi-
tion, and hatch the inter- ^
loper together with their
own young.

The general color of the
Cuckoo's egg is mottled
reddish gray, but the tint
is very variable in different
individuals, as I can testify
from personal experience.
It has also been noted that
the color of the egg varies
with the species in whose
nest it is to be placed, so
that the egg which is in-
tended to be hatched by
the hedge-warbler is not
precisely of the same color
as that which is destined
for the nest of the pipit.

The mode by which the
Cuckoo contrives to de-
posit her eggs in the nest
of sundry birds was ex-
tremely dubious until a
key was found to the prob-
lem by a chance discovery made by Le Vaillant. He had shot a
female Cuckoo, and on opening its mouth in order to stuflT it with
tow, he found an egg lodged very snugly within the throat.

The peculiar note of the Cuckoo is so well known as to need no par-
ticular description, but the public is not quite so flimiliar with the
fact that the note changes according to the time of year. When the
bird first begins to sing the notes are full and clear, but toward the
end of the season they become hesitating, hoarse, and broken, like the
breaking voice of a young lad. This peculiarity was noticed long ago
by observant persons, and many are the country rhymes which bear
allusion to the voice and the sojourn of the Cuckoo. For example:

Cuckoos.

1. Carolina Cuckoo. 2. Black-billed Cuckoo.

THE PIGEONS.

426

" In April
Come lie will ;
]n May

He sings all day ;
In June

He alters his tune ;

In July

He prepares to fly ;

In August

Go he must."

In general appearance the Cuckoo bears some resemblance to a bird
of prey, but it has little of the predaceous nature. It is rather curious
that small birds have a tendency to treat the Cuckoo much as they
treat the hawks and owls, following it wherever it flies in the open
country, and attending it through the air.

The color of the plumage is bluish gray above, with the exception
of the wings and tail, which are black and barred with white on the
exterior feathers. The chin, neck, and breast are ashen gray, and the
abdomen and under wing-coverts are white barred with slaty gray.

COLUMB^, OR DOVES AND PIGEONS.

The large order of Columbse, or the Pigeon tribe, now comes under
our notice. It contains many beautiful and interesting birds, but, as
its members are so extremely numerous, only a few typical examples
can be mentioned.

All the Pigeons may be distinguished from the poultry, and the gallina-
ceous birds in general, by
the form of the bill, which
is arched toward the tip
and has a convex swell-
ing at the base, caused by
a gristly kind of plate
which covers the nasal
cavities, and which in
some species is very curi-
ously developed.

Among the most extra-
ordinary of birds the Pas-
senger Pigeon may take
very high rank, not on ac- /.^^^^.y/.T'M^I^^^^ *

count of its size or beautv, „ ^ ' /r. •, • 7 v

1 ^ , p ^, " The Passenge-r Pigeon (Ectopisies migratonus).

but because oi the extra-
ordinary multitudes in which it sometimes migrates from one place to
another. The scenes which take place during these migrations are
so strange, so wonderful, and so entirely unlike any events on this
side of the Atlantic, that they could not be believed but for the trust-
worthy testimony by which they are corroborated.

Wilson, who was fortunate enough to witness some of these migra-

36*

426 THE STOCK-DOVE.

tions, has written a most vivid account of them. After professing his
belief that the chief object of the migration is the search after food,
and that the birds, having devoured all the nutriment in one part of
the country, take wing in order to feed on the beech-mast of another
region, he proceeds to describe a breeding-place seen by himself in Ken-
tucky, which was several miles in breadth, wag said to be nearly forty

Pigeons.

1. White-crowned Pigeon. 2. Zenaida Dove.

miles in length, and in which every tree was absolut(!ly loaded with
nests. All the smaller branches were destroyed by the birds, many of
the large limbs were broken off and thrown on the ground, while no
few of the grand forest trees themselves were killed as surely as if the
axe had been employed for their destruction. The Pigeons had arrived
about the 10th of April, and left by the end of May.

The Stock-Dove derives its name from its habit of building its nest
in the stocks or stumps of trees. It is one of our British Pigeons, and
is tolerably common in many parts of England.

It is seldom found far northward, and even when it does visit such
localities it is only as a summer resident, making its nest in warmer
districts. As has already been mentioned, the nest of this species is
made in the stocks or stumps of trees, the birds finding out some con-
venient hollow and placing their eggs within. Other localities are,
however, selected for the purpose of incubation, among which a deserted
rabbit-burrow is among the most common. The nest is hardly worthy
of the name, being a mere collection of dry fibrous roots laid about
three or four feet within the entrance, and just thick enough to keep the
eggs from the ground, but not sufficiently woven to constitute a true nest.

The head, neck, back, and wing-coverts are bluish gray, the primary
quill feathers of the wing taking a deeper hue, the secondaries being

THE RING-DOVE.

427

pearl-gray deepening at the tips, and the tertials being blue-gray with
two or three spots. The chin is blue-gray, the sides of the neck slaty
gray glossed with green, and the breast purplish red. The specific name
of wnas, or " wine-colored," is given to the bird on account of the pe-
culiar hue of the throat. The whole of the under surface is gray, and
the tail-feathers are colored with gray of several tones, the outside
feathers having the basal portion of the outer web white. The beak
is deep orange, the eyes
scarlet, and the legs and
toes red. The total length
is about fourteen inches,
the female being a little
smaller.

The bird which now
comes before our notice
is familiar to all residents
in the country under
the titles of Ring-Dove,
Wood Pigeon, Wood
Guest, and Cushat.

This pretty Dove is one
of the commonest of Brit-
ish birds, breeding in al-
most every little copse or
tuft of trees, and inhabit-
ing the forest grounds.
in great abundance. Toward and during the breeding season its
soft, complacent, cooing is heard in every direction, and with a very
slight search its nest may be found. It is a strange nest, and hardly
deserving that name, being nothing more than a mere platform of sticks
resting upon the fork of a bough, and placed so loosely across each
other that when the maternal bird is away the light may sometimes be
seen through the interstices of the nest, and the outline of the eggs
made out. Generally the Ring-Dove chooses a rather lofty branch for
its nesting-plaoe, but it occasionally builds at a very low elevation.

The eggs are never more than two in number and perfectly white,
looking something like hens' eggs on a small scale, save that the ends
are more equally rounded.

The food of this Dove consists of grain and seeds of various kinds,
together with the green blades of newly-sprung corn and the leaves of
turuips, clover, and other vegetables. Quiet and harmless as it may
look, the Ring-Dove is a wonderful gormandizer, and can consume
great quantities of food. The crop is capacious, to suit the appetite,
and can contain a singular amount of solid food, as indeed seems to be

The Band-tailed Pigeon (Co/m?» 6a /asoato).

428 THE KOCK-DOVE AND TURTLE-DOVE.

the case with most of the Pigeon tribe, so that when the birds assemble
together in the autumn the flocks will do great damage to the farmer.
The Ring-Dove may easily be known by the peculiarity from which
it derives its name, the feathers upon the side of the neck being tipped
with white, so as to form portions of rings set obliquely on the neck.

Different as are the Domestic Pigeons, they are all modifications
of the common Blue Rock Pigeon, and, if permitted to mix freely
with each other, display an inveterate tendency to return to the orig-
inal form, with its simple plumage of black bars across the wing, just
as the finest breeds of lop-eared rabbits will now and then produce up-
right-eared young.

The Rock-Dove derives its popular name from its habit of frequent-
ing rocks rather than trees — an idiosyncrasy which is so inherent in its
progeny that even the Domestic Pigeons, which have not seen anything
except their wooden cotes for a loug series of generations, will, if they
escape, take to rocks or buildings, and never trouble themselves about
trees, though they should be at hand.

This species seems to have a very considerable geographical range, for
it is common over most parts of Europe, Northern Africa, the coasts of
the Mediterranean, and has even been found in Japan.

From this stock the varieties that have been reared by careful man-
agement are almost innumerable, and are so different in appearance that
if they were seen for the first time almost any systematic naturalist
would set them down as belonging not only to difi^erent species, but to
dififerent genera — such for example as the Pouter, the Jacobin, the
Trumpeter, and the Fantail, the last-mentioned bird having a greater
number of feathers in its tail than any of the others.

The world-famed Turtle-Dove is, although a regular visitor of this

country, better known by

fame and tradition than by

I'M actual observation. This

bird has from classic time
until the present day been
conventionally accepted as
the type of matrimonial per-
fection, loving but its mate
and caring for no other un-
til death steps in to part the
wedded couple. Yet it is by
no means the only instance of
rjy r^ "^^^ ,^ ^^ such conjugal aflfection among

Thk TrKTLE-DovE (Turtur auritns). ^he feathered tribes, for there
are hundreds of birds which can lay claim to the same excellent qual-
ities, the fierce eagle and the ill-omened raven being among their number.

THE CROWNED PIGEON.

429

The Turtle-Dove seems to divide its attention pretty equally between
Africa and England, pausing for some little time in Southern Italy as a
kind of half-way house. It arrives here about the beginning of May, or
perhaps a little earlier in case the weather be warm, and after resting for
a little while sets about making its very simple nest and laying its white
eggs. The nest of this bird is built lower than is generally the case
with the wood-pigeon, and is usually placed on a forked branch of some
convenient tree, about ten feet or so from the ground. The eggs are
laid rather late in the season, so that there is seldom more than a sin-
gle brood of two young in the course of the year.

The Turtle-Dove may readily be known by the four rows of black
feathers tipped with white which are found on the sides of the neck.

The splendid Crowned Pigeon is indisputably the most conspic-
uous of all its tribe, its great size and splendid crest rendering it a
most striking object, even at a considerable distance.

So large and un-pigeonlike is this bird that few, on first seeing it,
would be likely to determine its real relations to the rest of the feath-
ered race, and would be more likely
to class it among the poultry than
the pigeons. If, however, the reader
will lay a card upon the crest, so as
to expose only the head, he will see
that the general outline of the head
and beak is clearly that of a pigeon.
It is a native of Java, New Guinea,
and the Moluccas.

The cry of this bird is loud and
sonorous, a. kind of mixture between
a trombone and a drum, and every
time the bird utters this note it bows
its head so low that the crest sweeps
the ground.

The nest of the Crowned Pigeon
is said to be made in trees, the eggs
being two in number, as is generally the case with this group of birds.

The general color of this bird is a deep and nearly uniform slate-blue ;
that of the quill feathers of the wings and tail being a very blackish ash
and a patch of pure white and w^arm maroon being found on the wings.

The position held by the celebrated Dodo among birds was long
doubtful, and was only settled in comparatively late years by careful
examination of the few relics which are our sole and scanty records
of this very remarkable bird.

So plentiful were the Dodos at one time, and so easily were they
killed, that the sailors were in the habit of slaying the birds merely

The Crowned Pigeon {Gaura
corovata).

430

THE DODO AND THE CRESTED CURASSOW.

for the sake of the stones in their stomachs, these being fonnrl very
efficacious in sharpening their clasp-knives. The nest of the Dodo was

a mere heap of fallen
leaves gathered to-
gether on the ground,
and the bird laid but
one large egg. The
weight of one full-
grown Dodo was said
to be between forty
and fifty pounds.
The color of the
plumage was a gray-
ish brown in the adult
males, not unlike that
of the ostrich, while
the plumage of the
females was of a
paler hue.

The Dodo (Bidic, inepim). Leaving the Pig-

eons, we now come to the large and important order of birds termed
scientifically the Gallinse, and, more popularly, the Poultry. Some-
times they are termed Rasores, or "scrapers," from their habit of
scraping up the ground in search of food. To this order belong our

domestic poultry, the grouse,
partridges, and quails, the
turkeys, pheasants, and many
other useful and interesting
birds.

Our first example of these
birds is the Crested Curas-
sow, the representative of
the genus Crax, in which are
to be found a number of truly
splendid birds. All the Cu-
rassows are natives of tropical
America, and are found al-
most wholly in the forests.

The Crested Curassow in-
habits the thickly-wooded dis-
tricts of Guiana, Mexico, and
Brazil, and is very plentifully
found in those countries. It is a really handsome bird, nearly as large
as the turkey, and more imposing in form and color. It is gregarious

y _,

The Crested Curassow (C'/ax Ahttor)

THE AUSTKALIAN JUNGLE FOWL. 431

in its habits, aud assembles together in large troops, mostly perched on
the branches of trees. It is susceptible of domestication, and, to all
appearances, may be acclimatized to this country as well as the turkey
or the pheasant.

In their native country the Curassows build among the trees, making
a large and rather clumsy-looking nest of sticks, grass-stems, leaves, and
grass-blades. There are generally six or seven eggs, not unlike those
of the fowl, but larger and thicker shelled.

The color of the Crested Curassow is a very dark violet, with a pur-
plish green gloss above and on the breast, and the abdomen is the
purest snowy white, contrasting beautifully with the dark velvety
plumage of the upper parts. The bright golden yellow of the crest
adds in no small degree to the beauty of the bird.

Several very singular Ijirds are found in Australia and New Guinea,
called by the name of Megapodinse, or " great-footed birds," on account
of the very large size of their feet — a provision of nature which is neces-
sary for their very peculiar mode of laying their eggs and hatching
their young.

The first of these birds is the Australian Jungle Fow^l, which is
found ia several parts of Australia, but especially about Port Essing-
ton. In that country great numbers of high and large mounds of earth
exist, which were formerly thought to be the tombs of departed natives,
and, indeed, have been more than once figured as such. The natives,
however, disclaimed the sepulchral character, saying that they were the
artificial ovens in which the eggs of the Jungle Fowl were laid, and
which, by the heat that is always disengaged from decaying vegetable
substances, preserved sufficient warmth to hatch the eggs.

The size of these tumuli is sometimes quite marvellous ; in' one
instance, where measurements were taken, it was fifteen feet in perpen-
dicular height and sixty feet in circumference at its base. The whole
of this enormous mound was made by the industrious Jungle Fowl by
gathering up the earth, fallen leaves, aud grasses with one foot and throw-
ing them backward while it stands on the other. If the hand be inserted
into the heap, the interior will always be found to be quite hot. In al-
most every case the mound is placed under the shelter of densely-leaved
trees, so as to prevent the sun from shining upon any part of it.

The bird seems to deposit her eggs by digging holes from the top of
the mound, laying the egg at the bottom, and then making its way out
again, throwing back the earth that it had scooped away. The direction,
however, of the holes is by no means uniform, some running toward
the centre and others radiating toward the sides. They do not seem
to be dug quite perpendicularly ; so that, although the holes in which
the eggs are found may be some six or seven feet in depth, the eggs
themselves may be only two or three feet from the surface.

432 TFIE BRUSH TURKEY AND THE PEACOCK.

The coloring of this bird is simple, but the tints are soft and pleasing.
The head is rich ruddy brown, the back of the neck blackish gray,
and the back and wings brownish cinnamon, deepening into dark
chestnut on the tail-coverts. The whole under surface is blackish
gray. The legs are orange, and the bill rusty brown.

The Brush Turkey is found principally in the thick brushwood of
New South Wales. Mr. Gould, who first brought it before the public,
gives this curious account oi' its nest: "The mode in which the mate-
rials composing these mounds are accumulated is equally singular, the
bird never using its bill, but always grasping a quantity in its foot,
throwing it backward to one common centre, and thus clearing the
surface of the ground for a considerable distance so completely that
scarcely a leaf or a blade of grass is left. The heap being accumulated,
and time allowed for a sufficient heat to be^engendered, the eggs are
deposited, not side by side, as is ordinarily the case, but planted at the
distance of nine or twelve inches from each other, and buried at nearly
an arm's depth, perfectly upright, with the large end upward. They
are covered up as they are laid, and allowed to remain until hatched.
I am credibly informed, both by natives and settlers living near their
haunts, that it is not an unusual event to obtain nearly a bushel of
eggs at one time from a single heap ; and, as they are delicious eating,
they are eagerly sought after."

When the Brush Turkey is disturbed, it either runs through the
tangled underwood with singular rapidity or springs upon a low branch
of some tree, and reaches the summit by a succession of leaps from
branch to branch. This latter peculiarity renders it an easy prey to
the sportsman.

The large family of the Peacocks, or Pavouidss, now claims our
attention.

The Peacock may safely be termed one of the most magnificent of
the feathered tribe, and may even lay a well-founded claim to the chief
rank among birds in splendor of plumage and effulgence of coloring.
We are so familiar with the Peacock that we think little of its real
splendor ; but if one of these birds had recently been brought to Eu-
rope for the first time, it would create a greater sensation than even
the hippopotamus or the gorilla.

The Peacock is an Asiatic bird, the ordinary species being found
chiefly in India, and the Javanese Peacock in the country from which
it derives its name. In some parts of India the Peacock is extremely
common, flocking together in bands of thirty or forty in number, cover-
ing the trees with their splendid plumage and filling the air with their
horridly dissonant voices. Captain Williamson, in his Oriental Field
Sports, mentions that he has seen at least twelve or fifteen hundred
peacocks within sight of the spot where he stood.

THE PEACOCK.

433

They abouud chiefly in close-wooded forests, particularly where there
IS an extent of long grass for them to range in. They are very thirsty
birds, and will remain only where they can have access to water.
Rhur-plautations are their favorite shelter, being close above, so as to
keep off the solar rays, and sufliciently open at the bottom to admit a

The Peacock {Pavo cristatus).

free passage for the air. If there be trees near such spots, the Peacocks
may be seen mounting into them every evening toward dark to roost,
and they generally continue in them till the sun rises, when they de-
scend to feed, and pass the mid-dav in the heavv coverts.

-' 2 C

434 THE ARGUS PHEASANT.

Though Pea-fowls invariably roost in trees, yet they make their nests
on the ground, and ordinarily on a bank raised above the common
level, where in some sufficient bush they collect leaves, small sticks,
etc., and sit very close. I have on several occasions seen them in their
nests, but, as I refrained from disturbing them, they did not offer to
move, though they could not fail to know that they were discovered.
They usually sit on about a dozen or fifteen eggs. They are generally
hatched about the beginning of November ; and from January to the
end of March, when the corn is standing, are remarkably juicy and
tender. When the dry season comes on the birds feed on the seeds
of weeds and insects, and their flesh becomes dry and muscular.

The train of the male Peacock, although popularly called its tail, is
in reality composed of the upper tail-coverts, which are enormously
lengthened and finished at their extremities with broad rounded webs
or with spear-shaped ends. The shafts of these feathers are almost
bare of web for some fourteen or fifteen inches of their length, and
then throw out a number of long loose vanes of a light coppery green.
These are very brittle, and apt to snap off at different lengths. In the
central feathers the extremity is modified into a wide, flattened, battle-
door-shaped form, each barbule being colored with refulgent emerald-
green, deep violet-purple, greenish bronze, gold, and blue, in such a man-
ner as to form a distinct " eye," the centre being violet of two shades
surrounded with emerald, and the other tints being arranged concen-
trically around it. In the feathers that edge the train there is no " eye,"
the feathers coming to a point at the extremity, and having rather wide
but loose emerald-green barbules on its outer web and a few scattered
coppery barbules in the place of the inner web. The tail-feathers are
only seven or eight inches in length, are of a grayish-brown color, and
can be seen when the train is erected, that being their appointed task.

The Pheasants come next in order, and the grandest and most im-
posing of this group, although there are many others that surpass
its brilliant coloring, is the Argus Pheasant, so called in remem-
brance of the ill-fated Argus of mythology, whose hundred eyes
never slept simultaneously until charmed by the magic lyre of Mer-
cury.

This magnificent bird is remarkable for the very great length of its
tail-feathers and the extraordinary development of the secondary
feathers of the wings. While walking on the ground or sitting on a
bough the singular length of the feathers is not verv striking, but
when the bird spreads its wings, as shown in the figure," they come out
in all their beauty. As might be supposed from the general arrange-
raeut of the plumage, the bird is by no means a good flyer, and when
It takes to the air flies only for a short distance. In running its wings
are said to be efficient aids.

THE PHEASANT.

435

Although the Argus is hardly larger than an ordinary fowl, the
plumage is so greatly developed that its total length measures more
than five feet. The head and the back of the neck are covered with
short brown feathers, and the neck and the upper part of the breast
are warm chestnut-brown, covered with spots of yellow and black, and
similar tints are formed on the back. The tail is deep chestnut, cov-

The Argus Pheasant {Argus gigantetis).

ered with white spots, each spot being surrounded with a black
ring.

The Argus Pheasant inhabits Sumatra and neighboring localities.

The well-known Pheasant affords a triumphant instance of the j^uc-
cess with which a bird of a strange country may be acclimatized to this
island with some little assistance from its owners.

Originally, the Pheasant was an inhabitant of Asia Minor, and has
been by degrees introduced into many European countries, where its
beauty of form and plumage and the delicacy of its flesh made it a
welcome visitor.

436

THE PHEASANT.

The food of this bird is extremely varied. When young it is gen-
erally fed on ants' eggs, maggots, grits, and similar food, but when it
is fully grown it is possessed of an accommodating appetite, and will
eat many kinds of seeds, roots, and leaves. The tubers of the common
buttercup form a considerable item in its diet, and the bird will also
eat beans, peas, acorns, and berries of various kinds.

The Pheasant is a ground-loving bird, running with great speed,
and always preferring to trust to its legs rather than to its wings.

The Php:asant {Pha.vanus Colchicus)

It is a crafty creature, and when alarmed, instead of rising on the
wing, it slips quietly out of sight behind a bush or through a hedge,
and then runs away with astonishing rapidity, .always remaining
under cover until it reaches some spot where it deems itself to be
safe.

The nest of the Pheasant is a very rude attempt at building, being
merely a heap of leaves and grasses collected together upon the ground,
and with a very slight depression, caused apparently quite as much by
the weight of the eggs as by the art of the bird. The eggs are numer-
ou.s, generally about eleven or twelve, and their color is a uniform olive-
brown. Their surfiice is very smooth.

THE BANKIVA JUNGLE FOWL AND THE TURKEY. 437

The Bankiva Jungle Fowl is now supposed to be the original stock
of the domesticated poultry.

It is a native of Java, and the male very closely resembles the game-
cock of England. It is a splendid creature, with its light-scarlet comb
and wattles, its drooping hackles, its long, arched tail, and its flashing
eye. The comb and wattles are of brightest scarlet, the long hackles
of the neck and lower part of the back are fine orange-red, the upper
part of the back is deep blue-black, and the shoulders are ruddy chest-
nut. Tlie secondaries and greater coverts are deep steely blue, and the
quill feathers of the wing are blackish brown edged with rusty yellow.
The long, arched, and drooping tail is blue-black glossed with green,
and the breast and under parts black, so that in general aspect it is
very like the black-breasted red gamecock.

' )A- .^^^^Wf^^^^^p^

Domestic Fow'ls.

The domesticated bird is of all the feathered tribe the most directly
useful to man, and is the subject of so many valuable treatises that the
reader is referred to them for the best mode of breeding, rearing, and
general management of poultry.

The now well-known Turkey is another^example of the success with
which foreign birds can be acclimatized in this country.

The Turkey is spread over many parts of America, such as the wood-
ed parts of Arkansas, Louisiana, Alabama, Indiana, etc., but does not
seem to extend beyond the Rocky Mountains. It begins to mate about
the middle of February, and the males then utter those ludicrous gob-
bling sounds which have caused the bird to be called Gobbler or Bub-
bly-Jock by the whites, and Oo-coo-coo by the Oherokees.
37* ,

438

THE GUINEA-FOWL.

The female makes her oest in some secluded spot, aud is very guarded
in her approaches, seldom employing the same path twice in succession,
and, if discovered, using various wiles by which to draw the intruder from
the spot. As soon as the young are hatched she takes them under her

charge, and the whole
family go wandering
about to great distances,
at first returning to the
nest for the night, but af-
terward crouching in any
suitable spot. Marshy
places are avoided by
the Turkey, as wet is
fatal to the young birds
until they have attain-
ed their second suit of
clothes and wear feathers
instead of down. When
they are about a fortnight
old they are able to get
up into trees and roost
in the branches, safe
from most of the nu-
merous enemies which
beset their path through
life.

The Turkey is a very
migratory bird, passing
over great distances and retaining the habit in its tamed state, giving no
small amount of trouble to the poultry-owner.

The prettily-spotted Guinea Fowl or Pintado, sometimes called
Gallini, is, although now domesticated in England, a native of Africa,
and has much of the habits and propensities of the turkey.

Both in the wild and the captive state the Guinea Fowl is wary and
suspicious, and particularly careful not to betray the position of its nest,
thus often giving great trouble to the former. Sometimes, when the
breeding season approaches; the female Pintado will hide herself and
nest so effectually that the only indication of her proceedings is her
subsequent appearance with a brood of young round her. The num-
ber of eggs is rather l^ge, being seldom below ten, and often double
tliat number. Their color is yellowish red, covered with very little
dark spots, and their size is less than that of the eggs of the common
fowl. Their shells are extremely hard and thick, and when boiled for
the table require some little exertion to open properly.

Wild Turkeys {Meleagris
1. Male. 2. Female.

THE PARTRIDGE.

439

1^ —

The Domestic Turkey,

Every one knows the curious, almost articulate, cry of the Guinea
Fowl, its "Come back! come back!" being continually uttered wher-
ever the bird is kept, and often affording a clew to its presence.

The forehead of the Guinea Fowl
is surmounted by a horny casque,
and the naked skin round the eyes
falls in wattles below the throat. In
the male the wattles are purplish
red, and in the female they are red
without any mixture of blue, and
are of smaller size. The legs are
without spurs. The pretty spotted
plumage of this bird is too well
known to need description.

Of the many members of *the Per-
dicine group, we shall take only one
example, the well-known English
Partridge.

This bird, so dear to British sportsmen, is found spread over the
greater part of Europe, always being found most plentifully near cul-
tivated ground. It feeds upon various substances, such as grain and
seeds in the autumn, and green leaves and insects in the spring and
early summer.

Small slugs are a favorite diet with the Partridge, which has a spe-
cial faculty for discover-
ing them in the recesses
where they hide them-
selves during the day, and
can even hunt successfully
after the eggs of these de-
structive creatures. Cat-
erpillars are also eaten by
this bird, and the terrible
black grub of the turnip
is consumed in great num-
bers. Even the white cab-
bage butterfly, whose nu-
merous offspring are so
hurtful in the kitchen-
garden, falls a victim to
the quick-eyed Partridge,
which leaps into the air
and seizes it in its beak as it comes fluttering unsuspectingly over the
bird's head.

The Guinea Fowl {Nvmida vieleaaiii^).

440 THE QUAIL.

The Partridge begins to lay about the end of April, gathering together
a bundle of dry grasses into some shallow depression in the ground, and
depositing therein a clutch of eggs, generally from twelve to twenty in
number. Sometimes a still greater number has been found, but in these
cases it is tolerably evident from many observations that several birds
have laid in the same nest.

When the young are hatched they are strong on their legs at once,
running about with ease, and mostly leaving the nest on the same day.
The mother takes her little new-born brood to their feeding-places —
generally ant-hills or caterpillar-haunted spots — and aids them in their
search after food by scratching away the soil with her feet.

The nests of the wood-ant, which are found mostly in fir-plantations
or hilly ground, being very full of inhabitants, very easily torn to
pieces, and, the ants and their larvae and pupae being very large, are
favorite feeding-places of the Partridge, which in such localities is said
to acquire a better flavor than among the lower pasture4ands.

The young brood, technically called a " covey," associate together,
and have a very strong local tendency, adhering with great pertina-
city to the same field or patch of land. Wiien together they are mostly
rather wild, and dart off at the least alarm with tlieir well-known whir-
ring flight, just topping a hedge or wall, and settling on the other side
till again put up ; but when the members of the covey are separated,
they seem to dread the air and crouch closely to the ground, so that it
is the object of the sportsman to scatter the covey and to pick them up
singly.

The plumage of the Partridge is brown, of several shades, above, min-
gled witli gray. The breast is gray, with a horseshoe-like patch of rich
chestnut on its lower portion, and the sides and flanks are barred with
chestnut. The total length of the male bird is rather more than a foot ;
the female is smaller than her mate, and the chestnut bars on the flanks
are broader than those of the male.

The odd, short-legged, round-bodied, quick-footed Quail is closely
allied to the partridge in form and many of its habits. Of these birds
there are many species ; but, as all are much alike, there is no need of
many examples.

The common Quail is found spread over the greater part of Europe
and portions of Asia and Africa, coming to our island in the summer,
though not in very great numbers. In England the bird is not suffi-
ciently plentiful to be of any commercial value, but in Italy and some
of the warmer lands which the Quails traverse during their periodical
migrations, the inhabitants look forward to the arrival of the Quail
with the greatest anxiety. In those countries they are shot, snared,
and netted by thousands ; and it is chiefly from the foreign markets
tliat our game-shops are supplied with these birds. When ^t the flesh

THE CAPEECAILLIE.

441

of the Quail is very delicious, and the most approved way of cooking
the bird is to envelop it in a very thin slice of bacon, tie it up in a
large vine-leaf, and then roast it.

In their migrations the Quails fly by night — a peculiarity which has
been noted in the scriptural record
of the Exodus, where it is men-
tioned that " at even the quails
came up and covered the camp."

It is rather curious that the
males precede the females by
several days, and are conse-
quently more persecuted by the
professional fowlers.

The male bird does not pair like
the partridge, but takes to himself
a plurality of wives, and, as is gen-
erally the case with such polyga-
mists, has to fight many desperate
battles with others of its own sex.
Although ill-provided with weap-

ons of offence, the Quail is as fiery

The Virginia Quail. ( Ortyx Virginianus),

and courageous a bird as the gamecock, and in Eastern countries is
largely kept and trained for the purpose of fighting prize-battles, on
the result of which the owners stake large sums. The note of the
male is a kind of shrill whis-
tle, which is heard only dur-
ing the breeding season.

The nest of the Quail is
of no better construction than
that of the partridge, being
merely a few bits of hay and
dried herbage gathered into
some little depression in the
bare ground, and generally
entrusted to the protection of
corn-stalks, clover, or a tuft of
rank grass. The number of
eggs is generally about four-
teen or fifteen, and their color
is buffy white, marked with
patches or speckles of brown.

Although once a common inhabitant of the highland districts of
Great Britain, the Capercaillie has now been almost wholly extinct
for some years, a straggling specimen being occasionally seen in Scot-

The Capercaillie {Tetrao urogallus).

442 THE COCK OF THE PLAINS.

land, and shot " for the benefit of science." This bird is also known by
the following names: Cock of the Woods, Mountain Cock, Auerhahn,
and Capercailzie.

It is now most frequently found in the northern parts of Europe,
Norway and Sweden being very favorite homes. From those coun-
tries it is largely imported into England by the game-dealers.

The Capercaillie is celebrated not only for its great size and the ex-
cellence of its flesh, but for its singular habit just previous to and dur-
ing the breeding season.

During this season it holds its " play " or love-song, called in Nor-
way the leh. He struts about with drooping wings, spread tail, and
ruffled feathers, and utters a peculiar cry. This is a call to the hens,
and always attracts them. While the bird is thus engaged he is so
intent upon his " play " that, however wary he may be at other times,
he can easily be approached and shot.

The nest of the Capercaillie is made upon the ground, and contains
eight or ten eggs ; when hatched the young are fed upon insects, more
especially ants and their pupae. The adult birds feed mostly on vegeta-
ble substances, such as juniper, cranberry, and bilberries, and the leaves
and buds of several trees.

The color of the adult male bird is chestnut-brown, covered with
a number of black lines irregularly dispersed ; the breast is black
with a gloss of green, and the abdomen is simply black, as are the
lengthened feathers of the throat and tail. The female is easily known
by the bars of red and black which traverse the head and neck, and the
reddish yellow barred with black of the under surface. In size the
Capercaillie is nearly equal to a turkey.

The Cock of the Plains is an American bird, being found in the
dry plains in the interior of the southern portion of California. Like
the Cock of the Woods, this bird is accustomed during the breeding season
to disport himself after a peculiar and grotesque manner, drooping his
wings, spftading his tail like a fan, puffing out his crop until the bare
yellow skin stands prominently forward, somewhat after the fashion of
the pouter pigeon, and erecting the long silken plumes on his neck.
Thus accoutred, he parades the ground with much dignity, turning
himself about so as to display his shape to the best advantage, assum-
ing a variety of rather ludicrous attitudes, and uttering a loud boom-
ing cry that is compared to the sound made by blowing strongly into a
large hollow reed.

The Cock of the Plains is a gregarious bird, assembling in little
troops in the summer and autumn, and in large flocks of several hun-
dred in number during the winter and spring.

The male is a very handsome bird, brown on the upper surflice and
mottled with very dark brown and vellowish white. The female is less

THE BLACK GROUSE AND PINNATED GROUSE, 443

iu size, is without the feather tufts on the neck aud the scale-like plum-
age ou the sides.

Cock of the Plains [Tetrao urophisianus), female.

The well-kuown Black Grouse, or Black Cock, is a native of the
more southern countries of Europe, and still survives in many portions
of the British Isles, especially those localities where the pine-woods and
heaths afford it shelter and it is not dislodged by the presence of human
habitations.

Like the two preceding species, the male bird resorts at the beginning
of the breeding season to some open spot, where he utters his love-calls
and displays his new clothes to the greatest advantage, for the purpose
of attracting to his harem as many wives as possible. The note of the
Black Cock when thus engaged is loud and resonant, and can be heard
at a considerable distance. This crowing sound is accompanied by a
harsh, grating, stridulous kind of cry, which has been likened to the
noise produced by whetting a scythe.

In the autumn the young males separate themselves from the other
sex and form a number of little bachelor establishments of their own,
living together in harmony until the next breeding season, when they
all begin to fall in love. The apple of discord is then thrown among
them by the charms of the hitherto repudiated sex, and their rivalries
lead them into determined and continual battles, which do not cease
until the end of the season restores them to peace and sobriety.

The general color of the adult male bird is black glossed with blue
and purple, except a white band across each wing. The under tail-
coverts are white.

Another fine species of this group is the Pinnated Grouse of

444

THE RUFFED GROUSE.

North America. This bird is found almost wholly iu open dry plains on
which are few trees or tufts of brushwood, pines and scrub-oaks being
the most favored shelter. Like the greater part of the group, the males

"play" at the breeding
season, ruffling their feath-
ers, erecting their neck-
tufts, swelling out their
wattles, and uttering their
strange love-cries. At
this time the Pinnated
Grouse is particularly re-
markable for the large size
and bright orange color of
the naked sacculated ap-
pendages which hang at
each side of the neck,
and which can be filled
with air until they are
nearly of the same size
and color as a Seville
orange, or can be per-
mitted to hang loosely

i> r^ , ni ^* .7x aloner the neck.

Pinnated Grouse Tetrao Cunido). mi i r- ^^ x>-

^ ^ The color of the Pin-

nated Grouse is mottled with black, white, and chestnut-brown, the
male having two wing-like appendages on the neck, composed of eigh-
teen feathers, five long and
black, and thirteen shorter,
streaked with black and
brown. The length of
this bird is about nineteen
inches.

The Ruffed Grouse
is spread over the greater
portion of the United
States, where it is known
either as Partridge or
Pheasant according to the
locality.

The liuFFED GiiousE, or Pheasant In general color the

{Tetrcw umbellusK j^^j^ i^ ^-^^ chestnut-

brown, variegated with abundant mottling of dark brown and gray.

The curious tufts on tlie shoulder are rich velvety black glossed with

green, and just below them the skin is bare. The tail is gray, barred

THE OSTRICH.

445

with blackish-brown. The length of the male bird is about eighteen
inches. The female is smaller, and is known by the brown color of
the neck-tufts and the bar on the tail.

The best time for shooting the Ruffed Grouse is September and
October, when it is very fat, having fed on whortleberries and other
fruits, which give its flesh a delicate and somewhat aromatic flavor.
In winter these birds feed much on the buds of alder and laurel, and
are then thought to be poisonous.

CURSORES.

With the Ostrich commences a most important group of birds, con-
taining the largest and most powerful members of the feathered tribe,
and termed Cursores, or " running birds," on account of their great
speed of foot and total impotence of wing. All the birds belonging
to this order have their legs de-
veloped to an extraordinary de-
gree, the bones being long, stout,
and nearly as solid as those of a
horse, and almost devoid of the
air-cells which give such lightness
to the bones of most birds. The
wings are almost wanting exter-
nally, their bones, although re-
taining the same number and
form as in ordinary birds, being
very small, as if suddenly checked
in their growth.

This magnificent creature, the
largest of all existing birds, in-
habits the hot sandy deserts of Af-
rica, for which mode of life it is
wonderfully fitted. In height it
measures from six to eight feet,
the males being larger than their
mates, and of a blacker tint. The
food of the Ostrich consists mostly
of wild melons, which are so benef-
icently scattered over the sandy
wastes.

The Ostrich is a gregarious bird, associating in flocks, and being fre-
quently found mixed up with the vast herds of quaggas, zebras, giraffes,
and antelopes which inhabit the same desert-plains. It is also polyg-
amous, each male bird having from two to seven wives. The nest of

38

The Ostrich {Struthio Camelm).

446 THE EMEU.

the Ostrich is a mere shallow hole scooped in the sand, in which are
placed a large number of eggs, all set upright, and with a number of
supplementary eggs laid round the margin.

The eggs are hatched mostly by the heat of the sun ; but, contrary
to the popular belief, the parent birds are very watchful over their
nests, and aid in hatching the eggs by sitting upon them during the
night. Both parents give their assistance in this task. The eggs
which are laid around the margin of the nest are not sat upon, and
consequently are not hatched, so that when the eggs within the nest are
quite hard, and the young bird is nearly developed, those around are
quite fit for food. Their object is supposed to be to give nourishment
to the young birds before they are strong enough to follow their parents
and forage for themselves. These eggs are put to various useful purposes.
Not only are they eaten, but the shell is carefully preserved and chip-
ped into spoons and ladles, or the entire shell employed as a water-ves-
sel, the aperture at the top being stuffed with grass.

The feathers are too well known to need description. On an average,
each feather is worth about twenty-five cents.

The flesh of the Ostrich is tolerably good, and is said to resemble
that of the zebra. It is, however, only the young Ostrich that furnishes
a good entertainment, for the flesh of the old bird is rank and tough.
The fat is highly valued, and when melted is of a bright orange color.
It is mostly eaten with millet flour, and is also stirred into the egg
while roasting, so as to make a rude but well-flavored omelet.

The vx)ice of the Ostrich is a deep, hollow, rumbling sound, so like
the roar of the lion that even practised ears have been deceived by it
and taken the harmless Ostrich for a prowling lion. In its wild state
the Ostrich is thought to live from twenty to thirty years.

In the male bird the lower part of the neck and the body are deep
glossy black, with a few white feathers, which are barely visible except
when the plumage is ruffled. The plumes of the wings and tail are
white. The female is ashen brown sprinkled with white, and her tail
and wing plumes are white, like those of the male. The weight of a
fine adult male seems to be between two and three hundred pounds.

The Emeu inhabits the plains and open forest country of Central
Australia, where it was in former days very common, but now seems
to be decreasing so rapidly in numbers that Dr. Bennett, who has had
much personal experience of this fine bird, fears that it will ere many
years be numbered with the dodo, the great auk, the nestor, and other
extinct species.

The food of the Emeu consists of grass and various fruits. Its voice
is a curious, hollow, booming or drumming kind of note, produced
by the peculiar construction of the windpipe. The legs of this bird
are shorter and stouter in proportion than those of the ostrich, and the

THE RHEA.

447

wings are very short, aDcl so small that when they lie closely against
the body they can hardly be distinguished from the general plumage.
The nest of the Emeu is made by scooping a shallow hole in the
ground in some scrubby spot, and in this depression a variable number
of eggs is laid. Dr. Ben-
nett remarks that " there
is always an odd number,
some nests having been dis-
covered with nine, others
with eleven, and others,
again, with thirteen." The
color of the eggs is, while
fresh, a rich green of vary-
ing quality, but after the
shells are emptied and ex-
posed to the light the beau-
tiful green hue fades into
an unwholesome greenish
brown. Tiie parent birds
sit upon their eggs, as has
been related of the Ostrich.
The Emeu is not polyga-
mous, one male being ap-
portioned to a single fe- _ ^ . ^^ ^^„ ,. ,
^ 1 Emeu {Dromams Novce HollandiOB).

America is not without representatives of this fine group of birds,
three distinct species being in the gardens of the Zoological Society.

The Rhea is a native of South America, and is especially plentiful
along the river Plata. It is generally seen in pairs, though it some-
times associates together in flocks of twenty or thirty in number.
Like all the members of this group, it is a swift-footed and wary bird,
but possesses so little presence of mind that it becomes confused when
threatened with danger and runs aimlessly in one direction and then in
another, thus giving time for the hunter to come up and shoot it or
bring it to the ground with his " bolas " — a terrible weapon consisting
of a cord with a heavy ball at each end, which is flung at the bird
and winds its coils round its neck and legs, so as to entangle it and
bring it to the ground.

The food of the Rhea consists mainly of grasses, roots, and other
vegetable substances, but it will occasionally eat animal food, being
known to come down to the mud-banks of the river for the purpose of
eating the little fish that have been stranded in the shallows.

The well-known Cassowary is found in the Malacca, Java, and the
adjacent islands.

448

THE CASSOWARY.

This fine bird is Dotable for the glossy bhick hair-like plumage, the
helraet-like protuberance upon the head, and the light azure, purple,
and scarlet of the upper part of the neck. The " helmet " is a truly-
remarkable apparatus, being composed of a honeycombed cellular bony
substance, made on a principle that much resembles the structure
of the elephant's skull, mentioned in an earlier portion of this
work.

The plumage of the body is very hair-like, being composed of long
and almost naked sliafts, two springing from the same tube, and one

The Cassowary [Casuarius

always being longer .than the other. At the roots of the shafts there
is a small tuft of delicate down, sufficiently thick to supply a warm
and soft inner garment, but yet so small as to be hidden by the long
hair-hke plumage. Even the tail is furnished with the same curious
covering, and the wings are clothed after a similar manner, with the
exception of five black, stiflT, strong, pointed quills, very like the large
quills of the porcupine, and being of different lengths, the largest not
exceeding one foot, and generally being much battered about the
point. When stripped of its feathers, the whole wing extends only
some three mches in length, and is evidently a mere indication of the
limi).

THE APTERYX.

449

The food of this bird in a wild state consists of herbage and various
fruits, and in captivity it is fed on bran, apj)les, carrots, and sim-
ilar substances, and is said to drink nearly half a gallon of water per
diem.

Perhaps the very strangest and most weird-like of all living birds is
the Apteryx, or Kiwi-Kiwr.

This singular bird is a native of New Zealand, where it was once
very common, but, like the dinornis, is in a very fair way of becoming

The Apteryx {Apteryx Australis).

extinct — a fate from which it has probably been hitherto preserved by
its nocturnal and retiring habits.

In this bird there is scarcely the slightest trace of wings — a peculi-
arity which has gained for it the title of Apteryx, or " wingless." The
plumage is composed of rather curiously-shaped flat feathers, each being
wide and furnished with a soft, shining, silken down for the basal third
of its length, and then narrowing rapidly toward the extremity, which

38 * 2D

450 THE GKEAT BUSTARD.

is a single shaft with hair-like webs at each side. The quill portion of
the feathers is remarkably small and short, being even overlapped by
the down when the feather is removed from the bird.

The skin is very tough, and yet flexible, and the chiefs set great value
upon it for the manufacture of their state mantles, permitting no infe-
rior person to wear them, and being extremely unwilling to part with
them even for a valuable consideration. The bird lives mostly among
the fern ; and, as it always remains concealed during the day in deep
recesses of rocks, ground, or tree-roots, and is remarkably fleet of foot,
diving among the heavy fern-leaves with singular adroitness, it is not
very easy of capture. It feeds upon insects of various kinds, more es-
pecially on worms, which it is said to attract to the surface by jump-
ing and striking on the ground with its powerful feet. The natives
always hunt the Kiwi-kiwi at night, taking with them torches and
spears. The speed of this bird is very considerable, and when running
it sets its head rather back, raises its neck, and plies its legs with a vigor
little inferior to that of the ostrich.

The fine specimen in the Zoological Gardens has already proved a
very valuable bird, as she has laid several eggs, thereby setting at rest
some disputed questions on the subject, and well illustrates the natural
habits of the species.

Upon her box is placed, under a glass shade, the shell of one of her
eggs. These eggs are indeed wonderful, for the bird weighs a little
more than four pounds, and each egg weighs between fourteen and fif-
teen ounces, its length being four and three-quarter inches and its width
rather more than two inches, thus being very nearly one-fourth of the
weight of the parent bird.

The long curved beak of the Apteryx has the nostrils very narrow,
very small, and set on at each side of the tip, so that the bird is en-
abled to pry out the worms and other nocturnal creatures on which it
feeds without trusting only to the eyes. The general color of the' Ap-
teryx is chestnut-brown, each feather being tipped with a darker hue,
and the under parts are lighter than the upper. The height is about
two feet.

Several species of the Apteryx are known.

Although the progress of civilization has conferred many benefits
on this country, it has deprived it of many of its aboriginal inhabitants,
whether furred or feathered, the Great Bustard being in the latter
category.

This splendid bird, although in former days quite a usual tenant of
plains and commons, and having been an ordinary object of chase on
Newmarket Heath, is now so rare that an occasional specimen only
makes its appearance at very distant intervals.

The Great Bustard is not fond of flying, its wings having but a slow

THE LAPWING. 451

and deliberate movement, but on foot it is very swift, and tests the
speed of dog and horse before it can be captured.

The nest — if a hole in the ground may be called a nest — of this bird
is generally made among corn, rye, etc., although it is sometimes sit-
uated in rather unexpected localities. The eggs are two or three in
number, and of an olive-brown color splashed with light brown in
which a green tinge is perceptible. The food of the bird is almost
wholly of a vegetable nature, though it is said to feed occasionally
upon mice, lizards, and other small vertebrates. The flesh of the Bus-
tard is very excellent, but the extreme rarity of the bird prevents it
from being often seen upon English tables. When caught young the
Bustard can readily be tamed, and soon becomes quite familiar with
those who treat it kindly. ,

The head and upper part of the neck are grayish white, and upon
the side of the neck there is a small patch of slaty blue bare skin, al-
most concealed by the curious feather tuft which hangs over it. The
upper part of the body is pale chestnut barred with black, and the
tail is of similar tints with a white tip, and a very broad black band
next to the white extremity. The wing-coverts, together with the ter-
tials, are white, and the primaries black. The under surface of the body
is white. The total length of an adult male is about forty-five inches.

The Wading Birds are well furnished with legs and feet formed for
walking, and in many species the legs are greatly elongated, so as to
enable them to walk in the water while they pick their food out of the
waves.

In the British Museum the Plovers head the list of Waders.

The well-known Lapwing, or Peewit, is celebrated for many rea-
sons. Its wheeling, flapping flight is so peculiar as to attract the notice
of every one who has visited the localities in which it resides, and its
strange, almost articulate, cry is equally familiar. When it fears danger,
it rises from its nest, or rather from the eggs, into the air, and contin-
ually wheels around the intruder, its black and white plumage flashing
out as it inclines itself in its flight, and its mournful cry almost fatiguing
the ear with its piercing frequency. " Wee-whit! wee-e-whit!" fills the
air as the birds endeavor to draw aw^ay attention from their home, and
the look and cry are so weird-like that the observer ceases to wonder
at the superstitious dread in which these birds were formerly held.
The French call the Lapwing '' Dix-hmt'' from its cry.

It is the male bird which thus soars above and around the intruder,
the female sitting closely on her eggs until disturbed, when she runs
away, tumbling and flapping about as if she had broken her wing, in
hopes that the foe may give chase and so miss her eggs. It is certain-
ly very tempting, for she imitates the movements of a wounded bird
with marvellous fidelitv.

452

THE GOLDEN-BREASTED TRUMPETER.

The eggs of the Lapwing are laid in a little depression in the earth,
in which a few grass-stalks are loosely pressed. The full number of
eggs is four, very large at one end and very sharply })ointed at the
other, and the bird always arranges them with their small end inward,
so that they present a somewhat cross-like shape as they lie in the nest.

Their color is olive, blotched and spotted irregularly with dark black-
ish brown, and they harmonize so weW with the ground on which they
are laid that they can hardly be discerned from the surrounding earth
at a few yards' distance. Under the title of " plovers' eggs " they are
in great request for the table, and are sought by persons who make a

The Lapwing ( Vitnellus cridalus).

trade of them, and who attain a wonderful expertness at the business of
gathering them.

The food of the Lapwing consists almost wholly of grubs, slugs,
worms, and insects. It is easily tamed, and is often kept in gardens
for the purpose of ridding them of these destructive creatures. In
the garden next our own a Lapwing was kept, and lived for some years,
trippmg featly over the grass and thoroughly at home.

The Golden-breasted Trumpeter is a handsome bird, remarkable
for the short velvety feathers of the head and neck, and their beautiful
golden green lustre on the breast. The body of this bird is hardly
larger than that of a fowl, but its legs and neck are so long as to give
It the aspect of being much larger than it really is. Like most birds
of similar structure, it trusts more to its legs than its wings, and is

THE CRANE.

453

able to run with great speed and activity. It is generally found in
the forests.

The name of Trumpeter is derived from the strange hollow cry
which it utters without seeming to open the beak. This cry is evidently
produced by means of the curiously-formed windpipe, which is fur-
nished with two membranous expansions, which during the utterance of
the cry puff out the neck very forcibly, just as the rhea does when
grunting. The nest of the Trumpeter is said to be a hole scratched
in the ground at the foot of a tree, and to contain about ten or twelve
light-green eggs. The head and neck are velvety black, and on the
breast the feathers be-
come large and more
scale-like, and their
edges beautifully be-
decked with rich shin-
ing green, with a pur-
plish gloss in some lights
and a lustrous golden hue
in others. The back is
gray, the feathers being
long and silken and hang-
ing over the wings. The
wiugs, under surface, and
tail are black, and the
feathers of the tail are
soft and short.

Although in former
days tolerably common
in England, the Crane
has now, with the bus-
tard, almost disappeared
from this land, a single
specimen being seen at
very long and increas-
ing intervals. In some ^ Louisiana Heron. 2. Pied Oyster-catcher. 3.
parts of England and Ire- Whooping Crane. 4. Long-billed Curlew,
land the popular name of

the heron is the Crane, so that the occasional reports which sometimes
find admission into local newspapers respecting the Crane often have
reference, not to that bird, but to the heron.

The Crane makes its nest mostly on marshy ground, placing it
among osiers, reeds, or the heavy vegetation which generally flourishes
in such localities. Sometimes, however, it prefers more elevated situa-
tions, and will build on the summit of an old deserted ruin. The eggs

454

THE DEMOISELLE CKANE AND THE HERON.

are two in number, and their color is light olive, covered with dashes
of a deeper hue and brown. The well-known plumes of the Crane are
the elongated tertials, with their long drooping loose webs, which, when
on the wings of the bird, reach beyond the primaries.

The forehead, top of the head, and neck are rather dark slaty ash,
and a patch of grayish white extends from behind the eyes partially
down the neck on each side. The general surface of the body is soft
ashen gray, and the primaries are black. The long plumy tertials form
two crest-like ornaments, which can be raised or depressed at will. The
eyes are red, and the beak is yellow w^ith a green tinge. The total length

of the adult crane is about four
feet, but it is rather variable in
point of size, and the males are
rather larger than the females.
The Demoiselle or Numid-
IAN Crane is common in many
parts of Africa, and has been seen
in some portions of Asia, and oc-
casionally in Eastern Europe.

It is a very pretty bird, the
soft texture of the flowing plum-
age and the delicate grays of the
feathers harmonizing with each
other in a very agreeable man-
ner. The general tint of the
plumage is blue-gray, taking a
more leaden tone on the head
and neck, and offering a beauti-
ful contrast to the snowy-white
ear-tufts, issuing from velvety

,r, T^ ^ .r, XT ^ black, which decorate the head.

Xhe Demoiselle Crane (Scops Virgo), rp. • i . xv r. i n

^ ^ ^ ' ihere is also a tuft or long tlow-

ing plumes of a deep black-gray hanging from the breast. Its secon-
daries are much elongated, and hang over the primaries and tail-
feathers. In height the Demoiselle Crane is about three feet six inches.
The well-known Heron was once one of our commonest English
birds, but on account of the draining of swamps and their conversion
into fertilizad and liabitable ground is now seldom to be seen except in
certain localities which still retain the conditions that render them so
acceptable to this bird. There are some places where Herons are yet
plentiful, especially those localities where the owner of the land has
established or protected the nests, or where a wide expanse of wild un-
cultivated ground affords them a retreat. I once came suddenly on
three of these beautiful birds fishing quietly in the Avon, and permitting

THE FOOD OF THE HERON.

456

my approach within a few yards before they spread their wide wings
for flight.

The food of the Heron consists mostly of fish and reptiles, but it will
eat small mammalia, such as mice, or even water-rats. In the stomach
of one of these birds were found seven small trout, a mouse, and a
thrush. Eels are also a favorite food of the Heron, but on account of
their lithe bodies and active wrigglings are not so easy to despatch as
ordinary fish, and are ac-
cordingly taken on shore
and banged against the
ground until disabled.

Like many other birds,
the Heron is able to dis-
gorge the food which it
has swallowed, and re-
sorts to this measure when
it is chased by birds of
prey while going home
after a day's fishing.

While engaged in its
search for food, the Her-
on stands on the water's
edge mostly with its feet
or foot immersed, and
there remains still, as if
carved out of wood, with
its neck retracted and its
head resting between the ^
shoulders. In this atti-
tude its sober plumage
and total stillness render
it very inconspicuous,
and, as it mostly prefers
to stand under the shadow of a tree, bush, or bank, it cannot be seen
except by a practised eye, in spite of its large size.

The long beak of the Heron is very sharp and dagger-like, and can
be used with terrible force as an ofiensive weapon. The bird instinct-
ively aims its blow at the eye of its adversary, and if incautiously
handled is sure to deliver a stroke quick as lightning at the captor's
eye. The beak of a species of Heron set upon a stick is used by some
savage tribes as a spear.

The nest of the Heron is almost invariably built upon some elevated
spot, mostly the top of a large tree, but sometimes on rocks near the
coast. It is a large and rather clumsy-looking edifice, made of sticks

1, Green Heron.
Great White Heron.

Herons.
2. Night Heron.

3. Young. 4.

456

THE BITTERN.

and lined with wool. The eggs are from four to five in number, and
their color is pale green.

The Bittern is now seldom seen in this country, partly because it
is a rare bird and becoming scarcer almost yearly, and partly because
its habits are nocturnal, and it sits all day in the thickest reeds or other
aquatic vegetation. The marshy grounds of Essex seem to be the spots
most fiivored by this bird at the present day, although specimens are an-
nually killed in various parts of the country.

lu habits and food the Bittern resembles the Heron, except that it

feeds by night instead of
by day. Like that bird,
it uses its long sharp
beak as a weapon of of-
fence, and chooses the
eye of its adversary as
the point at which to aim.
The feet and legs are also
powerful weapcjns, and
when disabled from flight
the Bittern will fling it-
self on its back and fight
desperately with foot and
bill.

The nest of the Bittern
is placed on the ground
near water, and concealed
among the rank vegeta-
tion that is found in such
localities. It is made of
sticks and reeds, and gen-
erally contains about four
or five pale-brown eggs.
The voice of the Bittern
varies with the season
of the year. Usually it is
a sharp, harsh cry uttered
on rising, but in the breeding season the bird utters a loud booming
cry that can be heard at a great distance.

The general color of this fine bird is rich brownish bufi*, covered with
irregular streaks and mottlings of black, dark brown, gray, and chest-
nut. The top of the head is black with a gloss of bronze, the cheeks
are buff; and the chin white tinged with buflE". Down the front of the
neck the feathers are marked with bold longitudinal dashes of blackish
and reddish brown, and the feathers of the breast are dark brown broad-

Herons and Bitterns.
1. Yellow-crowned Heron. 2. ftreat Heron
American Bittern. 4. Least Bittern.

THE SPOONBILL.

457

ly edged with buff. The under surface of the body is buff streaked with
brown, the beak is greenish yellow, and the feet and legs are green. In
total length the Bittern measures about thirty inches.

The well-known Spoonbill affords an instance of the endless variety
of forms assumed by the beak.

It has a very wide range df country, being spread over the greater
part of Europe and Asia, and inhabiting a portion of Africa. This
species is one of the
Waders, frequenting the
waters, and obtaining a
subsistence from the
fish, reptiles, and small-
er aquatic inhabitants,
which it captures in the
broad spoon-like extrem-
ity of its beak. It is also
fond of frequenting the
seashore, where it finds
a bountiful supply of
food along the edge of
the waves and in the
little pools that are left
by the retiring waters,
where shrimps, crabs,
sand-hoppers, and sim-
ilar animals are crowd-
ed closely together as
the water sinks through
the sand. The bird also ^
eats some vegetable sub-
stances, such as the roots
of aquatic herbae^e, and ^ ^ ^ , .„ « *

, ^ . ^ ® .„ 1. Roseate Spoonbill. 2. American Avoset.

when m COnhnement will piover. 4. Semipalmated Sandpiper.

feed upon almost any

kind of animal or vegetable matter, providing it be soft and moist.
The beak of an adult Spoonbill is about eight inches in length, very
much flattened, and is channelled and grooved at the base. In some
countries the beak is taken from the bird, scraped very thin, and pol-
ished, and is then used as a spoon, and is thought a valuable article,
being sometimes set in silver.

The breeding-places of the Spoonbill are usually open trees, the banks
of rivers or in little islands and tufts of aquatic herbage. In the latter
cases the nest is rather large, and is made of reeds piled loosely together,
and set on a foundation of water-weeds heaped sufficiently high to keep

39

3. Ruddy

458

THE STORK.

tlie eggs from the wet. There is no lining to the nest. The eggs are
generally four in number, and their color is grayish white spotted with
rather pale rusty brown.

The Stork is another of the birds which in the olden days were tol-
erably frequent visitors to the British Islands, but which now seldom
make their appearance in such inhospitable regions, where food is
i irce and guns are many.

It is sufficiently common in many parts of Europe, whither it mi-
grates yearly from its winter-quarters in Africa, makes its nest, and
rears its young.

The Stork attaches itself to man and his habitations, building its
huge nest on the top of his house, and walking about in his streets as

familiarly as if it had
built them. It especial-
ly parades about the fish-
markets, where it finds no
lack of subsistence in the
offal ; and in Holland,
where it is very common,
it does good service by
destroying the frogs and
other reptiles which would
be likely to become a pub-
lic nuisance unless kept
down by the powerful aid
of this bird.

The Stork is fond of
making its nest upon
some elevated spot, such
as the top of a house, a
chimney, or a church-
spire, and in the ruined
cities of the East almost
every solitary pillar has
its Stork's nest upon the
summit. The nest is little
,, ,^ , more than a heterogene-

feTORK (Ciconin albaK , m n f- i

ous bundle oi sticks,
reeds, and similar substances heaped together and with a slight de-
pression for the eggs. These are usually three or four in number,
and their color is white with a tinge of buff.

The color of the adult Stork is pure white with the exception of the
quill feathers of the wings, the scapularies, and greater wing-coverts,
which are black. The skin round the eye is black, the eyes are brown.

THE ADJUTANT.

469

and the beak, legs, and toes red. The length of the full-grown bird is
about three feet six inches, and when erect its head is about four
feet from the ground.

There are several remarkable members of this group, one of which is
the well-known Adjutant, or Argala, of India, the former name
being derived from its habit of frequenting the parade-bounds.

This fine bird is notable for the enormous size of the beak, which is
capable of seizing and swallowing objects of considerable size, a full-
grown cat, a fowl, or a leg ^^
of mutton being engulfed ~-y—:
without any apparent dif-r
ficulty. The Adjutant is
a most useful bird in tlie
countries which it inhab-
its, and is protected with
the utmost care, as it
thoroughly cleans the
streets and public places
of the various offal which
is flung carelessly in the
way, and would be left to
putrefy but for the con-
stant services of the Ad-
jutant and creatures of
similar habits.

It is easily tamed, and
soon attaches itself to a
kind owner, sometimes,
indeed, becoming abso-
lutely troublesome in its
familiarity. Mr. Smeath-
man mentions an instance
where one of these birds
w^as domesticated, and
was accustomed to stand
behind its master's chair at dinner-time and take its share of the meal.
It was, however, an incorrigible thief, and was always looking for some
opportunity of stealing the provisions, so that the servants were forced
to keep watch with sticks over the table. In spite of their vigilance
it was often too quick for them, and once it snatched a boiled fowl off
the dish and swallowed it on the spot.

The exquisitely fine aad flowing plumes termed "Marabou feathers"
are obtained from the Adjutant and a kindred species, the Marabou of
Africa {Leptoptilos Mural

The Adjutant {Leptoptilos Argala).

460

THE SACRED IBIS AND THE GLOSSY IBIS.

The general color of the Adjutant is delicate ashen gray above and
white beneath. The great head and proportionately large neck are
almost bare of covering, having only a scanty supply of down instead
of feathers. From the lower part of the neck hangs a kind of dewlap,
which can be inflated at the will of the bird, but generally hangs loose
and flabby.

The Sacred Ibis is one of a rather curious group of birds. With
one exception they are not possessed of brilliant coloring, the feathers

being mostly white and deep pur-
plish black. The Scarlet Ibis,
however, is a most magnificent,
though not very large bird, its
plumage being of a glowing scar-
let, relieved by a few patches of
black.

The Sacred Ibis is so called be-
cause it figures largely in an evi-
dently sacred character on the
hieroglyphs of ancient Egypt.
It is a migratory bird, arriving
in Egypt as soon as the waters of
the Nile begin to rise, and re-
maining in that land until the
waters have subsided, and there-
fore deprived it of its daily sup-
plies of food. The bird probably
owes its sacred character to the fact that its appearance denotes the
rising of the Nile — an annual phenomenon on which depends the
prosperity of the whole country.

By the natives of Egypt it is called the Abou Hannes— i. e., Father
John— or Abou Menzel— i.e.. Father Sickle-bill—tlie former name
being in use in Upper and the other in Lower Egypt.

The color of the adult bird is mostly pure silvery white, the feathers
being glossy and closely set, with the exception of some of the second-
aries, which are elongated and hang gracefully over the wings and
tail. These, together with the tips of the primaries, are deep glossy
black, and the head and neck are also black, but, being devoid of
feathers, have a slight brownish tinge, like that of an ill-blacked boot
or an old crumpled black kid glove. While young the head and neck
are clothed with a blackish down, but when the bird reaches maturity
even this slender covering is shed, and the whole skin is left bare.
The body is little larger than that of a common fowl.

Another species, the Glossy Ibis, is also an inhabitant of Northern
Africa, but is sometimes found in this country, where the fishermen

TiiE Sacred Ibis [Ibis relyiosa).

THE CURLEW.

461

know it by the name of Black Curlew. It is probably the Black Ibis
mentioned by Herodotus.

The Curlew, or Whaup, is found mostly upon the seashore and

The Glossy Ibis {Ibis falcinellus).

open moorlands, and, partly on account of its wild, shy habits, partly
because its flesh is very delicate and well flavored, is greatly pursued
by sportsmen. These birds are very annoying to a gunner who does
not understand their ways,
having a fashion of keep-
ing just out of gun-range,
rising from the ground
with a wild, mournful
cry which has the efiect
of alarming every other
bird within hearing, and
flying off* to a distance,
where they alight only
to play the same trick
again. Moreover, they
are strong on the wing
and well feathered, so
that they require a sharp
blow to bring them down,

and necessitate the use of

j 1 - The Curlew {^umeiuus urqmta).

The breeding-grounds of the Curlew are inland, the locality varying
according to the character of the district, wild heath and high hilly

462

THE AVOCET AND THE RUFF.

grounds being chosen in some places, while marshy and boggy soils are
favored in others. The nest of this bird is very slight, being only a
small heap of dry leaves or grasses scraped together under the shelter
of a tuft of heather or a bunch of rank grass. There are usually four
eggs, placed, as is customary with such birds, with their small ends to-
gether, and being much larger at one end than at the other. Their
color is brownish green, with some blotches and splashes of dark brown
and a darker green.

The AvocET is one of the most remarkable among English birds,
and is easily recognizable by its long, curiously-curved beak and its
boldly-pied plumage.

It is not a common bird in England, and is now but seldom seen,
though in former days it used to be tolerably plentiful on the seacoasts

and in marshy lands. The
long and oddly-curved beak
is very slender and pointed,
and from its peculiar shape
has earned for its owner
the name of Cobbler's-Awl
Bird. The food of the
Avocet consists almost
wholly of worms, insects,
and little crustaceans; and
while the bird is engaged
in the search after these
creatures it paddles over
the oozy mud with its webbed feet, and traverses the soft surface with
nmch ease and some celerity.

The nest of the Avocet is placed on the ground in some convenient
hollow, and the eggs are yellowish brown with black marks.

Like many other birds which depend for their existence upon marshy
and uncultivated grounds, the Ruff is gradually being turned out of
England, and may in time be nothing more than a rare and occasional
visitor.

It is one of the migratory species, arriving in this country in April
and leaving by the end of September. Formerly it was so common in
the fenny districts that six dozen have been taken by one bird-catcher
in a single day.

The Ruff is a most pugnacious bird, rivalling, if not exceeding, the
game-cock in irritability of temper and reckless courage. The attitude
of fighting is not unlike that of the cock, but, as it has no spurs, it
cannot inflict severe wounds, and after a fierce contest neither party
will be much the worse. Prolonged and obstinate combats are waged
among the Ruffs for the possession of the females— popularly called

The AvociiT {Eecurvirosh-a avoceila)

THE COMMON SNIPE.

463

Reeves — and, as the birds make a great noise about their affairs, and
in their eager combat trample down the grass on the little hills where
they love to resort, the fowler knows well where to lay his nets.

The Ruff is chiefly remarkable for the peculiarity from which it de-
rives its name — the projecting ruff of long, closely-set feathers which
surrounds the neck and can be raised or lowered at pleasure. This
ruff belongs only to the adult males, and is assumed by them during
the short breeding season,
being in greatest perfection
about the beginning of June,
and falling off by degrees from
July to August and September.

The Common Snipe is too
well known to need much de-
scription. Its habits, however,
are interesting, and deserve
some notice.

This bird may be seen all
over England wherever damp
and swampy places are found.
When first flushed it shoots
off in a straight line for a
few yards, and then begins to
twist and turn in a strangely
zigzag fashion, and at last
darts away, thereby puzzling The Snipe {Nummius scolapacinns).
juvenile sportsmen greatly, and often escaping before its enemy has
got his aim.

The male bird has a curious habit of rising to a great height in the
air, circling repeatedly over the same ground, and uttering continually
a peculiar cry like the words "Chic! chic! chic-a, chic-a, chic-a!" con-
stantly repeated. Every now and then the bird makes a downward
stoop, and then emits a very singular sound, something between the
bleating of a goat and the buzzing of a slack harp-string. How this
sound is produced has long been a subject of controversy, but I am
convinced that it is produced by the wings— at all events, that it is not
from the mouth.

During a recent stay in the New Forest, I set myself to the elucida-
tion of this problem, and in company with two friends went toward sun-
set to an excellent cover near a large marsh, in which Snipes were al-
most as plentiful as sparrows. From this post we could watch the
Snipes to great advantage, and the birds would come circling over
our heads, piping and drumming vigorously. On several occasions,
when a Snipe was passing over us at so low an elevation that his i^ng

464

THE WOODCOCK.

drooping beak was distinctly visible, lie stooped over our heads and ut-
tered his " Chic-a ! chic-a !" simultaneously with the " drumming,'* both
sounds being distinctly heard at the same time. The first time that we
clearly heard the double sound was on June 27th, but we heard it re-
peatedly on subsequent occasions. The Snipe remains a long time upon
the wing while thus engaged, contrary to its usual habit, which is to fly
for a short distance and then to pitch again.

The nest of the Snipe is a simple heap of leaves placed under the
shelter of a tuft of furze, heath or grass, and the eggs are four in num-
ber, of an olive-white, spotted and dashed with brown of different tones
toward and upon the large end. The mother-bird has been known to
carry away her young when threatened by danger.

The Woodcock is nearly as well known, though not so plentiful, as
the snipe, to which bird it bears a considerable resemblance in form,
plumage, and many habits.

Generally it is only a winter visitor, arriving about October, and
leaving England in March or April. Sometimes, however, it will

breed within the British Isles,
and there remain throughout
the summer. During their mi-
gration the Woodcocks fly at a
great altitude, and descend al-
most perpendicularly Upon the
spot where they intend to rest.
They fly in companies of vary-
ing numbers, and prefer hazy
and calm weather for their
journey.

The food of the Woodcock

consists mostly of worms, which

\^\^s- it obtains with extraordinary

,^ skill, thrusting its beak as far

T, „, , ^, , . , ^ ^^ as the nostrils into the soft moist

. .IHE Woodcock {Scolopax rusiicola). ,, •> i .^^. ^i i -i

^ ^ earth, and hitting upon the hid-

den worms with unerring skill. A tame Woodcock has been seen to
probe large turfs with its bill, and to draw out a worm at every thrust
of the long slender beak. It is thought that the sense of smell en-
ables the bird to discover the worms beneath the surface. It moves
about chiefly on misty days, and is said by experienced woodcock-
shooters to prefer the northern side of a hill to the southern.

It is a very silent bird, seldom uttering its cry except when first
starting for its feeding-places, and hardly even crying when flushed.
The flight of the Woodcock is wonderfully swift, although the wings
do not appear to move very fast, and the bird has a custom of jerking

THE JACANAS AND THE CORNCKAKE.

465

and dodging about so quickly when it sees the sportsman that it often
escapes his shot. One bird mentioned by Mr. Thompson used to baffle
an experienced sportsman by always feeding near an archway, and slip-
ping through it before the gun could be brought to bear.

The nest of the Woodcock is made of leaves — those of the fern being
favorites — closely laid together, but without any particular skill in ar-
rangement, and without lining. The full number of eggs is four, and
their color is buffy white with rusty-brown blotches.

The Jacanas are found in Asia, Africa, and America. Their light
bodies and widely-extended claws enable them to walk on the leaves of
aquatic plants with equal ease and safety. As their weight is just suf-
ficient to sink the leaf a little below the surface, they quite have the
appearance of walking on the water itself. The common Jacana in-
habits the hotter parts of South America, and is abundant in Brazil
and Guiana. It possesses large and sharp spurs on the wing. It is
not a very large bird, barely exceeding a pigeon in bulk.

We now come to the large family of the Rails, a curious group of
birds, formed for rapid movement, either on the ground or through the
water, but not particularly adapted for long flights. Many species in-
habit England.

The well-known Corncrake, or Landrail, is common in almost
every part of the British Islands, its rough, grating call being heard
wherever the hay-grass is long enough to hide the utterer.

The bird runs with wonderful speed through the tall grass, and its
cry may be heard now close at hand, now in the distance, now right,
and now left, without any other
indication of the bird's where-
abouts ; for so deftly does it
thread the grass-stems that
scarcely a shaken blade indi-
cates its presence, and it is so
wary that it keeps itself well
hidden among the thick herb-
age. The cry of the Corn-
crake may be exactly imitated
by drawing a quill or a piece
of stick smartly over the large
teeth of a comb, or by rubbing
together two jagged strips of The Corncrake {Orfygomdra crex).
bone. In either case the bird may be decoyed within sight by this
simple procedure.

The nest of the Corncrake is placed on the ground, and is made of
dry grass arranged in a suitable depression. It generally contains
from eight to twelve eggs, of a buffy white covered with rusty-brown

2 E

466

THE WATER HEN.

spots. The shell is rather thick, and the size of the egg large in pro-
portion to the dimensions of the bird.

The upper parts of the body are elegantly mottled with dark black-
ish brown, ashen, and warm chestnut, the first tint occupying the centre
of each feather, the second the edges, and the third the tips. The wing-
coverts are rusty red. The throat and abdomen are white, and the
breast is greenish ash, warming into reddish rust striped with white on
the sides. In total length the Corncrake is not quite ten inches.

Our most familiar example of the Gallinules is the Water Hen,
sometimes called the Moor Hen.

This bird may be seen in plenty in every river in England, and mostly
on every pond or sheet of water where the reedy or rushy banks offer

it a refuge. -When start-
led it often dives on the
instant, and, emerging
under floating weeds and
rubbish, just pokes its bill
above the surface, so that
the nostrils are uncovered
by the water, and remains
submerged until the dan-
ger is passed, holding it-
self in the proper position
by the grasp of its strong
toes upon the weeds.

The nesting of this
bird is very peculiar.
The Water Hen builds
a large edifice of sedges,

ry „■ 1 i; X sticks, and leaves, either

Uallmula chloropus). .11 i 1 ,

^ on the bank close to the

water's edge, upon little reedy islands, or on low banks overhanging
the water, and generally very conspicuous. Tli^ mother-bird has a
habit of scraping leaves and rushes over her eggs when she leaves
the nest— not, as some people fancy, to keep the eggs warm, but to
hide them from the prying eyes of crows and magpies, jays, and other
egg-devouring birds.

The young are able to swim almost as soon as hatched, and for some
time remain close to their parents. I once, to ray great regret, shot by
mistake several young Moor Hens, still in their first suit of black puffy
down, and paddling about among the water-lilies and other aquatic
herbage where I could not see them. Pike are rather apt' to carry off
little creatures by coming quickly under the weeds and jerking

The Water Hen

the

them under the water before they take the alar

m.

THE COMMON COOT AND THE FLAMINGO.

467

The Common Coot or Bald Coot, as it is sometimes called, is
another of our familiar British water-birds, being seen chiefly in lakes,
large ponds, and on the quiet banks of wide rivers.

The habits of the Coot much resemble those of the water hen, and
it feeds after a similar fashion ujDon molluscs, insects, and similar crea-
tures, which it finds either in the water or upon land.

The nest of the Coot is a huge edifice of reeds and rank water-herbage,
sometimes placed at the edge of the water, and sometimes on little
islands at some distance from shore. I have often had to wade for
thirty or forty yards to these nests, which have been founded upon
the tops of little hillocks almost covered with water. The whole nest
is strongly though rudely made ; and if the water should suddenly rise
and set the nest floating, the Coot is very little troubled at the change,

The Coot {Fulica atra).

but sits quietly on her eggs waiting for the nest to be stranded. The
eggs are generally about eight or ten in number, and their color is
olive-white sprinkled profusely with brown. The shell is rather thick
in proportion to the size of the egg, so that Coots' eggs can be car-
ried away in a handkerchief without much danger of being broken.

The well-known Flamingo brings us to the large and important
order of Anseres, or the Goose tribe.

The common Flamingo is plentiful in many parts of the Old World,
and may be seen in great numbers on the seashore or the banks of
large and pestilential marshes, the evil atmosphere of which has no
eflfect on these birds, though to many animals it is most injurious, and
to man certain death. When feeding the Flamingo bends its neck,

468

THE BERNICLE GOOSE.

and, placiug the upper mandible of the curiously-bent beak on the
ground or under the water, separates the nutritive portions with a kind
of spattering sound, like that of a duck when feeding. The tongue
of the Flamingo is very thick and of a soft oily consistence, covered
with curved spines pointing backward, and not muscular.

A flock of these birds feeding along the seashore has a curious ap-
pearance, bending their long necks in regular succession as the waves

dash upon the shore, and raising

them as the ripple passes away along
the strand. At each wing is always
placed a sentinel bird, which makes
no attempt to feed, but remains with
neck erect and head turning con-
stantly about to detect the least in-
dication of danger. AVhen a flock
of Flamingos is passing overhead,
they have a wonderfully fine effect,
their plumage changing from pure
white to flashing rose as they wave
their broad wings.

When at rest and lying on the
ground with the legs doubled under
the body, the Flamingo is still grace-
ful, bending its neck into snaky coils,
and preening every part of its plum-
age with an ease almost incredible.
Its long and apparently clumsy legs
are equally under command, for the
bird can scratch its cheeks with its toes as easily as can a sparrow or a
canary.

When flying the Flamingo still associates itself with its comrades,
and the flock form themselves into regular shapes, each band evidently
acting under the command of a leader. The eggs are white, their
number is two or three, and the young birds are all able to run at an
early age. Like many other long-legged birds, the Flamingo has a
habit of standing on one leg, the other being drawn up and hidden
among the plumage.

The curious beak of this bird is orange-yellow at the base and black
at the extremity, and the cere is flesh-colored. When in full plumage
the color is brilliant scarlet, with the exception of the quill feathers,
which are jetty black. A full-grown bird will measure from five to
SIX feet in height.

The Bernicle Goose is found on our shores, and seems to prefer the
western to the eastern coasts.

-^i^^ - -^

The Flamingo {Phanicoptems
ruber).

THE MUTE SWAN AND THE HOOPER. 469

The name of the Bernicle Goose is given to this bird because the
olden voyagers thought that it was produced fKom the common barna-
cle shell, and this notion had taken so strong' a hold of their minds
that they published several engravings representing the bird in various
stages of its transformation.

The Bernicle Goose generally assembles in large flocks and haunts
large salt-marshes near the coast, and feeds on grasses and various algse.
It is a very wary bird, and not easily approached. The eggs of this
species are large and white. The flesh is considered good. The bill
of the Bernicle Goose is black, with a reddish streak on each side. The
cheeks and throat are white, a black streak runs from the beak to the
eye, the upper parts are bold and marked with black and white, and
the lower parts are white. It is a rather small bird, the total length
barely exceeding two feet.

The beautiful Swans now come before our notice. There are
nine or ten species of these fine birds, which are well represented
in the British Isles, four species being acknowledged as English
birds.

Our most familiar species is the Tame, or Mute Swan, so called
from its silent habits. This elegant and graceful bird has long been
partially domesticated throughout England, and enjoys legal protection
to a great extent, heavy penalties being proclaimed against any one
who kills a Swan without a legal rigltt.

The food of the Swan consists mostly of vegetable substances, and
the bird can readily be fattened on barley, like ordinary poultry. The
young birds, called cygnets, ought not to be killed after November, as
they then lose their fat and the flesh becomes dark and tough.

The nest of the Swan is a very large mass of reeds, rushes, and
grasses set upon the bank, close to the water, in some sheltered spot.
Generally the bird prefers the shore of a little island as a resting-place
for its nest. Like other water-birds, the Swan will raise the nest by
adding fresh material before the rising of the water near which it is
placed. There are generally six or seven eggs, large, and of a dull
greenish white. The young are of a light bluish gray color, and do not
assume the beautiful white plumage until maturity.

The mother is very watchful over her nest and young, and in com=
pany with her mate assaults any intruder upon the premises. During
the first period of their life the young Swans mount on their mother's
back, and are thus carried from one place to another. If in the water,
the Swan is able to sink herself so low that the young can scramble
upon her back out of the water ; and if on land, she helps them up by
means of one leg.

The Hooper, Elk Sw^an, or Whistling Swan may at once be dis-
tinguished from the preceding species by the shape and color of the

40

470

THE BLACK SWAN.

beak, which is slender, without the black tubercle, and is black at the
tip and yellow at the base, the latter color stretching as far as the
eye.

" The nest of the Hooper is like that of the Mute Swan, and the eggs
are pale brownish white. The length of the Hooper is about the same
as that of the mute species — i. e., five feet.

However emblematical of ornithological fiction a Black Swan might
have been in ancient times, it is now almost as familiar to English eyes
as any of the white species.

This fine bird comes from Australia, where it was first discovered in
1698. It is a striking and handsome bird, the blood-red bill and the

The Mute 8wan (Oygnvs olor) and the Whistling Swan {Q/gnus ferus).

white primaries contrasting beautifully with the deep black of the
plumage. It is not so elegant in its movements as the White Swan,
and holds its neck stiffly, without the easy serpentine grace to which
we are so well accustomed in our British Swans.

There are very many species of Ducks, of which we can take but a
few examples.

The well-known Widgeon is very plentiful in this country, arriving

TPIE WIDGEON.

471

about the end of September or the beginning of October, and assembling
in large flocks.

These birds, although wary on some occasions, are little afraid of the
proximity of man and his habitations, feeding boldly by day, instead

The Black Swan {Oygnm atratus).

of postponing their feeding-time to the night, as is often the case with
water-fowl. The food of the Widgeon consists mostly of grass, which
it eats after the fashion of the common goose. The nest of the Widgeon

Geese and Ducks.
1. Hooded or Crested Merganser. 2. Red-breasted Merganser. 3. Blue Bill o; Scaup
Duck. 4. American Widgeon, Male. 5. Female Snow Goose. 6. Pied Duck.

is made of decayed reeds and rushes, and is lined with the soft down
torn from the parent's body. The eggs are rather small, and of a
creamy-white color. The number of eggs is from five to eight. The
flesh of this bird is very delicate, and it is largely sold in our markets.

472

THE MALLARD AND THE TEAL.

The common Mallard, or Wild Duck, now comes before our no-
tice.

This is by no means one of the least handsome of its tribe, the rich
glossy green of the head and neck, the snowy-white collar, and the vel-
vet black of the odd little curly feathers of the tail giviug it a bold and
striking appearance, which, but for its familiarity, would receive greater
admiration than it at present obtains. It is the stock from which has
descended our well-known domestic Duck, to which we are so much
indebted for its flesh and its eggs.

In its wild state the Mallard arrives in this country about October,
assembling in large flocks, and is immediately persecuted in every way
that the ingenuity of man can devise.

The nest of the Mallard is made of grass, lined and mixed with down,

Ducks.
1. Long-tailed Duck. 2. Female. 3, Summer Duck. 4. Green-winged Teal. 5. Can-
vas-back Duck. 6. Red-headed Duck. 7. Mallard.

and is almost always placed on the ground near water, and sheltered
by reeds, osiers, or other aquatic plants. Sometimes, however, the nest
is placed in a more inland spot, and it now and then happens that a
Duck of more than usual eccentricity builds her nest in a tree at some
elevation from the ground, so that, when her young are hatched, she is
driven to exert all her ingenuity in conveying them safely from their
lofty cradle to the ground or the water. Such a nest has been observed
in an oak tree twenty-five feet from the ground, and at Heath Wood,
near Chesterfield, one of these birds usurped possession of a deserted
crow's nest in an oak tree. Many similar instances are on record.

The eggs of the Mallard are numerous, but variable, according to the
individual which lays them, some being far more prolific than others.
The eggs are rather large, and of a greenish white color.

The pretty little Teal is the smallest and one of the most valuable

THE EIDEK DUCK AND THE GREAT NORTHERN DIVER. 473

of the British Ducks, its flesh being peculiarly delicate and its numbers
plentiful.

In the southern parts of England the Eider Duck is only a winter
visitant, but remains throughout the year in the more northern portions
of our island and in the North of Scotland.

This bird is widely celebrated on account of the exquisitely soft and
bright dow^n which the parent plucks from its breast and lays over the
eggs during the process of incubation. Taking these nests is with some
a regular business, not devoid of risk, on account of the precipitous lo-
calities in which the Eider Duck often breeds. The nest is made of
fine sea-w^eeds, and after the mother-bird has laid her complement of
eggs she covers them with the soft down, adding to the heap daily until
she completely hides them from view.

The plan usually adopted is to remove both eggs and down, when
the female lays another set of eggs and covers them with fresh down.

Ducks.

1. Gadwall Duck. 2. Eider Duck. 3. Female. 4. Smew. 5. Ruddy Duck. 6. Female.

These are again taken, and then the male is obliged to give his help by
taking down from his own breast and supplying the place of that which
was stolen. The down of the male is pale-colored, and as soon as it is
seen in the nest the eggs and down are left untouched, in order to keep
up the breed.

We now come to the family of Colymbidse, or Divers.

The Great Northern Diver is common on the northern coasts of
the British Islands, where it may be seen pursuing its arrowy course
through and over the water, occasionally dashing through the air on
strong pinions, but very seldom taking to the shore, where it is quite
at a disadvantage.

The eggs of the Northern Divers are generally two in number and
of a dark olive-brown, spotted sparingly with brown of another tone.
They are laid upon the bare ground, or on a rude nest of flattened
herbage near water, and the mother-bird does not sit, but lies flat on the

40*

474

THE DABCHICK.

eggs. If disturbed, she scrambles iDto the water and dives away, cau-
tiously keeping herself out of gunshot, and waiting until the danger is
past. Should she be driven to fight, her long beak is a dangerous
weapon, and is darted at the foe with great force and rapidity.

The head of the adult Northern Diver is black, glossed with green
and purple, and the cheeks and back of the neck are black without
the green gloss. The back is black, variegated with short white streaks,
lengthening toward the breast, and the neck and upper part of the
breast are white, spotted with black, and cinctured with two collars of
deep black. The breast and abdomen are white. The total length of

1. Black-bellied Darter. 2. Female. 3. Great Northern Diver. 4. Black-headed Gull.
5. Little Auk.

the bird is not quite three feet. The immature bird is grayish black
above, each feather being edged with a lighter hue, and the under parts
of the body are dull white. In some places this bird is called the
Loon.

The sub-family of the Grebes is represented in England by severa.
well-known species. All these birds may readily be distinguished by
the peculiar form of the foot, in which each toe is furnished with a
flattened web, the whole foot looking something like a horse-chestnut
leaf with three lobes.

The best known of the English Grebes is the common Dabchick, or
I^iTTLE Grebe, the smallest and the commonest of British species. It
IS a pretty little bird, quick and alert in its movements. When alarmed
It dives so instantaneously that the eye can hardly follow its move-

THE CRESTED GREBE.

475

ments ; and if at the moment of its emergence it perceives itself still
in danger, it again dives, not having been on the surface for a single
second of time. Like many other aquatic birds, it can sink itself in
the water slowly, and often does so when uneasy, rising again if relieved
from its anxiety, or disappearing as if jerked under the surface from

The Crested Grebe {Podiceps cristatus).

below. I have often seen them in a little pond only a few yards across
thus diving and popping up again with almost ludicrous rapidity.

This bird can fly moderately well, and can rise from the water with-
out difficulty, when it will circle about the spot whence it rose, and keep
some five or six feet above the surface, uttering the while its curious
rattling cry.

The nest of this bird is made of water-weeds, and is placed among
the rank aquatic herbage. It is scarcely raised above the surface, and
is mostly wet.

The eggs are five or six in number, and their normal color is white,
though they soon become stained with the decaying vegetable mat-
ter on which they rest, and before hatching are of a muddy-brown hue.

The food of the Dabchick consists of insects, molluscs, little fish,
and the smaller crustaceans.

The Crested Grebe is found in some of the fens of the midland
counties of England, and also inhabits parts of Scotland. This bird,
together with the other Grebes, builds its nest of a mass of roots and
reeds among sedges. The female, like the water hen, covers up her
eggs when she leaves her nest, which, unlike the nests of most of the
aquatic birds, floats upon the surface of the water.

The sub-family of the Alcinse, or Auks, has several British represent-
atives, among which the Great Auk is the rarest.

476

THE GREAT AUK.

This bird, formerly to be found in several parts of Northern Europe,
in Labrador, and very rarely in the British Islands, has not been ob-
served for many years, and is as completely extinct as the Dodo. Al-
most the last living specimens known were seen in the Orkneys, and
were quite familiar to the inhabitants under the name of the King and
Queen of the Auks.

According to Mr. Lloyd, this bird formerly frequented certain parts
of Iceland, a certain locality called the Auk Skar being celebrated

for the number of
Auks which nested
upon it. The Skar,
however, is so diffi-
cult of approach,
on account of the
heavy surf which
beats upon it, that
few persons have
the daring to land.
In 1813 a number
of Auks were taken
from the Skiir, and,
horrible to relate,
they were all eaten
except one.

The eggs are va-
riable in size, color,
and markings, some
being of a silvery-
white and others of
a yellowish -white
ground, and the
spots and streaks
are greatly differ-
ent in color and
form, some being
yellowish brown and purple, others purple and black, and others in-
tense blue and green.

The upper surface of this bird is black, except a patch of pure white
round and in front of the eye, and the ends of the secondaries, w^hich
are white. The whole of the under surface is white, and in winter the
chin and throat are also white. The total length of the bird is thirty-
two inches.

The odd little Puffin, so common on our coasts, is remarkable for
the singular shape, enormous size, and light colors of its beak, which

The Great Auk {Aka impennis).

THE PUFFIN AND THE PENGUINS.

477

really looks as if it had been originally made for some much larger
bird. Owing to the dimensions and shape of the beak, it is often called
the Sea Parrot or the Coulterneb.

The Puffin can fly rapidly and walk tolerably, but it dives and swims
supremely well, chasing fish in the water, and often bringing out a whole
row of sprats at a time ranged along the sides of its bill, all the heads
being within the mouth and all the tails dangling outside. It breeds
upon the rocks and in the rabbit-warrens near the sea, finding the
ready-made bur-
rows of the rab-
bit very conveni-
ent for the recep-
tion of its eggs,
and fighting with
the owner for
possession of the
burrow. Where
rabbits do not
exist the Puffin
digs its own bur-
row, and works
hard at its labor.
The egg is gen-
erally placed sev-
eral feet within
the holes, and
the parents de-
fend it vigorous-
ly. Even the ra-
ven makes little
by an attack, for
the Puffin grips
his foe as he best
can, and tries to
tunible into the

sea, where the raven is soon drowned, and the little champion returns
home in triumph. The egg is whit^, but soon becomes stained by the
earth. The food of this bird consists of fish, crustaceans, and insects.

The top of the head, the back, and a ring round the neck are black,
and the cheeks and under surfaces are white. The beak is curiously
striped with orange upon bluish gray, and the legs and toes are orange.
The length of this bird is about one foot.

The Penguins form a very remarkable sub-family, all its members
having their wings modified into paddles useless for flight, but capable

The Puffin {Fratercula arctica).

478

THE CAPE PENGUIN AND THE GUILLEMOT.

of being employed as fore-legs in terrestrial progression when the bird
is in a hurry, and probably as oars or paddles in the water. There are
many species of Penguins, but, as they are very similar in general
habits, we must be content with a single example.

The Cape Penguin is very common at the Cape of Good Hope and
the Falkland Islands. From the extraoidinary sound it produces while

on shore, it is called the
^^ m^__ Jackass Penguin. Darwin

gives the following interest-
ing account of this bird :
'' In diving its little plume-
less wings are used as fins,
but on the land as fro7it
legs. When crawling (it may
be said on four legs) through
the tussocks or on the side
of a grassy cliff, it moved so
very quickly that it might
^ readily have been mistaken
for a quadruped. When at
sea and fishing, it comes to
the surface for the purpose
of breathing with such a
spring, and dives again so
instantaneously, that I defy any one at first sight to be sure that it is
not a fish leaping for sport."

These birds feed their young in a very singular manner. The parent
bird gets on a hillock and apparently delivers a v^ery impassioned speech
for a few minutes, at the end of which it lowers its head and opens its
beak. The young one, who has been a patient auditor, thrusts its head
into the open beak of the mother, and seems to suck its subsistence
from the throat of the parent bird. Another speech is immediately
made, and the same process repeated, until the young is satisfied.

This Penguin is very courageous, but utterly destitute of the better
part of courage — discretion ; for it will boldly charge at a man just as
Don Quixote charged the wind-mills, and with the same success, as a
few blows from a stick are sufficient to lay a dozen birds prostrate.
The common Guillemot is an example of the next sub-family.
This bird is found plentifully on our coasts throughout the year, and
may be seen swimming and diving with a skill little inferior to that of
the divers. It can, however, use its legs and wings tolerably well, and
is said to convey its young from the rocks on which it is hatched by
taking it on the back and flying down to the water.

The Guillemot lays one egg, singularly variable in color. I possess

The Penguin {Spheniscus demer

THE STORMY PETREL.

479

several eggs, all unlike, and Mr. Champley has five hundred, no two
of which are similar, the ground-coloring being of every shade, from
pure white to intense red, and
from pale stone-color to light
and dark green.

The curious family of the Pe-
trels now comes before us. A
well-known British example is
the Stormy Petrel, known to
sailors as Mother Carey's
Chicken, and hated by them
after a most illogical manner be-
cause it foretells an approaching
storm.

The Guiij.emot ( Uria Troik).

This bird has long been celebrated for the manner in which it passes
over the waves, pattering with its webbed feet and flapping its wings
so as to keep itself just above the surface. It thus traverses the ocean
with wonderful ease, the billows rolling beneath its feet and passing
away under the bird without in the least disturbing it. It is mostly

The Stormy Petrel [Tlada^^idiunm pdagica).
on the move in windy weather, because the marine creatures are flung
to the surface by the chopping waves and can easily be picked up as
the bird pursues its course. It feeds on little fish, crustaceans, and

480

THE WANDEKING ALBATROSS.

molluscs, which are found in abundance on the surface of the sea, es-
pecially on the floating masses of algse, and will for days keep pace
with a ship for the sake of picking up the refuse food thrown over-
board. Indeed, to throw the garbage of fish into the sea is a toler-
ably certain method of attracting these birds, who are sharp-sighted
and seldom fail to perceive anything eatable. The name of Petrel
is given to the bird on account of its powers of walking on the water,
as is related of St. Peter.

This Petrel breeds on our northern coasts, laying a white egg in some
convenient recess, a rabbit-burrow being often employed for the purpose.

The well-known Wandering Albatross is the largest of all the
species.

This fine bird is possessed of wondrous powers of wing, sailing along
for days together without requiring rest, and hardly ever flapping its

The Wandering Albatross {Diomedea exulans).
wings, merely swaying itself easily from side to side with extended
pinions. It is found in the southern seas, and is very familiar to all
those who have voyaged through that portion of the ocean. Like
the Petrel, it follows the ships for the sake of obtaining food, and so
voracious is the bird that it has been observed to dash at a piece
of blubber weighing between three and four pounds and to gulp it
down entire.

THE FULMAR PETREL, GULL, AND TERN.

481

The Fulmar Petrel {Procellaria gladaUa

from the summit and the bottom of

The Albatross makes its home on the lofty precipices of Tristan
d'Acunha, the Crozettes, the Marion Islands, and other similar lo-
calities.

The Fulmar Petrel is a rather large bird, being about nineteen
inches long and stoutly-
built. It is very plenti-
ful at St. Kilda, and is
used for various purposes,
furnishing down and oil,
besides being itself eaten.
Like several other petrels,
the Fulmar is able, when
alarmed, to eject from the
mouth the oil with which
it is so liberally supplied.
The egg — for there is never
more than one — of the Ful-
mar Petrel is laid upon a
narrow ledge of cliff, and
always at a considerable distance
the rock.

The Great Black-backed Gull is a very fine bird, not very plen-
tiful on our coasts, but spread over the greater part of the British
shores.

This bird prefers low-lying and marshy lands, and is found on the
flat shores of Kent and Essex at the mouth of the Thames, where.it
is popularly known under the name of the Cob. It is very plentiful
on the shores of Sweden and Norway, and on some of the islands of
Shetland and Orkney it breeds in abundance, the eggs being highly
valued on account of their rich flavor and large size.

It is a fierce bird, and when wounded will fight vigorously for its
liberty. The nest of this species is of grass, and generally contains
three eggs of greenish dun flecked w^ith gray^and brown. In the sum-
mer plumage the head and neck of the Great Black-backed Gull are
white; the upper surface of the body is dark leaden gray, with some
white upon the quill feathers of the wings; the whole of the under sur-
face is pure white ; and the legs and feet are pinkish. The length of
this bird is about thirty inches.

The common Tern, or Sea Swallow, is very plentiful on our coasts,
and may be seen flying along on rapid wing, its long forked tail giving
it so decidedly a swallow-like air that its popular name of Sea Swallow
is well applied.

The Tern breeds on low-lying lands and makes a very rude nest,
being, indeed, nothing more than a shallow depression in the earth,

41 2 F

482

THE TROPIC BIRD.

into which are scraped a few sticks, stones, and dry grasses. The Tern
reaches this country about May and departs in September. An adult
bird in summer phimage has the tip of the head and the nape of the

neck jet black, the
upper part of the
body ashen gray, the
under surface white,
and the legs, feet,
and bill coral-red,
the bill deepening
into black at the
tip. The length of
the Tern rather ex-
ceeds fourteen in-
ches ; much of it is
due to the long fork-
ed feathers of the
tail.

The Tern {Sterna Jammh,) y^iQ now arrive at

the last family of birds, the Pelicans, a group which includes many
species, all remarkable for some peculiarity, and many of them really
fine and handsome birds.

As its name implies, the Tropic Bird is seldom to be seen outside
the tropics unless driven by storms. It is wonderfully powerful on the

wing, being able
to soar for a
considerable pe-
riod, and passing
whole days in
the air without
needing to settle.
As a general
fact, the birds do
not fly to very
great distances
from land, three
hundred miles
being about the
usual limit; but
Dr. Bennett ob-

Ttit' 'ri>->u,.. F>,or. / d; ■; sL ^ scrvcd thein on

lUE iKoPJc i>iRD [Phaeton cethereus).

one occasion

when the nearest land was about one thousand miles distant. The
long tail-shafts of the Tropic Bird are much valued in many lands,

THE GANNET AND THE CORMORANT. 483

the natives wearing them as ornaments or weaving them into various
implements.

The Tropic Bird breeds in the Mauritius. The total length of this
bird is about two feet six inches, of which the tail-feathers occupy about
fifteen inches.

The Gannet, Solan Goose, or Spectacled Goose, is a well-known
resident on our coasts, its chief home being the Bass Rock in the Frith
of Forth, on which it congregates in vast numbers.

The Gannet is a large bird, nearly three feet long, and, being power-
ful on the wing and possessed of a large appetite, it makes great havoc
among the fish which it devours. Herrings, pilchards, sprats, and
similar fish are the favorite food of the Gannet, and as soon as the
shoals of herrings approach the coast the Gannets assemble in flocks
and indicate to the fishermen the presence and position of the fifli.

The Cormorant (Graculus Carbo).

The nest of the Gannet is a heap of grass, seaweed, and similar sub-
stances, on which is laid one very pale blue egg, which, however, does
not long retain its purity. The young are clothed with white pufl^y
down, which after a while changes to nearly black feathers, the white
plumage not being assumed until the bird has reached full age. The
head and neck of the full-grown bird are buff, the primaries black, and
the rest of the plumage white. The yearling bird is almost wholly
black, covered with streaks and triangular marks of grayish white.
The total length of this bird is about thirty-four inches.

The common Cormorant is well known for its voracious habits, its
capacities of digestion having long been proverbial.

This bird is common on all our rocky coasts, where it may be seen sit-

484 THE CKESTED CORMORANT AND THE PELICAN.

tiug on some projecting ledge, or diving and swimming with great agility,
and ever and anon returning to its resting-place on the rock. It is an
admirable swimmer and a good diver, and chases fish with equal perse-
verance and success, both qualities being needful to satisfy the wants
of its ever-craving maw.

The Cormorant can easily be tamed, and in China, where everything,
living or dead, is utilized, the bird is employed for the purpose of catch-
ing fish. The Cormorants are regularly trained to the task, and go out
with their master in a boat, where they sit quietly on the edge until they
receive his orders. They then dash into the water, seize the fish in their
beaks, and bring them to their owner. Should one of these birds pounce
upon a fish too large for it to carry alone, one of its companions will
come to its assistance, and the two together will take the fish and bring
it to the boat. Sometimes a Cormorant takes an idle fit and swims
playfully about instead of attending to its business, when it is recalled
to a sense of duty by its master, who strikes the water with his oar and
shouts at the bird, who accepts the rebuke at once and dives after its
prey. When the task is completed the birds are allowed their share
of fish. A detailed and interesting account of these birds may be found
in Mr. Fortune's work on China.

The nest of th^ Cormorant is made of a large mass of sticks, seaweed,
and grass, and the eggs are from four to six in number, rather small in
proportion to the dimensions of the parent bird, and of a curious chalky
texture externally, varied with a pale greenish blue.

Another well-known British species of this genus is the Crested
Cormorant, Green Cormorant, or Shag, a bird which can at once

be distinguished from the preceding spe-
cies by the green color of the plumage
and the diflTerence in size, the length of
an adult male being only twenty-seven
inches. In habits this species resembles
the common Cormorant.

We now arrive at the well-know'u
Pelican, which is universally accepted
as the type of the family. This bird is
found spread over many portions of Af-
rica and Asia, and also in some parts of
Southern Europe.

The pouch of the Pelican is enor-
mously large, capable of containing two
The Pelican {Pelecanus ono- gallons of water, and is employed by the

bird as a basket wherein to carry the fish
which it has caught. The Pelican is a good fisherman, hpvering
above the water watching for a shoal of fish near the surface. Down

THE FRIGATE BIRD.

485

sweeps the bird, scoops up a number of fish in its capacious pouch, and
then generally goes off homeward.

The nest of the Pelican is placed on the ground in some retired spot,
usually an island in the sea or the borders of some inland lake or a
river. It is made of grasses, and contains two or three white eggs.
The female sits on the eggs, and her mate goes off to fish for her ; and
when the young are hatched they are fed by the parents, who turn the
fish out of their pouches into the mouths of the young.

The color of the Pelican is white, with a delicate roseate tinge like
that of a blush-rose. On the breast the feathers are elongated and of a
golden yellow. The quill feathers are black, and the bill is yellow tip-
pid with red. The length of the bird is almost six feet, and the ex-
panse of wung about twelve feet.

The Frigate Bird (Atagen Aquila).

The last bird on our list is the well-known Frigate Bird, Sea
Hawk, or Man-of-war Bird, an inhabitant of the tropical seas. It
derives its name of Man-of-war Bird from its habit of watching the
gannets when they fish, and than swooping upon them and robbing
them of their prey.

The long black feathers of the tail are in great request among the
Society Islanders, being w^oven as ornaments into the head-dresses of
the chiefs. The nest of the Frigate Bird is sometimes built upon trees

41 *

486

COLOR OF THE FRIGATE BIRD.

aiid bushes where the low shores afibrd no cliffs, but its usual locality
for breeding is on the summit of some rocky height. On the rock there
is no nest, but when the bird breeds among trees, it makes a rude scaf-
folding of sticks like the nest of the wood pigeon. There is only one
effg, of a peculiar chalky whiteness, and while sitting the bird is very
bold and will not stir even if pushed with a stick, snapping and biting
at the obnoxious implement. The voice of this bird is rough and
harsh, and is likened to the sound produced by turning a winch.

The color of the adult Frigate Bird is shining black glossed with
green, the female being dull black above and white streaked with cin-
namon upon the head, breast, and under parts. The pouch on the
throat is scarlet, and when distended has a very curious effect against
the dark black of the throat and neck. Including the long tail, the
male measures three feet in length, but the body is extremely small.
The expanse of the wings is about eight feet.

REPTILES

REPTILES.

The remarkable beings which are classed together under the general
title of Reptiles, or creeping animals, are si3read over those portions
of the globe where the climate is tolerably warm, and are found in the
greatest profusion under the hotter latitudes.

Some reptiles inhabit the dry and burning deserts, but the generality
of these creatures are semi-aquatic in their habits, are fitted by their
structure for progression on land or in water, and are able to pass a
considerable time below the surface without requiring to breathe. This
capacity is mostly the result of the manner in which the circulation and
aeration of their blood is effected.

In all mammalia and birds the heart is divided into a double set of
compartments, each having a direct communication with the other. In
the Reptiles, however, this structure is considerably modified, so that
the blood is never so perfectly aerated as in the higher animals, and is
consequently much colder than in the creatures where the oxygen ob-
tains a freer access to its particles.

In consequence of this organization, the whole character of the Rep-
tiles is widely diflTerent from that of the higher animals. Dull sluggish-
ness seems to be the general character of a Reptile, for though there are
some species which whisk about with lightning speed, and others, espe-
cially the larger lizards, which can be lashed into a state of terrific
frenzy by love, rage, or hunger, their ordinary movements are inert,
their gestures express no feeling, and their eyes, though bright, are
stony, cold, and passionless.

The young of Reptiles are produced from eggs, being mostly hatched
after they have been laid, but in some cases the young escape from the
eggs before they make their appearance in the world. As a general
fact, however, the eggs are placed in some convenient spot where
they are hatched by the heat of the sun.

TORTOISES.

The very curious reptiles which are known by the general name of
Tortoises are remarkable for affording the first example of a skeleton
brought to the exterior of the body — a formation which is frequent
enough in the lower orders, the crustaceans and insects being familiar
examples thereof. In these reptiles the bones of the chest are devel-
oped into a curious kind of box, more or less perfect, which contains

4sy

400 THE COMMON LAND TORTOISE.

withiu itself all the niuscks and the viscera, and in most cases can
receive into its cavity the head, neck, and limbs, in one genus so effect-
ually that when the animal has withdrawn its limbs and head, it is
contained in a tightly-closed case without any apparent opening.

In the true Tortoises the feet are club-shaped and the claws blunt,
and the neck can be wholly withdrawn within the shell.

Perhaps the best-known species of these creatures is the Common
Land Tortoise, so frequently exposed for sale in our markets, and so
favorite an inhabitant of gardens.

This appears to be the only species that inhabits Europe, and even
on that continent it is by no means widely spread, being confined to
those countries which border the Mediterranean.

It is one of the vegetable feeders, eating various plants, and being
verv fond of lettuce-leaves, which it crops in a very curious manner,
biting them off sharply when fresh and crisp, but dragging them asun-
der when stringy by putting the fore feet upon them and pulling with
the jaws. This Tortoise will drink milk, and does so by opening its
mouth, scooping up the milk in its lower jaw as if with a spoon, and
then raising its head to let the liquid run down its throat.

One of these animals, which I kept for some time, displayed a re-
markable capacity for climbing, and w-as very fond of mounting upon
various ailicles of furniture, stools being its favorite resort. It revel-
IlmI in warmth, and could not be kept away from the hearth-rug, espe-
cially delighting to climb upon a footstool that generally lay beside the
fender.

Tliis Tortoise had a curious kind of voice, not unlike the mewing of
a little kitten. The Common Tortoise is known to live to a great age.
Another specimen, a very large one, has been in my possession for
several years. At the end of autumn it burrows under a heap of leaf-
mould, and waits there until the warm days of spring. It feeds mostly

on grass, and eats its way in a line, leaving
a groove of cut grass to mark its track.
With the exception of strawberry-eating,
it does no harm in the garden. It has a
- most inexplicable objection to rain, of
1 which not one drop can penetrate its
; shell ; and whenever a shower comes it
; makes its way to an earth-bank, forces
itself partly into the loose soil, and re-
CoMMON Land Tortoise mains there with retracted head and

^^ e now come to a group of Tortoises called Terrapins.
These creatures are inhabitants of the water, and are found mostlv in
rivers. They are carnivorous in their diet, and take their food while

THE CHICKEN TORTOISE AND THE HAWKSBILL TURTLE. 491

in the water. They may be known by their flattened heads, covered
with skin, sometimes hard, but often of a soft consistency, and their
broad feet with the toes webbed as far as the claws.

The Chicken Tortoise is found in North America.

It is very common in ponds, lakes, or marshy grounds, and, though
very plentiful and by no means quick in its movements, is not easily
caught, owing to its extreme wariness.

The Chicken Tortoise swims well, but not rapidly, and as it passes
along with its head and neck elevated above the surface, it looks so
like the dark water-snake of the same country that at a little distance
it might readily be mistaken for that reptile.

I have kept several of these reptiles, and found no difficulty in pre-
serving them in health. They lived in a tank in which were several
large stones that projected above the surface of the water. On the
top of these stones the Chicken Tortoises loved to sit, and so exactly
did their bodies harmonize with the stones that it was not easy to de-
cide at a hasty glance whether the stones were bare or covered with
the little Tortoises. At first the least movement or sound would send
them tumbling into the water, but after a while they became used to
captivity, and would even feed out of the hand.

Their diet consisted of meat, either raw or cooked. They used to
seize it in their mouths, and then, placing a foot on its side, push away
the meat, so as to cut a piece completely out with their sharp-edged
jaws. They will even seize fish and serve them in like manner, and
indeed it is not safe to place them in tanks wherein are any other liv-
ing creatures. '

It is rather a small species, seldom exceeding ten inches in length.
Its flesh is remarkably excellent, very tender, and delicately flavored,
something like that of a young chicken, so that this Tortoise is in great
request as an article of food, and is sold largely in the markets, though
not so plentifully as the common salt-water terrapin. Its color is dark
brown above, and the plates are scribbled with yellow lines and wrin-
kled longitudinally. The neck is long in proportion to the size of the
animal — so long, indeed, that the head and neck together are almost
as long as the shell. The lower jaw is hooked in front.

The well-known Caret, or Hawksbill Turtle, so called frori
the formation of the mouth, is a native of the warm American
and Indian seas, and is common in many of the islands of those
oceans.

The Hawksbill Turtle is the animal which furnishes the valuable
*' tortoiseshell " of commerce, and is therefore a creature of great im-
portance. The scales of the back are thirteen in number, and, as they
overlap each other for about one-third of their length, they are larger
than in any other species where the edges only meet. In this species,

492 THE GREEN TURTLE AND THE CROCODILE.

too, the scales are thicker, stronger, and more beautifully clouded than
in any other Turtle.

The uses to which this costly and beautiful substance is put are in-
miinerable. The most familiar form in which the tortoiseshell is pre-
sented to us is the comb, but it is also em-
ployed for knife-handles, boxes, and many
other articles of ornament or use.

The best known of all the Turtles is
:i^^^^^^^J the celebrated Green Turtle, so called
fe^ from the green color of its fat.

This useful animal is found in the seas

and on the shores of both continents, and

-^v^_^^^^^^~~^ is most plentiful about the island of As-

The Green Turtle {Chelonia cension and the Antilles, where it is sub-

v'^idis). jgp^ ^Q incessant persecution for the sake

of its flesh. The shell of this reptile is of very little use and of small

value, but the flesh is remarkably rich and well flavored, and the green

fat has long enjoyed a world-wide and fully-deserved reputation.

The eggs of the Turtle are thought as great delicacies as its flesh. It
is while the female Turtle is visiting the shore for the purpose of de-
positing her eggs that she is usually captured, as these sea-loving reptiles
care little for the shore except for this purpose.

CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS.

According to the arrangement of the national collection in the Brit-
ish Museum, the link next to the tortoise tribe is formed of an import-
ant group of reptiles, containing the largest of the reptilian order —
larger, indeed, than most present inhabitants of the earth.

These great reptiles are divided, or rather fall naturally, into two
families — namely, the Crocodiles and the Alligators. All the members
of these families can easily be distinguished by the shape of their jaws
and teeth, the lower canine teeth of the Crocodiles fitting into a notch
in the edge of the upper jaw, and those of the Alligators fitting into
a pit in the upper jaw. This peculiarity causes an obvious diflTerence
in the outline of the head, the muzzle of the Crocodiles being narrowed
behind the nostrils, while that of the Alligators forms an unbroken line
to the extremity. A glance, therefore, at the head will sufl^ce to settle
the family to which any species belongs. In the Crocodiles, more-
^)vor, the hind legs are fringed behind with a series of compressed
scales.

The most peculiar of these reptiles is the long-celebrated Crocodile
of Northern Africa.
This terrible creature is found chiefly in the Nile, where it absolutely

THE EGYPTIAN CROCODILE AND THE ALLIGATOR. 493

The Egyptian Crocodile

( Ciocodilus vulgaris ) .

swarms, and, though a most destructive and greatly-dreaded animal,
is without doubt as valuable in the water as are the hysena and vul-
ture upon the land. Living exclusively on animal food, and rather
preferring tainted, or even putrefying, to fresh meat, it is of great ser-
vice in devouring the dead animals that
would otherwise pollute the w^aters and
surrounding atmospliere.

Human beings have a great dread of
this voracious reptile. Many instances f
are known where men have been sur- \\ff^
prised near the water's edge or captured
wdien they have fallen into the river.
There is, it is said, only one way of
escape from the jaws of the Crocodile,
and that is to turn boldly upon the scaly
foe and press the thumbs into his eyes, so as to force him to relax his
hold or relinquish the pursuit.

The eggs of the Crocodile are about as large as those of the goose,
and many in number, so that these terrible reptiles would overrun the
country were they not persecuted in the earliest stages by many crea-
tures, who discover and eat the eggs almost as soon as they are laid.
It is curious that the Crocodile is attended by a bird which warns it of
danger, just as the Rhinoceros has its winged attendant, and the shark
its pilot-fish. The Crocodile-bird is popularly called the Ziczac, from
its peculiar cry.

We now come to the Alligators, the second family of those huge
reptiles, which may be known, as has already been mentioned, by the
lower canine teeth fitting into pits in the upper jaw.

The Common Alligator inhabits Northern America, and is plenti-
fully found in the Mississippi, the" lakes and rivers of Louisiana and
Carolina, and similar localities. It is a fierce and dangerous reptile,
in many of its habits bearing a close resemblance to the crocodiles and
the other members of the family.

Unlike the crocodile, however, it avoids the salt water, and is but
seldom seen even near the mouths of rivers, where the tide gives a
brackish taste to their waters. It is mostly a fish-eater, haunting
those portions of the rivers where its prey most abounds, and catching
them by diving under a passing shoal, snapping up one or two victims
as it passes through them, tossing them in the air for the purpose of
ejecting the water which has necessarily filled its mouth, catching them
adroitly as they fall, and then swallowing them.

The eggs of the Alligator are small and numerous. The parent
deposits them in the sand of the river-side, scratching a hole with her
paws and placing the eggs in a regular layer therein. She then scrapes

42

40t

THE SCALY LIZARD.

some sand, drv leaves, grass, and mud over them, smooths it, and
deposits a second layer upon them. TJiese eggs are then covered in a
<imihir manner, and another layer deposited, until the mother-reptile
has laid from fifty to sixty eggs. Although they are hatched by the
heat of the sun and the decaying vegetable matter, the mother does
not desert her young, but leads them to the water, and takes care of
them until tlieir limbs are sufficiently strong and their scales sufficiently
fiiin to permit them to roam the waters without assistance.

During the winter months the Alligator buries itself in the mud,
but a very little warmth is sufficient to make it quit its retreat and

come into the open air
again. While lively,
especially at night, it is
a most noisy animal,
bellowing in so loud a
tone and in so singular
a cadence that even the
^^ nightly concert of jag-
uars and monkeys is
hardly heard when the
Alligators are roaring.
It sometimes attains
to a great size, and is
then formidable to man. Mr. Waterton mentions a case where one
of those creatures was seen to rush out of the water, seize a man, and
carry him away in spite of his cries and struggles. The beast plunged
into the river with his prey, and neither Alligator nor man was after-
ward seen.

The true Lizards have four limbs, generally visible, but in a few in-
.'^tanccs hidden under the skin. Their body is long and rounded, and
tlie tail is tapering and mostly covered with scales set in regular circles
or " whorls."

England possesses at least two examples of the true Lizards, one of
which, the 8caly Lizard, is very common. This pretty little reptile
h extremely plentiful upon heaths, banks, and commons, where it may
be seen darting about in its own quick, lively manner, flitting among
the grnss-stall<s with a series of sharp, twisting springs, snapping up the
unsuspecting flies as they rest on the grass-blades, and ever and anon
slipping under shelter of a gorse-bush or heather-tuft, only to emerge
in another moment, brisk and lively as ever.

This is one of the reptiles that produce living young, the eggs being
hatched just before the young Lizards are born. With reptiles the
general plan is to place the eggs in some spot where they are ex-
po.<ed to the heat of the sunbeams, but this Lizard, together with the

The Alligator [AUiyator Mississipensis).

THE SAND LIZARD.

495

viper, is in the habit of lying on a sunny bank before her young ones
are born, apparently for the purpose of gaining sufficient heat to hatch
the eggs. This process is aided by the thinness of the membrane cov-
ering the eggs.

Until comparatively recent years the Sand Lizard was confounded
with the scaly lizard, which has just been described.

Though quick and lively in its movements, it is not so dashingly
a -tive as the scaly lizard, having a touch of deliberation as it runs

Lizards. y

from one spot to another, while the scaly lizard almost seems to be acted
upon by hidden springs.

Unlike the scaly lizard, this species lays its eggs in a convenient
spot, and then leaves them to be hatched by the warm sunbeams.
Sandy banks with a southern aspect are the favored resorts of this rep-
tile, which scoops out certain shallow pits in the sand, deix)sits her ^%^?^^
covers them up, and then leaves them to their fate. Mr. Bell, who has
paid great attention to this subject, has remarked that the eggs are prolv
ably laid for a considerable period before the young are hatched from
them.

A second tribe of Lizards now comes before our notice. These are

49<> THE GEISSOSAURI AND THE BLINDWOKM.

the Geissosauri, a title derived from two Greek words, the former
signitying " the eaves of a house," aud the latter "a lizard." As in
this tribe there are many families and more than eighty genera, it will
be impossible to give more than a very slight account of these reptiles, or
even to mention more than a small number selected as types of the large
or small groups which they represent.

The large and important family of the Skinks contains between
forty and fifty genera^ nearly each of which possesses one or more
species concerning which there is something -svorthy of notice.

This family finds a familiar representative in the common Blindworm,
ur Snoww'ORM, of England, which, from its snake-like form and extreme

fnigility, might
well deserve the
title of the Eng-
lish Glass Snake.
In this reptile
there is no ex-

_^ _^ ^^ _^^^^ ternal trace of

"^/T^ ""^MBM^^^^^t ..^J^^^KHHi^^"^^ _- limbs, the body

^ being uniiormly
smooth as that
of a serpent,
and even more
so than in some
of the snakes,
rp,„ X, , . . ., . where the pres-

•^ '^ ^ ence of the hmd-

er pair of limbs is indicated by a couple of little hook-like appendages.
Under the skin, however, the traces of limbs may be discovered, but the
bones of the shoulders, the breast, and the pelvis are very small and
quite rudimentary.

This elegant little reptile is very common throughout England, and
IS spread over the greater part of Europe and portions of Asia, not,
however, being found in the extreme North of Europe. In this coun-
try it IS plentiful along hedge-rows, heaths, forest-lands, and similar sit-
uations, where it can find immediate shelter from its few enemies and
l)e abundantly supplied with food. It may often be seen crawling leis-
urely over a beaten footpath, and I have once captured it while cross-
ing a wide turnpike-road near Oxford.

Why the name of the Blindworm should have been given to this
creature I cannot even conjecture, for it has a pair of conspicuous
though not very large eyes, which shine as brightlv as those of any
animal, and are capable of good service. Indeed, all animals which
prey upon insects and similar moving things must of necessity possess

THE BLINDWORM. 497

well-developed eyes, unless they are gifted with the means of attracting
their prey within reach, as is the case with some well-known fishes, or
chase it by the senses of hearing and touch, as is done by the mole.
Moreover, the chief food of the Blindworm consists of slugs, which
glide so noiselessly that the creature needs the use of its eyes to detect
the soft mollusc as it slides over the ground on its slimy course. Speed
is not needful for such a chase, and the Blindworm accordingly is slow
and deliberate in all its movements, except when very young, when it
twists and wriggles about in a singular fashion as often as it is touched.

The great fragility of the Blindworm is well known. By a rather
curious structure of the muscles and bones of the spine, the reptile is
able to stiffen itself to such a degree that on a slight pressure or trifling
blow, or even by the voluntary contraction of the body, the tail is snap-
ped away from the body, and, on account of its proportionate length,
looks just as if the creature had been broken in half. The object of
this curious property seems to be to ensure the safety of the animal.
The severed tail retains, or rather acquires, an extraordinary amount
of irritability, and for several minutes after its amputation leaps and
twists about with such violence that the, attention of the foe is drawn to
its singular vagaries, and the Blindworm itself creeps quietly away to
some place of shelter.

When the tail of the Blindworm is thus snapped off, the scales of tha
body project all round the fractured portion, forming a kind of hollow
into which the broken end of the tail can be slipped.

According to popular notions, the Blindworm is a terribly poisonous
creature, and by many persons is thought to be even more venomous
than the viper, whereas it is perfectly harmless, having neither the
will nor the ability to bite, its temper being as quiet as its movements,
and its teeth as innocuous aa its jaws are weak. I fancy that the origin
of this opinion may be found in the habit of constantly thrusting out
its broad, black, flat tongue with its slightly forked tip ; for the pop-
ular mind considers the tongue to be the sting, imagining it to be both
the source of the venom and the weapon by which it is injected into the
body, and so logically classes all creatures with forked tongues under
the common denomination of poisonous animals.

It is said that this reptile will bite when handled, but that its minute
teeth and feeble jaws can make no impression upon the skin, and also
that when it has thus fastened on the hand of its captor it will not re-
lease its hold unless its jaws be forced open. For my own part — and I
have liandled very many of these reptiles — I never knew them attempt
to bite, or even to assume a threatening attitude. They will suddenly
curl themselves up tightly and snap off their tails, but to use their jaws
in self-defence is an idea that seldom appears to occur to them.

In its wild state the Blindworm feeds mostly on s'ugs, but will also
4 -J * 2 a

49S THE COMMON OR RINGED GECKO.

eat worms ami various insects. Some persons assert that it devours
mice and reptiles ; but that it should do so is a physical impossibility,
owing to the very small dimensions of the mouth and the structure of
the jaw, the bones of which are firmly knitted together, and cannot be
separated while the prey is being swallowed, as is the case with the
snakes.

In captivity it seems to reject almost any food except slugs, but
these molluscs it will eat quite freely.

The Blindworm generally retires to its winter-quarters tow^ard the
end of August, or even sooner should the weather be chilly. The
localities which it chooses for this purpose are generally dry and
warm spots, where the dried leaves and dead twigs of decayed branches
have congregated into heaps, so as to afford it a safe refuge. Sometimes
it bores its way into masses of rotten wood, and on heathery soils, where
the ground slopes considerably, it selects a spot where it will be well
sheltered from the winter's rains and snows, and burrows deeply into
the dry loose soil.

Like the snakes, the Blindworm casts its skin at regular intervals,
seeming to effect its object in various modes, sometimes pulling it off in
pieces, but usually stripping it away, like the snakes, by turning it in-
side out, just as an eel is skinned.

A new group now comes before our notice, the members of which are
distinguished by the formation of their tongues, which, instead of being
flat and comparatively slender, as in the preceding Lizards, are thick,
convex, and have a slight nick at the end. On account of this structure
the species of this sub-order are termed Pachygloss^, or <Hhick-
tongued lizards."

These reptiles are divided into sundry groups, the first of which is
termed the Nyctisaura, or Nocturnal Lizards. These creatures have
eyes formed for seeing in the dusk — circular eyelids, which, however,
cannot meet over the eyeball, and in almost every case the pupil is a
long narrow slit like that of the cat. The body is always flattened.
The limbs are four in number, tolerably powerful, and are used in
progression.

Of these Lizards, the first family is the Geckotid^, or Geckos, a
very curious group of reptiles, common in many hot countries, and
looked upon with dread or adoration by the natives— sometimes with
both where the genius of the nation leads them to reverence the object
of their fears, and to form no other conception of supreme power than
the capability of doing harm.

The Common Gecko, or Ringed Gecko, is an Asiatic species, being
as common m India as the preceding species in North Africa. It mav
be easily known from allied fan-foot by the large tubercles upon the

THE STROBILOSAUEA.

499

This reptile has much the same habits as the fan-foot, and possesses
equally the ability to run over a perpendicular wall. During the day-
time it conceals itself in some chink or dark crevice, but in the even-
ing it leaves its retreat, moving rapidly and with such perfectly silent
tread that the ignorant natives may well be excused for classing it
among supernatural beings. The Gecko occasionally utters a curious
cry, which has been compared to that peculiar clucking sound employ-
ed by riders to stimulate their horses, and in some species the cry is
very distinct and said to resemble the word " Geck-o," the last syllable

The Gecko {Gecko v&v^).

being given smartly and sharply. On account of this cry the Geckos
are variously called Spitters, Postilions, and Claquers.

During the cold mouths of the year the Geckos retire to winter-quar-
ters, and are thought to retain their condition during this foodless sea-
son by means of two fatty masses at the base of the abdomen, which are
supposed to nourish them as the camel is nourished by the hump. The
male is smaller than the female, and the eggs are very spherical, and
covered with a brittle chalky shell. The color of the Gecko is reddish
gray with white spots. The scales of the back are flat and smooth, and
there is also a series of rather large tubercular projections arranged in
twelve distinct rows.

We now arrive at an important tribe of Lizards, called by the name
of Strobilosaura, a title derived from two Greek words, one signify-
ing a " fir-cone " and the other " a lizard," and given to these creatures
because the scales that cover their tails are set in regular whorls and
bear some resemblance to the projecting scales of the fir-cone. In
all these reptiles the tongue is thick, short, and very slightly nicked
at the tip. The eyes have circular pupils, and are formed for day
use.

500

THE COMMON IGUANA.

The first family of these Lizards consists of those creatures which
are grouped together under the general title of Iguana. Our illustra-
tion depicts the Common Iguana.

This conspicuous — and, in spite of its rather repulsive shape, really
handsome — Lizard is a native of Brazil, Cayenne, the Bahamas, and
ULUghboring localities, and was at one time very common in Jamaica,
from which, however, it seems to be in process of gradual extirpation.

In common with those members of the family which have their body
rather compressed and covered with squared scales, the Iguana is a
percher on trees, living almost wholly among the branches, to which
it clings with its powerful feet, and on which it finds the greater part
of its food. It is almost always to be found on the trees that are in

=^vc\y*^-> ^.^-«.

'^ ■>\(yl '"'(>^* ,~>\\"

The Iglana {Iguana tuhei culala) .

^^^^c.

the vicinity of water, and especially favors those that grow upon the
l>aiiks of a river where the branches overhang the stream.

Though not one of the aquatic Lizards, the Iguana is quite at home
ni the water, and if alarmed will often plunge into the stream and
Hther dive or swim rapidly away. While swimming it lays its fore
Icgsagamst the sides, so as to aiford the smallest possible' resistance
to the water, stretches out the hinder legs, and by a rapid serpentine
movement of its long and flexible tail, passes swiftly through the
waves. It has considerable power of enduring immersion, as indeed
IS the c^ise with nearly all reptiles, and has been known to remain under
water for an entire hour, and at the end of that time to emerge in
pertect vigor. *

THE FLYING DEAGON. 501

From the aspect of this long-tailed, dewlapped, scaly, spiny Lizard
most persons would rather recoil than feel attracted, and the idea of
eating the flesh of so repulsive a creature would not be likely to occur
to them. Yet, in truth, the flesh of the Iguana is justly reckoned
among one of the delicacies of the country where it resides, being
tender and of a peculiarly delicate flavor, not unlike the breast of a
spring chicken. There are various modes of cooking the Iguana,
roasting and boiling being the most common. Making it into a fric-
assee, however, is the mode which has met with the largest general
approval, and a dish of Iguana cutlets, when properly dressed, takes a
very high place among the delicacies of a well-spread table.

The eggs, too, of which the female Iguana lays from four to six dozen,
are very well flavored and in high repute. It is rather curious that
they contain very little albumen, the yellow filling almost the entire
shell. As is the case with the eggs of the turtle, they never harden
by boiling, and only assume a little thicker consistence. Some persons
of peculiar constitutions cannot eat either the flesh or the eggs of the
Iguana, and it is said that this diet is very injurious in some diseases.
The eggs are hid by the female Iguana in sandy soil, near rivers, lakes,
or the seacoast, and after covering them with sand she leaves them to
be hatched by the heat of the sun.

The family which comes next in order is that in which are included
the Agamas, a group of Lizards which have been appropriately termed
the Iguanas of the Old World. In the members of this family the
teeth are set upon the edge of the jaws, and not upon their inner side,
as in the true Iguanas of the New AVorld. Between thirty and forty
genera are contained in this family, and some of the species are interest-
ing as well as peculiar beings.

Perhaps the most curious of all this family, if not, indeed, the most
curious of all the reptiles, is the little Lizard which is well known under
the title of the Flying Dragon.

This singular reptile is a native of Java, Borneo, the Philippines, and
neighboring islands, and is tolerably common. Its most conspicuous
characteristic is the singularly-developed membranous lobes on either
side, which are strengthened by certain slender processes from the first six
false ribs, and serve to support the animal during its bold leaps from
branch to branch. Many of the previously-mentioned Lizards are admi-
rable leapers, but they are all outdone by the Dragon, whi^h is able, by
means of the^ membranous parachute with which it is furnished, to
sweep through distances of thirty paces, the so-called flight being al-
most identical with that of the flying squirrels and flying fish.

When the Dragon is at rest, or even when it is traversing the branches
of trees, the parachute lies in folds along the sides, but when it prepares
to leap from one bough to another it spreads its winged sides, launches

502

THE TREE LIZARDS.

boldly into the air, and sails easily, with a slight fluttering of the
wings, toward the point on which it had fixed, looking almost like a
stray leaf blown by the breeze. As if in order to make itself still
more buoyant, it inflates the three membranous sacs that depend from

The Flying Dragon {Draco volans).

its throat, suffering them to collapse again when it has settled upon the
branch. It is a perfectly harmless creature, and can be handled with
iiiij)uuity. The food of the Flying Dragon consists of insects.

The last tribe of the Lizards contains but one genus and very few
species. From their habit of constantly living on trees these creatures
are called Dendrosaura, or Tree Lizards. In these the scales of
the whole body are small and granular, and arranged in circular bands.
The tongue is very curious, being cylindrical and greatly extensile, re-
minding the observer of a common earthworm, and swollen at the tip.
The eyes are as peculiar as the tongue, being very large, globular, and
projecting, and the ball is closely covered with a circular lid, through
wiiich a little round hole is pierced, much like the wooden snow-specta-
cles of the Esquimaux. The body is rather compressed, the ears are
concealed under the skin, and the toes are separated into tw^o opposa-
ble groups, so that the creature can hold very firmly upon the boughs.
The tail is very long and prehensile, and is almost invariably seen coiled
round the bough on which the reptile is standing.

The most fiimiliar example of the Dendrosaura is the common Cha-
MKLEON, a reptile which is found in both Africa and Asia.

This singular reptile has long been famous for its power of changing
color— a property, however, which has been greatly exaggerated, as
will be presently seen. Nearly all the Lizards are constitutionally

THE CHAMELEON.

503

forpid, though some of them are gifted with great rapidity of move-
ment during certain seasons of the year. The Chameleon, however,
carries this sbjggishness to an extreme, its only change being from total
immobility to the slightest imaginable degree of activity.

When it moves along the branch upon which it is clinging, the rep-
tile first raises one foot very slowly indeed, and will sometimes remain
foot in air for a considerable time, as if it had gone to sleep in the in-
terim. It then puts the foot as slowly forward, and takes a good grasp
of the branch. Having satisfied itself that it is firmly secured, it leis-
urely unwinds its tail, which has been tightly twisted round the branch,
shifts it a little forward, coils it round agam, and then rests for a while.

The Chameleon (Chameleo vulgaris).

With the same elaborate precaution each foot is successively lifted and
advanced, so that the forward movements seem but little faster than
the hour-hand of a watch.

If placed on level ground, it is perforce obliged to walk, but it does
so very awkwardly, though it gets over the ground faster than would
be imagined from its movements on a tree.

The food of the Chameleon consists of insects, mostly flies, but, like
many other reptiles, it is able to live for some months* without taking
food at all. This capacity for fasting, together with the singular man-
ner in which the reptile takes its prey, gave rise to the absurd fable
that it lived only upon air. To judge by external appearance, there
never was an animal less fitted than the Chameleon for capturing the
winged and active flies ; but when we come to examine its structure,
we find that it is even better fitted for this purpose than many of the
more active insect-eating Lizards.

504 THE SERPENT TRIBE.

The tougue is the instrument by which the fly is captured, being first
deliberately aimed, like a billiard-player aiming a stroke with his cue,
and then darted out with singular velocity. This member is very mus-
cular, and is furnished at the tip with a kind of viscid secretion which
causes the fly to adhere to it. Its mouth is well furnished with teeth,
which are set firmly into its jaw, and enable it to bruise the insects
after getting them into its mouth by means of the tongue.

The eyes have a most singular appearance, and are worked quite in-
dependently of each other, one rolling backward, while the other is di-^
reeled forward or upward. There is not the least spark of expression
in the eye of the Chameleon, which looks about as intellectual as a green
pea with a dot of ink upon it.

A few words on the change of color will not be out of place.

I kept a Chameleon for a long time, and carefully watched its changes
of color. Its primary hue was gray-black, but other colors were con-
stantly passing over its body. Sometimes it would be striped like a
zebra with light yellow, or covered with circular yellow spots. Some-
times it was all chestnut and black like a leopard, and sometimes it was
brilliant green. Sometimes it would be gray, covered with black spots;
and once, when it was sitting on a branch, it took the hue of the au-
tumnal leaves so exactly that it could scarcely be distinguished from
them. A detailed account of this specimen is given in my Glimpses
into Petland.

The young of the Chameleon are produced from eggs, which are very
spherical, white in color, and covered with a chalky and very porous
shell. They are placed on the ground under leaves, and there left to
hatch by the heat of the sun and the warmth produced by the decom-
position of the leaves. The two sexes can be distinguished from each
other by the shape of the tail, which in the male is thick and swollen
at the base.

The large and important order at which we now arrive consists of
reptiles which are popularly known as Snakes, or more scientifically
as Ophidia, and to which all the true Serpents are to be referred.

The movements of the Serpent tribe are performed without the aid
of lini])s, and are, as a general rule, achieved by means of the ribs and
the large curved scales that cover the lower surface. Each of these
scales overlaps its successor, leaving a bold horny ridge whenever it is
partially erected by the action of the muscles. The reader will easily
see that a reptile so constructed can move with some rapidity by suc-
cessively thrusting each scale a little forward, hitching the projecting
edge on any rough substance, and drawing itself forward until it can
repeat the process with the next scale. The movements are consequent-
ly very quiet and gliding, and the creature is able to pursue its way
under circumstances of considerable difficulty.

THE SNAKES. 505

The tongue of the Snake is long, black, and deeply forked at its ex-
tremity, and when at rest is drawn into a sheath in the lower jaw. In
these days it is perhaps hardly necessary to state that the tongue is per-
fectly harmless, even in a poisonous serpent, and that the popular idea
of the " sting " is entirely erroneous. The snakes all seem to employ
the tongue largely as a feeler, and may be seen to touch gently with
the forked extremities the objects over which they are about to crawl
or which they desire to examine. The external organs of hearing are
absent.

The vertebral column is most wonderfully formed, and is constructed
with a special view to the peculiar movements of the Serpent tribe.
Each vertebra is rather elongated, and is furnished at one end with a
ball and at the other with a corresponding socket, into which the ball of
the succeeding vertebra exactly fits, thus enabling the creature to writhe
and twine in all directions without danger of dislocating its spine.

This ball-and-socket principle extends even to the ribs, which are
jointed to certain rounded projections of the vertebrse in a manner al-
most identical with the articulation of the vertebrae upon each other,
and, as they are moved by very powerful muscles, perform most im-
portant functions in the economy of the creature to which they be-
long.

The bones of the jaws are very loosely constructed, their different
portions being separable, and giving way while the creature exerts its
wonderful powers of swallowing. The great python Snakes are well
known to swallow animals of great proportionate size, and any one
may witness the singular process by taking a common field Snake,
keeping it without food for a month or so, and then giving it a large
frog. As it seizes its prey, the idea of getting so stout an animal down
that slender neck and through those little jaws appears too absurd to be
entertained for a moment, and even the leg which it has grasped appears
to be several times too large to pass through the throat. But by slow
degrees the frog disappears, the mouth of the Snake gradually widening
until the bones separate from each other to some distance and are held
only by the ligaments, and the whole jaw becoming dislocated, until the
head and neck of the Snake look as if the skin had been stripped from
the reptile, spread thin and flat, and drawn like a glove over the frog.

The Serpents, in common with other reptiles, have their bodies cov-
ered by a delicate epidermis, popularly called the skin, which lies over
the scales and is renewed at tolerably regular intervals. Toward the
time of changing its skin the Snake becomes dull and sluggish, the eyes
look white and blind, owing to the thickening of the epidermis that
covers them, and the bright colors become dim and ill-defined. Pres-
ently, however, the skin splits upon the back, mostly near the head, and
the Snake contrives to wriggle itself out of the whole integument, usual-
43

506 THE KATTLESNAKE.

Iv turuing it inside out in the process. This shed skin is transparent,
having the shape of each scale impressed upon it, being fine and delicate
a.s goldbeater's skin, and being applicable to many of the same uses,
such as shielding a small wound from the external air.

The first sub-order of Snakes consists of those serpents which are
cla-ssed under the name of Viperina.

All these reptiles are devoid of teeth in the upper jaw, except two
Jong poison-bearing fangs, set one at each side and near the muzzle.
The lower jaw is well furnished with teeth, and both jaws are feeble.
The scales of the abdomen are bold, broad, and arranged like overlap-
ping bands. The head is large fti proportion to the neck, and very
wide behind, so that the head of these Snakes has been well compared
to an ace of spades. The hinder limbs are not seen.

In the first family of the Viperine Snakes, called the CROTALiDiE,
the face is marked with a large pit or depression on each side, be-
tween the eye and the nostril. The celebrated and dreaded Rattle-
snake belongs to this family.

This reptile is a native of North America, and is remarkable for
the singular termination to the tail from which it derives its popular
name.

At the extremity of the tail are a number of curious loose horny struc-
tures, formed of the same substance as the scales, and varying greatly
in number according to the size of the individual. It is now generally
considered that the number of joints on the " rattle " is an indication
of the reptile's age, a fresh joint being gained each year immediately
after it changes its skin and before it goes into winter-quarters.

The joints of this remarkable apparatus are arranged in a very
curious manner, each being of a somewhat pyramidal shape, but
rounded at the edges, and being slipped withi'n its predecessor as
far as a protuberant ring which runs round the edge. In fact, a
very good idea of the structure of the rattle may be formed by slip-
l)ing a number of thimbles loosely into each other. The last joint is
smaller than the rest, and rounded. As was lately mentioned, the
number of these joints is variable, but the average number is from five
or six to fourteen or fifteen. There are occasional specimens found that
possess more than twenty joints in the rattle, but such examples are very
rare.

When in repose the Rattlesnake usually lies coiled in some suitable
spot, with its head lying flat, and the tip of its tail elevated in the mid-
dle of the coil. Should it be irritated by a passenger, or feel annoyed
or alarmed, it instantly communicates a quivering movement to the tail,
which causes the joints of the rattle to shake against each other with a
peculiar skirring rufile very much like the sound of the escaping steam
ot a railway engine.

THE RATTLESNAKE.

507

Fortunately for the human dwellers in the land which it inhabits, the
Uattlesnake is slow and torpid in its movements, and seldom attempts
to bite unless it is provoked, even suffering itself to be handled without
avenging itself. Mr. Waterton tells me, in connection with these rep-
tiles, " I never feared the bite of a snake, relying entirely on my own
movements. Tlius, in the presence of several professional gentlemen,
I once transferred twenty-seven Rattlesnakes from one apartment to
another with my hand alone. They hissed and rattled when I med-
dled with them, but they did not offer to bite me." When about to
inflict the fatal blow the reptile seems to swell with anger, its throat
dilating, and its whole body rising and sinking as if inflated by bellows.

The Rattlesnake {Ura^

The tail is agitated with increasing vehemence, the rattle sounds its
threatening war-note with sharper ruffle, the head becomes flattened as
it is drawn back ready for the stroke, and the whole creature seems a
very incarnation of deadly rage. Yet even in such moments, if the in-
truder withdraw, the reptile will gradually lay aside its angry aspect,
the coils settle down in their place, the flashing eyes lose their lustre,
the rattle become stationary, and the serjient sink back into its previous
state of lethargy.

The g!»neral color of the Rattlesnake is pale brown. A dark streak
runs along the temples from the back of the eye, and expands at the
corner of the mouth into a large spot. A series of irregular dark-
brown bauds are drawn across the back ; a number of round spots of the

508 THE PUFF ADDER AND THE HOENED VIPER.

eame hue are scattered along the sides and upon the nape of the neck
and back of the head.

We now come to the second great fomily of poisonous serpents —
namely, the Vipers, or Viperidoe. All the members of this family may
be distinguished by the absence of the pit between the eyes and the nos-
trils. There are no teeth in the upper jaw, except the two poison-fangs.

The terrible Puff Adder belongs to this family.

This reptile is a native of Southern Africa, and is one of the com-
monest, as well as one of the most deadly, of poisonous snakes. It is
glow and apparently torpid in all its movements, except when it is
going to strike, and the colonists say that is able to leap backward so
as to bite a person who is standing by its tail.

There is in nature no more fearful object than a full-grown Puff
Adder. It grovels on the sand, winding its body so as to bury itself
almost wholly in the tawny soil, and just leaving its flat, cruel-looking
head lying on the ground and free from sand. The steady, malignant,
stony glare of those eyes is absolutely freezing as the creature lies
motionless, confident in its deadly powers, and when roused by the
approach of a passenger merely exhibiting its annoyance by raising
its head an inch or two and uttering a sharp, angry hiss. Even hoi^ses
have been bitten by this reptile, and died within a few hours after the
injury was inflicted.

The Bushmen are in the habit of procuring from the teeth of this
serpent the poison with which they arm their tiny but most fearful
arrows. In the capture of the Puflf Adder they display very great
courage and address. Taking advantage of the reptile's sluggish
habits, they plant their bare feet upon its neck before it has quite
made up its reptilian mind to action, and, holding it firmly down, cut
ofl* its head and extract the poison at their leisure. In order to make
it adhesive to the arrow-point, it is mixed with the glutinous juice of
the amaryllis.

The color of the Puff Adder is brown, chequered with dark brown
and white, and with a reddish band between the eyes. The under parts
arc paler than the upper.

The true Cerastes, or Horned Viper, is a native of Northern
Africa, and divides with the cobra of the same country the question-
able honor of being the « worm of Nile " to whose venomous tooth
Cleopatra's death was due.

The bite of this most ungainly-looking serpent is extremely dangerous,
though perhaps not quite so deadly as that of the cobra, and the crea-
Uire IS therefore not quite so much dreaded as might be imagined.
The Cerastes has a most curious appearance, owing to a rather large
horn-hke scale which projects over each eye, and which, according to
the natives, is possessed of wonderful virtues.

THE COMMON VIPER OR ADDER.

509

The Cerastes has, according to Bruce, an awkward habit of crawl-
ing until it is alongside of the creature whom it is about to attack,
and then making a sidelong leap at its victim. He relates an in-
stance where he saw a Cerastes perform a feat which was certainly
curious :

" I saw one of
them at Cairo
crawl up the
side of a box
in which there
were many, and
there lie still, as
if hiding him-
self, till one of
the people who
brought them to
us came near him.
and, though in
a very disadvan-
tageous position,
sticking, as it
were, perpendic-
ularly to the side

of the box, he The Cerastes or Horned Viper (Ceirtstea Hasselquistii).
leaped near the

distance of three feet, and fastened between the man's fore finger and
thumb, so as to bring the blood."

The Cerastes usually lives in the driest and hottest parts of Northern
Africa, and lies half buried in the sand until its prey should come
within reach. Like many serpents, it can endure a very prolonged
frost without appearing to suffer any inconvenience ; those kept by
Bruce lived for two years in a glass jar without partaking of food,
and seemed perfectly brisk and lively, casting their skins as usual, and
not becoming torpid even during the winter.

The color of the Cerastes is pale brownish white, covered irregularly
with brown spots. Its length is about two feet.

The common Viper, or Adder, is very well known in many parts
of England, but in some localities is very plentiful, while in others it
is never seen from one year's end to another.

Many persons mistake the common grass snake for the Viper, and
dread it accordingly. They may, however, always distinguish the
poisonous reptile from the innocuous by the chain of dark spots that
runs along the spine and forms an unfailing guide to its identification.
Fortunately for ourselves, it is the only poiscmous reptile inhabiting

510

THE VIPER

England, tlie variously colored specimens being nothing more than
varieties of the same species.

Like most reptiles, whether poisonous or not, the Viper is a very
timid creature, always preferring to glide away from a foe rather than
to attack, and only biting when driven to do so under great provoca-
tion.

The head of the Viper affords a very good example of the venom-
ous apparatus of the poisonous serpents, and is well worthy of dissec-
tion, which is better accomplished under water than in air. The poison-
fangs lie on the sides of the upper jaw, folded back and almost indis-
tinguishable until lifted with a needle. They are singularly fine and
delicate, hardly larger than a lady's needle, and are covered almost to
their tips with a muscular envelope through which the points just peep.

The Viper or Adder {Pdias Berns).

The poison-secreting glands and the reservoir in which the venom is
stored are found at the back and sides of the head, and give to the
venomous serpents that peculiar width of head which is so unfailing a
diaracteristic. The color of the poison is a very pale yellow, and its
consistence is very like that of salad oil, which, indeed, it much resem-
bles, both in look and in taste. There is but little in each individual,
and it is possible that the superior power of the large venomous snakes
of other lands, especially those under the tropics, may be due as much
to its quantity as to its absolute intensity. In a full-grown rattlesnake,
for example, there are six or eight drops of this poison, whereas the
Viper has hardly a twentieth part of that amount.

On examining carefully the poison-fangs of a Viper, the structure by
which the venom is injected into the wound will be easily understood.

THE BOA CONSTRICTOR. 511

Ou removiug the lower jaw the two fangs are seen in the upper jaw,
folded down in a kind of groove between the teeth of the palate and
the skin of the head, so as to allow any food to slide over them with-
out being pierced by their points. The end of the teeth reach about
halfway from the nose to the angle of the jaw, just behind the corner
of the eye.

Only the tips of the fangs are seen, and they glisten bright, smooth,
and translucent, as if they were curved needles made from isinglass,
and almost as fine as a bee's sting. On raising them with a needle or
the point of the forceps, a large mass of muscular tissue comes into
view, enveloping the tooth for the greater part of its length, and being,
in fact, the means by which the fang is elevated or depressed. When
the creature draws back its head and opens its mouth to strike, the de-
pressing muscles are relaxed, the opposite series are contracted, and
the two deadly fangs spring up with their points ready for action. It
is needful to be exceedingly careful while dissecting the head, as the
fangs are so sharp that they penetrate the skin with a very slight touch,
and their poisonous distilment does not lose its potency even after the
lapse of time.

There are generally several of the fangs in each jaw, lying one be-
low the other in regular succession. From the specimen which has
just been described I removed four teeth on each side, varying in length
from half to one-eighth the dimensions of the poison-fangs.

The ordinary food of the Viper is much the same as that of the com-
mon snake, and consists of mice, birds, frogs, and similar creatures. It
is, however, less partial to frogs than is the common snake, and seems
to prefer the smaller mammalia to any other prey.

We now arrive at a very important family of serpents, including the
largest species found in the order. These snakes are known by the
popular title of Boas, and scientifically as Boidse, and are all remark-
able, not only for their great size and curious mode of taking their
prey, but for the partial development of their hinder limbs, which are
externally visible as a pair of horny spurs, set one on each side of the
base of the tail, and moderately well developed under the skin, con-
sisting of several bones jointed together.

The Boa Constrictor is a native of southern and tropical America,
and is one of those serpents that were formerly held sacred and wor-
shipped with divine honors. It attains a very large size, often exceed-
ing twenty feet in length, and being said to reach thirty feet in some
cases. It is worthy of mention that before swallowing their prey the
Boas do not cover it with saliva, as has been asserted. Indeed, the
very narrow and slender forked tongue of the serpent is about the
worst possible implement for such a purpose. A very large amount
of this substance is certainly secreted by the reptile while in the act

512 THE ANACONDA.

of swallowing, and is of great use in lubricating the prey so as to aid
it in its passage down the throat and into the body, but it is poured
upon the victim only during the act of swallowing, and is not prepared
and applied beforehand.

The dilating powers of the Boa are wonderful. The skin stretches
to a degree which seems absolutely impossible, and a comparison be-
tween the diameter of the prey and that of the mouth through which
it has to pass, and the throat down which it has to glide, makes the
act of swallowing such prey appear almost ludicrous in its apparent
impracticability, and, if the feat were not proved by frequent experi-
ence, it would seem more like the prelude to a juggler's trick than an
event of every-day occurrence. To such an extent is the body dilata-
ble that the shape of the animal swallowed can often be traced through
the skin, and the very fur is visible through the translucent eyes as the
dead victim passes through the jaws and down the throat.

An equally celebrated snake, the Anaconda, is a native of tropical
America, where it is known under several names. La Culebra de Agua,
or " water serpent," and El Traga Venado, or '* deer-swal lower," being
the most familiar.

Sir R. Ker Porter has some curious remarks on the Anaconda :
" This serpent is not venomous, nor known to injure men (at least not
in this part of the New World) ; however, the natives stand in great
fear of it, never bathing in waters where it is known to exist. Its com-
mon haunt, or rather domicile, is invariably near lakes, sw^^mps, and
rivers, likewise close to wet ravines produced by inundations of the
periodical rains; hence, from its aquatic habits, its first appellation —
/. ^., Water Serpent. Fish, and those animals which repair there to
drink, are the objects of its prey. The creature lurks watchfully under
cover of the water, and while the unsuspecting animal is drinking sud-
denly makes a dart at the nose, and, with a grip of its back-reclining
double range of teeth, never fails to secure the terrified beast beyond
tho power of escape."

Compression is the only method employed by the Anaconda for kill-
ing its prey, and the pestilent breath which has been attributed to this
reptile is wholly fabulous. Indeed, it is doubtful whether any snake
whatever possesses a fetid breath, and Mr. Waterton, who has handled
sn:ik«\s both poisonous and inofl'ensive, as much as most living persons,
utt.'rly denies the existence of any perceptible odor in the snake's
.»rcath. It is very possible that the pestilent and most horrible odor
which can be emitted by many snakes when they are irritated may
have been mistaken for the scent of the breath. This evil odor, how-
"ver IS produced from a substance secreted in the glands near the tail,
and has no connection with the breath.

We now come to another section of the serpents, termed the CoLU-

THE GRASS SNAKE.

51i

BRiNiE, the members of which are known by the broad band-like plates
of the abdomen, the shielded head, the conical tail, and the teeth of
both jaws. Some of them are harmless and unfurnished with fangs,
whereas some are extremely venomous and are furnished with poison-
fangs in the upper jaw. These, however, do not fold down like those
of the viper and rattlesnake, but remain perfectly erect.

Our common Grass Snake, or Ringed Snake, is a good example
of these reptiles.

It is extremely plentiful throughout England, being found in almost
every wood, copse, or hedgerow, where it may be seen during the warm
months of the year sunning itself on the banks or gently gliding along
in search of prey, always, however, betraying itself to the initiated ear

The Grass Snake or Ringed Snake (Tropidonotus natrix).

by a peculiar rustling among the herbage. Sometimes it may be de-
tected while in the act of creeping up a perpendicular trunk or stem — a
feat which it accomplishes, not by a spiral movement, as is generally
represented by artists, but by pressing itself firmly against the object,
so as to render its body flatter and wider, and crawling up by the
movement of the large banded scales of the belly, the body being
straight and rigid as a stick, and ascending in a manner that seems
almost inexplicable.

The Ringed Snake is perfectly harmless, having no venomous fangs,
and all its teeth being of so small a size that, even if the creature were
to snap at the hand, the skin would not be injured.

The food of the Ringed Snake consists mostly of insects and reptiles,
frogs being the favorite prey. I have known snakes to eat the com-
mon newt, and in such cases the victim was invariably swallowed head

2 H

514 THE TREE SERPENTS.

first, whereas the frog is eaten in just the opposite direction'. Usually
the frog, when pursued by the serpent, seems to lose all its energy, and
instead of jumping away, as it would do if chased by a human being,
crawls slowly like a toad, dragging itself painfully along as if paralyzed.
The snake, on coming up with its prey, stretches out its neck and quietly
grasps one hind foot of the frog, which thenceforward delivers itself up
to its destroyer an unresisting victim.

The whole process of swallowing a frog is very curious, as the crea-
ture is greatly wider than the mouth of the snake, and in many cases,
when the frog is very large and the snake rather small, the neck of the
serpent is hardly as wide as a single hind leg of the frog, while the body
is so utterly disproportioned that its reception seems wholly impossible.
Moreover, the snake generally swallows one leg first, the other leg kick-
iug freely in the air. However, the serpent contrives to catch either
the knee or the foot in its mouth during these convulsive struggles,
and by slow degrees swallows both legs. The limbs seem to act as a
kind of wedge, making the body follow easily, and in half an hour or
so the frog has disappeared from sight, but its exact position in the
body of the snake is accurately defined by the swollen abdomen.
Should the frog be small, it is snapped up by the side, and swallowed
without more ado.

The Ringed Snake is fond of water and is a good swimmer, sometimes
diving with great ease and remaining below the surface for a consider-
able length of time, and sometimes swimming boldly for a distance that
seems very great for a terrestrial creature to undertake. This reptile
will even take to the sea, and has been noticed swimming between
Wales and Anglesea.

During winter the snake retires to some sheltered spot, where it re-
mains until the warm days of spring call it again to action. The local-
ities which it chooses for its winter-quarters are always in some well-
sheltered spot, generally under the gnarled roots of ancient trees, under
heaps of dry brushwood, or in deep crevices. In these places the snakes
will congregate in great numbers, more than a hundred having been
taken from one hollow. A few years ago I saw a hole from which a
great number of Ringed Snakes had been taken ; it was situated in a
bank at some depth. The color of the Ringed Snake is grayish green
al)ove and blue-black below, often mottled with deep black. Behind
tlie head is a collar of golden yellow, often broken in the middle so as
to look like two patches of yellow. Behind the yellow collar is another
of black, sometimes broken in the middle also. Along the back run
two rows of small dark spots, and a row of large oblong spots is ar-
ranged down each side. Both the color and the shape of the spots are
very variiible.

One group cf suiikes is composed of the Tree Serpents, or Den-

THE BOOMSLANGE. 516

drophidse, so called from the habit of residing among the branches of
trees.

Our first example of this family is the well-known Boomslange of
Southern Africa. In pronouncing this word, which is of Dutch or
German origin, and signifies " tree snake," the reader must remember
that it is a word of three syllables. The Boomslange is a native of
Southern Africa, and is among the most variable of serpents in color-
ing, being green, olive, or brown, of such different colors that it has
often been separated into several distinct species.

Dr. A. Smith has given the following valuable description of the
Boomslange and its habits:

" The natives of South Africa regard the Boomslange as poisonous,
but in their opinion we cannot concur, as we have not been able to dis-
cover the existence of any gland manifestly organized for the secretion
of poison. The fangs are enclosed in a soft pulpy sheath, the inner
surface of which is commonly coated with a thin glairy secretion. This
secretion may possibly have something acrid and irritating in its qual-
ity, which may, when it enters a wound, occasion pain and swelling,
but nothing of great importance.

" The Boomslange is generally found on trees, to which it resorts for
the purpose of catching birds, upon which it delights to feed. The
presence of a specimen in a tree is generally soon discovered by the
birds of the neighborhood, who collect around it and fly to and fro,
uttering the most piercing cries, until some one, more terror-struck than
the rest, actually scans its lips, and almost without resistance becomes
a meal for its enemy. During such a proceeding the snake is gene-
rally observed with its head raised about ten or twelve inches above
the branch round which the body and tail are entwined, with its mouth
open and its neck inflated, as if anxiously endeavoring to increase the
terror which it would almost appear it was aware would sooner or later
bring within its grasp some one of the feathered group.

" Whatever may be said in ridicule of fascination, it is nevertheless
true that birds, and even quadrupeds also, are, under certain circum-
stances, unable to retire from the presence of certain of their enemies,
and, what is even more extraordinary, unable to resist the propensity
to advance from a situation of actual safety into one of the most immi-
nent danger. This I have often seen exemplified in the case of birds
and snakes ; and I have heard of instances equally curious, in which
antelopes and other quadrupeds have been so bewildered by the sudden
appearance of crocodiles, and by the grimaces and contortions they
practised, as to be unable to fly, or even move, from the spot toward
which they were approaching to seize them."

We now come to one of the most deadly of the Serpent tribe, the
well-known Cobra di Capello, or Hooded Cobra, of India.

516

THE COBRA DI CAPELLO.

This celebrated serpent has long been famous not only for the deadly
power of its venom, but for the singular performances in which it takes
part. The Cobra inhabits many parts of Asia, and in almost every
place where it is found certain daring men take upon themselves the
profession of serpent-charmers, and handle these fearful reptiles with
impunity, cause them to move in time to certain musical sounds, and
•ssert that they bear a life charmed against the bite of their reptilian

playmates. One of
these men will take
a Cobra in his bare
hands, toss it about
with perfect noncha-
lance, allow it to
twine about his na-
ked breast, tie it round
his neck, and treat it
with as little cere-
mony as if it were an
earthworm. He will
then take the same
serpent — or apparent-
ly the same — make it
bite a fowl, which soon
dies from the poison,
and will then repeat
his previous perform-
ances.

Some persons say

rp„^ r'^^T,. r. , XT . . ,. X that the whole affair

iHE Cobra di Capello {Naja tnpudians). • i ^ i •i.-x-

•^ -^ IS but an exhibition

of that jugglery in which the Indians are such wondrous adepts ; that the
serpents with which the man plays are harmless, having been deprived
of their fangs ; and that a really venomous specimen is adroitly substi-
tuted for the purpose of killing the fowl. It is moreover said, and
truly, that a snake thought to have been rendered innocuous by the
deprivation of its fangs has bitten one of its masters and killed him,
thus proving the imposture.

Still, neither of these explanations will entirely disprove the mastery
of man over a venomous serpent. In the first instance, it is surely as
l>pnlous an action to substitute a venomous serpent as to play with it.
Where was it hidden, why did it not bite the man instead of the fowl,
and how did the juggler prevent it from using its teeth while he was
conveying it away? And, in the second instance, the detection of an
impostor is by no means a proof that all who pretend to the same

THE COBRA DI CAPELLO. 517

powers are likewise impostors. The following narrative of Mr. H. E.
Reyne, quoted by Sir J. E. Tennent in his Natural History of Ceylon,
seems to be a sufficient proof that the man did possess sufficient power
to induce a truly poisonous serpent to leave its hole and to perform
certain antics at his command : " A snake-charmer came to my bungalow
in 1854, requesting me to allow him to show me his snakes dancing.
As I had frequently seen them, I told him I would give him a rupee
if he would accompany me to the jungle and catch a Cobra that I knew
frequented the place.

" He was willing, and, as I was anxious to test the truth of the charm,
I counted his tame snakes, and put a watch over them until I returned
with him. Before going I examined the man, and satisfied myself he
had no snake about his person. AVhen we arrived at the spot he played
upon a small pipe, and after persevering for some time out came a
large Cobra from an ant-hill which I knew it occupied. On seeing the
man it tried to escape, but he caught it by the tail and kept swinging
it round until we reached the bungalow. He then made it dance, but
before long it bit him above the knee. He immediately bandaged the
leg above the bite, and applied a snake-stone to the wound to extract
the poison. He was in great pain for a few minutes, but after that
it gradually went away, the stone falling off just before he was re-
lieved.

" When he recovered he held up a cloth, at which the snake flew,
and caught its fangs in it. While in that position the man passed his
hand up its back, and, having seized it by the throat, he extracted the
fangs in my presence and gave them to me. He then squeezed out
the poison on to a leaf It was a clear oily substance, and when rubbed
on the hand produced a fine lather. I carefulJy watched the whole
operation, which was also witnessed by my clerk and two or three
other persons."

One ncL^oble peculiarity in the Cobra is the expansion of the neck,
popularlycrJicJ the hood. This phenomenon is attributable not only to
the skin cinu muscles, but to the skeleton. 'About twenty pairs of the
ribs of the neck and fore part of the back are flat instead of curved,
and increase gradually from the head to the eleventh or tw^elfth pair,
from which they decrease until they are merged into the ordinary curved
ribs of the body.

When the snake is excited it brings these ribs forward, so as to
spread the skin, and then displays the oval hood to the best advantage.
In this species the back of the hood is ornamented with two large eye-
like spots, united by a curved black stripe, so formed that the whole
mark bears a singular resemblance to a pair of spectacles.

It is rather curious that many persons fancy that the Cobra loses a
joint of its tail every time that it sheds its poison, this belief being

44

518

THE COMMON FROG.

exactly opposite to the popular notion that the rattlesnake gains a new
joint to its rattle for every being which it has killed.

The Batrachtans are separated from the true reptiles on account
of their peculiar development, which gives them a strong likeness to
the fishes, and affords a good ground for considering these animals to
form a distinct order. On their extrusion from the egg they bear no
resemblance to their parents, but are in a kind of intermediate exist-
ence, closely analogous to the caterpillar or larval state of insects, and
called by the same name. Like the fish, they exist wholly in the water,
and breathe through gills instead of lungs, obtaining the needful oxygen
from the water which washes the delicate gill-membranes. At this
early period they have no external limbs, moving by the rapid vibra-
tion of the flat and fan-like tail with which they are supplied. While
in this state they are popularly called tadpoles, those of the frog
sometimes bearing the provincial name of pollywogs. The skin of
the Batrachians is not scaly, and in most instances is smooth and soft.
Further peculiarities will be mentioned in connection with the different
species.

These creatures fall naturally into two sub-orders, the Leaping or
tailless Batrachians, and the Crawling Batrachians. The Leaping
Batrachians, comprising the Frogs and toads, are familiar in almost

all lands, and

£^II^^-^^S!Iir^^^HMfil^ ^^ England are

well known on
account of their
British represen-
tatives.

The most fa-
miliar of all the
Batrachians is
the Common
Frog of Europe.
The general
form and appear-
ance of this crea-
ture are too well
known to need
much descrip-
tion. It is found
plentifully in all
parts of England,

o- 1 ui T « wandering to con-

8iderable distances from water, and sometimes getting into pits, cellars,
and similar localities, where it lives for years without ever seeing

The Common Frog {Bana iempmariu).

THE COMMON FROG.

519

watir. The food of the adult frog is wholly of an animal character,
and consists of slugs, possibly worms, and insects of nearly every kind,
the wire worm being a favorite article of diet. A little colony of Frogs
is most useful in a garden, as its members will do more to keep down
the various insect vermin that injure the garden than can be achieved
by the constant labor of a human being.

The chief interest of the Frog lies in the curious changes which it
undergoes before it attains its perfect condition. Every one is familiar
with the huge masses of transparent jelly-like substance, profusely and
regularly dotted with black spots, which lie in the shallows of a river
or the ordinary ditches that intersect the fields. Each of these little
l)lack spots is the egg of a Frog, and is surrounded with a globular
gr'latinous envelope about a quarter of an inch in diameter.

In process of time certain various changes take place in the egg,'and
at the proper period the form of the young Frog begins to become ap-
parent. In this state it is a black grub-like
creature, with a large head and a flattened
tail. By degrees it gains strength, and at
last fairly breaks its way through the egg,
and is launched upon a world of dangers
under the various names of tadpole, pollywog,
toe-biter, or horsenail.

As it is intended for the present to lead an
aquatic life, its breathing apparatus is formed
on the same principle as the gills of a fish, but
is visible externally, and when fully developed
consists of a double tuft of finger-like append-
ages on each side of the head. The tadpole,
with the fully-developed branchiae, is shown at Fig. a on the accompany-
ing illustration. No sooner, however, have these organs attained their
size than they begin again to diminish, the shape of the body and head
being at the same time much altered, as is seen in Fig. b. In a short
time they entirely disappear, being drawn into the cavity of the chest
and guarded externally by a kind of gill-cover.

Other changes are taking place meanwhile. Just behind the head
two little projections appear through the skin, which soon develop into
legs, which, however, are not at all employed for progression, as the
tadpole wriggles its way through the water with that quick ilndulation
of the flat tail which is so familiar to us all. The creature then bears
the appearance represented in Fig. c. Presently another pair of legs
make their appearance in front, the tail is gradually absorbed into the
body — not falling off*, according to the popular belief — the branchiae
vanish, and the lungs are developed. Fig. d represents a young
Frog just before the tail is fully absorbed.

Tadpoles.

520

THE EDIBLE FKOG AND THE COMMON TOAD.

The iDternal changes are as marvellous as the external. When first
hatched the young tadpole is to all intents and purposes a fish, has fish-
like bones, fish-like gills, and a heart composed of only two chambers,
one auricle and one ventricle. But, in proportion to its age, these or-
gans receive corresponding modifications, a third chamber for the heart
being formed by the expansion of one of the large arteries, the vessels
of the branchiae becoming gradually suppressed and their place supplied
by beautifully cellular lungs, formed by a development of certain mem-
branous sacs that appear to be analogous to the air-bladders of the
fishes.

The celebrated Edible Frog, or Green Frog of Europe {Rami
esculentci), also belongs to this large genus. This handsome species
is common in all the warmer parts of the Continent, but in the vicin-
ity of large cities is seldom seen, except in the ponds where it is pre-
served, and whence issues a horrid nocturnal concert in the breeding-
time. The proprietors of these froggeries supply the market regularly,
and draw out the Frogs with large wooden rakes as they are wanted.
In Paris these creatures are sold at a rather high price for the table,
and, as only the hind legs are eaten, a dish of Frogs is rather an expen-
sive article of diet.

We now arrive at another section of Batrachians, including those
creatures which are known under the title of Toads, and of which the
Common Toad of Europe is so familiar an example. The members of

this section may be known

'/'iSl^^^^^^^^^^^^S by the absence of teeth in

V '^iWiiiiiiP^^^='3^^^te *^^ j^'^^^ ^"^ ^^^^ well-de-

" ""ifc" ' ' IlillB veloped ears.

^r- ;||b||IM The general aspect and

habits of this creature are
too well known to require
more than a cursory no-
tice. Few creatures, per-
haps, have been more re-
viled and maligned than
the Toad, and none with
less reason. In the olden
days the Toad was held
to be the very compen-
, dium of poison, and to

have so deadly an effect upon human beings that two persons were re-
late to have died from eating the leaf of a sage-bush under which a
load had burrowed.

In France this poor creature is shamefully persecuted, the idea of
Its venomous and spiteful nature being widely disseminated and deeply

The Common Toad [Bufo vulgaris).

THE COMMON TOAD. 521

rooted. The popular notion is that the Toad is poisonous throughout
its life, but that after the age of fifty years it acquires venomous fangs
like those of the serpents.

In point of fact, the Toad is a most useful animal, devouring all
kinds of insect vermin, and making its rounds by night when the slugs,
caterpillars, earwigs, and other creatures are abroad on their destruc-
tive mission. Many of the market-gardeners are so well aware of the
extreme value of the Toad's services that they purchase Toads at a cer-
tain sum per dozen, and turn them out in their grounds.

Last year my children had several large Toads which were quite
tame. They used to carry the Toads in their hands round the garden,
and then hold them up to flowers on which insects had settled. The
Toads were quite accustomed to this mode of feeding, and always caught
the insects.

Entomologists sometimes make a curious use of the Toad. Going
into the fields soon after daybreak, they catch all the Toads they can
find, kill them, and turn the contents of their stomachs into water. On
examining the mass of insects that are found in the stomach, and which
are floated apart on the water, there are almost always some specimens
of valuable insects, generally beetles, which, from their nocturnal habits,
small dimensions, and sober coloring, cannot readily be detected by
human eyes.

The Toad will also eat worms, and in swallowing them it finds its
fore feet of great use. The worm is seized by the middle, and writhes
itself frantically into such contortions that the Toad would not be able
to swallow it but by the aid of its fore feet, which it uses as if they were
hands. Sitting quietly down with the worm in its mouth, the Toad
pushes it farther between the jaws, first with one paw and then with
another, until it succeeds by alternate gulps and pushes in forcing the
worm fairly down its throat.

This animal is extremly tenacious of life, and is said to possess the
power of retaining life foi* an unlimited period if shut up in a com-
pletely air-tight cell. Many accounts«are in existence of Toads which
have been discovered in blocks of stone when split open, and the infer-
ence has been drawn that they were enclosed in the stone while it was
still in the liquid state, some hundreds of thousands of years ago, ac-
cording to the particular geological period, and had remained without
food or air until the stroke of the pick brought them once more to the
light of day.

The development of the Toad is much like that of the Frog, except
that the eggs are not laid in masses, but in long strings, containing a
double series of eggs placed alternately. These chains are about three
or four feet in length and one-eighth of an inch in diameter. They
are deposited rather later than those of the Frog, and the reptiles,

44*

ryl'l

THE NATTERJACK AND THE GREEN TREE-FROG.

which are smaller and blacker than the Frog larvae, do not assume their
perfect form until August or September.

Another species of Toad, the Natterjack, is found in many parts
of England. It may be known from the common species by the short
hind legs, the more prominent eyes, the less webbed feet, the yellow
line along the middle of the back, and the black bands on the legs.
It is not so aquatic as the common Toad, haunting dry places, and sel-
dom approaching water except during the breeding season. Its ordi-
nary length is about three inches.

This is really a pretty creature, its color being green, diversified with
a line of bright yellow along the back. I kept several of these Toads
for a long tinie, feeding them with various insects. No matter how
large or active the insect might be which was put into the box, sooner
or later the Natterjacks were sure to catch it.

We now come to the Tree-Feogs, or Tree-Toads, so called from
their habits of climbing trees and attaching themselves to the branches

or leaves by means of certain
discs on the toes, like those of
the geckos.

The best known species is the
common Green Tree- Frog of
Europe, now so familiar from its
frequent introduction into fern-
cases and terrestrial vivaria.

This pretty creature is found
mostly upon trees, clinging to
either their branches or leaves,
and being generally in the habit
of attaching itself to the under
side of the leaves, which it re-
sembles so strongly in color that
it is almost invisible even when
its situation is pointed out. When
kept in a fern-case it is fond of ascending the perpendicular glass sides,
and there sticking firmly and motionless, its legs drawn closely to the
body, and its abdomen flattened against the glass.

Tiie food of the Tree-Frog consists almost entirely of insects, worms,'
and snnilar creatures, which are captured as they pass near the leaf
wla-reto their green foe is adhering. It is seldom seen on the ground
except durmg the breeding season, when it seeks the water, and there
deposits Its eggs nmch in the same manner as the common Frog. The
tadpole is hatched rather late in the season, and does not attain its
pertec't form until two full months have elapsed. Like the Toad, the
iree-i rog swallows its skin after the change. The common Tree-Frog

The Green Tree-Frog {Hyla arborea)

THE POUCHED FROG AND THE RHINOPHRYNE. 523

is wonderfully tenacious of life, suffering the severest wounds without
seeming to be much distressed, and having even been frozen quite stiff
in a mass of ice without perishing.

The color of this species is green above, sometimes spotted with
olive, and a grayish yellow streak runs through each eye toward the
sides, where it becomes gradually fainter, and is at last lost in the
green color of the skin. In some specimens there is a grayish spot
on the loins. Below, it is of a paler hue, and a black streak runs along
the side, dividing the vivid green of the back from the white hue of the
abdomen.

In the Pouched Frog we find a most singular example of structure,
the female being furnished with a pouch on her back, in which the
eggs are placed when hatched, and carried about for a considerable
period.

This pouch is clearly analogous to the living cradle of the marsupial
animals. It is not merely developed when wanted, but is permanent,
and lined with skin like that of the back. The pouch does not attain
its full development until the creature is of mature age, and the male
does not possess it at all. When filled with eggs the pouch is much
dilated, and extends over the whole back nearly as far as the back of
the head. The opening is not easily seen without careful examination,
being very narrow and hidden in folds of the skin.

The Rhinophryne is remarkable as being the only known example
among the Frogs where the tongue has its free end pointing forward,
instead of being directed toward the throat.

This curious species inhabits Mexico, and can easily be recognized
by the peculiar form of its head, which is rounded, merged into the
body, and has the muzzle abruptly truncated, so as to form a small
circular disc in front. The gape is extremely small, and the head
would, if separated, be hardly recognizable as having belonged to a
Frog. The legs are very short and thick, and the feet are half webbed.
Each hind foot is furnished with a flat, oval, horny spur formed by the
development of one of the bones. There are no teeth in the jaws,
and the ear is imperfect. The color of the Rhinophryne is slaie-
gray, with yellow spots on the sides and a row of similar spots along
the back. Sometimes these latter spots unite, so as to form a jagged
line down the back.

We now arrive at the Crawling Batrachians, technically called
Amphibia Gradientia. All these creatures have a much elongated
body, a tail which is never thrown off as in the frogs and toads, and
limbs nearly equal in development, but never very powerful. Like the
preceding sub-order, the young are hatched from eggs, pass through the
preliminary or tadpole state, and, except in very few instances, the
gills are lost when the animal attains its perfect form. Both jaws

524

THE SALAMANDER AND THE NEWT.

The ISalamander {Salamand)-a maculosa).

are furnished with teeth, and the palate is toothed in some species.
The skin is without scales, and either smooth or covered with wart-
like excrescences. There is no true breast-bone, but some species have

ribs.

The celebrated Salamander, the subject of so many strange fables,
is a species found in many parts of the continent of Europe.

This creature was
formerly thought to
be able to w^ithstand
the action of fire, and
to quench even the
most glowing furnace
with its icy body. It
is singular how such
ideas should have
been so long promul-
gated, for, although
Aristotle repeated
the tale on hearsay,
Pliny tried the ex-
periment by putting
a Salamander into the fire, and remarks, with evident surprise, that it
was burned to a powder. A piece of cloth dipped in the blood of a
Salamander was said to be unhurt by fire, and certain persons had in
their possession a fireproof fabric, made, as they stated, of Salamander's
wool, but which proved to be asbestos.

The Salamander is a terrestrial species, frequenting the water only
for the purpose of depositing its young, which leave the Qgg before
they enter into independent existence. It is a slow and timid animal,
generally hiding itself in some convenient crevice during the day, and
seldom venturing out except at night or in rainy weather. It feeds on
slugs, insects, and similar creatures. During the cold months it retires
into winter-quarters, generally the hollow of some decaying tree or be-
neath mossy stones, and does not reappear until the spring.

The ground color of this species is black, and the spots are light yel-
low. Along the sides are scattered numerous small tubercles.

The common Newt, Asker, Effet, Eft, or Evat, as it is indiflfer-
ently termed, is well known throughout England. At least two species
of Newt inhabit England, and some authors consider that the number
(jf species is still greater. We shall, however, according to the system
employed in this work, follow the arrangement of the British Museum,
which accepts only two species, the others being merely noted as vari-
eties. * -^

The Crested Newt derives its popular name from the membranous

THE CRESTED NEWT. 525

crest which appears on the back and upper edge of the tail during the
breeding season, and which adds so much to the beauty of the adult
male.

This creature is found plentifully in ponds and ditches during the
warm months of the year, and may be captured without difficulty. It
is tolerably hardy in confinement, being easily reared even from a very
tender age, so that its habits can be carefully noted.

At Oxford we had some of these animals in a large slate tank through
which water was constantly running, and which was paved with peb-
bles and furnished with vallisneria and other aquatic plants, for the
purpose of imitating as nearly as possible the natural condition of
the water from which the creatures had been taken. Here they lived
for some time, and here the eggs were hatched and the young devel-
oped.

It was a very curious sight to watch the clever manner in which the
female Newts secured their eggs; for which purpose they used chietly
to employ the vallisneria, its long slender blades being exactly the
leaves best suited for that purpose. They deposited an egg on one of
the leaves, and then, by dexterous management of the feet, twisted the
leaf round the egg, so as to conceal it, and contrived to fasten it so
firmly that the twist always retained its form. The apparent shape of
the egg is oval, and it seems to be semi-transparent, but on looking
more closely it is seen to be nearly spherical, of a very pale yel-
low-brown, and enclosed within an oval envelope of gelatinous sub-
stance.

When the young Newt is hatched it much resembles the common
tadpole, but is of a lighter color, and its gills are more developed. It
rapidly increases in size until it attains a length of nearly two inches,
the fore legs being then tolerably strong, and the hinder pair very small
and weak.

Toward the breeding season the male changes sensibly in appearance;
his colors are brighter and his movements more brisk. The beautiful
waving crest now begins to show itself and grows with great rapidity,
until it assumes an appearance not unlike that of a very thin cock's
comb, extending from the head to the insertion of the hinder limbs,
and being deeply toothed at the edge. The tail is also furnished with
a crest, but with smooth edges. When the animal leaves the water
this crest is hardly visible, because it is so delicate that it folds upon
the body and is confounded with the skin ; but when supported by the
water it waves with every movement of its owner, and has a most grace-
ful aspect.

After the breeding season the crest diminishes as rapidly as it arose,
and in a short time is almost wholly absorbed. Some remnants of it,
however, always remain, so that the male may be known even in win-

526 THE PROTEUS.

ter by the liue of irregular excrescences aloDg the back. The use of
this crest is not known, but it evidently bears a close analogy to the
gorgeous nuptial plumage of many birds, which at other times are
dressed in quite sober garments.

The Newt feeds upon small worms, insects, and similar creatures, and
may be captured by the simple process of tying a worm on a thread by
the middle, so as to allow both ends to hang down, and then angling as
if for fish. The Newt is a ravenous creature, and when it catches a
worm closes its mouth so firmly that it may be neatly landed before it
loosens its hold. Some writers recommend a hook, but I can assert,
from much practical experience, that the hook is quite needless, and
that the Newt may be captured by the simple worm and thread, not
even a rod being required.

It is curious to see the Newt eat a worm. It seizes it by the middle
with a sudden snap, as if the jaws were moved by springs, and remains
quiet for a few seconds, when it makes another snap, which causes the
worm to pass farther into its mouth. Six or seven such bites are usually
required before the worm finally disappears.

The skin or epidermis of the Newt is very delicate, and is frequently
changed, coming off in the water in flakes. I found that my own speci-
mens always changed their skin as often as I changed the water, and it
was very curious to see them swimming about with the flakes of trans-
parent membrane clinging to their sides. The skin of the paws is drawn
off just like a glove, every finger being perfect, and even the little wrin-
kles in the palms beiiig marked. These gloves look very pretty as they
float in the water, but if removed they collapse into a shapeless lump.

The food of the Newt consists of worms, insects, and even the young
of aquatic reptiles. I have seen a large male Crested Newt make a
savage dart at a younger individual of the same species, but it did not
succeed in eating the intended victim.

The next order of Crawling Batrachians is called by the name of
Meantia, and contains a very few but very remarkable species. In
all these creatures the body is long and smooth, without scales, and the
gills are very conspicuous, retaining their position throughout the life
of the animal. There are always two or four limbs furnished with toes,
but these members are very weak, and indeed rudimentary, and both
the palate and the lower jaw are toothed.

Tlie first example of this order is the celebrated Proteus, discovered
by the Baron de Zois in the extraordinary locality in which it dwells.

At Adelsberg, in the duchy of Carniola, is a most wonderful cavern,
called the Grotto of the Maddalena, extending many hundred feet be-
low the surface of the earth, and consequently buried in the profbuud-
est darkness. In this cavern exists a little lake, roofed with stalactites,
surrounded with masses of rock, and floored with a bed of soft mud,

THE PKOTEUS. 527

upon which the Proteus may be seen crawling uneasily, as if endeavor-
ing to avoid the unwelcome light by which its presence is made known.
These creatures are not always to be found in the lake, though after
heavy rains they are tolerably abundant, and the road by which they
gain admission is at present a mystery.

The theory of Sir H. Davy is '•' that their natural residence is a deep
subterraneous lake, from which in great floods they are sometimes
forced through the crevices of the rocks into the places where they are
found ; and it does not appear to me impossible, when the peculiar
nature of the country is considered, that the same great cavity may
furnish the individuals which have been found at Adelsberg and at
Sittich."

Whatever may be the solution of the problem, the discovery of this
animal is extremely valuable, not only as an aid to the science of com-
parative anatomy, but as affording another instance of the strange and
w^ondrous forms of animal life which still survive in hidden and unsus-
pected nooks of the earth.

Many o:' these animals have been brought in a living state to this
country, and have survived for a considerable time when their owners
have taken pains to accommodate their condition as nearly as possible
to that of their native waters. I have had many opportunities of see-
ing some fine specimens, brought by Dr. Lionel Beale from the cave at
Adelsberg. They could hardly be said to have any habits, and their
only custom seemed to be the systematic avoidance of light.

The gills of the Proteus are very apparent, and of a reddish color,
on account of the blood that circulates througll them. I have often
witnessed this phenomenon by means of the ingenious arrangement in-
vented by Dr. Beale, by which the creature was held firmly in its place
while a stream of water was kept constantly flowing through the tube
in which it was confined. The blood-discs of this animal are of extra-
ordinary size — so large, indeed, that they can be distinguished with a
common pocket-magnifier, even while passing through the vessels.
Some of the blood-corpuscles of the specimen described above are now
in my possession, and, together with those of the lepidosiren, form a
singular contrast to the blood-corpuscles of man, the former exceeding
the latter in dimensions as an ostrich egg exceeds that of a pigeon.

The color of the Proteus is pale faded flesh tint with a wash of gray.
The eyes are quite useless and are hidden beneath the skin, those or-
gans being needless in the dark recesses where the Proteus lives. Its
length is about a foot.

FISHES

U

fi

FISHES.

In the Fishes, the last class of vertebrated animals, the chief and
most obvious distinction lies in their adaptation to a sub-aqueous exist-
ence and their unfitness for life upon dry land.

There are many vertebrate animals which pass the whole of their
lives in the water, and would die if transferred to the land, such as the
whales and the whole of the cetacean tribe, an account of which may
be found on page 156. But these creatures are generally incapable of
passing their life beneath the waters, as their lungs are formed like
tliose of the mammalia, and they are forced to breathe atmospheric air
at the surface of the waves. And, though they w^ould die if left upon
land, their death would occur from inability to move about in search
of food, and in almost every case a submersion of two continuous hours
would drown the longest-breathed whale that swims the seas.

The Fishes, on the contrary, are expressly formed for aquatic exist-
ence, and the beautiful respiratory organs which we know by the pop-
ular term of " gills " are so constructed that they can supply sufficient
oxygen for the aeration of the blood.

The reason that Fishes die when removed from the water is not be-
cause the air is poisonous to them, as some seem to fancy, but because
the delicate gill-membranes become dry and collapse against each other,
so that the circulation of the blood is stopped and the oxygen of the
atmosphere can no longer act upon it. It necessarily follows that those
Fishes whose gills can longest retain moisture will live longest on dry
land, and that those whose gills dry most rapidly will die the soonest.
The herring, for example, where the delicate membranes are not suf-
ficiently guarded from the effects of heat and evaporation, dies almost
immediately it is taken out of the water; whereas the carp, a fish whose
gill-covers can retain much moisture, will survive for an astonishingly
long time upon dry land, and the anabas, or climbing perch, is actually
able to travel from one pool to another, ascending the banks, and even
traversing hot and dusty roads.

The power by which the Fishes propel themselves through the water
is obtained almost entirely by the lateral movement of the tail. The
fins are scarcely employed at all in progression, but are usually used as
balancers, and occasionally to check an onw^ard movement.

Before proceeding further, I may mention that all the fins of a Fish
are distinguished by appropriate names. As they are extremely im-
portant in determining the species, and even the genus, of the individ-

531

5-32 FISHES.

ual, and as these members will be mentioned repeatedly in the follow-
ing pages, I will briefly describe them.

Beo-inning at the head and following the line of the back, we come
upon a fin called from its position the "dorsal" fin. In very many
species there are two such fins, called, from their relative positions, the
first and the second dorsal fins. The extremity of the body is furnished
with another fin, popularly called the tail, but more correctly the "cau-
dal " fin. The fins which are set on that part of the body which cor-
responds to the shoulders are termed the " pectoral " fins ; that which
is found on the under surface and in front of the vent is called the
" abdominal " fin; and that which is also on the lower surface, and
between the vent and tail, is known by the name of the "anal" fin.
All these fins vary extremely in shape, size, and even in posi-
tion.

The gill-cover — or operculum, as it is technically called — is sepa-
rated into four portions, and is so extensively used in determining the
genus and species that a brief description must be given. The front
portion, w liich starts immediately below the eye, is called the " prse-
operculum," and immediately behind it comes the "operculum." Below
the latter is another piece, termed from its position the " sub-opercu-
lum," and the lowest piece, which touches all the three above it, is
called the " inter-operculum." Below the chin, and reaching to the
sub-operculum, are the slender bones termed the " branchiostegous
rays," which differ in shape and number according to the kind of
fish.

The scales with which most of the Fish are covered are very beauti-
ful in structure, and are formed by successive laminae, increasing, there-
fore, in size according to the age of the Fish. They are attached to
the skin by one edge, and they overlap each other in such a manner as
to allow the creature to pass through the water with the least possible re-
sistance. The precise mode of overlapping varies materially in different
grncra. Along each side of the Fish runs a series of pores, through which
passes a mucous secretion formed in some glands beneath. In order to
permit this secretion to reach the outer surface of the body, each scale
upon the row which comes upon the pores is pierced with a little tub-
ular aperture, which is very perceptible on the exterior, and constitutes
the " lateral line." The shape and position of this line are also used
in determining the precise position held by any species. In comparing
the scales taken from different Fishes, it is always better to take those
from the lateral line.

The heart of the Fish is very simple, consisting of two chambers
(|nly, one auricle and one ventricle. The blood is in consequence

The hearing of Fishes appears in most cases to be dull, and some

THE STUKGEON.

533

persons have asserted that they are totally destitute of this faculty. It
is now, however, known that many species have been proved capable
of hearing sounds, and that carp and other fish can be taught to come
for their food at the sound of a bell or whistle. The internal structure
of the ear is moderately developed, and there are some curious little
bones found within the cavity, technically called the otoliths.

The Fishes comprised in the first order are called by the rather harsh-
ly-sounding title of Chondropterygii, a term derived from two Greek
words, the former signifying " cartilage " and the latter " a fin," and
given to these creatures because their bones contain a very large amount
of cartilaginous substance, and are consequently soft and flexible.
The bones of the head are rather harder than those of the body and
fins.

The first family, of which the common Sturgeon is a good and fa-
miliar example, is at once known by the cartilaginous or bony shields
with which the head and body are at intervals covered.

In this remarkable fish the mouth is placed well under the head, and
in fact seems to b? set almost in the throat, the long snout appearing
to be entirely a super- ^__^ ^_^

fluous ornament. The
mouth projects down-
ward like a short and
wide tube, much wider
than long, and on look-
ing into this tube no
teeth are to be seen.
Between the mouth
and the extremity of
the snout is a row of fleshy finger-like appendages, four in number, and
apparently organs of touch.

One or two species of Sturgeon are important in commerce, as two
valuable articles — namely, isinglass and caviare — are made from them.
The former substance is too well known to need a description, and the
mode of preparing it for use is briefly as follows : The air-bladder is
removed from the fish, washed carefully in fresh water, and then hung
up in the air for a day or two, so as to stiffen. The outer coat or mem-
brane is then peeled ofi", and the remainder is cut up into strips of
greater or lesser length, technically called staples, the long staples being
the most valuable. This substance aflfbrds so large a quantity of gelat-
inous matter that one part of isinglass dissolved in a hundred parts of
boiling water will form a stiff* jelly when cold.

Caviare is made from the roe of this fish, and, as nearly three millions
of eggs have been taken from a single fish, the amount of caviare that
one Sturgeon can afford is rather large.

45 -^

The Sturgeon {Acipenser attilus).

534 THE LITTLE DOG-FISH.

The body of the Sturgeon is elongated, and slightly five-sided from
the head to the tail. Along the body run five rows of flattened bony
plates, each plate being marked with slight grooves in a radiating
fashion, and having a pointed and partly conical spine on each plate,
the points being directed toward the tail. The plates along the sum-
mit of the back are the largest.

The fishes belonging to the next group have their gills fixed by their
outer edge to the divisions in the gill-openings at the side of the neck.
This group includes the Sharks and the Rays, many representatives of
which creatures are found on the British coasts.

The first family of this large and important group is known by the
name of Scyllidse, and its members can be recognized by several distin-
guishing characteristics. They have spout-holes on the head, and the
gill-openings are five in number on each side. Sometimes there seem
to be only four openings, but on closer examination the fourth and
fifth are found set closely together, the opening of the fifth appearing
within that of the fourth. The teeth are sharp and pointed, and the
tail is long, notched on the outer side, and is not furnished with a
fin.

One of the commonest British species is the Little Dog-fish, called
by several other names, as is usual with a familiar species that is found
in many localities. Among such names are Small Spotted Dog-fish,
Lesser Spotted Shark, Morgay, and Robin Huss.

This fish is plentiful on our coasts, especially in the southern extrem-
ity of England, and is often thought a great nuisance by fishermen,
whose bait it takes instead of the more valuable fish for which the
hook was set. It generally remains near the bottom of the water, and
is a voracious creature, feeding upon crustaceans and small fish. It
often follows the shoals of migrating fish, and on account of that custom
is called the Dog-fish. Generally its flesh is neglected, but when prop-
erly dressed it is by no means unpalatable, and is said to be sometimes
trimmed and dressed in fraudulent imitation of more valuable fish.

The skin of this and other similar species is rough and file-like, and
is employed for many purposes. The handles of swords, where a firm
hold is required, are sometimes bound with this substance, and joiners
use it in polishing the surface of fine woods, so as to bring out the grain.
It is also employed instead of sand-paper upon match-boxes.

The egg of this species is very curious in form and structure, and is
often found on the seashore, flung up by the waves, especially after a
storm. These objects are familiar to all observant wanderers by the
seashore, under the name of mermaid's purses, sailor's purses, or sea
purses. Their form is oblong, with curved sides, and at each angle
there is a long tendril-like appendage, having a strong curl, and in
lorm not unlike the tendrils of the vine. The use of these appendages

THE DOG-FISH.

535

is to enable the egg to cling to the growing seaweed at the bottom of
the ocean, and to prevent it from being washed away by the tide.

For the escape of the young shark, when strong enough to make its
own way in the wider world of waters, an outlet is provided in the
opened end of the envelope, which opens when pushed from within,
and permits the little creature to make its way out, though it effectual-
ly bars the entrance against any external foe.

The head of the Little Dog-fish is rather fiat upon the top, there is a
little.spiracle or blow-hole behind each eye, and the shape of the mouth
is somewhat like that of a horseshoe. The general color of the body is
pale reddish on the upper parts, covered with many little spots of dark
reddish brown ; below it is yellowish white. The length of this species

The Dog-fish {ScyUium caniculum).

is about eighteen inches. The color is beautiful slate-blue above, and
white below.

The remarkable fish depicted in the illustration affords a striking in-
stance of the wild and wondrous modifications of form assumed by cer-
tain creatures without any ascertained purpose being gained thereby.
We know by analogous reasoning that some wise purpose is served by
this astonishing variation in form, but as far as is yet known there is
nothing in the habits of this species that accounts for the necessity of
this strange shape.

The shape of the body is not unlike that of the generality of sharks,
but it is upon the head that the attention is at once riveted. As may
be seen from the figure the head is expanded laterally in a most singu-
lar manner, bearing, indeed, no small resemblance to the head of a

53G THE HAMMER-HEADED SHARK AND THE WHITE SHARK.

hammer. The eyes are placed at either end of the projecting extrem-
ities, aud the mouth is set quite below, its corners just coinciding with
a line drawn through the two projecting lobes of the head.

This species attains to a considerable size, seven or eight feet being a
common measurement, and specimens of eleven or twelve feet having
been known. Its flesh is said to be almost uneatable, being hard,
coarse, and ill-flavored. The Hammer-headed Shark produces liv-
ing young, and from the interior of a very fine specimen captured near
Tenby in 18o9, and measuring more than ten feet in length, were taken

no less than thirty-

per-
and

nine young, all

fectly formed,

averaging nineteen

inches in length.

The general color

of this species is

grayish brown above

and grayish white be-
TiiE Hammer-headed Shark [Sphyrriias zygcena). |^^^

The dreaded White Shark, the finny pirate of the ocean, is happily
almost a stranger to our shores, though a stray specimen may now and
tlien visit the British Islands, there to find but scant hospitality.

This is one of the large species that range the ocean, and in some
seas they are so numerous that they are the terror of sailors and natives.
One individual, whose jaws are still preserved, was said to have meas-
ured thirty-seven feet in length ; and when we take into consideration
the many instances where the leg of a man has been bitten off through

flesh and bone as
easily as if it had
been a carrot, aud
even the body of a
boy or woman sev-
ered at a single bite,
this great length will
.' '~^^-^^^i^^\ -^^ -^ not seem to be exag-

^ T,,K W.UTK S„A„K i<ii„-ch„rodon RonMetu). " jyj^^y p^^jj^^^ „f

this fi.sh are used in commerce. The sailors are fond of cleaning and
preparing the skull, which, when brought to England, is sure of a ready
sale, either for a public museum or to private individuals who are struck
with its strange form and terrible armature. The spine, too, is frequently
taken from this fish, and when dried it passes into the hands of walking-
stick makers, who polish it neatly, fit it with a gold handle, and sell it
at a very high price. One of these sticks will sometimes fetch six or

THE SAW-FISH. 537

seven pounds. There is also a large amount of oil in the Shark, which
is thought rather valuable, so that in Ceylon and other places a regular
trade in this commodity is carried on.

The fins are very rich in gelatine, and in China are, as is said, em-
ployed largely in the manufacture of that gelatinous soup in which the
soul of a Chinese epicure delights, and of which the turtle S(^p of our
metropolis is thought by Chinese judges to be a faint penumbra or
distant imitation. The flesh is eaten by the natives of many Pacific
islands, and in some places the liver is looked upon as a royal luxury,
being hung on boards in the sun until all the contained oil has drained
away, and then carefully wrapped up in leaves and preserved as a del-
icacy.

The color of the White S]iark is ashen brown above and white
below.

We now arrive at the Rays. The first family of these fishes is
evidently intermediate between the sharks and the skates, and is in
many respects a very interesting and remarkable group of fishes. The
common Saw-fish, so well known from the singular development of
the snout, is a good example of this family.

It has a very wide range of locality, being found in almost all the
warmer seas, and even in the cold regions near the pole.

The snout of this fish is greatly prolonged, and flattened like a sword-
blade. On either edge it bears a row of tooth-like projections, firmly
imbedded in the bone, few, short, and wide apart at the base of the
beak, but becoming larger and set closer together toward the point.
The form of the sockets into which the teeth are received, and their
rather enlarged termination, are conspicuously indicated on the surface
of the saw-blade. The tip of the saw is covered with hard granular
scales. The number of teeth is not the same in every individual ; in
a specimen in my possession there are twenty-eight on each side of the
saw.

It is said that, like the sword-fish, this creature will attack the whale,
thrusting its armed beak into the soft blubber-covered body of the huge
cetacean, and avoiding, by its superior agility, the strokes of the tor-
tured animal's tail, any blow of which, if it succeeded in its aim, would
crush the assailant to death. The Saw-fish does certainly use this
weapon for the destruction of fish. Colonel Drayson has informed
me that when lying becalmed off* the Cape he has more than once seen
a Saw-fish come charging among a shoal of fishes, striking right and
left with the serrated edges of the saw, and killing or disabling numbers
of the fish by this process.

In all the Saw-fishes the skin is covered with minute rounded or
hexagonal scales, arranged like the stones of a mosaic. The temporal
orifices are very large, and are set some distance behind the eyes. The

538

THE TORPEDO.

mouth is ou the under surface of the head, and is furnished with a
crushing apparatus made exactly ou the principle of the stone-crushing
machines of the present day.

In the true Rays, or Raidse, the fore-part of the body is flattened
and formed into a disc-like shape by the conjunction of the breast-fins
with the iuout.

Our first example of tl^e Rays is the Torpedo, a fish long celebrated
for its power of emitting at will electrical shocks of considerable
intensity. In consequence of this property it is sometimes called
the Cramp-fish, Cramp Ray, Electric Ray, or Numb-fish.

The object of this strange power seems to be twofold — namely, to de-
feud itself from the attacks of foes, and to benumb the swift and active
• » fish on which it

feeds, and which
its slow move-
ments would not
permit it to catch
in fair chase. It
does not always
deliver the elec-
tric shock when
touched, though
it is generally
rather prodigal
of exercising its
potent though in-
visible arms, but

The Eyed Torpedo {Torpedo oculata).

will allow itself to be touched, and even handled, without inflicting a
shock. But if the creature be continually annoyed, the shock is sure
to come at last, and in such cases with double violence. It has been
observed, moreover, that the fish depresses its eyes just before giving
its shock.

That the stroke of the Torpedo is veritable electricity is a fact which
was once much disputed, but is now conclusively proved by a host of
experiments. Needles have been magnetized by it just as if the shock
had been that of a galvanic battery ; the electrometer showed decided
proofs of the nature of the fluid that had been sent through it ; and
even the electric spark has been obtained from the Torpedo— very
small, it is true, but still recognizably apparent. It is rather curious
that in the course of the experiments it was discovered that the upper
surface of the Torpedo corresponded with the copper plate of a battery,
and the lower surface with the zinc plate.

The structure of the electrical organ is far too complex to be fully
described in this woik, as it would require at least forty or fifty pages

THE THORNBACK SKATE.

539

and a large number of illustrations. Any of my readers who would
like to examine it in detail will find ample information in an article
on the subject by Dr. Coldstream, in the Cydopcedia of Anatomy and
Physiology, and from a valuable series of wax models in the museum
of the College of Surgeons.

This fish is found in the Mediterranean and the Indian and Pacific
Oceans, and occasionally off the Cape, and has now and then been cap-
tured on our coasts. Happily, the Torpedo does not attain a very great
size, one of the largest specimens being about four feet long, and weigh-
ing sixty or seventy pounds.

The Rays are well represented in England by several large and
curious species.' One of the commonest examples is the Thornback

The Thornback Skate {Raia clavata).

Skate, or Ray, so called from the large number of thorny projections
which are scattered over its back, and especially along the spine.

The Thornback is one of our common Rays, and is taken plentifully
on the shores of England, Scotland, and Ireland. As is the case with
many of the same genus, the flesh is considered rather good, and is
eaten both when fresh and when salted for consumption during stormy

540 THE COMMON SKATE.

weather. Autumn and winter are the best seasons for procuring this
fish, as the flesh is then firm and white, while during the rest of the
year it is rather liable to become flabby. Thornbacks taken in No-
vember are thought to be the best.

This species, like the rest of the Rays, feeds on Crustacea, flat-fish,
and molluscs; and, as many of these creatures possess very hard shells,
the Rays are furnished with a crushing-mill of teeth, which roll on each
other in such a way that even the stony shell of a crab is broken up
under the pressure.

The young of this and other Skates are produced from eggs, whose
form is familiar to every visitor to the seashore, where they go by the
popular name of Skate-barrows. Their color is black, their texture
leathery, thin, and tough, and their form wonderfully like a common
hand-barrow, the body of the barrow being represented by the middle
of the egg, and the handles by the four projections at the angles. The
empty cases are continually thrown on the beach, but it is seldom that
the young are found enclosed, except after a violent storm or when ob-
tained by means of the dredge.

This species is notable for certain thorny appendages to the skin,
which are profusely sown over the back and whole upper surface,
and among which stand out conspicuously a few very large tubercu-
lar spines with broad, oval, bony bases and curved, sharp-pointed
projections. Fifteen or sixteen of these bony thorns are found on
the back. Along the spine runs a single row of similar spines,, and
at the commencement of the tail it is accompanied by another row on
either side, making that member a very formidable instrument of of-
fence. In point of fact, the tail is as formidable a weapon as can be
met with, and the manner in which this living quarter-staff" is wielded
adds in no slight degree to its power. When angered the Skate bends
its body into a bow-like form, so that the tail nearly touches the snout,
and then, with a sudden fling, lashes out with the tail in the direction
of the offender, never failing to inflict a most painful stroke if the blow-
should happen to take eflfect.

The color of the Thornback Skate is brown, diversified with many
spots of brownish gray, and the under parts are pure white.

The Common Skate, sometimes called the Tinker, is so well known
that only a very short description is needed.

This fish is found on all our coasts in great plenty, and sometimes
attains to a really large size, a fine specimen having been known to
weigh two hundred pounds. The fishermen have a custom of calling
the female Skate a Maid, and the male, in consequence of the two elon-
gated appendages at the base of the tail, is called the Three-tailed Skate.
It IS a very voracious creature, eating various kinds of fish, crustaceans,
and other inhabitants of the deep.

THE THREE-SPINED STICKLEBACK. 541

We now arrive at the vast order of the Spine-finned Fishes known
scientifically as the Acanthopterygii. In all these fishes the skel-
eton is entirely bony, and part of the rays of the dorsal, anal, and ven-
tral fins is formed into spines, in some species very short, and in others
of extraordinary length.

The first family is well represented in England by many pretty and
interesting species.

The Three-spined Stickleback is one of our commonest British
fishes, and is known in different parts of England under the names
of Tittlebat, Prickle-fish, and Sharplin. It is a most bold and
lively little fish, hardly knowing fear, pugnacious to an absurd degree,
and remarkably interesting in its habits. Even more voracious than
the perch, it renders great service to mankind by keeping within due
bounds the many aquatic and terrestrial insects which, although per-
forming their indispensable duties in the world, are so extremely pro-
lific that they would render the country uninhabitable were they allowed
to increase without some check.

Should the reader be disposed to place specimens in an aquarium, he
must make up his mind that they will fight desperately at first, and
until they have satisfactorily settled the championship of the tank
their intercourse will be of the most aggressive character. Never
were such creatures to fight as the Stickleback's, for they will even go
out of their way to attack anything which they think may possibly
oflTend them, and they have no more hesitation in charging at a human
being than at one of their own species. I have known one of these
belligerent fish make repeated dashes at my walking-stick, knocking
his nose so hard against his inanimate antagonist that he inflicted a
perceptible jar upon it, and, in spite of the blows which his nose must
have suflTered, returning to the combat time after time with undimin-
ished spirit.

These combats are, however, most common about the breeding season,
when every adult Stickleback challenges every other of his own sex,
and they do little but fight from morning to evening. They are as
jealous as they are courageous, and will not allow^ another fish to pass
within a certain distance of their home without darting out and offering
battle.

Any one may see these spirited little combats by quietly watching
the inhabitants of a clear streamlet on a summer day. The two an-
tagonists dart at each other with spears in rest, snap at each other's
gills or head, and retain their grasp with the tenacity of a bull-dog.
They whirl round and round in the water, they drop, feint, attack,
and retreat, with astonishing quickness, until one confesses itself beaten
and makes oflT for shelter, the conqueror snapping at its tail and inflict-
ing a parting bite.

46

542 THE COMMON PERCH.

Then is the time to see the triumphant little creature in all the glory
of his radiant apparel, for with his conquest he assumes the victor's
crown ; his back glows with shining green, his sides and head are
glorious with gold and scarlet, and his belly is silvery white. ^ It is a
little creature, certainly, but even among the brilliant inhabitants of
the southern seas a more gorgeously-colored fish can hardly be found.
If the conqueror Stickleback could only be enlarged to the size of a
full-grown perch or roach, it would excite the greatest admiration. It
is curious that the vanquished antagonist loses in brilliance as much
as the conqueror has gained ; he sneaks off ignominiously after his
defeat, and hides himself, dull and sombre, until the time comes when
he too may conquer in fight and proudly wear the gold-and -scarlet
insignia of victory.

These struggles are not only for mastery, but are in so far praise-
worthy that they are waged in defence of home and family.

The Stickleback is one of the very few fish who build houses for their
young as a defence against the many foes which are ever lying in wait
for the destruction of the eggs or the newly-hatched young. These
nests are built of various vegetable substances, fastened together with
a kind of slime that exudes from the body of the male. The Fifteen-
spined Stickleback, a marine species, also makes a nest, though hardly
of so careful a construction.

The Three-spined Stickleback is very fond of inhabiting the mouths
of rivers where they empty themselves into the sea, the brackish water
appearing to suit its constitution. It can therefore be easily accli-
matized to new conditions, and a specimen that has been taken from an
inland stream can soon be brought to inhabit the water of a marine
aquarium, though such water is usually, in consequence of evaporation,
more salt than that of the sea.

We now come to the large and important family of the Perches,
which comprises many of the handsomest and most valuable fishes.
The members of this family are found in all parts of the globe.

The Common Perch is well known as one of our handsomest river
fish, and, on account of its boldness and the voracious manner in which
it takes the bait, and the active strength with which it struggles against
its captor, is a great favorite with many anglers. Moreover, when
captured and placed in an aquarium, it very soon learns to distinguish
the hand that feeds it, and will come to the surface and take food from
the fingers. It has a fashion of seizing its food with a rather sharp
jerk, and then snatches it away with such violence that when it takes
the hook it will drag a stout cork-float several inches below the surface,
and by the force of its own stroke will mostly hook itself without any
exertion on the part of the angler. Bold-biting, however, as is its
reputation, there are some seasons of the year when it is almost im-

THE PEKCH.

543

possible to catch a Perch, and even the shy and gently-nibbling roach
is an easier prey.

The Perch is truly a voracious fish, feeding upon all kinds of aquatic
worms, insects, and fishes, preferring the latter diet as it becomes older
and larger. The smaller fish, such as minnows, young roach, dace.

The Yellow-barred Perch [Perca fluvescens) .

and gudgeons, are terribly persecuted by the Perch, and a bait formed
of either of these fishes, or a good imitation of them, will generally
allure the finest Perches to the hook. Although generally inhabiting
mid or deep water, it will sometimes come to the surface to snap up a
casual fly that has fallen into the water, and on several occasions has
been captured by anglers when fishing with a fly for trout.

Crappie, Sac-a-Lai or Chinkapin Perch {Pomoxis hexacanthus).

Practical fishermen say that the Perch is almost the only fish which
the pike does not venture to attack, and that if a pike makes one of
its rushing onslaughts on a Perch, the intended prey boldly faces the
enemy, erects the dorsal fin with its array of formidable spines, and

544 THE BLACK BASS.

thus baffles the ever-hungry aggressor. Still, it is an article of faith
with some anglers that a young Perch from which the dorsal fin has
been removed is one of the surest baits for pike. Perhaps they think
that the pike is so delighted to find a Perch unarmed that it seizes the
opportunity to feed upon a luxury which it can seldom obtain.

The Perch is not a large fish, from two to three pounds being con-
sidered rather a heavy weight. Individuals, however, of much greater
dimensions have been, though rarely, captured. One of the finest
Perches ever taken in England was captured in the river Avon, in
Wiltshire, by a night-line baited with a roach ; its weight was eight
pounds. Specimens of five or six pounds are occasionally taken, but
are thought so valuable that the captor generally sends the account of
his success to some journal.

The color of the Perch is rich greenish brown above, passing grad-
ually into golden white below. Upon the sides is a row of dark trans-
verse bands, generally from five to seven in number. The first dorsal
fin is brown, with a little black between two or three of the first and
last rays ; the second dorsal and the pectoral are pale brow^n, and the
tail and other fins are bright red. »

The well-known Black Bass of America inhabits the rivers and lakes
of North America.

This fine fish is a really valuable species, on account of its large
dimensions and the excellence of its flesh. It is very hardy, and

The Black Bass (Grystes nigncans).

can be taken from one locality to another if placed in a tub of water
covered with a wet canvas.

It is a marvellously bold-biting fish, and affords good sport to all
anglers, whether they fish only for the sake of amusement, using a
fly or other delicate bait, or whether they seek to take their prey as
a matter of business and employ small fish as a bait, or the obstruc-
tive «' spoon," whose treacherous glitter the Black Bass is seldom able
to withstand. It is an active and powerful fish, and when hooked
struggles so long and so fiercely that it tests all the angler's skill
before it can be safely landed

THE OREOSOMA AND THE CH^TODONTINA. 545

The color of the Black Bass is brown, washed with golden green, and
mottled with dark spots on the centre of each scale, darker on the back,
and becoming nearly white on the abdomen. When newly caught the
body is traversed with several dark bauds. It is a very fine fish, speci-
mens having been known to weigh nearly twenty pounds.

Passing by many large genera, which cannot be noticed for lack of
space, we come to a very odd-looking fish, called perforce, for want of
a popular title, the Oreosoma, a name formed from two Greek words,
literally signifying '' hilly-bodied ;" and the title is very appropriate.

This remarkable little fish was captured in the Atlantic by Peron,
and has ever been esteemed as one of the curiosities of the animal king-
dom. Upon the body there are no true scales, but their place is sup-
plied by a number of bony or horny protuberances, of a conical shape,
and serving no ascertained purpose. These cones may be divided into
two distinct sets, the larger set being arranged in two ranks, four on the
back and ten on the abdomen, and among them are placed the smaller
set. The body of this fish is very deep in proportion to its length, and
the operculum has two ridges, terminating in flattened angles. There
are two dorsal fins, the first armed with five spin3s.

We now arrive at a large family, containing a series of fishes re-
markable for their extraordinary shape, their bold and eccentric color-
ing, and their curious habits. In Dr. Giinther's elaborat 3 arrangement
of the Acanthopterygian fishes this family is called by the name of Squa-
mipeunes, or "scaly-finned fishes," because "the vertical fins are more
or less densely covered with small scales," the spinous portions sometimes
not scaly. They are nearly all carnivorous fishes, and for the most
part are exclusively inhabitants of the tropical seas or rivers. Their
bodies are very much compressed and extremely deep in proportion to
their length, and the mouth is usually small and placed in front of the
snout.

The first group of this family — or sub-family, as it might be called —
is termed Chsetodontina, from the large typical genus of the group.
Their mouths are small, and furnished with several rows of very tiny,
slender, and bristle-like teeth — a peculiarity of structure that has
gained for them their scientific name Chsetodontina, a term composed
of two Greek words, the former signifying " hair," and the latter " a
tooth." The colors of the species belonging to this group are brilliant
in tint, and are generally arranged in bold stripes or spots. Black
and yellow are the prevailing hues, but blue and green are found in
some species.

The figure given on page 546 represents a most remarkable species,
called, from the form of its mouth, the Beaked Ch^etodon.

The curiously-elongated muzzle is employed by this fish in a rather
unexpected manner, being used as a gun or bow, a drop of water tak-

46* 2 K

546

THE BEAKED CH^TODON.

ing the place of the arrow or bullet. Perhaps the closest analogy is
with the celebrated "sumpitan," or blow-gun, of the Macoushi Indians,
a tube through which an arrow is driven by the force of the breath.
The Beaked Ch?etodou feeds largely on flies and other insects, but is
not forced to depend, as is the case with nearly every other fish, on the
accidental fall of its prey into the water. If it sees a fly or other in-
sect resting on a twig or grass-blade that overhangs the water, the
Chietodon approaches very quietly, the greater part of its body sub-
merged, and its nose just showing itself above the surface, the point
directed toward the victim. Suddenly it shoots a drop of water at the
fly with such accuracy of aim that the unsuspecting insect is knocked

The Beaked Ch^todon {Chebm rostratus).

off" its perch, and is snapped up by the fish as soon as it touches the sur-
face of the water.

This habit it continues even in captivity, and is in consequence in
great estimation as a household pet by the Japanese. They keep the
fish in a large bowl of water, and amuse themselves by holding toward
It a fly upon the end of a slender rod, and seeing the finny archer strike
its prey into the water. Another fish, called the "Archer,"' inhabiting
the East Indian and Polynesian seas, possesses the same facultv, but is
not so remarkable for its eccentric form and the bold beauty of Us tints.

The Beaked Ch?etodon inhabits the Indian and Polynesian seas, and
has been taken off" the west coast of Australia, where it is usually found
in or near the mouths of rivers. Over the head and body of this species
are drawn five brownish cross-bands edged with darker brown and white,
and m the middle of the soft dorsal fin there is a rather large circular
black spot edged with white.

THE BULL-HEAD. 547

The large and important family of the Triglidse, or Gurnards, is
represented by several British fishes. This family contains a great
number of species, many of which are most remarkable, not only for
their beautiful colors, which alone are sufficient to attract attention, but
also for the strange and weird shape and large development of the fins.
They are carnivorous fish, mostly inhabiting the seas, a very few spe-
cies being able to exist in fresh water. They are not swift or strong
swimmers, and therefore remain for the most part in deep water. Some,
however, are able by means of their largely-developed pectoral fins to
raise themselves into the air, and for a brief space to sustain themselves
in the thinner element. The mouth is mostly large, and in some cases
the gape is so wide and the head and jaws so Strangely shaped that the
general aspect is most repulsive.

We now come to a very familiar and not very prepossessing fish, the
well-known Bull-head or Miller's Thumb, sometimes called by the
name of Tommy Logge.

This large-headed and odd-looking fish is very common in our brooks
and streams, where it is generally found under loose stones, and aflTords
great sport to the juvenile fisherman. In my younger days the chase
of the Bull-head was rather an exciting one, and was^arried out with-
out hook or line, or indeed any aid but the hands. Tliis fish has a
habit of hiding itself under loose stones, and on account of its flat
though wide head is enabled to push itself into crevices which are ap-
parently much too small to cont lin it.

The name of Miller's Thumb is derived from the peculiarly wide
and flattened head, which is thought to bear some resemblance to the
object whence its name is taken. A miller, judges of the quality of the
meal by rubbing it with his thumb over his fingers as it is shot from
the spout, and by the continual use of this custom the thumb becomes
gradually widened and flattened at its extremity. The name of Bull-
head also alludes to the same width and flatness of the skull.

The Bull-head is a voracious little fish, feeding on various water in-
sects, worms, larvse, and the young fry of other fish. It is a represent-
ative of a rather large genus, comprising about twenty-six or twenty-
seven known species, which are spread over all the northern and tem-
perate parts of the world. In Russia the Bull-head is believed by the
general public to possess the same quality as is attributed to the king-
fisher by our own rustic population, and to indicate the direction of
the wind by always keeping its head turned to windward when it is
dried and suspended horizontally by a thread.

The mouth of this little fish is very wide, and contains numerous
minute teeth. There is one spine on the prseoperculum, and the oper-
culum ends in a flattened point. The general color of the smooth skin
is very dark brown on the back, white on the abdomen, and grayish

548

THE RED AND THE FLYING GURNARD.

white on the flanks. The rays of the fins are spotted with dark black-
ish brown and white, rather variable in different individuals, and the
fins are marked with dark-brown dots. The eyes are yellow, and the
pupil very dark blue. It is but a small fish, averaging four, and sel-
dom exceeding five, inches in length.

We now come to the typical genus of this family, which is repre-
sented by several well-known British species.

The Red Gurnard — or Cuckoo Gurnard, as it is sometimes called,
from the sound it utters when taken out of the water — is very common

The Red Gurnard {Trigla cuculus).

on the English coast. It is rather a small fish, rarely exceeding four-
teen inches in length. The colors of its body when living are very
beautiful, the upper part being bright red, and the under parts silvery
white.

There are nine species of Gurnard known to frequent the coasts of
Kngland, some, as the Sapphirine and the Mailed Gurnards, being
most extraordinary in form.

The Flying Gurnard is common in the Indian seas. Its pectoral
tins are so much enlarged that when it springs out of the water, when

THE MACKEREL.

549

pursued by the dolphin or bonito, the wide quivering jfins are able to
sustain it in the air for a limited period.

This fish has often been confounded by voyagers with the true flying
fish (Exoccetus), which belongs to an entirely different order.

The important though not very large family of the Scomberidse

contains many
species that are
almost invalu-
able as food, and
others that are
beautiful in form
and interesting in
habits.

Our first ex-
ample of these
fishes is the
Mackerel, so
well known for
the exceeding
beauty of its
colors and the
peculiar flavor
of its flesh.
This is one of

the species that are forced by the irresistible impulse of instinct to
migrate in vast shoals at certain times of the year, directing their
course toward the shores, and as a general rule frequenting the same
or neighboring localities from year to year.

This fish is taken both by nets and lines, the nets being of two kinds,
one called the drift-net, and the other the seine. The drift-net is, as its
name implies, allowed to be drifted out with the tide, and is suspended
along a cord called the drift-rope. The whole length of one of these
nets when shot is sometimes a mile and a half, these enormous dimen-
sions being attained by attaching a number of nets together at the ends.
Each of these nets is one hundred and twenty feet long and twenty feet
deep, and along the upper edge is fastened a series of cork floats. When
the net is to be shot a large buoy is attached to the end of the drift-
rope, the buoy is thrown overboard, and the sails set. As the boat
dashes away from the spot, the nets, which have already been attached
to the drift-rope, are thrown successively overboard, until all the nets
are paid out and hang in the water like a net wall. The strain of the
buoy at one end of the drift-rope and the boat at the other keeps the
rope straight and the net upright.

As the Mackerel come swimming along they are arrested by the net,

The Flying Gurnard {Daclylopterus volitans).

550

THE MACKEREL.

which they cannot see, on account of the thin twine of which it is made,
and the large meshes, which are about two and a half inches in diam-
eter. The head slips through the meshes, but the middle of the body
is too large and cannot pass. When the fish attempts to recede, the
open gill-covers become hitched in the meshes, and so retain it in that
uncomfortable position until the net is hauled in.

This is a delicate and difficult operation, especially when the take
of fish is heavy. Mr. Yarrell mentions that in June, 1808, the nets
were so heavily loaded that the fishermen could not haul them in, or
even keep them afloat, so that they were forced to cut the drift-ropes
and let the nets sink and be lost. The nets on this occasion were worth
nearly sixty pounds, not including the value of the fish.

In the seine-net the fish are taken by surrounding the shoal with
the net, which is made with very small meshes, and either gently

-^^g^gs^^ — — _ hauled to the sur-

] face, so that the
' enclosed fish can
be dipped out,
or even drawn
ashore and then
emptied.

Fishing for
Mackerel with a
line is also a
profitable mode
of taking these
, fish, although

they cannot be caught in such multitudes as with the net. The
Mackerel is a very voracious fish, and will bite at almost any glit-
tering substance drawn quickly through the water, a strip of scarlet
cloth being a very favorite bait. A tapering strip of flesh cut from
the side of a Mackerel is found to be the most successful of any bait
and the method of angling is simply to pass the hook through the
thicker end of the strip-technically called a " lask "-and to throw it
overboard from a boat in full sail, so that it is towed along without
trouble. The hook is kept below the surface of the water by means
ot a leaden plummet fixed to the line a short distance above the hook,
and the mackerel, on seizing the flying bait, is immediately caught.
^>L , llT I' t'^' ''^f '^' '^^ '' °^^ ^«« b^^ght and the wind is

^:^ui^:::z:^^' ^^^^ ^^^ '^'^ ''- '^^ - '-' - *^^^ -^

wiScen'hlf '^l f^""'^'"'} '' '''^ g^^^^ "P^» '^' back, variegated
males but in. Tr '''^''f\^^'^ cross-bands of black, straight in the
males, but undulating m the females. The abdomen and sides are sil-

The Mackerel {Scomber scomber).

THE TUNNY. 551

very white, with golden reflections. These colors are most brilliant
during the life of the fish, and, as they fade soon after it has left the
water, their brilliancy affords a good test of its freshness.

The celebrated Tunny belongs to this family, and is closely allied
to the Mackerel,

This magnificent and most important fish does not visit our coasts in
sufficient numbers to be of any commercial importance, but on the
shores of the Mediterranean, where it is found in very great abun-
dance, it forms one of the chief sources of wealth of the seaside pop-
ulation.

In May and June the Tunnies move in vast shoals along the shores,
seeking for suitable spots wherein to deposit their spawn. As soon as
they are seen on the move notice is given by a sentinel who is constant-
ly watching from some lofty eminence, and the whole population is at
once astir, preparing nets for the capture and salt and tubs for the
curing of the expected fish. There are two modes of catching the
Tunny — one by the seine-net and the other by the " madrague." The
mode of using the seine is identical with that which has already been
described when treating of the mackerel, but the madrague is much
more complicated in its structure and management. The principle of
the madrague is precisely the same as that of the " corral " by which
elephants are entrapped in Ceylon.

A vast enclosure of united nets, nearly a mile in length and divided
into several chambers, is so arranged that as the Tunnies pass along
the coast they are intercepted by a barrier, and on endeavoring to re-
treat are forced to enter one of the chambers. When a number of
Tunnies have fairly entered the net, they are driven from one chamber
to another, until they are forced into the last and smallest, called sig-
nificantly " the chamber of death." This chamber is furnished with a
floor of net, to which are attached a series of ropes, so that by hauling
in the ropes the floor of the net is drawn up and the fish brought to
the surface. The large and powerful fish struggle fiercely for liberty,
but are speedily stunned by blows from long poles and lifted into the
boats. The flesh of the Tunny is eaten both fresh and salted. It is
most extensively used, being pickled in various ways, boiled down into
excellent soup, and is also made into pies, which are thought to be very
excellent, and possess the valuable property of remaining good for
nearly two months. The different parts of the fish are called by ap-
propriate names, and are said to resemble beef, veal, and pork. The
food of the Tunny consists mostly of smaller fish, such as herrings and
pilchards, and the cuttle-fish also forms some portion of its diet.

In general shape the Tunny is not very unlike the mackerel, but in
size it is vastly superior, generally averaging four feet in length, and
sometimes attaining the dimensions of six or seven feet. The color of

552

THE SUCKING FISH.

the upper part of the body is very dark blue, and the abdomen is
white decorated with spots of a silvery lustre. The sides of the head
-are white.

Every one has heard of the Sucking Fish, and there are few who
are not acquainted with the wild and fabulous tales narrated of its
powers.

This little fish was reported to adhere to the bottom of ships, and to
arrest their progress as suddenly and firmly as if they had struck upon
a rock. The winds might blow, the sails might fill, and the masts creak,
but the unseen fish below could hold the vessel by its single force, and
confine her to the same spot as if at anchor. It is wonderful how fully
tliis fable was received, and how many, years were needed to root the

belief out of pre-
ju<Uced minds.
Both scientific
names refer to
this so-called
property, Ech-
eneis signifying
*' ship - holder,"
and rem or a mean-
ing "delay."

That the Suck-
ing Fish is able
to adhere strong-
ly to smooth sur-
faces is a well-
known fact, the process being accomplished by means of the curious
shield or disc upon the upper surface of the head and shoulders, the
general shape of which can be understood by reference to the en-
graving. This disc is composed of a' number of flat bony laminae,
arranged parallel to each other in a manner resembling the common
wooden window-blind, and capable of being raised or depressed at will.
It IS found ])y anatomical investigation that these laminse are formed
by modifications of the spinous dorsal fin, the number of laminae cor-
responding to that of the spines. They are moved by a series of muscles
set obliquely, and when the fish presses the soft edge of the disc against
any smooth object and then depresses the laminse, a vacuum is formed,
causmg the fish to adhere tightly to the spot upon which the disc is
placed.

When the creature has once fixed itself it cannot be detached with-
out niuch difiiculty, and the only method of removing it, without tear-
mg the h(,dy or disc, is to slide it forward in a direction corresponding
\vith the set of the laminse. In the opposite direction it cannot be

The Suckinc4 Fish [Fcheneis

THE JOHN DORY. 553

moved, and the fish, therefore, when adhering to a moving body, takes
care to fix itself in such a manner that it cannot be washed off by the
water through which it is drawn. Even after death, or when the disc
is separated from the body, this curious organ can be applied to any
smooth object, and will hold with tolerable firmness. In order to ac-
commodate the disc, the upper part of the skull is flattened and rather
widened.

It is a rather voracious fish, and takes the hook eagerly if baited with
a piece of raw flesh. When hooked, however, it is by no means secured,
for as soon as it feels the prick of the sharp point and the pull of the
line it darts to the side of the vessel, dives deeply and affixes itself so
strongly to the bottom that the hook may be torn out of the mouth be-
fore the fish will relax its hold. It is therefore necessary to draw the
Sucking Fish smartly out of the water as soon as it is fairly hooked, and
in this manner great numbers can be caught. The flesh is thought to
be very good, and is said to resemble that of the eel, but without its
richness. The color of this species is dusky brown, darker on the back
than on the abdomen. The fins are darker than the body, and are of a
dense leathery consistence. The length of this fish seldom exceeds eight
inches.

The well-known John Dory, so dear to epicures, is found in the
British seas, and is frequently seen in the fishmongers' shops, where its
peculiar shape seldom fails of attracting attention even from those who
are not likely to purchase it or even to have seen it on the table.

The name of John Dory is thought to be a corruption of the French
n?ime jaime doree, a title given to the fish on account of the gilded yel-
low which decorates its body. It was called Zeus by the ancients, be-
cause they considered it to be the king of eatable fish, and the name of
Faber, or " blacksmith," has probably been earned by the smoky tints
which cloud its back. The dark and conspicuous spots on the side are
thought in many places to be imprinted upon the fish as a memorial of
the honor conferred upon its ancestor in times past, when St. Peter took
the tribute-money from the mouth of the Dory, and left the print of his
finger and thumb as a perpetual remembrance of the event. Some per-
sons, however, contend that the marks are due, not to St. Peter, but St.
Christopher, and the Greeks, who hold to the latter tradition, call the
fish Christophoron.

The flesh of the Dory is remarkably excellent, and, as it is rathei
improved by the lapse of twenty-four hours after the fish has been
taken from the sea, it is peculiarly valuable to those who live far in-
land and cannot hope for the more delicate fishes, which must be eaten
almost as soon as caught. Although a common fish, it always commands
a high price, and as, when cooked, the head occupies so large a space,
it never affords an economical dish.

47

554 THE SWOKD-FISH.

The shape of the Dory is very peculiar. The body is very deep, and
greatly compressed. The head is oddly shaped, and the mouth can
l)e protruded to a surprising extent. The spines of the first dorsal fin
are much prolonged, and behind each ray is given ofi" a very long wav-
ing filament, three times as long as the ray in front of it. Along the
base of the dorsal and anal fins are arranged two rows of spiny scales,
their points being directed backward, and one row being set at each
side of the fin.

The well-known Sword-fish derives its popular name from the curious
development of the snout, which projects forward ana is 'greatly pro-

The Swobd-fish {Xiphias gladius).

longed into a shape somewhat resembling a sword-blade. The sword
is formed by the extension of certain bones belonging to the upper
part of the head. This fine fish is found in the Mediterranean Sea,
and also in the Atlantic Ocean, and in the former locality is often very
plentiful. The Sicilian fishermen are accustomed to pursue the Sword-
Hsh in boats, and mostly employ the harpoon in its capture. The
weapon is not very heavy, and by a strong and practised hand can
l)i,' hurled to some distance. The flesh of the Sword-fish is always eat-
al)Ie and nourishing, and in all specimens is white and well flavored.

The use of the " sword " is not clearly ascertained. In all probabil-
ity, the fish employs this curious weapon in gaining its subsistence, but
the precise mode of so doing is not known. It is an ascertained fact
that the Sword-fish will sometimes attack whales and stab them deeply
with its sharp beak, and it is also known that this fish has several times
driven its beak so deeply into a ship that the weapon has been broken
off by the shock. In such cases the blow is so severe that the sailors
luive fancied that their vessel has struck upon a rock. Several museums
possess examples of pierced planks and beams, but it is possible that

THE BLACK GOBY. 555

the fish may have struck them by accident, and not in a deliberate
charge. The Sword-fish generally go in pairs.

The food of this creature is rather varied, consisting of cuttle-fish,
especially the squid, and of small fishes, neither of which animals would
in any way fall victims to the sword. It certainly has been said that
the weapon is used for transfixing the flat fish as they lie on the bed of
the sea, but this assertion does not appear to be worthy of credit.

The young and adult specimens are very different from each other.
In the young the body is covered with projecting tubercles, which
gradually disappear as it increases in size, and when it has attained
the length of three feet they are seldom to be seen. Those on the abdo-
men remain longer than the others. The dorsal fin extends in the young
specimens from the back of the head to the root of the tail, but the
membranes and spines of its centre are so extremely delicate that they
are soon rubbed away, and the adult specimen then appears to have
two dorsal fins.

The color of the Sword-fish is bluish black above and silvery white
below. The whole body is rough, and the lateral line is almost invis-
ible. The usual length of the Sword-fish is from ten to twelve feet,
but specimens have been seen which much exceed those dimensions.
A few examples of the Sword-fish have been captured in British
waters ; one that measured seven feet in length was taken off" Margate.

We now arrive at the large family of the Gobies, which iucludes
many curious fish, and of which the British coasts present many repre-
sentatives.

The Black Goby, sometimes known as the Rock-fish, is a moder-
ately common example of the enormous genus to which it belongs,
and which contains more than a hundred and fifty authenticated
species. The members of this genus may easily be recognized by the
peculiar form of the ventral fins, which are united together so as to
form a hollow disc, by which they can attach themselves to rocks or
stones at pleasure. In fact, this disc, although differing in shape, acts
on exactly the same principle as that of the sucking fish.

The Black Goby prefers the rocky to the sandy coasts, and may be
found in the pools left by the retreating tide. Some naturalists deny
that the disc is used for adhesion, but I have caught and kept many
Gobies, and have frequently seen them sticking to the sides of the
vessel in which they were confined. The adhesion was achieved with
astonishing rapidity, and the little fish contrived to hold itself with
great tenacity. The surface of the Black Goby is very slippery, owing
to the abundant mucous secretion which is poured from the appropriate
glands ; but after it has been in spirits for some time the edges of the
scales begin to project through the mucus, and are exceedingly rough
to the touch.

556

THE FISHING FKOG.

Id some places along the seacoast the Gobies are known by the pop-
ular appellation of Bull-routs, and are rather feared on account of the
sharp bite which their strong jaws and pointed teeth can inflict upon the
bare hand.

Another small family now comes before us, called the Batrachidse,
or Frog-fishes, from the froggish aspect of the body, and especially of
the head.

The Fishing Frog, Angler-fish, or Wide Gab is not unfrequent
on the British coasts, and has long been famous for the habit from
which it has derived its popular name.

The first dorsal fin is almost wholly wanting, its place being occu-
pied merely by three spines, movable by means of certain muscles. The

manner in which

' " these spines " are

connected with
the body is truly
marvellous. The
first, which is fur-
nished at its tip
with a loose shi-
ning slip of mem-
brane, is develop-
ed at its base into
a ring, through
which passes a sta-
ple of bone that
proceeds from the
head. The read-
er may obtain a
very perfect idea
of this beautiful
piece of mechan-
ism by taking a
common iron

skewer, slipping a staple through its ring, and driving the staple into a
board. It will then be seen that the skewer is capable of free motion
in every direction. The second spine is arranged after a somewhat'
similar fashion, but is capable of being moved only backward and
fi>rward. The use of these spines is no less remarkable than their
form.

The Fishing Frog is not a rapid swimmer, and would have but little
success if it were to chase the swift and active fishes on which it feeds.
It therefore buries itself in the muddy sand, and continually waves
the long filaments with their glittering tips. The neighboring fish,

The Fishing Frog {Lophius piscatorius).

THE WALKING FISH. 557

following the instincts of their inquisitive nature, corae to examine the
curious object, and are suddenly snapped up in the wide jaws of their
hidden foe. Many fishes can be attracted by any glittering object
moved gently in the water, and it is well known by anglers how deadly
a bait is formed of a spoon-shaped piece of polished metal furnished
with hooks and drawn quickly through the water.

It is impossible to mistake this fish for any other inhabitant of the
ocean, its huge head — wide, flattened, and toad-like — its enormous and
gaping mouth, with the rows of sharply-pointed teeth, its eyes set on
the top of the head, and the three long spines, being signs which can-
not be misunderstood. The general color of this fish is brown above
and white below ; the ventral and pectoral fins are nearly white, and
that of the tail almost black. The throat, just within the jaws, is
composed of loose skin, which forms a kind of bag. The average
length of the adult Fishing Frog is about a yard.

The family in which this fish is placed may be distinguished by the
peculiar structure of the pectoral fins, which are mounted on a sort
of arm produced by an elongation of the carpal bones. From this
peculiarity the family is termed Pediculati, or " foot-bearing fishes," as
the prolonged fins enable them to walk along wet ground almost like
quadrupeds.

The very odd-looking creature called the Walking Fish is one of
the strange and weird forms that sometimes occur in nature, and which
are so entirely opposed to all preconceived ideas that they appear
to be rather the composition of human ingenuity than beings actually
existing. The traveller who first discovered this remarkable fish would
certainly have been disbelieved if he had contented himself with mak-
ing a drawing of it, and had not satisfied the rigid scrutiny of scientific
men by bringing home a preserved specimen.

In the fishes of this genus the carpal bones — i. e., those bones which
represent the wrist in man — are very greatly lengthened, more so than
in the preceding genus, and at their extremity are placed the pectoral
fins, which are short, stiflT, and powerful, the pointed rays resembling
claws rather than fins. In all the fishes of this genus the body is
much compressed and decidedly elevated, but in the present species
these peculiarities are carried to an almost exaggerated extent. The
first dorsal spine, with its membranous appendages, is placed, as usual,
just above the snout, and the second ray is set immediately behind it.
The third, however, is placed at a very great distance from the second,
and forms part of the soft dorsal fin. .

Dr. Giinther remarks upon the fishes of this genus that they are so
extremely variable in form, color, and the greater or less development
of the dorsal spines, that hardly two specimens are found sufl[iciently
alike to enable the systematic naturalist to decide upon their precise

47*

558 THE SEA WOLF AND THE EYED BLENNY.

situation in the zoological scale. Moreover, their geographical range is
exceedingly wide, some species ranging over the Atlantic and Indian
Oceans ; and the learned ichthyologist above mentioned is of opinion
that many specimens which he has at present been compelled to admit
into the list of separate species will ultimately be found to be mere
casual varieties.

The color of this species is yellow diversified with many spots and
streaks of brown, some of the streaks radiating from the eye, and
others extending over the dorsal fin. It is a native of the Indian
seas.

The important family of the Blennies comes next in order. They
are all carnivorous fishes, many being extremely voracious, and are
spread over the shores of every sea on the globe. They mostly reside
on or near the bottom.

The Sea Wolf, Sea Cat, or Swine-fish, is one of the fiercest and
most formidable of the finny tribes that are found on our coast, and
has well earned the popular names by which it is known.

The Sea Wolf possesses a terrible armature of teeth, not only in the
jaws, but arranged in a double band on the palate, and by means of
these powerful weapons it can crush with ease the hard-shelled mol-
luscs and crustaceans on which it feeds. As may be imagined, the
aspect of the Sea Wolf is far from prepossessing, its fierce head, with
the armed jaws, strong and cruel as those of the tiger or hysena, and
the smooth, slime-covered skin, giving it a most repulsive aspect.

The Sea Wolf is sometimes taken with the hook, but is mostly found
entangled in the nets together with other fish, and in either case it strug-
gles violently as soon as it perceives the loss of its liberty. It will tear
the nets to pieces with its teeth, and when hauled out of the water it still
flounces about with such vigor, and bites at every object with such
ferocity, that the boatmen usually stun it by a blow on the head before
lifting it into the vessel, a very heavy stroke being required for the pur-
pose.

The general color of the Sea Wolf is brownish gray, with a series of
brown vertical stripes and spots over the upper parts ; the under parts
are white. On our shores it attains a length of six or seven feet, but in
the northern seas, where it thrives best, it greatly exceeds those dimen-
sions. There is an American variety where the vertical streaks are
modified into round spots of blackish brown.

The typical g^nus of this family is represented by several British
specimens, of which the Eyed Blenny is one of the most conspicuous.
This pretty fish is not very common, but has been taken on the south-
ern coasts of England. From the elevated dorsal fin, and the bold dark-
brown spot that decorates it, this Blenny has sometimes been called the
Butterfly Fish. In the Mediterranean it is tolerably common, and lives

THE CLIMBING PERCH.

559

mostly among the seaweed, where it finds abundance of the smaller
Crustacea and molluscs.

The extraordinary fish called, from its habits, the Climbing Perch
is a native of Asia, and remarkable for its apparent disregard of cer-
tain natural laws.

This singular creature has long been celebrated for its powers of vol-
untarily leaving the failing streams, ascending the banks, and proceed-
ing over dry land toward some spot where its unerring instinct warns
it that water is yet to be found.

Several species, of which the Anahas scandens has been chosen as the
best example, possess this singular property of walking over dry land,
so that the old proverb of a fish out of water is in these cases quite in-
applicable. Several instances of this remarkable propensity have been

The Climbing Perch {Anahas scandem).

collected by Sir J. Emerson Tennent, and have been inserted in his
valuable work on the natural history of Ceylon. The following ac-
count is written by Mr. Morris, the government agent in Trinco-
malee :

" I was lately on duty inspecting the bund of a large tank at Nade-
cadua, which being out of repair, the remaining water was confined in
a small hollow in the otherwise dry bed. Whilst there heavy rains
came on, and as we stood on the high ground we observed a pelican on
the margin of the shallow pool gorging himself; our people went to-
ward him, and raised a cry of * Fish ! fish !' We hurried down and
found numbers of fish struggling upward through the grass in the rills
formed by the trickling of the rain. There was scarcely water to cover
them, but nevertheless they made rapid progress up the bank, on which
our followers collected about two baskets of them at a distance of about

560 THE CLIMBING PERCH.

forty yards from the tank. They were forcing their way up the knoll ;
and had they not been interrupted, first by the pelican and afterward
bv ourselves, they would in a few minutes have gained the highest
point, and descended on the other side into a pool which formed an-
other portion of the tank.

"... As the tanks dry up the fish congregate in the little pools, till
at last you find them in thousands in the moistest parts of the beds,
rolling in the blue mud, which is at that time about the consistence of
thick gruel.

"As the moisture further evaporates the surface fish are left uncov-
ered, and they crawl away in search of fresh pools. In one place I
saw hundreds diverging in every direction from the tank they had just
abandoned to a distance of fifty or sixty yards, and still travelling on-
ward. In going this distance, however, they must have used muscular
exertion enough to have taken them half a mile on level ground, for
at these places all the cattle and wild animals of the neighborhood had
latterly come to drink, so that the surface was everywhere indented
with footmarks in addition to the cracks in the surrounding baked
mud, into which the fish tumbled in their progress. In those holes
which were deep, and the sides perpendicular, they remained to die,
and were carried off by kites and crows.

" My impression is that this migration must take place at night or
before sunrise, for it was only early in the morning that I have seen
them progressing, and I found that those I brought away with me in
the chatties appeared quiet by day, but a large proportion managed to
get out of the chatties by night. Some escaped altogether; others were
trodden on and killed.

"One peculiarity is the large size of the vertebral column, quite dis-
proportioned to the bulk of the fish. I particularly noticed that all in
the act of migrating had their gills expanded."

It is known of the Climbing Perch that the fishermen of the Ganges,
who subsist largely on these fishes, are accustomed to put them into an
earthen pan or chatty as soon as caught; and, although no water is
supplied to them, they exist very well without it, and live this strange
life for five or six days.

On opening the head of this fish the curious structure which enables
it to perform such marvellous feats is clearly seen. Just within the
sides of the head the pharyngeal bones — i. e., the bones that support
the orifice between the mouth and gullet — are much enlarged, and mod-
ified into a series of labyrinthine cells and duplications, so that they
retain a large amount of water in the interstices and prevent the gill-
membranes from becoming dry. Some writers say that this fish is ca-
pable of climbing up the rough stems of palm trees in search of the
water that lodges between the bases of the dead leaves and the stem,

THE COMMON SOLE. 561

or perhaps iu search of food. lu the Tamoule language it is called
Paiieiri, or tree-climber.

The Flat Fishes, as they are popularly called, or the Pleuronec-
tidae, as they are named scientifically, are among the most remarkable
of the finny tribe. The latter name is of Greek origin, and signifies
" side-swimmer," in allusion to the mode of progression usually adopted
by these fishes.

The popular but erroneous idea of these creatures is that their bodies
are flattened, so that the abdomen rests on the ground and the back re-
mains uppermost ; but a brief examination suffices to show that the
form of these fishes is really compressed, so that when a turbot or a
sole is placed on the ground it lies upon one side or the other. Though
varying in color, it is found that the upper side is always of a dark tint,
the under side being quite if not wholly white. This arrangement is
most useful in guarding them against the attacks of enemies, their flat
dark upper surface bearing so great a resemblance to the sand on which
they love to creep that they can scarcely be distinguished, even when
the eye is directed toward them.

While at their ease they slide themselves over the bed of the sea in
a kind of creeping fashion, and have an odd custom of lying with the
head raised in a manner that reminds the observer irresistibly of the
cobra. If alarmed, they start at once into the vertical position usually
assumed by fishes, and dash ofl" with astonishing speed. As they swim
the flat fishes undulate through the water in a most graceful manner,
and it is very interesting to watch one of the common species, such as
the plaice or the sole, swim with serpentine ease and elegance, and then
sufter itself to sink slowly to the bottom, where it sits with raised head
and watchful eyes.

It is evident that if the eyes of the flat fishes were placed in the
manner customary among the finny race, one eye would be rendered
useless as long as the fish was lying upon its side. This difficulty is
therefore met by a most extraordinary modification of the bones of the
head, by which means both the eyes are brought to that side which re-
mains uppermost, and are thereby enabled to command a wide view
around. There have been one or two instances where the eyes have
been placed one on each side, but these may be considered as simple
variations from the ordinary rule.

The Common Sole is one of the most familiar of our British flat
fishes, and is found on all our coasts, those of the southern shores being
the most plentiful and attaining the largest dimensions.

The Sole can be taken by the line, but the fishermen always use the
trawl-net — a kind of huge dredge with a mouth that often exceeds
thirty feet in width. As these nets are drawn along the bed of the
sea the great beam which edges the mouth scrapes the mud and sand,

2 L

562 THE TURBOT.

and alarms the fishes to such an extent that they dash wildly about,
and mostly dart into the net, whence they never escape. Vast num-
bers of Soles are taken by this method of fishing, and, as the trawls
bring to the surface enormous quantities of crustaceans, molluscs, zoo-
phytes, and other marine inhabitants, the energetic naturalist cannot
employ his time better than in taking a sail in one of these boats, and
enduring a few hours' inconvenience for the sake of the rich harvest
which he is sure to reap. Some of the rarest and most valuable British
animals have been taken in the trawl-nets. The finest Sole that I ever

saw I took in a
trawl-net in one
of the creeks of
the Med way. As
to length and
breadth it was
not very remark-
able, but it was
almost half as
thick again as
^M any Sole that I
have seen.

The Sole is

The Sole [Soka mUgaris). iu condition

throughout the
greater part of the year, the only time when it is not worth eating
being from the end of February to the last week in March, when the
fishes are full of roe and the flesh is rather soft and watery. It is a
liardy fish, and can soon be acclimatized to live in fresh water; and it
is said that under such circumstances the fish can readily be fattened,
and becomes nearly twice as thick as when bred in the sea. Some-
times the Soles venture into the mouths of rivers, passing about four
or five miles into the fresh water, and depositing their multitudinous
eggs in such localities.

The color of the Sole is almost always brown on the right side and
white on the left, but examples of reversed soles are not uncommon,
where the left side is brown and the other is white. The scales are
small, and give a rough, rasp-like sensation to the hand. The dimen-
sions of this fish are very variable, an average specimen weighing about
a pound or eighteen ounces. Much larger examples, however, occur
occasionally, and Mr. Yarrell mentions one instance where a Sole
measured twenty-six inches in length, eleven and a half in width,
and weighed nine pounds.

The well-kuow4 Turbot, so widely and so worthily celebrated for
the firm delicacy of its flesh, inhabits many of the European coasts,

THE PLAICE.

563

and is found in tolerable abundance off our own shores. Like all Hat
fishes, it mostly haunts the sandy bed of the sea, but will sometimes
swim boldly to the surface of the water. It is a restless and wandering
fish, traversing considerable
distances as it feeds, and gen-
erally moving in small com-
panies.

The Turbot is known in
Scotland by the titles of Ban-
nock Fleuk and Spawn
Fleuk, the former name
being given to it on account
of its flat shape, which re-
sembles a bannock or oat-
cake, and the latter because
it is thought to be at the best
while in roe. After spawning
— i. e., about August — its flesh

loses its peculiar firmness, but in a very short time the fish regains its
condition.

The color of the Turbot is brown of different shades on one side,
usually the left, and the whole of that side is spotted with little round
bony tubercles, which may be found in the skin after boiling. The size
of this fish is extremely variable. The average weight is six or seven
pounds, but Turbots are often taken of far greater dimensions. The

largest specimen
of which an au-
thentic notice is
was
Ply-
the
and

The Turbot [Pleuronectes maximus

preserved
taken near
mouth in
year 1730,

weighed seventy
pounds.

The Plaice is
well known by
the bright red
spots which are
scattered over
its dark side I
The Plaice (Pleuronecte^, platessa). havecaught num-

bers of Plaice, some measuring six or seven inches in length, by merely
wading into the muddy sand, holding them down with the feet, and
picking them out with the hands. Their terrified wriggle is easily felt

564 THE FLOUNDER AND THE COD-FISH.

bv the bare feet as the fishes find themselves pressed into the sand,
whither they have fled for refuge, and by a little dexterous manage-
ment they may be captured by inserting the fingers under the fi^ot and
seizing them firmly across the body.

The color of the Plaice is light brown, variegated with a number of
bright red spots upon the body and the dorsal and anal fins. When
young the Plaice has often a dark spot in the centre of each red mark.
The Flounder, Mayock Fleuk, or Butt is quite as common as the
plaice, and is found in salt, brackish, or fresh water, sometimes living in
the sea, sometimes inhabiting the mouths of rivers, and sometimes pass-
ing up the stream for many miles.

In former days the Flounder has been known to ascend the Thames
as high as Hampton Court, and has there been observed actively chas-
ing the minnows and driving them into shallow water. I have often
taken small Flounders in the Thames just above Erith.

The well-known Cod-fish is a native of many seas, and in some local-
ities is found in countless legions.

This most useful fish is captured in vast numbers at certain seasons
of the year, and is always taken with the hook and line. The lines are

of two descriptions — namely, the long
lines, to which a great number of short
lines are attached, and the simple hand-
lines, which are held by the fishermen.
The long lines sometimes run to an
extraordinary length, and shorter lines,
technically called snoods, are afiixed to
them at definite distances.
V^^^"^ — To the end of each snood is attached

The Cod i^cuius morrhua), ^ ^^'^^^ ^««^' ^^^' ^^ the sharp teeth^

of the fish might sever a single line, the
portion of the snood which is near the hook is composed of a number
of separate threads fastened loosely together, so as to permit the teeth
to pass between the strands. At each end of the long line is fastened
a float or buoy, and when the hooks have been baited with sand launce,
limpets, whelks, and similar substances, the line is ready for action.

The boat, in which the line is ready coiled, makes for the fishing-
place, lowers a grapnel or small anchor, to which is attached the buoy
at one end of the line, and the vessel then sails oflT, paying out the line
as it proceeds, and always " shooting " the line across the tide, so as to
prevent the hooks from being washed against each other or twisted-
round the line, which is usually shot in the interval between the ebb
and flow of the tide, and hauled in at the end of about six hours.

As soon as the long line has been fairly shot, and both ends firmly
affixed to the grapnels, the fishermen improve the next six hours by

THE SHARP-NOSED EEL. 6G5

angling with short lines, one of which is held in each hand. They thus
capture not only Cod-fish, but haddock, whiting, hake, pollack, and
various kinds of flat fishes. On favorable occasions the quantity of
fish captured by a single boat is very great, one man having taken more
than four hundred Cod alone in ten hours.

The Cod is sometimes sent away in a fresh state, but is often split
and salted on the spot, packed in flats on board, and afterward washed
and dried on the rocks. In this state it is called Klip-fish or Kock-
fish. The liver produces a most valuable oil, which is now in great
favor for the purpose of affording strength to persons afflicted with
delicate lungs or who show symptoms of decline. The best oil is that
which drains naturally from the livers as they are thrown into a vessel
which is placed in a pan filled with boiling water. The oil is then
carefully strained through flannel, and is ready for sale.

The roe of the Cod is useful for bait, the sardine in particular being
very partial to that substance. Much of the roe is stupidly wasted by
the fisherman, who carelessly flings into the sea a commodity of which
he can sell any amount, and for which he can obtain ten or eleven
shillings per hundredweight. In Norway the dried heads of the Cod
are used as fodder for cows, and, strange to say, the graminivorous
quadrupeds are very fond of this aliment.

Like several other marine fish, the Cod can be kept in a pond, pro-
vided the water be salt ; and if the pond should communicate with the
sea, these fishes can readily be fattened for the table. Several such
ponds are in existence, and it is the custom to transfer to them the
liveliest specimens that have been caught during the day's fishery, the
dead or dying being either sold or cut up as food for their imprisoned
relatives. These fishes are extremely voracious, and will eat not only
the flesh of their kinsmen, but that of whelks and other molluscs,
which are abundantly thrown to them. It is found that under this
treatment the Cod is firmer, thicker, and heavier in proportion to its
length than if it had been suffered to roam at large in the sea.

In the large and important group of fishes to which our attention is
now drawn, and popularly known as Eels, the ventral fins are wholly
wanting, the body is long, snake-like, smooth and slimy on the exterior,
and in many cases covered with very little scales hidden in the thick
soft skin.

The Sharp-nosed Eel derives its name from the shape of its head,
and by that structure may be distinguished from the second species.
In their habits the Eels are so similar that the present species will be
taken as an example of the whole genus.

Of the general habits of the Eel, the Hon. Grantley F. Berkeley
has given the following short and interesting account : " During hot,
still sunny weather, day and night, in the month oi June, the Eels are

48

oG(3 HABITS OF THE EEL.

chiefly ou the top of the water. Wherever masses of weeds lie, and
what is called the cow-weed grows the longest, there Eels do congre-
gate, to bask in the sun by day, to enjoy by night the warmth left in
the weeds by the sun, and there, while thus luxuriating, to snap at and
catch the myriads of gnats, moths, flies, and other insects that seek the
weeds for food or rest, and by damping their wings become an easy
prey to their ambushed assailants. In waiting for the otter or watch-
ing the river, I have often sat in my boat embayed in weeds, and seen
and heard the Eels thus occupied ; and near and within these weeds, in
ihe particular weather alluded to, the wire-traps, nets, and snig-pots take
best. The haunts of Eels are quite as variable as the weather. In
warm, still weather seek them on the rapids and near weeds either
waving on the surface of the water or in floating masses of detached
weeds that the eddies of the stream have wound and kept in one place.
In blowing, cooler, or rainy weather, then look for them in the still
ditches. If a flush of water comes, and a little shallow stream run-
ning from or into the main river becomes fuller than usual, then let
all the captu ring-gear be set to take them on, to them, this delicious
change of ground, for against this stream they will work as long as it
is freshened. In one night, in a little stream of this sort, I took thirty
pounds weight of Eels."

Like several fishes which have already been mentioned. Eels are very
tenacious of life, and are able to live for a long time when taken out
of water, owing to a simple but beautiful modification of structure,
which retains a sufficient amount of moisture to keep the gills in a
damp state and able to perform their natural functions. These fishes
have been seen crawling over considerable distances, evidently either in
search of water, their own dwelling-place being nearly dried, or in quest
of some running stream in whose waters they might descend to the sea,
after the manner of their race.

Toward the latter end of summer the Eels migrate toward the sea,
and it is found that these fishes can live in either fresh or salt water
with equal ease, the mouths of rivers being favored localities. It some-
times happens that even in our seaport-towns and marine watering-
places the common river Eel is caught by those who are angling in the
sea for marine fish. This quality is peculiarly valuable in the Eel, as
It enables the Dutch fishermen, who annually supply our markets with
vast numbers of these fish, to bring them across the sea in vessels that
are fitted with " wells " pierced for the transmission of the sea-water
through which the vessel is sailing.

^ The tenacity of life possessed by this fish is really remarkable ; and
It IS worthy of notice that the best mode of killing Eels is to grasp
them by the neck and slap their tails smartly against a stone or post,
ihe muscular irritability of the body is wonderfully enduring, and

THE CONGER EEL.

567

after the creature has been cut up into lengths each separate piece
moves about as it' alive, while at the touch of a pin's point it will curve
itself as if it felt the injury. When all such irritability has ceased,
the portions will flounce about vigorously if placed in boiling water ;
and even after they have remained quiet under its influence, the addi-
tion of salt will make them jump about as vigorously as ever. Of
course there can ba no real*sensatiou, the spinal cord having been sev-
ered.

The reproduction of the Eel has long been a subject of discussion,
some persons thinking that the young are produced in a living state,
and others holding that they are hatched from eggs. This question
has, however, been set at rest by that universal revealer, the achromatic
microscope, which has shown that the masses of oily-looking substance
generally called fat are really the aggregated clusters of eggs, and
that these objects, minute though they may be — not so large as the dot
over the letter i — are quite perfect, and under the microscope are seen
to be genuine eggs.

The well-known Conger Eel is a marine species, very common in
our seas, and being most usually found on the rocky portion of the
coast".

This useful fish has of late years come into more general use than
formerly, and its good qualities are more appreciated. The flesh,

The Conger (Conger vulgaris).

though not very palatable if dressed unskilfully, is now held in some
estimation, and for the manufacture of soup is thought to be almost
unrivalled. The fisherman can now always- obtain a ready sale for the
Congers, and those which are not purchased for the table are mostly
bought up and made into isinglass.

The color of the Conger is pale brown above and grayish white

5ti8

THE ELECTRIC EEL.

The Electric Eel {Gyynnotus electricus).

below. It often attains to a very great size, measuring ten feet in
length and weighing more than one hundred pounds.

The Electric Eel is even more remarkable for its capability of
delivering powerful electric shocks than the torpedo, but, as it is never
found in the British seas, it is not so well know^n as that fish.

The Electric Eel is a native of Southern America, and inhabits the
rivers of that warm and verdant country/* The organs which enable

it to produce such
wonderful effects
are double, and
lie along the
body, the one
upon the other.
In the native
country of these
fishes they are
captured by an
ingenious but
somewhat cruel
process. A num-
ber of wild horses
are driven to the

spot and urged into the w^ater. The alarmed Gymnoti, finding their
domains thus invaded, call forth all the terrors of their invisible ar-
tillery to repel the intruders, and discharge their pent-up lightnings
with fearful rapidity and force. Gliding under the bellies of the
frightened horses, they press themselves against their bodies, as if to
economize all the electrical fluid, and by shock after shock generally
succeed in drowning several of the poor quadrupeds.

Horses, however, are of but slight value in that country — hardly,
indeed, so much valued as pigeons in England — and as fast as they
emerge from the water in frantic terror are driven back among their
dread enemies. Presently the shocks become less powerful, for the
(Jymnotus soon exhausts its store of electricity, and when the fishes
are thoroughly fatigued they are captured with impunity by the native
liunters. A most interesting account of this process is given by
Humboldt, but is too long to be inserted in these pages.

Several of these wonderful fish have been brought to England in a
living state, and there was a fine Gymnotus in the Polytechnic Institu-
tion. Numbers of experimenters were accustomed dailv to test its
powers, and the fatal, or at all events the numbing, power of the stroke
was evident when the creature was supplied with the fish on which it
fed. Though blind, it was accustomed to turn its head toward the
t^pot designated by the splashing of the attendant's finger, and as soon

THE ANCHOVY. 569

as a fish was allowed to fall into the water the Gymnotus would curve
itself slightly, seem to stiffen its muscles, and the victim turned over
on its back, struck as if dead by the violence of the shock.

When full grown the Electric Eel will attain a length of five or six
feet, and is then a truly formidable creature. The body is rounded,
and the scales small and barely visible. According to Marcgrave, the
native name for this fish is Carapo.

We now come to that most valuable family of fishes, the Herring
tribe, called technically Clupeidse, from the Latin word clupeay " a
herring."

The well-known Anchovy is properly a native of the Mediterranean
Sea, though it often occurs on our coasts, and has once or twice been
captured in our rivers. Indeed, one practical writer on British fishes
thinks that the capture of the Anchovy ofi" our shores is a task that
would be highly remunerative if properly undertaken, and that, with
proper pains, the British markets might be fully supplied with Ancho-
vies from our own seas.

This little fish has long been famous for the powerful and unique
flavor of its flesh, and is in consequence captured in vast quantities for
the purpose of being made into Anchovy sauce, Anchovy paste, and
other articles of diet in which the heart of an epicure delights. Un-
fortunately, however, the little fish is so valuable that in the preparations
made from its flesh the dishonest dealers too often adulterate their goods
largely, and palm off" sprats and other comparatively worthless fish
for the real Anchovy. As the head is always removed before the
process of potting is commenced, the deception is not easily detected,
the long head, with its projecting upper jaw and deeply-cleft gape,
aflbrding so clear an evidence of the identity of the fish that no one
would venture to pass ofl* one fish for the other if the heads were per-
mitted to remain in their natural places. The flavor of the veritable
Anchovy is rudely imitated by various admixtures, and its full rich
color is simulated by bole ammoniac and other abominations.

The very long generic title of this fish was given to it in ancient
times, and is still retained, as being at once appropriate and sanctioned
by the verdict of antiquity. Its literal signification is " gall-tinctured,"
and the name has been given'toiton account of the peculiar bitter
taste of the head, in which part the ancients supposed the gall to be
placed. The color of the Anchovy is bluish green on the back and
upper part of the head, and the remainder of the body silvery white ;
the fins have a tinge of green, and are beautifully transparent. The
scales are large, and f;dl oflT almost at a touch. The length of the
Anchovy varies from five to seven inches.

The Herring is undoubtedly the most valuable of our British fishes,
and the one which could least be spared. It is at once the luxury of

48*

570 THE HEREING.

the rich and the nourishment of the poor, capable of preservation
throughout a long period, easily packed, quickly and simply dressed,
and equally good whether eaten fresh or salted, smoked or potted.

During the greater part of the year the Herring lives in deep water,
where it^ habits are entirely unknown. About July or August it is
urged, by the irresistible force of instinct, to approach the shores for
the purpose of depositing its spawn in the shallow waters, where the
warm rays of the sun may pour their vivifying influence upon the tiny
eggs that will hereafter produce creatures of so disproportionate a size,
and where the ever-moving tides may fill the water with free oxygen
as the waves dash on the shores and fall back in whitened spray, thus
giving to the water that sparkling freshness so needful for the develop-
ment of the future fish.

The Herrings, when they once begin to move, arise in vast shoals and
direct their course toward some part of the shore. In their choice of

locality they are

1 most capricious

M fish, sometimes

^b^^^ frequenting one

spot for many

successive years,

then deserting it

J for a length of

- time, and again

3 returning to it

without any ap-

. ^, , . parent reason for

Ihe Herring (Clupea harenqus). .^i p

^ ^ ^ ' either course or

proceeding. They are essentially gregarious while on the move ; and

each shoal is so closely compacted, and its limits so well defined,

that while one net will be filled almost to bursting with Herrings,

another net, only a yard or two distant, will be left as empty as when

it was shot.

The Herring is one of the fish that cannot endure absence from
water, dying almost immediately after it is taken out of the sea, and
thus giving rise to the familiar saying, "As dead as a herring."

The food of the Herring is extremely varied, even in the compar-
atively shallow waters, and its subsistence during the time it is sub-
merged in the deep is necessarily unknown. In the stomach of the
Herring have been found Crustacea of various kinds, molluscs, the
si)awn and fry of other fish, and even the young of its own kind. It
can be taken with a hook, and has been known to seize a limpet that
was used as a bait. The color of the Herring is blue above, with green-
ish reflections, and the rest of the body is silvery white. After the fish

THE PILCHARD. 571

has been dead for some hours the cheeks and gill-covers become red, as
if from injected blood.

The value of the Herring family to man is almost incalculable. The
Pilchard and the herring are very similar in appearance, but may
easily be distinguished by the position of the dorsal fin, which in the
Pilchard is so exactly in the centre of the body that if the fish is held
by it, the body exactly balances ; while in the herring the dorsal fin is
placed rather backward, so that when suspended the fish hangs with its
head downward.

Unlike the herring, which visits every part of our coast, the Pilchard
is found only on the
shores of Devonshire
and Cornwall. Here,
however, the enor-
mous shoals that an-
nually make their ap-
pearance fully com-
pensate for the lim-
ited space occupied

by them. Occasional- ^ ^ ,^, ., , ,

, r. V, 1-. . ^^^ Pilchard [Ctupea pilchardus).

seen on the southern coast of Ireland. The coasts of France and
Spain are tolerably frequent resorts of this fish.

The fish are usually taken in an enormous building of nets, called
"scan nets." The nets used in the sea-fishery are two — a large net,
called the "stop sean," about a quarter of a mile in length and a hun-
dred feet in depth ; and a smaller net, called the "tuck sean," about a
furlong in length, and a hundred and twenty feet in depth, the aver-
age value of the two nets being five hundred pounds.

When the fishermen see a shoal of Pilchards approaching, they im-
mediately set out in two fishing-boats, one of which carries the tuck
sean and the other the stop sean. Guided by signs from the master-
seaman, they silently surround the shoal with the nets, the larger of
which is used to enclose a large number of fish, and the smaller to pass
within the other net, to bring the mass offish into a small compass, and
finally to prevent them from escaping until the fishermen have leisure
to remove them to the boats.

When landed the Pilchards are taken to the storehouses, salted, and
after remaiuing in heaps for five or six days are pressed into casks by
powerful levers. During the pressure, which lasts about a fortnight,
fresh layers of fish being added as the former are pressed close, an
abundance of excellent oil escapes from holes made in the cask for the
purpose. The entire refuse of the fish, consisting of the superabundant
salt, the scales, and other rejected portions, is sold to the farmers as a

572

THE FLYING FISH.

valuable manure. The refuse of each Pilchard is calculated to manure
one square foot of land.

The far-famed Flying Fish exists in many of the warmer seas, and
derives its popular name from its wonderful powers of sustaining itself
in the air.

The passage of this fish through the atmosphere can lay no just claim
to the title of flight, for the creature does not flap the wing-like pectoral
fins on which it is upborne, and it is not believed even to possess the
power of changing its course.

In allusion to the habits of this remarkable fish, Mr, F. D. Bennett,
in his Narrative of a Whaling Voyage, \ms the following valuable re-
marks:

" The principal external agents employed in this mode of locomotion
are the large lobe of the tail fin and the broad transparent pectoral

The Flying Fish {Exocoetus volitans).

fins, which, on this occasion, serve at least as a parachute, and which,
being situated close to the back, place the centre of suspension higher
than the centre of gravity. It is also curious to notice how well the
specific gravity of the fish can be regulated, in correspondence with
the element through which it may move. The swim-bladder, when
perfectly distended, occupies nearly the entire cavity of the abdomen
and contains a large quantity of air, and in addition to this there
is a membrane in the mouth which can be inflated through the gills,
these two reservoirs of air affording good substitutes for the air-cells
so freely distributed within the bones of birds, and having the addi-
tional advantage of being voluntary in their function.

*' The pectoral fins, though so large when expanded, can be folded into

THE PIKE. 573

an exceedingly slender, neat, and compact form, but whether they are
employed in swimming in the closed or expanded state I have been un-
able to determine."

The ancients were well acquainted with the Flying Fish, and in their
narratives even improved upon its powers, as was customary with the
voyagers of those days, and asserted that as soon as night came on this
fish left the ocean, flew ashore, and slept until morning safe from the
attacks of its marine enemies. The generic name of Exocmtus — liter-
ally, "a sleeper-out" — refers to this supposed habit. About thirty
species of Flying Fish are known, belonging mostly to the Mediterra-
nean Sea, but others occur in the North Sea and the Atlantic and Pa-
cific Oceans.

The fierce and voracious Pike has well earned its titles of Fresh-
water Shark and Riv^er Pirate, for, though perhaps not one whit more
destructive to animal life than the roach, gudgeon, and other harmless
fish, the prey which it devours are of larger size, and its means of de-

The Pond or Common Pike (Esox lucius).

struction are so conspicuous and powerful that its name has long been
a byword for pitiless rapacity.

The Pike is found in almost every English river, and, although sup-
posed to have been artificially introduced into our country, has multi-
plied as rapidly as any indigenous fish. The Pike is the master of the
waters in which it resides, destroying without mercy every other fish
that happens to come near its residence, none seeming able to escape
except the perch, whose array of sharp spines daunts even the voracious
Pike from attempting its capture. As if to show that the Pike really
desires to eat the perch, and is only withheld from so doing by a whole-
some dread of its weapons, there is no better bait for a Pike than a
young perch from which the dorsal fin has been removed. It will even
feed upon its own kind, and a young Pike, or Jack, as it is then called,
of three or four inches in length, has little chance of life if it should
come across one of its larger kindred.

After hatching the growth of the young Jack is extremely rapid,
and, according to Bloch, it will attain a length of ten inches in the
first year of its life. If well fed, the growth of this fish continues at
a tolerably uniform rate of about four pounds a year, and this increase
will be maintained for six or seven successive years.

574 THE SALMON.

The voracity of the Pike is too well known to need much comment.
A tiny Jack of five inches in length has been known to capture and
try to eat a gud^^eon of its own size, and to swim about quite uncon-
cernedly with the tail of its victim protruding from its mouth. Had
it been suffered to live, it would probably have finished the gudgeon in
course of time, as the head was found to have been partially digested.
Three water-rats have been found in the stomach of one Pike, accom-
panied by the remains of a bird too far decomposed to be recognizable,
but supposed to be the remnants of a duck. So universal is the appe-
tite of this fish that it has even been known to seize the paste bait
which had been used for other and less voracious inhabitants of the
waters.

When the Pike attains a tolerable size it takes possession of some
particular spot in the bank, usually a kind of hole or cave which is
slieltered by overhanging soil or roots, and aflbrds a lair where it can
lurk in readiness to pounce upon its passing prey.

The Pike seems to have no limit to its size, for it is a very long-lived
fish, and seems always to increase in dimensions, provided it be well
supplied with food. A fish of ten or twelve pounds weight is consid-
ered to be a fine specimen, though there have been examples where the
Pike has attained more than five times the latter weight. These huge
fi.-hes of sixty or seventy pounds are, however, of little value for the
table.

The color of the Pike is olive-brown on the back, taking a lighter
hue on the sides, and being variegated with green and yellow. The
al)domen is silvery white.

The Salmon is undoubtedly the king of British river-fish — not so
much for its dimensions, w^hich are exceeded by one or two giant mem-
bers of the finny tribe, but for the silvery sheen of its glittering scales,
its wonderful dash and activity, affording magnificent sport to the
angler, the interesting nature of its life from the egg to full maturity,
and last, but not least, for the exquisite flavor and nutritive character
of its flesh.

In former days, before civilization had substituted man and his
dwellings for the broad meadows and their furred and feathered in-
mates, the Salmon was found in many an English river. Now, how-
ever, there are but few streams where this splendid fish can be seen,
for in the greater number of British rivers the water has been so de-
filed by human agency that the fastidious Salmon will not suffer itself
to be poisoned by such hateful mixture of evil odors and polluted
waters, and in the few streams where the water is still sufficiently pure
for the Salmon to venture into them, the array of nets, weirs, and all
kuids of Salmon traps is so tremendous that not one tithe of the nor-
mal number is now found in them.

THE SALMON. 675

The Salmon is a migratory fish, annually leaving the sea, its proper
residence, and proceeding for many miles up rivers for the purpose of
depositing its spawn. This duty having been accomplished, it returns
to the sea in the spring. The perseverance of this fish in working its
way up the stream is perfectly wonderful. No stream is rapid enough
to daunt it, nor is
it even checked
by falls. These
it surmounts by
springing out of
the water, fairly
passing over the
fall. Heights of -
i'ourteen or fif-
teen feet are con-
stantly leaped by f:
this powerful fish, l^
and when it has ^
arrived at the
higher and shal-
lower parts of the
river it scoops fur-
rows in the grav- ^^^ ^^^'^^^ ^^''^''' ^''^''^-

elly bottom, and there deposits its spawn. The young, called " fry,"
are hatched about March, and immediately commence their retreat to
the sea. By the end of May the young Salmon, now called " smolts,"
have almost entirely deserted the rivers, and in June not one is to be
found in fresh water. Small Salmon weighing less than two pounds
are termed "salmon peel;" all above that weight are called "grilse."

The havoc wrought among Salmon by foes of every description is so
enormous that, notwithstanding the great fecundity of the fish, it is a
matter of surprise that so many escape destruction ; for, although the
fish are preserved from their human foes by many stringent regulations,
yet other foes — such as otters, who devour the large fish, and other fish,
who devour the spawn — have but little respect for laws and regulations.

While in the rivers multitudes of Salmon are annually caught,
usually by stake nets, which are capable of confining an immense
number of fish at one time. Salmon-spearing is a favorite amuse-
ment. This animated and exciting sport is usually carried on by
torchlight. The torches, when held close to the surface of the water,
illumine the depths of the river, and render every fish within their in-
fluence perfectly visible. The watchful spearman, guided by slight
indications bearing no meaning to an unpractised eye, darts his un-
erring spear, and brings up in triumph the glittering captive, writhing

576

THE TROUT AND THE CARP.

in vain among the barbed points. In the northern rivers this destruc-
tive pursuit is carried on to a great extent, more than a hundred salmon
being frequently taken in an evening. Anglers also find considerable
sport in using the fly for this beautiful and active fish, whose strength
makes it no mean antagonist.

Next to the salmon, the bright-scaled, carmine-speckled, active Trout
is perhaps the greatest favorite of anglers, and fully deserves the eulogies
of all lovers of the rod, its peculiarly delicate flesh, its fastidious vora-
citv,and the mixture of strength, agility, and spirited courage with which
it endeavors to free itself from the hook, forming a combination of ex-
cellences rarely met with in any individual flsli.

The Trout is found in rapid and clear-running streams, but cares
not for the open and shallow parts of the river, preferring the shelter
of some stone or hole in the bank, whence it may watch for prey.
Like the pike, it haunts some especial hiding-place, and in a similar

manner is sure to take

possession of a favorable
haunt that has been ren-
dered vacant by the de-
mise of its predecessor or
its promotion to superior
quarters. Various baits
are used in fishing for
trout, such as the worm,
The Trout {Salmo fario). the minnow, and the fly

both natural and artificial, the latter being certainly the neatest and
most artistic method. The arcana of angling are not within the prov-
ince of this work, and for information on that subject the reader is
referred to the many valuable works which have been written by ac-
complished masters of the art.

Though not so brightly spotted as the trout, or so desperately active
when hooked, and very inferior in flesh, the Carp is yet in much favor
with anglers on account of its extreme cunning, which has earned for
the fish the name of Fox of the Waters. As the number of British fish
is so great and our space so small, it will be needful to compress the
descriptions as much as possible, and to omit everything that does not
bear directly on the subject.

Carp are found in both rivers and lakes, and in some places—
among which the royal palaces of France may be mentioned — will
often grow to an enormous size and become absurdly tame, crowding
to the bank on the least encouragement, and poking their great snouts
out of the water in anxious expectation of the desired food. It is most
curious to watch these great creatures swimming lazily along, and to
see how completely they have lost the inherent dread of man by the

THE GOLD-FISH AND THE BAEBEL. 577

exercise of their reasoning powers, which tell them that the once-feared
biped on the bank will do them no harm, but in all probability will be
the means of indulging their appetite with favorite food.

The Carp is one of the fish that retain life for a lengthened period
even when removed from the water, and if carefully packed in wet
moss, so as to allow a free circulation of air, will survive even for
weeks. Anglers never seem sure of the Carp, taking plenty on one
day and none at all for a week afterward, the fish having been
aroused to a sense of their danger, and declining to meddle with any-
thing that looks as if it might hide a hook. Even the net, that is so
effectual with most fish, is often useless against the ready wiles of the
Carp, which will sometimes bury itself in the mud as the ground-line
approaches, so as to allow the net to pass over it, or, if the ground be

The Carp {Oyprinus carpio).

too hard for such a manoeuvre, will boldly shoot from the bottom of
the water, leap over the upper edge of the net, and so escape into the
water, beyond.

The beautiful Gold-fish [Oyprinus auratus), so familiar as a pet and
so elegant as it moves round the glass globe in which it is usually kept,
is another member of this large and important genus. It seems to have
been brought to this country from China, and has almost acclimatized
itself to the cold seasons of England. Its habits and splendid clothing
are too well known to need description.

Another well-known member of the same genus is the Barbel,
a fine but not brilliant fish, which is common in many of the English
rivers.

This fish may easily be known by the four fleshy appendages, called
beards or barbules, which hang from the head, two being placed on the
nose and the other two at each angle of the mouth. It is one of the
mud-loving fish, grubbing with its nose in the soft banks for the pur-
pose of unearthing the aquatic larvse of various insects which make
49 2 M

578 THE TENCH AND THE GUDGEON.

their liome in such places, and being, in all probability, aided by its
barbules in its search after food.

The Barbel is sometimes so sluggish in its movements, and so deeply
occupied in rooting about the bank, that an accomplished swimmer
will occasionally dive to the bed of the river, feel for the Barbel along
the banks, and bring them to the surface in his bare hand. From this
habit of grubbing in the mud the Barbel has earned the name of
Fresh-water Pig.

The color of the Barbel is brown above with a green wash, and
yellowish green on the sides. All the scales have a metallic lustre, and
the cheeks and gill-covers have also a polished look, as if covered with

The Gold-fish {Oyprinus auratus).

very thin bronze. The abdomen is white. The Barbel is somewhat
long in proportion to its weight, which is extremely variable, seldom,
however, exceeding eleven or twelve pounds.

The Tench is hardly so common as the other two species, preferring
the slowest and muddiest rivers, and thriving well in ponds and lakes,
or even in clay-pits. No water, indeed, seems to be too thick, muddy,
or even fetid, for the Tench to inhabit, and it is rather curious that in
such cases, even where the fishermen could scarcely endure the stench
of the mud adhering to their nets, the fish were large-sized and of
remarkably sweet flavor.

In the winter months the Tench is said to bury itself in the mud,
and there to remain in a semi-torpid condition until the succeeding
spring tails it again to life and action. The color of the Tench is
greenish olive, darker above than below, and with a fine golden w^ash.

The ease with which the Gudgeon is taken has passed into a prov-
erb. This pretty little fish is usually found in shallow parts of rivers,
where the bottom is gravelly. If the gravel is stirred up, the Gudgeons

THE BREAM AND THE ROACH. 579

immediately flock to the place, and a worm suspended amid the turbid
water is eagerly snapped at by them. The fishermen usually take
them in nets, and keep them alive in well-boats. They are largely
purchased as baits for trolling. The flesh of the Gudgeon is partic-

The Gudgeon [Gohio fluviatilis).

ularly delicate, and, although its length rarely exceeds seven inches,
yet, from the ease with which numbers can be obtained, it forms a dish
by no means to be despised.

The Bream is mostly found in large lakes or in slowly-running
rivers, the lakes of Cumberland being favorite resorts of this fish.
Although the flesh of the Bream is not held in any great estimation,
being poorly flavored and very full of bones, so that, in spite of the
great depth of its body, there is scarcely sufficient flesh to repay the
trouble of cooking, still, the fish was formerly in much repute as a
delicacy ; so that either the fish seems to have deteriorated or the
present generation to have become more fastidious. Spring and au-
tumn furnish the best Bream, and the flesh can be dried, something
like that of the cod-fish.

The color of the Bream is yellowish white, except the cheeks and
gill-covers, which have a silvery lustre without any tinge of yellow.
Sometimes the Bream attains a considerable size, reaching a weight of
twelve or fourteen pounds*

The last of the three is the Roach, a fish especially dear to scientific
anglers on account of its capricious habits and the delicate skill requir-
ed to form a successful roach-fisher.

An angler accomplished in this art will catch Roach where one with-
out special experience would not have a chance of a bite, and will suc-
ceed in his beloved sport through almost every season of the year, the
winter months being the favorites. So capricious are these fish, and
so sensitive to the least change of weather, that a single hour will
suffice to put them off" their feed, and the angler may suddenly be
checked in the midst of his sport by an adverse breeze or change in
the temperature.

Roach are gregarious fish, swimming in shoals and keeping tolerably

580 THE DACE, CHUB, BLEAK, MINNOW, AND SUN-FISH.

close to each other. It is not a large species, all over a pound being
considered as fine specimens, and any that weigh more than two
pounds are thought rare. It is a pretty fish, the upper parts of the
head and body being grayish green glossed with blue, the abdomen
silvery white, and the sides passing gradually into white from the
darker colors of the back. The pectoral, ventral, and anal fins are
bright red, the former having a tinge of yellow, and the dorsal and
tail fins are brownish red.

Closely allied to the roach is the Dace {Leuciscus vulgaris), a com-
mon and small species that inhabits most of our streams. The well-
known Chub [Leuciscus cephalus) also belongs to this genus, as does
the Bleak (Leuciscus alburnus), in many countries called the Tailor
Blay by the ignorant, from the idea that whenever any other fish,
especially the pike, wounds its skin, it immediately seeks the aid of
the Bleak, which by rubbing its body against the wound causes the
torn skin to close. The beautifully white crystalline deposit beneath
the scales was much used in the manufacture of artificial pearls, hollow
glass beads being washed in the interior with a thin layer of this sub-
stance, and then filled with white wax. The scales of the w hitebait
^ were also used for the same pur-

^^V pose. The MiKnow {Leuciscus

^^^^^^^- ^ - -:^^^^J^_j^^^^ phoxiniis) is another member of
""^^^^^^^^^B this large genus, and is too well

^^Hfe^^S^^^^^^^^^ tognathi, or "fixed jaws," because

^^BBBB^miLj^^fe^^ their jaws are fused together and

^^^^ "^ cannot be opened and shut.

^^^^^^ ^® \ . ^^1^ ^"^ example of this curious

B^Bl^t-^ . - ^^^2^.^^^^ order is the well-known Sun-

The Sun-fish {Orihragoriscus mola). FISH, which looks just as if the

head and shoulders of some very
large fish had been abruptly cut off and a fin supplied to the severed
extremity.

Several specimens of this odd-looking fish have been captured in
British waters, and in almost every case the creature w-as swimming,
or rather floating, in so lazy a fashion that it permitted itself to be
taken without attempting to escape. In the seas where this fish is gen-
erally found the harpoon is usually employed for its capture, not so
much on account of its strength— though a large specimen will some-
times struggle with amazing force and fury— but on account of its
great weight, which renders its conveyance into a boat a matter of

THE SUN-FISH.

581

some little difficulty, and the leverage acquired by the harpoon quite
necessary.

The flesh of the Sun-fish is white and well flavored, and is in much
request among sailors, who always luxuriate in fresh meat after the
monotony of salted provisions. In flavor and aspect it somewhat re-
sembles that of the skate. The liver of the Sun-fish is rather large, and
yields a very considerable amount of oil, which is prized by the sailors as
an infallible remedy against sprains, bruises, and rheumatic affections.

One of the most curious peculiarities of this fish is the structure of
the eye, which is bedded in a mass of very soft and flexible folds be-
longing to the outer membranous coat, while it rests behind on a sac
filled with a gelatinous fluid. When the creature is alarmed it draws
the eye back against the sac of fluid, which is thus forced into the folds
of skin, and distends them so largely as nearly to conceal the entire
organ behind them.

While swimming quietly along, and suffered to be undisturbed, it
generally remains so near the surface that its elevated dorsal fin pro-
jects above the water. Only in warm, calm weather is it seen in this
attitude, and dur-

ing a stormy season tf//'^^/

it remains near the
bed of the sea, and
contents itself with
feeding on the sea-
weeds which grow
so luxuriantly at
the bottom of the
shallower ocean wa-
ters.

The color of the
Sun-fish is grayish
brown, darker upon
the back than on

The American Sun-fish (Pomotis vulgaris).

the sides of the abdomen, and the skin is hard and rough. It often
attains a very great size, one that was harpooned on the equator meas-
uring six feet in length. Several species of Sun-fish are known.*

*As the name of Sun-fish is so well known in connection with one of the
prettiest and most common American fishes, we insert the following description
taken from Norris's American Angler'' s Book: " Body ovoidal in form, convex above
and below, but straight on the belly ; color of body brown, with a greenish tint
above, with pale blue, waving, horizontal lines on the preopercle and opercle.
Opercular appendix dark, with a bright red blotch on its posterior margin. The
dorsal fin has ten spines and eleven rays ; pectorals, thirteen rays ; ventrals, one
spine and five rays; anal, three spines and ten rays; caudal, seventeen rays.
49 *

582 THE SEA HORSE AND THE LAMPREY.

The family of the Syngnathidse is represented by several British
species.

The Sea Horse is common in many European seas, and is some-
times captured on the British coasts. In all these fishes there is only
one dorsal fin, set far back, and capable of being moved in a marvel-
lous fashion that reminds the observer of a screw propeller, and evi-
dently answers a similar purpose. The tail of the Sea Horse, stiff as
it appears to be in dried specimens, is during the life of the creature
almost as flexible as an elephant's proboscis, and is employed as a pre-
hensile organ, whereby its owner may be attached to any fixed object.
The head of the Sea Horse is wonderfully like that of the quadruped
from which it takes its name, and the resemblance is increased by two

apparent ears that project partly from the
sides of the neck. These organs are, how-
^^M ever, fins, and when the fish is in an active
'MB mood are moved with considerable rapidity.
M It is rather a remarkable fact that the Sea
^^ Horse, like the Chameleon, possesses the
power of moving either eye at will quite
independently of the other, and therefore
must be gifted with some curious modifi-
cation in the sense of sight which enables
it to direct its gaze to difierent objects with-
out confusing its vision.
The color of this interesting little fish is
• light ashen brown, relieved with slight
dashes of blue on different parts of the
^ body, and in certain lights gleaming with
tt beautiful iridescent hues that play over
gj its body with a chanceful lustre. About
.-EA noii6E {nippocu7^ipu6^ twcnty spcclcs of Sea Horses are known,
virostris). Several of which have been exhibited alive

in the aquarium at the Crystal Palace.
The Cyclostomi, or "circular-mouthed fishes," are represented by
several British examples.

The well-known Lamprey and its kin are remarkable for the wondei
ful resemblance which their mouths bear to that of a leech.
^They are all long-bodied, snake-like fish, and possess a singular ap-

Mouth small, rather protractile, and armed with small, thickly-set teeth. Extreme
ength eight inches. This beautiful little fish, associated in' the minds of all ang-
lers with the first rudiments of a piscatorial education, is known in the Middle and
bou hem States as the Sun-fish or 'sunny.' Yankee boys call them 'Punkin
oeeas or by the more euphonic, though appropriate, name of ' Rivers,' probably
trom their appropriate shape for the cover of a teacup or pickle-jar."

THE LAMPREY.

583

paratus of adhesion, which acts on the same principle as the disc of the
sucking fish or the ventral fins of the goby, though it is set on a differ-
ent part of the body. Several fishes are popularly known by the name
of Lamprey, but the only one to which the title ought properly to be
given is that shown in the engraving.

The Lamprey is a sea-going fish, passing most of its time in the ocean,
but ascending the rivers for the purpose of spawning.

The flesh of the Lamprey is peculiarly excellent, though practically
unknown to the great bulk of our population, and the juvenile student
in history is always familiar with the fatal predilection of British roy-
alty for this fish. Though it spends so much of its time in the sea, it
is seldom captured except during its visit to the rivers, and even in that
case is only in good condition during part of its sojourn. Practically,
therefore, the Lamprey is less persecuted than most of the finny tribe

The Lamprey {Petromyson marinus).

who are unfortunate enough to possess well-flavored flesh and whose
excellences are publicly known.

When the Lamprey deposits its spawn it is obliged to form a hollow
in the bed of the river, in which it can leave the eggs in tolerable safety,
and performs this operation with great speed and no small skill. The
fish is not gifted with any great power of fin, and cannot make much
head against a sharp current, needing to rest at intervals, and for that
purpose fastening on to some large stone over which the stream has no
control.

084 THE LAMPERN.

But when it sets to work upon its nursery it takes advantage of the
current to help it in its labors, and, by the mingled force of the stream
and its own muscular action, soon contrives to carry away the pebbles
that would interfere with the well-being of its future young.

The process is simple enough. When the Lamprey has fixed on the
convenient spot to which it is urged by its unfailing instinct, it surveys
the locality for a short time, and then sets vigorously to work. Fasten-
ing itself to one of the obnoxious pebbles, and disposing its body so as
to gain the strongest hold upon the rushing stream, it "backs water"
with wonderful energy, and fish and stone are soon seen tumbling
together down the current.

In this way the Lamprey will remove stones of such a magnitude
that a fish of three times its dimensions would appear unable even to
stir them. As soon as the stone has been moved a yard or two away
the Lamprey wriggles its way back again, and takes possession of
another stone. By a repetition of this process the hollow is soon
made, and the industrious fish is able to deposit its eggs therein.

The color of the Lamprey is olive-brown, spotted and mottled with
dark brown and deep greenish olive. Its ordinary length is from six-
teen to twenty inches.

The Lampern is plentiful in many of the English rivers, and, if
the generality of residents near the water were only aware of its
excellence for the table, would soon be thinned in numbers. The
prejudice that exists against the eel and the lamprey is absolutely mild
when compared with the horror with which the Lampern is contemplated
in many parts of England. Not only do the ignorant people refuse to
eat it, but they believe it to be actually poisonous, and would sooner
handle an angry viper than a poor harmless Lampern. It is fortunate
for the fish that its evil reputation is so widely and firmly established,
for under the shelter of its name it passes scathless through many a
stream from which it would be nearly extirpated if its right character
and good qualities were better known.

Granted the bad reputation, the creature certainly behaves in a
manner well calculated to strengthen any unfavorable reports ; for as
soon as grasped it writhes about in a viperine, not to say venomous,
fashion, and is sure to fix its sucker of a mouth on the imprisoning
hand. Few uninitiated captors can endure to any further extent, and
when they feel the cold lips pressed to the skin, and the quick suck by
which the fish attaches itself, they generally utter a scream of terror
and fling the Lampern away as far as their arm can jerk it. Yet the
creature has no idea of using its mouth as a weapon of ofl'ence, and
when it fixes itself to the hand is only seeking for a point of support as
a fulcrum for its struggles.

Certainly, it has teeth, and under proper circumstances can use them

. THE MYXINE. 585

in the task for which teeth were made, but it seems to be either unable
or unwilling to employ them as weapons. I have caught thousands of
these fish with the bare fingers, and had six or seven fixed on ray hand
at the same time, but they never did the least harm, and, though I am
afliicted with a peculiarly delicate skin, they did not leave even the least
mark of their presence.

Like the sea lamprey, it scoops hollows in the pebbly bed of some
stream for the purpose of depositing its eggs, and removes the stones in
like manner. Sometimes a pair of Lamperns settle upon one spot,
and by dint of tugging and hauling make a cradle for their special
benefit. But it often happens that a great number of these fish — fifty
or sixty, for example — will settle themselves in the same locality, and
make a hollow as large as the rim of an ordinary pail.

The flesh of the Lampern is remarkably excellent, and in many
places remote from its habitation is in great repute, and is indeed ad-
mired by many who have not the least idea of the fish they are eating.
A large part of the *' eel " pies so famous in the metropolis is composed
of Lampern flesh, and in the opinion of competent judges the substitute
is better than the reality. It can be dressed in a variety of ways,
stewing and potting being the favorites. Yet, as a general rule, the
poorer portion of the community refuse to eat the fish, and suffer the
pangs of cruel hunger rather than avail themselves of the rich banquet
at their very doors.

The Myxine, or Glutinous Hag-fish, is so remarkably worm-like in
its form and general appearance that it was classed with the annelids
by several authors, and was placed in its proper position among the fishes
only after careful dissection.

The Myxine is seldom taken when at large in the sea, but is captured
while engaged in devouring the bodies of other fish, to which it is a
fearful enemy in spite of its innocuous appearance. It has a custom of
getting inside the cod and similar fishes and entirely consuming the
interior, leaving only the skin and the skeleton remaining. The fisher-
men have good reason to detest the Myxine, for it takes advantage of
the helpless state in which the cod-fish hangs on the hook, makes its
way into the interior, and if the fish should happen to be caught at
the beginning of the tide will leave but little flesh on the bones. The
cod thus hollowed are technically called " robbed " fish. Six Myxines
have been found within the body of a single haddock.

The name of Glutinous Hag-fish is derived from the enormous amount
of mucous secretion which the Myxine has the power of pouring from
a double row of apertures set along the whole of the under surface
from the head to the tail.

Around the lips of the Myxine are eight delicate barbules, which
are evidently intended as organs of touch ; the mouth is furnished

586 THE LANCELET.

with a single hooked tooth upou the palate, serving apparently as an
organ of prehension, and the tongue is supplied with a double row of
smaller but powerful teeth on each side, acting on the principle of a
rasp. The Myxine can scarcely be said to possess any bones, the only
indication of a skeleton being the vertebral column, which is nothing
more than a cartilaginous tube, through which a probe can be passed in
either direction.

The color of the Hag-fish is dark brown above, taking a paler tint
on the sides, and grayish yellow below. Its length is generally about
a foot or fifteen inches.

The last of the fishes is a creature so unfishlike that its real position
in the scale of nature was long undecided, and the strange little being
has been bandied about between the vertebrate and invertebrate classes.
Between these two great armies the Lancelet evidently occupies the
neutral ground, its structure partaking with such apparent equality of
the characteristics of each class that it could not be finally referred to
its proper rank until it had been submitted to the most careful dissec-
tions. In fact, it holds just such a position between the vertebrates and
the invertebrates as does the lepidosiren between the reptiles and the
fishes.

It has no definite brain — at all events, it is scarcely better defined
than in many of the insect tribe, and only marked by a rather increased
and blunted end of the spinal cord. It has no true heart, the place of
that organ being taken by pulsating vessels, and the blood being quite
pale. It has no bones, the muscles being merely attached to soft carti-
lage, and even the spinal cord is not protected by a bony, or even horny,
covering. The body is very transparent, and is covered by a soft deli-
cate skin without any scales. There are no eyes and no apparent ears,
and the mouth is a mere longitudinal fissure under that part of the body
which we are compelled, for want of a better term, to call the head,
and its orifice is crossed by numerous cirrhi, averaging from twelve
to fifteen on each side. Altogether, it really seems to be a less per-
fect and less developed animal than many of the higher molluscs.

The general aspect of the Lancelet is not unlike that of another fish
called the leptocephalus, the delicate transparent body and the diagonal
arrangement of the muscles causing a considerable resemblance between
the two. But the leptocephalus is at once distinguished by its head,
which, although very small in proportion to the body, is yet perfect,
possessing well-developed eyes, gill-covers, jaws, and teeth ; whereas
the Lancelet has no particular head, and neither eyes, gill-covers,
jaws, nor teeth.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS,

MOLLUSCS.

We now come to the second great division into which all animated
beings have been distinguished. All the creatures which we have hith-
erto examined, however different in form they may be, the ape and the
eel being good examples of this external dissimilarity, yet agree in one
point — namely, that they possess a spinal cord protected by vertebrae,
and are therefore termed vertebrated animals.

But with the fishes ends the division of vertebrates, and we now enter
upon another vast division, in which there are no true brain and no ver-
tebra. These creatures are classed together under the name of inver-
tebrate animals — a somewhat insufficient title, as it is based on a nega-
tive, and not on a positive, principle. Whatever may be its defects, it
has been too long received, and is too generally accepted, to be dis-
turbed by a new phraseology ; and, though it be founded on the ab-
sence, and not on the presence, of certain structures, it is concise and
intelligible.

The first order of invertebrate animals is called Mollusca — a name
given to these creatures on account of the soft envelope which surrounds
their bodies.

The highest of the Molluscs are those beings which are classed to-
gether under the title of Cephalopoda. This term is derived from
two Greek words, the former signifying " a head," and the latter " a
foot," and is applied to these creatures because the feet — or arms, as
they might also be called — are arranged in a circular manner round
the mouth.

They are all animals of prey, and are furnished with a tremendous
apparatus for seizure and destruction. Their long arms are furnished
with round hollow discs set in rows, each disc being a powerful sucker,
and when applied to any object retaining its hold with wonderful te-
nacity. The mode by which the needful vacuum is made is simple in
the extreme. The centre of the disc is filled with a soft, fleshy protu-
b'erance, which can be withdrawn at the pleasure of the owner. When,
therefore, the edges of the disc are applied to an object, and the piston-
like centre withdrawn, a partial vacuum is formed, and the disc adheres
like a cupping-glass or a boy's leather sucker.

These discs are all under the command of the owner, which can seize
any object with an instantaneous grasp, and relax its hold with equal
50 ^^^

590 THE ARGONAUT.

celerity. The arms are movable, and as useful to the Cuttle-fish as is
the proboscis to the elephant; for, besides answering the purposes
which have been mentioned, they are also used as legs, and enable
the creature to crawl on the ground, the shell being then upper-
most.

Our first example is the celebrated Argonaut, or Paper Nautilus,
the latter title being given on account of the extreme thinness and fra-
gility of the shell, which crumbles under a
heedless grasp like the shell of an egg, and
the former in allusion to the pretty fable
which was formerly narrated of its sailing
powers. It is rather remarkable, by the
way, that the shell of the Argonaut is dur-
ing the life of its owner elastic and yield-
ing, almost as if it were made of thin
horn.

Argonauta Papyracea, in Two of the arms of the Argonaut are
ITS Shell. greatly dilated at their extremities, and it

was formerly asserted, and generally believed, that the creature was
accustomed to employ these arms as sails, raising them high above the
.shell and allowing itself to be driven over the surface by the breeze,
while it directed its course by the remaining arms, which were suffered
to hang over the edge of the shell into the w^ater and acted like so many
oars. In consequence of this belief, the creature was named the Ar-
gonaut, in allusion to the old classical fable of the ship Argo and her
golden freight.

Certainly the Argo herself could not have carried a more splendid
cargo than is borne by the shell of the Argonaut when its inhabitant
is living and in its full enjoyment of life and health. The animal— or
" poulp," as it is technically called — is indeed a most lovely creature,
despite of its unattractive form. " It appeared," writes Mr. Rang, when
describing one of these creatures which had been captured alive, "little
more than a shapeless mass, but it was a mass of silver, with a cloud
of spots of the most b-autiful rose-color, and a fine dotting of the same
which heightened its beauty. A long semicircular band of ultramarine
blue, which melted away insensibly, was very decidedly marked at one
of its extremities — that is, of the keel. A large membrane covered
all, and this membrane was the expanded velation of the arms, which
so peculiarly characterizes the poulp of the Argonaut.

" The animal was so entirely shut up in its abode that the head and
base of the arms only were a little raised above the edges of the open-
ing of the shell. On each side of the head a small space was left free,
allowmg the eyes of the mollusc some scope of vision around, and their
sharp and fixed gaze appeared to announce that the animal was watch-

THE SEPIA. 691

I'ng attentively all that passed around it. The slender arms were folded
back from their base and inserted very deeply round the body of the
poulp, in such a manner as to fill in part the empty spaces which the
head must naturally leave in the much larger opening of the shell."

Mr. Rang then proceeds to show the real use of the expanded arms,
which is to cover the shell on its exterior, and, as has since definitely
been proved, to build up its delicate texture and to repair damages,
the substance of the shell being secreted by these arms, and by their
broad expansions moulded into shape.

The modes of progression employed by the Argonaut are to the full
as wondrous as its fabled habits of sailing. Its progression by crawl-
ing has already been cas-
ually mentioned. While
thus engaged the creature
turns itself so as to rest on
its head, withdraws its body
as far as possible into its
shell, and, usiup^ its arms . ^

n., 1 °1 1 1 X ArGONAUTA PaPYRACEA, SWIMMING.

like legs, creeps slowly but '

securely along the ground, sometimes affixing its discs to stones or pro-
jecting points of rocks for the purpose of hauling itself along.

When, however, it wishes to attain greater speed and to pass through
the wide waters, it makes use of a totally different ptinciple.

As has already been mentioned, the respiration is achieved by the
passage of water over the double gills or branchiae, the water, after it
has completed its purpose, being ejected through a moderately long
tube, technically called the siphon. The orifice of the siphon is di-
rected toward the head of the animal, and it is by means of this simple
apparatus that the act of progression is effected. When the creature
desires to dart rapidly through the water it gathers its six arms in a
straight line, so as to afford the slightest possible resistance to the
water through which it passes, keeps its velated arms stretched tightly
over the shell, and then, by violently ejecting water from the siphon,
drives itself, by the reaction, in the opposite direction.

As the various cephalopods are so numerous as to preclude all possi-
bility of figuring and describing each species, we must therefore content
ourselves with a general account of the members of each family.

The common Sepia of our own seas is chiefly remarkable for the
chalky internal skeleton, commonly called cuttle-bone, and much used
for the manufacture of tooth-powder. This year (1875) I found eight
of these bones on the sands at Margate, and all within a space of a few
yards square.

The AVp:bbed Sepia is an inhabitant of Greenland, and very rare.
Its color is violet.

502

THE OCTOPUS.

The species belonging to the family of the Octopodidse, or Eight-
armed Cuttles, possess no external shell like that of the nautilus, its
place being taken by two short styles or " pens" in the substance of

The Common Sepia {Sepia officinalis).

the mantle. There are eight arms, unequal in length, and furnished
with double or single rows of the suckers which have already been de-
scribed.

They are solitary beings, voracious to a degree, and so active that

they find little difficulty in cap-
turing their prey or in escaping
from the attacks of their ene-
mies. Even when pursued into
the narrow precincts of a rock-
pool, the creature is not easily
caught. When threatened, or
if apprehensive of danger, the
Polypus, as the animal was
formerly called, darts with ar-
rowy swiftness from one side
of the pool to the other.

The common Octopus is now
familiar to all those who have
visited the great aquaria at

TiTc Hom^^xr^ (r\ , , . ^ Brighton and the Crystal Pal-

liiE Octopus [Octopus vulgaris). ° , ., -^ ..

ace, where its extraordinary

movements and great power of the arms are well shown.

The family of the Teuthidse, popularly known as Calamaries, or

THE SQUIDS. 5\)3

Squids, are distinguished by their elongated bodies, their short and
broad fins, and the horny shell or pen which is found in their in-
terior. All the Squids are very active, and some species, called Fly-
ing Squids by sailors and Ommastrephes by systematic naturalists, are
able to dash out of the sea and dart to considerable distances.

The Little Squid, or Sepiola, of which genus six species are known,
inhabits most parts of the world and lives on our own shores.

The celebrated " ink " of these creatures, from which the valuable
color called " sepia " was formerly obtained, deserves a brief notice.

This substance is liquid, and is secreted in a sac popularly termed,
from its office, the " ink-bag." The sac is filled with a spongy kind of
matter, in which the ink lies, and from which it can be expelled forci-
bly at the will of the animal. The ink-bag is not always in the same
position, but some species ha.ve it in the liver, others near the siphon,
and others among the viscera. There is a communication between the
ink-bag and the siphon, so that when the ink is ejected it is forcibly
thrown out together with the water. Thus the very effort for escape
serves the double purpose of urging the creature away from danger and
discoloring the water in which it swims.

The animal can eject the ink with such force that it has been known
to dedecorate a naval officer's white duck trousers with its liquid mis-
sile, the aggrieved individual always asserting that it took a deliberate
aim for that purpose.

Generally, the animal throws out its ink on the least alarm — a cir-
cumstance of some importance in geology. It was discovered by Dr.
Buckland that in many specimens of fossil cephalopods, called scien-
tifically Geoteuthis — i. e., Earth Squid — the ink-bag remained in the
animal untouched by its long sojourn within the earth, and even re-
tained its quality of rapid mixture with water. A drawing was act-
ually made by Sir F. Chantrey with a portion of "sepia" taken from
a fossil species, and the substance proved to be of such excellent quality
that an artist to whom the sketch was shown was desirous of learning
the name of the color-man who prepared the tint.

The curious skeleton of the Sepia, popularly called " cuttle-bone,"
is composed of many tiers of tiny chalk pillars, which can be seen only
by the aid of the microscope.

Another order of cephalopods is called by the name of Tetrabranchi-
ata, or Four-gilled Animals, because the organs of respiration are com-
posed of four branchiae. These creatures possess a very strong exter-
nal shell, which is divided into a series of gradually-increasing com-
partments connected together by a central tube called the siphuncle.
As the animal grows it continues to enlarge its home, so that its age
can be inferred from the number of chambers comprising its shell.

In former days these creatures w^ere very abundant, but in our day
60 * 2 N

594

THE CHAMBEKED NAUTILUS.

the only known living representative is the Chambered or Pearly
Nautilus.

While the animal still lives the short tubes that pass through the
walls of the chambers are connected by membranous pipes, and even
in a specimen that has long been dead these connecting-links hold their
places, provided the shell has not been subjected to severe shocks. In
one of these shells now before me, which I have very cautiously opened,
the whole series of membranous tubes can be seen in their places, black
and shrivelled externally, but perfect tubes nevertheless.

The color of the shell is very beautiful. The ground is white, over
which are drawn, as with single dashes of a painter's brush, sundry

bold streaks of reddish
chestnut, mostly coales-
cing a])ove, and reach-
ing nearly to the centre
of the spiral. This por-
celain-like material is,
however, only an outer
coat laid on the real
pearly substance of the
shell, which is seen on
looking into the hollow
or into any of the cham-
bers. The Chinese avail
themselves of this double
coating, and, with the untiring perseverance of their laborious nature,
take the greatest trouble to spoil the finest shells by covering them with
their grotesquely unperspective carvings of figures and landscapes, cut
so as to relieve the deep color of the raised figures by the white, pearly
background. Unlike the shell of the argonaut, which is almost as frag-
ile as if made of sugar, that of the Nautilus is firm and strong, and
will bear a considerable amount of rough handling before betraying
any signs of injury.

The order which now comes before our notice is composed of animals
which crawl upon a broad muscular organ, termed, from its use, the
foot. It is an enormously large order, containing all the snails, wheth-
er terrestrial, aquatic, or marine, the whelks, limpets, and similar ani-
mals not so familiarly known. Many species are much used as food,
while others are of great service in the arts, furnishing employment to
many hundreds of workmen. As the shell of these creatures consists
of one piece or valve only, they are sometimes termed Univalves, in
contradistinction to the oysters, mussels, scallops, and similar shells,
which are termed Bivalves, in allusion to their double shell.

There is a structure belonging to these animals which must be de-

The Chambered Nautilus (Nautilus Poinpilim).

THE THOKNY WOODCOCK.

595

scribed before proceeding further, inasmuch as its shape and compar-
ative dimensions often afford valuable indications by which a species,
or even a genus, may be distinguished. This structure is called " oper-
culum," and its use, when fully developed, is to close the aperture of
the shell when the animal has withdrawn itself into the recesses of its
home.

The operculum can well be seen in the water-snails, where it attains
its full size and exactly fits the opening which it is intended to protect.
The material of which the operculum is essentially composed is a horny
substance, but in some species the horn is strengthened by layers of the
same nacreous matter which lines the shell, and becomes so thick and
heavy that when found separate from its owner it is often mistaken for
some species of shell. The operculum is very variable both in its
form and comparative dimensions, and even in its presence or absence.
Sometimes it is circular, like a flat plate, and composed of concentric
circles, while in some species it assumes a regularly spiral form like a
flattened watch-spring.

The shells that are included in the family of the Muricidse may read-
ily be distinguished by the straight beak or canal in front, and the ab-
sence of any such canal behind. All the animals belonging to this
family are not only carnivorous, but rapacious, preying on other mol-
luscs, and destroying them with the terrible armature called the tooth-
ribbon, which, when examined with the microscope, proves to be a set
of adamantine teeth, sharp-edged and pointed as those of the shark, and
cutting their way through the hard shells of their victims as the well-
known cordon saw passes through thick blocks of hard wood.

About one hundred and eighty species are known to belong to the
typical genus, and
there is hardly a
portion of the world
where a Murex of
some kind may not
be found.

The illustration
represents the shell
which is popularly
known under the
name of Thorny
Woodcock, the lat-
ter title being given
to it, in common with several of its congeners, on account of its long
beak, which is thought to bear some resemblance to that of the wood-
cock, and the former in allusion to the vast number of lengthened
spines or thorns which are arranged regularly over its surface. It

The Thorny Woodcock {Murex tenuv^pinis).

596

THE VENUS'S COMB AND THE WHELK.

has also received the equally appropriate and more poetical name
of Venus's Comb.

This shell is found in the Indian Ocean, and varies greatly in dimen-
sions, four or five inches being about the average length. It is evident
that, as nothing is ever made in vain or to be wasted, the wonderful
array of external spines must play some important part in nature, if
not in the economy of the particular species. But what that part may
be, and what may be the object of these beautiful structures, is a prob-
lem which seems almost insoluble — at all events, with our present means
of discovery.

The color of the shell is very pale brown, each ridge being slightly
tuberculated and edged with white. The spines are uniform drab or
very pale brown, with an almost horny translucence.

We now arrive at another and rather larger family, of which the
common Whelk is a familiar example.

This is one of the most carnivorous of our molluscs, and among the
creatures of its own class is as destructive as the lion among the herds

of antelopes. Its long tongue,
armed with row upon row of
curved and sharp-edged teeth,
harder than the notches of a file
and keen as the edge of a lancet,
is a most irresistible instrument
when rightly applied, drilling a
circular hole through the thickest
shells as easily as a carpenter's
centre-bit works its way through
a deal board.
The front of the tongue often has its teeth sadly broken, or even
wanting altogether, but their place is soon supplied by others, which
make their way gradually forward, and are brought successively into
use as wanted. As a general rule, there are about a hundred rows of
teeth in the Whelk's tongue; each row contains three teeth, and each
tooth is deeply cleft into several notches, which practically gives the
creature so many additional teeth.

Vast quantities of Whelks are taken annually for the markets, and
are consumed almost wholly by the poorer classes, who consider them
m the light of a delicacy. They are, however, decidedly tough and
stringy in texture, and, like the periwinkle, which is also largely eaten,
are not particularly digestible. The mode of taking these molluscs is
very sunple. Large wicker baskets are baited with the refuse portions
of fish and lowered to the bottom of the sea by ropes. The ever-hungry
Whelks instinctively discover the feast, crowd into the basket by thou-
sands, and are taken by merely raising the laden basket to the surface

The Whelk (Buccinum undalum).

THE IMPERIAL HARP-SHELL AND THE MAGILUS. 597

and emptying it into a tub. Sometimes the Whelk is captured by the
dredge, but the baited basket is the quickest and surest method. Be-
sides its use as an article of human consumption, it is sometimes em-
ployed by the fishermen as bait for their hooks.

The reader will doubtless have observed on the seashore considerable
masses of little yellowish capsules, mostly empty, and so light as to be
drifted on the surface of the sea like so many masses of corks. These
are the empty egg-cases of the Whelk. At the proper season of the
year, when the unhatched egg-clusters are flung on the shores bv the
gales, the little Whelks can be discovered within the capsules, several
shells being found in each case. Later in the season the egg-capsules
will be seen to be split open at one end, so as to allow the young to
escape.

When hatched the young escape into the sea through a round hole
in the capsule.

The sweeping curv^es, broad swelling lip, and regular ridges of the
next genus of shells have earned for them the popular title by which
they are known.

About nine or ten species belong to this pretty genus, some of which
are rare and costly. The Imperial Harp-shell, which is represented
in the engraving on this page, is still a
valuable shell, but in former days, when
the facilities of commerce were far less
than at present, it could be purchased
only at a most extravagant rate.

The Harp-shells are found only in the
hottest seas, and are taken mostly on the
shores of the Mauritius, Ceylon, and the
Philippine Islands. They frequent the
softer and more muddy parts of the coast,
and prefer deep to shallow water. None
of the Harp-shells possess the operculum.

The color of the Imperial Harp-shell is
pale chestnut and white, with a dash of
yellow, arranged in tolerably regular and Imperial Hakp-shell
slightly spiral bands. (^'"'^^ imperialis). ^

One of the strangest, though not the most beautiful, of shells is th'e
Magilus, a native of the Red Sea and the Mauritius.

For the purpose, apparently, of carrying out some mysterious object,
the Magilus resides wholly in masses of madrepore, and in its early
youth is a thin, delicate shell without anything remarkable about it
As it advances in age it enlarges in size, as is the case with most crea-
tures, but its growth is confined to one direction, and instead of enlarg-
ing in diameter it merely increases in length. The cause of the

598

THE CONE-SHELLS AND THE COWRIES.

continual addition made to its length is probably to be found in the
growth of the madrepore in which it is sheltered, and which would
soon enclose the Magilus within its stony walls did not the mollusc
provide against such a fate by lengthening its shell and taking up its
residence in the mouth.

The most curious point, however, in the economy of the Magilus is
that as fast as it adds a new shell in front it fills up the cavity behind
with a solid concretion of shelly matter, very hard and of an almost
crystalline structure, so as to leave about the same amount of space as
in the original shell. The animal is always to be found in the very
front of the shelly tube, and closes the aperture with a strong operculum
that effectually shields it against all foes.

We now pass to the Cone-shells, or Conidse, a family so called on
account of their form. All the Cones have a similar external outline :
the aperture is long and narrow, the head of the living animal is more
or less lengthened, the foot is splay and abruptly cut off in front, the
tentacles are rather widely separate, and the eyes are placed upon these
organs.

The Textile Cone-shell comes from the Mauritius. This hand-
Bome species is about four or five inches in length and its markings are
curiously disposed, so that it is impossible to say
which is the ground-color. The dark, narrow, an-
gular lines are dark brown, accompanied by white,
and variegated by dashes of yellow umber. The
bold triangular spots are pure white, and the inside
of the shell is of the same color.

The Admiral Cone, in common with the other
members of tlie genus, haunts the fissures and holes
in rocks and the warmer pools in coral reefs. They
all take a moderate range of depth, varying from
one to forty fathoms.

We now come to the family of the Cowries, or
Cyprseidse. All the Cowries are lovers of the shal-
low waters near shore, and are carnivorous in their
habits, feeding mostly upon the numerous zoophytes
that inhabit the same coasts. These shells change
their forms in a truly remarkable manner. When

(cl!rL':;^//?sr'' ^''"''^ ^^^ '^^^^ ^' ""^^^ ^'^^ *^^* ^^ ^ ^^^"*^' ^^'''"^

'a prominent spire and a rather wide-spreading lip,
but in process of time the lobes of the mantle expand over it on either
side, and by degrees deposit so thick a layer of smooth, shining sub-
stance that the spire is entirely hidden. The pale streak which gen-
erally exists along the back of the Cowries indicates the line where the
edges of the mantle nearly meet.

THE SEA SNAILS.

599

This little Cowry is so well known as to need no description.
The celebrated Money Cowry ( Cyprcea monetd) belongs to this genus.
These little w^iite shells are well known as being the medium of barter
in many parts of Western Africa, and vast multitudes are gathered
from their homes in the Pacific and Eastern seas, and
imported into this country for the purpose of imme-
diate exportation to the African coast. Sixty tons
weight of Money Cowries has been freighted at a
single British port in one year.

The grooved or wrinkled edges of the lip are well
known to every one who has handled a Cowry, and
these ridges assume a remarkable development in the
Deep-toothed Cowry. The color of this shell is
extremely variable, but is mostly a mottled wood-
brown, sometimes diversified with bands, and dark
inside. It is not a very large species.

We now arrive at a vast army of shells called the
Sea Snails, and distinguished by having the edges
of the aperture without notches, the shell spiral or The Admiral
limpet-shaped, and the operculum either horny or ^^fy^rcdk) "^
covered with hard, smooth, shelly matter.

One of the most curious of these shells is the Spined Neritina. The
operculum is shelly, with a flexible border, and has some small teeth
on its straight edge. All the Neritinse are globular in their general
shape, darkly spotted or banded with black and purple, and covered
with a polished bone-like epidermis. The color of the Spined Neritina
IS deep green-black on the exterior and blackish white within. The
shell is thick and solid at the aperture, but becomes thinner toward
the interior.

In the family of the Turritellidse the shell is either tubular or spiral ;

the aperture is not waved, notched, or
formed into canals ; the foot is very
small, the muzzle is short, and the
eyes sunk rather deeply into the base
of the tentacles.

The Staircase or Precious Wen-
TLETRAP was iu former days one of
the scarcest and most costly of the
specimens of which a conchologist's
cabinet could boast. There was hard-
ly any sum which a wealthy connois-
seur— or virtuoso, as the fashion was
then to call those who were fond of natural history — would not give
for an especially large and perfect example of this really pretty shell.

The Money Cowry {Cyprcea
moneta).

600 THE WENTLETRAP AND THE PHEASANT-SHELLS.

Now, however, its glory has departed, for a tolerably good specimen
may be procured for a few shillings, and a Wentletrap which would a
few years ago have been sold for fifty pounds can now be purchased
for fifteen shillings.

Putting aside, however, the question of rarity or cost, this shell is a
verv interesting one, both for its beauty and for the mode of its con-
struction. It is purely white and partly transparent, the elevated
ridf'es being of a more snowy white than the body of the shell, on ac-
count of their superior thickness, which does not permit the light to
pass through them, as in the case of the thinner body. The whorls of
this shell are separate from each other and apparently bound together
only by the projecting ridges, so that the general appearance is as if a
long conical tube had been loosely coiled and each whorl kept in its
place l)y a succession of shelly elevations. This beautiful shell is found
in the Indian and Chinese seas.

The Common or False Wentletrap, is a species tolerably plentiful
upon our coasts.

In this shell the whorls are united together and furnished with a
number of circular elevations, which, however, are not nearly so bold
as those of the preceding species, but thick in proportion to their height,
set obliquely on the shell, and smooth.

We now arrive at another family, termed the Litorinidse, or Shore
Molluscs, because the greater number of them frequent the coasts and
feed upon the various algse. The shell is always spiral and never
pearly, by which latter characteristic it may be distinguished from
certain shells belonging to another family, but somewhat similar in
external appearance. The aperture is rounded. The animal has
its eye set at the outer base of the tentacles, and the foot is remarkable
for a longitudinal groove along the sole, so that in the act of walking
each side advances in its turn. The tongue is rather long, and is armed
with 'a formidable series of sharp teeth that serve admirably for the
purpose of scraping away the vegetable matter on which the animal
feeds. The operculum is horny and rather spiral. The common
Periwinkle (Litorina litorea) is the most familiar example of this
family, and is too well known to need any detailed description. The
Periwinkle is found upon our rocks in great profusion, occupying the
zone between high and low water and always being found near the edge
of the tide.

In former days the Pheasant-shells were articles of great price
and rarity, some specimens almost rivalling the precious wentletrap
in the enormous sums asked and obtained for them. Now, however,
that their habitations have been discovered and more frequent voy-
ages are made, they have become comparatively plentiful, although,
irom the fragility of their structure, a perfect specimen is not at

THE TOP AND THE LIMPET. 601

all common, and will still bring a good price in the conchological
market.

The Pheasant-shells are now found in great numbers on the sandy-
beaches of several shores, being especially plentiful on the coast of
Port Western, in Bass's Straits. The high tide sweeps them toward the
shore, where they are left by the receding waters, and seek for shelter
beneath the masses of seaweed that are always flung on the beacb by
the tide. On lifting these sheltering weeds, the Pheasant-shells may-
be found crowded together under their wet fronds. They can move
with some speed, the duplicate nature of the foot aiding them greatly
in progression.

The well-known Top is one of the most plentiful species of the Brit-
ish coasts, and may be found by hundreds either crawling among the
seaweeds at low water or flung upon the sands by the tide. The shell
of this creature is beautifully pearly, and when the outer coating is re-
moved the iridescent nacre below has a very lovely appearance. Jew-
ellers and lapidaries employ these shells largely in their art, polishing
them carefully and then stringing them together, so as to form brace-
lets and necklaces, or affixing them as ornaments to various head-
dresses.

The well-known univalves, so familiar under the name of Limpets,
are divided into several families, on account of certain variations in
the structure of the shell. The first family is termed Fissurellidie, on
account of the fissure which appears either at the apex or in the front
edge of the shell.

All the Limpets are strongly adhesive to rocks, as is well known by
every one who has tried to remove one of these molluscs from the stony
surface to which it clings. The means by which the animal is able to
attach itself with such firmness is analogous to the mode in which the
suckers of the cuttle-fish adhere to the objects which they seize — the
formation of a vacuum, and the consequent pressure of the atmosphere,
being the means employed. The foot of the Limpet is rounded, broad,
thick, and powerful ;• and when the animal wishes to cling tightly to
any substance, it presses the foot firmly upon the surface and retracts
its centre, while its edges remain affixed to the rock. A partial vac-
uum is therefore formed, and the creature becomes as firmly attached
to the rock as a boy's leathern sucker to the stone on which he has
pressed it.

We now come to the curious family of molluscs appropriately called
Chitonidog, or mail-shells, because their shells are jointed together like
the pieces of plate-armor. When separated from each other the plates
bear a strong resemblance to the joint of a steel gauntlet, and overlap
each other in a similar fashion, a thick and strong mantle taking the
place of the leather. There are eight of these plates, and all of them

51

602

THE MARBLED CHITON AND THE SNAIL.

Chiton Magnif-

ICUS.

have a somewhat saddle-like shape. A similar arrangement may be
observed in the lower abdominal plates of many beetles. Each of
these plates is fixed to the mantle by certain rounded processes from
their front edge, and when the plates are examined separately the
processes will be plainly seen, white and pearly as
the interior of the shell.

The Chitons are able to roll themselves up in a
partial kind of manner, and present a curious re-
semblance to the well-known armadillo or pill-
woodlouse.

The Marbled Chiton is a rather prettily-colored
shell, its exterior being rusty red mixed with brown
and yellow and edged with brown.

Passing from the sea to the land, we come to those
Gasteropods which breatlie atmospheric air, and are
furnished with respiratory organs suited to the ele-
ment in which they live.
The first family is that of the Snails, or Helicidse, containing a vast
number of species. Most of the Snails have a shell large enough to
permit the animal to withdraw itself wholly into the protecting domicile.
The genus Helix, which is universally accepted as the type of .this
family, is of enormous extent, both in numbers and in range of locality,
containing more tlian fourteen hundred species and spread over nearly
the whole earth.

Our present example is the common Snail, which is even now
largely consumed in many
parts of the world, and is
regularly fed and fattened
for that purpose.

It is thought a delicacy
by those who are sufficiently
strong-minded to eat it, and
it is quite common to see,
even in Paris, the poorer
orders dressing their dinner
of snails on an iron plate
heated over burning char-
coal.

An allied species, the
Edible Snail {Helix po-
matla), was introduced into England by the Romans, and still exists
in many places.

Toward the end of autumn the Snail ceases to feed, withdraws itself
to some sheltered spot, mostly under grass, moss, or dried leaves, and

The Common Snail {Helix aspersa).

THE GREAT GRAY SLUG AND THE POND-SNAIL. 603

then sets about making its winter habitation. This process is very
curious, and is thus described by Mr. Bell :

"A large quantity of very viscid mucus is secreted on the under
surface of the foot, to which a layer of earth or dead leaves adheres ;
this is turned on one side, and, a fresh secretion being thrown out, the
layer of earth mixed with mucus is left. The animal then takes
another layer of earth on the bottom of the foot, turns it also to the
part where he intends to form the wall of his habitation, and leaves it
in the same manner, repeating the process until the cavity is sufficiently
large, and thus making the sides smooth, even, and compact. In form-
ing the dome or arch of the chamber a similar method is used, the
foot collecting on its under surface a quantity of earth, and the animal,
turning it upward, leaves it by throwing out fresh mucus ; and this is
repeated until a perfect roof is formed.

" As I have very often watched this curious process, I am certain of
the facts. On removing very carefully the portion of the roof soon
after its completion, I was enabled to see the formation of the opercu-
lum. In about an hour, or even less, the whole surface of the collar
of the mantle instantaneously pours out the calcareous secretion in
considerable quantity.

" This is at first a fluid or thick cream, but very soon acquires
exactly the consistence of birdlime, being excessively adhesive and
tenacious, and in about an hour after it is poured out it is perfectly
solid."

We now arrive at the great family of Limacidse, or Slugs, a race
of beings which many a gardener doubtless wishes extinct.

In these creatures the foot and body are indistinguishable from each
other ; the head is retractile, and the whole creature can be gathered
into a short rounded mass, looking so like a pebble that it would escape
a casual glance. At the first view the Slugs appear to be destitute of
shell, but on a closer examination the shell is found upon the fore
part of the body, and either entirely or "partly buried beneath the
integuments.

The Great Gray Slug is the largest of the British species, and
when furnished with abundant food on which it can fatten itself during
the night, and a secure hiding-place whither it can retreat during the
day, often attains an enormous size.

The Water Snails are represented by the common Pond-snail, or
LiMNiEA. In all the members of this family the shell is thin, and
suflficiently capacious to contain the entire animal when it desires to
withdraw itself into its home. The aperture is simply rounded, with-
out notches or ridges, and the lip is sharp.

It may be found plentifully in nearly all streams where the water is
not polluted and the current not very swift. I have generally found

604

THE DORIS, THE EOLIS, AND THE HYALEA.

that the back eddies of " lashers" are favorite haunts of various Water

Suails.

We now arrive at a very remarkable series of molluscs, which have
been separated by systematic naturalists into a distinct section appro-
priately called Nudibranchidse, or Naked-gilled Molluscs, because their
gills are always external and placed on the
back or sides of the animals.

The common Doris is a native of our
own shores. All the members of the family
to which this creature belongs may be known
by the plume-like gills set in a circle on the
middle of the back, like the feathery coronet
with which the Blackfoot Indian adorns the
head of his horse, and the two tentacles placed
more toward the front. In the skin are im-
bedded a vast number of little spiculse.
The beautiful Eolis is common ou our own

\l ,| coasts, and may be seen moving over the plants
'I and stones with tolerable activity and always
keeping the tentacles and papillae in motion,
sometimes contracting and sometimes extend-
ing them, while the movement of the water
The Shell of Water causes them to wave in a very graceful man-
Snail (Lu/maasia^ua/<6-). ner. These papillse possess the property of
discharging a milky kind of fluid when the
animal is irritated. The fluid, however, is quite harmless — at all events,
to the humau skin. As in the previous case, the papillse are liable to
fall off at a touch.

A small but important group of molluscs now comes before us. This
is the Pteropoda, or Wing-footed Molluscs, so called from the fin-like
lobes that project from the sides, and are evidently analogous to the
similar organs in some of the sea-snails. These appendages are used
almost like wings, the creature flapping its way vigorously through the
water, jii.st as a butterfly urges its devious course through the air. They
are found in the hotter seas, swimming boldly in vast multitudes amid
the wide waters, and one species {Clioborealis) has long been celebrated
as furnishing the huge Greenland whale with the greater part of its
subsistence.

The Hyalea is remarkable not only for the two wide fins which are
found in all the family to which it belongs, but for the long appendages
which pass through certain apertures in the shell and trail behind as
the creature proceeds on its course. The wings are united by a nearly
semicircular lobe.

The Cleodora is a very beautiful and interesting animal, of which

THE CLEODOEA, THE OYSTER, AND THE SCALLOP. 605

Mr. F. D. Bennett writes as follows : "On that part of the body which
is lodged in the apex of the shell there is a small, globular, pellucid
body resembling a vesicle, and which at night emits a luminous gleam
sufficiently vivid to be visible even when it is opposed to the strong
light of a lamp. It is the only example of a luminous shell-fish I have
ever met with ; nor would the luminosity of this species be of any avail
did not the shell possess a structure so vitreous and transparent. Exam-
ples were captured chiefly at night or in the evening."

The next great group of molluscs is that which is known by the
technical term of Conchifera. In them each valve corresponds with
the right or left side.

In the first family, of which the common Oyster is a very familiar
instance, the two valves are unequal
in size, and the animal inhabits the
sea. The Oyster is too well known
to need description, but it may be men-
tioned that practical naturalists have for
some years been carefully studying its
habits for the purpose of breeding the
valuable molluscs artificially, and so of
securing a constant supply throughout
the four months of the year during OvsTERs^O^-m eduUs).
which the creature is out of condition.

In this country the system is being gradually carried out, but in France
it is developed to a very large extent and with great success.

The next family are termed wing-shells, or Avicularid^e, because the
apices — or " umbones," as they are called — are flattened and spread on
either side, something like the wing of a bird. The interior of the
valves is pearly, and the exterior layer is composed of a kind of
mosaic-work of five- or six-sided particles. This structure is easily
to be seen by means of a moderately-powerful simple lens merely by
holding up a scallop or other shell before the window, so as to allow
the light to pass through it.

The common Scallop is found along our southern coasts and in the
seas of Europe. This shell was formerly used as the badge of a pilgrim
to the Holy Land :

" His pilgrim's staff he bore.
And fix'd the Scallop in his hat before."

It is a singular fact that in the stomach of a common Scallop is
found an earthy deposit which, when boiled in nitric acid in order to
dissolve the animal and other portions, exhibits, under a powerful
microscope, animalcules precisely similar to those which in a fossil state
form the earth on which the town of Richmond, in America, is built.

61 *

606

THE PEAKL OYSTEK.

The well-known Pearl Oyster is one of the most valuable of the
shell-bearing molluscs, furnishing the greater part of the pearls that
are set by jewellers and worn by ladies.

The pearls are secreted by the animal in precisely the same manner as

the nacre of the shell, and are,
indeed, the same substance,
formed into a globular shape
and disposed in concentric lay-
ers, so as to give that peculiar
translucency which is quite
indescribable, but is known
among jewellers by the name
of "water."

The Pearl Oyster does not
produce its costly harvest un-
der six or seven years of age,
and it is therefore a matter of
importance that the bed should
be so managed that the young
Oysters may be suffered to re-
main in peace until they have
attained an age which renders them capable of repaying the expense
of procuring them, and that no part of the bed should be harried
where the Oysters are too small to produce pearls.

The Oysters are now obtained by means of men who are trained to

The Scallop [Pecten jacobeus).

Outside of Shell. Inside of Shell.

Pearl Oyster {Meleagrina Margaritifera),
the business, and who can remain under water for a considerable time
without being drowned. p:ach diver takes with him a net-bag for the
purpose of holding the Oysters, puts his foot into a stirrup to which
hangs a stone weighing about thirty pounds, and after taking a long

THE MUSSEL, THE COCKLE, AND THE EAZOR-SHELL. 607

breath is carried swiftly to the bottom. He then flings himself on his
face, fills his bag as fast as he can, and when his breath begins to fail
shakes his rope as a signal, and is drawn up together with the bag.

We now come to the large, useful, and even beautiful, family of the
Mussels.

The Edible Mussel, so common in the fishmonger's shop and the

costermouger's barrow, is found in vast profusion on — "^ts, where

it may be seen moored to rocks, stones, and
fibres, alternately covered with water or left
dry according to the flowing and ebbing of
the tide. At some periods of the year the
Mussel is extremely injurious as an article
of food, though the effects seem to depend
greatly on the constitution of the partaker.
Attempts have successfully been made to prop-
agate the breed of mussels, and the vast
plantations, as they may be called, of these
creatures have increased to such an extent
that they threaten to obliterate several usei'ul
bays for all maritime purposes.

The family of the Cockles, or Cardiadse,
so called from their heart-like shape, is well
represented by the common Cockle (^Cardhcm
edi(le) of our British shores. Generally, the
Cockle is a marine animal, but it sometimes
prefers brackish water to the salt waves of
the ocean.

This mollusc frequents sandy bays and re-
mains about lowMvater

mark, burying itself in

the sand by means of

the powerful foot, which enables it to leap to a

surprising height.

We now come to the well-known Solenid?e,

or Razor-shells, so called on account of their

shape.

These curious molluscs always live buried in the

sand in an upright position, leaving only an open-
ing shaped like a keyhole, which corresponds with the two siphon tubes.
These creatures are generally found at a depth of one or two feet,
and w^hen they make their burrows, as they are often in the habit of
doing, among the rocks, not even the hooked iron can draw them from
their retreat.

We next come to the Pholas, the best example of which is the com-

The MrssEL {Mytihis
E(hdis).

The Cockle {Cardium
edule).

608

THE PIDDOCK AND THE SHIP- WORM.

mou species popularly called Piddock, and found in profusion along

the seacoast.

The common Piddock may be found in vast numbers m every sea-

The Common Razor-shell {Solen vagina).
covered chalk rock, into which it has the gift of penetrating so as to
})rotect itself from almost every foe.

Mr. Woodward remarks, very justly, that the "condition of the Pho-

lades is always related to the na-
ture of the material in which they
are found burrowing ; in soft sea-
beds they attain the largest size
and greatest perfection, whilst in
hard, and especially gritty, rock
they are dwarfed in size, and all
prominent points and ridges ap-
pear worn by friction. No notice
is taken of the hypothesis which
ascribes the perforation of rocks,
etc., to ciliary action, because, in
fact, there is no current between
the shell, or siphon, and the wall
of the tube." As soon as the ani-
mal has completely buried itself
it ceases to burrow, and only pro-
jects the ends of the siphon from
the aperture of the tunnel.

Allied to the preceding mol-
luscs is the Ship-w^orm, so called from its depredations on the bottoms
of ships and all submerged wooden structures ; it is found in most seas,
and on our own
coasts works fear-
ful damage by
eating into piles,
planks, or even
loose wood that
lies tossing about
in the ocean.

Wlien removed from the tube the Ship-worm is seen to be a long grav-
ish-white animal, about one foot in length and half an inch in thickness.

I'uK PiDDocK {Pkolas dactybm).

The Ship-worm [Teredo navalis).

POLYZOA.

609

At one end there is a rounded head, and at the other a forked tail.
The burrow which the creature forms is either wholly or partially
lined with shell, and it is worthy of notice that the Ship-worm and
its mode of burrowing gave Sir I. Brunei the idea of the Thames Tunnel.

POLYZOA.

The very remarkable beings which now come before our notice are
appropriately termed Polyzoa, from two Greek words signifying " many
animals,'* because a
large number of in-
dividuals are massed
together in groups
of various forms and
textures.

The true animal
nature of these and
many other beings
which had been for-
merly classed among
the vegetables was at
length fairly proved
by the researches of
two eminent men,
Trembley and Ellis,

the latter of whom ^' ^<*'^«''<^«^^« lorica. B. Catenieella hastata. C. Cateni-

, , . , ce^^a corniita. D. Calpidinm ornatum. E. Saliconiaria

may lay claim to the fardminoides. F. Celhdaria Peachii. G. Menipea Fu-

honor of having pro- fl"'*"*^** (mouth of a cell).

duced the best and most comprehensive work of his time.

Fig. A is an example of one of these beings, the Little Chain, or
Breastplate, one of those creatures that are so plentiful in the sea,
and are popularly called zoophytes. This figure is of the natural size ;
but in order to show the peculiarities of structure, two examples of
species belonging to the same genus are given as they appear when
considerably magnified. Fig. B is the Catenieella hastata^ wherein are
seen the shape of the cells, the form of their mouths, the method in
which they give out their branches, and the peculiar organs called
technically " avicularia " and " vibracula," the former being processes
that in many species bear an almost absurdly close resemblance to the
heads of birds ; and the latter, curious hair-like projections which move
regularly backward and forward as if impelled by machinery.

The members of the present genus are found most commonly in the
Australian seas, seldom in the southern hemisphere, while in the north-
ern hemisphere they are almost entirely unknown. Many specimens

20

610

POLYZOA.

have been taken from Bass's Straits at a depth of forty-five fathoms. As
a general rule, however, the Polyzoa prefer the shallower waters, and
are most commonly found a little below low-water mark.

Fig. C is another species belonging to the same genus, and is remark-
able for the long pointed spines that project from the margin, like a
pair of cow's horns. In allusion to this peculiarity it is called Cateni-
cella cornuta.

At Fig. D is shown another curious polyzoon, termed Calpidium or-
natum, also found in Bass's Straits, at the same depth as the preceding
species. A magnified figure is given in order to show the singular
method -of its construction.

An example of the typical genus of this family is given at Fig. E,
where the Salicoriiaria farciminoldes is represented of the natural size.

We now arrive
at another family,
the Cellularidse,
where the general
shape resembles
that of the pre-
ceding family, but
/ ^'iM.'^i^^mm^'Hm^i^^mm^^ /^p^ the cells, instead

I" '^iWr'" ^^SfSr.K'-\'^f^^m^^& J^^^ ^ bemg arranged

X <---^/ ^^^^ ' ^^^^^m .^f round an imag-

inary axis, and so
forming cylindri-
cal branches, are
on the same plane.
Fig. F is a mag-
nified example of
this family, the
Cellularia Peachii,
so called in honor
of the eminent nat-
uralist, Mr. Peach.
At Fig. G is
shown the mouth
of a single cell be-
longing to the ge-
nus Menipea, found in Terra del Fuego, and termed, from its habitat,
Menipea Fuguensis. The object of giving this example is to show the
curious " operculum " which closes, or rather guards, the mouth of
the cell, and in this genus is in the form of a simple spike. This
species is found at low-water.

Every one who has walked along the seashore must have observed

Sea Mat [Flustra foliacea).

POLYZOA. 611

the pretty leaf-like Sea Mats strewn on the beach, and admired the
wonderful regularity of their structure, perceptible to the naked eye;
but when magnified, even by a pocket lens, their beauty increases in pro-
portion to the power employed, and the marvellous arrangement of the
cells and the orderly system in which they are placed are almost beyond
belief. Beautiful, however, as they are in this state, they are but the
dead and lifeless habitations of the creatures who built the wondrous
cells, and the only method of showing the Sea Mat in its full glory is
to take a living specimen from the stone or shell to which it is affixed,
and watch it under the microscope while the creatures are still in full
activity. In the illustration is shown a portion of the common Sea
Mat, sometimes called the Hornwrack.

INSECTS.

The Insects, to which we must devote a few pages, afford the first
examples of the Articulata— z. e., the jointed animals without vertebrae.
Their bodies are composed of a series of rings, and they are separated
into at least two, and mostly three, portions, the head being distinct
from the body. They pass through a series of changes before attaining
the perfect form ; and when they have reached adult age they always
possess six jointed legs, neither more nor less, and two antennae, popu-
larly called horns or feelers.

In most instances their preliminary forms, technically called the
larva and pupa, are extremely unlike the perfect Insect, but there are
some in which, at all events externally, they retain the same shape
throughout their entire life. The whole of the growth takes place in
the preliminary stages, so that the perfect insect never grows, and the
popular idea that a little Insect is necessarily a young one is quite
incorrect.

Insects breathe in a very curious manner. They have no lungs or
gills, but their whole body is permeated with a network of tubes,
through which the air is conveyed, and by means of which the blood
is brought into contact with the vivifying influence of the atmosphere.
These breathing-tubes, technically called tracheae, ramify to every
portion of the creature and penetrate to the extremities of the limbs,
the antennae, and even the wings when those organs exist. Their
external orifices are called spiracles, and are set along the sides.

They have very little internal skeleton, the hard materials which
protect the soft vital organs being placed on the exterior, and forming
a beautiful coat-of-mail, so constructed as to defend the tender portions
within, and yet to permit perfectly free motion on the part of the
owner.

There are many other interesting points in the structure of the
Insects, such as the eyes, the wings, the tracheae, etc., which will be
described in the course of the following pages.

The first order is called the Coleoptera — a word of Greek origin,
signifying Sheathed-winged Animals — and includes all those insects
which are more popularly known under the title of Beetles. In these
msects the front pair of wings are modified into stout horny or leathery
cases, under which the second pair of wings are folded when not in use.
The hmder pair of wings are transparent and membranous in their
structure, and when not employed are arranged under the upper pair,
technically called the ^ytra, by folds in two directions, one being longi-
tudinal and the other transverse. The mouth is furnished with jaws,
otten of considerable power, which move horizontally.

THE TIGER BEETLE.

613

Passing over the details of classification, we come to the first family
of Insects, scientifically called the Cicindelidse, and popularly known by
the names of Tiger Beetles and Sparklers, both titles being very
appropriate, the former on account of their exceeding voracity, their
ferocious habits, and the wonderful activity of their
movements, and the latter in allusion to the bril-
liancy of their coloi*s as they flash along in the
sunshine. These Beetles are represented by several
British species, among which the common Tiger
Beetle (^Cicindela campestris) is the most common,
and perhaps the most beautiful. Well does this
little creature deserve its popular name ; for what
the dragon-fly is to the air, what the shark is to the
sea, the Tiger Beetle is to the earth, running with
such rapidity that the eye can hardly follow its
course; armed wdth jaws like two reapers* sickles
crossing each other at the points ; furnished w^ith The Tiger Beetle
eyes that project from the sides of the head and {Cicindela campes-
permit the creature to see in every direction with- ^'''^^*
out turning itself; and, lastly, gifted with agile wings that enable it
to rise in the air as readily as a fly or a wasp. Moreover, it is cov-
ered with a suit of mail, gold-emboss-
ed, gem-studded, and burnished with
more than steely brightness, light yet
strong, and, though yielding freely to
every movemer* yet so marvellously
jointed as to leave no vulnerable
points even when in full action, and,
in fine, such a suit of armor as no
monarch ever possessed and no artist
ever conceived.

Even in its larval state the Tiger
Beetle is a terror to other insects,
snapping them up as they pass by its
burrows, and dragging them into the
dark recesses of the earth to be de-
voured. Several American species in-
habit trees, and are quite as destruc-
tive among the branches as their con-
geners upon the earth.

The British Tiger Beetle is remark-
able for exuding a powerful scent much resembling the odor produced
by a crushed verbena-leaf.

A very large and important family of Beetles, the Carabidse, now

52

The Violet Ground Beetle

{Carabiis violacem).

614

THE GROUND AND WATER BEETLES.

comes before us, which is represented in England by very many species,
the common Ground Beetles being familiar examples.

Of the typical genus of this family we take the Violet Ground Beetle
(Carabus violaceus) as an example.

This fine Beetle is plentiful in this country, and may be found in
gardens, gravel-pits, and similar localities. It is said to be especially
common in the midland counties.

The elytra are rather convex and narrowed at the shoulder, and are
fiuely granulated — i. e., covered with minute rounded projections. They
are black, but the margins are edged with a band of coppery or golden
violet, sometimes warming into purple. The body is black beneath.
The disc of the thorax is black and the margins are violet, and the
head is black. The length of the beetle is about an inch.

The members of this genus are almost wholly inhabitants of tem-

The Water Beetle {Dyticus dimklUUas).
perate climates, and it has been stated that scarcely any species are to
be found within thirty degrees from the equator on either side.

We now come to the large group of Water Beetles, which are di-
vided mto several families.

THE KOVE BEETLE. 615

la order to enable them to perform the various movements which are
necessary for their aquatic existence, their hind legs are developed into
oars with flattened blades and stiff hairy friuges, and the mode of res-
piration is slightly altered in order to accommodate itself to the sur-
rounding conditions. It has already been mentioned that in all insects
the respiration is conducted through a series of apertures set along the
sides, and technically called spiracles. In the Water Beetles the spira-
cles are set rather high, so as to be covered by the hollowed elytra, and
to be capable of breathing the air under those organs. When, there-
fore, the beetle dives it is in no ways distressed for want of air, as it
carries a tolerable supply beneath the elytra. When, however, that
supply is exhausted, the beetle rises to the surface, just pushes the ends
of the elytra out of the water, takes in a fresh supply of air, and again
seeks its subaquatic haunts.

The male of the Great Water Beetle, in common with other species,
is specially notable for the singular development of the fore legs, the
tarsi of which are developed in a most extraordinary apparatus caused
by the dilatation of the three first joints, which are flattened so as to
form a nearly circular disc, covered on its under surface with a multi-
tude of wonderfully-constructed suckers, one being very large, another
about half its size, and the others very small and set on pear-shaped
footstalks.

Passing by several large and interesting families, we come to the cu-
rious creatures which will at once be recognized by reference to the il-
lustration on page 616. These beetles are popularly known by the
name of Rove Beetles, or Cocktails, the latter name being given to
them on account of their habit of curling up the abdomen when they
are alarmed or irritated. The common Black Cocktail has so diabol-
ical an aspect when it assumes this attitude, standing its ground de-
fiantly with open jaws and elevated tail, that the rustics generally call
it the Devil's Coach-horse. It has, moreover, the power of throwing
out a most disgusting odor, which is penetrating and persistent to a
degree, refusing to be driven off even with many washings.

These beetles are termed Staphylinidse, or Brachelytra, the latter
term signifying " short elytra," and being a very apposite name, as the
elytra are short, square, and not more than one-fourth tlie length of
the abdomen. If we watch one of these beetles settling after its flight,
we shall see the object of its flexible tail. The wings are so large and
the elytra so small that the process of folding the delicate membranes
could not be completed without some external aid. When the insect
alights it suddenly furls its wings into loose folds, and then, by means
of its tail, it pushes the wings under the elytra, which are then shut
down. This process, although rather elaborate, is effected in a very
rapid manner. .

616

THE BURYING BEETLE.

Next to the Staphylinidse are placed some insects that have become
quite famous for their curious and valuable habits. These are the Nec-
rophaga, popularly and appropriately termed Burying Beetles.

It is owing to the exertions of these li|;tle scavengers that the carcases
of birds, small mammals, and reptiles are seldom seen to cumber the

ground, being
"~ buried at a
depth of several
inches, where
they serve to in-
-^ crease the fer-
=[^^ tility of the
^^-"^ earth instead of
tainting the pu-
rity of the atmo-
sphere. These
beetles may eas-
ily be captured
by laying a dead
I^ mouse, mole,
Jr bird, frog, or
Tr even a piece of
"^ meat, on the
ground, and

marking the

spot, so as to be

The Kove Beetle (Ocypus olens).

able to find the
place where it

had been laid. It will hardly have remained there for a couple of
hours before some Burying Beetle will find it out and straightway set
to work at its interment. The plan adopted is by burrowing under-
neath the corpse and scratching away the earth, so as to form a hollow,
into which the body sinks. When the beetles have worked for some
time they are quite hidden, and the dead animal seems to subside into
the ground as if by magic.

The strength and perseverance of these beetles are so great that a very
short time suffices to bury the creature completely below the ground,
and, the earth being scraped over it, the process is complete. The
object of burying dead animals is to gain a proper spot wherein to de-
posit their eggs, as the larvae, when hatched, feed wholly on decaying
animal substance.

We now come to the Lamellicorn Beetles, so called from the beauti-
ful plates, or lamellae, which decorate the antennse. This family in-
cludes a vast number of species, many of which— as, for example, the

THE COCKCHAFER AND THE STAG BEETLE.

617

Commou Cockchafer — are extremely hurtful to vegetation in both the
larval and adult form. In this family are found the most gigantic
specimens of the Coleoptera, some of which look more like crabs than
beetles, so huge are they and so bizarre are their
shapes. In all these creatures the lamellae are
larger and more beautiful in the female than in
the male insect.

The Common Cockchafer is too familiar to
need any description of its personal appearance,
but the history of its life is not so widely known
as its aspect. The mother-beetle commences op-
erations by depositing the eggs in the ground,
where in good time the young are hatched. The
grubs are unsightly-looking objects, having the
end of the body so curved that the creatures can- The Burying Beetle
not crawl in the ordinary fashion, but are obliged ^^'^'<'P^^''^' vestigator).
to lie on their sides. They are furnished with tw^o terribly trenchant
jaws like curved shears, and immediately set to work at their destruc-
tive labors.

They feed mostly upon the roots of grasses and other plants, and
when in great numbers have been known to ruin an entire harvest. To
turf they are especially destructive, shearing aw^ay the roots with their
scissordike jaws and killing the vegetation effectually. For three
years the future insect continues in its larval state, and after a brief
sojourn in the pupal condition changes its skin for the last time, and
emerges from the ground a perfect Cockchafer. Even in its perfect
state it is a terribly destructive insect, working
sad havoc among the foliage of trees.

The Stag Beetle is the largest of our British
Coleoptera, and when it has attained its full di-
mensions is an extremely powerful and rather
formidable insect, its enormous mandibles being
able to inflict a very painful bite, not only on
account of the powerful muscles by which they
are moved, but in consequence of the antler-like
projections with which their tips are armed. These
horn-like jaws belong only to the male, those of the
female being simply sharp and curved mandibles,
in no way conspicuous.
The larvse of the Stag Beetle reside in trees, into which they burrow
with marvellous facility, and, as they appear to cling to the familiar
neighborhood after they have emerged from their holes, they may be
found upon or near the trees in which they have been bred.

From the formidable shape of the mandibles it might be supposed

52*

The Cockchafer

{Melolontha vulgaris).

618

THE CHRYSOCHEOA AND THE GLOW-WORM.

that the Stag Beetle was one of the predaceous species. This, however,
is not the case, the food of this fine insect consisting mostly, if not
wholly, of the juices of vegetables, which it wounds with the jaws, so

as to cause the sap to flow. It is true
that specimens have been detected in
the act of assaulting other insects, but
they never seem to have been observed
in the act of feeding upon their victim.
AVhether the food be of animal or veg-
etable nature, it is always liquid, and is
lapped or swept up by a kind of brush
which forms part of the mouth and
looks like a double pencil of shining
orange-colored hairs.

Passing by one or two families of
more or less importance, we arrive at
the Buprestidie, a family of Beetles re-
markable for the extraordinary gorge-
ousness of their tints, almost every im-
aginable hue being found upon these
brilliant insects.

They are found in many portions of
'the globe, but, as is generally the case
with insects, their colors take the great-
est intensity within the tropics. They
fly well and seem to exult in the hot-
test sunshine, where the bright beams
cause their burnished raiment to flash
forth its most dazzling hues. They
are, however, slow of foot, and when
alarmed have a habit of falling to the ground with folded limbs, as if
they were dead.

The Chrysochroa is one of the finest of this splendid family. The
sides of the thorax are covered with little round pits, something like
the depressions on the head of a thimble, and are of a fiery copper
hue. The head and middle of the thorax are light burnished blue,
like that of a well-tempered watch-spring, and the elytra are warm
cream-colored, diversified with a patch of deep purple-blue at each
side, and another at the tip. This insect is a native of India.

The celebrated Glow-worm belongs to the typical genus of its fam-
ily.

Contrary to the usual rule among insects, where the male absorbs
the whole of the beauty and the female is comparatively dull and
sombre in color and form, the female carries oflT the palm for beauty—

The Stag Beetle ( Lucanus

THE BLISTER FLY AND THE OIL BEETLE. 619

at all events after dusk — the male regainiDg the natural ascendency
by the light of day. Either through books or by actual observation
almost every one is familiar with the Glow-worm, and would recognize
its pale green-blue light on a summer's evening. Many, however, if
they came across the insect by day, would fail to detect the brilliant
star of the night in the dull, brown, grub-
like insect crawling slowly among the
leaves, and still fewer would be able to
distinguish the male, so unlike are the
two sexes.

It has often been said that the female
alone is luminous. This, however, is an
error, as I have caught numbers of these
beetles of both sexes, and always found The Glow-worm {Lampyris
that the males were gifted with the power noctiluca).

of producing the peculiar phosphorescent . a e. . ema e.

light, though in a much smaller degree than their mates, the light look-
ing like two small pins' heads of phosphorus upon the end of the tail.
Seen by day, the male is a much handsomer-looking insect than the
female, being soft brown in color, long-bodied, and wide-winged, alto-
gether beetle-like ; while the female is more like a grub than a perfect
insect, has no wings at all, and only the slightest indications of elytra.
The larva of the Glow-worm feeds upon molluscs, especially upon
the smaller snails, which it is able to devour even when retracted with-
in the walls of the shell.

The Blister Fly, sometimes called Spanish Fly, is the typical
species of the Cantharidse family.

It is by no means a common species in England, though it has oo-
casioually appeared in -considerable numbers. In such cases, however,
it is extremely local, and does not appear to be dis-
seminated through the country. Spain is famous
for the multitudes of Blister Flies which are found
within its limits, and the whole of South-western
Europe is prolific in this remarkable beetle.

The Spanish Fly is a handsome insect, nearly an
inch in length, and of a rich silken green, with a
gold gloss in certain lights.

The Oil Beetle belongs to the same family, and

is very common in England. This name, by which

"^SpIni^h Fly (a?n^ ^^ ^® popularly known, is appropriate, because, when

iharis vesicatoria). handled, it has the property of pouring a yellowish

oily fluid from the joints of its legs.

The abdomen is extremely large in proportion to the rest of the

body, and the short diverging elytra descend but a very little way

620

THE WEEVILS AND THE MUSK BEETLE.

The Oil Beetle {Meloe vioiaceus).

below the thorax. The oily matter that is poured from the joints is
considered in some countries to be a specific for rheumatism, and is
expressed from the insect for medicinal purposes. The color of the
Oil Beetle is dull indigo-blue.

We now arrive at a vast group of beetles, embracing several thou-
sand speci?s, which are popularly classed under the name of Weevils,

and may all be known by
the peculiar shape and very
elongated snouts. Many of
these creatures have their
elytra covered with minute
but most brilliant scales,
arranged in rows, and pre-
senting, when placed under
the microscope, a specta-
cle almost unapproached in
splendor. They are mostly
slow in their movements, not quick of foot, and many are wholly
wingless.

The most brilliant of the Weevils are to be found in the typical fam-
ily Curculionidse, to which belong the well-known Diamond Beetles, in
such request as objects for the microscope.

The maggots that are so frequently found in nuts, and which leave
so black and bitter a deposit behind them that the person who has un-
fortunately tasted a maggot-eaten nut is forcibly reminded of the Dead
Sea apple with its inviting exterior and bitter dusty contents, also be-
long to the Weevils, and are the larvse of the Nut Weevil {Balayiinus
nucumy All the members of the genus are remarkable for the extra-
ordinary length of the snout, at the extremity of which are placed the
small but powerful jaws.

We now come to the Longicorn Beetles, so called on account of the
extraordinary length of the antennae in many of the species. These in-
sects are well represented in England by many species, the best known
being the common Musk Beetle.

The beautiful beetles of which the common Musk Beetle is an excel-
lent example vary considerably in size, some being several inches in
length, while some are hardly one quarter of an inch long. The ex-
treme length of their antennae is the most conspicuous property, and by
that peculiarity they are at once recognized.

A small moth, Adela de Geerella, possesses the same peculiarity.
The length of the moth is about a quarter of an inch, and the length
of the antennae more than an inch and a half. The antennae wave about
with every breath of air, as if the insect had become entangled in a spi-
der's web and escaped with some of the loose threads floating about it.

THE BLOODY-NOSE BEETLE AND THE LADYBIRD. 621

The Musk Beetle is a large insect, common in most parts of England.
It is extremely plentiful at Oxford, and is found in old willow trees,
with which Oxford is surrounded. Its peculiar scent, something re-
sembling that of roses, often betrays its presence when its green color
would have kept it concealed. When touched it emits a curious sound,
not unlike that of the bat, but more resembling the faint scratching of
a perpendicularly-held slate pencil. Its larva bores deep holes in the
trees, which are often quite honeycombed by them.

As in the preceding family, the Longicorn Beetles pass their larval
state in wood, sometimes boring to a considerable depth, and sometimes
restricting themselves to the space between the bark and the wood. The
grubs practically possess no limbs, the minute scaly legs being entirely
useless for locomotion, and the movements of the grub being performed
by alternate contraction and extension of its ringed body. In order to
aid in locomotion the segments are furnished with projecting tubercles,
which are pressed against the sides of the burrow.

Passing by several families, we come to the Chrysomelidse, which are
round-bodied, and in most cases very brilliantly colored with shining
green, purple, blue, and gold, of a peculiar but indescribable lustre.
They are slow walkers, but grasp the leaves with a wonderfully firm
hold. The British species of Chrysomela are very numerous. One of
the genera belonging to this family contains the largest British speci-
men of these beetles, commonly known by the name of the Bloody-
nose Beetle {Timarchatenebricosa),oii account of the bright-red fluid
which it ejects from its mouth and the joints of its legs when it is
alarmed. This fluid is held by many persons to be a specific in case of
toothache. It is applied by means of permitting the insect to emit the
fluid on the finger and then rubbing it on the gum, and the effects are
said to endure for several days. The larva of this beetle is a fat-
bodied, shining, dark green grub, which may be found clinging to
grass, moss, or hedgerows in the early summer. It is so like the per-
fect insect that its identity cannot be doubted.

The family of the Coccinellidse, or Ladybirds, is allied to the Chry-
somelidie, and is well known on account of the pretty little spotted in-
sects with which we have been familiar from our childhood. Though
the Ladybird is too well known to need description, it may be men-
tioned that it is an extremely useful insect, feeding while in the larval
state on the aphides that swarm on so many of our favorite plants and
shrubs. The mother Ladybird always takes care to deposit the eggs in
spots where the aphides most swarm, and so to secure an abundant sup-
ply of food for the future offspring.

622 THE GIANT EARWIG AND THE COCKROACH.

EARWIGS.

Taking leave of the beetles, we now proceed to a fresh order, distin-
guished by several simple characteristics, among which may be men-
tioned the soft and leathery elytra or fore wings, the wide and mem-
branous hind wings, and the forceps with which the tail is armed. The
insects belonging to this order are popularly known by the name of
Earwigs, and are represented in this country by several species of dif-
ferent dimensions.

The membranous wings of the Earwig are truly beautiful. They
are thin and delicate to a degree, very large and rounded, and during
the daytime packed in the most admirable manner under the little
square elytra. The process of packing is very beautiful, being greatly
assisted by the forceps on the tail, which are directed by the creature
with wonderful precision, and used as deftly as if they were fingers di-
rected by eyes. The Earwigs seldom fly except by night, and it is not
very easy to see them pack up their wings. Some of the smaller spe-
cies, however, are day-flyers, and in spite of their tiny dimensions may
be watched without much difficulty. There are about seven or eight
British species, some of them being of very small size. The largest
British species is the Giant Earwig. It is of very rare occurrence
and seldom seen, as it inhabits only the seashore and never shows itself
until dusk. I have a fine specimen that was caught on the sands near
Folkestone in the month of July.

ORTHOPTERA.

A large and important order succeeds the Earwigs, containing some
of the finest, and at the same time some of the most grotesquely-formed,
members of the insect tribe. In this order we include the grasshoppers,
locusts, crickets, cockroaches, and leaf and stick insects, and its mem-
bers are known by the thick parchment-like upper wings, with their
stout veiuiugs and their overlapping tips.

The first family of Orthoptera is the Blattidse, a group of insects
familiar under the title of Cockroaches.

In these insects the body is flattened, the antennae are long and thread-
like, and the perfect wings are to be found only in the adult male. The
common Cockroach, so plentiful in our kitchens, and so well known
under the erroneous name of black beetle — its color being dirty red,
and its rank not that of a beetle— is supposed to have been brought
originally from India.

The eggs of the Cockroach are not laid separately, but enclosed in a
hard membranous case exactly resembling an apple puff*, and contain-
mg about sixteen eggs. Plenty of these cases may be found under

THE FIELD CKICKET.

623

planks or behind the skirting-boards, where these insects love to con-
ceal themselves. Along one of the edges of the capsule there is a slit
which corresponds with the opening of the puff, and which is strength-
ened, like that part of the pastry, by a thickened margin. The edges
of the slit are toothed, and it is said that each tooth corresponds with
an egg. When the young are hatched, they pour out a fluid which has
the effect of dissolving the cement which holds the edges together ; the

The Earwig, Mole Cricket (Gryllotalpa vulgaris), and Field Cricket

{Gryllus campeMris).

newly-hatched Cockroaches push themselves through the aperture, which
opens like a valve and closes again after their exit, so that the empty
capsule appears to be perfectly entire.

A good example of the Cricket is found in the Field Cricket, a
noisy creature inhabiting the sides of hedges and old walls, and making
country lanes vocal with its curious cry, if such a word can be applied
to a sound produced by friction. The Field Cricket lives in burrows
made at the foot of hedges or walls, and sits at their mouth to sing. It
is, however, a very timid creature, and on hearing, or perchance feeling,
an approaching footstep, it immediately retreats to the deepest recesses
of the burrow, where it waits until it imagines the danger to have
gone by.

624 THE MOLE CKICKET AND THE MIGKATOKY LOCUST.

Despite of its timidity, however, it seems to be combative in no slight
deoree, and if a blade of grass or straw be pushed into its hole, it will
seize the intruding substance so firmly that it can be drawn out of the
burrow before it will loosen its hold. The males are especially war-
like ; and if two specimens be confined in the same box, they will fight
until one is killed. The vanquished foe is then eaten by the victor. In
White's Natural History of Selborne there is a careful and interesting
description of the Field Cricket and its habits.

One of the oddest-looking of the British insects is the Mole Cricket,
so called on account of its burrowing habits and altogether mole4ike
aspect. This insect attains considerable dimensions.

Like those of the mole, the fore limbs of the Mole Cricket are of
enormous comparative size, and turned outward at just the same angle
from the body. All the legs are strong, but the middle and hinder pair
appear quite weak and insignificant when compared with the gigantic
developments of the front pair. This insect is rather local, but is found
in many parts of England, where it is known by sundry popular titles,
Croaker being the name most in vogue near Oxford, where it is found
in tolerable plenty.

The color of the Mole Cricket is brown of diflferent tints, darker upon
the thorax than on the wing-coverts, both of which organs are covered
with a very fine and short down.

As might be surmised from the extraordinary muscular power of the
fore legs, the Mole Cricket can burrow with great rapidity. The exca-
vation is of a rather complicated form, consisting of a moderately large
chamber with neatly-smoothed walls, many winding passages communi-
cating with this central apartment. In the chamber are placed from
one to four hundred eggs of a dusky yellow color, and the roof of the
apartment is so near the surface of the ground that the warmth of the
sunbeams penetrates through the shallow layer of earth and causes the
eggs to be hatched.

The food of the Mole Cricket is mostly of a vegetable nature, but it
has been known to feed upon raw meat, upon other insects, and even to
exhibit a strong cannibalistic propensity when shut up in company and
deprived of its normal food.

The Migratory Locust is a well-known instance of a very large
family of insects represented in our own land by many examples. All
the Locusts and Grasshoppers are vegetable feeders, and in many cases
their voracity is so insatiable, their jaws so powerful, and their numbers
so countless that they destroy every vestige of vegetation wherever they
may pass, and devastate the country as if a fire had swept over it.

Such is the case with the Migratory Locust, so called from its habit
of congregating in vast armies, which fly like winged clouds over the
earth and wherever they alight strip every living plant of its verdure. So

THE LEAF INSECT.

625

assiduously do they ply their busy jaws that the peculiar sound produced
by the champing of the leaves, twigs, and grass-blades can be heard at a
considerable distance. When they take to flight the rushing of their wings
is like the roaring of the sea, and as their armies pass through the air
the sky is darkened as if by black thunder-clouds.

The warm sunbeams appear to be absolutely necessary for the flight
of Locusts, for no sooner does the sun set than they alight and furl their
wings. Woe to the ill-fated spot where they settle! for they consume
everything that their jaws can sever, and are not content with eating
the green herbage, but devour even linen, blankets, or tobacco. At
the approach of the aerial hosts every one is in fear except the Bush-
man, who welcomes the Locust with all his heart ; for he has no crops
to lose, no clothing to be destroyed, and only sees in the swarming in-
sects his greatest luxury — namely, an abundant supply of food without
any trouble in obtaining it. In the path of the Locusts he kindles

The Migratory Locust {Locusta migrator ia).

large fires, and the insects, being stifled with the smoke and having
their wings scorched by the flames, fall in thousands, and are gathered
into heaps, roasted, and eaten. Those that remain after the Bushman
has eaten his fill are then ground between two stones into a kind of
meal, which is dried in the sun, and can be kept for a long time with-
out becoming putrid. This substance does not seem very palatable to
Europeans, but its distastefulness is probably owing to the careless way
in which the insects are scorched over the fire, as Dr. Livingstone
speaks highly of the Locust as an article of food, thinking it superior
to shrimps. Honey is always eaten together with the Locusts whenever
that sweet condiment can be obtained, as it serves to render the insects
more digestible. Our common English grasshoppers belong to the
true Locusts.

The Leaf Insect is one of the singular species which have such a
wonderful resemblance to fallen leaves. The elytra are peculiarly
53 2 P

626 THE WHITE ANT.

leaf-like, and the limbs are furnished with wide flattened appendages,
in order to carry out the leafy aspect. Only the females possess the
wide, veined wing-covers, those of the male being comparatively short.
The wings, however, are entirely absent in the female, while in the
opposite sex they are very wide and reach to the extremity of the
body.

THYSANOPTERA.

The next order, according to Mr. Westwood's arrangement, is that
called the Thysanoptera, or Fringe-winged Insects, on account of the
manner in which the wings are edged with long and delicate cilia.
They are all little insects, seldom exceeding the tenth or twelfth of an
inch in length, but, although small, are capable of doing considerable
damage. They are mostly to be found on plants and flowers, especially
those blossoms where the petals are wide and deep and afford a good
shelter. The convolvulus is always a great favorite with them.
Greenhouses are sadly liable to their inroads, and, owing to their
numbers, they are very injurious to melons, cucumbers, and similar
plants, covering their leaves with a profusion of decayed patches that
look as if some powerful acid had been sprinkled over them. Only
one family of these insects is acknowledged by entomologists.

NEUROPTERA.

We now come to an order of insects containing some of the most
beautiful, and a few of the most interesting, members of the class.
They are known by the possession of four equal-sized membranous
wings divided into a great number of little cells technically called
areolets. The mouth is furnished with transversely movable jaws, and
the females do not possess a sting or valved ovipositor. In this order
are comprised the ant-lions, the dragon-flies, the termites, the lace-wings,
and the May-flies.

The first family in Mr. Westwood's arrangement is that of the Ter-
mites, popularly known by the name of White Ants, because they
live in vast colonies, and in many of their habits display a resemblance
to the insect from which they take their name. All the Termites are
miners, and many of them erect edifices of vast dimensions when com-
pared with the size of their architect. For example, the buildings
erected by the Common White Ant {Termes bellicosus) will often reach
the astonishing height of sixteen or seventeen feet, which, in proportion
to the size of the insect, would be equivalent to an edifice a mile in
height if built by man. The dwellings are made of clay, worked in
some marvellous manner by the jaws of the insect-architects, and are
of such astonishing hardness that, although hollow and pierced by

THE WHITE ANT.

627

de-
are
in

re-

numerous galleries and chambers, they will sustain the weight of cattle,
which are in the habit of ascending these wonderful monuments of
insect labor for the purpose of keeping a watch on the surrounding
country.

To give a complete history of the Termites would be a task demand-
ing so much time and space that it cannot be attempted in these pages;
and we must therefore content ourselves with a slight sketch of their

general history,
premising that
many parts of
their economy,
and especially
those which re-
late to their
velopment,
still buried
mystery.

The most
cent investiga-
tions give the
following results:
Each Termite
colony is found-
ed by a fruitful
pair, called the
king and queen,
who are placed
in a chamber devoted to their sole use, and from which they never stir
when once enclosed. These insects produce a vast quantity of eggs,
from which are hatched the remaining members of the colony, con-
sisting of neuters of both sexes, the females being termed workers and
the males soldiers, the latter being distinguished by their enormous
heads and powerful jaws ; of larvse of two forms, some of which will
be fully developed, and others pass all their lives in the worker or
soldier condition ; of pup?e of two forme ; and, lastly, of male and
female perfect insects, which are destined to found fresh colonies. The
neuters of either sex are without wings.

In founding a colony the order is as follows : The parent pair are
taken possession of by the workers, who enclose them in a chamber
which is intended as the nucleus of the infant establishment. The walls
of this chamber are pierced by holes which will suffer the workers to
pass, but are far too small to afford exit for the king or queen. Short-
ly after they have been fairly installed a w^ondrous change takes place
in the female. Though her head, thorax, and legs retain their normal

The White Ant (Termes beUicosus).
1. Male. 2-4. Neuters. 3. Gravid Female.

628 THE DRAGON-FLIES.

dimensious, her abdomen begins to swell in the most preposterous
manner, until it is as long as a man's finger and about twice its
thickness, thus precluding its owner from advancing a single step.

The queen, thus developed and for ever fixed in her home, is truly
the mother of her subjects, producing nearly eighty thousand eggs in
each twenty-four hours. The eggs are carried off by the workers as
soon as laid, and conveyed to suitable places in the nest, where they
are guarded until they are hatched, and are then fed and watched
until they have passed through their preliminary stages of exist-
ence.

The great bulk of a Termite establishment is composed of workers,
who outnumber the soldiers in the proportion of a hundred to one. By
the mysterious instinct which is implanted in these insects the soldiers
and workers confine themselves to their respective occupations, the for-
mer doing nothing but fight and the latter nothing but labor.

There are many species of Termite, and all are fearfully destruc-
tive, being, indeed, the greatest pests of the country wherein they re-
side. Nothing, unless cased in metal, can resist their jaws, and they
have been known to destroy the whole woodwork of a house in a single
season. They always work in darkness, and at all exj^enditure of eflbrt
keep themselves under cover, so that their destructive labors are often
completed before the least intimation has been given. For example,
the Termites will bore through the boards of a floor, drive their tun-
nels up the legs of the tables or chairs, consume everything but a mere
shell no thicker than paper, and yet leave everything apparently in a
perfect condition. Many a person has learned the real state of his fur-
niture only by finding a chair crumble into dust as he sat upon it, or a
whole staircase fall to pieces as soon as a foot was set upon it. In some
cases the Termite lines its galleries with clay, which soon becomes as
hard as stone, and thereby produces very remarkable architectural
changes. For example, it has been found that a row of wooden col-
umns in front of a house have been converted into stone pillars by these
insects.

Passing by several families of the Neuroptera, we come to the Libel-
lulidse, or Dragon-flies. These insects are very familiar to us by means
of the numerous Dragon-flies which haunt our river-sides, and which
are known to the rustics by the very inappropriate name of Horse=
stingers, they possessing no sting and never meddling with horses.
The name of Dragon-flies, on the contrary, is perfectly appropriate,
as these insects are indeed the dragons of the air, far more voracious
and active than even the fabled dragons of antiquity.

Even in their preliminary stages the Dragon-flies preserve their pred-
atory habits, and for that purpose are armed in a most remarkable man-
ner. Durmg the larval and pupal states the Dragon-fly is an inhabit-

THE DEAGON-FLIES.

629

ant of the water, and may be found in most of our streams, usually
haunting the muddy banks, and propelling itself along by an appa-
ratus as efficacious as it is simple, and exactly analogous to the mode by
which the nautilus forces itself through the water. The respiration is
carried on by means of the oxygen which is extracted from the water,
and the needful supply of liquid is allowed to pass into and out of the
body through a large aperture at the end of the tail.

Such are its means of locomotion ; those of attack are not less re-
markable or less efficacious.

The lower lip, instead of being a simple cover to the mouth, is de-
veloped into a strange-jointed organ, which can be shot out to the dis-
tance of nearly an inch, or when at rest can be folded flat over the
face, much as a carpenter's rule can be shut up so as to fit into his

The Common Dragon-fly {Libellula depressa).

pocket, and can be rapidly protruded or withdrawn very much like
the instrument called the " lazy tongs." Like that instrument, it is
furnished at its extremity with a pair of forceps, and is able to grasp
at passing objects with the swiftness and certainty of a serpent's
stroke.

The creature remains for some ten or eleven months in the prelim-
inary stages of existence, and when the insect is about to make its final
change the undeveloped wings become visible on the back. When its
time has come, the pupa leaves the water and crawls up the stem of
some aquatic plant until it has reached a suitable elevation ; it clings
firmly with its claws, and remains apparently quiet. On approaching
it, however, a violent internal agitation is perceptible, and presently
the skin of the back splits along the middle, and the Dragon-fly pro-
trudes its head and part of the thorax. By degrees it withdraws itself
from the empty skin, and sits for a few hours drying itself and shaking

53 *

630 THE DEMOISELLE DRAGON-FLIES AND THE ANT-LION.

out the innumerable folds into which the wide gauzy wings have been
gathered. After a series of deep respirations of the unwonted air and
much waving of the wings, the glittering membranes gain strength and
elasticity, and the enfranchised insect launches forth into the air in search
of prey and a mate.

There are very many species of Dragon-flies, all very similar in their
habits, being fiercely p'redaceous, strong of wing, and gifted with glit-
tering colors. Unfortunately, the rich azure, deep green, soft carnation,
or fiery scarlet of these insects fades with their life, and in a few hours
after death the most brilliant Dragon-fly will have faded to a blackish
brown. The only mode of preserving the colors is to remove all the
interior of the body and to introduce paint of the proper colors. This,
however, is but an empirical and unsatisfactory sort of proceeding, and
no matter how skillfully it may be achieved, will never be worth the
time bestowed upon it. In many species the sexes are of different colors,
as, for example, in the beautiful Demoiselle Dragon-flies, where the
male is deep purple, with dark spots on the wings, and the female rich
green, with the wings uncolored.

The far-famed Ant-lion is one of the insects that are more celebra-
ted in their preliminary than in the perfect stage of existence. As may
be seen by reference to the illustration, their perfect form is very light
and elegant, and closely resembles that of the dragon-flies, save that

the wings are lighter,
softer, and broader.
In their larval condi-
tion however, they are
by no means attrac-
tive-looking creatures,
somewhat resembling
flattened maggots with
rather long legs and
very large jaws, the
legs being apparently

The Ant-lion [Mynneleocj tramyatus).

useless as organs of progression, all movements being made by means
of the abdomen. Slow of movement as is this creature, and yet pre-
daceous, feeding wholly on living insects, the mode of obtaining its food
seems to be rather a problem. The solution, however, is simple enough,
the creature digging a pitfall and lying ensconced therein while the
expected prey approaches.

In order to enable the Ant-lion to extract the juices of the insects on
which it feeds, the inner curve on each mandible is deeply grooved, and
another portion of the jaws, technically called the maxilla, plays within
the groove.

The May-fly has long been celebrated for its short space of life, a

THE MAY-FLY AND THE CADDIS-FLY.

631

single day sometimes witnessing its entrance into the perfect state and
its final departure from the world. The popular idea concerning these
insects is that the whole of their life is restricted to a single day. This,
however, is an error, as they have already passed at least two years in
their preliminary stages of existence. In the larval and pupal states
they are inhabitants of the water, and are fond
of hiding themselves under stones or burrow-
ing into the muddy banks. Under the latter
circumstances they make a very curious tun-
nel, something like a double-barrelled gun.

The May-fly is peculiarly notable for a stage
of development which seems to be quite unique
among insects. When it has passed through
its larval and pupal state it leaves the water,
creeps out of its pupa-case, and takes to its
wings. After a period varying from one to
twenty hours it flies to some object, such as
the trunk of a tree or the stems of water-
plants, and casts ofi" a thin membranous pel-
licle, which has enveloped the body and wing,
the dry pellicle remaining in the same spot,
and looking at first like a dead insect. After
this operation the wings become brighter, and
the three filaments of the tail increase to twice
their length. Some authors call the state be-
tween leaving the water and casting the pel-
licle the " pseudimago " state.

Some of these insects are well known to fish- The May-fj.y {Ephemera
ermen under the names of Green and Gray vugaa).

Drake, the former being the pseudimago, and the latter the perfect
form of the insect. Sometimes these insects occur in countless myr-
iads, looking like a heavy fall of snow as they are blown by the breeze,
and having on some occasions been so plentiful that they have been
gathered into heaps and carted ofl" to the fields for manure.

The order called Trichoptera, or Hairy-winged Insects, is represented
by the common Caddis-fly.

This fly is well known to every angler both in its larval and in its
perfect state. The larva is a soft white worm, of which fishes are ex-
ceedingly fond, and it therefore requires some means of defence. It
accordingly actually makes for itself a movable house of sand, small
stones, straws, bits of shells, or even small living shells, in which it
lives in perfect security, and crawls about in search of food, dragging
its house after it. When it. is about to become a pupa it spins a strong
silk grating over the entrance of its case, so that the water necessary

632

THE SAW-FLIES.

for its respiration can pass through, but at the same time all enemies
are kept out. When the time for its change has arrived the pupa
bites through the grating, rises to the surface, and crawls out of the
reach of the water, which would soon be fatal to it. The skin then
splits down the back, and the perfect insect emerges.

The order is called Trichoptera, because the wings, instead of being
covered with scales, as are those of butterflies, are clothed with hairs.
There are many species of Caddis-flies.

We now come to the vast order of insects technically called the
Hymenoptera. In these insects the wings are four in number, trans-
parent, membranous, the veins comparatively few, and the hinder pair
smaller than the others. Their mouth is furnished with powerful horny
jaws, and with a tongue guarded by the modified maxillae. The females
are armed with a many-valved sting or ovipositor. In this enormous
order are included all the bees, wasps, and their kin, the great family
of saw-flies, the ichneumons, the gall-flies, and the ants. We will pro-
ceed at once to the family of the Tenthredinid^, or Saw-flies.

In this and the next family
the females are furnished with
a peculiar ovipositor, compos-
ed of several pieces.

The true Saw-flies are known
by the curious piece of animal
mechanism from which they
derive their name. The fe-
males of this family are sup-
plied with a pair of horny
saws, placed side by side on
the lower extremity of the
abdomen.

These saws are of various
forms, according to the par-
ticular species to which they
belong, and may be seen even
in the dried specimens, the top of their sheath slightly projecting, and
their shapes plainly visible after the removal of a portion of the abdo-
men. When taken from the insect and placed under the microscope
they present a very pretty appearance, owing to the gently-curved ribs
with which their sides are strengthened and decorated. The saws act
alternately, one being pushed forward as the other is being retracted,
rheir object is to form a groove in some plant, in which the eggs of
the mother-insect can be deposited, and wherein they shall find a supply
ot nourishment in order to enable them to complete their development ;
lor It IS a most remarkable fact that after the egg is deposited in the

The Sirex Gigas.

THE GIANT ICHNEUMON. 633

groove it rapidly increases in size, obtaining twice its former dimen-
sions.

In the genus Cimbex the larvae possess twenty-two feet, and have the
power of discharging a translucent greenish fluid from certain pores
placed on the sides of the body just above the spiracles. This feat they
can repeat six or seven times in succession. When they have eaten
their way to the next stage of existence, they spin a cocoon of a
brownish color and of a stringy, tough consistency, and either suspend
it to the branches of the tree on which they have been feeding or hide
it under fallen leaves. In this cocoon they remain for a comparatively
short time, and then emerge as perfect insects.

The fine insect known by the name of the Giant Ichneumon is an
example of the next family, in which the ovipositor is converted into
a gimlet instead of a double saw. With this powerful instrument the
female is enabled to drill holes into living timber for the purpose of
depositing the eggs. When they are hatched the young grubs imme-
diately begin to gnaw their way through the wood, boring it in every
direction and making burrows of no mean size. Those of the present
species prefer fir and pine, and I have had specimens of the wood sent
to me which have been riddled by the grubs until they looked as if
they had harbored a colony of the ship-worm.

The next group of the Terebrantia is called Entomophaga, or Insect-
eaters, because the greater number of them are parasitic upon other
insects, just as the saw-flies are parasitic upon vegetables. In these
insects the ovipositor is furnished with two delicate spiculte, and the
last segments of the abdomen are not formed into a telescope-like
tube.

The first family is that of the Cynipidse, or Gall Insects, the creatures
by whose means are produced the well-known galls upon various trees,
the so-called oak-apple being perhaps the best known, and the ink-gall
(also found on the oak) the most valuable. These galls are formed by
the deposition of an egg in the leaf, branch, stem, twig, or even root,
of the plant, and its consequent growth.

The true Ichneumons form a vast group of insects, the British Ich-
neumonidse alone numbering many more than a thousand described
and acknowledged species. In them the ovipositor is straight, and is
employed in inserting the eggs into the bodies of other insects, mostly
in their larval state. In some cases this slender and apparently feeble
instrument is able to pierce through solid wood, and is insinuated by
a movement exactly like that which is employed by a carpenter when
using a brad-awl. When not engaged in this work, the ovipositor is
protected by two slender sheaths that enclose it on either side.

Were it not for the Ichneumons, our fields and gardens would be
hopelessly ravaged by caterpillars and grubs of all kinds, for practical

634 THE WASPS AND THE ANTS.

entomologists always find that when they attempt to rear insects from
the egg or the larval state they must count upon losing a very large
percentage by the Ichneumons.

In the next great division of hymenopterous insects the ovipositor
of the female is changed into a sharply-pointed weapon, popularly
called a sting, and connected with a gland in which is secreted a
poison closely analogous to that which envenoms a serpent's tooth.

First come those curious and interesting insects popularly known by
the names of Sand Wasps and Wood Wasps. These creatures ard
in the habit of making burrows in the ground or in posts and placing
therein their eggs, together with the bodies of other insects which are
destined to serve as food for the future progeny. Spiders are some-
times captured and immured. for this purpose. In many instances the
captured insects are stung to death before they are placed in the
burrow, but it is often found that they only receive a wound sufficient
to paralyze them, so that they lead a semi-torpid life until they are
killed and eaten by the young grub. Two of these Sand Wasps are
tolerably common in Englaud. One o^ them {^Crabro cribarius^, the
wood-borer, drills its barrow into posts, palings, and similar substances.
It feeds its young with the larvae of one of the leaf-rolling caterpillars,
that lives in the oak, and is scientifically known by the name of Tortrix
chlorana. It also employs for this purpose several two-winged insects.
One species of these burrowing wasps prefers the well-known cuckoo-
spit insect for this purpose {Aphroplwra spumariaj, pulling it out of its
frothy bed by means of its long legs.

Another of these insects, called Philanthiis triangulum, is in the
habit of provisioning its burrow with the hive bee, which it contrives
to master, in spite of the formidable weapon possessed by its victim,
and then murders or paralyzes by means of its sting. M. Latreille
mentioned that he saw from fifty to sixty of these insects busily
engaged in burrowing into a sandbank not more than forty yards
long ; and as each female lays five or six eggs, and deposits a bee
with each egg, the havoc made among the hives is by no means in-
considerable.

The true Ants, as is well known, associate in great numbers, and,
as is peculiarly the case with the bees, the great bulk of their numbers
is composed of workers, or neuters, which are destined to perform the
constant labors needful to regulate so large a community. The perfect
insects of either sex take no part in the daily tasks, their sole object
being to keep up the numbers of the establishment. In the Ants,
moreover, the neuters are without wings, and even the perfect insects
retain these organs for only a brief period of their existence.

Every one has heard of the objects called " ants' eggs," which are so
strongly recommended as food for the nightingale and other birds ; and

THE SOLITARY WASP. 635

many persons, though they have seen them, have believed them to be
really the objects which their popular name would infer. In truth,
however, they are simply the cocoons in which the insects are passing
their pupal state before emerging in their winged condition. It has
already been mentioned that only the perfect males and females pos-
sess wings.

As soon as they gain sufficient strength they fly upward into the air,
where they seek their mates and soon descend to earth. The males,
having now nothing to do, speedily die, as they ought, but the females
begin to make provision for their future households. Their first pro-
ceeding is a rather startling one, being the rejection of the wings which
had so lately borne them through the air. This object is achieved by
pressing the ends of the wings against the ground and then forcing them
suddenly downward. The wing then snaps off at the joint, and the
creature, thus reduced to the wingless state of a worker, is seized
upon and conveyed to a suitable spot, where she begins to supply a
vast quantity of eggs. These are carefully conveyed away and nur-
tured until they burst forth into the three states of male, female,
and neuter, the precise method by which the development is ar-
rested so as to produce the neuter condition not being very accu-
rately known.

The Eumenes arcuatus is an Australian example of the Solitary
Wasps, many of which are found in England. The curious nest of this
insect is suspended from a branch. The creature makes a separate nest
for each egg, the material being clay well worked. The nest is stocked
with larvae of moths or butterflies.

The true Wasps, or Vespidse, are gregarious in their habits, building
nests in which a large but uncertain number of young are reared. The
common Wasp makes its nest within the ground,
sometimes taking advantage of the deserted hole
of a rat or mouse, and sometimes working for it-
self. The substance of which the nest is made
is a paper-like material, obtained by nibbling
woody fibres from decayed trees or bark and
kneading them to a paste between the jaws.
The general shape of the nest is globular, and
the walls are of considerable thickness, in order The Wasp ( Vespa vul-
to guard the cells from falling earth, a circular garis,.

aperture being left, through which the inhabitants can enter or leave
their home.

The cells are hexagonal, and laid tier above tier, each story being
supported by little pillars made of the same substance as the cells, and
all the open ends being downward, instead of laid horizontally, as is the
case with the bees. It will thus be seen that, on account of this arrange-

636 THE HIVE BEE.

ment, the Durse-wasps are enabled to get at the grubs as they lie, or
rather hang, in their cells, with their heads downward.

The grubs are fat, white, black-headed creatures, very well known to
fishermen, who find them excellent bait after they have been baked so
as to render them sufficiently hard to remain on the hook. When they
are about to enter the pupal state they close the mouths of their cells
with a silken cover, through which the black eyes are plainly visible,
and there wait until they emerge in the perfect state. The grubs are
fed with other insects, fruit, sugar, meat, or honey, the mingled mass
being disgorged from the stomachs of the nurses and thus given to
their charge.

There are separate cells for males, females, and neuters, the former
two classes being produced only toward the end of autumn, so as to
keep up a supply for the succeeding year.

There are, perhaps, few insects so important to mankind as those
which procure the sweet substance so well known by the name of
honey. Nearly all the honey-making Hymenoptera are furnished
with stings, and in many species the poison is fearfully intense. Some
of these insects, such as the Hive Bee, make waxen cells of raathemat-

Female. Worker.

The Hive Bee {Apis melUfica],

ical accuracy, the larvae being placed in separate cells and fed by the
neuters.

This useful little creature is so well known that a lengthened descrip-
tion of it would be useless. A merely general sketch will be quite suf-
ficient.

The cells of the Bee are, as is well known, made of wax. This wax
is secreted in the form of scales under six little flai)s situated on the
under side of the insect. It is then pulled out by the Bee, and moulded
with other scales until a tenacious piece of wax is formed. The yellow
substance on the legs of the bees is the pollen of flowers. This is
kneaded up by the bees, and is called bee-bread.

The cells are six-sided — a form which gives the greatest space and
strength with the least amount of material — but the method employed
by the Bees to give the cells that shape is not known. The cells in
which the drone or male Bees are hatched are much larger than those
of the ordinary or worker Bee. The edges of the cells are strengthened

THE HUMBLE BEE. 637

with a substance called propolis, which is a gummy material procured
from the buds of various trees. This propolis is also used to stop up
crevices and to mix with wax when the comb has to be strength-
ened.

The royal cells afe much larger than any others, and are of an oval
shape. When a worker larva is placed in a royal cell and fed in a
royal manner it imbibes the principles of royalty, and becomes a queen
accordingly. This practice is adopted if the Queen Bee should die and
there be no other queen to take her place.

The Queen Bee is lady paramount in her own hive, and suffers no
other queen to divide rule with her. Should a strange queen gain ad-
mittance, there is a battle at once, which ceases not until one has been
destroyed.

At the swarming-time the old queen is sadly put out by the encroach-
ments of various young queens, who each wish for the throne, and at
last is so agitated that she rushes out pf the hive, attended by a large
body of subjects, and thus the first swarm is formed. In seven or eight
days the queen next in age also departs, taking with her another supply
of subjects. When all the swarms have left the original hive, the re-
maining queens fight until one gains the throne.

The old method of destroying Bees for the sake of the honey was
not only cruel, but wasteful, as by burning some dry " puff-ball " the
bees are stupefied, and shortly return to consciousness. The employ-
ment of a "cap" on the hive is an excellent plan, as the Bees deposit
honey alone in these caps, without any admixture of grubs or bee-
bread. Extra hives at the side, with a communication from the orig-
inal hive, are also useful.

The Queen Bee lays about eighteen thousand eggs. Of these about
eight hundred are males or drones and four or five queens, the remain-
der being workers.

In some cases, such as the common Humble Bee, the cells are egg-
shaped, each cell being either occupied by a larva or filled with honey;
while in some species the eggs are placed parasitically in the nests of
other Bees, so that the larvse feed either upon the stores of food gath-
ered for the involuntary host or upon the body of the deluded insect
itself.

In gathering honey the Bees lick the sweet juices from flowers, swal-
low them, and store them for the time in a membranous sac, popularly
called the honey-bag. When this sac is filled the Bee returns to the
hive and discharges the honey into a cell, closing its mouth with wax
when it is filled. The structure of the bee-cell, its marvellous adaptation
to the several purposes for which it is intended, its mathematical ac-
curacy of construction, whereby the best amount of material is found
to afl^ord the greatest amount of space and strength, are subjects too

54

638

THE LEPIDOPTERA.

complicated to be here described, but may be found in mauy works
which have been written upon the Hive Bee.

For want of space we are compelled to pass by many interesting
Hymenoptera, such as the Leaf-cutter Bees, the Wood-borers, and the
]\I;\son Bees, each of which creatures would demand more space than
can be given to the whole of the insects.

LEPIDOPTERA,

We now come to an order in w^hich are included the most beautiful
of all insects — namely, the Butterflies and Moths. On account of the
feather-like scales with which their wings are covered, and to which the
exquisite coloring is due, they are technically called Lepidoptera, or
Scale-winged Insects.

The wings are four in number, and it is occasionally found that the
two pairs are connected togethe^^by a strong bristle in one and a hook-
like appendage in the other, so that the two wings of each side practi-

The Swallow-tailed Butterfly [Papilio machaon).

cally become one member, in a manner similar to the formation of many
hymenopterous insects. Those species which take any nourishment
subsist entirely upon liquid food, which is drawn into the system by
suction, and not by means of a brush, as is the case with the liquid-
feeding beetles and bees. The wings are strengthened by nervures, which
are of great use in determining the position of the insects.

The scales with which the membranous wings are at once protected

THE PEACOCK BUTTERFLY. 639

and adorned are of various shapes, sometimes broad, flat, and overlap-
ping each other like the tiles of a house-roof.

The series of changes undergone by the Lepidoptera are perhaps bet-
ter known than those of any other order, on account of the large di-
mensions and conspicuous habits of the insects.

Having given this general glance at the order, we will now proceed
^ our examples.

In the system which is adopted in this w^ork the Lepidoptera are di-
vided into two sections, the Butterflies and Moths, technically called Rho-
palocera and Heterocera, which may generally be distinguished from
each other by the form of the antennae, those of the Butterflies having
knobs at their tips, whilst those of the Moths are pointed. The fir^t
family is that of the Papilionidise, in which are included the largest and
most magnificent specimens of this order.

The beautiful insect represented on page 638 is not very uncommon in
some parts of England, especially in the fenny parts of Cambridgeshire.

It flies with exceeding rapidity, nearly in a straight line, and is very
difficult to capture.

The color of the wings is black, variegated most beautifully with yel-
low markings, and near the extremity of each hinder wing is a circular
red spot surmounted by a crescent of blue, and the whole surrounded
by a black ring.

We now come to another family, called the Pieridse, which may be
known at once by the manner in which the inner edges of the hinder
wings are folded, so as to form a kind of gutter, in which the abdomen
rests. In all these insects the colors are comparatively sober, the upper
surface being generally white and black, and the under surface spar-
ingly colored with red and yellow. To this family belong our common
White Butterflies, together with the well-known Brimstone Butterfly
(the harbinger of spring), all the Marbled Butterflies, the Orange-tip,
and the now scarce Veined-white.

The large and important family of the Nymphalidre contains a vast
number of species, most of which are notable for their brilliant color-
ing, and many of which are well-known natives of England.

To this family belongs the brightly-colored genus Vanessa, of which
the common Peacock Butterfly is a familiar British example. This
insect, which is one of the finest of our British butterflies, is very com-
mon in our own country, and may be seen very plentifully in fields,
roads, or woods, w^heu the beauty of its coloring never fails to attract
admiration.

The caterpillar of the Peacock Butterfly feeds upon the stinging net-
tle, in common with others of the same genus, and therefore the insect
is worthy of our protection. Its common color is black, studded with
tiny white points. The chrysalis is one of those which hang suspended

640

THE LIME HAWK-MOTH.

during the time of their Donage, and is frequently found to be infested
with the ichneuraon-fiy.

The beautiful Scarlet Admiral, so well known by the broad scar-
let stripes that are drawn over the wings, the Large and Small Tor-
toise-shell Butterflies, the Comma Butterfly — so called from a
comma-shaped white mark under the wings — and the rare and beauti-
ful Camberwell Beauty, are all British members of this genus.

The second great division of the Lepidoptera is that of the Moths,
distinguishable by means of the pointed tij^s of their antennae, which are

often furnished with
^^ a row 01 projections

on either side, like
the teeth of a comb,
and in the males are
sometimes supplied
with branching ap-
pendages.

The first family
of the Moths is
the Sphingidffi, a
group which con-
tains a great num-
ber of swift- wing-
ed insects, popular-

--ii " ^ /^ ■'y ^^^ appropri-

rtj \i^^^^^ ^i^^ ately called Hawk-

moths, from the
strength and speed
of their flight. In
many instances the
proboscis is of great length, sometimes equalling that of the entire
body, and in such instances it is found that the insect is able to feed
while on the wing, balancing itself before a flower, hovering on trem-
ulous wmg, and extracting the sweets by suction.

One of the commonest species of this genus is the Lime Hawk-moth
[Smermthus Tilke), so called because the larva feeds on the leaves of the
hrae tree. It is a green caterpillar, thick-bodied, covered with little
protuberances, and upon each side are some whitish streaks edged with
red or yellow. Just at the end of the tail there is a short knobby pro-
tuberance, and the fore part of the body is rather narrow. Wh^n the
arva has completed its time of feeding, it descends to the ground and
buries itself about eight inches deep in the earth, whence the chrysalis
may be extracted by the help of a trowel. Besides the lime, the elm
and birch are favored residences of this insect.

The Peacock Butterfly ( Vanessa To).

P

THE DEATH'S-HEAD MOTH.

641

The splendid insect appropriately named the Death's-head Moth
is tolerably common in our island, though, from its natural habits and
the instinct of concealment with which the caterpillar is endowed, it is
not so frequently seen as are many rarer insects. Owing to the remark-
ably faithful delineation of a skull and bones upon the back of the
thorax the insect is often an object of great terror to the illiterate, and
has more than once thrown a whole province into consternation, the
popular idea being thai it wrs some infra-natural hcim that was ^ent

The Death's-head Moth {Achemntia Airnpos).

upon the earth as a messenger of pestilence and woe, if not, indeed, the
shape assumed by some witch residing in the neighborhood.

The caterpillar of this moth is enormously large, sometimes measur-
ing five inches in length and being very stoutly made. It feeds on va-
rious plants, the jessamine and potato being its favorites, and may best
be found by traversing potato-grounds in the night and directing the
light of a bull's-eye lantern among the leaves. It can readily be kept
and bred, but requires some careful tending, and it must be remem-
bered that it will eat only the particular food to which it has been ac-
customed, and if bred among the potato will refuse the jessamine leaf,
and vice versa. When the caterpillar is about to change into its chrys-

54 * 2 Q

642 THE HUMMING-BIRD MOTH AND THE HYLAS.

alis state it should be placed in a vessel containiDg seven or eight
inches of earth, which should be kept moderately damp by means of
a moist sponge or wet piece of moss laid on the top. If this precau-
tion be not taken, the shell of the chrysalis is apt to become so hard
that the moth is unable to break its way out, and perishes in the shell.
I have several specimens where the moth has thus perished.

One of the most curious points in the history of the Death's-head
Moth is its power of producing a sound— a faculty which is truly re-
markable among the Lepidoptera. The noise is something like the
grating, squeaking cry of the field-cricket, but not nearly so loud.

Although not gifted with the brilliant hues which decorate so many
of the Hawk-moths, the Humming-bird Moth is a more interesting
creature than manv an insect which can boast of treble its dimensions

and dazzling richness of color.
This insect may readily be known
Iby its very long proboscis, the
tufts at the end of the abdomen,
and the peculiar flight, which so
% exactly resembles that of hum-
ming-birds that persons accus-
tomed to those feathered gems
have often been deceived into the
idea that England actually pos-
sesses a true humming-bird. Ow-
ing to its arrowy flight and the
piercing vision with which such
flight is always accompanied, the
capture of the moth is a matter
of no small difficulty, and when
it settles the quiet, sober hues of
its plumage render it so similar in color to the objects on which it rests
that the eye can hardly distinguish its outline; and, being gifted with
an instinctive appreciation of the objects best suited for its conceal-
ment, it is sure to alight on some surface which presents hues akin to
those of its body and wings.

In the curious moths of which the Hylas is a good example the
wings are as transparent as those of the bee tribe, and, indeed, the
hymenopterous idea seems to run through the whole of these creatures
so thoroughly that the shape of their bodies, the mode of flight, even
the manner in which they move the abdomen, are so bee- and wasp-
like that an inexperienced observer would certainly mistake them for
some species of the Hymenoptera, Others there are which bear an
equal resemblance to the gnats, and are of correspondingly small di-
mensions. These insects fly in a manner somewhat resembling the

The Humming-bird Moth [Macrogl
slellatarum).

THE CLEARWING, THE LUNAR, AND THE GOAT MOTH. 643

movements of the humming-bird moth, and dart about with consider-
able speed, though they are not so craftily wary as that insect, and can
be captured with comparative ease.

In the ^geriidse the wings are as transparently clear as in the Sesi-
adse, and the general aspect is equally like that ofn moth. The Clear-
wing Moth is very common in England, and is fond of haunting cur-
rant-bushes, where it may be captured without much difficulty, being
rather dull and sluggish in taking to flight, though when once on the
wing it is quick and agile in its movements. On account of its resem-
blance to the large gnats it is popularly called the Gnat Clearwing
{^geria tipulijormis). The caterpillar of this insect feeds upon the
pith of the currant trees.

The Lunar Hornet Clearwing (TrocMlium bemhedjorme) is an
insect which is of tolerably, but not very, frequent occurrence. Its
popular name is given to it in allusion to its singular resemblance to
a hornet, the similitude being so close as to deceive a casual glance, es-
pecially when the insect is on the wing.

The larva of the present species feeds upon the willow, boring into
the young wood, and sometimes damaging it to a serious extent. All
these insects inhabit, while in the larval state, the interior of branches
or roots, and make a kind of cocoon from the nibbled fragments of the
wood. Just before undergoing the transformation the larva turns round,
so as to get its head toward the entrance of the burrow, and after it has
changed into the pupal form is able, by means of certain projections on
the segments, to push itself along until the upper half of the body pro-
trudes through the orifice and permits the perfect moth to make its
escape into the open air.

The wings of this insect are transparent, with orange-red nervures
and dusky fringes. The head and thorax are shining brown-black,
with a yellow collar, and the abdomen is ringed with orange and dark
brown.

The well-known Goat Moth is, next to the death's-head moth, one
of the largest of the British Lepidoptera, its body being thick, stout,
and massive, and its wings wide and spreading.

The larva itself is but little smaller than that of the death's-head
moth, and is by no means an attractive-looking creature. Its body is
smooth and shining, mostly of dull mahogany-red tinged with ochreous
yellow, and having a large oval patch of chestnut on the back of each
segment. It is gifted with a curiously wedge-shaped head, and its mus-
cular power is enormous, as may be proved by actual experiment dur-
ing the life of the creature or inferred from the marvellous arrange-
ment of muscles which are made visible upon dissection.

It exudes a liquid of powerful and fetid odor, thought by some to
resemble the unpleasant effluvium exhaled by the he-goat. Its influ-

644

THE WOOD LEOPAED MOTH.

euce extends to a considerable distance, and a practised entomologist
will often detect the presence of a Goat-moth caterpillar simply by the
aid of the nostrils.

The caterpillar passes three years in the larval stage of existence,
and when the time approaches for its change, it ceases to burrow and
scoops out a convenient cell in the tree, lining it with a fabric of mixed

The Goat Moth {Cossus ligniperda).

wood-scrapings and silken threads. Before it emerges from this retreat
it pushes itself through its burrow like a sweep ascending a chimney,
protrudes about half of the body, and then issues from the chrysalis
shell, which it leaves within the burrow.

The Wood Leopard Moth is a very prettily-marked insect, though
without the least brilliancy of color. The caterpillar of this insect feeds
upon the interior of many trees, seeming to prefer the wood of the apple,
pear, and other fruit trees. It is a naked, fleshy-looking larva, of a light
yellow color, and having a double row of black spots upon each segment.
Like the goat moth, it prepares a cocoon-like cell when it is about to
take the pupal form, but the lining is of stronger materials, cemented
firmly together with a glutinous substance secreted by the insect. The
moth is seldom seen until July, and is tolerably plentiful in some places,
appearing to be decidedly local and rather intermittent in its visits.

The family of the Bombycidse includes several insects of inestimable
value to mankind, the various silk-producing moths being included in
its ranks. The common Silk-worm is too familiar to need any notice,
but, as it is not generally known that upward of forty silk-producing
moths exist in different parts of the world, a short history will be given
of some of them, together with a brief description of one of the finest
species. All these insects secrete the silk in two large intestine-like

THE TIGER MOTH.

645

vessels in the interior, which contain a gelatinous kind of substance,
and become enormously large just before the caterpillar is about to
change into a pupa. Both the silk organs unite in a common tube at
the mouth, technically called the spinneret, and through this tube the
semi-liquid is ejected. As soon as it comes into contact with air it hard-
ens into that soft, shining fibre with which we are so familiar.

If a single fibre of silk be examined through a good microscope, it
will be seen to consist of two smaller fibres laid parallel to each other,
like the barrels of a double gun, this structure being due to the double
secreting vessels. The goodness of silk consists chiefly in the manner
in which these semi-fibres are placed together.

The caterpillar employs the silk for the purpose of constructing a
cocoon in which it can lie until it has assumed the perfect form, and
proceeds with won-
derful regularity
and despatch in
its work, its head
passing from side
to side, always
carrying with it a
thread, and the
cocoon being grad-
ually formed into
the oval shape
which it finally
assumes. The few outermost layers are always rough and of poor qual-
ity ; these are stripped ofi", and, the end of the thread being found, it is
fastened to a wheel and spun oflT into a hank of soft yellow fibre. The
coloring matter is very variable, being sometimes hardly visible, and at
others giving the silk a bright orange tint. It fades much on exposure
to light.

The family of the Arctiidse — so called because some of the hair-cov-
ered larvae have a bear-like look — is represented in England by many
examples, some being really handsome insects, and others remarkable
for some peculiarity in themselves or the larvse.

The Tiger Moth. — This common but beautiful moth is found in
the beginning of autumn. It runs on the ground with such swiftness
as often to be mistaken for a mouse. I have more than once seen a
kitten chasing a Tiger Moth among the flowers in a garden, evidently
deceived by its resemblance to a mouse. The larva is popularly called
" the woolly bear." It is rather large, and is surrounded with tufts
of long elastic hairs of a reddish brown color, which serve as a defence
against many enemies. When disturbed it rolls itself round, just as
a hedgehog does, and if on a branch suffers itself to fall to the ground,

The Wood Leopard Moth {Zeuzera cesculi).

Q4:6 THE HOUSE-BUILDER MOTH.

when the long hairy covering defends it from being injured by the fall.
When the caterpillar is about to change to a pupa it spins a kind of
hammock, and lies there until it comes forth as a moth.

The color and markings of this moth vary considerably. The usual
tints are— the thorax brown, the body red, striped with black. The
two anterior wings are cream-color, marked with bold patches of
a deep brown ; the posterior wings are bright red, spotted with bluish
black.

Perhaps the most curious example of this family is a species which
derives its popular name from its habits.

The House-builder Moth ( Oiketicus SandersH) is common in many
parts of the West Indies, and is in some places so plentiful as to do
considerable damage to the fruit trees. As soon as the larva is hatched
from the eg^ it sets to work in building its habitation, and even before
it begins to feed this industrious insect begins to work. The house is
made of bits of wood and leaves, bound together with silken threads
secreted in the interior. When the creature is smalJ and the house is
of no great weight it is carried nearly upright, but when it attains size
and consequent weight it lies flat, and is dragged along in that attitude.
The entrance of this curious habitation is so made that the sides can
be drawn together, and whenever the creature feels alarmed it pulls
the cords, and so secures itself from foes.

The next family derives the name of Geometridse from the mode
of walking adopted by the larvse. These creatures have no legs on
the middle of the body, and are in consequence unable to crawl in the
usual manner. Their mode of progression is popularly and appro-
priately termed "looping," and the caterpillars' are called " loopers."
When one of these larvse desires to advance, it grasps the object firmly
with its fore feet and draws the hind feet close to them, forming the
body into an arched shape, not unlike the attitude of a cat which
meets a strange dog. The hinder feet then take a firm hold ; the body
is projected forward until the fore feet can repeat the process. The
whole action of the larva reminds the observer of the leech when
crawling.

The power of grasp and general strength of muscle enjoyed by these
larv3e are really surprising. Many of them can seize a branch with
their hind feet, stretch out the body nearly horizontally, and remain in
that position for hours. Some slight idea of the muscular force requir:
ed to perform this action may be gained by grasping an upright pole
with the hands and trying to hold the body .out horizontally. Several
of these caterpillars are of dull brown hues, and, being furnished with
sundry projections in different parts of their bodies, they resemble dried
sticks so closely that they can hardly be distinguished from the branches
to which they cling.

THE SWALLOW-TAILED AND THE WHITE-PLUME MOTH. 647

The Swallow-tailed Moth is a well-known British species, very
common in woods, and being mostly found among the underwood,
whence it may be dislodged by beating the branches. The caterpillar
feeds on many shrubs, but prefers the willow, the lime, and elder trees,
the elder being its chief favorite. The cocoon is made of withered leaves.

The color of the larva is reddish brown, with some dark longitudinal
lines, and before it changes into the pupal state it makes a slight silken
cocoon among leaves. The color of the wings is delicate sulphur yellow,
fading to shining white at the base of the wings, and diversified with
narrow streaks of brown.

The family of the Hyponomeutidse contains many beautiful species,
none of which are of great size, but which, when magnified and a strong
light thrown upon
them, seem to be
amongst the loveliest
of the moth tribes.

Our last example
of the Lepidoptera is
the beautiful White-
plume Moth, an in-
sect which never fails
to attract attention
on account of the
singular elegance and
beauty of its form.

This insect belongs
to a small family
which is remarkable
for the fact that, ex-
cept in one genus,
the wings, instead of
being broad membra-
nous structures, are

cleft into narrow rays _ ,^ ^^ , .j ., x

feathered in a most'^^^ White-Plume Moth {Pteiophorus pentadactylus).
, 1 T ^ Natural size and magnified.

soft and delicate

manner. The White-plume Moth is to be seen in the evenings, fly-
ing in a curious, uncertain manner, and looking not unlike a snow-
flake blown casually by the wind. It seems never to fly to any great
distance, settling quite openly on leaves or plants, without taking the
precaution of clinging to the under side, as is the custom with so many
of the smaller moths. When it rests it folds the wings, so that they
look like only a single broad ray. The legs are very long and slender.
The color of this insect is pure white.

64S

THE CICADA.

HOxMOPTERA.

In the next order are comprised some very grotesque iraseets, some
of which have been thought to belong to other orders, and a few not
being known to be insects at all until comparatively late years. They
have rounded bodies, not more than three joints in the tarsi, and their
wings are four in number, wholly membranous, the fore pair being
larger than the hinder, but not overlapping in repose. The mouth forms
a kind of tube, sometimes longer than the body, and often sufficiently
hard and stiff to pierce the skin.

In this curious order are placed the Aphides, those little green insects
that swarm upon roses and other plants and are termed " blights " by
gardeners, who employ that term in a strangely wide sense; the Cicadse,
with their beautiful membranous wings, their large heads, and their
loud voices ; the tribe of Hoppers, of which the Cuckoo-spit Insect —
known in its perfect state under the name of Frog-hopper — and the
beautiful Scarlet Hopper are familiar British examples ;
the wonderful Lantern-flies, also leapers, which are found
only in hot climates ; the Wax Insects of China ; ^nd,
lastly, the Scale Insects, or Coccidse, from which the
" lac " so important in commerce is obtained.

The Cicadte have three joints to their feet, these mem-
bers affijrding useful characteristics in settling the precise
position of the various species. They are very large in-
sects, sometimes measuring more than six inches between
the tips of the expanded wings. Their mouth or beak is
three-jointed and very long, being tucked under the body
when not required. The females are furnished with a cu-
The Cicada rious apparatus by which they are enabled to cut grooves
\hUat^ ^^^' ^° ^^^ branches of trees for the purpose of depositing

their eggs therein.
The male Cicada has the power of producing a shrill and ear-pier-
cing sound, so loud in many species that it can be heard at a consider-
able distance and becomes a positive annoyance, like the same tune
played for several hours without intermission. The organ by which
the sound is produced is internal, but its position may be seen exter-
nally by looking at the under side of the body, just behind the last
pair of legs, where a pair of horny plates may be seen. These plates
are the protecting covers of the sound-producing apparatus, which con-
sists of two drum-like membranes and a set of powerful muscles. The
color of the perfect insect is mostly of a yellowish cast, and the wings
are firm, shining, and membranous, somewhat resembling those of the
dragon-fly in texture, but having larger cells or spaces between the
nervures.

THE CERCOPID^ AND THE APHIDES. 649

One species of Cicada is a native of England ( Cicada Anglica), and
is to be found in the New Forest.

The Cercopidse, or Hoppers, are well known in this country, mostly
from the habits of the larva and the saltatorial powers of the perfect
insect. The Cuckoo-spit, or Frog-hopper, is very plentiful in this
country. The larva fixes itself upon various plants and sucks their
juices through its long beak, which it plunges into the soft substance.
When the accumulation of froth is very great, which usually happens
in the heat of the day, a drop of clear water begins to form at the low-
est'part, into which the froth drains itself, and is presently relieved by
the falling of the drop. The scientific name of this insect is Aplirophora
spurn aria. The beautiful Scarlet Hopper of England is frequently
found on ferns in the outskirts of woods.

Passing by the Psyllidse, another family of this order, we come to
the Aphides, a family comprising a great number of species. The
whole history of these insects is remarkable in the extreme, presenting
many points w^iich seem most incredible, w^hich destroy several old-es-
tablished opinions, and which in all probability will serve, when fully
investigated, in establishing a new basis on which to found a more per-
fect system. The Aphides are wonderfully prolific, crowding upon plants
until they hide them completely from view, and all employed in suck-
ing the juice by means of the peculiar beak. They haunt every part of
the plant, the leaves and their stalks, the branches, and even the roots,
being infested by these persevering destroyers, which often do great
damage, and even force the leaves and branches to twist themselves
into extraordinary contortions. Some species raise certain excrescences
which serve as habitations for the insects.

In many species there is a pair of tubercles toward the extremity of
the insect, which exude a sweetish liquid in a manner analogous to the
frothing of the Cuckoo-spit. This liquid falls upon the leaves of trees,
and is then known by the name of honey-dew. Bees are very fond of
this substance, and wherever it is present in any quantities may be seen
licking up the sweet secretion. Ants are equally fond of honey-dew,
but they go to the fountain-head at once, and lap it as it flows from the
tubercles. Whole regiments of ants may be seen ascending trees in
search of the Aphides, and it is very amusing to see how they will
search every atom of a tree on which the Aphides live, so as not to
allow a single insect to escape them.

The Cochineal Insect (Coccus cacti) belongs to the same order.
This species is a native of Mexico and lives upon a kind of cactus,
called, from its insect guest, the Cactus cochin eUiferus.

The Lac Insect ( Coccus lacca) resides in India and the hotter parts

of Asia.
55

650 THE WATER SCORPION AND THE WHEEL-BUG.

HETEROPTERA.

These insects are readily kuowu by several conspicuous character-
istics. The wings are four in number, and the front pair are very
peculiar in their structure, the basal portion being horny, like the
elytra of beetles, and the remaining portion membranous, like the
hinder wings of the same insect. In some species, however, the wings
are wanting, as in the common Bed-bug [Clmex lectularius). The body
is always much flattened, the mouth is beak-like, and in the pupal stage
the creature is active and resembles the perfect insect, except in its
want of wings.

The family of the Nepidse is represented in England by the common
Water Scorpion, a very flat and leaf-like insect, which is found abun-
dantly in slow-running streams, ditches, and ponds. It derives its
popular name from its scorpion-like aspect, the two slender filaments
appended to the abdomen representing the sting-tipped tail, and the
raptorial fore legs resembling the claws. It is with these legs that the
Water Scorpion catches its prey, which, when once grasped in that
hooked extremity, is never able to make its escape. The beak is short,
but very strong and sharp, and is not bent under the thorax, as is the
case with that of the water boatman.

The next section of the Heteroptera includes insects which are mostly
terrestrial, though some are fond of haunting the surface of water. The
Hydrometridse are well-known examples of the latter insects, and are
popularly known by the name of Water-fleas. The common Gerris
skims over the surface with wonderful rapidity, wheeling and turning
as easily as a skater performing his manoeuvres on the smooth ice.
But the Hydrometra — a very slender creature, hardly thicker than a
needle, and bearing a great resemblance to the well-known walking-
stick insect — glides slowly over the surface, mostly keeping among the
aquatic plants at the margin, and passing silently as a shadow over the
water.

The family of the Cimicidse is represented by the too common Bed-
bug, a creature which is supposed to have been imported into England
from America. This odoriferous, flat-bodied, rust-colored insect has
derived its very appropriate name from the old English word bugge,
signifying a nocturnal spectre, and used in that sense by the old writers.
These creatures are enabled, by means of their flat bodies, to creep into
the smallest crevices, and when they have once taken possession of a
room can with difficulty be extirpated.

The Reduviidte comprise a great number of terrestrial insects, mostly
exotic, but a few being natives of our country. Some of them are very
large, and one species, the Wheel-bug (^Arilus serratus), is said to pos-
sess electric powers. Its popular name is derived from the curious shape

THE APHANIPTERA AND DIPTEEA.

651

of the prothorax, which is elevated and notched, so as to resemble a por-
tion of a cog-wheel. One species, Eeduvius personatus, inhabits houses,
and is said to feed upon the bed-bug. The larva and pupa of this in-
sect are difficult to discover, on account of their habit of enveloping
themselves in a coating of dust. The Hammatocerus belongs to this
family. The insect is remarkable for the curious structure of the sec-
ond joint of the antennse, which consists of numerous small articulations.
The generic title is derived from two Greek words, signifying " link-
horned," and is given to the insect in allusion to this peculilirity.

APHANIPTERA.

We now come to another order, deriving its title from the invariable
absence of wings, the name being derived from two Greek words, the
former signifying "invisible,"
and the latter " a wing." There
are not many species belonging
to this order, and they are all
known by the popular name of
Fleas.

The strength and agility of
the curious but annoying little
insect the Flea are perfectly
wonderful. Many of my readers
have doubtless seen the exhibi- ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^'^ "'''^■^«^^')-

tion of the Industrious Fleas, who drew little carriages and carried
comparatively heavy weights with the greatest ease. The apparatus
with which the Plea extracts the blood of its victims is very curious, and
forms a beautiful object under a microscope of low power. Its leap
is tremendous in proportion to its size. This property it enjoys in com-
mon with many other insects, among which the Common Grasshopper,
the Frog-hopper, and the Halticas, or Turnip-flies, are conspicuous. In
all these insects the hinder pair of legs is very long and powerful.

DIPTERA.

We now pass to the Diptera, or Two-winged Insects, which may be
known not only by the single pair of wings, but by the little append-
ages at their base, called halteres, or balancers, and which are the
only vestiges of the hinder pair of wings. Moreover, the wings are
not capable of being folded. This order is of vast extent, and
includes a whole host of species.

The Tipulid?e are very familiar to us through the well-known insects
called Daddy Long-legs or Crane-flies. In their perfect state these

652

THE BREEZE-FLY AND THE BOT-FLY.

insects are perfectly harmless, although ignorant people are afraid to
loiich them. But in their larval condition they are fearful pests, living
iust below the surface of the ground and feeding on the roots of grasses.

W hole acres of grass have been destroy-
ed by these larvae, and some years ago
Blackheath Park was so infested with
them that in the beginning of autumn
the ground was covered thickly with
the empty pupa-cases of the escaped
insect.

The common Breeze-fly is a well-
known British example of the Ta-
banidse. It is also known by the
popular names of Gad-fly and
The Gad-fly {Tahanus bovlnm). ^^^^ ^^ -^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ females

are the only bloodsuckers, but they exert their sanguinary ability with
terrible force.

The Bot-fly, a large and bold-looking insect, belongs to the
family of the CEstridse. All these insects are parasitic in or upon an-
imals. The larva of this Bot-fly resides in the interior of horses, and
is conveyed there in a very curious manner. The parent-fly deposits
her eggs upon the hairs near the shoulders of the horse, where the
animal is sure to lick them in order to rid itself of the unpleasant
feeling caused by
agglutinated hairs.
The eggs are thus
conveyed to the
stomach, to the
coats of which or-
gan the larvae cling,
and there remain
until they have at-
tained their full
growth. They then
loosen their hold,
and are carried, to-
gether with the
food, through the
interior of the ani-
mal, fall to the
ground, and im-
mediately begin to burrow. They remain underground until they have
undergone their metamorphoses, and then emerge in the shape of the
perfect insect.

The Bot-fly {(Estrus Equi).

CRUSTACEA. 653

The Humble-bee Fly. — This very curious iusect is found in the
early days of spring, and may be seen hovering over the primroses and
other spring flowers. It feeds in the same manner as the humming-
bird moth, and much resembles that insect in many of its habits.

CRUSTACEA.

Having completed our brief survey of the insects, we now proceed
to the Ceustacea, a very large class, in which are included the Lob-
sters, Crabs, Shrimps, Water-fleas, and a host of other familiar beings.
Even the Cirrhipeds, popularly known under the name of Barnacles,
are members of this large class, and a number of curious animals
which until lately have been classed with the spiders are now ascertained
to belong to the Crustacea.

These beings can easily be separated from the insects on account of
their general structure, the head and throat being fused into one mass,
called technically the cephalothorax, the number of limbs exceeding
the six legs of the insects, and the mode of breathing beiug by gills,
and not by air-tubes.

The name of Crustacea is sufficiently appropriate, and is given to
tnese creatures on account of the hard shelly crust with which their
bodies and limbs are covered.

The first section of these creatures are called the Podophthalmata,
or Stalk-eyed Crustaceans, because their eyes are set upon footstalks.
The first order is that of the Ten-legged Crustaceans, so called on
account of the five pairs of legs that are set in each side. These are
exclusive of the complicated apparatus of the mouth and the jaw-feet
which guard its entrance. The Crabs are placed first in the list of
Crustaceans, and are technically called Brachyura, or Short-tailed
Crustaceans, because their tails are of comparatively small size and
are tucked under the large shielded body. In the preliminary stages,
however, the Crabs have tails as proportionately long as those of a
lobster or a cray-fish.

As the shelly armor of the Crustaceans is, in most cases, so hard,
strong, and unyielding, the mode of growth might be considered a
problem not very easy of solution ; for with the Crustaceans the growth
continues during nearly the whole of life, or at all events for several
years after they have passed through the various changes to which they
are subjected in their imperfect stages of existence. Their increase
of size and weight is marvellously rapid, and how it can be accom-
plished without subjecting the Crustaceans to the lot of the starveling
mouse, w^ho crawled into a jar of corn, but could not crawl out again
after feasting on its contents, seems to partake of the character of an
animated puzzle.

654 THE THORNBACK SPIDER-CRAB.

The answer to the problem is simply that the creature sheds its ar-
mor annually, expands rapidly while yet covered only by a soft skin,
and is soon protected by a freshly-deposited coat of shelly substance.
Even this answer contains a second problem little less difficult than
that which it solves : How can a Crustacean, say a crab or a lobster,
shed its skin ? It is true that the cast shells are found, showing that
the creature has escaped from its old and contracted tenement by a slit
in some part of the body, such as the top of the carapace, and has left
its shell in so perfect a state that it might easily be mistaken for the
living animal. But how did it manage about the claws? We all know
what large muscular masses they are, how very small is the aperture
in which the joint works, and how stiff and firm is the broad tendinous
plate which is found in their interior. Examination shows that there
is no opening on the claws through which the creature might have
drawn the imprisoned limb, and it is also evident that the only method
by which these members can be extricated is by pulling them fairly
through the joints. As a preliminary step, the hard, firm, muscular
fibres which fill the claw and give it the well-known pinching power
become soft, flaccid, and watery, and can thus be drawn through the
coraparatiyely small openings through which the tendons pass from
one joint to another. The sharp and knife-like edges of the plates cut
deeply through the muscle, which, however, is little injured, on account
of its soft consistency, and heals with great rapidity as soon as the an-
imal recovers its strength and is gifted with a new shell. In the com-
mon edible crab the flesh is quite unfit for consumption during this
process, as any one can attest who has attempted to dress and eat a
" watery " crab. Yet in some of the exotic crustaceans these condi-
tions are exactly reversed, and the crabs are never so fit for the table
as while they are soft and shell-less, after the old suit of armor has
been thrown off, and before the new integument has received its hard-
ening.

We now come to the Spider-crabs, scientifically termed Maiad^e.
A very useful British species, the common Thornback Spider-
crab, or Squinado, is plentiful upon our coasts, but is not a very
prepossessing creature in external appearance, its body being one mass
of sharp and not very short spines, and its whole frame possessing a
weird-like and uncomely aspect.

Ugly though it may be in an artistic point of view, it is one of the
most useful inhabitants of the sea, acting as a scavenger for the re-
moval of the decaying animal matter that is ever found in the seas.
More especially along the shore, where the refuse of mankind, such as
unsalable fish and crustaceans, is continually being cast into the waves,
the Squinado is found to perform the necessary office of removing all
such substances. It is a voracious creature, and, being gifted with an

THE EDIBLE CRAB. 655

acute sense of smell, is sure to discover without delay auy substance
on which it can feed, and to make its way thereto without delay.

The Squinado, together with other crabs, sets to work boldly ; with
one claw he holds tightly to the banquet, and with the other tears off
morsels and deftly feeds himself therewith, putting them into his com-
ical jaws with the regularity of clockwork, and with a rapidity that
reminds the observer of a Chinese flinging rice into his mouth with his
chopsticks. The strength and sharpness of the claws are such that the
toughest muscle cannot long withstand their power, and the flesh is torn
from the bones as perfectly as if scraped away by a knife.

It is a curious fact that the back of this crab is generally a resting-
place for sundry zoophytes, which often grow in such profusion as to
hide the animal completely.

The large family of the Canceridse now comes before us, and is
familiarly known through the medium of the common Edible
Crab.

This is a very common species, being plentiful around our rocky
coasts, and generally remaining in the zone just under low-water mark.

The fishermen catch it in various ways, but
the most usual method, and that by which
the greatest number of these crustaceans
are captured, is by means of certain bas-
kets, called crab-pots, cruives, or creels, ac-
cording to the locality. These baskets are
round and in shape something like a flat-
The Edible Crab {Cancer tened apple, and have an aperture at the
pagurus). ^^p through which the crab gains access to

the interior. When once within the basket it cannot escape, because
the opening is guarded by an inverted cone of osiers, like the entrance
to a common wire mouse-trap, so that the elastic sticks yield to the ex-
pected prey while passing downward, but effectually prevent all upward
movement.

Supplied with a number of these creels, a corresponding amount of
rope, floats, stones, and bait, the fisherman rows toward the best grounds,
which are always where the bed of the sea is rocky, and the depth from
three to twenty fathoms. The bait, consisting of haddock, skate, and
other fish, is placed in the basket, together with a few stones which
serve to sink it, a line is attached, and the creel lowered out of the
boat. A buoy is attached to the line and marked with the owner's
name, so as to avoid mistakes as to the proprietorship of the creel.
The fisherman then rows to a little distance, and sinks another baited
creel, taking the precaution to place them so far asunder that the lines
cannot be entangled in each other.

Boys often employ their idle afternoons in crab-hunting, always going

656 THE NIPPER AND THE FIGHTING CRAB.

anioug the rocks at low. water, aad looking out for those rock-masses
that are covered with heavy seaweeds. They are armed with a kiud
of lance, consisting of an iron hook fastened to a long stick, and with
this they poke about in the crevices under the rocks and twist out the
crabs that have concealed themselves. These crabs, however, seldom
attain any great size, the larger specimens remtiining in the deeper
water. The boys call them " pungers," to distinguish them from the
green crab.

The shell of this crab is seldom found entirely clean, being generally
encrusted with acorn-barnacles and various marine creatures. Some-
times, when the crab is a very old and large one, has ceased growing
for several years, and cousequeully has needed no change of shell, it
becomes absolutely loaded with all sorts of extraneous growths, and in
many cases is almost invisible under its load. There is a very curious
specimen in the large collection at the British Museum, where a num-
ber of oysters had affixed themselves to the shell, and consequently had
been borne about with the crab in all its peregrinations.

We now arrive at the family of the Portunidoe, or " swimming crabs,"
which may be recognized by the construction of the last pair of feet,
which are flattened sideways, and have the last joint dilated into a thin
oblique plate, which answers as an oar or a fin and enables the creature
to propel itself through the water. The first example of this family is
the Green or Shore Crab, so familiar to every one who has passed
even an hour on the coast between the time of high and low water.
Although one of the commonest of our native crustaceans, it is at the
same time one of the most interesting, and, owing to its diurnal habits,
its fearless nature, and its love for the shallow waters, it is very easily
observed. I have spent many a pleasant hour in watching the habits
of this little ere iture, and could h.irdly have imagined the activity, the
piercing sight, and the cleverness with which it is endowed.

The Nipper Crab is a really wonderful swimmer, being able, ac-
cording to Mr. Couch's account, to ascend to the surface of the sea and
to pursue its prey through the waters. So well does this creature swim,
and so voracious is its appetite, that it captures and eats even the swift-
est sea-fish, having been known to pounce upon the mackerel and the
pollack. Its method of proceeding seems to be to dart upon its prey,
grasp it firmly with its sharply-pointed and powerful claws, and retain
its hold until the unfortunate victim is quite fatigued and falls an easy
prey.

We now arrive at another family, called the Ocypodidse, or " swift-
footed crabs," from their extraordinary speed, which equals, or even
exceeds, that of a man.

The Fighting Crab is a creature whose name is well deserved. One
of its claws is enormously large in proportion to the body, being, indeed.

THE CALLING AND THE HERMIT-CKAB. 657

nearly equal in dimensions to the whole carapace, while the other claw
is quite small and feeble. It is remarkable that sometimes the right
and sometimes the left claw is thus developed. This animal is a most
determined fighter, and has the art of disposing its limbs like the arms
of a boxer, so as to be equally ready for attack or defence.

The Fighting Crab lives on the seashore or on the border of salt
marshes and burrows deeply in the earth, the holes being tolerably
cylindrical and rather oblique in direction. In some places tliese
holes are so close together that the earth is quite honeycombed with
them, and the place looks like a rabbit-warren. Each burrow is ten-
anted by a pair of crabs, the male always remaining in the post of
danger at the mouth of the tunnel, and keeping guard with his great
claw at the entrance.

While running, it has a habit of holding the large claw aloft and
moving it as if beckoning to some one — a habit which has caused one
of the species to be named the Calling Crab. This action has in it
something very ludicrous, and those who have watched the proceedings
of a crab-warren say that there are few scenes more ridiculous than that
which is presented by these crustaceans when they are alarmed and go
scuttling over the ground to their homes, holding up their claws and
beckoning in all directions.

We now come to a singular group of crabs, which are remarkable
for their soft and shell-less tails and the mode employed to protect
them. From their
solitary habits they
are called Hermit-
crabs, and from
their extreme com-
bativeness they
have earned the
title of Soldier-
crabs.

The best known
of these Crustacea
is the common
Hermit-crab of
England (Pagu-
rus Bernhardus), The Hermit-Crab,

which is to be found ^" *^® ^^^^^ ^^ *^® common Whelk, with an anemone attached

to shell.

plentifully on our

shores. Like all its race, the Hermit-crab inhabits the shell of some
mollusc, in which it can bury its unprotected tail, and into which it
can retreat when threatened with danger. The Hermit-crab usurps
the deserted home of various molluscs, according to its size, so that

2 R

65S THE LOBSTER.

when young and small it is found in the shells of the tops, peri-
winkles, and other small molluscs; and when it reaches full age it
takes possession of the whelk-shell and entirely fills its cavity.

To see a Hermit-crab fitting itself with a new shell is a very ludicrous
sio-ht. The creature takes the shell among its feet, twirls it about with
wonderful rapidity, balances it as if to try its weight, probes it with the
long antennae, and perhaps tlirows it away. Sometimes, however, when
the preliminary investigations have proved satisfactory, it twists the
shell round until the tail falls into the opening, and then parades up
and down for a little while. Perhaps it may be satisfied, and after
twirling the shell about several times whisks into it with such speed
that the eye can scarcely follow its movements. Indeed, it seems
rather to be shot into the shell from some engine of propulsion than
to move voluntarily into the new habitation. When the number of
empty shells is great the Hermit is very fastidious, and will spend
many hours in settling into a new house.

In all these creatures the larger claw is very much developed ; so that
when the crab has withdrawn into the shell, the claw lies over the en-
trance and closes it like a living door, which has the further advantage
of being used as an offensive weapon. The footstalks on which the eyes
are set are moderately long, stout, and jointed, and enable their pos-
sessor to see in all directions.

We next take the second great division of the Crustacese — namely,
those which have long and powerful tails. The Lobsters and Shrimps
are examples of these creatures. In swimming rapidly through the
water the tail is the organ of propulsion which is employed, and a
glance at its form will soon explain its use.

We now come to the family of the Astacidse, which includes two
well-known and very similar creatures, the fresh-water Cray-fish and
the salt-water Lobster. The general shape and appearance of the
Lobster is too well known to need any description. The vast num-
bers of Lobsters which are annually
brought to the London markets are
largely supplied from Norway, although
there are many parts of our own coasts
where these creatures can be taken plen-
tifully. The Lobster is not much of a
^^ rover, seldom straying far from the spot

^^ '^""^ "' - on which it was hatched.

The Lobster (Astacus gam- The Lobsters are caught in creels or
"*"'"'''^* pots, like the crabs, but with greater ease

and economy, as they are very fond of meat, be it fresh or tainted, and
even if it should be putrefying will be attracted to it.

Like many other crustaceans, the Lobster is a most combative ani-

THE CRAY-FISH AND THE SHRIMP. 659

raal, quarrelling on the slightest pretext, and fighting most furiously.
In these combats it mostly loses a claw or a leg, being obliged to dis-
card entirely a wounded member. A fresh leg or claw sprouts from
the scar, and it is to this circumstance that the frequently unequal size
of lobster-claws is owing. Lobsters, indeed, part with these valuable
members with strange indifference, and will sometimes shake them off
on hearing a sudden noise.

If the fishermen find that they have wounded a Lobster, they have
recourse to a very strange but perfectly efficacious remedy. Supposing
one of the claws to be wounded, the creature would soon bleed to death
unless some means were taken whereby the flow of blood may be
stopped^ The method adopted by the fishermen consists in twisting
off the entire claw. A membrane immediately forms over the wound,
and the bleeding is stopped. The new limb that is to supply the place
of that which was lost always sprouts from the centre of the scar.

The common Cray-fish, or Craw-fish, of our rivers has an almost
exact resemblance to the marine lobster, which it resembles in many of
its habits and qualities. Like that crea-
ture, it hides itself in some crevice, and
does not issue from its concealment ex-
cept for the purpose of obtaining food.
It is equally quarrelsome, and also dis-
plays many tokens of its combats in the
shape of lost or minute members. It is
quite a rare thing to find a large Cray-fish The Cray-fish {Astacus jiuvi-
with both its claws of the same size. °^'^)-

The creature mostly hides under stones or holes in the bank, with its
head toward the orifice and its claws thoroughly protecting its home.
From these dens it issues in search of prey, which consists of dead fish
and any similar substance.

The flesh of the Cray-fish is something like that of the lobster, but
far more delicate, and without the indigestible qualities of the larger
crustacean. It is only in season for a comparatively short time, and in
other months of the year the flesh is soft, watery, and flavorless.

The next family includes the true Shrimps, and contains but one
genus. The Shrimp, which is so familiar on our tables, and which,
until the marine aquaria became so common, was equally unknown in,
its living state, inhabits our shores, where it is produced in countless
myriads. In every little pool that is left by the retiring tide the
Shrimps may be seen in profusion, betraying their presence by their
quick darting movements as they dash about in the water, and ever
and anon settle upon some spot, flinging up a cloud of sand as they
scuffle below its surface, their backs being just level with the surround-
ing sand. In consequence of this manoeuvre the fishermen call them

660 THE SHRIMP, THE PRAWN, AND THE SAND-HOPPER.

"Sand-raisers." The small prawns are often confounded with the
Shrimps, and popularly called hy the same title. They can, however,
easily be distinguished from each other, the beak of the prawn being
lono- and deeply saw-edged, while that of the Shrimp is quite short and
smooth.

Our attention is now drawn to a very large group of crustaceans,
called the Sessile-eyed Crustacea, because their eyes, instead of being
placed on footstalks, are seated directly upou
the shell. The body is divided with toler-
able distinctness into three parts, for which
the ordinary titles of head, thorax, and ab-
domen are retained as being more couveui-
ent and intelligible than the ingenious and
more correct, though rather repulsive, titles
The Shrimp {aangon vul- that have lately been affixed to these divis-

garie). ions of the body.

The Prawn {Palcsmon ser- They have no carapace, like the stalk-
''"^"^'*" ■ eyed crustaceans, nor do they breathe with

gills, but by means of a curious adaptation of some of their limbs.
None of the Sessile-eyed Crustacea attain any large size, an inch and
a half being nearly their utmost limit in point of length. Most of
these animals reside along the seashores, where they are of very great
use in clearing away the mass of dead animal and vegetable matter
which is constantly found in the sea.

The little Sand-hopper or Sand-skipper is an example of the first
family, called by the name of Orchestidoe, or jumpers, because the
members of it possess the power of leaping upon dry ground. These
little creatures are seen in myriads along all our sandy shores, leaping
about vigorously just before the advancing or behind the retiring tide,
and looking like a low mist edging the sea, so countless are their num-
bers. Paley has a well-known passage respecting this phenomenon, too
familiar for quotation.

The leap of the Sand-hopper is produced by bending the body and
then flinging it open with a sudden jerk — in fact, the exact converse
of the mode of progression adopted by the lobster and shrimp. The
Sand-hopper feeds on almost everything that is soft and capable of
decay, and seems to care little whether the food be of an animal or a
vegetable nature. Decaying seaweed is a favorite article of food, and
wherever a bunch of blackened and rotting seaweed lies on the sand,
there may be found the Sand-hoppers congregated beneath it, and lit-
erally boiling out when the seaweed is plucked up.

The teeth of this creature are strong and sharp, as indeed is needful
for the tasks imposed upon them. The Sand-hopper will eat anything;
and on one occasion, when a lady had allowed a swarm of these little

THE WOODLOUSE AND THE BARNACLE.

661

crustaceaas to settle on her handkerchief, it was bitten to rags when
she took it up. It is very fond of worms, will eat any kind of carrion,
and sometimes, when pressed by hunger,
has no scruple in eating its own kind.

The common Woodlouse is very
plentiful in all damp places, and es-
pecially exults in getting under logs of
wood or decaying timber. In cellars
and outhouses they are common, and are
generally to be found in dark and damp
localities. Fowls are very fond of them,
and there is no surer way of extirpating The Common Woodlouse {Por-
these sharp-toothed creatures than by ^^^^'^ scaber).

allowing some fowls to scrape and peck about in the places where
they have taken up their residence. Under the bark of dead and
decaying trees is a very favorite residence with the Woodlouse, and in
such localities its dead skeleton may often be found, bleached to a

porcelain-like whiteness. The color of the
Woodlouse is a darkish leaden hue, some-
times spotted with white.

The well-known Pill Woodlouse, or
Pill Armadillo, when rolled up into a
globular shape bears a strong analogy to
the common hedgehog, and a still stronger
to the manis. As in the latter case, the crea-
ture is defended by horny scales that pro-
tect it just as the external skeleton pro-
tects the armadillo. AVhile rolled up this
creature has often been mistaken for a
bead or a berry from some tree, and in one
instance a girl new to the country actually
threaded a number of these unfortunate
crustaceans before she discovered that they
were not beads.

W^e now come to the last members of the
Crustacea — creatures which were for a long
time placed among the molluscs, and whose
true position has only been discovered in
comparatively later years. Popularly they
are called Barnacles, but are known to
naturalists under the general term Cirrhip-
<:des, on account of the cirrhi, or bristles, with which their strangely
transformed feet are fringed.

When adult all the Cirrhipedes are affixed to some substance, being

56

The Barnacle {Lepas ana-
tijera).

662

THE BARNACLE.

either set directly upon it, as the common acorn barnacle, so plentiful
on our coasts, placed upon a footstalk of variable length, as in the
ordinary goose mussel, or even sunk into the supporting substance, as
is the case with the whale barnacles. When young the Cirrhipedes
are free and able to swim about, and are of a shape so totally different
from that which they afterward assume that they would not be recog-
nized except by a practised eye.

Along the under surface are set six pairs of limbs, not furnished with
claws, but being developed at their extremities into two long filaments,
joined and covered with hairs. By means of these modified limbs
the Cirrhipedes obtain their food. The common acorn barnacle of
our coasts affords a familiar and beautiful example of the mode by
which this structure is made subservient to procuring a supply of food.
The closed valves at the upper part of the shell are seen to open slight-
ly, a kind of fairy-like hand is thrust out, the fingers expanded, a
grasp made at the water, and the closed member then withdrawn into
the shell.

This hand-like object is in fact the aggregated mass of legs with
their filaments. As the limbs are thrust forward they spread, so as to
form a kind of casting-net, and as they return to the shell they bring
with them all the minute organisms which were swimming in the
water. This movement continues without cessation as lono; as the
barnacles are covered with water, and appears to be as mechanically
performed as the action of breathing is performed by the higher
animals.

The common Goose Mussel, or Duck Barnacle, is so called on
account of the absurd idea which was once so widely entertained, that
this species of barnacle was the preliminary state of the barnacle goose,
the cirrhi representing the plumage, and the valves doing duty for the
wings.

This Barnacle is tolerably universal in its tastes. It clings to any-
thing, whether still or moving, and is the
pest of ships on account of the perti-
nacity with which it adheres to their
planks. Its growth is marvellously
rapid, and in a very short time a ves-
sel will have the whole of the sub-
merged surface coated so thickly with
these Cirrhipedes that her rate of speed
is sadly diminished by the friction of
their loose bodies against the water.

A good example of these creatures is
afforded by the well-known Acorn Bar-
nacles, so plentiful on our coasts. They have no necks like those of

The Acorn Barnacle {Bala-
nus balanoides).

ARACHNIDA. 6^3

the Goose Barnacle, but are sessile on the rocks. Spots over which the
tide runs only for a few hours are thickly studded with these Barna-
cles, and it is interesting to see how quickly they open their valves and
fling out their arms as soon as the water covers them at each return-
ing tide. When the sea withdraws they close their shells firmly, and
retain within their interior a sufficiency of water wherewith to carry
on the business of respiration until the next tide brings a fresh supply.
Total submersion seems to be hurtful to them.

ARACHNIDA.

Another class of animated beings now comes before us, which, under
the general terra of Arachnida, comprises the Spiders, Scorpions, and
Mites,

These beings breathe atmospheric air, have no antennae, and have
four pairs of legs attached to the fore parts of the body.

In some of the higher Arachnida there is a bold division into thorax
and abdomen, and the former portion of the body is clearly divided
into separate segments. By the earlier naturalists the Arachnidse
were placed among the insects, but may readily be distinguished by
several peculiarities. In the first place, they have more than six legs,
which alone would be sufficient to separate them from insects. They
have no separate head, the head and thorax being fused, as it were,
into one mass, called the cephalothorax. In many of the lower species
there is not even a division between the thorax and abdomen, and the
body, thorax, and abdomen are merged into one uniform mass, with-
out even a mark to show their several boundaries. They undergo no
metamorphosis like that of the insects, for, although the young Spiders
change their skins several times, there is no change of form.

Beginning with the true Spiders, we find that their palpi — i. e., the
jointed antennse-like organs that project from the cephalothorax — are
more or less thread-like, and in the males are swollen at the extremity
into a remarkable structure, as indicative of the sex as the beard of
man, the curled tail-feathers of the drake, and the gorgeous train of
the peacock. In the different genera these palpi are differently formed,
and afford valuable indications for systematic zoologists.

In these strange creatures the mandibles are furnished with a curved
claw perforated at the extremity, sometimes like the poison-fang of a
venomous snake, and used for a similar purpose. A gland furnishes a
secretion which is forced through these organs, and is injected into any
object that may be wounded by the sharp claw. The fluid which is
secreted for the service of the fangs is nearly colorless, and is found to
possess most of the properties that exist in the venom of the rattlesnake
or viper.

664 THE SPIDERS.

They all spin those remarkable nets which we popularly call " webs,"
and which differ wonderfully in the various species. These webs are
in very many instances employed as traps, wherein may be caught the
prey on which the Spider feeds, but in other cases are only used as
houses wherein the creature can reside. Some of the uses to which these
wonderful productions are put, as well as some details of their structure,
will presently be mentioned.

We now pass to some typical species of these curious animals.

The Spiders belonging to the family of Mygalidse may at once be
known by the shape of their mandibles and the terrible claws which
proceed from them. In the greater number of Spiders the claws are set-
horizontally, but in the Mygalidse they are bent downward, and strike
the prey much as a lion clutches at his victim with his curved talons.

The Great Crab Spider belongs to the typical genus of this family,
and is one of the formidable Arachnida that prey upon young birds
and other small vertebrates, instead of limiting themselves to the in-
sects and similar beings which constitute the food of the generality of
the Spider race.

The talons of the spiders are scientifically called by the appropriate
name of /a/ce*% the word being Latin, and signifying "a reaping-hook."
By this name they will be called in the course of the following pages.
The fUlces of the Great Crab Spiders are of enormous size, and when
removed from the creature and set in gold they are used as toothpicks,
being thought to possess some occult virtue which drives away the
toothache.

The curious Trap-door Spider of Jamaica, erroneously called the
Tarantula, digs a burrow in the earth and lines it with a silken web,
but, instead of merely protecting the entrance by a portion of the silken
tube, it proves itself a more complete architect by making a trap-door
with a hinge that permits it to be opened and closed with admirable
accuracy. The door is beautifully circular, and is made of alternate
layers of earth and web and hinged to the lining of the tube by a band
of the same silken secretion. It exactly fits the entrance of the bur-
row, and when closed so precisely corresponds with the surrounding
earth that it can hardly be distinguished, even when its position is
pointed out. It is a strange sight to see the earth open, a little lid
raised, some hairy legs protrude, and gradually the whole form of the
spider show itself.

The curious and interesting Water Spider is now flir better known
than was formerly the case, as the numerous aquaria that have been
established over the kingdom have tended to fiimiliarize us with this as
well as with many other inhabitants of the water.

This creature leads a strange life. Though really a terrestrial being
and needing to respire atmospheric air, it passes nearly the whole of

THE WATEK SPIDER. 665

its life in the water, and for the greater part of its time is submerged
below the surface. To a lesser degree several other spiders lead a some-
what similar life, sustaining existence by means of the air which is en-
tangled in the hairs which clothe the body. Their submerged existence
is, however, only accidental, while in the Water Spider it forms the con-
stant habit of its life.

The body of the Water Spider is profusely covered with hairs, which
serve to entangle a large comparative amount of atmospheric air, but
it has other means which are not pos-
sessed by the species already described.
It has the power of diving below the
surface and carrying with it a very
large bubble of air that is held in its
place by the hind legs ; and in spite of
this obstacle to its progress, it can pass
through the water with tolerable speed.

The strangest part in the economy
of this creature is that it is actually
hatched under water, and lies sub-
merged for a considerable time before ^^^ ^^^^^ g^^^^^ (Argyrone.

it ever sees the land. At some little

tra aquatica)

depth the mother spider spins a kind
of egg or dome-shaped cell with the opening downward. Having
made this chamber, she ascends to the surface, and there charges her
whole body with air, arranging her hind legs in such a manner that
the bubble held between them cannot escape. She then dives into the
water, proceeds to her nest, and discharges the bubble into it. A quan-
tity of water is thus displaced, and the upper part of the cell is filled
with air. She then returns for a second supply, and so proceeds until
the nest is full of air.

In this curious domicile the spider lives, and is thus able to deposit
and to hatch her eggs under the water without even wetting them.
The reader will have noticed the exact analogy between this subaquatic
residence and the diving-bell, now so generally employed. As to the
spider itself, it is never wet ; and, though it may be seen swimming
rapidly about in the water, yet the moment it emerges from the sur-
face its hairy body will be found as dry as that of any land spider.
The reason for this phenomenon is that the minute bubbles of air
which always cling to the furred body repel the water and prevent it
from moistening the skin.

The eggs of tliis spider are enclosed in a kind of cup-shaped cocoon,
not unlike the cover of a circular vegetable-dish. This cocoon usually
contains about a hundred little spherical eggs, which are not glued
together.

56-*

666

THE WATEK SPIDER.

The Water Spider is a truly active creature, and its rapid movements
can be watched by placing one of these Arachnida in a vessel nearly
filled with water. If possible, some water-plant, such as the vaP^sneria
or anacharis, should also be placed in the vessel. Here the spider will
soon construct its web and exhibit its curious habits. It must be well
supplied with flies and other insects thrown into the water. It will
pounce on them, carry them to its house, and there eat them.

The limbs and cephalothorax of this species are brown with a slight
tinge of red, and the abdomen is brown, but washed with green. It is

The Garden Spider {Epeira diade)na).

densely covered with hairs. On the middle of the upper surface of the
abdomen are found round spots arranged in a square. The male is
rather larger than the female, and his legs are larger in proportion.
He may, however, be distinguished by the large mandibles and longer
palpi.

We now arrive at the Epeiridse, a family containing some of the
strangest members of the spider race. The best known of this family

THE GAKDEN SPIDEK AND THE SCORPION. 667

is the common Garden Spider, sometimes called the Cross Spider,
from the marks upon its abdomen. This is thought to be the best typ-
ical example of all the Arachnidse. It is found in great numbers in our
gardens, stretching its beautiful webs perpendicularly from branch to
branch, and remaining in the centre with its head downward, waiting
for its prey. This attitude is tolerably universal among spiders ; and
it is rather curious that the Arachnidse should reverse the usual order
of things, and assume an inverted position when they desire to re-
pose.

The web of this spider is composed of two different kinds of threads,
the radiating and supporting threads being strong and of simple tex-
ture, but the fine spiral thread which divides the web into a series of
steps, decreasing in breadth toward the centre, is studded with a vast
amount of little globules, which give to the web its peculiar adhesive-
ness. These globules are too small to be perceptible to the unassisted
eye, but by the aid of a microscope they may be examined without
difficulty. In an ordinary web, such as is usually seen in gardens,
there will be about eighty-seven thousand of these globules, and yet
the web can be completed in less than three quarters of an hour.
The globules are loosely strung upon the lines, and when they are
rubbed off the thread is no longer adhesive.

Of all the Spider race the Scorpions are most dreaded, and justly so.
These strange beings are at once recognized by their large claws and
the armed tail. This member is composed of six joints, the last being
modified into an arched point, very sharp, and communicating with two
poison-glands in the base of the joint. With this weapon the Scorpion
wounds its foes, striking smartly at them, and by the same movement
driving some of the poison into the wound. The effect of the poison
varies much according to the constitution of the person who is stung
and the size and health of the Scorpion. Should the creature be a
large one, the sting is productive of serious
consequences, and in some cases has been
known to destroy life. Generally, how'-
ever, there is little danger to life, though
the pain is most severe and the health
much injured for the time, the whole limb
throbbing with shooting pangs and the
stomach oppressed with overpowering nau-
sea. The poison seems to be of an acrid The Rock ScoRnoN {Buthus
nature, and the pain can be relieved by "^^^'^'

the application of alkaline remedies, such as liquid ammonia, tobacco
ashes, etc. Melted fat is also thought to do good service, and the nau-
sea is relieved by small doses of ipecacuanha. Some of the poison can
mostly be brought to the surface by means of pressing a tube, such

668 THE MYRIAPODA.

as that of a tolerably large key or the barrel of a small pistol, upon
the spot, and the duration, if not the severity, of the pain is thereby
mitigated.

In all these creatures the tail is composed of the last six joints of the
abdomen, and the powerful limbs, with the lobster-like claws at the
tips, are the modified palpi. The eyes of the Scorpions differ in num-
ber, some species having twelve, others eight, and others only six ;
these last constitute the genus Scorpio. On the lower surflice of the
Scorpions are seen two remarkable appendages, called the combs, the
number of teeth differing in the various species. In the Rock Scor-
pion the teeth are thirteen in number, while in the red scorpion there
are never less than twenty-eight. The Rock Scorpion is a large crea-
ture, measuring about six inches in length when fully grown.

MYRIAPODA.

In accordance with the best systems of the present day the Myria-
PODA are considered as a separate class.

The Myriapoda are without even the rudiments of wings, and possess
a great number of feet, not less than twelve pairs, and in some species
there are more than forty pairs of legs. In allusion to their numerous
feet the Myriapoda are popularly called Hundred-legs, and their scien-
tific title is even bolder, signifying " ten thousand feet." To this class
belong the well-known centipedes, so plentiful in our gardens, and the
equally well-known millepedes, found under decaying wood and in sim-
ilar localities. In Eng-
,„,,,/.r',jjui^^^s^^ land none of the Myria-
pods attain to great di-

rp ,, ,T 1 .V mensions, but in hot coun-

iHE Millepede {Jnlm terrestns). , . , . „ ,

tries, and especially under

the tropics, they become so large as to be positively formidable as well

as repulsive.

\Ve now arrive at the true Scolopendrse, which, together with the

allied genera, are popularly known by the name of Centipedp:s. The

genus Scolopendrse is a very large one, containing about sixty species,

most of them inhabitants of the tropics, and many attaining a large size.

The great Scolopendrse are not only unpleasant and repulsive to the

sight, but are really formidable creatures, being armed with fangs

scarcely less terrible than the sting of the scorpion. These weapons

are placed just below the mouth, and are formed from the second pair

of feet, which are modified into a pair of strong claws, set horizontally

in a manner resembling the falces of ordinary spiders, and terminated

by a strong and sharp hook on each side. These hooks are perforated,

and are traversed by a little channel leading from a poison-gland, like

THE ANNULATA. 669

that of the scorpion, so that the venomous secretion is forced into the
wound by the very action of biting.

The member of this family scientifically known as the Arthronomalus
loagicornis is found in England, and is very common in some local-
ities. It is in no way conspicuous for its dimensions, but is, however,
remarkable on another account. It has the power of giving out a tol-
erably strong phosphorescent light, which is visible only after dark, but
is then very conspicuous, and has often caused the centipede to be mis-
taken for a glow-worm. It is not unfrequeutly found within peaches,
apricots, plums, and similar fruits when they are very ripe, and lies
comfortably coiled up in the little space between the stone and the
fruit, where the sweetest juices lie. The color of this centipede is yel-
low ; its head is deep rust-color ; its antennae are very hairy, and four
times as long as the head segment. There are from fifty-one to fifty-
five pairs of legs. Its length varies from two inches and a half to
three inches.

ANNULATA.

A new class of animals now comes before us. These creatures are
technically called Annulata, or sometimes Annelida, on account of
the rings, or annuli, of which their bodies are composed. They may
be distinguished from the Julidse by the absence of true feet, although
in very many species the place of feet is supplied by bundles of bristles
set along the sides. The respiration is carried on either by means of
external gills, internal sacs, or even through the skin itself In most
of the Annulata the body is long and cylindrical, but in some it is
flattened and oval. The number of rings is very variable, even in the
same species.

The group of worms which comes first on our list is remarkable for
the architectural powders of its members. In order to protect their
soft-skinned body and delicate gills they build for themselves a res-
idence into which they exactly fit. This residence is in the form of a
tube, and in some cases, as in the Serpulse, is of a very hard shelly
substance, and in some, as the Terebella, is soft and covered with grains
of sand and fragments of shells.

The beautiful Serpula is now very familiar to us through the
medium of marine aquaria, its white shell, exquisite fan-like branchiae,
and brilliant operculum, having lived and died in many an inland
town where a living inhabitant of the ocean had never before been
seen. The Serpula is able to travel up and down its tube by means
of the bundles of bristles which project from the rings along the sides,
and to retract itself with marvellous rapidity. It has no eyes, and yet
is sensible of light. For example, if a Serpula be fully protruded,
with its gill-fans extended to their utmost, and blazing in all its scarlet-

670

THE EARTH-WORM AND THE LEECH.

and-white splendor, a hand moved between it and the window will
cause it to disappear into its tube with a movement so rapid that the
eye cannot follow it. The gills, whose exquisitely graceful form and
delicate coloring have always attracted admiration, are affixed to the
neck, as, if they were set at the opposite extremity of the body or
along the sides, they would not obtain sufficient air from the small
amount of water that could be contained in the tube. The beautiful
scarlet stopper ought also to be mentioned. Each set of gills is fur-
nished with a tentacle-like appendage, one of which is small and
thread-like, and the other expanded at its extremity into a conical
operculum or stopper, marked with a number of ridges, which form a
beautiful series of teeth around its circumference. The footstalk on
which this stopper is mounted is a little longer than the gills, so that
when the animal retreats into its tube the gills collapse and vanish,
and the entrance of the tube is exactly closed by the conical stopper.
The family of which the common Earth-worm is a very familiar
example is distinguished by the ringed body without any gills or
feet, but with bristles arranged upon the rings for the purpose of
progression.

In the well-known Earth-worm the bristles are short and very stiff,
and are eight in number on each ring, two pairs being placed on each

side; so that, in fact, there are
eight longitudinal rows of bristles
on the body, four on the sides and
four below, which enable the crea-
ture to take a firm hold of the
ground as it proceeds. Except
that the worm makes use of
bristles, and the snake of the
edges of its scales, the mode of
progress is much the same in both
The whole body of the creature is very elastic, and capable of
being extended or contracted to a wonderful degree. AVhen it wishes
to advance it pushes forward its body, permits the bristles to hitch
against the ground, and then, by contracting the rings together, brings
itself forward, and is ready for another step. As in each full-grown
Earth-worm there are at least one hundred and twenty rings, and each
rmg contains eight bristles, it may be imagined that the hold upon the
ground is very strong.

The Common Leech is almost as familiar as the earth-worm, and is
one of a genus which furnishes the blood-sucking creatures which are
so largely used in surgery. It belongs to a large group of Annelida
which have no projecting bristles to help them onward, and are there-
tore forced to proceed in a different manner. All these Leeches are

The Common Leech {Hirudo medici-
ncdis).

cases.

THE ECHINODERMATA. 671

wouderfully adapted for the purpose to which they are applied, their
mouths being supplied with sharp teeth to cut the vessels, and with a
sucker-like disc, so that the blood can be drawn from its natural chan-
nels ; while their digestive organs are little more than a series of sacs
in which an enormous quantity of blood can be received and retained.

RADIATA.
ECHINODERMATA.

We now arrive at a vast and comprehensive division of living beings,
which have no joints whatever and no limbs, and are called Radiata,
because all their parts radiate from a common centre. The structure
is very evident in some of these beings, but in others the formation is
so exceedingly obscure that it is only by anatomical investigation that
their real position is discovered.

The highest forms in this division have been gathered together in the
class Echinodermata. This w'ord signifies " urchin-skinned," and is
given to the animals comprising it because their skins are more or less
furnished with spines resembling those of the hedgehog. In these
animals the radiate form is very plainly shown, some of them assuming
a perfectly star-like shape, of which the common star-fishes of our
coasts are familiar examples. In some of the Radiates, such as the
sea-urchin, the whole body is encrusted with a chalky coat, while in
others it is as soft and easily torn as if it were composed of mere
structureless gelatine.

The mode of walking, or rather creeping, which is practised by these
beings is very interesting, and may easily be seen by watching the pro-
ceedings of a common star-fish when placed in a vessel of sea-water.
At first it will be quite still and lie as if dead, but by degrees the tips
of the arms will be seen to curve slightly, and then the creature slides
forward without any perceptible means of locomotion. If, however, it
be suddenly taken from the water and reversed, the mystery is at once
solved, and the walking appartus is seen to consist of a vast number of
tiny tentacles, each with a little round transparent head, and all mov-
ing slowly but continually from side to side, sometimes being thrust out
to a considerable distance, and sometimes being withdrawn almost wholly
within the shell. These are the " ambulacrie," or walking apparatus,
and are among the most extraordinary means of progression in the an-
imal kingdom. Each of these innumerable organs acts as a sucker, its
soft head being applied to any hard substance, and adhering thereto
with tolerable firmness until the pressure is relaxed and the sucker re-
leased. The suckers continually move forward, seize upon the ground,
draw the body gently along, and then search for a new hold. As there

672

THE SEA-UKCHIN.

are nearly two thousand suckers continually at work, some being pro-
truded, others relaxed, and others still feeling for a holding-place, the
progress of the creature is very regular and gliding, and hardly seems
to be produced by voluntary motion.

We will now proceed to some examples of these curious beings.

We first take a beautiful fiimily of this order, called Echinidse, be-
cause they are covered with spines like the quills of the hedgehog.
Popularly they are known by the name of Sea-urchins, or Sea-
Eggs.

In all these curious beings the upper parts are protected by a kind
of shell, always more or less dome-shaped, but extremely variable in

The Sea-urchin {Echinus sphcera).

form. The shell is one of the most marvellous structures in the animal
kingdom, and the mechanical difficulties which are overcome in its for-
mation are of no ordinary kind. In the case of the common Sea-egg
the shell is nearly globular. Now, this shell increases in size with the
age of the animal ; and how a hollow spherical shell can increase reg-
ularly in size, not materially altering its shape, is a problem of extreme
difficulty. It is, however, solved in the following manner. The shell
is composed of a vast number of separate pieces, whose junction is evi-
dent when the interior of the shell is examined, but is almost entirely
hidden by the projections upon the outer surface. These pieces are of

THE STAR-FISH. 673

a hexagonal or pentagonal shape, with a slight curve, and having most-
ly two opposite sides much longer than the others. As the animal
grows fresh deposits of chalky matter are made upon the edges of each
plate, so that the plate increases regularly in size, still keeping its
shape, and in consequence the dimensions of the whole shell increase,
while the globular shape is preserved. If a fresh and perfect specimen
be examined, the surface is seen to be covered with short sharp spines
set so thickly that the substance of the shell can hardly be seen through
them. The structure of these spines is very remarkable, and under the
microscope they present some most interesting details. Moreover, each
spine is movable at the will of the owner, and works upon a true ball-
and-socket joint, the ball being a round globular projection on the sur-
face of the shell, and the socket sunk into the base of the spine.

The common Sea-urchin is edible, and in some places is extensively
consumed, fully earning its title of Sea-egg by being boiled and eaten
in the same manner as the eggs of poultry.

Leaving the Echini, we pass to the next large group of Echinoder-
mata, called scientifically Asteriadse, and popularly known as Star-
fishes. These creatures exhibit in
the strongest manner the radiate form
of body, the various organs boldly ra-
diating from a common centre.

Many of these creatures are exceed-
ingly common upon our own coasts —
so plentiful, indeed, as to be intensely
hated by the fishermen. Of these, the
common Five-finger, or Cross-fish,
is perhaps found in the greatest num-
bers. All Star-fishes are very wonder-
ful beings, and well repay a close and
lengthened examination of their habits, The Star-fish {Uraster mbens).
their development, and their anatomy. There are sufficient materials
in a single Star-fish to fill a whole book as large as the present volume,
and it is therefore necessary that our descriptions shall be but brief
and compressed. To begin with the ordinary habits of this creature:
Every one who has wandered by the seaside has seen a specimen of the
common Five-finger thrown on the beach, and perhaps may have passed
it by as something too commonplace to deserve notice. If it be taken
up, it dangles helplessly from the hand, and appears to be one of the
most innocuous beings on the face of the earth. Yet this very creature
has in all probability killed and devoured great numbers of the edible
molluscs, and has either entirely or partially excited the anger of many
an industrious fisherman.

To begin with the former delinquency: It is found that the Star-fish

57 2S

674

THE STAK-FISH.

is a terrible foe to molluscs, and, although its body is so soft, and it is
destitute of any jaws or levers, such as are employed by other mollusc-
eating inhabitants of the sea, it can devour even the tightly-shut bi-
valves, however firmly they may close their valves.

The second delinquency of the Star-fish is achieved as follows : By
some wonderful power it is enabled to detect prey at some distance,
even though no organs of sight, hearing, or scent can absolutely be de-
fined. When, therefore, the fisherman lowers his bait into the sea,

The Sea Cucumbers and Star-fishes.

the Star-fishes and crabs often seize the hook, and so give him all the
trouble of pulling up his line for nothing, baiting the hook afresh, and
losing his time. ^ The fishermen always kill the Star-fish in reprisal for
its attack on their bait, and formerly were accustomed to tear it across
and fling the pieces into the sea. This, however, is a very foolish plan
of proceeding, for the Star-fish is wonderfully tenacious of life, and can
bear the loss of one or all of its rays without seeming much inconve-
nienced. The two halves of the Asterias would simply heal the wound,

THE ACALEPHA.

675

put forth fresh rays, and after a time be transmuted into two perfect
Star-fishes.

The movements of the Star-fish are extremely graceful, the creature
gliding onward with a beautifully smooth and regular motion. It al-
ways manages to accommodate itself to the surface over which it is
passing, never bridging over even a slight depression, but following ex-
actly all the inequalities of the ground. It can also pass through a
very narrow opening, and does so by pushing one ray in front and then
folding the others back, so that they may afibrd no obstacle to the pas-
sage. It also has an odd habit of pressing the points of its rays upon
the bottom of the sea and raising itself in the middle, so as to resemble
a five-legged stool.

ACALEPHA.

We now arrive at a large and important class of animals. These
beings are scientifically termed Acalepha — a word which may freely
be rendered as " sea-nettles." The term is appropriate to many of the
species which compose this large class, for a very great number of the
Acalepha are possessed of certain poisoned weapons which pierce the
skin and irritate the nerves as if they were veritable stinging-nettles
floating about in the sea. Popularly they are known by the familiar
term Jelly-fishes, because their structure is so gelatinous, mostly clear
and transparent, but sometimes semi-opaque or colored with most beau-
tiful tints.

In the illustration may be seen a remarkable creature called by the
popular name of the Sallee Man, sometimes corrupted, in nautical
fashion, into Sallyman. In
this curious animal the body
is membranous, oval, and very
flat, and may at once be recog-
nized by the cartilaginous crest
which rises obliquely from its
upper surface.

The Velella is very widely
distributed, and is found in
every sea except those that
are subject to the cold influ-
ences of the poles. It seldom ^ ^^ zTr, ;; ; ■ \
, 111.. 1 Sallee Man (Velella indyans).
approaches land, but may be

met in vast numbers, sometimes being crowded together in large masses
and of various sizes.

The celebrated Portuguese Man-of-w^ar is a beautiful but most
formidable acaleph. It is found in all the tropical seas, and never
fails to attract the attention of those who see it for the first time. The

676

VENUS'S GIRDLE.

general shape of this remarkable being is a bubble-like envelope filled
with air, upon which is a membranous crest, and which has a number
of long tentacles hanging from one end. These tentacles can be pro-
truded or withdrawn at will, and sometimes reach a considerable
length. They are of different shapes, some being short and only
measuring a few inches in length, while the seven or eight central
tentacles will extend to a distance of several feet. These long ten-
tacles are formidably armed with stinging tentacles, too minute to be

seen with the naked eye, but possessing
venomous powers even more noxious
than those of the common nettle. " It
is in these appendages alone,*' writes Mr.
D. Bennett, " that the stinging property
of the Physalis resides. Every other
part of the mollusc may be touched
with impunity, but the slightest contact
of the hand with the cable produces a
sensation as painful and protracted as
the stinging of nettles; while, like the
effect of that vegetable poison, the skin
of the injured part often presents a
white elevation or wheal."

The colors of the Physalis are always
beautiful, and slightly variable in both
tint and intensity. The delicate pink
crest can be elevated or depressed at
will, and is beautifully transparent,
grooved vertically throughout its length.
The general hue of its body is blue, tak-
ing a very deep tint at the pointed end,
and fading into softer hues toward the
tentacles. A general iridescence, how-
TiiE Portuguese Man-of-war ever, plays over the body, which seems
[Physalis pelayicus). . , - i- ^^ , ■. n "^ j n .

^ -^ ' in certam lights to be formed of topaz,

sapphire, or aquamarine. The short fringes are beautifully colored,
the inner row being deep purple and the outer row glowing crimson
as if formed of living carbuncle.

If the reader will now refer to the illustration he will see a long, fiat,
ribbon-like creature edged with a delicate fringe of cilia. This curious
being is called Venus's Girdle, and from its beauty fully deserves the
name. This lovely creature is found in the Mediterranean, where it
attains to the extraordinary length of five feet, the breadth being only
two inches. Rightly, the words " breadth " and " length " ought to be
transposed, as the development is wholly lateral. The mouth of the

THE JELLY-FISHES.

677

Venus's Girdle occupies a very small space iu proportion to the large
dimensions of the creature to which it belongs.

We now come to a very large order of acalephs, including all those
beings which are so familiar under the title of Jelly-fishes, Slob-
bers, and similar euphonious names. They are all united under the
name of Discophora, or " disc-bearers," because they are furnished with
a large umbrella-like disc, by means of which they are enabled to pro-
ceed through the water.

Venus's Girdle {Cesium Veneris).

In the illustration on page 678 an example may be seen of the
typical genus of this family, which is a native of our own seas. This
is a sufficiently common species, and may be found plentifully on our
shores, together with its kindred. There are few more beautiful sights
than to stand on a pier-head or lie in a boat and watch the Medusae
passing in shoals through the clear water, pulsating as if the whole
being were but a translucent heart, trailing behind them their delicate
fringes of waving cilia, and rolling gently over as if in excess of happi-
ness. At night many of the Medusse put on new beauties, glowing with
phosphorescent light like marine fireflies, and giving to the ocean an
almost unearthly beauty that irresistibly recalls to the mind the " sea
of glass mingled with fire."

ZOOPHYTES.

Quitting the Acalephse, we come to the vast class of Zoophytes, or
"animal plants," so called because, though really belonging to the an-

57*

678

THE SEA-ANEMONE AND THE BEADLET.

imal kiDgdom, many of them bear a singularly close resemblance to
vegetable forms. Their substance is always gelatinous and fleshy, and
round the entrance to the stomach are set certain tentacles, used in
catching prey and conveying it to the stomach. These tentacles are
armed with myriads of offensive weapons contained in little capsules,
and capable of being discharged with great force. Organs of sight,
smell, taste, and hearing seem to be totally absent, though it is possible

The Jelly-fish {Medusa ^quorea).

that an extended sense of touch may compensate the creature for these
deficiencies.

The highest form of true Zoophyte is undoubtedly that which is sc
familiar under the name of Sea-anemone — a name singularly inappro-
priate, inasmuch as the resemblance to an anemone is very far-fetched,
while that to the chrysanthemum, daisy, or dandelion is very close.

A widely-spread Anemone, with the circlet of pearl-like beads at
the base of its tentacles, is the well-known Beadlet, the most com-
mon of all this order on the British coasts. It is a singularly hardy
species, living mostly on the rocks that lie between high- and low-water
mark. It is perhaps more variable in color than any of the British

THE COKALS. 679

Actiniae, the body taking all imaginable hues, passing from bright
scarlet to leaf-green, graduating from scarlet to crimson, from crimson
to orange, from orange to yellow, and from yellow to green. The
spherical beads around its mouth are more persistent in color than
any other parts of the animal, being almost invariably a rich blue,
just like a set of turquoises placed around the disc. These, however,

The Sea-anemones.

are occasionally subject to change, and lose all color, looking like
pearls rather than turquoises.

Leaving the sea-anemones, we now proceed to the next tribe, the
Carophylliacese, in which there are many tentacles, in two or more
series, and the cells many-rayed. Many of these beings deposit a
corallum, but out of our British species more than one-third are with-
out this chalky support.

The Endive Coral is so called from the resemblance which its coral-
lum bears to the crumpled leaves of that vegetable. The animal has no
tentacles, and the cells are small, conical, and rather oblique. The
corallum is fixed, sharply edged, and expanded from the base to the
tip. All the living members of this pretty genus are to be found in
the East and West Indian seas.

The Devonshire Cup Coral is not a very large, but it is a very
pretty species, the color of the corallum being generally pure trans-
lucent white, sometimes tinged with a delicate rosy hue, while that of
the living animal is pearly white, variegated with rich chestnut and the
palest imaginable fawn.

In the family Oculinidse the corallum is branched and tree-like ;

680

THE HYDROIDA AND THE SERTULARIAD^.

our only known British form is the Tuft Coral. It is very rare,
and but seldom taken in our seas. The individual corals are about
half an inch in height and the same in diameter.

We now arrive at the Hydroida, which are known by the internal
cavity being simple and the creature increasing by buds thrown out
from the sides.

In the Sertulariadie the buds are enclosed in vesicles, and do not
break away when adult. They are in cup-like cells, which have no
footstalks.

The reproduction of these beings is very curious, for it is known that
they can be propagated by cuttings just like plants, as well as by cell-
vesicles, and that in
the latter case the first
stage of the young
closely resembles that
of the young Medu-
sae, already mentioned.
They also reproduce
by offshoots, and it is
very likely that their
capabilitiGS in this re-
spect are not limited to
even these three meth-
ods.

Any of the common
Sertularise affords a
good example of this
family, and, as they
are easily procured,
they are very valuable aids to those who wish to study the structure of
these beautiful beings. Even the empty polypidon is not without its
elegance, and is often made up into those flattened bouquets of so-
called seaweeds which are sold in such quantities at seaside bathing-
towns. But when the whole being is full of life and health, its mul-
titudinous cells filled with the delicate polypes, each furnished with
more than twenty tentacles all moving in the water, its beauty defies
description. These little polypes are wonderfully active and suspi-
cious. At the least alarm they retreat into their cells as if withdrawn
by springs, and when they again push out their tentacles it is in a very
wary and careful manner.

ROTIFERA.

Although the Rotifera, or " wheel animalcules," are generally placed
among the Infusoria, on account of their minute dimensions and

The Cup Corals.

THE ROTIFERA AND THE RHIZOPODA. 681

aquatic habits, it is evident, from many peculiarities of their formation,
that they deserve a much higher place, and in all probability constitute
a class by themselves.

They are called Wheel Animalcules on account of a curious structure
which is found upon many of their members, and which looks very
like a pair of revolving wheels set upon the head. These so-called
wheels are two disc-like lobes, the edges of which are fringed with cilia,
which when in movement give to the creature an appearance as if it
wore wheels on its head, like those of the fairy knight of ballad poetry.
These wheels can be drawn into the body at will or protruded to some
little extent, and their object is evidently to procure food by causing
currents of water to flow across the mouth. All, however, do not
possess these appendages, but have a row of cilia, mostly broken into
lobes, extending all around the upper portion of the body.

These remarkable beings are found mostly in water that has become
stagnant, but is partially purified by the presence of the infusorians,
which always swarm in such localities.

The typical genus of this class is known by the name of Rotifer.
In all the members the body is rather elongated, and furnished at the
hinder end with a kind of telescopic tail, by means of which they can
attach themselves at will to any object, and release themselves when-
ever they please. Sometimes they move their bodies gently about
while still grasping by the extremity of the tail ; sometimes they are
nearly motionless ; while they frequently rock themselves backward
and forward so violently that they almost seem to be testing the
strength of their hold.

These creatures can both swim and crawl, the former act of locomo-
tion being achieved by the movement of the cilia, and the latter by
creeping along after the fashion of the leech, the head and tail taking
alternate hold of the object on which they are crawling. The masti-
cating apparatus is always conspicuous, whether the animal has the
wheel protruded or withdrawn. It is situated behind the bases of
the wheel-lobes, and looks, when the animal is at rest, something like
a circular buckler with a cross composed of double lines drawn over
its surface.

RHIZOPODA.

The whole arrangement of the beings which we are now about to
examine is still very obscure, and the best zoologists of the present
time have declared that any system which has been hitherto adopted
can only be considered as provisional.

These minute though beautiful beings exist in numbers that are ri-
valled only by the sands of the sea for multitude ; and the vast hosts
of these creatures can barely be estimated even when we know that

682

THE PORIFERA.

many large cities are built wholly of the dead skeletons of these mi-
croscopic beings, and that in a single ounce of sand from the Caribbean
Sea nearly four millions of those shells have been discovered.

The first sub-class of these beings is the Foraminifera, so called on
account of the tiny openings, or foramina, with which the pretty shells
are pierced. Sometimes, however, this shell is wanting, and its place
is supplied by a cover composed of matted sand-grains.

PORIFERA.

We now arrive at a large class of beings, which are by common con-
sent allowed to form the very lowest link in the animal chain. The
name Porifera is given to them because the whole of their surface is
pierced with holes of various dimensions, the greater number being

extremely minute,
i^i\\^^ while others are of
considerable dimen-
sions. The well-
known Turkey
Sponge, so useful
for the toilet, will
afford a good ex-
ample of the porous
structure.

The true living
being which consti-
tutes the Sponge is
of a soft and almost
gelatinous texture
to the unaided eye,
and with the aid
of the microscope is
found to consist of
_ an aggregation of
i separate bodies like
The Living Sponge. those of the Amoeba,

some of which are furnished with long cilia. By the constant action
of the cilia a current of water is kept up, causing the liquid to enter
by innumerable pores with which the surface is pierced, and to be ex-
pelled through the larger orifices. A sponge in full action is a won-
derful sight, the cilia driving the water in ceaseless torrents, whirling
along all kinds of solid particles, arresting those which are useful for
digestion, and rejecting those with which it cannot assimilate.

The extraordinary object which is called by the appropriate name of

NEPTUNE'S CUP. 683

Neptune's Cup is one of the most magnificent, as well as one of the
most notable, of the Sponge tribe. It hardly looks like a Sponge; and
when a specimen is shown to persons who have no knowledge of the
subject, they can hardly ever be made to believe that the exhibitor is
not endeavoring to play a practical joke upon them.

The Neptune's Cup is of enormous dimensions, often measuring four
feet in height and having a corresponding width. Its exterior is rough,
gnarled, and knotted like the bark of some old tree ; and if a portion
W'Cre removed from the side, it might almost be mistaken for a piece
of cork tree bark. Many persons have imagined that the strangely-
shaped 'object was made of the skin of an elephant's leg, and I have
even heard a teacher telling her pupils that it was an old Roman wine-
jar.

This is one of the exotic Sponges, being found only in the hotter
xieas.

INDEX

ACALEPHA, 675.

Acanthopterygii, 541.
Accentor, 362.

Hedge, 362.
Aecentorinae, 362.
Acorn Barnacle, 662.
Actiniae, 679.
Adder, Puff, 508.
Adjutant, 459.
Admiral, Scarlet, 640
jEgeriidge, 643.
Agamas, 501.
Agouti, 180.

Ai, or Three- Toed Sloth, 276.
Albatross, AVandering, 480.
Alcinae, 475.
Alligator, 493.
Alligatoridge, 493.
Alpaca, 240.
American Monkeys, 28.
Ampelid£e, 378.
Ampelinae, 378.
Anabas Scandens, 559.
Anaconda, 512.
Anchovy, 569.
Anemone, Sea, 678.
Animalcules, Wheel, 680, 681.
Annelida, 669.
Annulata, 669.
Ant, White, 626.
Ant-Eater, Great, 270.
Middle, 271.
Little, 271.
Antelopes, 207.

Ant-Lion, 630.

White, 626, 627.

Ants' Eggs, 634.

Ape, Barbary, 23.

Aphaniptera, 651.

Aphides, 649.

Apteryx, 449.

Arachnida, 663.

Arctic Fox, 94.

Arctiidae, 645.

Argonaut, 590.

Argns, Pheasant, 435.

Ariel Petaurus, 138.

Armadillo, 269.

Arnee, 202.

Arthronomalus Longieornis, 578.

Articulata, 612.
58

Aspalacidas, 196.
Ass, 245.
Asse, 95.
Auk, Great, 475
Avahi, 42.
Avicularidae, 605.
Avocet, 462.
Aye-Aye, 43.

Baboons, 25.
Babyroussa, 258.
Bactrian Camel, 237.
Badger, 109.

Australian, 143.
Bajjerkeit, 268.
Balaena, 157.
Balasnidse, 157.
Bandicoot, Long-Nosed, 141.
Barbel, 577.
Barnacle, Acorn, 662.
Duck, 662.
Barnacles, 661.
Bass, Black, 549.
Bat, Long-Eared, 47.

Vampire, 46.
Batrachians, 418.
Bay Bamboo Rat, 197.
Beadlet, 678.
Bear, 112.

Australian, 140.
Black, 115.
Brown, 113.
Grizzly, 115.
Malayan Sun, 116.
Polar, 116.
Syrian, 115.
Beaver, 174.
Bee-Eater, 334.
Hive, 636.
Humble, 637.
Beetle, Bloody-Nose, 621.
Burying, 016.
Ground, 014.
Lamellicorn, 616.
Musk, 620.
Oil, 619.
Rove, 615.
Stag, 617.
Tiger, 612.
Violet Ground, 613.
Water, 614.

085

686

INDEX.

Bernicle Goose, 468.

Bird of Paradise, Emerald, 390.

Birds, 277.

Bison, 203.

Bittern, 456.

Bivalves, 594.

Blackbird. 373.

Blackcap Warbler, 357.

Black Cock, 443.

Macaque, 24.
Yarke, 35.
Blattidae, 622.
Bleak, 580.
Blennies, 558.
Blenny, Eyed, 558.
Bliudworm, 496.
Blister, or Spanish Fly, 61S.
Bloodhound, 80.
Bloody-Nose Beetle, 621.
Boa Constrictor, 511.
Boar, 257.

Bohemian Waxwing, 378.
Boidge, 511.
Bombycidse, 644.
Boomslange, 515.
Bosch Vark, 259.
Bot Fly, 652.
Bower-bird, Satin, 391.
Brachelytra, 615.
Brachyura, 65"
Bream, 579.
Breast-plate, 609.
Breeze Fly, 652.
Bufialo, 201.

Cape, 202.
Bug, Bed, 650.

Wheel, 650.
Bulldog, 84.
Bullfinch, 405.
Bull-head, 547.
Buprestidae, 618.
Burying-beotle, 616.
Bush Hog, 259.
Bustard, Great, 450,
Butcher Birds. See Lanid^e.
Butterfly, Camberwell Beauty, 640.

Comma, 640.

Peacock, 639.

Swallow-tailed. 638.

Tortoiseshell, 640.
Buzzard, 292.

Caama. See Asse.
Cacajao, 35,
Cachalot, 159,
Cacomixle, 72.
Caddis-fly, 631.
Calamaries, or Squids, 592.
Calpidium ornatum, 610.
Camel, 235.

Bactrian, 237.
Camelopardalis, 223.
Campagnol, 172.

Canada Lynx, 64.
Canary, 400.
Cancerida?, 655.
Canis, 76-89.
Cantharidae, 619.
Capercaillie, 441.
Capra, 217.
Capucin, 34.
Capybara, 181.
Carabidte, 613.
Carabus, 613.
Cardiadfe, 607.
Carolina Parrot, 412.
Carophylliacese, 679, 680.
Carp, 576.
Cashmir Goat, 219.
Cassowary, 448.
Cat, 63.

Civet, 71.

Wild, 62.
Catenicella cornuta, 610.
hastata, 609.
Cellularlia Peachii, 610.
Centipedes, 668.
Cephalopoda, 589.
Cerastes, 508.
Cercopidge. 649.
Certhidse, 348.
Cetacea, 156.
Chacma, 25.

Chgetodon, Beaked, 545.
Chgetodontina, 545.
ChaflBnch, 397.
Chambered Nautilus, 594.
Chameleon, 502.
ChameleonidEe, 502.
Chamois, 211.
Chati, 60.

Chatterer, Waxen, 378.
Cheiroptera, 45.
Chetah, 65,

Chicken, Mother Cary's, 479.
Chimpansee, 12.
Chinchilla, 184.
Chinese Otter, 111.
Chiton, Marbled, 602.
Chitonidae, 601.
Choeropus, 145.
Chondropterygii, 533,
Chough, 389,
Chrysochroa, 618.
Chrysomelidae, 621.
Chub, 580.
Cicada Anglica, 649.
Flosfolia, 648.
Cicadae, 648.
Cicindela. 613.
Cicindelidse, 613.
Cimbex, 633.
Cimicidffi, 650.
Cirrhipedes, 661.
Civet Cat, 71.
Cleg, 652,

INDEX.

687

Cleodora, 604.

Clupeidse, 569.

Coaita Spider Monkey, 29.

Coast Rat, 197.

Coati Mondi, 120.

Cobra di Capello, 515.

Coccidse, 648.

Coccinellidae, 621.

Cochineal, Insect, 649.

Cockatoo, Leadbeater's, 417.

Sulphur-crested, 415.
Cockchafer, 617.
Cockles, 607.
Cock of the Plains, 442.
Cockroach, 622.

Cocktails. See Rove Beetles.
Cod, 564.
Coleoptera, 612.
Colobus, 20.
Colubrinae, 512.
Colugo. 44.
Columba, 425.
Columb^, 425.
Columbidae, 425.
Columbinje, 425.
Colymbidte, 47^^.
Colymbinae, 473.
Colymbus, 473.
Conchifera, 605.
Condor, 280.
Cone, Admiral, 598.

Textile, 598.
Cone-shells, 598.
Conger Eel, 567.
Conidae, 598.
Conirostres, 381.
Coot, 467.

Coquette, Spangled, 346.
Coral, Devonshire Cup, 679.

Endive, 679.

Tuft, 680.
Cormorant, 483.

Crested, 484.
Corncrake, 465.
Corvidaj, 381.
Corvina?, 381.
Cowry, Money, 599.

Deep-toothed, 599.
Crab, Calling, 657.

Edible, 655.

Fighting, 656.

Green, 656.

Hermit, or Soldier, 657.

Nipper, 656.

Swimming, 656.

Thornback, 654.

Thornback-Spider, 654.
Crabro cribrarius, 634.
Crab-spider, or Matoutou, 664.
Cramp-fish, 538.
Crane, 453.

Demoiselle, 454.
Fly, Great, 657.

Cray-fish, 658.
Crested Curassow, 430.
Cricket, Field, 623.
Mole, 624.
Crocodile, Egyptian, 493.
Crocodilid^, 492.
Crocodilus, 492.
Crossbill, 406.
Cross-fish, 673.
Crotalidaj, 506.
Crow, 384.

Hooded, 387.
Crustacea, 652.
Cryptoprocta, 75.
Cuckoo, 423.
Cuckoo-spit, 649.
Curculionid£e, 620.
Curlew, 461.
Cursores, 445.
Cushat, 427.
"Cuttle-bone." 593.
Cynipida), 633.
Cyprajidse, 598.

Dabchick, 474.
Dace, 580.

Daddy Long-legs, 651.
Dasypidae, 267.
Dasyure, 146.
Death's Head Moth, 641.
Deer, Axis, 233.
Fallow, 232.

Kanchil, or Pigmy Musk, 235.
Musk, 234.
Red, 225, 230.
Rein, 228.
Demoiselle Dragon Fly, 630.
Dendrophida?, 514.
Dendrosaura, 502.
Devil's Coach-horse, 615.
Dicaeum, Australian, 338.
Dipper, 369.
Diptera, 651.
Discophora, 677.
Diver, Great Northern, 473.
Dodo, 429.
Dog, Bull, 84.

King Charles's, 79.
Maltese, 79.
Mexican Lap, 80.
Newfoundland, 76.
Pomeranian, 78.
Prairie, 193.
Sheep, 81.
Dog-fish. Spotted. 534.
Dog-headed Monkeys. See Bab(X)ns.
Dolphin, 161.
Doris, 604.
Dormouse, 187.
Dory, John, 553.
Douroucouli. 35.
Dove, Ring. 427.
Stock, 426.

688

INDEX.

Dove, Turtle, 428.
Dragon, Flying, 501.
Dragon-fly, 628, 629.

Demoiselle, 630.
Duck, Barnacle, 662.
Duck-bill, 272.

Eider, 473.

Wild, 472.
Dziggetai, 246.

Eagle, Golden, 287.

Bald, or White-headed, 291.
Earth-worm, 670.
Earwig, Giant, 622.
Echidna, 274.
Echinidaa, 672.
Echinodermata, 671.
Edible Crab, 655.
Eel, Conger, 567.

Electric, 568.

Sharp-nosed, 565.
Eggs, Sea, 581.
Eider Duck, 473.
Eland, 215.

Elephant, African, 254.
Asiatic, 250.
Sea, 155.
Elk, 226.

Emerald Bird of Paradise, 390.
Emeu, 446.
Endive Coral, 679.
Entellus, 18.
Entomophaga, 633.
Eolis, 604.

Erd Shrew. See Shrew Mouse.
Ermine, 104.
Eumenes Arcuatus, 635.

Falco, 296.
Falcon, Jer, 296.

Peregrine, 297.
Stone, 300.
Falconida?, 287.
Falconinas, 296.
FelidEe, 50.
Fcnnec, 94.
Ferret, 101.
Fieldfare. 373.
Finches, 396.
Fishes, 529-533.

Flat, 561.

Flying, 572.

Star, 581.
Fishing Frog, 556.
Fishing Hawk. See Osprey.
Fissurellidse, 601.
Flamingo, 467.
Flea, 651.

Water, 650.
Flounder, 564.

Fly, Blister, or Spanish, 619.
Bot, 652.
Breeze, 652.

Fly, Caddis, 631.
Dragon, 628.
Great Crane, 651.
Humble Bee, 653.
May, 630.
Fly-catcher, Pied, 378.

Spotted, 376.
Flying Dragon, 501.
Fish, 572.
Fox, 48.
Mouse, 137.
Squids, 593.
Squirrel, 189.
Foraminifera, 682.
Fowl, Domestic, 437.
Fox, 91.

Arctic, 94.
Foxhound, 82.
Frigate Bird, 485.
Frog, 518.

Green, 520.
Pouched, 523.
Tree, 522.
Frog-hopper, 649.

Gadfly, 652.
Gallinfe, 430.
Gallinula, 466.
Gallinulin^, 466.
Gannet, 483.
Gasteropoda, 602.
Gazelle, 207.
Gecko, 498.

Ringed, 498.
Geissosaura, 496.
Gemsbok, 209.
Genett, Blotched, 72,
Geometridse, 646.
Gerboa, 185.
Gibbon, Agile, Id
Gibbons, 15.
Giraffe, 222.
Glow-worm, 618.
Gnoo, 213.
Goat, 218.

Cashmir, 219.
Goat-sucker, 314.
Goby, 555.
Golden Oriole, 375.
Goldfinch, 398.
Go-ld-fish, 577.
Goose, Bernicle. 468.

Mussel, 662.

Solan, 483.
Gorilla, 10.
Goshawk, 303.
Grantia Compressa. 589.
Grebe, Crested, 475.

Little, 474.
Greenfinch, 398.
Greyhound, 76.
Grivet, 21.
Grosbeak, 395.

INDEX.

689

Grouse, Black, 443,
Guanaco, 239.
Gudgeon, 578.
Guillemot, 478.
Guinea-fowl, 438.
Guinea-pig, 182.
Gull, Black- backed, 481,
Gurnard, Flying, 548.
Red, 548.

Hackee, or Ground Squirrel, 192.

Hag-fish, Glutinous, 585.

Hammatocerus, 651.

Hamster, 170.

Hare, 182.

Harp-shell, Imperial, 597.

Hawfinch, 396.

Hedgehog, 131.

Hedge Sparrow, 362,

Helicidse, 602.

Helix, 602.

Hen Harrier, 306.

Hermit Crab, 657.

Heron, 454.

Herring, 669, 570.

Heterocera, 639.

Heteroptera, 650.

Hippopotamus, 265.

Hobby, 298.

Hog, Bush, 259.

Domestic, 257.
Homo, 7.
Homoptera, 648.
Honey-Eaters, 339.
Hoopoe, 336.
Hopper, Scarlet, 649.
Hoppers, 648.
Hornbill, Rhinoceros, t08.
Horn wrack, 611,
Horse, 240.

Arab, 241.
Race, 242.
River, 265.
Sea, 581.
Hound, Blood, 80.
Fox, 82.
Grey, 76,
Howler, Ursine, 33.
Humble-bee Fly, 653.
Humming-bird, Bar-tailed, 343.

Copper-bellied Puff-leg,

Cora, 343.

Double- created, 343.

Gould's, 343.

Ruby and Topaz, 346.

Ruby-throated, 347.

Slender Shear-tail, .343.

Spangled Coquette, 346

Vervain, 347.

White- booted Racket-
343.
Hunting Cat. See Chetah.
Hyaena, 68,
58*

344.

tail,

Hyalea, 604.
Hydroida, 680.
Hydrometra, 650.
Hydrometridee, 650.
Hylas Moth, 642.
Hymenoptera, 632.
Hyponomeutidne, 647,
Hyrax, African, 265.
Syrian, 265.

Ibex, 217.
Ibis, Glossy, 460,
Sacred, 460,
Ichneumon, 73.

Giant, 633.

Indian, 75,
Ichneumon-fly, 633.
Ichneumonidae, 633.
Iguana, 500.

Imperial Harp-shell, 595,
Indri. See Avahi.
Insecta, 612.
Insectivora, 122.
Invertebrata, 589.

Jacana, 465,
Jackal, 88.

Jackass, Laughing, 329.
Jackdaw, 386.
Jaguar, 57.
Jay, 381.
Jellv Fishes, 677.
Jer-Falcon, 296.
John Dory, 553.
Jungle Fowl, Austrian, 431.
Bankiva, 437.

Kahau, 18.

Kanchil, or Pigmy Musk I)eer, 235.

Kangaroo, 141.

Rat, 143.
Kestrel, 301.
Kiang, 247.
Kingfisher, .329, 330.
Kinkajou, 121.
Kite, 293.

Swallow-tailed, 295.
Klip Das, 265.
Koala, 140.
Koodoo, 214.

Kookaam. See Gemsbok.
Koulan. See Dzigcf.tai.
Kuda-Ayer. See Tapir, Malayan.
Kukang, 41.

Lac Tnsfct, 649.
Ladybirds, 621.
Lamantine, 165.
Lanimcrgeyer, 279.
Lampern, 584.
Lami)rey, 582, 583.
Lancelet, 585.
Landrail, 379,

2T

690

INDEX.

Lanidae, 379.

Laninae, 379.

Lapwing, 451.

Lark, Sky, 404.

Laughing Jackass, 329.

Leadbeater's Cockatoo, 417.

Leaf Insect, 625.

Leech, 670.

Lemming, 172.

Lemur, Flying, 44.

RuflFed, 40.
Lemurs, 39.
Leopard, 54.

Hunting, 54.
Lepidoptera, 638.
Libellulidje, 628.
Limacida?, 603.
Limngea, 603.
Limpets, 601.
Linnet, 399.
Lion, 50.

Ant, 630.
Litorinidae, 600.
Little Chain, 609.
Lizard, Sand, 495.

Scaly, 494.

Tree, 502.
Llama, 238.
Lobster, 658.
Locust, Migratory, 624.
Long-nosed Bandicoot, 145.
Loris, Slender, 40.

Slow-paced, 41.
Lynx, 63.

Canada, 64.
Lyre-bird, 350.

Macaques, 22.

Macaque, JBlack, 24.

Macaw, Blue-and-Yellow, 412.

Mackerel, 549, 550.

Macropidao, 136.

Magilus, 597.

Magot, 23.

Magpie, 388.

Maiadae, 654.

Mallard, 472.

Maltese Dog, 79.

Mammalia, 9.

Man, 7.

Manatee, 165.

Mandrill, 26.

Manis, 267.

Mapach. See Racoon.

Marikina, 36.

Marimonda, 30.

Marmoset, 37.

Marmot, 195.

Marsupialia, 136.

Marten, Pine, 96.

Martin, Fairy, 322.

House, 324.

Sand, 323.

Mastiff, 86.

Mat, Sea, 610.

May-fly, 630.

Meadow Pipit, 368,

Meantia, 526.

Medusae, 677.

Menipea Fuguensis, 610.

Menura. See Lyre-Bird.

Merlin, 299.

Mexican Lapdog, 80.

Miller's Thumb, 547.

Mink, 101.

Minnow, 580.

Mocking Bird, 371.

Mole, 122.

Rat, 196.
MoUusca, 589.
Molluscs, Shore, 600.
Monkey, Avahi, 42.

Aye-Aye, 43.

Black Macaque, 24,

Black Yarke, 35.

Capucin, 34.

Chacma, 25,

Coaiti, 29.

Calugo, 44,

Douroucouli, 35.

Entellus, 18,

Green, 22,

Grivet, 21,

Kukang, 41.

Magot, 23,

Mandrill, 26,

Marikina, 36,

Marimonda, 30.

Papion, 28,

Proboscis, 18.

Ruflfed Lemur, 40.

Slender Loris, 40.

Spider, 29.

Tarsier, 42.

Ursine Colobus, 20.

Ursine Howler, 33.

Vervet, 22,

"Wanderoo, 23.

White-nose, 20,
Moongus, 74,

Moor Hen. See Water Hen.
Moose, or Elk, 226,
Moschine Deer, 234,
Moth, Clear-wing, 643.
Death's-head, 641,
Goat, 643.
House-builder, 646.
Humming-bird, 642.
Hylas, 642,
Lime Hawk, 640,
Lunar Hornet Clear-wing, 643.
Swallow-tailed, 647.
Tiger, 645.
White-plume, 647,
Wood Leopard, 644.
Mouse, 168.

INDEX.

691

Mouse, Flying, 137.

Harvest, 169.

Short-tailed Field, 172.

Yellow-footed Pouched, 147.
Mullingong, 272.
Murex, 595.
Muricidge. 595.
Musk Deer, 2;U.
Ox, 206.

Rat. See SoxnELi.
Musquash, or Musk Rat, 176.
Mussel, Edib.e, 607.
Mustela, 96.
Myriapoda, 668.
Myrmecobius, 147
Myxine, 585.

Nauica, 121.
Narwhal, 162.
Natterjack, 522.
Nautilus, Paper, 590.

the Chambered, 594.
Necrophaga, 616.
Nennook. See Polar Bear.
Nepidte, 650.
Neptune's Cup, 683.
Neritinse, 5.99.
Neritina, Spined, 599.
Neuroptera, 626.
Newfoundland Dog, 76.
Newt, 524.

Crested, 524-526.
Nightingale, 357.
Nudibranchidae, 604.
Nurek Vison. See Mink.
Nuthatch, 349.
Nut Weevil, 620.
Nyctisaura, 498.
Nylghau, 216.
Nymphalidas, 639.

Ocelot, 59.
Octopodidae, 592.
Octopus, 592.
Oculinidee, 679.
OcypodidjB, 656.
(Estridse, 652.
Oil Beetle, 619.
Ommastrephes, 593.
Ondatra. See Musquash.
Ophidia, 504.
Opossum, 148.

Merian's, 149.

Mouse, 137.

Virginian, 148.
Orang-Outan, 13.
Orchestidas, 660.
Oreosoma, 545.
Oriole, Golden, 375.
Orthoptera, 622.
Ortolan, 403.
Oryx, 210.
Osprey, 289.

Ostrich, 445.
Otter, 110.

Chinese, 111.
Ouistiti. See Marmoset.
Ounce, 56.
Ousel, Water, 369.
Owl, Barn, 312.

Brown or Tawny, 311.

Coquimbo, or 15 n\uwing, 309.

Scops Eared, 31 J.

Snowy, 308.

Virginian eared, 310.
Ox, 198.

Grunting. 206.

Musk, 206.
Oyster, 605.

Pearl, 606.

Pachydermata, 248.

Pachyglossae, 498.

Paco. See Alpaca.

Palajornis, 410.

Paper Nautilus, 590,

Pajtilionidte, 639.

Papion, 28.

Paradise, Emerald Bird of, 390.

Parinte, 363.

Parrakeet, Ringed, 410.

Zebra, or Warbling Grass, 41]
Parrot, Carolina, 413.
Gray, 413.
Green, 415.
Partridge, 439.
Pavonid*, 432, 433.
Peacock, 432.

Butterfly, 639,
Peccary, 260.
Pedieulati, 557.
Peewit, 451.
Pelecanidge, 484.
Pelecaninae, 484.
Pelecanus, 484.
Pelican, White, 484.
Penguin, Cape. 478.
Pen-tail, 131.
Perch, 542,

Climbing, 559.

Crappie, 543.

Yellow-barred, 543.
Perdicinae. 439.
Perdix, 439.
Peregrine Falcon, 297.
Periwinkle. 600.
Petaurus. Ariel, 138.
Petrel, Fulmer, 481.

Stormy, 479.
Phalangistines, 137.
Phasianidae, 434.
Phasianinac, 434.
Phasianus, 434.
Phatagin, 267.
Pheasant. 'r-.6.

Argus, 435.

692

INDEX.

Pheasant-shells, 6r0.

Shell, Australian, 001.
Philanthus trianguluni, 6o4.
Phocidfc, 151.
Pholades, 608.
Pholas. 608.

Physaiis. See Portuguese Man-op-War.
Picidae. 418.
Picin*, 418.
Pieridai, 6;^9.
Piddock, 608.
Pigeon, Band-tailed, 425.

Blue Rock, 428.

Crowned, 429.

Domestic, 428.

Passenger, 425.

Wood, 427.
Pigmy Petaurist. See Opossum Mouse.
Pike, 57;».
Pilchard, 571.
Pinnated Grouse, 443.
Plaice, 563.

Platypus. See Mullingong.
Pleuronectid*, 561.
Podophthalmata, 653.
Poe Bird, 339.
Pointer, 82.
Polecat, 99.
Polyzoa, 609.
Pomeranian Fox Dog, 78.
Poodle, 79.
Porcupine, 177.

Canadian, 179.
Porifera, 682.
Porpoise, 163.

Portuguese Man-of-War, 675.
Potto. See KiNKAJOU.
Poyou. See Armadillo.
Prairie Dog, 193.
Prawn, 660.
Proboscis Monkey, 18.
Proteus, 526, 527.
Psyllidai, 649.
Pteropoda, 604.
Putf Adder, 508.
Puffin, 476.
Puma, 57.
Pyrrhulinae, 405.

QUADRUMANA, 9.

Quagga, 247.

Quail, 440.

Quata. See Coaita.

Rabbit, 183.

Rock, 265.
Racehorse, 242.
Racoon, 118.
Radiata, 671.
Rat, 167.

Bay Bamboo, 187.

Brown, 167.

Coast, 197.

Rat, Kangaroo, 143.

Mole, 196.

Musk, 176.

Water, 171.
Ratel, Honey, 105.
Rattle-snake, 506.
Raven, 383.

Razor-shell, Common, 607.
Redbreast, 301.
Red Deer, 230.
Redstart, 359.
Reduviidge, 650.
Rcduvius personatus, 651.
Reindeer, 228.
Reptilia, 487.
Rhea, 447.

Rhinoceros Hornbill, 408.
Rhinoceros, Indian, 262.

Little Black, 263.
Two-horned, 264.
White, 264.
Rhinophryne, 523.
Rhizopoda, 681.
Rhopalocera, 639.
Ring-dove. 427.
Ritck. See Syrian Bear.
Roach, 579.
Rock-fish, 555.
Rock-scorpion, 667.
Rodents, 166.
Roebuck, 233.
Rollers, 326.

' Garrulous, 326.
Rook, 385.
Rotifera, 680, 681.
Roussette. See Flying Fox.
Rove Beetle, 615.
Ruff, 462.

Ruffed Grouse, 444.
Rufi'ed Lemur, 40.

Sable, 98.

Saki, Black-headed. See Cacajou.

White-headed. See Black Yarke.
Salam^inder, 524.
Salicornaria farciminoides, 610.
Sallee Man, 675.
Salmon, 574, 575.
Sandhopper, 660.
Sand Martin, 323.
Sand Mole, 197.
Sand Wasps, 634.
Satin Bower Bird, 391.
Saw-fish, 537.
Saw-flies, 632.
Scallop, 605.
Scansores, 407.
Scarlet Admiral, 640.
Scarlet-hopper, 649.
Scolopendra, 608.
Scomberidai, 549.
Scorpion, Rock, 667.
Water, 650.

INDEX.

693

Sea Anemone, 678.

Hog. See Porpoise.

Horse, 681.

Mat, 610.

Nettles, 583.

Snails, 599.

Unicorn. See Narwhal.

Urchins, 672.

Wolf, 558.
Seal, 151.

Elephant, 155.
Secretary Bird, 305.
Sepia, Common, 591.
Webbed, 591.
Sepiola, 593.
Serpents, Tree, 514.
Serpula contortuplicata, 669.
Sertulariadfe, 680.
Sessile-eved Crustacea, 660.
Shark, White, 536.

Hammer-headed, 536.
Sheep, 219. '

Spanish or Merino, 220.
Sheep-dog, 83.
Shetland Pony, 245.
Ship-worm, 608.
Shore Molluscs, 600.
Shrew Elephant, 130.
Water, 127.
Oared, 128.
Shrew Mouse, 126.
Shrike, Red-backed, 380.
Shrimp, 659.
Simpai, 17.
Sirenia, 165.
Siskin, 400.
Skate, Common, 540.

Thornback, 539.
Skinks, 496.
Skunk, 107.
Skylark, 404.
Slender Loris, 40.
Slobbers. See Jelly-fishes.
Sloth, 274.

Slow-paced Loris, 41.
Slowworm, 496.
Slug, Great Gray, 603.
Snail, Common, 602.
Edible, 602.
Water or Pond, 603.
Snake, Rattle, 506.
Ringed, 513.
Snipe, 463.
Snowy Owl, 308.
Solan Goose, 483.
Soldier Crab, 657.
Sole, 561.
Solenidae, 607.
Solitary Wasps, 635.
Sontleli, 126.
Spangled Coquette, 346.
Spaniel, Field, 78.
Water, 80.

Sparrow, 401.

hawk, 304.
hedge, 362.
Sphingidie, 640.
Spider, Crab, 654.
Spider Crabs, 654.

Garden or Cross, 667.
Trap-door, 664.
Water, 664.
Spined Neritina, 599.
Sponges, 682, 683.
Spoonbill, 457.
Spotted Hyaena, 70.
Springbok, 208.
Squid, Little, 593.
Squinado, 654.
Squirrel, 188.

English, 190.
Flying, 188.
Ground, 192.
Jelerang, or Javan, 189.
Stag Beetle, 617.
Staphvlinidae, 615.
Star- fishes, 673, 674
Starling, 392.
Starlings, 391.
Steinbok, 217.
Stickleback, 641.
Stoat, 104.
Stock-dove, 426.
Stork, 458.
Striped Hygena, 69.
Strobilosaura, 499.
Sturgeon, 533.
Sucking-fish, 552.
Sun-Bears, 116.

Bird, Collared, 337.
Birds, 337.

Javanese, 338.
Fish, 580.

American, 681.
Swallow, Common, 320.
■ Esculent, 319.
Sea, 481.

Tailed Butterfly, 638.
Tailed Kite, 295.
Swan, 469.

Black, 470.
Whistling, 469.
Swift, 317.
Swine, 257.

Fish, 558.
Sword-fish, 554.
Syrian Bear, 115.

Tabanid^, 652.

Tadpoles, 519.

Taguan, 188.

Tailor-bird, 354.

Tajacu, 260.

Talpidse, 122.

Talpina, 122.

Tamanoir, or Ant-Bear, 270.

694

INDEX.

Tapir, 256.

American, 256.
Malayan, 256.
Tapirus, 256.
Tarsier, 42.
Teal, 472.
Teledu, 107.
Tench, 578.
Tenthidae, 592.
Tenthredinidse, 632.
Termes, Bellicosus, 626.
Termites, 626
Tern, Common, 481.
Terebrantia, 6.S3.
Terrapins, 490.
Terrier, English, 87.

Skye, 87.
Tetrabranchiata, 593.
Thrush, Missel, 372.

Song, 374.
Thysanoptera, 626.
Tiger, 52.

Wolf, 70.
Tiger Moth, 645.
Beetle, 613.

Eight-spot, 614.
Tipulidae, 651.
Titmice, 363.
Titmouse, Blue, 365.
Great, 363.
Long-tailed, 365.
Toad, 520.
Tody, Green, 327.
Top, Common, 601.
Torpedo, 538.
Tortoise, Land, 490.

Chicken, 491.
Tota. See Grivet.
Toucan, Toco, 409.
Trap-door Spider, 573.
Tree Serpents, 514.
Trichoptera, 631.
Triglidae, 547.
Trochilidse, 340.
Trochilus, 340.
Trogonidfc, 327.
Trogon, Resplendent, 328.
Tropic Bird, 482.
.Trout, 576.

Trumpeter, Golden-breasted, 452.
Tunny, 551.
Turbot, 562.
Turkey, 437.

Brush, 432.

Buzzard. See Vulture, Carrion.
Turritcllida?, 599.
Turtle, Hawksbill, 491.

Green, 492.
Turtle-dove, 428.

Univalves, 594.
Upupa, 336.
Upupidae, 335.

Urchin. See Hedgehog.

Urchins, Sea, 672.

Ursine Baboon. See Chacma.

Colobus, 20.

Howler, 33.
Urson. See Porcupine, Canadian.

Vampire Bat, 46.
Venus's Comb, 596.

Girdle, 676.
Vertebrata, 7.
Vervet, 22.
Vespidae, 635.
Vicugna, 238.
Viper, 508.

Horned, 508.
Viperidae, 508.
Viperina, 508.
Vulpes, 92.

Vulpine Phalangist, 138.
Vulture, Alpine or Egyptian, 286.

Arabian, 286.

Bearded, 279.

Carrion, 285.

Fulvous or Griffin, 283.

King, 281.

Wagtail, Pied, 367.
Walking Fish, 557.
Walrus, or Morse, 153,
Wanderoo, 23.
Warbler, Blackcap, 357.
Warblers, 354.
Wasp, 635.
Wasps, Sand, 634.

Solitary, 635.
Wood, 634.
Water Hen, 466.

Ousel, 369.

Shrew, 127.'

Spaniel, 80.

Spiders, 664.

Vole, or Rat, 171.
Weasel, Common, 102.
Weasels 96.

Weaver Bird, Sociable, 394, 395.
Weevil, 620.
Wentletrap, Staircase or Precious, 599.

Common or False, 600.
Whale, 156.

Greenland, 157.

Spermaceti, 159.
Whaup. See Curlew.
Wheatear, 359.
Wheel Animalcules, 680, 681.
Whelk, 596.
Whip-poor-will, 310.
White Bear. See Polar Bear.
White-headed Saki. See Black Yarke.
White-nose Monkey, 20.
Widgeon, 470.
Wild Cat, 62.
Wish-ton-wish. See Prairie Dog.

INDEX.

695

Wolf, 90.
Wolverene, 106.
Wolves, 89.
Wombat, 143.
Woodcock, 464.

Thorny, 595.
Woodlouse, 661.

Armadillo, 661.
Pill, 661.
Woodpecker, Dovvnv, 420.

Great Black, 424.

Great Spotted, 419.

Green, 422.

Lesser Spotted, 422.

Lewis's, 419.

Northern Three-toed, 422.

Red-bellied, 421.
Wood Pigeon, 427.
Wood Wasps, 6;U.
Worm, Ship, 608.

Wren, .353.

Fire-crested, 356.

Golden-crested, 355.
Wrens, 350.
Wryneck, 422.

Yak, 206.

Yamraa. See Llama.

Yarke, Black, 35.

Yellow-footed Pouched Mouse, 147

Yellow Hammer, 402, 403.

Youze. See Chetah.

Zebra, 247.

Parrakeet, 411.
Zebu, 200.

Zerda. See Fennec.
Zoophytes, 677.

Bell, 587.

THK END.

,-l^

^- yVt

'>-ri

>.

'° ' , -

1 ,''

'>■* , '

•>-

' <•■• '.V'' ^ '

\^S^:y-

I. t.'

- TV'.. > ' ',■'■- "Ci

^^N\>

^%«