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FARM-POULTRY SERIES. No. 5.

A TEXT-BOOK FOR POULTRY KEEPERS.

FuLtity ILLUSTRATED.

WVIAAT LO WoO.

HOV TO DO ite:

BY /

JOHN H. ROBINSON.

Completely Indexed for the Convenience of Busy People.

/ PUBLISHED BY
I. S. JOHNSON & CO., Bosron, Mass.
1899.

7667
Copyright, 1899,
BY
1. S. JOHNSON & CO.,
BOSTON, MASS.

SECOND COPY,

Press of S. G. Robinson, 257 Atlantic Ave., Boston.

> Ooo3gr4
TVA 9. 3-33)

PR EE AiG Ee

For those who want to know about poultry keeping, for those who wish
to learn poultry keeping, and for poultry keepers who cannot always
remember things they know at the moment they happen to need them, this
book was written: to the small army of writers of permanent and current
poultry literature, nearly every one of whom has tn some way contributed
to tts making, tt ts respectfully dedicated.

The growing interest in fine fowls and the widening of the field of profit-
able operations in poultry culture have created a demand for a book which
will give to one who thinks of engaging in poultry keeping an intelligent
understanding of its possibilities and probabilities, whether for pleasure or
profit, and a comprehensive idea of the ways and means of production and
distribution of this country’s enormous crops of poultry and eggs. Following
this demand comes another, for a book of elementary instruction in all branches
of poultry keeping. Separate books to meet these demands would be, in large
part, duplicates, because before beginning it is necessary one should know,
though superficially, many things which afterward he must learn thoroughly
if his work with poultry is to be successful. With systematic, logical arrange-
ment of the text, and with a complete carefully prepared index it was possible
to make a book of information for inquirers and instruction for beginners, also
a book for ready reference on poultry topics. There has long been pressing
need of such a book. For years the publishers have had frequent calls for a
book to which a poultry keeper could go for information on any and every
matter, and find it in an instant.

It is, perhaps, superfluous to say of such a book that it is essentially a com-
pilation. This is measurably true even of the matter not credited to other
writers. My work has been to condense and put in conYénient form infor-
mation which by reason of its abundance and the multitude of its sources has
not been available for those who needed it most,—to give, as it were, the
composite opinion of sometimes conflicting authorities on each matter treated.
That conclusions should invariably be correct and every estimate unaffected
by his personal opinion, would be more than a writer could hope, and more
than a reader ought to expect; but, as I have endeavored to state each subject

iv. PITA CLs.

treated fairly, honestly, and (as I believe) in accordance with the best interests
of those for whom the book is written, I feel confident that no one of them
will find in it statements that will mislead, or advice which he will follow to ~
his disadvantage and loss.

The matter of credits for borrowed matter in a book composed as this is,
requires particular mention. Only a few of the more important direct quo-
tations are fully credited. Matter which has been adapted, condensed, and
rearranged in harmony with the scheme of the work, is credited generally to
the author only —the name of the paper or book from which it is taken not
being added, because in a number of cases a short paragraph is compiled from
statements of the same writer in several different books and papers, and to
give each paper credit would have detracted too much from the simplicity of
statement sought. Food rations taken from contributions of writers describing
the methods of others, are credited to the persons using the rations.

For the rest, while acknowledging a general indebtedness to the poultry
literature of the day, I would here acknowledge special indebtedness to the
books and paper consulted most :—to Poultry Culture, Felch; The Practical
Poultry Keeper, Wright; Poultry, McFetridge; Jucubation and Its Natu-
ral Laws, Cyphers; The Practical Poultry Grower, Myrick; Brozlers for
Profit, and A Living From Poultry, Boyer; Duck Culture, Rankin; Farm-

_ Poultry Doctor, Sanborn; to files of Harm- Poultry for the views of a great
number of writers on almost every topic treated; to the Relzable Poultry
Journal for matter pertaining to many subjects, but especially for information
relating to the mating of thoroughbred fowls, and to turkeys, ducks, and geese ;
to the American Fancier, Poultry Monthly, American Poultry Journal, and
Poultry Herald for many valuable suggestions; and to various national and
state bulletins for information regarding foods and feeding.

The illustrations not otherwise credited were made for this book, or are
reproduced from Farm- Poultry.

Joun H. Ropinson.

Waltham, Mass., 1899.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

PouLtry KEEPING AND PouULTRY KEEPERS - : yu 2 7

CHARA DR:

LocaTION — SITUATION = 3 = H 2 Z 17

OUUMEIN Ae NOH,

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Fowts DESCRIBED = - - : 2 zs Pero

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(Cisbavestialas: WINE

ScIENCE IN PoULTRY FEEDING ° 5 s = Tog

Vi. CONTENTS.

CEAEABIRESXe

Ecc PRODUCTION y s i

CHAPTER Xe

PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING — SELECTION AND CARE OF BREEDING

STock J 5 = : ‘

(CBU IN BIR. I

HATCHING AND REARING CHICKS = :

CHART ERG:

SELLING LOULTRY AND EGGS: = = :

CEPA ABER cles

EXHIBITING POULTRY - - Js =

CEEAP TERY Savi

DISEASES, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES OF FOWLS

CHAPTER XV.

BANTAMS - £ z Ps aay a
CENA EIR ovale
TURKEYS s * 2 sae 2)
CHAPTER XVII.
IDWS ~~ = és Ss 2 et
CEVAPRARE Re xevslilale
GEESE - = = - : =

PouLtTRY PAPERS C = 2

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ry

144

165

186

203

209

POULTRYICRAPYT.

CHAPTER I.

Poultry Keeping and Poultry Keepers.

1. Classification.— Business and pleasure are often combined in poultry
keeping. This, and the complexity of the relations of the different branches
of the industry, makes a classification of poultry keepers difficult. The out-
line presented here will, however, give the reader at a glance an idea of the
relations of the different branches to each other, and of the principal com-
binations which occur.

~ As a business. Market poultry.
, Lor Profit. As an employment. ( High class breeding
PouLTRY As an investment. and exhibition stock.
KEEPING. | ( For family use.
be Pleasure.

For exhibition:
For fancy.

2. Poultry Keeping as a Business.— This is poultry keeping as
carried on by those who invest in it their capital and give it their time. The
last mentioned condition distinguishes it from poultry keeping as an invest-
ment. Only in recent years has poultry keeping taken a place among
recognized industries. The bulk of the country’s enormous crop of poultry
products comes from many hundreds of thousands of small producers. The
number of poultry keepers making a living from the production of eggs and
poultry is very small compared with the great number of small producers,
but is rapidly increasing. To make the business successful a man must be an
expert in the management of fowls, and must have good business judgment,
with enough business training to make him accurate, methodical and prompt
in his work and dealings. Many of the successful poultrymen of today were
not experts when they began. Many learned business methods as their
establishments grew. One who would make such examples of success the
excuse for giving his capital, time and labor to an occupation he does not
understand should remember that, when these men began, the problem of
profitably keeping fowls in large numbers had not been solved, and successes
with fowls in small numbers were mostly matters of chance. With rare
exceptions they began with very limited capital. Lack of capital made it

8 POUL TRY-CRAFT.

quite impossible for their plants to grow beyond their ability to manage them.
These men were pioneers in poultrying. The records of their progress are
found in modern books on poultry, and in the files of the poultry journals.
The results of their work may be seen in up-to-date poultry plants, and in the
methods in use on such plants. The beginner of today finds sources of
information and instruction to which his predecessors could not resort. He
would be foolish, indeed, not to take advantage of such opportunjties. A
man should learn the bustness before engaging tn tt on hts own account.
Books and papers are within the reach of all. Practical instruction is more
difficult to obtain—the difficulty being to some extent due to the fact that
those who want instruction are so often unwilling to pay for it. Too many
have thought a few months of their unskilled labor on a poultry farm would
amply pay for time devoted to teaching them, for losses and damages due to
their inexperience, and for the opportunity to draw at will on the accumulated
knowledge of an expert poultryman. Those qualified to give instruction will
not take pupils on such terms.

3. How Much Income. — Business Risks.— A living from poultry 1s
surer to one who makes it his business than are profits from poultry to one
investing in a poultry plant to be conducted by another. To give a definite
idea of the amount to be annually realized from a plant of any given capacity,
would be as impossible as to estimate in advance the annual profits in any
business. People do make such estimates; but, how often are they right? It
may be said, however, that except in a few rare instances, poultry keeping is
not a lucrative business. Very few poultrymen are making more than a good
living. Whether one can make a living from poultry, will depend on his fit-
ness for the business, his judgment in choosing a location, and on the effects
of influences by which, like every other business, this is affected. The poul-
try keeper is subject to all ordinary business risks. Those who go into this
business should not fail to consider; that,

Success, the success that brings a living from poultry, means work —
hand work, head work, and hard work. ‘This is a condition not peculiar to
poultry keeping ; that,

Prices fluctuate, and profits vary accordingly ; and that,

Causes beyond a man’s control may cause his fatlure, or delay hts success.

Those points need to be emphasized, because of some serious misconcep-
tions which have arisen in regard to poultry keeping as compared with other
businesses. It is unique in some respects, but not in being exempt from
influences affecting business in general.

4. More About Profits.—More detailed statements concerning profits
can now be given. Having read the last paragraph, no one need misunder-
stand the statements in this. Experienced poultrymen know about what they
can count on under favorable circumstances. They also know how to make

POULTRI-CRAFT. 9

the best of unfavorable circumstances. If they see loss coming in one place
they make special efforts to offset it by securing extra profit in another. The
average profit on eggs, at market prices, is one dollar per year per hen. This
is what a skilled poultryman considers a safe figure. One dollar a head is
approximately what skill secures from large flocks—for eggs alone. The
best authority on broilers places the average profit per bird at not over twenty
cents. On eggs for hatching, sold at two dollars a sitting, the profit will
rarely exceed a dollar a sitting; often will not reach that figure. A breeder
whose trade is in stock birds selling at one to five dollars per head, will aver-
age about two dollars per bird. If he has managed his stock right nearly all
of this will be profit. It is easily seen that at these figures there is no ‘‘ big

b

money” in the business. In fact, in market poultry alone one does not find
it easy to make a living unless his plant is large and much of the work is done
by cheap labor. The profitable combination for a small plant is one which
with a stock of thoroughbred poultry averaging for the year three hundred to
four hundred hens, yields a profit of $300 to $400 for market eggs; about
$100 for eggs for hatching; $150 to $200 for market poultry; and $200 to
$300 for breeding stock —in all $750 to $1,000. Something like this is what
a fairly skillful poultryman without special reputation as a breeder of high
class stock may expect from a plant on which he can do all the work, and
which, if he constructs the buildings himself, will cost anywhere from $1,000
to $1,500 in addition to the cost of the land and the first cost of the stock. It
is not safe to figure an income on the basis of the large profits sometimes
reported for single flocks, or for a season’s work under exceptionally favorable
conditions. Nor is it wise for a beginner to count on profits as large as those
of the more successful poultryman, which are often much greater than the
figures here given. When one begins to see the big prices and big profits
coming his way it is time enough to begin estimates with the big figures.

Though not to be used as bases of estimates, the prices of high class stock
merit attention as showing what is possible when ability to breed good stock,
and reputation as a breeder, have been acquired. Prices for eggs range from
$3 to $5 per sitting; $5, $10, $15, are quite common prices for fowls for
breeding and for the smaller exhibitions. Prices of birds ‘* fit” for the larger
shows range from the figures given up to $25, $35, $50, $100. Single birds
have been sold as high as $250. Just how much of these various amounts is
profit, it is not possible to even approximately average, for this class of
breeders never make their accounts public as market poultry men so often do.
The expenses of exhibiting and advertising are considerable. Yet the pro-
portion of profit to price is greater than when sales are made at small figures,
and, generally, the higher the price the greater the proportion of profit. To
the limited number who can get these prices, poultry keeping, whether an
exclusive business, a side issue, or a recreation, is very profitable. The
beginner, while disregarding them in his present calculations, may look
forward to them as the rewards of special ability.

IO POCL TRIACRATT.

5. Is There Danger of Overdoing the Business ? — The United States
imports annually about one million dozens of eggs. This fact is often cited
to show that the business is in no danger of being overdone. It is assumed
that, as long as eggs are imported the domestic supply must be inadequate.
A comparison of the amount of imports with the total home product, shows
that this assumption is a fallacy. A million dozen is less than one-tenth of
one per cent of the (estimated) total annual egg crop. In effect the nation
produces all the poultry and eggs it uses, and consumes all it produces. Dur-
ing a considerable portion of each year the markets are glutted with stock of
inferior quality. The kind of poultry keeping which produces such stock is
already overdone. On the other hand, the demand for stock of superior
quality is in advance of the supply, and there is every reason to believe that
this condition will continue for a long time. <A poultryman making a wise
choice of location with reference to this demand, and producing articles of the
grade it calls for, need have no fears of overstocking his market. In the trade
in breeding and exhibition stock, conditions are different. Successful sales
depend much on reputation and skillful advertising. Lacking these, breeders
often fail to sell really fine stock of varieties in good demand.

6. Comparison of the Different Branches of Poultry Keeping.
Attention has already been called to the advisability of combining branches
of the industry. As a matter of fact, poultry keepers doing an exclusive
business cannot keep to one branch. A living from poultry requires com-
binations, and some branches depend on others. The egg farmer who rears
his layers, as nearly all do, has large quantities of poultry to sell. The
broiler farmer who produces on his own plant the eggs for his incubators —
and this is the only way to get reliable eggs in quantity — has eggs to sell
during a part of the year. Besides, broiler raising is a business for a season.
It has never been made profitable on a large scale as an exclusive business.
In connection with an egg farm, or as winter employment for those whose
regular occupation leaves them idle in winter, it pays. Sales of eggs for
hatching are limited to a few months in the spring. The bulk of the trade in
breeding stock is done in the first three months of the year. Expenses keep
steadily on through every twelvemonth. So it comes about that, though one
may start business intending to confine himself to a single branch, he is
obliged to make a combination like that suggested in 44, in order to
handle his stock to best advantage and have a regular income. He may give
relatively more or less attention to the various branches than is suggested
there, but that combination, in some proportions, is the one to which a
poultry business, large or small, inevitably tends.

7. Poultry Keeping as an Adjunct of Another Business.— The
ereater number of those deriving a considerable income from poultry keeping

conduct it as an adjunct of another business, as farming, fruit growing,

LO GLE, TEV CEA: II

gardening, dairying. The reasons for this are similar to those which lead to
diversified farming. It is often found that a stock of poultry can be handled,
in connection with some other occupation, with greater profit than would
come from giving more attention to the other occupation, or from an exclusive
poultry business. A good example is where a milkman finds his income too
small for his living, and the demand for milk not great enough to justify
increasing his herd. In sucha case a man of judgment combines with his
established business another, profits from which will round out his income.
Poultry keeping is well adapted to such combinations, and is well worth the
consideration of anyone so situated that he must combine two occupations.
It should be added that such combinations ought to be made only in the
extreme cases; that is, where the business is so small that one can give per-
sonal supervision to every part of it; or where, as on some large stock or fruit
farms, there is an opportunity to keep fowls on ground used partly for other
purposes, and on a scale large enough to warrant the employment ofa skillful
poultryman. Attempts to combine poultry keeping with other occupations
when there is more work than the proprietor can personally co or oversee,
and less than will make it worth while to engage an expert poultryman,
almost uniformly result in losses.

8. Poultry Keeping as an Employment.
try keeping offers, to both skilled and unskilled labor, opportunities similar to

As an employment poul-

those afforded in other lines of animal and plant culture. Wages for skilled
labor vary, depending on the size of the plant, the ability of the man, the
amount of responsibility assumed. A fair average of the wages paid poultry-
men who attend to and partially supervise the work on a plant, but have noth-
ing to do with financial management, is $60 a month, or $40 and board.
Those who take complete management receive more — sometimes much more.
Unskilled laborers on poultry plants are paid, in any given locality, about the
same as farm and dairy hands in that locality. One wishing to estimate the
zs and outs of poultry keeping as an employment, may consider it in this
way: Ina year an expert poultryman will earn about the same as the average
mechanic of the same relative degree of skill. He will have steadier work at
a lower rate of wages, will work longer hours, have less leisure. There will
be little danger of his being at any time long out of work. The demand for
expert poultrymen is likely to continue in excess of the supply.

9. The Poultry Business as an Investment.— Many people are
looking to poultry keeping as an investment for surplus funds. The profit-
ableness of such ventures will depend —first, on the judgment shown in select-
ing a location, determining what branches of the business are to be followed,
and choosing a manager; next, though to a less extent than in the case of
one whose all is invested in his business, on the influence of the conditions
mentioned in §3. The man who has capital to back him can weather

12 POULTRY-CRAFT.

adverse storms which swamp the poultryman of limited means. No one
should invest money in a poultry plant until he has enough general knowledge
of the business to enable him to make an intelligent estimate of the advantages
and disadvantages of different locations, considered with reference to the
branch of the business to be followed; of the qualifications of applicants for
the position of manager; and, of the probabilities of his investment proving
satisfactory. Most of those who have made losing investments in poultry have
put their money out first, and acquired the knowledge that would have enabled
them to invest wisely afterward. Many have been led into rash ventures in
poultry keeping by the belief that large profits would be realized from the
outset. It usually requires several years to thoroughly equip a poultry plant
and place it on a paying basis. The history of most large plants shows that
this has been the case, even when abundance of capital was at command.
The man with capital makes large plans, which it requires time to carry out.
Practical poultry keeping as an investment must be on a large scale; on a
small scale, even a prosperous business could not be expected to do more than
make a living for the manager and his assistants. Some of the most profitable
plants of this class combine market and ‘‘ fancy” poultry breeding. There
are numerous instances of persons of means breeding fowls both for pleasure
and as an investment, taking a very active interest in the stock, but leaving
the actual management of the poultry in the hands of a manager. An invest-
ment of this kind is probably the most profitable that can be made. <A study
of the subject of poultry culture as set forth in this book will give a good basis
of knowledge of the matters one needs to know before investing. Further
information should be sought in current poultry journals. The information
derived from these sources should be supplemented by careful examinations of
up-to-date poultry plants, and a study of the conditions, both general and local,
of production and consumption of poultry products.

10. How to Learn Poultry Keeping. — Poultry keeping must be
learned just as any other trade is learned — preferably by going to work for a
poultryman. Opportunities to learn in this way are not numerous. One
finding such an opportunity must expect to begin as an apprentice or unskilled
laborer. If diligent and faithful to his employer’s interests, he will soon be
advanced to work involving responsibility and giving practice in poultry
management. While thus engaged he should be a close student of poultry
literature, and should make the most of every opportunity to visit the plants
and observe the methods of other poultrymen. This course is recommended
even for those who have the capital to put into a small plant. Two years of
practical work under a competent instructor are worth more to anyone than a
period twice as long passed in gaining experience independently. A very
important consequence of taking this course is that the man with small capital
risks none of it, (and may even add to what he had), before learning how to
use it to best advantage. After two years of practical work, a bright man of

POULTRY-CRAFT. 13

mature mind ought to be in a position to know how to make best use of his
capital, and also how to make a business which he managed alone or with a
little cheap help, pay expenses almost from the start. The course just
outlined is that by which expert knowledge and skill are obtained at least
expense. It is not always practicable. There are other ways. A partner-
ship may be formed with an expert poultryman who thus becomes his partner’s
instructor. An expert may be engaged for a time as manager and adviser.
After such arrangements as these the next best plan is to begin keeping fowls
in a small way, increasing the flock as ability to manage larger numbers
profitably is developed. In this one needs to be careful not to overstep the
limits his experience places to profitable work. To those who have the
capital the temptation to go too fast is very strong. Until one has thoroughly
mastered the elements of poultry keeping, until he is ‘“ fit” to succeed, he
ought to proceed as cautiously as if he had no capital but the profit from the
flock.*

11. Beginning With Small Capital.— Without Capital.— A poultry
business may be started on a very small capital, practically without capital, if
one has other occupation which, while furnishing the means of living, leaves
him time to properly care for his fowls. By careful management the gradually
increasing income from the flock may be added to the capital until the operations
are large enough to make poultrying the principal thing. The combination of
circumstances favoring a growth of this kind is rare. For those who think of
beginning in this way the caution: Be sure of your ground before making
any move involving expense, needs to be repeated. In small beginnings of
poultry keeping as an adjunct to dairying, gardening, etc., it is not usually
difficult to make time to care for the poultry, and the poultry plant can easily
make rapid growth. The important things in developing a plant begun in a
small way, are: |

Keep no more stock than can be given proper care.

Keep out of debt.

12. Poultry for Pleasure. —For Family Use.— When fowls are
kept for a definite purpose, and that not the profit to be made from them, it is
not wrong to say they are kept for pleasure. This statement holds good even
when fowls primarily kept for pleasure afford some profit. Most ‘+ family ”
hens are kept for pleasure, the pleasure their owners get from producing their

* Notre. — Those who, wishing to learn poultry keeping, do not meet favorable oppor-
tunities, are advised that it is in their power to materially assist the movement for special
instruction in poultry keeping at the agricultural colleges. This they can do by showing
those in charge of these institutions that a strong demand for such instruction exists.
At the Rhode Island State Agricultural College a course of study in poultry culture was
given in January, 1898. This was designed as the initial step in a movement to make
instruction in poultry keeping a feature of the work of that college. Other states will
follow the example of Rhode Island as fast as those interested make it clear that a course,
once established, will be sustained.

14 LEO GSE STEIN CIROAID IL

own eggs and poultry, and having these articles strictly and reliably fresh. In
many instances family hens are froma dollars and cents standpoint unprofitable.
It costs more to produce the eggs and poultry used than it would to buy them —
a state of affairs for which there is no good excuse, for very little skill in
handling fowls is required to make such small flocks pay their way. Not
many families are so situated that, wishing to keep a few fowls, they are unable
to do so. As will be shown in succeeding chapters, there are breeds of fowls
specially suited to close quarters. A little plot of ground, a little poultry
house, a little flock of hens, and a little love for domestic animals, make a
combination which will give the poor man in a city, at trifling cost, luxuries
for which his rich neighbor is glad to pay liberally.

13. Poultry for Pleasure.—For Exhibition. —For Fancy. —
Though not the most important, this is the most prominent feature of poultry
interests. It is so intimately associated with the business of breeding high
class stock that it would puzzle many breeders to say whether they were in
poultry for fancy or for business. The majority of fanciers, however, are in
‘the fancy” for pleasure. Pleasure means to one, winning at the exhibitions ;
to another, the possession of fine fowls; to others, the acquisition of knowl-
edge of the laws of breeding and the exercise of skill in mating for special
results. Many keep fowls simply that they may have some restful pursuit not
in line with their regular work, to occupy mind and body in leisure hours.
Poultry fancying is more than a mere amusement; it is a useful amusement,
a recreation having a recognized moral and educational value —and, aside
from the fact that it makes ‘‘ business” for many people, the poultry fancy has
an industrial influence in giving the initial impetus in the development of
economic poultry interests. Everywhere general improvement in common
fowls, and increased profits from fowls, have followed the introduction of
“fancy” fowls. The claim of some fanciers that this improvement was due
to the diffusion of the blood of their high class stock, can be only partially
admitted. Undoubtedly new blood has done much, but practical illustrations
of the advantages of good care and systematic breeding for a definite purpose,
have done more. The ‘‘fancy’s” best contribution to the growth of industrial
poultry culture has been along the line of suggestive teaching. The real
usefulness of pleasurable poultry keeping needs to be better and more univer-
sally understood. It is equally desirable that fanciers should not make public
extravagant estimates of the benefits they confer, and that the true value and
dignity of poultry keeping for pleasure should be recognized by all poultrymen
and by the general public.

14. Women as Poultry Keepers.— The bulk of the supply of poultry
products comes from flocks cared for principally by women. On farms the
care of the fowls is usually left to the farmer’s wife or daughter. In towns
the absence of the men from home during the working hours leaves the care
of the poultry mostly to the women, even when the men take an interest in it.

POOLE A= CAL Ts Is

Whether women are better fitted than men to care for fowls, is a question
needing no discussion. The whole subject may be briefly summed up in the
statement: Some people (men and women) make capable poultry keepers,
and some do not. There are quite large poultry plants conducted by women.
As atrule, poultry keeping on a scale to make a living for a family, is beyond
a woman’s strength. Still, a woman who can press some male member of
the family into service to do occasional heavy jobs about the hen house, can
handle several hundred hens, and make the profit from them a substantial part
of the family income. Many women have been very successful as fanciers
and breeders of high class stock; but that branch of poultry culture seems to
have less attraction for women than for men. Under the conditions noted at
the beginning of this paragraph, women assume the care of poultry through
force of circumstances and custom: When they take up poultry keeping from
choice it is usually from one or more of these reasons: that they may have
poultry supplies for home use; or, profits from the hens for pin money; or,
regular light outdoor work as a diversion from the monotony of housework.
Thus with them poultry keeping is really an adjunct to their occupation as
housewives. It is notable that, keeping fowls in this way, women are
generally wiser than men, in keeping flocks no larger than they can care for,
and in keeping out of debts on the hens’ account. To this extent, if no
further, women as a class are the better poultry keepers, and more often make
small flocks pay.

15. Poultry Keeping for Invalids.—Invalids are attracted to poultry
keeping as an occupation, thinking it one of the least laborious of outdoor
callings. The all-important thing for invalids engaging in it is to keep the
work within the limits of their strength. Unless this is done the work will do
them more harm than good. There is little really heavy work about a poultry
yard, but the work requires constant attention, is confining, and to some
becomes monotonous. An invalid whose sickness is such, in kind or degree,
that he could not give the fowls regular attention in all kinds of weather,
ought not to engage in poultry keeping expecting to make it profitable. Nor
should one unable by reason of physical disability to make a living at another
occupation, hope to make one from this. The work on a poultry plant large
enough to make a living for a family is not ‘‘ light”? work in any other sense
than that it does not require great muscular exertion. It keeps an active man
very busy through days of long hours. Invalids engaging in poultry keeping
on a scale suited to their strength may make something —some part of a
living, from it, while the work builds them up physically, and can be gradually
developed into an extensive business yielding a living income.

16. Poultry Keeping for Children.— A child,— especially a boy —
having reached such age that he can be trusted, (with a little oversight from
some older person), to care for a flock of fowls, ought to be encouraged to take
an interest in domestic fowls, and, if circumstances permit, should be given a

16 POSE TRIVACTEATAT:

few hens. It is a well established fact, that an interest, as care-taker, in
domestic animals, and particularly the smaller and weaker ones, helps to
develop a humane character. Fowls can be kept where other domestic
animals could not. The ownership of a flock of fowls gives the young
poultryman opportunities to take some very practical lessons, but if the work
is to have the best effect, parents should take interest enough in it and in
poultry in general to fit them to act as guides and advisers.

NS.

TAQ GLE LRA = OLGALOL A. 17

CHAPTER II.

Location.— Situation.

- 17. Definitions of Terms.— By the J/ocatzon of a poultry plant, is
meant its position with reference to markets, and as determined or affected
by the general climatic conditions. Sztwatzom means the position of a
poultry house, or the buildings constituting a poultry plant, as determined
by those things which directly affect fowls, or increase or diminish the labor
of caring for them. Every poultry keeper has to consider matters relating to
the availability of particular sz¢es for poultry houses. The question of
location hardly needs attention from those not keeping poultry for profit.

18. Locating for Business.— Poultry Farming.— A good location is
as necessary in poultry keeping as in any business. A wrong choice of
location has caused many a failure. The first, and most important thing
to consider is the matter of markets. This subject must be examined from
several points of view. One whose capital is large enough to equip a large
plant, and keep it running until it pays expenses, should decide first what
branch, or branches, of the business are to be followed, and make choice of
a location accordingly. If market poultrying is to be a specialty, he must
locate within quick shipping distance of a large city, and should give the
preference to a district containing many towns and small cities. In sections
where a large part of the population is engaged in agriculture, the supply of
eggs and poultry is, during the greater part of the year, in excess of the
demand. As nearly all of this supply comes from small flocks kept under
such conditions that the profits from each flock, in effect, equal the proceeds
of the flock, agricultural districts are usually poor locations for special
market poultry farming. It might be said that, except in the most densely
populated districts, in proportion as poultry keeping is made profitable by the
general farmers in any locality it becomes unprofitable to the specialist.
This has been well illustrated, within a few years, in the state of Kansas,
where, in the face of a notable increase of the poultry product of the state, it
was reported that many of the large plants near Kansas City had gone out of
business, unable to continue at a profit in competition with the farmers,
whose output of eggs and poultry was year after year increasing in quantity
and improving in quality. The poultry farmer must have a nearby market,
where strictly fresh eggs and fancy dressed poultry will always command a
premium. Thus it is seen that in this country the exclusive poultry farm can
be made profitable only in limited areas. To be as exact as possible — it

18 “POUEDRIAGR ATE:

would be unwise to attempt that line of business beyond quick shipping
distance of a large city on the Atlantic or Pacific coast, except in mining
districts or near large health or pleasure resorts. In all the large coast cities,
and in adjacent cities and towns, the demand for the best poultry products is
large enough to remove risk of an overstocked market. In the other places
ranked as good locations for poultry farming, the demand is more limited,
and is sometimes active but a short season each year. Those considering
such locations should thoroughly investigate the conditions of local demand.
and supply before making a decision.

After the question of a market for products, comes the question of the
market for the purchase of supplies. This is of little importance in most
localities favorable to poultry farming. Yet there are places where, while
prices of eggs and poultry are so high as to tempt investment, a plant would
prove unprofitable because of the high prices of supplies and the uncertainty
of being able to procure them as needed. Before passing this question one
should give it as much attention as will prevent a mistake from neglect of it.

It will be found that in the case under consideration the matter of climate is
unimportant, because there is no place in the areas adapted to large poultry
farming where the climate is unfavorable. The poultry keeper may need to
consider it for himself. As for the fowls, he will find that they quickly
become acclimated anywhere.

19. Locating for Business.— Breeding High Class Stock.— In this
case greater latitude of choice is possible. It is desirable, though not
absolutely necessary, that all conditions should be favorable to the best
development of fowls. It is, in reality, more a question of situation than of
location. Situation is of greater importance. The business in fine poultry
and eggs is done principally through the postofhice and the express companies.
Wherever located, a breeder having good stock of a variety in demand, and
properly advertising it, will not often find his location a handicap. Tt sas
been, and still is, true that in some sections high class poultry sells more freely
than elsewhere. The interest in thoroughbred fowls spreads so rapidly that
communities which a few years ago bought little high priced stock, now buy
a great deal. Wherever anyone undertakes the breeding of thoroughbred
stock, whether for market or fancy, the interest awakened by his venture
gradually creates a demand. As it takes some time to establish a trade in this
line, the beginner being always at a great disadvantage in competition with
breeders of established reputation, it is often a good move on his part to locate
where he will for a few years have little competition for the local trade,
which, though small, must at first be his principal dependence.

20. Location.— The Combination of Market and Fancy Poultry.—
These two branches have so far been treated separately. In actual practice
they are oftenest combined. Many poultry farmers use thoroughbred stock

FOGLE ALD ACTA TALE, 19

exclusively. Some have quite a large trade in the best grades of their stock,
sold for breeding purposes at several times the prices for market poultry. A
few whose principal interest is in practical poultry are successful exhibitors
of standard fowls, and sell exhibition birds and birds for breeding exhibition
stock at high prices. On the other hand, every extensive breeder of high
class stock has to dispose of a considerable part of what he produces at market
prices. As longas this can be regarded as a by-product, he need not consider
the market for it when selecting a location; but, if he must depend on it for
a considerable part of his income, it may be best to give market advantages
great weight when deciding where to locate. The combination of exhibition,
breeding and market stock, is generally the best for those in the business for
profit; especially is this true in the case of a plant located outside of the areas
adapted to exclusive market poultrying. Such a combination can be made
profitable near almost any large town.

21. Buying Land for a Poultry Plant.— The plant should not be
built on rented ground. |The rent adds to current expenses. Removal means
either the sacrifice of the greater part of the value of the improvements, or
expense, and damage to buildings in moving. The amount of land needed
for the plant depends as much on the system of housing used as on the number
of fowls kept. A large stock kept on the colony plan will occupy a good
sized farm. On most of the large plants the fowls are yarded, being housed
in long sectional houses. This system brings a large stock upon a small area.
From five to ten acres is ordinarily enough land for a poultryman. As far as
suitability for poultry keeping goes, the soil need not be fertile. Often a tract
admirably adapted to poultry keeping is quite worthless for other purposes.
Nevertheless, it is not good policy to buy land that cannot be improved to
make comfortable, pleasant home surroundings, for the poultryman’s home
and place of business are necessarily together. Another thing to consider in
buying is, that poultry keeping and fruit raising or gardening are often
profitably combined, and it is worth while to take account of the possibility
of its proving advisable at some future time to make such a combination. |
Buying a place on time, is as bad a mistake as renting land. The beginner’s
profits cannot stand such drains.

22. Adapting Business to Location.— For nearly all who begin in a
small way with the expectation of making a living, ultimately, from poultry
—and for, perhaps, all who make poultrying an adjunct of another
occupation, the question of location is, from the first, a closed question.
They already have a site which they think might be used to advantage for
poultry. The statements in the preceding paragraphs will suggest to such
persons the branches of the business best suited to their circumstances. Thus,
on a site suitable for poultry within one of the areas where exclusive market
poultry keeping can always be made profitable, eggs and poultry will from

20 POOL TERA \CLCATLT &

the start furnish the quickest, surest, most evenly distributed returns; while in
other localities it will be better to make such a combination as the demands
of the market, the amount of capital on hand, and the skill of the poultryman
allow. At least a slight general acquaintance with the whole subject of
poultry keeping is necessary before one can decide what to do and what not
to do in any given case.

23. Situation.— General Remarks.— Though certain surroundings are
more agreeable to fowls than others, and under favoring conditions they are
handled at least cost for food and labor, there is nothing in the nature of
domestic fowls to prevent their being thrifty and profitable in circumstances
quite the reverse of those most agreeable. Indeed, it is coming to be well
understood that, within reasonable limits, restraints on the natural tendencies
of fowls are beneficial. Like all domestic animals, they can be accustomed
to great changes of habit, as well as of climate. The breeds of fowls differ
somewhat in adaptability to artificial conditions; but as a rule the welfare of
the fowls depends more on the poultryman than on the nature of fowls or
of their surroundings. Farms and large village lots furnish the best
opportunities for poultry keeping. Fowls can be kept and, even, a few
thrifty young reared on narrow city lots —sometimes in very close quarters.
It has often been said that fowls can be kept wherever human beings can live.
While not literally true, this statement is not far wrong —if its application is
limited to fowls kept for pleasure. Whether fowls are kept for pleasure or
profit, successful management consists in rightly balancing natural and
artificial conditions, providing by art those things in which the situation is
deficient, or when that is not possible, devising ways of compensating for
nature’s defects. Just here is where it is found that ways of caring for fowls
for best results differ in different localities and situations. The needs of
fowls do not vary; the resources of places do. In different places poultry
keepers have to do different things to supply the same needs. This is all
there is in the oft-repeated assertions that fowls cannot be handled in the west
as in the east, in the south as in the north, in mountain countries as at the
sea level. The poultryman in unusual circumstances must study his sur-
roundings and their effects upon fowls, and vary treatment as he finds nature
doing more or less in any direction; and he ought always to follow the
general rules for caring for fowls under ordinary conditions, until by careful
study of his situation he sees reason for making change in treatment or diet.
He should not do extraordinary things without knowing why he does them.
Unusual circumstances demand thoughtfulness and prudence, not eccentricity.
The poultry keeper for pleasure can go as far as he likes in making good the
natural defects of a site. One in business for profit needs the advantage of
a situation with few defects. It is folly to undertake keeping fowls for profit
on a site where the ‘‘outs” are so many that the making of a living is
rendered unnecessarily laborious, ;

IOMUIEL IIR TAN CIE AIT IE: 21

24. Situation.
clay soil is most unsuitable. A soil containing much alkali is to be avoided

Soils.— A sandy soil suits poultry best. A wet, heavy,

because of its bad effect on the skin and plumage. A sandy site is, in general,
well drained, and is easily kept clean. Droppings falling on a porous sandy
soil are at once deodorized by absorption of their liquids, the remaining solids
are disintegrated and carried below the surface by rains; falling on clayey soil
they form a crust on the surface, making it very foul. Between light sandy
and heavy clay soils is a wide range and many kinds of soil, varying in
suitability for poultry keeping as they approach to or depart from these
extremes. Fowls are oftenest kept on medium soils, these being most
common. Such soils are easily purified by occasionally spading or plowing
the yards. Sometimes the same end is gained, and a regular supply of green
food furnished the fowls, by an arrangement of alternate yards, which makes
it possible to grow a green crop in one yard while the fowls are confined to
the other. When fowls are kept on rather heavy soil, the surface should be
graded to secure complete surface drainage, and as much as possible of the
runs should be in permanent grass. It is advised to remove the earth in the
house floors, replacing it with a few inches of sand or sandy loam over a bed
of gravel. Made ground composed largely of rubbish, is most unsuitable for
poultry. In hot damp weather the decomposed matter breeds disease germs,
which cause epidemics. This condition persists for a long time after the
making of the ground, and accounts for many mysterious outbreaks of disease.
Ground of this kind is common in large cities and their suburbs. Poultry
keepers should avoid it on their own account, and because of its possible effect
on fowls.

25. Situation.— Drainage.— The site of a poultry house or plant should
always be well drained. Water standing at the surface attracts filth. On
ill-drained land one has bad footing while doing his work, and the work is
consequently much harder. These are the things which first become apparent
in a poorly drained place. More important than either, is the fact that the
poultry house cannot be kept as dry as it should; any degree of continuous
dampness is objectionable. [A high site, hill, knoll, or slope is usually
recommended, but ground level or in a depression is not altogether objection-
able if well drained.

26. Situation.— Exposure.

Shelter.— Poultrymen prefer a site on a
gentle slope facing south or southeast. It is desirable that the buildings
receive the sunlight as long as possible on winter days, and be sheltered from
cold winds. The lack of such natural advantage in a situation may be made
good, as far as shelter from wind goes, by growing evergreens where they
will serve as wind-breaks. A house placed where it does not get the sunlight
is unfit for fowls. If it gets the sun for only a few hours daily it may be
used. In such case it is most satisfactory to keep fowls only for family use,

22 PO OGLE TLRAE CFEATTT:.

replacing the stock each year. Stock birds soon degenerate away from the
sun, and young stock makes but sickly growth without sunlight. In placing
poultry buildings the most should be made of every natural advantage of the
situation. Convenience to his house and for doing the work are points for
the poultryman to consider, but ought never to be allowed to influence him
when they conflict with matters essential to the welfare of the flock.

VOILE IVETE CUA DIES 23

CHAPTER III.

Poultry Houses and Yards.

27. General Remarks.— It is important that fowls be properly housed.
This can be accomplished without using elaborate or expensive buildings. A
poultry house should be free from drafts, so constructed that the inner
temperature will vary slowly with fluctuations in the weather. The windows
should be so placed that the sun will shine into the house for a few hours
daily,—in winter, the longer the better. These things, and a_ suitable
situation, are essential. The permanent lack of any one of them invariably
affects the health of the fowls, sooner or later bringing disease and loss. A
house furnishing the conditions essential to the welfare of its tenants may be
unsightly te the eye, inconvenient for the attendant, yet cannot be regarded as
unsuitable for fowls. A person is sometimes so situated that if he would have
a few fowls he must make shift to keep them in quarters not specially suited to
poultry keeping. If the essential conditions specified can be secured, the
fowls can do very well. Ifthe conditions named cannot be securegl, it is better
not to try to keep poultry. The inconveniences incident to caring for fowls in
makeshift and poorly planned houses are matters of small moment to the
amateur who gives his fowls but little of his time. To one who keeps fowls
on an increasing scale such inconveniences soon become costly annoyances,
and the buildings, often, must be completely remodeled. It is therefore
always best for a poultryman to consider carefully before beginning to build
or to make alterations; and a beginner, particularly, should make himself so
familiar with the principles of poultry house construction, the different styles
of houses, the methods of platting poultry plants, that whatever the scale of his
future operations, each building erected may be built to stand many years
without alteration and without other repairs than those made necessary by the
ordinary wear and tear of weather and daily use. Nearly all the designs given
in this chapter are modeled after, or adapted from, plans used and approved
by practical poultrymen. (The exceptions merit attention, embodying as they
do some ideas approved by the experience of poultry keepers, though not yet
tested). The buildings described have been selected as furnishing typical
examples of different styles of poultry houses. As a comparison of the plans
will show, many of the details may be applied in any or all the various styles
of houses. The greatest possible variety has been introduced in the minor
details of the drawings, to avoid an unnecessary multiplication of illustrations.
Having selected the style of house which suits him best, anyone intelligent
enough to build a poultry house can adapt to it such minor features of other

24 POUL TRISCR ATT.

designs as his situation and his means demand. All the drawings show neat
buildings, devoid of ornament. In nearly all the plans given it is designed
that the ground floor shall be of earth, which is by all odds the best floor
material, and should be used whenever that is practicable.

28. A Cheap House for a Town Lot.— In Fig. 1 is shown a simple
A

IE ie (iE -

= =e

ne

Fig. 1. A Cheap Small Poultry House. A.—perspective. B.—ground plan.
design for a cheap city poultry house, 10 ft. square on the ground; height
in front 8 ft., in rear 5 ft. Such a house will accommodate from ten to
twenty hens, according to breed, amount of yard room, etc. The only openings
are the door*in the east side, the window in the south front, and the small door
giving access to the yard; the front and east side to be boarded up and down
with boards 1 ft. wide, dressed on one side; the joints between the boards to
be covered with battens. The west and north sides and the roof are of boards
covered with building paper.
Materials.*

The frame of the building requires nine pieces of 2 x 3 scantling, ro ft.
Jong; four of these are for the sills, two for plates, (front and rear), two to go
parailed to sills and half way up north and west sides, and one from which to
cut the short horizontal pieces for middle of front and top of door opening ;
three pieces 2 x 3 scantling 16 ft. long, from which to cut four studs, each $
ft. long for front corners and sides of window opening, two 5 ft. studs for
rear corners, and two 3 ft. pieces for top and bottom of window opening; one
piece of 2 x 3 scantling 14 ft. long from which to cut one 7 ft. stud to go at
north side of door opening, and the horizontal piece for the middle of the east

* Notre.— To give full lists of materials and suggestions in regard to using them for
all the plans given in this chapter, is out of the question. Lists of materials are,
however, given in a number of cases. In connection with this simple plan full instruc-
tions are given as to lumber used, what to order, and how to cut it to advantage.
Occasional suggestions will be given as seems expedient with other plans. Inall designs
the construction is very simple; and having learned how to proceed in one case, the
reader can easily apply his knowledge to any other.

a“

PAO GIGI RHE CI iA 2 IU 25

side; three pieces 2 x 4 scantling 22 ft. long, from which to cut six rafters each
about ro ft. 6in. long. (If it is desired they may be 11 ft. long, and allowed to
project over front and rear walls. Sometimes dimension lumber over 20 ft. in
length costs more per rooo ft. than when in lengths of 20 ft. or less. When
that is the case it is as well to use 12 ft. stuff for the rafters; or, for strictest
economy in construction, to make the building six inches narrower than in the
plan, and use ro ft. stuff for rafters). Boards 16 ft. long should be used for the
front and east side. For the long boards on the front 16 ft. boards cut in two
are used without waste. A little ingenuity in cutting will leave very little
waste in using 16 ft. stuff for the east side. Ten 16 ft. boards 1 ft. wide will be
needed. The boards for the back, west side and roof, which are to be covered
with building paper, may be either rough lumber or surfaced on one side.
They need not be of equal widths, though of course there is no objection to
that, except on the score of cost, selected widths often costing more. For the
west side boards 16 ft. long should be used, and for the roof and rear wall
boards ro ft. long. Three boards of matched flooring, each 12 ft. long, will be
needed for the door. There is needed then:

Dimension lumber :—

g pieces 2 x 3 in. scantling 10 ft. long; 3 pieces 2 x 3 in. scantling 16 ft. long;

I piece 2 x 3 in. scantling 14 ft. long; 3 pieces 2 x 4 in. scantling 22 ft. long:
109 sq. ft.

Rough sheathing :-—

160 sq. ft. boards 10 ft. long; 70 sq. ft. boards 1oft. long . . . . 230 sq. ft.
Ten 12 in. boards 16 ft. long eat Wa me PCE eM ares os. Ker co rapa ae cts 160 sq. ft.
Three 6 in. matched boards 12 ft. Tene biel: Siting UP oa ial cet Sb eu Nee bea PRU 2) 18 sq. ft.
Battens, 2 in. wide, aggregating in nee SP GS0 Ee fEAy tts Sk era a munncaea ne eee 160 ft.
Roofing paper, tocover . . Todt hy et ron Taesiy We Orie eons 240 sq. ft.

Two 6-light sash, 10 x 14 sinterue one eee one pair hinges ; naile! screws, etc.

This estimate allows for lumber to be used in casing window and door,
strips to finish at top and bottom of front and east side, stuff for nests, drop
boards, roost and dust box. Prices of material vary in different places. Any
lumber dealer can give exact cost of such a bill of goods in a few minutes.

29. Single House with Scratching Shed Underneath. — Fig. 2
shows a style of single house very often used when
the site is so far from level that a space must be
left below the floor, or a considerable fill made.
The space below the floor of the house is used as a
scratching shed, the height of the shed being pro-
portionate to the slope of the hill and the width
Fig. 2. House with Scratching Of the house. The higher sheds are usually so
Shed underneath. arranged that in rough weather the front can be
at least partially closed. The low sheds are usually left unprotected, but
it is a good idea to have movable fronts to use to exclude snow in blizzard
weather. The plan is sometimes used with long sectional houses.

26 POWGE TERIA CRATE T..

30. Other Houses for Single Flocks.
described in the next paragraph can, of course, be used for single flocks in

All the poultry houses

yards. Single sections of most of the continuous houses described are used
for one-pen houses, and these should be examined in connection with the
plans just given.

31. The Colony Plan.
that it is not often deliberately adopted for a large poultry plant. Of late, some
of those who have used the system seem inclined to discard it. The strong-
hold of the system of colonizing fowls in small families with free range has
been the belief that fowls could be made more profitable on free range than in
yards; that they would be healthier, more vigorous, more prolific, and the
eggs would be more fertile. As this belief breaks down, people become more

The objectionable features of this plan are such

and more unwilling to put up with the defects of the system for the sake of its
advantages, real and supposed. Briefly stated, the principal advantages of the
colony plan are:

Cheaper houses.

No expense for fences.

The fowls can pick a part of their living.

The scrupulous attention to cleanliness and the care to provide regular
supplies of animal and vegetable foods, which are a part of the routine work
of most poultry farms, can be relaxed on a farm run on the colony plan.

The marked disadvantages of the system are:

Increased cost of labor in caring for fowls. Taking one thing and one
season with another, the cost of labor is greater, notwithstanding the slight
saving on some items of labor.

Greater difficulty in maintaining strict regularity in feeding. In bad weather,
just when the most careful attention should be given them, the hens are often
unavoidably neglected.

The difficulty of controlling disease in flocks allowed to mingle.

The modification of the colony plan, which places detached houses in large
yards, loses the advantage of no cost for fences. Cost of fencing is so much
increased that rarely is any saving effected in the total cost of housing and
yarding. In snowy, stormy weather the difficulty of caring for the fowls is
increased, rather than diminished.

The colony plan, with or without yards, loses its most serious objections in
a mild climate. There are many special cases where it might be preferable to
any other, particularly when poultry keeping is a side issue on a fruit or
general farm, the hens being kept as insect exterminators, gleaners and
scavengers. For the ordinary farm stock of poultry the colony plan, on a
small scale, is often the best. The illustrations given show models of cheap
and serviceable buildings in use on some of the farms run on the colony plan.

POULTRY-CRAFT. 247

The tent shaped house, Fig. 3, is 8
ft. square on the ground, and 8 ft. to the
apex. The floor is of plank, and the
front open slat work. Houses like this
are used upon a large New Hampshire
farm: The capacity of the house is 12
hens; the cost, (in N. H.), about $8.

Fig. 4 shows a house used on a Rhode

Island farm. Ground dimensions are
SO xcuizalt we heieht ws tomtheteavesulo dite:
to the apex, 8 ft. The walls are of rough
boards, battened. The roof is shingled.

ee ecu onapca colony, Elan Hoe About twenty hens can be housed in it.

In Fig. 5 is shown a house of brick, or stone, with roof of boards covered
with tarred felt. The drawing was made from a building on a Rhode Island
farm. Each house of this style was 11 x 14 ft. on the ground; 7 ft. high in
front, and 4 ft. high in rear. In each

twenty hens were kept; but a house of

et
IME

Fig. 4. Colony Plan House. Fig. 5. Brick House — for the Colony Plan.

this size would not be overcrowded with twenty-five to thirty hens of the small
or medium sized breeds. If new material must be bought and building labor
hired, it does not generally pay to use brick and stone. If such materials are
at hand, or can be procured at trifling cost, and the building done by the poul-
tryman, there is no economy in rejecting them. Facility
in making use of available building materials, foods, etc.,

is one test of a man’s ability as a poultryman. Provided [--._ _.
the house conforms to the essentials stated in 427, the
widest latitude may be taken in using materials. Good

RoesFong aa
faying vom a
ore’
houses have been log

houses, grout houses,

adobe houses. Poul- af Th

4 HIGHS G LAO Bia
try houses have been ; =a Sti Open
made with walls and Wigan mes Wiss Scratching
roofs of old railroad = REVRTLAAN i Sis GCs

ties, the crevices being

filled with mud, and —— :
Fig. 6. A Colony Plan Scratching Shed House.

28 POUL TRIACRAFT.

the roofs covered several inches deep with earth. Fig. 6 shows a single house
often used with the colony plan. It is usually built without windows, the
‘south front of the shed being always open, and the door between shed and
roosting room being closed only in severe weather. Sometimes a slat door
is hung inside to admit air, while keeping out night prowlers. The diagram
is for a house 8 x 16 ft. on the ground, the floor space equally divided for the
close room and the open shed.

TK

XW

Fig. 7. Two-Pen Poultry House.
PP, droppings boards; rr, roosts: NN, nests;
DD, large doors; dd, small doors; w w, win-
dows; W, water dish; gg, grit box; s, screen
door; F F, fences.

32. A Two-Pen Poultry
House.
double poultry house, with
y Is \> D> yards at sides and to the rear

>: 2 eZ of the house)” ihe weround
dimensions are 10 x 16 ft.; height, at eaves, 6 ft.; at apex, S ft. It has
shingled roof. The sides are of rough lumber covered with lapped siding.

Fig. 7 shows a small

Materials.

Dimension lumber :—

2 pieces 2 x 4 scantling 16 ft. long— for sills;

2 pieces 2 x 4 scantling 10 ft. long —for sills ;

3 pieces 2 x 3 scantling 16 ft. long —for plates and studs ;

14 pieces 2 x 3 scantling 12 ft. long—for rafters, studs, etc. ;

I piece 2 x 3 scantling 14 ft. long —for studs:

163 sq. ft.

16 ft. sheathing Me ee ee eS
Sidinic yume. : Bh MCh Go) 220 Slo Mt

6 12-inch boards 16 ft. rene: lieesed on one tle, for cornice, casings, etc.
2 thousand shingles; 50 laths; 2 4-panel doors; 2 screen doors; 4 sash 6-light 1o x 14
glass; building paper to cover 500 sq. ft.; 2 pr. loose pin butt hinges; 1 pr. 6in. T hinges;
1 lock; 1 bolt; nails, screws, etc.

From this bill of lumber enough will be left, after finishing exterior, for
inside partition, roosts, droppings boards, nests, dust boxes.

POULTRY-CRAFT. 29

33. Continuous, or Sectional Poultry Houses. — Intensive poultry
keeping, many fowls on a small plot of ground, is the practice of most
progressive poultrymen. The colony plan reproduces as many times as
desired the conditions of the ordinary farm flock. A system of continuous or
sectional houses multiplies as often as desired the conditions of the best kept
flocks. The colony plan allows but eighty to one hundred hens to the acre.
The continuous house system with suitable yards, allows four hundred to
five hundred hens to the acre. The failures of the first attempts at intensive
poultry keeping were due to the failures of the poultrymen to provide meat
food, vegetable food, grit, exercise. With these errors corrected, results
soon showed the superiority of the intensive system for those who make
poultry keeping a business. The fact that it is the system almost universally
adopted, makes superfluous a recital of its advantages further than intimated
in describing the colony plan, and to be mentioned in the description of
different styles of continuous houses.

34, Continuous House with Connecting Pens. —JIn a short house,
or one containing a few long compartments, passage through the house is

Ie Gaoh E

CT

ES woe

Fig. 8. Cheap Four Pen House.
Dotted lines in the perspective indicate
positions of studs and rafters; in the:
ground plan, positions of roosts.

usually from pen to pen.
Fig. 8 illustrates such

‘ a house, containing four

pens each 12 ft. square. It is a substantial, low cost house, the construction
being the simplest consistent with strength and durability. It is built without
sills or plates. The studs are spiked to short cedar posts, placed 4 ft. apart,
set 18 in. into the ground, and projecting the same distance above ground; or
the studs are used as posts, the end which goes into the ground having been
coated with tar. The lower ends of the rafters rest upon the tops of these
stud-posts; the upper ends are joined directly, being secured with spikes
driven through each into the other, and all rafters

except those at the ends being braced as shown in

Fig. 9. The dotted lines in the drawing indicate

the positions of studs and rafters. Each window

eee opening adjoins a stud on one side; on the other

side a short stud, simply nailed to the sheathing, is placed. This short stud
extends 6 to § in, above the upper edge, and a like distance below the lower

20 POUGLTRIACRALST.

edge of the window opening. No scantling are used above or below the
opening. The sill of the window is a piece of 6-in. board, projecting an inch
beyond the outer surface of the sheathing, and inclined just enough to prevent
rain beating under the sash. The distance between studs should equal the
width of the sash; the height of the opening should equal the length of the
sash. The ends of the sheathing boards, projecting one-half inch or more
beyond the studs, make the outside side sash stops. When the sill has been
placed as described, and the sash put in, the upper rail of the sash will over-
lap the edge of the opening. For inside sash stops, strips of lath may be
used at sides and on sill, and a stop about one inch square nailed to the top
of the sash and to the sheathing. A window put in in this way is wind and
water tight. The removal of the sash to fit the house for warm weather, and
its replacement on the approach of winter, are the work of but an instant.
The studs should be set plumb, and well braced, and the rafters trued and
firmly braced until the sheathing is nailed on, and the boards of the partitions
in place. Sheathing 12 or 16 ft. long should be used, and in putting it on
joints should be broken about every two feet. Such a house can be either
shingled or covered with a prepared paper. If not shingled, it can be easily
taken down, moved, and set up again as good as at first, except that a part of
the covering material might have to be renewed.

35. Continuous House for a Farm Flock. —The style of house just
described is well suited for a farm stock when it is desirable to keep the fowls
, in several flocks, and yet have them housed

merce e together. The plat shown in Fig. ro pro-

vides for a house 12 x 72 ft., with a pen 12

x 24 ft. in each end, and two pens each 12
x 12 ft.in the middle. In the supposed case
YARD for which this plat is made, the hens from the
36x bo! east pen have the run of a field, meadow,
or pasture lot; those from the west pen run
into an orchard; while the middle pens, each .
connected with a yard 36 x 60 ft., can be
used in season for breeding pens, for fat-
tening pens, or simply in connection with
adjacent end pens, giving the two large
flocks additional house room. If the field
Fig. 10. Four Pen House for a Farm Flock. : i
fence is made ‘‘hen-tight”’ for ten rods each
way from the house, there will be little danger of the flocks mingling.

36. Continuous House with a Walk. — In Fig. 11 is shown the dia-
gram of a continuous house containing sixteen pens, each reached directly
from a walk running the entire length of the building. Each pen is 8 ft.
square. The passage is 4 ft. wide. The height of the building is 6 ft. at the
eaves, 5 ft. at the peak. Joining the west end of the poultry house is a two-

POULTRI-CRAFT. 31

Deor

TT —— Maar : MALL ¥, Biel ¢ ' : 2
er 4 ; a1! 0 Ay} oO 1 é et AAO .
(CEO BAS YT ese ON ‘alt A peta ces Gl neo caneee ifs ali
2, ee tl Se eS [ce PN LSE lee | Eos ale ney Nae
em mS
by
YARD
x92!
gate yi -/ : % 9

YARO
S' x by!

Fig. 14. Continuous House with a Walk.

story building to be used as work shop, cook room and store room. The
ground dimensions of this building are 12 x 20 ft. It is 14 ft. high at the
eaves, 16 ft. at peak of roof; the first story 8 ft. in the clear. The diagram
also shows the plat of yards. The small yards 8 x 32 ft. correspond to the
divisions of the house. For every two small yards there is one large yard
16 x 64 ft., to be kept in grass. The capacity of the house is one hundred
and sixty to two hundred and forty fowls, with ten to fifteen in each pen.
EL —__—— The frame of the long house may be constructed with
; sills of 4 x 4 in. stuff; studs, plates and rafters of 2 x
3, in. scantling; studs and rafters being 4 ft. apart at

centers, except in front, where the
Ea studs should be spaced to come be-
side window openings. The studs

‘

and rafters of the two-story building

Fig. 12, Elevation of Front of Two Story Building and ame

Part of Long Building in Fig. rz. should be 2 ft. apart, at centers. If

a board floor is put in the lower room 2x 8 in. joists should be used, the
same as for the upper floor.

Materials.
Dimension lumber :—
20 pieces 4 x 4 in., 16 ft. long; 26 pieces 2 x 3 in., 16 ft. long;
94 pieces 2 x 3 in., 14 ft. long; 45 pieces 2 x 3 in., 12 ft. long;
A, NAA) B XS Bh abso AAO) stem Ioravers 24 pieces 2 x 8 in., 12 ft. long;

8 pieces 2 x 2 in., 16 ft. long:

22, ROSEDRIACT ATT:

Sheathing, (rough) ee iy ae ci ee oe ee Oo rec ment
Sheathing; (surtaced for droppings boards)... eis ati eet ee OO sq. ft.
Matched) flooring for floors, doors, grain, bims\iy io 5) ee SO sq. ft.
Building paper to Covers). en aweae oat venta eed eae tere nn gee 4500 sq. ft.

2 rolls wire netting 5 ft. wide, 2-inch mesh.
22 6-light sash, 10 x 14 glass; 2 4-panel doors; 2 pr. loose pin butt hinges; 2 pr. 6-in. T
hinges; 16 pr. 4-in. T hinges; 2 locks; nails, screws, hooks, staples, etc.

Notr.— If the building is covered with shingles the pitch of the roofs must be greater
than in the figure. The roofs should be 1 ft. higher at the peaks —35 thousand shingles
are required to cover the building, laying them on the roof 5 in., and on the sides G in. to
the weather.

37. Plan for Doing all Work from the Walk. — Fig. 13 shows how
the pens in a house of the style described in 4/36 may be arranged to permit
all work, —feeding, watering, cleaning droppings boards, and collecting

ORR
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Fig. 13. Showing the Arrangement for Doing the Work in a Long House
from the Walk. P, passage; R, roost platform; a, door to roost; c, door
to nests,

eggs —to be done from the walk. The arrangement

cannot be considered the best for a practical poultry
man seeking a plan by which the items, cost, capacity, and convenience, are
balanced with a view to the greatest profit. The plan is also open to criticism
on the ground that nearly all work being done without going into the pens, the
fowls do not become accustomed to the presence of the attendant. Then
when it is necessary to go into the pens, the fowls make a disturbance detri-
mental to egg production. There are, however, cases where it is an advan-
tage to the one caring for the fowls to be able to give them all necessary atten-
tion without going into the pens. The arrangement will recommend itself to
those who want a house in which they can do the daily chores without being
obliged to change from their ordinary dress to a poultryman’s working clothes.

38. House with Two Rows of Pens and Passage.—The Monitor
Top House. — Convenience alone being considered, this method of housing
is superior to all others. A house of this style may face east and west, the
common plan; or, south. In the houses with east and west exposures the -
pens on the east side receive only the morning sun; those on the west side
receive the sun only in the afternoon. In what is known as the monitor top
house, Fig. 14, the passage is made 3 ft. higher than in the common plain
style house, and windows placed in each side of the extension, so that each

POULTRY-CRAFT. 33

PEN
Soxd 7

Fig. 14. Monitor Top House. Showing perspective, ground plan, partition between pen and passage, and
partition between pens.

34 AON GIGI MA CTE AWE IE

pen in the house receives both morning and afternoon sun. Opinion is
divided as to the value of the monitor top house. Not enough of them have
been constructed and fully tested to show whether the defects in the house
are such as can be overcome, or are irremediable. As the matter stands, the
monitor top house is recommended only for short houses and for plants in
moderate climates.

Materials. (Fig. 13.)
28 short cedar posts to support sills.
Dimension lumber :—

2 pieces 4 x 4 in. 20 ft. long; 4 pieces 4 x 4 in. 18 ft. long;

18 pieces 2 x 3 in. 18 ft. long; 8 pieces 2 x 3 in. 12 ft. long;

38 pieces 2 x 3 in. roft. long; 6 pieces 2 x 2 in. 16 ft. long:
620 sq. ft.
PS) ORE EON OL MEN ey BON al AV MRIS eo iou Mon eUing ama geMen Mere gt Ss AOCO SG. ito
Matched fooniaigt.9 (oa ei Pai ar youll Caulie* comical ils) Reuanse ottee lec ane et OOS Gl pBIaies
Building paper to cover aye Mase pigciia Go 66 o RCCO SG) It.

12 sash, 6-light, 10 x 12 glass; y8 sq. Ge wire netting Hoan mesh) 6 ft. wide; 256 sq, ft.
netting 4 ft. wide; 2 pr. 6-in. T hinges, 6 pr. 4-in. T hinges, 6 pr. hinges for sash in
top; locks, bolts, nails, etc.

To estimate material for a house without monitor top, use the same ground
plan, but figure on studs in passage partitions 3 {t. shorter; rafters 2 {t. longer
than the long rafters over the pens; as much less sheathing and building
paper as are required for the sides of the monitor top; and only half as many
pieces of sash.

39. The Semi=-Monitor Top House.

Fig. 15 illustrates the adaptation
of the monitor top idea to a
house facing south, but still
having two rows of pens,
and a walk in the middle.
The plan is not a good one
for permanent quarters for
laying stock. For a surplus
stock house it works very
well. Sometimes it can be
used on the site available
Fig. 15. Semi-Monitor Top House. better than any other.

40. A Scratching Shed Heuse. — 16 shows
a very popular house. The prominent feature of the plan is that it gives the
fowls a sheltered place with fresh air in abundance, and provision for exercise.
The house illustrated is 10 ft. wide, 7 ft. high in front, and 4 ft. high in rear.
Each 18 ft. section has a roosting room 8 x ro ft., and an open front scratching
shed 10x 10 ft. The relative positions of the closed and open parts of adjoin-
ing sections are reversed, bringing the parts together in pairs, two closed
rooms, then two open sheds. The cost of construction is thus diminished, and

Y-CRALT.

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26 LOLA TAA OT ATE,

the roosting rooms are warmer. The fronts of the sheds are of wire netting,
with cloth curtains (on light wooden frames hung on hinges) inside, which
are let down in stormy weather and on cold nights. Each section has a
capacity of twenty to thirty fowls.

Materials.

23 short cedar posts to go under sills.
Dimension lumber : —

5 pieces 2 x 4 in. 10 ft. long; 4 pieces 2 x 4 in. 18 ft. long;
Ig pieces 2 x 4 in. 12 ft. long; 4 pieces 2 x 3 in. 18 ft. long;
2, DIECES 2% 3 ins TOMEt. lone; 6 pieces 2 x 3 in. 14 ft. long;
SapIECeS: 2 xa zine 12 cht. sloms::
356 sq. ft.
Shea thimen es eye! se ee pea eee aie Meu, soo aE tei de SES Ln cs ear a OOORS Celle
Matchedstloorimons serra sty mein Nate 0 57) aac alee dsc nays ere Bg ASO) Glo tilts

Roofing paper to cover Uys AUMan Gece nay iaee S eammemea it Lane ici AU Ue 800 sq. ft.
120 sq. ft. 6 ft. wide wire netting, 2-in. mesh; 64 sq. ft. 4 ft. wide wire netting; 12 yds.
muslin for curtains; 4 6-light sash, 8 x 10 glass; 5 pr. 6-in T hinges; 2 pr. 3-in. T
hinges; locks, latches, nails, etc.

Nore. — Studs should be placed as indicated by the small white squares in the
diagram, rafters 2 ft. apart at centers. The plan may be changed to slightly lessen the
cost and increase a little the capacity of the house. Records of numerous flocks kept in
houses of this kind seem to show that the better plan is to have the two parts of the
section of equal size, and cover both floors with scratching material. With such an
arrangement, each part being 9 x Io ft., all studs and rafters in a house with 18 ft.
sections are placed 3 ft. apart.

41. Suggestions for Scratching Shed Houses.— The style of house
described in 440 is the one most generally used. The original plan was for
a close house, of which a part could be made an open shed at will. There is
reason to think that in principle this is the better plan, though the particular
design first given had objectionable features. In Fig. 17 are shown some
suggestions for houses in which the scratching sheds can be open or close at
will. The drawing at A represents a house with sections of different
dimensions, the first 16 ft. long, the next 24 ft. long. Each section is
divided into two equal parts, one of which can be made, practically, an open
shed by opening the door, which is 4 ft. wide in the small section, and 6 ft.
wide in the large one. The half-windows light the sheds when the doors are
closed. The design at B shows another arrangement for fronts of shed rooms
of same dimensions as at A. The doors proper are but 2 ft. wide. The half-
windows are placed z ft. from the ground. The upper. half of each front,
exclusive of the door, can be opened or closed at will. By an arrangement
of double hinging, shown in detail in Fig. 18, the shutters swing either in or
out. In winter, when it is desirable to admit the sun, the shutters swing in.
For warm weather, the shutters swing out, is an awning, excluding the sun
from the shed, shading the half-windows, and making the shed during the
heat of the day an ideal ccol place for hens. The stop over the joint between

POULTRY-CRAFT. 37

the lower edge of the shutter and the joint should be screwed
to the shutter when the shutter is wanted to swing in, and to

the jamb when the shutter swings out.

42. Scratching Shed House with a Walk.— Fig. 19
(p. 38) shows how a scratching shed house may be built with
a passage from which each pen and shed is entered without

passing through others. The pens are in two wings, running
east and west from a two story building
containing work shop, cook room and
store room. In the original plan each
wing, containing ten sections, was 1So
{t. long. In the plan here given the
length of the wings has been reduced to
bring the illustration within the limits
of the page. The walk is separated, by
a tight partition, from pens and sheds,

and is lighted by half-windows in the
‘ a north wall, which in the original plan
INI TT contained besides these openings a door
H aes = every 60 ft. With wings as short as in

the plan given, a door at the extreme
end of each wing is all that is needed.
This house has a low stone foundation.
The floors are filled to the level of the
sills with earth.

= Se
SS =
Se S]

Suggestions for Fronts of Scratching Shed Houses.

Fig. 17.

Fig. 18. Section and Inside of One End of
a Shutter as shown at B, Fig. 17. P, plate;
ss, position of stud; t, stop; hh, hinges.

1-CRAFT.

_POULTR

38

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YIM ssnoyY pays SUIYyoyeIIG yuorg uedg “6, °S14

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POULTRY-CRAFT. 29

Materials.
Dimension lumber : —

32 pieces 2 x 4 in. 18 ft. long; 8 pieces 2 x 4 in. 16 ft. long;

2 pieces 2 x 4 in. 14 ft. long; 62 pieces 2 x 3 in. 16 ft. long;

28 pieces 2 x 3 in. 14 ft. long; 44 pieces 2 x 3 in. 12 ft. long;

26 pieces 2 x Sin. 16 ft. long; 16 pieces 2 x 2 in. 10 ft. long:
2120 sq. ft.
SICAUMMINC MMe MMO ch foc. te oi oee | ct is, ae dies Nacrils Sale hake obey egal auMbey yo OOONS Cov RL.
iL aaSln@el hovoPeiayes Vom we lee eeu econ Glyn ont ace | Samara Es rin usb itt a Sc. ys beings MILLI O|e sited

Roofing paper to cover . Sa ipa OM Ree OPER is SEI ae wien ees A 5500 sq. ft.
24 6-light sash, 10 x 14 glass: 9 pr. 6-in. T hinges; 18 pr. 4-in. T hinges; locks, bolts,
nails, screws, hooks, staples, etc. For the chimney about 40 bricks for each foot in

height will be needed.

To Make the Joints at the Eaves Wind Tight.—In constructing the house
from which this plan is adapted, the builder devised a novel and effective way
of making the joint of the side walls and roof wind tight. The paper on the
sides (see Fig. 20) is lapped over

onto the first board of the roof.
A double row of shingles is then
laid, just as if the roof was to be
shingled, and the roof paper is
lapped well over the shingles.
If this plan is followed in con-
structing a house, three-fourths
M. of shingles should be added

to the bill of materials given.

Fig. 20.

43. A Poultry House with Roosts on the Warm Side. —In Fig. 21
(p. 40) is shown a house designed to combine the best features of plans already
described, with a few ideas not heretofore generally applied to poultry houses.
The radical difference between this and all other plans given, is that the roosts
are placed near the south wall and parallel to it. As is well known, the south
side of a room is, as a rule, the warmest side. The simple change in position
of the roosts gives the fowls the warmest part of the house to sleep in. To
make it possible to keep the fowls comfortably warm on the coldest nights,
and to regulate the temperature near the roosts, the roosts are enclosed in a
box, the entire front of which can be opened or closed as desired. (The boxed
roost has been used for some time by breeders of large combed varieties, but
has generally been placed either near the north wall, or in the middle of the
pen, where it obstructs the light).

By removing the roosts from the north wall and doing away with a passage,
both earth floor and litter can be removed and renewed through a half-window
in the north side of each pen. This work can be done in each pen without
disturbing the fowls in any other. The plan saves labor, earth and litter being
transferred directly from wagon to pen, or véce versa. In most houses straw
and litter are handled through the passage, or from pen to pen; earth through

40 POULTRY-CRAFT.

mae = a

SENTERO SSE
WG NGG SN INNS GN NES

SSS ee SS Se ee = =

ANGE eT ee

(eae) oom CEC ety B
aaa ae ae oe Se
ese

AAG
i a a oT et
efi ie oa
CESS eee)

onal Hm nes ee
5 fa a a a aa oe TZ
es ifs i i a ea Fo i i i fe ini Ti a Ta

a Z =<

SRE
—_ ISIE

Fig. 21. Poultry House with Roosts on South Side.— Showing in the upper drawing the exterior perspective
of a section 12 x 18 ft.; below it interior view of the south side and roost box; in the lower drawing the ground plan
in which R is the roost box; N, nests; D, dust box; F, feed troughs; the small squares indicate the positions of studs.

the south windows, it being necessary to remove a section of every fence
connecting with the house to make passage for the cart or wagon. The result
of this cumbrous way of working is that the pen floors are more or less
neglected. With this arrangement the work of keeping them in order can be
made what it should be on a well regulated plant

an odd job to be taken up
between routine tasks. The disadvantage of having no passage in a long
house is partially obviated by placing an outside door in the north wall of
every third pen (see Fig. 26). The roosts being at the south side and boxed

POULTRY-CRAFT. 41

up, it is not so n:cessary that the north wall be tight as in other houses.
These doors should, however, have outside storm doors which can be tightly
closed in the severest weather.

The house can be built with a walk as shown in the diagram, Fig. 22.
Here the walk is 3 ft. wide. (It can be wider if desired). The door between
walk and pen is at the middle of
each pen, and opposite the half-
window in the north wall. With
this arrangement it is still possible
to handle earth, etc., from pen to
wagon and from wagon to pen,
though the work is not quite so
‘easy. The expense of a walk is

Se Ce considerable in a long house, and
the additional width of the building does not increase its capacity. It is a
question for each builder whether in his case the greater general convenience
of the walk will compensate for the increased cost of the building, and some
extra labor in doing special work.

The house shown in Fig. 22 is 12 x 18 ft.: 2168q. ft. of floor space, of which
ali but that occupied by nests and dust box is available exercise space. The
whole house can be tightly closed, or with the windows and doors in the south
side open, will give all the fresh air that can be used. The doors and windows
can be opened as much or as little as desired. The position of the windows
gives the maximum of sunlight in the house, with the minimum exposure of
glass. The bottom of the roost box is the droppings board, which should
have strips of furring on the end and back edges, but not on the front edge,
and should rest on cleats on which it will slide like a wide shallow drawer
without a front. It can be removed in an instant, thus making it easy to get
at the interior of the roost box to keep it clean and free from vermin. A row
of 1-in. auger holes should be bored at the lower edge of each lower door to
allow gases to escape when the box is tightly closed. If preferred, a curtain
of burlap can be used in front of the roosts, instead of the doors. The
illustration shows a house built with sills and plates, and having both roof
and sides shingled. The cost of the house can be reduced by constructing as
in Fig. 8. The roost box is built with ends front and bottom of matched
flooring. Ordinarily the wall back of it need not be doubled, but in a very
cold climate it might be well to line both back and top of the box with
matched lumber.

Materials.

A single house of the dimensions in Fig. 21 requires :
Dimension lumber : —

2 pieces 4 x 4 in. 18 ft. long; 2 pieces 4 x 4 in. 12 ft. long;
2EPleces 2X13 in Lost longs 14 pieces 2 x 3 in. 12 ft. long;
3 pieces 2 x 3 in. 16 ft. long; i piece) 2) x73) in. 14° ft: long:

213 sq. ft.

42 POULTRY-CRAFT.

Jee LON ee dhs Mites en Ged GTN eG! alleles ol ce cian oor an oo 5 OOO Bp fis
Matched sooring.) 4 Ej: cits cami ee eae eer ceeatas) Bn eTaS) SQppente
Nootingspaiperqor sininolesstoxcoyenuquses a een ee Een 600 sq. ft.
2 pr. 6-in. T hinges; 2 pr. 4-in. T hinges; lock, bolt, nails, etc.

44. A Complete Plant Under Cover.— Asa rule the plat of a large
plant must conform to the ‘+ lay” of the land on which it is situated. It is

= | | ! 1 ‘

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nil Iz 2
tS 'f Ss
q lx &

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s
AL
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Ts

Fig. 23. Plat of Plant Arranged so that Work may all be done Under Cover in Stormy Weather.— A, central
building; BB, laying houses; CC, brooder or brooder and surplus stock houses; Yy, yards; gg, gates.

not always possible to so place the buildings that the greatest convenience in
doing the work is secured. Fig. 23 shows how, if there is available a piece
of level or gently sloping, (to the south or southeast) ground, 4oo ft. long,
east and west, and 200 ft. wide, a large poultry plant arranged to permit the
work to be done for days at a time without going from under cover, can be
placed on it. (It is, of course, understood that on this space only the build-
ings and yards are placed. There must be additional room for rearing chicks
for stock birds. While chicks can be reared in yards, the yards of this plant
would not accommodate the stock on hand during spring and early summer
months). Such an arrangement has immense advantages. The plant is very
compact. All supplies are conveniently stored. Practically every part of the
plant is accessible by wagon. But the best thing about the plan is that bad
weather never need interfere with the care of the fowls. To the uninitiated
it may seem a little thing that hens should be kept waiting for food for an

POOL LIEY=CLAL Th. 43

1S'x 36°

LOFT
IES YE’

Werk, cook and store Jour,

LOFT. MAIN FLOOR, CELLAR,

Fig. 24. Central Building of the Plant shown in Fig. 23.

A.

B, south side.

Fig. 25. Elevations of Central Building in Fig. 23.—A, east side;

' WALK . asf wide

ey!

POGL TL ECRALS..

(AKG!

000, droppings boxes, illustrated in Fig. 27.

Ground Plan of West Wings of Laying and Brooder Houses in Fig. 23.

Fig. 26.

hour or two on a winter morning,
while paths are being broken from
building to building; and that the
poultry man should occasionally be
obliged to add to his other tasks the
dead weight of a few hours snow
shoveling. One who has kept fowls
for profit through a single winter
knows that regular feeding is of the
utmost importance. He also knows
that it is at these waiting times that
hens develop such vices as egg eating
and feather pulling. He knows that
it makes a difference to the poultry
keeper whether his extra work must
be done at high pressure before the
regular day’s work begins, or can be
done more leisurely at intervals dur-
ing the day. On a plant after this
plan the only path to be made on a
snowy morning is from the dwelling
to the door of the main building.
All others can wait for fine weather
and a convenient season.

The plan provides for a central
building, A A, connecting two long
houses, B B B, for laying and breed-
ing stock, and two long brooder or
brooder and surplus stock houses,
CCC. These long houses can be
built in any style desired. The cen-
tral building is sufficiently described
in the diagrams in Fig. 24, and ele-
vations in Fig. 25.

Fig. 26 shows the adaptation of
house designs in Figs. 21 and 34,
to this general plan. All supplies.
and products are kept in the central
building. The droppings, collected
daily, are placed in boxes, Fig. 27,
distributed as at ooo, Fig. 26. As
often as necessary a wagon makes
the round of the boxes, removing

POULTRY-CRAFT. 45

the accumulated droppings. There should be a small covered opening
through the north wall at each box, that it may not be necessary to leave the

building to empty a pail of droppings.

SSE SES

Some poultry keepers have bins for grain
connected with each house much as these
droppings boxes are, though not as nu-
merous. ‘The idea is a good one, and can
be easily added here. These extra bins
should be near the ends of the long houses
furthest from the central building.

The water supply for a plant of this
kind is one of the first things to be con-

Fig. 27. Box for Storing Droppings. ‘ : ; i
S sidered. If connection can be made with

a water system the problem is simple. Failing this, there should be a well, or
cistern, from which water can be pumped to the main floor of the central
building. If a well, there might be an advantage in having a windmill and
tank so placed that water could be distributed by pressure to every part of the
plant. A comparatively inexpensive way of securing a limited supply of
water for emergency use is to place a large tank to be filled from the roof, in
the loft of the main building. This tank should be provided with an overflow
pipe, and the floor beneath it should be made strong enough to support its
weight when full of water.

Fig. 28. An Incubator Cellar—Interior View. (By courtesy of Weber Bros.)

AO POOL MT ACL ATW a.

45. Incubator Cellars.— A dry well ventilated cellar or basement is the
best place for an incubator. Machines can be run successfully in rooms
wholly above ground, but require closer attention because of greater and more
rapid variations in the temperature of the room. Where only one or two
machines are used they are oftenest kept in the cellar of the dwelling. In
case of fire this may invalidate insurance. It is better always to have a place
specially for incubators. On a large plant the incubator cellar is a necessity.
Various methods of constructing incubator cellars are shown in Figs. 24, 28,
34. An incubator cellar need not be well lighted, but provision must be
made for thorough ventilation. The air must be kept pure. Usually this is
accomplished if the cellar has arrangements for ventilation about as in a good
dwelling house cellar.

Fig. 29. Exterior View of a Long Brooder House. (By courtesy of E. M. & W, Ferguson).

46. Brooder Houses.— The style of brooder house used will depend on
the system of brooding adopted. If the continuous pipe system is used, the
brooder house will, in its general features, resemble the long poultry house
with passage and single row of pens. Fig. 29 is an exterior view of such a

2

Fig. 30. Ground Plan of a Long Brooder House — Pipe System — single row of pens.

POGE TRIACRAPT. 47

house. Fig. 30 showsa ground plan, and Fig. 31 a cross section, of a plain
style brooder house very commonly used. It is 13 ft. wide, and any length
desired. The walk is excavated to a depth of 18 inches, thus giving a passage
along the north side of a house only 44 {t. high at the eaves. The walk is 34
ft. wide; the brooder 30 in. wide. Each
pen is 5 x 74 ft. The partitions between
the pens is of board 1 ft., wire netting 2 ft.,
making the total height 3 ft. The partition
between the pens and the walk is at the
inner edge of the brooder. This brooder
is really a long box containing, generally,

four pipes—two flow and two return —
Fig. 31. Cross Section of Long Brooder House connecting with hot water heater, placed in

es cen oine.c tow Of bens: ‘a pit several feet below the level of the
floor, at one end of the house. (In very long houses the heater is sometimes
placed in the middle). At the end near the heater the pipes are about 4 in.
from the floor. They rise gradually until, at the further end, they are 8 in.
from the floor. They pass through holes bored at the proper height in each
cross partition of the brooder, (the partitions of the brooder correspond to
the pen partitions), and require no other supports. The top, or cover, of each
section of the brooder is of matched boards held together with cleats, and
lined on the under side with building paper. These covers are sometimes
hinged; sometimes rest on cleats nailed to the sides of the brooder. The side
of the brooder next the walk is a solid board. The side communicating with
the pens is of woolen cloth with slits at short intervals to permit the chicks
passing in and out. The pens nearest the heater, where the pipes are lowest,
are used for the smallest chicks. As each hatch comes off the whole lot of
chicks is advanced one or more pens, being driven through small doors in the
partitions between the pens.

In the plan shown in Fig. 32 the pipes are laid level, and the smaller chicks
brought near the heat by the use of movable floors or by filling up the brooder ~
floors with chaff. This plan is preferred by many, as it does away with
moving the chicks to accommodate each new lot. If pens are all of a size,
the lots must be divided as the chicks grow. In some houses the pens are
made of varied widths to provice for lots nearly equal in number, but varying
in size. In the colder sections of the country many have put pipes along the
north wall of the brooder house, because they found it difficult to keep up the
temperature on cold nights. Their difficulty was due to using too small a
heater; and the builder should take care to avoid their mistake instead of
imitating their way of correcting it.

47. Nursery Brooders in a Long House. — Instead of starting chicks
under pipes a few inches from the floor, many use nursery brooders. These
are small separate brooders heated by lamps. They are purchased complete

48 POUL TRY-CRAFT.

from manufacturers, and are usually nearly, if not quite, like the brooders
used for brooding in detached houses. When these brooders are used in
connection with the pipe system, a common plan is to have the heater near

, : Ae is
the middle of a long house, pipes running one encanta.
ENTRANCE

way from the heater, and the pens in the opposite
direction being used for nursery brooders — one
in each pen.

CHIMNEY

(a PIPES LeaoinGs 1U
ano FROM Bork
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BASCMEN)

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Puy ae eal

SECTION THROUGA

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LEN Pies

gern SECTION THREUCH C-D

By Courtesy Reliable Poultry Journal.

Fig. 32. Brooder House with Incubator Cellar,— Main house, 16 x 52 ft.; wing, 8 x 16 ft.; basement, 16 x 16 ft.;
hall, 4 ft. wide; pipes 8 in. from the floor, six one-inch flow pipes; one two-inch return pipe. House double
boarded with paper between. Cost complete, about $250.

POUL TRY-CRAFT. 49

48. Houses for Separate, or Detached Brooders. — The pipe brooder
house can be used only to brood chicks; its arrangement makes it unsuitable
for housing stock. JBesides this, the brooder being built into the house, if
once it becomes infested with lice
there is great difficulty in getting rid
of them. Some poultrymen use
detached brooder houses like that
shown in Fig. 33. In this is placed
a small brooder, which is removed

when the chicks no longer need the

heat. Roosts may then be put in,

and the chicks kept in the same

, house until grown. Fig. 34 shows

Fig. 33. A Detached Brooder House. how this simple detached brooder

house has been developed into a long house with a separate compartment for

each brooder. This house has no walk. Communication between pens 1s

through doors, near the front in the partitions. There are yards, as wide as

the sections of the house, and as long as wanted, and the house can be used
for laying stock, for surplus cockerels, or for fattening stock.

49. Fences. — The fence question is a very simple one. The fence
must be high enough to prevent the fowls from flying over; strong enough to
stand a stiff wind storm without damage. Contiguous yards in which adult
males are kept must have at least the first 2 ft. in height, of tight boards.
The common fencing materials are lath, wire netting, and woven wire.
Wire fences give best satisfaction. Lath fences are sometimes preferred for
the shade they afford. It is better to use wire, and make shelters in the yards.
For movable fences wire is now always used. The height of fence needed
is: for Asiatics, 3 to 4 ft.; for American varieties, 5 to 6 ft. ; for small breeds,
5 to 6 ft., according to size of yard; small yards require higher fences. If
fowls are not kept in bounds by a 6-ft. fence their wings should be clipped,
or the run covered with netting of 3-in. mesh.

ieencaa is
A:

TUL)

aul

i}

Hi
x i

|

!

Fig. 34. A Brooder and Surplus Stock House.

50 POSELR!= ChAT:

50. Hints to Builders. — How Much Room per Fowl.—The rule so
often given, 10 sq. ft. house floor space, and 100 sq. ft. yard space to each
fowl, is not generally adhered to by poultry keepers. In practice it is found
that small flocks need proportionally more room than large ones. Large hens
need more room than small ones, though being less restive in confinement,
the difference is not strictly in proportion to size. If fowls have to be closely
housed for long periods they need more house room than if they can be out of
doors nearly all the time. Some house plans give greater capacity than
others, but this depends more on position of doors and windows, and
arrangement of interior fixtures, than on actual floor dimensions.

Flouse Reoom. — Floor Space. —F¥or hens of the medium sized breeds, in
flocks of twelve or more, the allowance of floor space should be 5 to 6 sq. ft.
per hen. For smaller flocks the space per hen should increase as the number
of hens decreases. Practically as large a house is needed for eight or ten hens
as for twelve. This rule may safely be used in planning houses of any
required average capacity. Inexperienced poultry keepers should keep on the
safe side of it when stocking houses; for their judgment on the matters
referred to as affecting the application of a general rule, is apt to be faulty,
and most apt to err in the direction of overcrowding, which is a serious
evil.

Cubic Space. —No rule for this need be given. ‘The plain rule for height
of buildings, given as axzom 3, under ‘‘ Making Plans and Estimates,”
being followed, a house will have abundant air space for all the fowls its
floor will accommodate.

Yard Room.— lf yards are to be in permanent sod, the rule of 100 sq. ft.
per hen is about right. If other provision is made for green food, the yards
being simply exercise grounds, estimates for yards may be made on a basis of
25 to 30 sq. ft. per fowl. An intermediate system of yarding is sometimes
used. This gives each pen of hens a small exercise yard, and to every two
pens a grass yard. This last is generally smaller than could be kept in sod
were the hens constantly on it, and the hens are given the run of the grass for
only a few hours daily.

Making Plans and Estimates.— While not requiring much mechanical
skill, economical poultry house construction calls for some ingenuity in plan-
ning to use materials without waste. Plans given in this chapter are drawn
to scale, and may be used as working plans when no changes are made; but
it is advised that for all but the most simple constructions plans be re-drawn
on an enlarged scale. The mere drawing of the working plan gives the
novice in building a better idea of what he has to do, and how best to go
about it, and working from a plan he is less likely to make the numerous and
common mistakes of amateur carpenters. If changes are made new plans
must be drawn. One-fourth inch to the foot is a good scale for house plans ;
for plats of large plants a scale of one-sixteenth inch to the foot is convenient.

IXO GLE TN Fe NOV g Wa Ile 51

In making plans a few simple rules, which may well be called axzovzs,
should be observed :

(1.)—Permanent quarters for stock should be on the ground floor. Second
floor space may be used for temporary quarters for surplus stock, for
fitting exhibition birds, for storage, etc.; but not much second floor
space is needed.

(2.)— Walls should be perpendicular. A sloping front is a bad fault.

(3.)—A house should be as high as necessary to accommodate those work-
ing in it; but not higher. Additional height increases the cost of the
house, and increases the difficulty of regulating the temperature.

Ventilators are not needed. A poultry house can be aired just as a
dwelling house is — by opening doors and windows as much or as little as the
weather conditions require.

Buying MJatertals.— Lumber ordered should be of such lengths that there
will be the least possible waste in using it. It is safest to order a little more
than is needed. This insures against delays from shortages of material.
What is not used can usually, if purchased of a local dealer, be returned. If
not returnable it should be stored away for the time — sure to come — when
it will be needed. | Refuse to accept any and every piece of dimension lumber
that is not straight, free from bad knots, and of the full length required. See
to it that the sheathing delivered is of full surface measure. In estimating
the amount of matched flooring, or lapped siding, needed to cover a given
surface, make allowance for matching, or lapping, by adding one-fifth to the
surface measure. Shingles of good quality are cheapest at first cost, as well
as in the long run. The builders’ rule is a thousand shingles laid 4 in. to the
weather, to the square (100 sq. ft.) If the sheathing on poultry house roofs
is laid close, and a thin sheathing paper used under the shingles, shingles may
be laid 44 or 5 in. to the weather. On the sides of buildings they may be
5 or 6 in. to the weather. Taking both sides and roof into consideration,
a safe estimate for shingles will be, a thousand to every 120 sq. ft.

Prepared Roofing Papers.— These vary in quality. Those advertised
especially for poultry and farm buildings, are the best. Common tarred
sheathing paper is not suitable for exterior use. Tarred felt may be used
outside, and if protected with a coat of tar will last for some time, but is very
much inferior to the specially prepared papers. ‘Though the best papers are
not as good as shingles, they are a boon to poultrymen with small capital ;
properly put on and regularly painted, they last a 'ony time, and at first cost
are much cheaper than shingles. Paper can also be used to cover old
buildings not suitable for shingling. Dealers in builders’ supplies generally
carry stocks of roofing papers. Sometimes people hesitate to buy the special
brand they want because the local dealer does not keep it, and the factory
is so far away that freight would add too much to the cost. Manufacturers
usually have distributing agents in different sections. Write to headquarters

52 POOL TRA CALA:

for information. The request will be referred to the nearest agent. Different
makes of paper vary in width, and in the quantity in a roll. When a
particular kind of paper is to be used it may be well to make the dimensions
of the building suit the paper. A change of a few inches in a measurement
of the original plan sometimes saves material and labor without appreciably
affecting the capacity of the house.

Paint. — Roofing papers and all exposed (outside) wood surfaces, except
shingles, should be painted. Shingles on roofs of slight pitch last longer
unpainted. Pure lead and oil makes the best paint. After this come the
prepared paints ground in oil, of the consistency of keg lead, and to be
thinned with oil. The best cheap paints are made of venetian red, yellow
ochre, or brown earth paint, (often called mineral paint), mixed with boiled
linseed oil. The red and yellow can be bought either in dry form or ground
in oil. The brown is usually to be had only in the dry form. Paint, when
applied, should be of such consistency that it works freely, but does not

SC sepals?

POULTRY-CRAFT. 53

CHAP Th E-R al v.

Poultry Fixtures.

51. Roosts. — The reader will have noticed in the plans where the height
of the roost is indicated the roosts are placed low down; he will also’ have
observed that when more than one roost is used the roosts are on the same
level. There are several reasons for low roosts. Fowls of the heavy breeds
cannot fly to a high roost. Fowls of all but the lightest breeds often injure
their feet by jumping from a high roost to a hard floor. When droppings
boards are used they should be tolerably low down, both for convenience in
cleaning, and that the least possible portion of dust from them may be
breathed in by the person doing the work. The roost being but a few inches
above the board, low roosts are most common, even for Leghorns and
Minorceas. The object of having all roosts on the same level is to prevent
fowls crowding one another from the roosts, as they do when the roosts are
on different levels, and the fowls all trying to get on the highest. The
amount of roost room per fowl varies with the size of the fowl. Asa rule,
fowls sit close together on the roosts, even in hot weather, and when there is
room to spare. For Leghorns 6 to 7 in., for Wyandottes and Plymouth
Rocks 7 to 9 in., for Brahmas and Cochins § to ro in., will be safe estimates,
The roosts should be about 8 in. from the droppings board, and, unless it
extends clear across a pen, should be a little shorter than the board. Some
use 2 x 2 in. scantling for roosts, others’ prefer wider stuff, especially for
heavy fowls. For short wide roosts, inch stuff 4 or 5 in. wide will do. For
long roosts, stuff must be thicker, or the weight of the fowls causes it to sag
in the middle. The upper edges of the roost should be slightly rounded.

52. Droppings Boards.— These may be of matched flooring, or of
sheathing surfaced on one side. Strips of furring 2 in. wide are generally
nailed to the edges of the board to prevent the droppings being scattered.
For a single roost, the board should be 18 or 20 in. wide; for two roosts,
about 3 ft. wide. Droppings boards are a great convenience in a well kept
house. A neglected house is better without them. If droppings are allowed
to accumulate, the boards become saturated with liquid manure, and being so
close under the fowls, make bad conditions worse.

53. Nests.— On some of the best equipped plants the nests in the laying
pens are soap boxes placed on the floor in the corner. These answer admir-

54 POULTRIY-CRAFT.

ably as long as there are no egg
eaters in the pens. Such nests may
also be used for sitters, but where
many hens are set it is difficult to

Fig. 35. Dark Nests to go under Roost Platform. manage them in the open nests.
Fig. 35 shows a bank of dark nests to go under a roost platform. Fig. 36
shows how dark nests may be constructed to attach to the wall at a suitable
height from the floor, thus saving

floor space. This nest is mov-
able. The sloping top prevents
hens perching on it. Fig. 37
shows .a good nest for a sitting
hen. Fig. 38 shows similar nests
built in pairs, and with movable
front to confine the hens to the

nests at the will of the keeper.
Fig. 39 shows how nests may be
placed in a partition and each
nest connected at will ae either Fig. 36. Dark Nest to hang on Wall. A, exterior view;
of two pens. The particular ad-_ B, interior view; a, mortised block to hold nest in place.
vantage of these reverszble nests is that they do away with the changing of
the broody hens to new nests. Fig. 40 shows how the fronts of the nests
are made. Covered nest boxes should be not less than 12 in. high, (14 in. is
better), and from r2 to 14 in. square, according to the size of the hens.

Patent Nest Boxes.—Nest arrangements designed
5 no oom to show which hens are laying, and also to keep lay-
ila it Hl a ing records of individual hens, cannot be described
if ia | | i or illustrated here. The best of them are patented.
i cul i The others.do not meet general approval. Those
rr) )~SS”~*”*é«@~:SC Wishing: such nests will find them advertised in the
poultry papers. They are not expensive, and, once

Fig. 37. Nest for a Sitting Hen, Used, are considered indispensable.

54. Feed Troughs.— The common V-shaped trough is the cheapest and
most easily made. A trough 3 ft. 4 in. long may be made from a 1o-in. board
ac 4 ft. long, at a cost of about fiye Seis:

To make such a trough cut a piece 8 in.
long from the board: cut this again

S_=(e= (Sa
CSRS EA WR

Fig. 38. Double Nest Box for Sitters. Fig. 39. Reversible Nests to go in partition between pens.

POULTRIY-CRAFT. 55

lengthwise, making two pieces each
5) x O.1n., | hese, aje for the; ends.
Cut the remainder of the board in
two, lengthwise, making one piece
44 in. wide, the other 54 in. wide.
Nail the wide piece to the narrow

Fig. 40. Front of Reversible Nests, showing nests at 00, 5
open; atss, closed. one; nail on the ends. Many poul-

trymen use a shallow flat-bottomed box trough, 6 or 8 in. wide. A labor
saving trough of this kind is made by using for the sides pieces 4 or 5 in. wide
nailed at the middle to the edges of the
bottom, thus making a reversible trough.

A trough on the floor of a pen catches
some litter and dust, which have to be
removed before food is placed in it.

This is usually effected, with an open
trough, by turning it over. The revers-
ible trough saves the movement of turn-

ing the trough back — quite a saving in
a year on a large plant. Fig. 41 shows
two feed troughs designed to keep fowls
from getting in the troughs and fouling
the food with their feet. Such troughs
should be used if soft food is allowed to stand before the fowls. In a clean
house and for fowls fed only what mash they will eat ‘‘ clean and quick,” the
plain troughs are just as good. Those who want something nicer than the
homemade trough of the practical poultryman will find several good feed
troughs on sale.

Fig. 41. Feed Troughs.

55. Drinking Vessels. — There are a number of different styles of drink-
ing fountains made especially for fowls, on the market. Many poultry keepers
prefer open drinking vessels. These may be of iron, galvanized iron, granite
ware or tin. Objections to the use of tin drinking vessels because oxide of
tin is a poison, are very far fetched. The amount of poison a fowl would take
from the drinking water is infinitesimal. It is not advised to buy tin drinking
vessels, —for in the end they are most expensive,—but often it is found
convenient to use as drinking vessels tinware discarded for kitchen purposes.
In a modern poultry house the water pans are placed on shelves, high enough
from the floor to keep the ‘‘ rough” of the dirt out, either in the hall partitions
or in partitions between pens. They are sometimes protected by slats, but
such an arrangement does not favor dispatch in cleaning and refilling vessels.
Devices of this kind are often strongly recommended by those accustomed to
their use, though the benefits are, all things considered, questionable. No
matter what arrangement is made to keep coarse dirt out of the drinking pans,
the fine dust, which is the objectionable and more injurious dirt, settles in them,
and should be removed as often as fresh water is given.

IKOXGPL HAT I CICAU ATE:

OV

Gn

56. Receptacles for Grit and Shell.— One of the most convenient of
these is a metal trough, like a piece of the water gutter used under the eaves
of buildings. This can be either attached to the wall or placed in a partition.
A similar grit trough is easily made of wood, by making a short V-shaped
trough with the angle of the sides very acute. In one side holes can be bored
by which to hang the trough to nails driven into the wall at a suitable height
from the floor. Boxes for grit and shell are sometimes made with hopper-like
receptacles for a store of grit, the bottom of the box being a tray into which
the grit feeds from the hopper as fast as taken from the tray.

Fig. 43. A-Shaped Coop with Pen and Movable

Shelter Board.
Fig. 42. Common A-shaped Coop.

57. Coops for Broody Hens. — A small coop built into a corner of each
laying pen, close to the roof, is a common provision for breaking up broody
hens. Suchacoop should be triangular. The outside wall forms one side, the
cross partition the other. The front should be of slats, one or two of them
being movable to admit the hens. Detached coops, having slat bottoms are
often used, and are by some preferred, because the hens have to roost on the
slats, and cannot continue brooding, as some hens will, in a corner of the

coop.

58. Coops for Little Chicks.—Of these there is an almost endless
variety, conforming generally to one of two plans; they are either A-shaped or
box coops. Fig. 42 shows a common A-shaped coop, without floor or coop-
pen for the hen. Fig. 43 shows another style of A-coop with partly closed
front, coop-pen, and movable shelter board to keep out sun and rain. This
coop may be made either
with or without floor. A
permanent floor in a coop

of this shape is objection-
—_ able because of the difii-
| Heal (2. 5 culty of keeping the corners

a Li ct
= aT.
Todo ooo
ps

between floor and_ sides
clean. This can be over-
come by using a movable
floor, which is easily made
Fig. 44. Convenient Box Coop with Knock-down Pen. @ @lacls oni grooves formed
by cleats near the bottom, (inside), of the sides of the roof. The coop from
which the illustration was taken was of matched flooring, the sides of the
roof 22 x 28 in., the angle between them a right angle; the coop pen 4 ft. long.

LAOS TRANG RAL. 57

In Fig. 44 is shown a cheap and convenient box coop with ** knock-down”
coop-pen. This coop is 22 x 24 in.— outside measure,— on the ground ; 24 in.
high in front, and 16 in. high in rear. When made of these dimensions and
of ro-in. boards the waste of material amounts to almost nothing. In the coop
illustrated the standard of the door moves in a slot cut in the roof. The roof
is nailed fast. The coop is cleaned by tipping the dirt to the back, then to
corner opposite the door, then out through the door, the hen being meantime
confined to the pen by a screen of lath placed across the end left open by the
tipping back of the coop. Complete ventilation is insured by boring large
auger holes in the door and in the upper part of the front; or, a crack an inch

Fig. 45. Cat and Hawk Proof Coops. (By courtesy of “A Few Hens.”)

wide may be left clear across the front. For spring and summer use it is
better to leave the joints, between boards on the sides, uncovered... The
joints in the roof should be covered with strips of lath or batten. The slide
door can be placed outside if desired. Coops of this style are often made
with hinged roofs, sometimes with only a part of the roof, or the lower half of
the back on hinges to allow the coop being cleaned without being moved. A
point to be always observed in making a coop of this kind is: if the roof is
nailed fast, the door must be next a corner, to facilitate cleaning. The coop
pen shown in the figure is 4 ft. long, 2 ft. high, 2 ft. wide between the side
rails. The top and bottom rails are of 1-in stuff 2 in. wide. The sides and
end are made separate; then the end is nailed to the sides, cross braces of lath

S) LOCE LTR CRAL.

or

nailed to the lower edges of the top side rails, the laths put on the top, the last
lath at the open end being 4 in. from the ends of the side rails; a single strip
of lath is nailed to the lower edge of the bottom side rails 4 in. from the end,
and the pen is complete. When coop and pen are placed together, the ends
of the side rails overlap the sides of the coop, and fitting snugly, hold the pen
firmly in place. The coop is taken apart by simply taking off the top laths,
removing braces, and knocking out the end. The spaces between the slats
should be: on top, 3 in.3; on sides, 24 in. for medium to small hens, 3 in. for
medium to large ones. The material for a coop and pen as shown in the
figure will cost about fifty cents.

Cat and Hawk Proof Coop.—Fig. 45 shows a good coop to use where
cats and hawks are troublesome. The feature of the coop is the pen 2 ft. wide,
2 ft. high, and 12 ft. long, of lath and covered with 1-inch mesh wire netting.
Moved to new ground every day or two, this coop makes it possible to raise
chicks without loss, where, with ordinary coops, losses from the causes
mentioned would be ruinous. Both houses and pen are ‘¢knock-downs.”
The house coop is made of light, 3-in. lumber, each surface making one fzece.
Strips of lath are used as cleats to hold together the boards making a piece.
When the coop is set up the pieces are secured with screws. Sucha coop,
with pen, costs, including labor, about five dollars.

59. Roosting Coop for Growing Chicks.— Fig. 46 shows a roosting
coop of the general type used for growing stock when on summer range in
fields and meadows. The front is
sometimes all of lath or netting,
sometimes boarded part way down,
and sometimes made close with tight
door and movable window. A coop
with the front last mentioned can be
used in cold weather. These roost-

Fig. 46. Roosting Coop for Growing Chicks. ing coops are usually without floors.
They should be of a size easily handled —6 to 8 ft. long, about 3 ft. wide,
2 to 24 ft. high in rear, and 3 to 34 ft. high in front. Two roosts are placed
in each pen about a foot from the ground. Coops of this kind can be bought

in knock-down bundles at reasonable prices.

60. Incubators.— The large poultry keeper takes it for granted that
incubators are to be a part of his equipment. A few of the older breeders,
whose trade is principally in stock and exhibition birds, still hatch with hens ;
but for producing broilers and pullets in quantities for early layers, the
artificial is the reliable method. On most large plants where hens are used
their work is complementary to that of the machines. The small poultry
keeper is often at a loss to know which method of hatching to use. It depends
on the person as much as on circumstances. Some people cannot run an

POUL TRY-CRAFT. 9

Sal

incubator, or a machine of any kind, for three weeks without having some-
thing go wrong. Again, there are those who ‘‘ have no luck” hatching with
hens, yet are fairly successful with machines. So that it is difficult to frame
a rule which can be uniformly applied. It may be said, however, that a
poultry plant, though small, which is concerned with the production of early
layers, or is stocked mostly with hens of non-sitting breeds, ought not to be
dependent on hens for hatching. And, considering the degree of efficiency to
which incubators have been brought, the practice of most progressive poultry-
men, and the tendency toward a more general use of artificial methods, it is
safe to advise that whenever more than two or three hundred chickens are to
be hatched the incubator should be the main reliance. ‘To the considerations
named, add that the incubator is always ready for work. It is seen that even
those who hatch annually less than two hundred chicks may find an incubator
invaluable. Though in many cases hatching with hens is cheaper, and there
are times— (as in hatching small lots of eggs from different pens, or of
different varieties) when a machine cannot well be used, a poultry keeper
entirely dependent on hens for hatching is in a bad fix when the hens fail
him. Delay in getting broody hens is one of ‘the commonest causes of loss
and disappointment in small poultry yards.

It is wiser to buy an incubator than to attempt to make one. Good
incubators are sold at such low prices that there is little inducement to risk a
homemade machine, though it were cheaper, which is to say the least, doubt-
ful. The selection of a machine need not be the perplexing question some
make it. Results with the best machines do not differ greatly. There are,
to be sure, poor machines on the market; but it is easy to learn what machines
are in use on the large market poultry plants where poor machines are not
tolerated. If the beginner has to learn, unassisted, to run his machine, it will
matter little which of the popular makes he buys. If a particular machine is
being operated in his vicinity by some one who will give him instruction in
incubator management, it is clearly to his advantage to buy a machine of
that make.

61. Brooders.— Brooders are used even more generally than incubators.
Many hatch with hens, and rear in brooders. Where incubators are used
brooders are used as a matter of course. Brooder houses are an important
part of a large plant. For small operations, either a small pipe system, an
indoor brooder— ina house pen, or a detached brooder house — or an outdoor
brooder, which needs no house, is used. What was said of homemade
incubators is equally true of homemade brooders. Brooders can be purchased
either direct from the manufacturers, or through dealers in poultry supplies.
Pipe systems for any size of house desired are sold complete with full
instructions for putting up, and sometimes with detailed plans of houses best
suited for use with the system. In buying separate brooders it is well to
~emember that manufacturers usually overrate the capacity of brooders, that

60 VNOMGIE SIGH ACIS AIA TEs

the use of brooders of large capacity is not generally approved by experts,
and that allowance must be made for the growth of chicks.

62. Feed Cookers.— Wherever a large stock of hens is kept, provision
should be made for cooking the mash. On plants where a steam boiler is
used, food is cooked in steam jacket kettles. Where steam is not available,
set kettles —or, more commonly of late years, feed cookers, specially con-
structed stoves with large boilers—are used. For baking johnnycake for
chicks, an oil or gas stove with oven may be used.

63. Feed Mixers. — Patented machines for mixing feed, either wet or
dry, are on sale. Poultrymen who mix mill stuffs in proportions to suit
themselves, will find it worth while to examine them.

64. Bone Cutters. —It is often hard to decide whether to use a bone
cutter or buy prepared meat foods. Green cut bone is considered the best
cut food of the kind; but it is not always possible to get fresh bone regularly,
nor is it always economy for the poultryman to spend time and strength in
running a bone cutter. Where the commercial products can be had without
the addition of heavy freight bills to the cost price, it is more satisfactory to
use them; elsewhere it is better to use the bone cutter. Many poultrymen cut
as much green bone as they can, and also use prepared foods.

65. Grit Crushers. —There are few places where, if the commercial
grits are not on sale, a natural substitute cannot be found. Wherever there is
a gravel bed grit ig easy to get. In the far west many poultry keepers use the
coarse gravel from the large ant hills for grit. For those who must manu-
facture the grit they use, it is better, and in the end cheaper, to buy a grit
crusher than to use primitive methods of grit making. The cost of the
machines is small.

66. Hay Cutters are indispensable where many fowls are kept. On
farms the hay for the hens can be cut in the large hay cutter gauged to its
shortest cut. Ifa cutter is to be bought to cut hay for hens, one of the small
machines made for poultrymen is preferable.

67. Miscellaneous.
the preceding paragraphs, a poultryman’s outfit includes: pails, for feed and

In addition to the things specially mentioned in

water; scoops and spoons, or trowels for feeding; large coal buckets, for
collecting droppings; hoes, rakes, shovels, forks, brooms, a wheelbarrow, etc.

Note. — Articles used particularly in dressing and marketing fowls will be described
in the chapter devoted to those topics. ,

POGIEERANCTALS. 61

CHAPTER VY.

Fowls Described.*

68. Kinds of Fowls.— Common or Mongrel. —Ol\d dunghill stock
more or less improved by irregular infusions of pure blood.

Fowls produced by indiscriminate crossings of pure breeds.

Cross bred, — produced from cross matings of pure breeds — usually applied
only to the offspring of a first cross — further crossing producing either grades
or mongrels, according as it is systematic or indiscriminate.

Grade, — produced by systematic crosses of a pure breed on another pure
breed, or on common stock.

Pure bred, —thoroughbred, —the product of a union of typical specimens
of its breed or variety, which, when mated to the breed type of the opposite
sex produces offspring of both sexes true to type.

Standard bredt—bred to conform to the description of the breed or
variety in the American Poultry Association’s}{ Standard.

*Note.— In the poultryman’s vocabulary the word ‘‘ fowl,” used without a qualifying
word, as water-fowl, gucnea-fowl, always means ‘‘chicken”—specifically an adult
chicken; while the words ‘‘ chicken,” and ‘‘chick,” are applied to the young of the
fowl.

+NorTe. —The terms, ‘standard bred,” and ‘‘ thoroughbred,” are often used as
synonyms, and in many cases are properly so used. Nearly all varieties which become
at all popular are ‘‘ admitted” to the Standard, and nearly all the varieties described in
the Standard are thoroughbred. There are, however, pure breeds not recognized by the
American Poultry Association, and fowls of recognized varieties may be pure in blood
and well bred without conforming strictly to Standard requirements. The Standard
color requirements for some varieties are such that the best types of the different sexes
are produced from different matings, only one parent in each case being of the type
desired in the offspring. Fowls bred in this way are in reality first crosses of distinct
types of the same pure breed. There are some breeders of all varieties for which the
system of double matings is used who use single matings, and produce stock that is
thoroughbred and standard bred —though not, perhaps, reaching as high a degree of
excellence as stock from the double matings.

Recognition by the American Poultry Association is not an indication of the popularity

62 INO GIG ITE IAN CIRAW ET.

69. Comparison of the Kinds of Fowls.— With other than pure bred
fowls the progressive poultry keeper has little to do. With common or
mongrel fowls he concerns himself least of all. That some mongrel hens are
healthier and more prolific than some high class stock, is true. The converse
of the proposition is equally true. As between-all common hens and all pure
bred hens, there is little to be said for common hens. The experience ot
most of those who are thoroughly familiar with both classes of stock has been
that, with rare exceptions, they could get better practical results from thor-
oughbreds taken at random than from the most carefully selected common
stock. The pure bred fowl is the result of selections extending through a
long course of years. However faulty selection may at times have been from
the economic point of view, the general result has been infinitely better than
the zatural selection which was given free course in the common fowls. It
is not advised that a flock of mongrels doing well or fairly well be discarded
out of hand, and a new beginning made with pure bred stock. It is advised
that the mongrels be either graded up to the type of thoroughbred best suited
to the keeper’s purpose, or be gradually replaced with thoroughbred stock.

As between cross and pure bred fowls, it may be said that rarely is there
produced a cross the good qualities of which cannot be paralleled in one or
more pure breeds. Grades having three-fourths or more of the blood of a
pure breed will usually be on a par in utility qualities with the average of that
breed. Crossing and grading are ordinarily to be resorted to only for the
purpose of utilizing stock on hand. They are emergency methods. A poul-
tryman who continuously produces fowls of impure blood throws away one
of his best chances of profit; for in the long run it costs no more to produce
pure stock; and while sometimes pure stock of good quality has to be sold at
the market price for poultry, it is certain that crosses and grades will not
at any time bring much more than market prices — not often enough more to
pay for advertising and cooping for shipment. It is the hereditary fixedness
of certain desirable qualities and characters that gives the popular varieties of
pure bred fowls — (whether bred for utility or fancy)—their superiority as
money makers.

or value of a breed. Breeds and varieties which never become popular with any class of
poultry keepers are recognized in the Standard, while useful breeds quite widely popular
are rejected. Of more than seventy varieties of fowls, (excluding bantams ), described in
’ the Standard, less than half are popular,—7?. e., varieties commonly bred; and of these
less than half, again, are popular in the sense of being commonly and extensively bred,—
bred by those who keep fowls on a large scale.

ENoTE. — American Poultry Association, —an organization of poultry breeder. and
fanciers, composed of persons who, their applications having been approved by vote of
the association, become life members on payment of a fee of $10. Though not a
representative organization, its Standard descriptions are accepted by nearly all poultry-
men, even those who breed for economic purposes breeding to Standard types as closely
as they can without sacrificing utility qualities —as would be done in some cases by strict
adherence to the Standard.

POCLTRIAGRALL: 63

70. Relative Merits of Pure Bred Fowls.— It was said of situation
that fowls could be kept wherever men could live. It might be said of the
different varieties of fowls, that there is hardly one that could not be made
commercially profitable even by market poultrymen and farmers. People
who keep fowls for profit want not profit merely, but the greatest possible
profit. The common experience of poultry keepers has sifted from the great
number of varieties the few which with ordinarily good care and housing will
yield the largest and surest returns. These are usually spoken of as the
‘* practical breeds.”” It will be seen as the varieties are described that often a
single feature makes a variety objectionable for some purposes. ‘This point
will be considered more fully in the next chapter. It is mentioned here that
the reader may keep it in mind when making comparisons of varieties. He
will thus better understand how it is that the money making ranks of some
excellent varieties are lower than their merits seem to deserve, and why it is
that of two varieties nearly equal in average merit one may be very much
better adapted to some special purpose than the other.

71. Terms Explained.— A few terms used in describing varieties need
explanation.

Fowls are often classed according to economic qualities, as ‘‘ ege breeds,”
‘* meat breeds,” ‘‘ general purpose breeds.” Such terms describe the prom-
inent characteristic of the common type of a breed, and indicate the purpose
for which flocks of the breed are commonly kept. Of so-called ‘‘ egg breeds,”
the most typical examples are Leghorns and Minorcas; of the ‘‘ meat breeds,”
there are three distinct types represented by the Brahma, the Dorking and the
Cornish Indian Game; of ‘‘general purpose breeds,” Plymouth Rocks and
Wyandottes are familiar illustrations. It must not be thought that fowls of
the ‘*‘ meat breeds” are not good layers; or that good poultry cannot be pro-
duced from the egg breeds; or that ‘‘ general purpose breeds” unite in
perfection all the good qualities of domestic fowls. The ‘‘ general purpose
fowl” is a combination fowl of a type intermediate between the ‘‘egg” type
and the Brahma ‘‘ meat” type. General purpose breeds combine a high
degree of excellence as egg producers with great merit as table poultry, and
especially with adaptability to being fitted for the market at any time after
reaching broiler size. Some breeders of Brahmas and Cochins breed fowls
which for profitable egg production crowd the best ‘‘ egg breeds,” and some
breeders of the Mediterranean varieties prefer a type of fowl which is easily
made profitable as poultry. Thus the choice of breeds is not always as
limited as the general descriptions would imply.

Very hardy is applied to the breeds best able to resist exposure and
unfavorable conditions. //ardy is applied to breeds which under ordinary
conditions are generally free from disease. Fairly hardy is used to describe
breeds requiring a little extra attention to keep them free from disease.
Rather delicate. delicate, and very delicate, are used to express, as nearly as

64 POOLE LRA = CLALIT:

possible, the relative vigor of the less hardy breeds. All these terms should
be understood as of general application describing the average of the breed,
not specimens or flocks noticeably better or worse than the average.

2 ?

So the words, ‘‘ sitters,” and ‘‘ non-sitters,” must be understood as express-
ing general characteristics. It is doubtful whether there are any breeds
strictly non-sitters. In nearly all of the se-called non-sitting varieties hens
are sometimes found which show the desire to incubate. This does not
necessarily indicate impurity of blood. In some of the ‘* sitting” varieties

?

are whole families or ‘‘ strains”? in which the desire to incubate is nearly

lost.

Eggs are usually classed according to color of shell, as ‘* white” or
‘*brown.” In the white egg breeds the shells of the eggs are not pure white,
but slightly tinted with a cream or flesh color. Hens of these breeds rarely
lay eggs that are even a very light brown. In the colors of shells of the eggs
of the brown egg breeds there is great variety, —tints ranging from a rich
brown to creamy white. The very dark shelled eggs are usually character-
istic of strains bred especially for market eggs.

Descriptions of Pure Bred Fowls.+
AMERICAN CLASS.

72. Plymouth Rocks.— General Description.—Hardy ; general purpose ;
brown egg breed; sitters; medium to large in size. Standard weights, cock
9% lbs., cockerel 8 lbs., hen 7% lbs., pullet 6% lbs. The typical Plymouth
Rock is a compactly built, strong, but not coarse boned fowl, the general
contour of the body presenting the ‘‘ wedge” shape so noticeable in a good
dairy cow. This is more readily seen in the females than in the males, whose
more erect carriage and lesser abdominal development takes away somewhat
the wedge-like appearance of body. In all varieties the comb is singlef and
serrated, in size medium to small; ear lobes red, tail of medium length, and
abundant. In beak, shanks and toes, deep yellow is the color coveted by —
fanciers. The skin should be yellow. ,

*NotTe.— Those who raise chicks with hens will always find it worth while when buying
stock, to learn something of its incubating propensities; otherwise they may be
disappointed in getting early chicks, for besides those families in which the hatching

instinct is bred out, there are others the hens of which regularly continue laying for from
three to five or six months after beginning without going broody.

+Novre.— In describing varieties, a few non-Standard fowls, both domestic and foreign,
are included with the classes to which they would naturally belong if admitted to the
American Standard of Perfection, the arrangement of which is followed in these |
descriptions. The descriptions are not intended to be minutely exact. The purpose is
to give to those not familiar with the varieties a general idea of the character and
appearance of each, which if not entirely accurate, will not be misleading.

t{NoTe.—A. variety with pea comb was admitted to the Standard, but failed to gain
popular favor, and was subsequently dropped.

IPOMOIE IEE CIR AE TL, 65

BarreEp PiymMoutH Rooks.—Fig. 47.—The ground color of plumage varies

Fig. 47. Barred Plymouth Rocks.

from grayish white to
pale ashen blue. In
the best colored speci-
mens the parallel bars
crossing each feather
run from leaden blue
in light colored to blue
black in dark speci-
mens. In birds which
fail in color the bar-
ring is usually indis-
tinct: the dark bars
show sometimes rusty
red or brown, some-
times a greenish tinge.
Clear yellow legs and
beaks are common in
the males, but not in

females, which oftener have a dark shading on the upper beak, and greenish
shading or spots on the front of the leg. This variety is certainly the most
popular of all with practical poultrymen, and, probably, also with fanciers.
The difficulty of breeding it to the perfection of Standard color requirements,
and the correspondingly high prices paid for first class specimens appeal

strongly to the ambition and inter-
est of the fancier-breeder. The
double mating system is more
generally practiced with this vari-
ety than with any other. It takes
a novice some years to learn to
produce high class stock. As
commonly bred for practical pur-
poses, little attention is given to
nice color points.

WHITE PLyMouTH Rocks.—
Fig. 48.— Were long considered
more delicate than the Barred
variety. With increasing popu-
larity and more careful breeding
for vigor they have become rug-
ged. The Standard description
calls for a pure white plumage,
and yellow legs and skin; a com-

Fig. 48. White Plymouth Rocks.

66 POUL TR?Y-CRAFT.

Fig. 49. Buff Plymouth Rocks.

bination difficult to get, and pro-
nounced by many experienced breed-
ers impossible to maintain. As a
rule yellow legs and skin go with
creamy white plumage, while a pure
white plumage is accompanied by
white or pink skin and faded yel-
low or flesh colored legs and beak.
Practical breeders prefer the yellow
legged fowls with a creamy white
plumage, but avoid breeding from
birds in whose plumage the yellow
has unsightly prominence.

Burr PLiymoutnH Rocxks.— Fig.
49-
popular favor. As in all buff fowls,
the desired color is a uniform shade
of buff free from white or black.

A new variety, rapidly gaining

Though the equals of the other vari-

eties in practical qualities, they are not a good kind for a beginner who wishes

to sell a part of his stock for breeding purposes. The variety is not well

established, though many very fine specimens are produced. The color is

difficult to handle, and in unskillful hands the proportion of culls is too large

for profit. It is usually better for novices to leave the development of new

breeds to experts. Breeders who will be satisfied for a few years with a large

Fig. 50. White Wyandotte Pullet.
(By courtesy of A. G. Duston).

Fig. 51. White Wyandotte Cock.
(By courtesy of Howland & Whitney).

POSTE LRAACTCATAT®. 67

proportion of excellent fowls from the market standpoint, and a small percent
of good Standard birds, will find the variety an interesting one to work with,
and likely to prove immensely profitable in the future.

73. Wyandottes. — General Description. — Vardy; general purpose ;
| brown egg breed; sitters ;
medium in size; Standard
weights, cock 8% lbs., cock-
erel 7% lbs., hen 6% lbs.,
pullet 5% lbs. The distin-
guishing characteristics of
the breed are the peculiar
blocky, chunky body and
small neat rose comb. Ear
lobes are red ; beak and legs
yellow ; tail medium length

CSE

abundant. In practical

= F-

values they are generally

SRA

Ses

rated with the Plymouth
Rocks, but are less widely
popular than that breed.

Ze i,
7a Si SILVER WYANDOTTES.
einrae 7; “yo

Fig. 52. — In color black

and white, distributed as

Fig. 52. Silver Wyandottes. ahora fia (va Gauls.

GoLtpEN WyanporTres. — Figs. 53, 54.—In color black and golden bay,
the bay taking the place of the white in the Silver variety.

Both of these varieties are difficult to breed to Standard colors. In some
sections they (particularly the Silvers) are extensively kept by farmers. Both
varieties are in demand among city poultry keepers, as their colors are not
much disfigured by smoke, and they are not restive in close quarters.

WuitEe Wyanportres.— This variety is the most formidable competitor the
Barred Plymouth Rock has had to meet. The remarks on color of plumage,
skin, etc., of White Plymouth Rocks, apply also to White Wyandottes.
They are easy to breed uniform enough to satisfy a taste that is not fastidious
about fancy points. This, and the absence of dark pinfeathers has brought
them into high favor with practical poultrymen.

Biack, AND Burr Wyanporres.— After what has been said of the breed
in general these need little description further than the naming of their colors.
Black Wyandottes have never been popular with any class of poultry keepers.
Buff Wyandottes are a new variety, and with Buff P. Rocks are strong com-
petitors for the patronage which has been going to Barred P. Rocks and

68 FO OGLEAT AY A CRALTTE:

White Wyandottes. The remarks on
breeding Buff P. Rocks apply also to
Buff Wyandottes.

74. Javas.—Black and Mottled.
Fig: 55.— Javas are fairly hardy,
resemble Plymouth Rocks in general
characters, and have the same Standard
weights. They are longer bodied than
the Plymouth Rocks. Their legs are
willow colored. In most parts of the
country they are rare. Mottled Javas
are black and white in color. There
is a white variety, very rare, and no
longer recognized by the Standard.

Fig. 53. Golden Wyandotte Cockerel.
(By courtesy of Ira Kellar).

75. American Dominiques. —
Fairly hardy; sitters; were at one time
a very popular practical breed; super-
seded by the Barred Plymouth Rocks,
which resemble them in color. Dom-
iniques have rose combs, like those of
Rose Comb Leghorns; red ear lobes; \-
yellow beaks and legs; full, flowing Te
tails.

Fig. 54. Golden Wyandotte Hen.
(By courtesy of Ira Kellar).

76. White Wonders.—(Non-Stand-
ard). — Hardy; general purpose; brown
egg breed; sitters; large medium in size.
They somewhat resemble White Wyan-

— feathered shanks. They are quite popular
among farmers and poultrymen in some
localities, but are not much esteemed by

Fig. 55. Black Java Hen, fanciers.

OULD Tikes VAC KeALi ae. 69

77. Rhode Island Reds.

brown egg breed; sitters; large medium in size. In color they are of a red-

(Non-Standard). —Hardy; general purpose ;

dish buff, with a strong tendency to the black red color combination in the
males. They are only locally popular, but are becoming celebrated for hardi-
ness and prolific laying. In meat qualities they are considered inferior to the
other American varieties.

ASIATIC CLASS.

78. Light Brahmas.— Fig. 56.—Very hardy; meat breed; large brown
eggs; sitters; the largest vari-
ety of fowls. The Standard
weights, cock 12 lbs., cockerel
10 lbs., hen 9% lbs., pullet &
Ibs. Colors, black and white,
as seen in the cut, except that
in the flight feathers of the
wings, not visible when folded,
black largely predominates.
They have pea combs; red ear
.. lobes; short, full, spreading
* tails; beaks yellow, with horn
colored stripe on upper bill;
yellow skin and legs; the outer
sides of shanks, and outer and
middle toes heavily feathered.
Light Brahmas are very popu-
lar with poultry keepers of all
classes. Though considered a

Fig. 56. Light Brahmas.

meat breed, they are good layers when
handled properly, and they produce the

most of their eggs when eggs bring the
highest prices. If managed and fed right
the chicks make good broilers or frys, and
as large roasters the full-grown fowls are:
unsurpassed among pure bred fowls.

79. Dark Brahmas. — Fig. 57. —
Hardy; meat breed; brown eggs; sitters.
Except for their pea combs they would
be classed by a novice as silver or gray
Cochins. In shape they are between
Light Brahmas and Cochins. Standard
weights are: cock 11 lbs., cockerel 9 lbs., z Bigs 7a) DadaiBraames:

70 POGL ALAC CATAL:

hen 8% lbs., pullet 7 lbs., the same as for Buff, Partridge and White Cochins.

In color they are white, gray and.black combined as seen in the cut. Dark

Brahmas are rather difficult to breed to color, and can hardly be considered

popular, but are good and useful fowls.

80. Cochins. — General Description. — Very hardy; of all breeds the

Fig. 58. Buff Cochins.
particular have many admirers.
Probably the highest prices ever
given for fowls in this country
have been given for Buff Co-
chins. Breeding to excessive
feathering has prejudiced prac-
tical breeders against all varie-
ties of Cochins.

Burr Cocuins.— Fig. 58.—
Standard weights, cock 11 lbs.,
cockerel’ 9, lbs.,) hen 61% lbs.,
pullet 7 lbs.; color of skin and
legs yellow; are the most pop-
ular variety. The prescribed
color is a rich, deep, clear buff,
uniform on each specimen. As
there are differences of opinion
as to what duff is, all shades
are seen, from a pale lemon to

least influenced by climatic or
other changes, and least restive in
confinement; brown eggs; very
persistent sitters ; combs single,
serrated, small to medium in size ;
ear lobes red; plumage long,
loose, fluffy ; legs and toes heavily
feathered. (On many of the heav-
ily feathered exhibition Cochins
the inner as well as the outer
side of the shank is feathered).
Cochins are generally considered
inferior to Brahmas, both for eggs
and meat. When bred to good
breast development, fair specimens
are quite the equals of the Brah-
mas as roasters. When bred for
eggs they rival the best Brahmas
as layers. As fanciers’ fowls the
Buff and Partridge varieties in

Fig. 59. Partridge Cochins.

FA ONSTA LR = CTeALE 71

a reddish brown; the lighter shades are
generally preferred. Great skill in
mating and handling is required to pro-
duce really fine specimens; but good
birds are always salable at high figures.

PARTRIDGE Cocuins.— Fig. 59.—
Weights, color of skin and legs same
as for Buff Cochins. In color this vari-
ety shows the black red type, difficult
to describe, but familiar to everyone in
the Brown Leghorns. They are quite
difficult to breed to Standard colors.
Though not generally popular, they are

By
Z

in some localities quite extensively kept
for practical purposes.

Wuire Cocuins.— Fig. 60.—BLAcK

Fig. 60. White Cochin Hen. Cocuins. — These varieties are less

common than the two foregoing. White Cochins have yellow legs and skin;

Standard weights the same as for the Buff and Partridge. Black Cochins have

yellow skin; and legs black or dark willow. The Standard weights are the
same as for the other varieties, except cock 10% lbs.

81. Langshans. — Gexeral Description. — Fairly hardy; dark brown
ese breed—eggs sometimes have a purplish tinge; sitters; large medium
in size; Standard weights, cock 10 Ibs.,
cockerel § lbs., hen 7 lbs., pullet 6 lbs. ;
medium sized single combs; red ear

Fig. 61. Black Langshan Cock. Fig. 62. Black Langshan Hen.

72 , ION GIG TTI EA CIR AU ATE.

lobes; shanks and toes feathered, but not as heavily as shanks of Brahmas and
Cochins. Beaks dark horn color; legs and toes bluish black; bottoms of the
feet pink or pinkish white. (Yellow skin and yellow in the bottoms of the
feet are considered indications of Cochin blood). Langshan tails are larger
than those of Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes, and carried well up.

Brack LANGSHANS. — Figs. 61, 62.— Are popular among poultry keepers
of all classes, except those making a specialty of market poultry. Their white
skin and dark shanks are against them in American markets. They are partic-
ularly well suited to smoky towns where white and light coloted birds soon
become eye-sores to their owners. They are good winter layers, and make
good poultry for home use.

WuiteEe LANGSHANS are not popular. They are useful and beautiful fowls,
but the field for white fowls with their general characteristics has been occupied
by other varieties.

MEDITERRANEAN CLASS.

82. Leghorns.— General Description.—Hardy; white egg breed; non-
sitters ; small to small medium in
size; no special weights required
by the Standard; all varieties have
white or creamy white ear lobes,
smooth yellow legs, long and full
tails. Leghorns are reputed the
egg fowls far excellence. More
people can get satisfactory egg
z yields from Leghorns than from
any other breed. This is because
Leghorns are generally hardier
than the other white egg breeds,
and are not so easily put out of
condition by overfeeding as are
fowls of heavier breeds. There is
a strong tendency among Leghorn
breeders to breed to a larger type
than in the past. When bred to
a good size, Leghorns make first

class broilers, and very fair small

Fig, 63. Pair of White Leghorns.

roasters.

Brown Lecuorns. — Fig. 64.— There are two sub-varieties differing only
in shape of comb and in popularity. The Single Combed Brown Leghorns
are the most widely distributed of the Leghorn family. Rose Combed Brown
Leghorns are not one-tenth as numerous. Brown Leghorns are the most com-
mon example of the black red color combination in fowls—colors so familiar
everywhere that they need no general description. They are commonly rated

TO) Ge TER =| CR ATA 18

Fig. 64. Brown Leghorns.

better layers than the other
Leghorns, though on the ay-
erage their eggs are smaller
than those of the White and
Buff varieties. They may be
said to be both easy and hard
to breed.
breeder, not versed in the
fine points of the breed can
produce stock much more

An inexperienced

satisfactory to himself than
would come from his inex-
pert matings of Barred Ply-
mouth Rocks, or Silver Wy-
andottes. At the same time
a trained fancier seeking to
produce the finest Standard
specimens finds his task hard
enough to give zest to the

work.

Wuite Lrecnorns.—Fig. 63.—There are two sub-varieties, Single Combed
and Rose Combed, having about the same relative popularity as corresponding

sub-varieties of Brown Leghorns.
Browns.

They average larger in size, and lay larger eggs.

Generally thought a little less hardy than the

White Leghorns

are extensively used on the large egg farms supplying the New York market.

Biack LEGHOoRNS.— Szzgle Comé.
Not very commonly bred, because una-
ble to compete with the Black Minorcas,
which are in the same class, and are
The legs of Black Leghorns
are not clear yellow, but a yellowish

larger.

black or willow.

Burr Lrecuorns. — Szzgle Comb.
Fig. 65.—The remarks regarding other
new buff varieties apply to this one.
The variety is stillin process of making,
and will not give satisfaction to those
who want to produce a large propor-
tion of high class birds, and know what
a good bird should be. For all practi-
cal purposes they rival the best stocks
of other varieties of Leghorns. They
are not popular in the broad sense of

the word, but in view of the increasing

=k
2 TTR ION &P

Be

Fig. 65. Buff Leghorn Cock.

"4 POULTRY-CRAFT.

demand for buff fowls, a breeder planning
for the future may find it profitable to
develop a stock of Buff Leghorns.

OTHER VARIETIES OF LEGHORNS are:

DomINIQUE. — (Non-Standard), rare;
resembling Barred Plymouth Rocks in
color.

Sirver Duckwine. — Not common;
males look much like Brown Leghorns in
which the red of the plumage is replaced
by white; females are mostly light gray ;
light salmon in front of neck and breast ;

Ie 608 REA CORE Bian Le homicece ne Diacks OF dark brown predominating in
(By courtesy of Kerlin & Son). the. tail.

83. Minorcas. — BLack Mrnorcas. — Fig. 67. — Fairly hardy; large
white egg breed; non-sitters ; me-
dium in size; Standard weights,
cock 8 lbs., cockerel 6% lbs.,
hen 6% lbs., pullet 51% Ibs. ; very
large, single combs; white or
creamy white ear lobes; white
skin; slate colored legs; large,
full tails. Minorcas are longer
and deeper bodied than Leghorns,
and have not the wild, nervous
disposition of fowls of that breed.
They are extra good layers of
very large eggs, and make poul-
try choice for home use, but not
marketable at best prices. They
have their greatest popularity in
the vicinity of New York and on
the Pacific coast, and in these

localities they are bred to equal or

Fig. 67. Black Minorcas.

exceed Standard weights; but in
many other sections the Minorcas generally are small, and not to be distin-
guished from Black Leghorns.

WuitE Minorcas

are much less popular than the Black, which they
resemble in every respect but color. With all white plumage they have beak

and legs pinkish white.

84. Blue Andalusians. — Fairly hardy; large white egg breed; non-
sitters; no Standard weights. In shape and size between Leghorns and

POWELL RA CLAT I. a5

Minorcas. Color of plumage,
light blue laced with darker
blue, except that necks, backs,
and tails in both sexes are dark
blue, and in wings the flight
feathers are light blue, the rest
of the wing being darker blue.
The legs area slaty blue. An-
dalusians are not popular.

85. White Faced Black
Spanish. — Fig. 65. — Very
delicate as chicks, but fairly
hardy after first few months;
large white egg breed ; non-sit-
ters; peculiar characteristic,

Fig. 68. White Faced Black Spanish.

the abnormal development of the skin of the
face, white in color. In general they resemble
Black Minorcas. Were once quite popular;
are now comparatively rare.

86. Polish.— Varieties: WuirrE CRESTED
BLAcK, GOLDEN SPANGLED, (Fig. 69), Goxp-
EN PENCILED, SILVER SPANGLED, SILVER

PENCILED, WHITE, Burr Lacep. With the LTS Op eeewaled FOSn.
(By courtesy cf D. Lincoln Orr).

exception of the first and
last mentioned these varie-
ties are sub-divided into the
bearded and non-bearded.
Not one of these varieties is
popular and common; all
‘are regarded as distinctive-
ly fanciers’ fowls. Even
among fanciers the demand
for them is small. Only a
few breeders find it profita-
ble to handle them. They
are about the size of average

been Woe SE: Lege ee

Fig. 70. Silver Spangled Hamburgs. Leghorns ; delicate; white:

76 POSIEATRAANC TREAT.

egg breed; non-sitters; very large crests; small ¥-shaped combs; white ear
lobes; slatish or willow legs; large, full tails. They are good layers, gener-
ally, and their flesh is of fine quality.

87. Hamburgs. — Varieties: GOLDEN SPANGLED, GOLDEN PENCILED,
SILVER SPANGLED, (Fig. 70), SILVER PENCILED, (Fig. 71), WHITE, Buack.
Hamburgs do not greatly
differ from the Polish except
in furnishings of the head.
They have neither crest nor
beard ; have rose combs like
those of Rose Combed Leg-
horns; are rather delicate; a
white egg breed ; are non-sit-
ters; more numerously bred
than Polish, and considered
better for practical purposes,
but are altogether outclassed
by the hardier Leghorns.

Hamburgs are bred princi-
pally by those keeping fowls
for pleasure.

Fig. 71. Silver Penciled Hamburg Cock.

88. Redcaps. Rather delicate; white egg breed; non-sitters; have been
aptly described as extra large, coarse Hamburgs with red ear lobes. Their
colors are red brown and purple black distributed as in Spangled Hamburgs,
except that the spangles of Redcaps are crescent shaped. Rare.

FRENCH CLASS.

89. Houdans. — Fig. 72. — The only breed in this class common enough
in America to warrant de- |
scription in a popular book.
The other French breeds, La
FLECHE and CREVEC@UR,
recognized by the Standard,
ake matelyescen) Mere. a ullous
dans, while not popular or
numerous, are fairly well
distributed, and are not unfa-
miliar in most sections; they
are a rather delicate, white
egg breed; non-sitters; col-
ors black and white mottled,

black predominating in the
young fowls; large crests Rieti 2-iietoudenss

POULTRY-CRAFT. ne

and beards; Y-shaped, leaf-like combs; white ear lobes; shanks pinkish white
mottled with black, five toes on each foot; are good layers, equaling Leg-
horns in dry sunny situations; make good poultry, not suited to American
markets because of its color. Standard weights, cock 7 lbs., cockerel 6 lbs.,
nen, 6 libs:, pulllet 5 lbs:

ENGLISH CLASS.

90. Dorkings.—A delicate (except on a large, well drained range) meat
breed; inferior layers of eggs of medi-

um color and size; sitters; bodies long,

wide, deep; five toes on each foot.

WuitE Dorkincs.— Fig. 73.—The
Standard weights are: cock 7% lbs.,
cockerel 61% lbs., hen 6 ibs., pullet 5
Ibs.; rose comb; red ear lobes.

SILVER GRAY DorkinGs.—Fig. 74-
Standard weights, cock 8 lbs., cockerel
7 \bs., hen 6% lbs., pullet 5% Ibs. ;
single combs; ear lobes, red preferred ;
in color resemble Duckwing Leghorns.

CoLtorED Dorxkincs. — Standard
weights, cock 9 lbs., cockerel 8 Ibs.,

hen 7 lbs., pullet 6 Ibs.; combs either

Fig. 73. White Dorking Hen. single or rose; red ear lobes preferred ;
Weyacourtcey of“ oRoultrys) Pagland). colors richer and deeper than in the last
named variety, the white of which is replaced by a straw color tending to
black red. Colored Dorkings are bred

to a fixed type only in shape.

91. Orpingtons.—A new English
breed. Hardy; general purpose fowl.
The breed was made especially for
practical purposes, to produce eggs and
meat. American breeders interested

in fowls of that class, and disposed to
experiment with Orpingtons are advised a)
that such experiments are not apt to
prove profitable. Without disparaging =Z%
this breed at all it may be said that it*
cannot compete here with the Ameri-
can breeds of the same general class.
Poultry keepers who want a good prac-

tical fowl dzferent from anything their sins Fy Sines Gar Daiing Cook,

78 ROL PRAIA CHALE:

neighbors have, a consideration with some who keep poultry for pleasure, can
get it in the Orpington. There are three established varieties: — BLAck,
Wuite, and Burr. In each variety there are single combed and rose combed
sub-varieties.

GAMES.

92. Exhibition Games.— Fig. 75.—Pit Games. — There are two dis-
tinct types of Game fowls. The exhibi-
tion type is a bird very long in legs and
neck, with stilted, crane-like carriage.
The Pit Game is shorter in the leg, heavier
in body, and a much better fowl for prac-
tical purposes. In sections where cock-
fighting still prevails flocks of Games are
kept for domestic purposes quite as often
as flocks of any other breed. They are
rated hardy; average layers of white or
tinted eggs; are sitters; flesh makes fairly
good poultry, but a trifle hard. Games
cannot be considered as rivals of popular
economic breeds. The color types in Pit
Games are not well defined. They can
hardly be classed as varieties. The Stand-

Fig. 75. Exhibition Game Cock. Saye i Dien
(By courtesy of A. E. Blunck). ard varieties of Exhibition Games are:

Brack BREASTED RED, Brown Rep, GOLDEN DucKWING, SILVER DUCK-
WING, RED PYLE, WHITE, BLaAck, and BIRCHEN.

93. Cornish Indian Games.— Not es )
very hardy ; meat breed; they are ordinary
to poor layers of tinted eggs; sitters; pea
combs; red ear lobes; yellow skin and
legs; Standard weights, cock 9 Ibs., cock- PE MG,
erel 714 lbs., hen 6% lbs., pullet 5% lbs. ; fae:
are very full in the breast, and broad at Cee
the shoulders; back, convex instead of
flat or concave, as in most other breeds.
There are two varieties, the Dark, (Fig.
76), and the WuiTE, (Fig. 77); —the
former, in color, a very dark black red
(crimson) ; the Standard requires in the
female plumage with bay ground double
— or triple — laced with black. Usually
these markings are not well defined.

Scot
\\

Fig. 76. Dark Indian Game Hen.
(By courtesy of Adam Thompson).

POUL TRY-CRAFT. "9

94. Malay Games.—Nearly as large as Indian Games; distinctive char-
acteristics :— comb, a knob resembling a
strawberry, dark red or purple in color;
and fierce expression due to breadth of
skull over the eyes; color black red, very
dark; a fanciers’ fowl; rare.
95. Miscellaneous Breeds.—In this
class the American Standard of Perfection

places breeds prized mostly as novelties.

Russians. — Black; bearded, but not
crested ; medium size; rose comb without
a spike.

SuMATRAS. — Black; heavy, drooping

tails; dark red pea combs.

SILkKiEs.—Characteristic feature: web-

Fig. 77. White Indian Game Cock. wor er a
(By courtesy of E. M. & W. Ferguson). less, hair-like feathers.

SuLTans. — Resemble Bearded White Polish, but are smaller, and have
feathered legs.

FrizzLes.—Have feathers curled backwards at the ends.

Rump_LeEss. — Tailless fowls.

96. Foreign Breeds. — New Breeds. — In nearly every foreign country
there are distinct breeds, popular there, which have no particular interest for
the American poultry keeper because not suited to any general demand in this
country. New breeds and varieties are continually coming up here, most of
them being boomed by the manufacturers for a little while, and then going to
a deserved oblivion. Beginners and plain poultrymen should avoid new and
rare breeds. Not one in ten will ‘¢ go” with the buying public, and nearly
always those who take them up lose money on them.

97. Complete Descriptions of nearly all varieties of fowls are given in
the American Standard of Perfection, a book which ought to be in the hands
of everyone who keeps pure bred fowls. Its descriptions are in skeleton
form, but thoroughly cover the ground. Other books of great value to
breeders are mentioned in the bibliography of poultry literature at the end
of this volume. Complete descriptions cannot be given in a book like this,
because in the first place they require a volume instead of a chapter; and, in
the second place, the American Standard of Perfection, being the only general
standard having the common indorsement, by usage, of poultrymen, complete
descriptions would necessarily be based on it, and would have to be mere

So POGETRY-CRAFT.

juggles of words to avoid infringement of its copyright. While the Standard
was subject to revision every five years, many small breeders felt it a hardship
to buy a book which might soon be of no value. Now that the Standard is
practically a permanent one, they may purchase it confident that changes
made in future will not make obsolete the book they possess.

98. Abbreviations of Names of Varieties.— The abbreviations used in
poultry papers and by poultrymen in correspondence often puzzle those not
familiar with the names of varieties. Abbreviations are sometimes partial,
sometimes complete. The most common are: Light Brahma, Z¢. Brahma,
or ZL. B.; Partridge Cochin, P. Cochin, or M. C. In names of Plymouth
Rock varieties the Plymouth 1s often omitted, and sometimes the breed is
spoken of simply as focks. Fully abbreviated, Barred Plymouth Rock
becomes B. P. R.; White Plymouth Rock, W. P. #.; Buff Plyfiouth
Rock, Bf. P. R. (The advent of some of the new buff breeds has caused
confusion in some minds, as, for instance, whether 2. P. /e. referred to
Barred or to Buff Plymouth Rocks; B. Leghorn, to Brown or to Buff Leg-
horn. In all cases of this kind, common usage gives the abbreviation to the
name of the variety for which it was first used, and puts the distinguishing mark
on the abbreviation of the new name). The word Wyandotte is abbreviated
to Wy., W., or to ’Dottes. Silver Wyandotte is abbreviated to S. Wy.;
Golden Wyandotte, to G. Wy.; White Wyandotte, to W. Wy. S. Ge
B. L., stands for Single Comb Brown Leghorn; S. C. W. L., for Single
Comb White Leghorn; A. C. stands for Rose Comb. W. CU Be esis
the abbreviation for White Crested Black Polish; G. S. /7., for Golden
Spangled Hamburg; S. P. H., for Silver Penciled Hamburg ; ee Gia D5. Ore
Silver Gray Dorking; B. B. R. G., for Black Breasted Red Game ; CAG
for Cornish Indian Game — usually applied only to the dark variety; 2. JZ,
for Black Minorca, etc.

POUCLTRI-CRAPT. | 81

‘CHAPTER VI.

Choosing a Variety.— Buying Stock.

99. One Variety or More.—‘ For best results, keep but one variety,”
say most experienced poultrymen. Few practice what they preach. It is
not surprising, then, that their example has more weight than their precept.
For most of those who keep fowls, one variety is exowgh. For many who
want an income from poultry, one variety zs ot enough. ‘+ Circumstances
alter cases.” The general rule should be:— A flock (large or small) should
not contain fowls of different varieties. The application of this rule would
settle the question for most poultry keepers. For the others, a good rule is :—
As many varieties should be kept as are needed to supply, to the limit of the
capacity of a plant, the paying demand for tts special products. One may
be enough. Even in an extreme case, it is not probable that more than three
or four will be zeeded.

An error market poultrymen ought to avoid is:—keeping two or three
varieties or brecds which, practically, fill the same bill. It does not often
happen that more than one variety is needed for an exclusive market poultry
plant. A market poultryman who sells some stock for breeding purposes
does not always find the demand for stock of h7s dreeding, of one variety,
large enough to take all his surplus. By using two or more varieties, he can
get the same results in'the market branch of his business, and, being in a
position to supply a more varied demand, may sell a larger proportion of his
stock at the prices obtained for breeders. Thus his increased sales of breeding
stock would justify the expense of maintaining breeding stocks of several
varieties.

Except in the rare event of his having made a national reputation with a
popular variety, a breeder-fancier needs several varieties. Even as a beginner,
it is better that he should keep a varied stock. The results of his matings for
the first few years are, if good, apt to be happy chances. Having several
varieties, he will hardly fail to do fairly well with at least one of them.
When a breeder’s matings all disappoint him, his season’s work is a total
failure. Besides this, the beginner’s position as a seller of good stock, is like
that of the market poultryman who uses several varieties to better advantage
than one. It would on the face of the matter seem wisest for the breeder to
begin with one variety, adding others as he found demand for them, and as
his skill in breeding increased; but, as a matter of fact, it takes less skill to
breed several varieties to a fair degree of excellence than to breed one variety
to very high excellence.

82 PLO CLE TRAE LEAL,

100. Testing Varieties.— How to Get Satisfactory Stock.— It is
only when one is no longer a novice that he is able to see clearly the absurdity
of a beginner keeping a number of varieties to test their merit, or to find out
which he likes best. The general experience of poultry keepers is the best
gauge of the relative merits of the breeds. ‘The owner of several varieties
usually comes to prefer that which is giving him best results. In buying
stock of several varieties, one is not likely to get a uniform quality in all. It
may easily happen that because he chanced to get extra good stock of an
inferior, and poor stock of a superior variety, his short experience will lead
him to prefer the one which in the long run gives poor results. Before decid-
ing on a variety one should know its general character well enough to be sure
that representative average specimens of that variety are fowls well suited to
his purpose. ‘Then if the fowls of the first purchase do not realize expecta-
tions, and it is evident that the fault is with the stock —not in his manage-
ment — let him try again, avd again. It is not the variety that is now on
trial; it is the breeders of the variety. Stock of the kind wanted will be
found more quickly and at less cost: by limiting the search to the breeders of a
single variety, than by extending it to the breeders of all varieties.

101. Breeds for the Market Poultryman.— The market poultryman
must have the fowls that yield the largest, best distributed (through the year),
and surest returns when the products are sold at market prices. Certain
small ‘* outs”? in some varieties, of small moment to those who sell a con-
siderable part of their stock at high prices for breeding or exhibition purposes,
are not to be tolerated by the marketman. His business affords few apportu-
nities for making large profits on a few sales compensate for small profits —
or perhaps losses—on many sales. Quack sales at living profits, must be
the market poultryman’s watchword. He must aim to have every article
produced of a kind and grade always salable — convertible into cash at any time.

The first point to consider is the demand of the market to be supplied.

In most of the markets of this country strictly fresh eggs bring one price —
regardless of color of the shell. In New York and vicinity white eggs; in
Boston and vicinity, brown eggs are preferred. In nearly all American cities
yellow legged, yellow skinned poultry finds readiest sale. Everywhere the
most active demand for grown fowls calls for carcasses of four to five pounds
each, and the demand for fowls dressing six pounds or over, or under four
pounds, is comparatively light.*

A market poultryman sending produce to New York, will find that the
trade wants large white eggs; is not particular about the color of the skin or
legs of poultry. The popular varieties laying large white eggs are, Brown
and White Leghorns, Black Minorcas, with Buff Leghorns and, possibly,

* Nore.— This demand for medium sized fowls is not in any way dependent upon, or

governed by, the quality of the meat. Medium sized fowls are in demand because they
are of the szze wanted by the greatest number of buyers.

>)

POOL TERT =\ ORAL ee. 8

~

L

Houdans, entitled to mention, (in that section). It will be found that these
yarieties are relatively more popular in the country tributary to New York
- city than elsewhere; — the three first named being those preferred by the
large egg farmers. A beginner will do better to profit by their experience
than to be governed by his personal preferences should they run counter to
common experience. 7

A market poultryman locating near Boston, will find Barred Plymouth
Rocks, White Wyandottes, and White Plymouth Rocks most popular among
market poultrymen using thoroughbred fowls. These varieties best fill the
requirements of :— brown eggs, fitness for market at any age, and ease of
preparation for market. He will find other varieties of the American and
Asiatic classes often used by poultrymen, but not to anything like the extent
those especially mentioned are used.

The egg farmers of the Pacific coast seem to prefer hens of the Mediter-
ranean class, saying their climate is particularly well suited to such fowls.

The poultryman who wishes to build up a profitable trade must cater to the
special demands of his market. If it were not for these demands there would
be no business for the special egg and poultry farmer. As has been said,
there is more than enough stock produced to fill the demand for inferior
poultry of all sizes, as well as for stock of good quality, but not of the sizes
and colors in demand. Popular preferences for certain colors of skin and
shell are mere prejudices; but it is the poultryman’s business to supply what
the people want, not to try to persuade them to want something else. When
selecting his stock he must take varieties that will enable him to supply the
demands most satisfactorily, and with greatest profit.

102. Breeds for Profit, (Economic), on a Small Scale.— While the
varieties recommended in the preceding section are the best suited to exclusive
market poultrying, many, even in the localities mentioned, who keep small
flocks of poultry for profit (as an adjunct to another business) find other
varieties just as profitable. Then if their taste prefers another variety it is a
satisfaction to be able to gratify it without sacrificing profits. In a ‘* brown
ege” locality a poultry keeper whose fowls produce white eggs can easily find
customers to take white eggs of best quality at the same price as brown eggs
—but this trade is limited. The same thing is true of Langshan, Houdan,
and Minorca poultry, and of the extra large carcasses of Brahmas and
Cochins. In every line of poultry production it is a frequent occurrence that
a man handling a small quantity of a certain kind of goods finds the trade
satisfactory, which on increasing his stock he firds that he has passed the
limit of the demand for his produce, and the surplus moves slowly in the open
market. This phase of the subject is of most importance to those who,
having been successful on a small scale, are about to give their whole time to
poultry. If the stock they have been using is not adapted to the market to
which their increased output must go, the stock should be changed.

84. POOLE PRI CRATE TE

103. Breeds for a Breeder.— One whose object is to do, ultimately, a
general poultry business, a principal feature of which shall. be the sale of
exhibition and breeding stock, wishes, of course, to acquire special knowledge
of the breeds he is to handle, at the same time that he is gaining practical
general knowledge of the care of fowls, the principles of breeding, and build-
ing up his stock. Where there is already an established trade in high class
stock it is easy to learn which varieties are readily salable, and it is well for
the beginner, especially if his means are small, to select some of the varieties
most popular in his vicinity. Under such conditions a man with enough
knowledge of fowls to be able to keep them in health would, probably, find it
best in the long run to begin with first class stock, and each year secure expert
advice in selecting and mating his breeding pens — until the time comes when
he can rely on his own judgment of the stock. All popular varieties are well
adapted to this kind of poultry keeping; though because of differences in local
popularity all are not equally suited to all localities. A very correct idea of
the relative popularity of the varieties in any section may be had from the
advertisements of breeders in that section, from the classes in the poultry
shows, and from the statements of those familiar with the business.

Another point to consider in this connection is the basis of the popularity of
avariety. Permanent popularity ts always based on economic merit. Vf a
popular variety fails there, avoid it. Its popularity is sure to be transient. In
localities where thoroughbred fowls are not common, buyers are more eager
to have stock of a kind different from that of their neighbors than to have
better stock of the same kind. The spirit of rivalry and competition, which is
the basis of high prices for thoroughbred stock, is not developed until people
begin to be able to compare Standard merits. Under such circumstances the

wisest plan is to begin with fairly good birds,—a good assortment of the

varieties most universally popular,— and to sell this class of stock until it
begins to appear what varieties are destined to attain local popularity; then
the breeder should make a special study of those varieties, secure some first
class stock, and prepare to meet the demand.

104. Non-Popular Fowls to be Avoided.— Beginners generally should
avoid the non-popular varieties. For nearly all these fowls there is a limited
demand, filled for the most part by a few breeders of long established reputa-
tion. A profitable trade in such varieties is very hard to build up. New
breeders also need to guard against being influenced by occasconal demands
for varieties they do not keep. lt has happened that two or three inquiries
coming at about the same time have led new breeders to put in stocks of birds
for which there was no sale. Most of the (apparent) demand for non-popular
varieties is what may be called a ‘‘ fictitious demand,” coming principally from
persons who have no intention of buying.

105. What Most Breeders Can Do.— Extra fine exhibition stock always
brings ‘‘big” prices, especially in the popular varieties difficult to breed to

OGLE TRA CLALT. 85

Standard requirements. These prices have no relation to, are not at all
dependent upon, the practical qualities of the fowls. To build up a large and
permanent trade in stock of lower Standard merit, it is necessary that the stock
’ should be useful as well as beautiful. There is a large class of buyers who
select for superficial excellence, first, but are not long satisfied with such lack
of useful qualities as is sometimes found in high class stock. This class of
buyers is smaller than the next to be mentioned, but its members are willing
to pay much better prices for what they buy, and their patronage is, volume
for volume, more profitable. The largest demand is. for fowls bred especially
for practical purposes, yet not noticeably deficient in Standard shape and color
requirements. Most of the buyers of such fowls cannot and will not pay
‘¢fancy” prices. It is this last demand that most poultrymen are capable of
filling. The production of the finest Standard fowls requires a combination
of artistic perception and knowledge of the laws of breeding comparatively
rare. The production of fowls whose chief merits are measured by the dozen
and the pound, does not require extraordinary artistic faculty. The mediocre
talent which most of those who find fowls interesting possess, fits them to
supply first the demand for good practical stock, afterwards the demand for
fair éxhibition stock of good practical worth,— and this last demand will bring
them the cream of their profit.

106. Selecting a Breed for the Farm.— A farmer — or farmeress —
keeping fowls under the conditions found on the ordinary farm, wants fowls
that will rzstle, will go out into the fields and meadows and pick a part of
their living. He wants a breed that is not in any way an oddity. To him
large crests, and heavily feathered legs, and monstrous combs are objectionable,
because he does not see that they serve any useful purpose. He feels that such
superfluities are out of place on the farm. As on most farms chickens are
hatched and reared in the natural way, the farmer’s hens must, usually, be
sitters. It is generally of some importance, too, that the surplus poultry be of
good market quality. So that of pure bred fowls, the varieties of Plymouth
Rocks, and Wyandottes, and after them, White Wonders, and Rhode Island
Reds, are the most suitable for general farm flocks.

On farms where poultry, without being a leading feature, is still a specialty,
the nature of that specialty may lead to the selection of a variety not in the
general purpose class. Asiatics are prime favorites on farms which make
something of a specialty of large roasters. Many farmers whose poultry
furnishes the greater part of their fresh meat in summer, prefer Asiatics,
because no other fowl is large enough to ‘‘make a meal.” On some farms
Leghorns are preferred, because eggs are secured from them with less trouble
than from any other breed, they continuing to lay well for three or four years,
while heavier fowls, kept under the same conditions, would become overfat
and unproductive after their first annual moult. Just because the Leghorns
lay well for several years, it may be possible to keep a stock of several hundred
layers on a farm, where if nearly the whole stock had to be renewed yearly,

S6 BOCIARAAZCT ATT:

not half that number could be kept. To many farmers the kind of poultry
their stock makes is of little consequence, provided the hens lay plenty of
eggs. For in many places where eggs are as good as cash at the grocery,
marketing poultry profitably is, for a farmer who comes to town but once a
week, and then has only a few hours in which to do a score of errands, a
mighty troublesome problem.

107. Fowls for the Village. — When fowls are kept on large village
lots, farm conditions are reproduced on a small scale, and the considerations
affecting the choice of a breed are nearly the same. Fowls that roam widely
are more objectionable in these relatively narrow quarters than on a large
farm, for here they are continually trespassing. A right minded poultryman
will not permit his fowls to annoy his neighbors. When it is desired to give
the fowls liberty as long as they remain ‘‘ at home,” the Asiatic and American
varieties are preferable; an ordinary fence will keep them within bounds. If
the fowls while confined can be given ample yard room, the additional cost of
higher fences for the high flyers is not so great as to overbalance a possible
preference of the poultryman for one of the smaller breeds.

108. Breeds for Close Quarters.— For a City Lot.— Nearly all
varieties do well in confinement if well cared for. Because of their contented
dispositions Asiatic are best adapted to close confinement. Nervous, restless
fowls are more apt to acquire such vices as feather pulling and egg eating, and
to cause trouble by frequently breaking bounds. Minorcas and Houdans will
generally take more kindly to narrow yards than will Leghorns. Though
contentment in confinement is to some degree a matter of training and habit,
chicks that are reared in confinement are not fretted by it as are those which
have had free range.

Black and dark fowls are best suited to city lots, where there is much smoke
and soot.

109. Breeds for Fanciers.— The choice of a breed, or breeds, for a
fancier must depend much on the nature of the pleasure sought. If it is the
pleasure of possession of a uniform flock of handsome fowls, the novice-fancier
should choose a well established variety easy to breed. He does not want to
be -obliged to rear a large flock in order to get a few that he will not be
ashamed to show. The difficulties in breeding which made a variety objec-
tionable to that one would make it suitable for another, who sought pleasure :
in the development of skill in producing rare specimens. A fancier who
wants oddities can make choice of a variety much more easily than he can
learn where to buy stock—so rarely are the oddities met in poultry yards.
One who wishes a collection of a small number of each variety of a breed finds
the breeds most numerously sub-divided just what he wants. Many find
pleasure, and some profit, in the production and development of new breeds
and varieties, or the development of new types of old varieties. This pleasure

LXOWTE PE AACT ATA. 87

of the fancier is only completely rounded out when he sees his creations
becoming popular. For this it is necessary that he should not work at random,
but with definite ends in view, and a full realization of the style and quality of
fowl likely to please and gain favor. The maker of new breeds needs to be
very familiar with the old ones, and also to have a comprehensive view of the
conditions and tendencies of the poultry world.

110. Buying Stock.— Some General Observations.— It is presumed
that one who has studied the subject thus far knows what kind of stock he
needs. That is the kind of stock he should buy. If he wants to produce first
rate stock of any kind he cannot do it from second rate (or worse) stock. It
is folly in most cases to grade up inferior stock. Itis to refuse to accept zx
full the results of the work of the best breeders. Most of those who do this
make the plea that they cannot .afford to buy better stock. Whatever the
object a poultryman has tn view, he cannot afford to buy stock other than
the best suited to that object.*

The trouble with most new breeders is, they are too eager to begin selling
stock before they have produced it. They are not satisfied to begin with just
enough breeding birds of best quality to hatch their own chicks. ‘They must
sell eggs for hatching from the start.

Suppose a man has ten passably good pullets of a popular variety — worth
one dollar each. He wants to grade up his stock with the ultimate object of
producing first class breeding and exhibition birds. He pays ten dollars for a
male to mate with these ten females, expecting to get a number of chickens
worth five to ten dollars each, few worth less than two dollars. He may raise
three to four hundred chicks in a single season from that pen, and the prob-
ability is that after a season of hard work he will have not a single chick worth
five dollars, very few worth as much as two dollars, and the most no better
than the parent hens. If he has sold eggs from such a mating, he has done
his prospective business more harm than good.

Now if, instead, he had sold the ten pullets for ten dollars, and invested
that amount in two hens of good quality, and bred on the right lines to mate
with the male, he couid, with ‘* good luck,” raise sixty to eighty chicks, more
than half of which would be better than the best from the other mating. Just
so in breeding for eggs, or meat, or any other feature. The beginner should
always start with stock dest for his purpose,— whatever that may be.

Except for those who wish to breed exhibition stock of finest quality, it is
not necessary to pay long prices. Nor are the prices asked for the stock of
fair to medium quality usually purchased by amateurs, market poultrymen,
and farmers, as exorbitant as a novice is inclined to think them. The usual
prices for such stock are Zow, rather than high, as one finds when he begins to
sell stock.f

* Nore.— This does not except the case of one beginning as described in 41103. He
buys mediocre stock to supply the first demand, and, later, higher class stock to prepare
for the future demand. ,

' NotE.— A novice is misled as to the profits on good breeding stock, because he does

ee)
w

LPO TE IACRATAT:.

Where competition is as active as among poultry breeders, the inexperienced
buyer need not fear lest he pay too much for good stock; though it must be
said that he sometimes pays a good price for poor stuff.—(Another condition
not peculiar to the poultry business). One soon learns where to buy the stock
he wants. Taken all in all, beginners lose more through their own blunders,
many of them inexcusable, in selecting and ordering stock, than through the
deceit and cupidity of dishonest breeders. All reputable breeders ship stock
on approval. If not found as represented, it may be returned, and the money
refunded, less express charges. Sometimes a breeder sending stock a short
distance agrees to pay the return express in case the stock is not as repre-
sented. In general, the buyer pays express both ways: an arrangement not
unfair to the buyer who risks only the amount of transportation, while the
seller risks the full value of the fowls. The safest course for a beginner is to
buy of well known breeders. He may pay a little more for the stock, but the
reputation of the breeder affords a measure of protection to the buyer not
versed in the points and qualities of different stocks. A breeder who has
made a reputation does not knowingly risk it by misrepresenting his stock, or
in any way defrauding his customers. It often happens that amateurs offer
equally good stock at lower prices than the established breeder. One who is
himself a judge of the stock may well take advantage of such opportunities.
A novice runs more risk. Often when the amateur sells good stock cheap
it is because he does not know its value, in which case it becomes simply a
matter of chance whether the buyer gets what he pays for, or something
better, or worse. In buying from a breeder of good repute, a beginner wil]
be safer to take the breeder’s word for the quality and value of the stock, thar
his own judgment or the expression of opinion of those no better informed
than himself. (Especially is this true in buying breeds in which special
matings are required to bring out the colors in perfection). A novice often
gets the mistaken idea that a certain feature is a sort of breed birth mark, or
trade mark,— none genuine without it. The experienced breeder’s judgment
of a fowl strikes the proper balance of defects and excellencies. He knows
what is back of the birds he sells, and what kind of progeny they are likely to
produce.

A common error of beginners is to buy males and females of different
breeders, in order to be sure of unrelated stock; this almost uniformly gives
poor results. (The reasons for this will be presented in the chapter on

not know how large a portion of the stock is worth only market prices, and has no idea
what it costs the breeder to advertise and sell stock. When one comes to sell his own
stock he finds that prices are adjusted by the inexorable laws of supply and demand, and
that a breeder must be able to raise a good percentage of stock of fair quality, and sell it
seasonably at prices well up to the average, if his year’s account is to show a balance
on the right side of the ledger. It is worth noting here that the customary method of
ficuring profits on poultry includes in the cost only labor which has been paid for in
cash. In most instances the statement of profit really includes the poultryman’s time,
and is not all clear profit.

POUL TRY-CRAFT. | 89

breeding, therefore need not be introduced here). The best way is to buy
both sexes of the same breeder, he mating the stock for the results desired by
his customer.*

Another thing the inexperienced buyer needs to consider is, that if the
produce of the stock does not come up to expectations; this may be due to
the effect of a change of climate and treatment on the parent stock, or due
to lack of skill in caring for young stock; that it is more likely to be due to
‘the latter cause than to the other, and ten times more likely to be the fault of
the buyer than due to any cause chargeable to the seller. Such statements are
neither soothing nor flattering to thosc who, having failed to realize expecta-
tions in their first attempts to rear good stock, are disposed to blame every-
thing but their own incapacity. They are true, none the less, as many will
find if they will give the same stock another trial— more favorable because
of their increasing experience. A good workman can do creditable work
with poor tools and poor material; a poor workman bungles with good tools,
and botches a job, no matter how good the material,— generally the better the
material the worse it is botched. When it is clear that the fault .s in the stock
or in the mating, it is surely no more than fair to the seller of the stock to
inform him of results, asking his advice and assistance in remedying matters.
He will, doubtless, be found willing to do all that could reasonably be
expected of any business man in a similar case, zf the matter ts stated fatrly
and courteously. A breeder is concerned for his customers’ success. He
will do everything in reason to assure it. It is his reputation — his bread and
butter.

There are rare cases where buyers are deliberately swindled. To seek
redress at law, is generally to throw good money after bad. The best thing
to do is to file a complaint, stating the facts in the case, with the paper or
papers in which the party advertised. Such complaints are carefully investi-
gated, and though it is hard to obtain conclusive proof of fraud, no reputable
paper will carry the advertisement of one against whom complaints are

numerous and apparently well grounded.

111. When to Buy.— In the fall is the best time to buy stock. Good
stock can be bought for less money then than at any other season. The early

buyer gets the best selection. It is better too, for the fowls to be moved to
their new quarters before the hens begin laying. It is a mistake to put off
the purchase of breeding stock until just prior to the breeding season. One

* NoTeE.— When an amateur, or even one who thinks he has passed that stage, buys
stock of a better breeder than himself, who, knowing all about the stock, has mated it for
best results, the buyer consults his own best interests by breeding the stock just as mated
for him. Persons who have spoiled enough good stock to know better, will buy a pair, a
trio, or a pen of fowls, which are sent them properly mated. A foolish prejudice — (it
is mere prejudice) —against inbreeding leads them to mismate the birds, and virtually
throw away what they paid for when buying them.

go POGOELRAZCTAL AT:

who does this pays more for his stock, and, in addition, runs the risk of
losing the earlier and better part of the season — laying and hatching results:
alike being likely to be poor while the fowls are becoming accustomed to new
conditions. After the first of June, each year, there are numerous oppor-
tunities to buy at very low prices some of the stock breeders have used in
their breeding pens. These are bargains for those prepared to give the stock
proper care — not for others.

112. Buying Old Stock.— There is very little difference in point of
profitableness in buying young (breeding) stock, and buying stock in the
second year. The older stock costs a little less, can be used, generally, only
one season, but, is likely to throw better stock than younger fowls of the same
quality. Fowls past two years old may be worth something as breeders to
one to whom they no longer owe anything. For others they are risky invest-
ments. It is only in exceptional cases that a fowl past two years old is worth
buying for breeding a¢ any price. For laying stock, young hens ought always
to be preferred, because of their longer period of usefulness.

113. Prices of Stock.— Prices of exhibition stock are always a matter
of special correspondence between breeders and buyers. Fowls fit to win in
the average show cost from $10 or $15 apiece, to double and treble those
figures. What is called ‘‘ number one breeding stock,” a grade of stock fit to
produce fair Standard fowls, itself of a quality to rank well in the minor
shows, can be bought at $5 to $15 each for males; $3 to $10 each for females.
Fairly good breeding stock, satisfactory to all who do not value or cannot
appreciate the fine points of a breed, can be had for $2 to $5 for males, and
$1 to $3 for females. The prices of good thoroughbred stock bred for utility,
run about the same, though extra good birds sometimes bring more. Those
who cannot give fowls the care necessary to keep them up to the standard to
which they have been bred, will find it better to buy such fowls as can be had
at $10 to $15 a dozen, and to frequently renew their whole stock.*

114. Buying Eggs.—‘‘Is it better to begin with eggs, or with stock? ” is
the query of every beginner. People have all sorts of results,— good, bad,
and indifferent—from purchases both of eggs and stock. It may be said,
however, that in buying stock both the risks of total loss and the chances of

* NoTE.— This does not mean that a farmer who wants to keep two hundred hens
should buy them at those prices; but that he might find it on the whole more profitable
to buy a breeding yard of good culls every other year from which to produce his laying
and market stock, than to introduce new males to the old stock each year. People who
keep a few hens, only for the eggs, would find the cheap grade of stock as good as any
other; provided, always, it has been bred for eggs—cheaper at those prices than they
could produce it for themselves, and cheaper, in the end, than the most of the stock
offered at one-half to one-third the price.

POUL TRY-CRAFT. gr

getting fine stock very cheap, are less than in buying eggs. Buying matured
stock is buying something tangible and real; buying eggs is buying chicks
‘before they are hatched,—the eggs contain possibilities; the stock is a
reality. Prices of eggs run from $1 to $5

rarely higher, though $10 or
$15 per sitting is sometimes charged. The common prices are $3 to $5 for
eggs from high class exhibition stock; $1.50 to $3 for medium exhibition
and good practical stock. Incubator eggs are sold by tue hundred, at
from $4 to $10, or $12. At the former price they are generally from culls,
and used mostly for hatching broilers. At the higher prices, eggs can be had
from fairly good breeding stock. Packed in baskets or crates, eggs go every-
where by express. Long distance shipments seem to give good results quite:
as often as short ones.

92 POULTRIY-CRAFT.

CHAPTER VII.

Foods and Feeding.

115. Corn — is, of all grains used as poultry food, the cheapest and most
generally available. It is probable that American fowls are fed more corn
and corn products than of all other grain products combined. This is cer-
tainly true of the farm flocks and small flocks. In the area which produces
a large surplus of poultry, corn is the almost exclusive grain food. In the
practice of the best special poultry farmers it is not so much used, but still
is fed more generously than the balance of published opinion against its use
would indicate. It contains carbonaceous matter in excess of the require-
ments of all fowls in warm weather, of fowls in confinement with moderate
exercise, and of fowls warmly housed in winter. Under the opposites of
these conditions corn and corn products may be the principal part of the
grain diet: Arovzded, always, that the fowls have all the vegetable and
animal food they need, and care is taken to prevent the over-eating of corn
in warm weather. There is danger in feeding corn heavily. There is
danger in heavy feeding of any grain palatable to fowls. With whole
corn the danger is greatest, because the fowls get, with so little exercise, so
much food of a kind which gives under ordinary conditions some surplus of
heat — energy which, if not used in searching for more food, is stored up as
fat: finally to the detriment of the fowl.

The greatest abuse of corn is in the failure of those who use it freely with
good results in cold weather to reduce a “ttle the amount of corn in the
ration for hot weather. Knowledge of the widespread disorders growing out
of this neglect, has led some authorities on feeding to place so much stress on
the risks of feeding corn that many are afraid of it, and use so sparingly that
they reduce their profits as much by over-caution as the others do by careless-
ness. From one extreme to the other is a ‘‘far cry.” It is as easy to learn
to feed corn right as to learn to feed right. Considering that corn always
must be a staple article of poultry food, it is as necessary for nine out of ten
American poultry keepers to learn to feed corn right as it is that they should
make poultry profitable.

The forms in which corn foods are on sale are:

WHOLE Corn —(generally shelled, but in some places also on-the cob).
May be fed freely as an evening meal to growing stock large enough to eat
it; to fowls in cold quarters or on range; may bea part of the evening food

oO

POGUE LRAINC KATE T 93

of fowls in confinement (comfortable quarters, with exercise) ; may be given
as a light morning feed to fowls on a good range. For sitting hens and
- for ordinary fattening, it may be an exclusive food. —

CracKED Corn —if fed in litter, can be used much more freely and
generally than whole corn, though corn that has been long cracked contains
proportionately more carbon than whole corn.* Unless it is sifted before
using there is some waste of the finer particles, which should be sifted out
and thrown in with the meal. Fed with moderate exercise compulsory,
cracked corn is under some conditions as good an egg producer as wheat —
and much cheaper. When an abundance of carbon is needed, it is a better
food than either wheat or barley. It may be the only food fed to growing
chicks on a range where insects and green food are abundant. Such a diet
is not the best, but will do when more varied diet cannot be obtained, or
would be unprofitable.

Corn Meat — (coarse, unbolted), forms generally one-fourth to one-half
of the millstuffs used in a mash. For young chicks it is often used in much
more generous proportion. Under similar circumstances it may be given
moistened, uncooked, or scalded, half-cooked, as freely as cracked corn. As
well baked johnnycake, it is often made the principal part of a ration for
chicks however situated.

Corn Cuop — is finer than cracked corn, coarser than corn meal, and may
be used in place of either.

Corn and Cos Meat —contains more indigestible matter than the other
straight corn products, but still has digestible elements in nearly the same
proportions. Cooked with clover or alfalfa, it makes an excellent mash for
cold weather.

Mixtrures.— The most common commercial mixtures, composed largely
of corn, are Wixed Chop, corn and oats equal parts, ground; and ‘* Prov-
ender,” a mixture of corn, oats and bran.

116. Wheat.—Wueat ScrEENINGS, DAMAGED WHEAT. Wheat is
rated the best single grain for poultry. Principally in connection with the
use of wheat has arisen a question of the relative values of sound and
damaged grains as poultry food. Wheat being a staple of human food,
the price of good wheat usually rules high as compared with other grains —
especially corn, the only other grain of which fowls are fond as of wheat.
Wheat of fair quality, broken (good) wheat, and good wheat screenings, are
as good poultry food as the very finest milling wheats. No ordinary test will
find them inferior. Poor wheat and dirty screenings can be fed to advantage
only when bought very cheap. Wheat damaged by fire or water can also be
fed to advantage, if not so much damaged that well conditioned fowls refuse
it, and if the price is right. In buying such goods, it is a safe rule to buy

* Nore.— Many poultrymen crack corn as needed, thus getting its full food value.

04 POUL TRY-CRAFT.

only when there can be no doubt of the advantage of using the lot in question.
In wheat the food elements are combined in very nearly the proportions
required by the system of the fowl. Under conditions of moderate temper-
ature and exercise, it may be made almost an exclusive diet for a long
time without perceptible harm to the fowls.*

In cold weather and cold quarters wheat alone fails to keep up the heat of
the body. Fed freely without exercise, in warm and moderate weather, it
fattens quite rapidly. It is good food for chicks at any age, and should form
one-fifth to one-third of their diet whenever purchasable at a price that allows
of feeding it with profit.

Wueat BRAN —is used in nearly all mashes, the proportion of bran to
other ingredients varying with the composition of the bran. Weight is a
fairly reliable index of quality. Light bran is 6*az—nothing else. Heavy
bran contains more or less middlings. Bran alone is rarely fed to fowls,
though some poultry keepers give their fowls free access to a dish of bran,
wet or dry, and think it an advantage to supplement the regular meals of
heavy laying hens in this way. The price of wheat bran seldom goes so high
that there is anything to gain by using substitutes.

MippiinGs and SnHorts are names for practically the same substance, the
mill product between flour and bran. Quality varies as in bran. Both these
by-products depend for quality on the processes used in the mills from which -
they come. Being rich in glutinous matter, middlings are most valuable to
use with corn meal, and in the mashes of all rations containing much corn.
A mash made largely of middlings is doughy, sticky, and not relished by
fowls. One-fourth to one-third is the proportion of middlings commonly

used.

117. Oats.—Wuorr Oats —contain nutritious matter in nearly the
same proportions as wheat, but because of their coarse indigestible husk are
not as well liked by fowls. The husk constitutes about one-tenth of the bulk
in good oats, and in poor oats much more. It is commonly thought that
heavy weight oats are the best. Analyses have shown that the contrary is
EGWe 4

When buying oats the quality may be tested accurately enough by hulling
a few sample grains. An ordinary inspection does not detect poor quality in

* Nore.— The experiment was made with laying hens, (Brown Leghorns), and a sixty

per cent egg yield secured in a month from hens fed whole wheat three times daily in
close confinement, with very little exercise.

+ NoTE.— Just how much more a poultryman can afford to pay for wheat than for corn,
is an open question. Experiments with cattle indicate that the feeding value of wheat is
not enough greater to justify the usual difference in prices of corn and the various grades
of wheat on sale for poultry food. The results of these experiments give wheat a cash
feeding value one-tenth to one-fourth above that of corn.

~U.S. Government Bulletin.

POUL TRY-CRAFT. 9

ON

oats as readily as in wheat. It is important for the feeder to know the quality
of the oats he is using. It is not an unusual thing for those who are careless
about this to feed bushel after bushel of worthless oats—nothing but husks

and seeing them left by the fowls, conclude that the fowls are over-fed ;
then other feeds are reduced, and the fowls, possibly, half-starved before the
error is detected. A very few poultry keepers have reported good results
from a diet mainly of whole oats. By most they are fed as a light (noon)
feed, or in a mixture of grains. Good oats are perhaps the best whole grain
to balance a heavy corn ration. If steamed occasionally they can be fed
oftener, for fowls eat them more readily; but when a mash is fed regularly,
cooked grains should not often be given in addition. The feeder can save
work and add variety by occasionally substituting steamed oats for the

regular mash.

HuLLep Oars — make a very good cheaper substitute for oat meal for those
who like a good proportion of oat meal in a ration for chicks. They may also
be used in mixtures of grain for old fowls.

Grounp Oars— (coarse, unsiited), are used in mashes and in cakes for
chicks. When fed to very young chicks it is better to sift out the hulls.

Oar Meat and Ro_tteEp Oatrs—though sometimes highly recommended
for young chicks, are little used by poultrymen. A few use one or other of
them freely for the first week or ten days; and a very few continue their use
occasionally after that period. They are costly foods. When fed freely oat
meal often causes bowel disorders. The feeder who is after the most profit will
hardly think of paying high prices for articles specially prepared for human
food, when as good results can be (and are) obtained by the use of cheaper
articles, and of oats in cheaper forms.

118. Barley —is not as generally kept in stock for poultry food as the
grains previously mentioned, and is sometimes hard to get where the demand
for ‘‘chicken feed” is light. Fowls do not like it as well as wheat. Its
feeding value, as determined in practical use, and also by analysis, is nearly
equal to that of wheat. It contains a little more fiber, and is therefore less
palatable. The hull seems to be the objectionable feature —to the fowls —
for hulled barley they eat freely. Barley contains a little more bone and
muscle forming food than wheat, and is usually enough lower in price to be

a much cheaper food.

BARLEY SCREENINGS — have a larger proportion of nutriment than well
developed grains have.

BarteEy Meat — has about the same properties as wheat middlings.

119. Rye.— The general condemnation of rye as a poultry food seems to
be based on very limited experiences in feeding it. In some parts of Europe
it is the ‘* staff of life,” just as wheat is here and in England, and is used much

96 FOOL TRAE CTEATAT:

for domestic animals as well as for men. Here and there in this country is
found a feeder who uses rye with good results. Its rank, as determined by
chemical analysis, is between barley and corn. It is less fibrous than barley—
a little more fattening. Rye is so cheap when obtainable that it is surely
worth while for those who could use it if satisfactory to give it a thorough
test.

Ryrt Bran—is nearly identical in composition with wheat bran. A
mixture of equal parts of rye, corn and oats, has the same feeding value as
buckwheat.

120. Buckwheat — is very generally fed as a part of the whole grain
ration, wherever it can be bought at a price that admits of its use as poultry
food. In sections where little of it is grown it is rarely on sale except at seed
stores, and at a rather high price. It is more fattening than wheat or barley,
nearly as fibrous as oats; not a good grain to feed heavily.

BucKWHEAT MrIppLINGs are, of all mill stuffs from grains,* the richest in
albuminous matter, therefore most valuable for balancing rations deficient in
protein.

121. Sorghum Seed — available in sorghum growing districts, contains
a little more heating, fattening matter than corn. Those who have used it say
it is a good poultry food — good for egg production for hens on the farm.

122. Chicken Corn — (sorghum vulgare) —has about the same nutritive
value as wheat, as much husk and fiber as whole oats.

Karrir Corn, Mitto Maize, Durra, EGypTian Corn — resemble chicken
corn in food properties. The names of these grains are, in popular usage,
rather indiscriminately applied. All make good poultry foods. They are
particularly valuable for poultry keepers in dry regions who grow their own
grains.

123. Broom Corn Seed,— hulled, makes a good food. (Tested in com-
parison with wheat, it gave equally good results). When not hulled fowls do
not eat it freely enough to make it useful as a staple of diet.

124. Millet Seed —has relatively more flesh forming substance than any
of the larger grains — more, even, than oat meal. It is often recommended
for young chicks, but has too much fiber, and is too apt to cause bowel troubles,
to be used as freely as is generally suggested. The best way to feed it to
chicks is to scatter it where well fed chicks can get it, if they hunt or scratch
for it; in addition to their regular meals. To old fowls it is generally given
as a light meal, in litter, to compel exercise. The grains are so small that
fowls cannot eat dry millet fast enough to make a good meal of it. When it is

* Notre.— Buckwheat ts not a grain, though always classed among grain foods.

POGEDRUACRATL TL. 97

cheap — (as it is in some places),—a good way to feed is to cook it and feed
in troughs instead of mash. It should not be fed regularly in this way. There
are numerous varieties. Those having the largest grains give best satisfaction
as chicken feed.

125. Linseed Meal and Cotton Seed Meal — are very rich in albumen,
and may be fed in small proportions in mashes, though those who can get corn,
wheat, and oat products in abundance have little need of either of these.

126. Other By-Products and Waste Products from Grain.— There
are many of these — most of them available only in the vicinities of the factories
from which they come, though some, extensively used in cattle feeding, are
kept in stock by large feed dealers generally. Few have been practically
tested as poultry foods. Trials of such food stuffs ought to be based on
knowledge of their composition, and of the general laws of feeding, as given

in the next chapter. Haphazard tests of food accomplish little.

127. Waste Bread. — Near large cities waste bread is an important item
in the poultry food supply. Much of it is not broken at all—simply stale
bread. A mixed lot of broken bread gives a very complete ration, for it con-
tains a great variety, white, brown, graham, and corn breads, broken cakes,
muffins, etc. It is fed in various ways: dry, crumbled; moist, crumbled ;
simply moistened with milk or water: soaked to a pulp in warm water, then
thickened with meal and bran, or middlings. Some poultrymen use no other
so{t food. Itis very cheap. Fed with whole corn to fowls on good range, it
makes a most economical and satisfactory ration.

CrACKER CrumBs,—stale and broken crackers, are also used as food for
chicks.

128. Meat Foods. — Brrr Scraps, Driep BLoop, ANnimaLt MEAL,
Pork Scraps, Larp CrAcKLINGs —are all used as poultry foods. An excess
of animal food in a ration causes digestive troubles: it is not, therefore,
advisable to feed the whole meat ration in the mash. If a part of it is fed
separately, fowls are not likely to over-eat of it. Fowls over-fed with meat will
at last refuse a mash containing it; but the mischief is done before the fowls
are forced to refuse the food.

GREEN BonE— and many of the prepared meat foods contain much mineral
matter — needed for bone and for shells.

Raw LEAN BEEF —is a good animal food when it can be had for little or
nothing. As by far the greater part of its bulk is water, the feeder cannot
afford to pay much for it, with prepared foods as cheap as they are.

Horst Meatr.— The meat of a healthy horse killed for cause, can be used
as poultry food; but ordinary ‘‘ horse meat” is unfit for fowls.

98 POUL TRI-CRAFT.

Fish Scraps and DesiccaTEpD FisH— are, near the sea coast, staple
articles of animal food for poultry. Fish products impart a rather strong odor
to eggs and flesh, and are often on that account objectionable.

CLams —are frequently fed to fowls; either raw, pounded up — shell and
all — or cooked in the mash.

129. Eggs.— Infertile and very stale eggs are commorly used as poultry
food (and are sometimes too abundant either for the credit of the poultry
keeper or the good of the chicks, to which they are oftenest fed). The usual
method is to hard boil them, chop fine and feed, either alone or with bread or
cracker crumbs, to little chicks. A better way is to break them — shell and
all, into the mash or the batter for the johnnycake; or soft boil, break and
thicken with meal.

130. Vegetable Foods.— Nearly all common vegetables are eagerly
eaten by fowls. Green vegetables and roots contain little nutriment as
compared with grain—from 78 to 96 per cent of their bulk being water.
With the exception of potatoes, they are hardly more than relishes in winter,
but in summer are an important part of the ration.

PoraToEs (WHITE) and SWEET PoTaToEs — which contain the most dry
matter, are very carbonaceous, hence should be fed sparingly — better not at
all to fowls which get much corn.

Onions — have a tonic and medicinal value. Fed raw, they impart their
taste to the flesh and eggs of fowls. When cooked they can be fed more
freely* without affecting the flavor of eggs or meat. The best way to feed
onions is to slice them ina slaw cutter, and boil with the hay or vegetables for
the mash; cut up fine in this way they are quickly and thoroughly cooked.

The profitableness of feeding vegetables depends much on their cost. To
buy them at the prices they usually bring for human food, does not pay, for
as good results can be had by using green grass in summer, and clover or
alfalfa hay in winter. Vegetables that can be grown cheaply, as cabbages,
mangels, etc., and waste vegetables of all kinds, can generally be bought at
prices so low as to admit of feeding enough of them to give the ration variety ;
but, if they cannot, fowls which have plenty of good hay will not suffer for
lack of them.

131. Hay.— The Rep and WuitTeE CLovers, and ALFALFA, — not over-
ripe, well cured, make the cheapest green foods for winter feeding. Finely
cut hay can be fed as a separate feed, either dry or steamed; but it is better to
feed it cooked in a mash. Where alfalfa is sold, baled, a common practice of
poultrymen is to put a bale under a shed or in the scratching floor, the wires

* Nore.— Five pounds of onions daily to every one hundred hens is feeding onions
frecly,— gives them all the onions they care to eat —and this amount of cooked onions
can be fed without aftecting the flavor of the products.

POGUE R Aa CKATAL 99

remaining fast, and allow the hens to help themselves at will. Finely cut
clover in sacks is now on sale by leading supply houses. It is of little use to
feed fowls woody stalks of hay, and if fine hay cannot be had otherwise it is
worth while for a breeder who could use a considerably quantity of it, to pay
a farmer to cut and cure for him a ton, or as much as he could use in a year,
of clover or alfalfa in the right stage to make good poultry food. One who
needed but a small quantity can often arrange to get a few bushels at a time
of fine leaves from a neighbor’s haymow ; or may cure lawn clippings for him-
self, though that is for most people rather unsatisfactory, and if his time is
worth anything, costs more than to buy vegetables, Hay is too bulky — con-
tains too much fiber—to be used as a principal poultry food. In everyday
use no difference is noted in feeding properties of the kinds named. Their
rank as determined by analyses is: (1) white clover; (2) alfalfa; (3) red
clover. Prepared clover finely cut for poultry food is kept in stock by large
dealers in poultry supplies.

132. Milk. —Sweer Sxim MiLx —is invaluable in poultry feeding.
It can be given as a drink, or the mash can be wet with or cooked in milk. At
the low price for which it can be bought at creameries, it is one of the most
economical of foods.

Sour Mirk, Crapper Mik, and Burrer Mitk —are all fed. For mixing
mashes they are not as satisfactory as sweet milk, yet many use and like them.
Cold clabber milk thickened with bran, middlings or corn meal, makes a side
dish much relished by fowls in hot weather.

Curp — is a valuable food— more concentrated than milk; giving the fowls
the solids of the milk without the water.

CHEESE — that has passed the last stage of fitness for human food, is often
given to fowls, and is highly recommended as an egg producer.

WHEy —is used by many feeders to wet the mash. It contains so little
solid matter that the advantage of using it, rather than water, to wet the mash,
must be more fancied than real—especially as its solids are principally
carbonaceous. If one has it, it will pay to use it — nothing should be wasted.
It has not food value enough, however, to make it worth one’s while to go to
any trouble or expense to get it.

133. Egg Foods.— Condition Powders.— Tonics and Stimulants —
of various kinds are in the debatable list between foods and medicines. Some
use them for one, some for the other. The wisdom of using them depends on
circumstances. It is certainly unwise for one whose fowls plainly need a
tonic to neglect — oz principle — to use one; and it is as certainly unwise to
feed stimulants to fowls in the best of condition, and at the height of profitable
productiveness without them. Nearly all fowls are better for the regular
addition of a condition powder to their mash during the moulting period, and
at times when colds are epidemic; as they often are at the same time among
men and domestic animals.

100 POL RRA CTHATT:.

134. Grit, Shell, Dry Bone, Charcoal — while, perhaps, not properly
foods, are important accessories.

Grit —is ‘‘ hens’ teeth,” and is indispensable. A supply of grit of suitable
size should be accessible to a fowl from the time it, a chick, leaves the nest or
incubator.

CHarcoaL —aids digestion, and purifies the blood. It is fed either pul-
verized or finely cracked; sometimes in the mash, but often in a pan or box —

as grit and shell are given. Fowls should have frequent opportunities to
use it.

Dry BonE —is not so much used since bone cutters and the prepared
animal foods containing bone have come into more general use.
OysTER SHELLS — need not be furnished to chicks, but should be given to

pullets as they show signs of laying, and should be always accessible to laying
hens.

135. Buying Supplies in Quantity.— Few poultrymen have enough
working capital to buy and store supplies for long periods. Those who
indulge regrets because they have not, spend grief unnecessarily. Buying
stocks of perishable goods subject to wide fluctuations in price is very much of
a speculation. One may buy grain enough to last him six months, only to see
the price go down within a week, and stay down. Besides, there is always
some shrinkage and loss in storing food. The ordinary action of the air
rapidly takes nitrogen from ground foods. Whole grains are more easily
kept, but a few rats or mice, or a little dampness, may cause loss much greater
than the original saving made by purchasing the larger quantity. | Purchases
of supplies should be according to size of the business. It will not often be an
advantage to buy grain for more than two or three months ata time. In many
cases not more than one month’s supplies can be managed with true economy.
In buying imperishable goods, as grit, oyster, shells, etc., the prices of which
fluctuate hardly ever, the case is different. A small poultryman had best buy
supplies of these to last a year or two. In buying damaged stuff, especially
meats and vegetables, it is well to keep on the safe side, buying only as much
as will be eaten while still fit for use.

136. Using Damaged Articles for Poultry Food.— Allusion has
already been made to this matter, and also to the fact that fowls are gleaners
and scavengers. The latter word may not sound nice— the fact is there, none
the less. The treatment of this question,— the decision as to what to do and
what not to do, requires, first of all, common sense. ‘To go to the extreme
limit of what fowls will endure in the way of decomposing and filthy food,
is, from every point of view, a mistake. (Happily it is not a common one).
To be over-nice, is to be altogether unreasonable. Food that has just passed
the stage of fitness for human beings of somewhat refined tastes, is just as
agreeable to fowls as if in perfect condition, avd just as good for them. The

IX OMGD STARA ACT eG ANI DIES 101

greatest danger in using such foods is that they are so cheap when they can
be had in quantity that the feeder is tempted to use too large a proportion of
them, — especially of meats and vegetables, —keeping the fowls short on
grain to compel them to eat the other stuffs. As far as the effect of slightly
damaged food on the health of fowls and the flavors of meat and eggs is con-
cerned, if the food is such that a well fed fowl eats it well, no bad effects can
be discerned. Asasimple matter of fact, the most common unpleasant flavors
of eggs and flesh are due to foods (as, say, onions), rightly considered par-
ticularly healthy ; or (of eggs) to absorption of bad odors after berng lard.

137. A Balanced Ration—jis a complete ration, containing in proper
proportion and in sufficient quantity all necessary food. The food eaten by
a fowl goes:—to growth, including reproduction, egg production ; — to
warmth ; —to strength. Nitrogenous elements are éwz/¢t zuto the body,
replacing worn, and adding new, substance. Carbonaceous elements are
burned tn the body, giving warmth and energy —capacity for muscular
action. The needs of the fowl’s system are not always the same. It does
not always use the different elements in the same proportions. It has in itself
limited power to balance its ration, making a surplus of either class of food
elements compensate for a deficit of the other. In the foods and combinations
of foods used by expert feeders, the food elements are about right for average
normal conditions. Observation and experience soon teach a feeder how to
vary his ration to meet changes in the weather and apparent changes in the
condition of the fowls. The commonest fault in the ration of well fed
fowls is an excess of heat and fat producing matter. For this the feeder
has an ever present remedy in the power of compelling the fowls to expend
it in exercise.

138. The Need of a Variety of Foods.— A ration which is sufficient in
quantity, and provides the variety of foods necessary to make it appetizing,
will be on the whole a pretty well balanced ration. Such a ration for fowls
in confinement would comprise two or more kinds of whole grain: a mash
of vegetables — or hay —corn meal, wheat middlings, bran—or mill stuffs
equivalent to these in feeding value—some kind of meat food, and a little
green vegetables—a simple diet, yet varied enough to keep the digestive
organs in good condition and the appetite normal. When fed grains of which
they are fond, under conditions which invite gluttony, hens will over-eat, as
they also will of a mash containing too much corn meal. If fed a little short
on grain stuffs, fowls that get meat and vegetables regularly may be allowed
to let their appetites regulate the quantities of them to be eaten.

Elaborate compounds of foods are not needed in mashes. In general a
mash will be as well balanced — as complete

as a ration can be, with three
or four ingredients. Good feeding is systematic. Large bills of fare make a
system too cumbersome. That the fowls may be trained to eat what is given

102 TAONOYE ILI VECIRTNSIEIE:

them, the greatest possible variety should be introduced in feeding whole
grain, (Not a great number of grains at the same time, but frequent changes
made in the grains fed by way of variety). ‘‘ Finickyness” in eating is a bad
trait ina fowl. In different places the feeding problem deals with slightly
different assortments of foods. Wherever located, one soon finds that the list
of articles he can profitably use in large quantities is short.

139. Changing Rations.— Once found, the ration which gives satis-
factory results should be used as long as prices allow. If a change must be
made in a staple article of a ration, it should—when possible— be made
gradually. Radical changes in diet always have some bad effects, and if
fowls have not been taught to eat what is set before them, it may be some
days before they eat a new food as freely as they should. In the meantime
their light feeding will have played the mischief with the egg yield. Fowls
accustomed to eat a variety of grains will, of course, have their preferences,
but will rarely exercise them to the length of going hungry if a favorite food
is not forthcoming. Neither the refusal, at first, of the fowls to eat, nor the
slight bowel troubles incident to a change, should prevent the use of a food it
is clearly to the advantage of the poultryman to use, and which he knows
others are using with good results.

140. Feeding for Special Results. — Distinctions between ‘ rations for
eggs,” ‘‘rations for growth,” ‘* maintenance rations,” ‘‘ fattening rations,” are
rather misleading. The differences are not so much in the proportions of the
foods as in the methods of preparing them, the form in which the food is
given, the number of daily feeds, the quantities fed, and — most important —
the conditions tmposed on the fowls. A ration which, fed five times a day
gives good hardy growth to chicks at liberty, will force, or even fatten chicks
in confinement, though for quick fattening it would be too narrow. The
same (in composition) ration fed three times daily to hens with moderate
exercise, would make a good laying ration; fed to the same hens without
exercise, it would be a fattening ration. Some feeders do use a variety of
rations, but, except for forcing, their extra work is labor lost.

141. Different Rations for Different Classes of Fowls.— Some
experienced feeders can use the same ration for Leghorns, Plymouth Rocks,
and Brahmas, and get uncommonly good results from all; some find it
necessary to use quite different rations — more so than to make differences for
the same breed for special purposes. Those mentioned first are more skillful
feeders, have better judgment as to ow much to feed. Beginners who keep
several varieties will find it better, at least at first, to use a rather bulky,
nitrogenous ration for fowls prone to lay on fat; a more carbonaceous ration

for the active, energetic breeds. Many people— many good feeders — are
a little too automatic in their work to handle several breeds, of different

classes, at the same time with good results from all.

POOLE UT VAC ALT. 103

142. Methods of Feeding.— In feeding method and regularity are all
“important. There must be system. ‘To the fowls it will make little differ-
ence which of the many good systems is used. To the feeder it may make
much difference. One system will be more conventent for this man, another

more convenient for that. The most common method — among those who
have method —is to give a mash in the morning; vegetables, cut bone, or a
light feed of grain at noon; a full feed of grain in the evening. It is a good
system, though the fact that equally good results attend the use of other
systems,— among them one just the reverse of this,— disproves the very
plausible theory which persuaded so many to adopt it. The theory was that
the fowls, after their night’s fast, needed a meal that would be quickly assimi-
lated, and that at night they needed a meal of hard grain slow of digestion.
Grain in the morning and mash at night, give just as good results. Results
as good as the best have also been obtained from grain mornings and evenings,
and mash at noon. It is by no means certain that as good results cannot be
obtained without a mash as with one; but general experience indicates that it
is easier for most to get good results by using a mash feed oxce daily, than by
omitting it. The great value of the mash lies in the opportunity it affords to
more exactly regulate the ration. If the mash is not eaten eagerly, it is at
once clear that the fowls are over-fed, or that the other food contains much
too large a proportion of some substance prominent in the mash. To the
trained feeder, the mash isa gauge of the condition of his flock. Whatever
be the system adopted, it should be closely followed, and changed only for
some very good reason. One of the common mistakes in amateur feeding is
to make frequent radical changes of rations and of methods of feeding

a
sure way to bring about digestive troubles, and ultimately destroy the useful-
ness of such fowls as are not killed outright.

143. Cooking Food.— Some feeders cook the mash, some ‘scald (half-
cook) it, some merely wet it. It is commonly supposed that cooked food is
more digestible. As to that, there is no conclusive evidence. A significant
pointer is that the leading duck raisers have changed from cooked to wet food
for their ducklings. An objection to wet uncooked food is that it sours
quickly. If given in the first stages of fermentation, it does no harm; but
too often the feeder, unwilling to throw it out, takes long chances on very
sour or mouldy food. Cooked food remains sweet much longer, and is there-
fore preferable when enough for several feeds is to be prepared at one time.
While good results are undoubtedly obtained with raw and partly cooked
foods, general opinion and practice favor the thorough cooking of mashes for
both fowls and chicks, and of the baked cakes many use for chicks. | Whole
grains should be cooked only occasionally, by way of variety. For this a
fibrous grain, as oats, not palatable in its natural state, should be selected.
Cooked grain is, to all intents and purposes, a ‘‘ soft”? food. | Too much soft
food in a ration impairs, through partial disuse, the digestive organs, which

rod POUL TRY-CRAFT.

in the fowl are specially adapted to grinding dry, whole grain. When the
digestion goes wrong everything begins to go wrong. Cooking is a part of
the preparation of commercial meat foods. Fresh meat may be fed either
cooked or raw; when cooked, the water in which it was cooked should be
used in the mash. The notion that raw meat makes fowls vicious, is absurd.

144. How Often to Feed.— Unless the foraging ground is uncommonly
good, fowls at liberty should be fed twice daily. Fowls in confinement should
be fed two or three times, according to the manner of feeding the whole
grain. When grain is fed on bare ground or scantily littered floors, it is better
to give the grain for the day in two feeds. When floors are heavily littered,
once feeding grain may be enough. Occasional light feeds between meals
are good, but to regularly give four or five mea/s daily to adult fowls is poor
method. Chicks should be fed from six to three times daily, according to age
and circumstances. The length of interval between meals can be gauged by
the appetites of the chicks.

145. How Much to Feed.— The common rule for a full feed of mash
is: All they will eat clean and guick. J mash is left before fowls, they
will after having satisfied their appetites once, go away, and a little later
come back and eat more. It is better to give only what they will take at one
‘*feed.” Of a properly compounded mash as much as they will eat at one
time can safely be given. When grain-is fed in heavy litter, a quart gives a
full feed to a dozen average fowls. A quart of grain fed thus in the evening
is not all eaten that day. One-fifth to one-fourth of it will remain in the
litter to be scratched out next morning, early —if the feeding of the mash is
delayed ; not till toward noon if a full feed of mash is given the first thing in
the morning. Adult fowls, except when being fatted, should not be allowed
to gorge themselves; growing chicks may safely be allowed to eat all they
will of a fairly balanced ration,— and it will do no harm to encourage them

to eat more.

146. Tested Rations.— Remarx.— Most of the rations described here
have been many times in print, though not in the exact words here given.
The arrangement, and to some extent the wording, is changed in the endeavor
to make all conform to a common pattern. Comparison of some of the
similar rations will show that some good feeders use unnecessary ingredients.
The great variety of rations given here makes it very improbable that’ any
inexperienced feeder will be unable to find at least one thoroughly tested
ration suited to his circumstances.

(1). Ration for Breeding Stock.—(FELcH).—Swmmer—Morning,—mash of boiled
vegetables, wheat bran and corn meal; meat in some form added three days in the week.
Mash fed hot,—as much as will be eaten before 9 o’clock. Afternoon,—at 4 or 5 o’clock

TA OOUE ALM CLRATT TL: 105

a full feed of mixed small grains and a little corn. We7nter— Wheat mash will be eaten
up clean at the morning meal; at noon, small grains, sunflower seed, etc.; at night, all
the corn they will eat.

(2). Ration for Laying Hens. — Leghorns.— (WycKkorr).— Morning — Mash
compounded as follows: 1 bu. corn, 2 bu. oats, ground fine; to each 200 lbs. of this
mixture add 100 lbs. bran and 5 or 6 lbs. beef scraps; moisten with milk; feed in troughs,
returning after ten or fifteen minutes to take up any feed that may be left, and give a
second feeding where needed. At noon,— green food, mangels or cabbage in winter,
clover or kale in summer; sometimes a light feed of mixed grain in litter. Night feed,—
mixed grain, in winter 2 bu. each wheat, oats, buckwheat, and corn; in summer the corn
in the mixture reduced one-half.

(3). Ration for Twelve Fowls.— (Boyer).— Dump all kitchen scraps into an old
pot, and cook each evening; salt when cooking. In the morning heat up again. Scald
1 pint bran, 1 pint equal parts ground oats and corn meal; mix with the scraps. Twice
a week add a little condition powder or-charcoal and sulphur. Feed 2 qts., (less rather
than more) to twelve hens. At noon feed 1 pt. of wheat or oats in litter; at night, 1 qt.
of wheat, oats, or (in winter) cracked corn in litter, feeding the grains in regular rotation.

(4). Ration for Fowls Kept on the Colony Plan.— (Wirsour).— Morning feed,
— cooked vegetables and mixed meals; afternoon feed,— whole corn the year round.

(5). Ration for Laying Hens.— (DawLey).— Morning,— mash, clover hay or
crimson clover steamed over night; in the morning stirred up with a mixed feed of 100
Ibs. coarse wheat bran, 75 lbs. yellow corn meal, 100 Ibs. ground oats, 50 to 75 lbs.
linseed meal, a little charcoal, salt. Feed all they will eat clean. Noon,— green bone
and vegetables. Night,— whole wheat and a little corn.

(6). Ration for Fifty Laying Hens.— (Mrs. ReEp).—A little grain scattered over
night for an early morning feed. Mash when the sun is about two hours high; take for
fifty hens 8 qts. boiling water, 1 tablespoon fine salt, 1 teaspoon cayenne pepper, I teacup
drippings or fat; into this stir corn meal 2 parts, wheat bran 1 part—to make a soft
dough — not a batter. Feed very hot, in troughs, as much as they will eat up clean in
one-half hour. Noon feed,—house scraps. Evening feed,— grain, principally corn on
the cob; wheat, rye, oats, barley, and buckwheat used with corn in rotation.

(7). Ration for Laying Breeding Stock.— (NesmirH).— Morning,—a full feed
of whole grain, principally wheat; but barley, oats, buckwheat used often. Noon,—a
light feed of grain. Evening,— mash, of dried bread, cut clover, beef scraps and mixed
meals, well cooked and fed warm — not hot —all they will eat.

(8). Laying Ration for Twelve Wyandottes.— (Patton).— Morning, 1 qt.
wheat in litter. Noon,— green food, clover, mangels or cabbage. Evening,— mash,
8 parts corn meal, 8 parts fine bran, 4 parts buckwheat middlings, 3 parts meat meal, 2
parts oil meal, a little salt; all mixed in warm water and fed crumbly, all they will eat
clean.

(9). Ration for Laying Hens. — Leghorns — in Cold House.—(Ewine & Fox).
Morning,— mash, 2 parts bran, 1 part corn meal, 1 qt. cut bone to 40 hens added every
other day ; condition powder once a week. Noon,— cabbage and a little grain, generally
oats or barley. Night,— wheat and corn, alternating.

(10). Ration for Adult Fowls. (Curtis).— Morning,— mash one-half bran, the
other half boiled potatoes, cracked corn, ground wheat, chopped oats, any special article
at hand. Afternoon,— whole grain, in litter, corn and wheat, in summer equal parts;
in winter two-thirds corn, one-third wheat.

106 POOL ARAZTCTSATTIE.

(11). Ration for Laying Breeding Stock.—(Burrintron).— Morning,— mash,
corn meal and middlings, equal parts, a little beef scrap and (in winter) boiled potatoes,
a little salt, egg food; mixed with hot water and fed as soon as the fowls can see, except
in the long summer days. Mash fed light, and a little dry grain, mixed, given after it.
Afternoon feed,— dry grain, oats, corn and wheat, equal parts.

(12). Ration for Thirteen Plymouth Rocks (male and twelve females) in Con=
finement.—(Lasu).—Morning and noon,—for pullets 1 pt. wheat, in litter; for hens
three-quarters pt. Evening,— mash, 4 parts beans, 2 parts shorts, 3 parts ground oats,
1 part ground corn, one-third the whole cut clover; every third day one-quarter the
whole green bone; 2 tablespoons pulverized charcoal to bucket of feed every third day ;

wet with hot water, and when cool feed until the crops are about two-thirds full.

(13). Ration for Laying Stock.— A Three-Day Rotation.—(HuNTER).— Morn-
ing,— mash, cooked vegetables mashed fine, or cut clover cooked by being brought toa
boiling heat in water; to this add an equal amount of boiling water; to each bucket of
feed use a tablespoon salt, and two days a heaping teaspoon condition powder, the third
day of powdered charcoal. Make mash very stiff with mixed meal,— by measure, 1 part
each corn meal, fine middlings, bran, ground oats, and animal meal,—the meal omitted
or reduced in quantity wheh cut bone is fed. Mash omitted two days in each week.
Noon,— light feed of grain. Evening,—full feed of grain. Grain fed in variety in
rotation, thus : —

Monday — oats (or barley), wheat, whole corn.

Tuesday — mash, barley (or buckwheat), wheat.

Wednesday — mash, cut bone, wheat.

Cabbage, or split roots of beets, turnips, etc., fed often.

(14). General Ration for Adult Fowls and for Chicks when given Three
_Meals a Day.— Morning,— mash; by measure, 2 parts finely cut alfalfa, 2 parts heavy
bran (bran and middlings), 1 part corn meal; cook alfalfa in as much water as will make
the quantity of mash needed of proper consistency (about the proportion of 5 gals. water
to each peck of the hay) ; When boiling stir in the corn meal, or chop, making a thick
mush; add the bran, making a very stiff, almost crumbly dough. Feed either hot or
cold, all they will eat clean in ten to fifteen minutes. If other green food is abundant
the hay may be omitted, (in which case not so much mash should be fed, and the green
food given an hour or two after the mash). With the proportion of hay specified in the
mash fowls zeed no other green food. Noon,—a light feed of oats or millet, dry or
steamed; or of wheat —about one-half pint to every ten hens. Noon feed omitted on
Sundays. Evening,—at 4 or 5 o’clock wheat, about 1 pint to every ten hens, in litter;
at dusk whole corn to fowls that are waiting for it. Two or three times a week cut bone
at mid-afternoon, and on these days the evening feed slightly reduced.

(15). Ration for Small Flock, in Confinement, with Exercise.— Morning,—
mashes; alternating, one day table scraps and slops mixed cold with corn meal, shorts
and bran equal parts; next day, 2 parts corn meal, 1 part fine shorts, 3 parts bran, a little
meat meal. Make a thin mush of the corn meal, and pour while boiling over the other
ingredients previously mixed dry in a pail; stir thoroughly to a stiff, almost crumbly
dough; feed when cool. (A mash made in this way needs time to cook by its own heat).
At noon vegetables or steamed clover occasionally. Afternoon feed, 3 o’clock,— cracked
corn in heavy litter, 1 qt. to twelve hens two days; the third day same amount wheat.
On cold evenings give at dusk all the whole corn that will be eaten greedily.

(16). Forcing Ration for Broilers.—(Dusron).— First feed,— rolled oats, warm
skim milk. First week,— rolled oats, millet seed, cracked corn. Second week,— use a
little of a mash made of one-third corn meal to two-thirds wheat bran, seasoned with

POUL TRY-CRAFT. 107

salt and red pepper. When chicks eat mash freely alternate hard and soft foods. Third
week and after,— first feed in morning, hard grain; next chopped raw potatoes followed
by a little cut cabbage or onions. Atgandi1A.M.,1and3P.M., mash. At5 P.M.,
cracked corn. Finish off at six to eight weeks by adding cotton seed meal and a little
treacle to the mash.

(17). Ration for Broilers.—(Pressery).— First ten days,— baked cake, 3 qts. corn
meal, 1 gt. wheat middlings, 1 cup meat meal; mix with water or skim milk, to which
has been added 4 tablespoons vinegar, 2 teaspoons soda; mashed potato once a day.
After ten days, take 2 parts corn, 1 part wheat, 1 part oats, ground fine; to each 10 qts.
of this mixture I qt. bran, 1 pt. middlings, 1 pt. meat meal, one-half cup bone meal;
mix stiff with warm water two hours before feeding. Fatten on a mixture of 2 parts
corn, I part wheat, ground together, ground meat added; mix stiff with warm water two
hours before feeding ; feed three or four times a day.

(18). Ration for Broilers.— (Hower).— First ten days,—johnnycake, 1 pt. corn
meal, 1 teacup bran, I teaspoon ground meat, I raw egg, I teaspoon soda, 1 teacup cold
water; bake two hours. After ten days,— ground wheat, oats and corn, moistened.
Oyster shell, bone and charcoal before the chicks in separate dishes.

(19). Ration for Broilers.— (PETERsoN).— First ten days,— stale bread crumbs
moistened with milk, alternated with dry bread crumbs at two hour intervals; skim milk
to drink. After ten days,— ground corn 1 part to ground wheat 2 parts, moistened.

(20). Ration for Broilers.— (Wuirz).— First week,— plain johnnycake, baked
without soda. After first week,— mash, equal parts corn meal, bran and middlings, with
a little meat scraps. (Lessen middlings if chicks become costive; increase middlings if
chicks show looseness). Scatter a little grain about to induce exercise between feeds.
Have grit and charcoal constantly by them; if chicks do not voluntarily eat charcoal it is
mixed in the mash.

(21). Ration for Chicks.— (HunTER).— First feed,— hard boiled eggs, chopped fine
I part, to dry bread crumbs 3 parts. First five or six weeks,— coarse oat meal moistened
with skim milk alternated at two hour intervals with dry bread crumbs until 4 P. M.,
then feed cracked wheat or corn. Meat twice a week; green food often. From six to
ten weeks old,— morning, bread crumbs; 10 A. M., oat meal; 1.30 P. M., cracked wheat ;
5 P. M., whole wheat and cracked corn, alternately; vegetables and meat continued as
before. After ten weeks,— rations as for adult fowls. (See (13).

(22). Ration for Chicks for Stock Birds.— (Boyer ).— First week,— rolled oats or
pin head oat meal fed in troughs, alternate with stale bread crumbs, dry; boiled milk to.
drink. After first week — mash, 2 parts bran, 1 part corn meal, (or 2 parts bran, 1 part
corn meal, 1 part ground wheat), a handful of meat scraps toa pailof mash. After two
weeks give also cracked wheat and corn. Keep grit, oyster shell, and powdered charcoal
by them. Feed freely green tops; or, if these cannot be had, roast potatoes cut in
halves.

(23). Ration for Chicks for Stock Birds.— (Rupp).— First two weeks,— crumbled
johnnycake (from waste bread) and granulated oats, dry; green food and powdered
charcoal constantly before them. Atter two weeks whole or broken wheat and cracked
corn added. At three weeks begin to give moist food, stale bread soaked in sweet milk,
thickened with corn meal,— meal about ene-half of the whole. At four weeks discontinue
granulated oats. Cracked corn always before the chicks until they are old enough to eat
whole corn, then whole corn always before them until full grown.

(24). Ration for Chicks for Stock Birds.— (Frtcu).— First meal,— boiled eggs
chopped fine, shell and all, with baked corn cake, or excelsior meal cake, crumbled

108 POULTRI-CRAFT.

with scalded milk; then, morning, excelsior meal bread and scalded milk; 10 A. M.,
granulated corn; 2 P. M., excelsior meal bread and scalded milk; 6 P. M., canary seed,
millet seed, granulated corn. After two weeks a varied diet, two soft feeds alternating
with two hard feeds, excelsior meal bread frequently given, and morning mash often
mixed with meat or in broth of meat; green food fed regularly.

Excelsior Meal— grind together 20 lbs. corn, 15 lbs. oats, 10 lbs. barley; add 1o Ibs.
wheat bran. To make cakes: take,—one quart sour milk or buttermilk, add a little salt
and molasses, a quart of water, a heaping teaspocn saleratus; thicken with the meal, a
little thicker than batter for corn cakes; bake in shallow pans.

(25). Ration for Chicks for Stock.— (LamBErT).— Corn, wheat, oats, equal parts,
ground; mix with milk, bake; feed all they will eat five times a day, at three hour
intervals. After four weeks alternate with cracked corn, crushed wheat, etc. Use whole
corn and wheat as soon as it is eaten easily. If milk cannot be obtained for johnnycake,
mix alternately with desiccated fish and animal meal.

(26). Ration for Chicks on Range.— (Mrs. Toomas).—Warm mash (same as for
old fowls), in the morning; millet where they can get it all day long; whole wheat at
night; night feed varied occasionally by using other grains.

(27). Rations for Chicks, for Stock Birds on Limited Range or in Roomy
Yards.— W7nter.— Morning,— mash as for old fowls (14); 9 A. M., baked cake of corn
chop and house scraps, made as follows: add a little soda to sour milk; throw in the
scraps, finely broken; stir in the chop to make a very stiff batter. (The stiffer the better.
Thin batter takes longer to bake, and bakes with a thicker, tougher crust); bake in deep

pans, well greased. Feed the heart of this cake in chunks, the crust crumbled or cut in a
bone cutter. Feed cake again at 11.30 A. M. and 2.30 P. M. At dusk feed whole wheat.
Give both milk and water to drink, boiling the milk if there are symptoms of looseness
of the bowels. Suwmmer.—5.30 A. M., mash; 7.30 A. M., green food, lettuce or cabbage;
9 A. M., corn cake; 11 A. M., millet; 2 P. M., corn cake; 4 P..M., corn’ cake} meatwor
green food; 6 to 7 P. M., whole wheat, all they will eat, followed by corn either cracked
or whole. (It will be found that chicks after eating their fill of one kind of food will
shortly, if given the opportunity, stuff themselves on another. It will not hurt them in
the least to do this in ¢ke evenzng, and this method of feeding can be made very effective
in forcing growth).

(28). Rations for Chicks on Good (Orchard) Range.— Mash (as in (15)), 5.30
A. M.; cracked corn, 9.30 A. M.; cracked corn, whole wheat, or mash, 2 P. M.; cracked
corn,6 P.M.

147. Good Feeding Requires Skill.— No matter how thorough a
‘‘ book knowledge” one may have of the properties of foods and the principles
of feeding, no matter how familiar he may be with accepted formulas for
correct feeding, or how closely he may follow a good system of feeding, he
finds that good feeding depends finally on Sxitx. Skill is acquired only
through practice. Skill in feeding is not merely mechanical. It depends on
a judgment trained to observe, closely and without conscious effort, the
appearances of fowls, to note beginnings of departures from normal growing
or producing conditions, and to decide, as if by instinct, how to preserve or
restore the health of the fowls.

LOGE MAC heATA. 109

CHAPTER VIII.

Science in Poultry Feeding.

148. Where Common Knowledge Fails.— Purely practical knowledge
and skill, enough for ordinary use, can be acquired without study of the
science of feeding. The simple instruction which helps to a common sense
understanding of the needs of an animal organism and plain knowledge of
the properties of the staple poultry foods, is enough for most poultry keepers
— enough for all as long as only familiar articles are used in approved combi-
nations. But when it is advisable to use other articles or untested combina-
tions, this common knowledge fails. It has not equipped the feeder to work
out feeding problems for himself. Work at them he may, through a tiresome
and expensive course of haphazard experiments, but there is no need that he
should follow such a course. An elementary knowledge of the science of
feeding, and access to a table giving the analyses of the food stuffs he wishes
to use, make it possible for him to formulate rations with absolute certainty
as to their theoretic value, and reasonable expectation of their practical feeding
value.

149. Food Requirements of Fowls.— The food which a fowl eats has
three functions: (1). To develop and maintain its organic structure; (2). To
keep it warm —to keep up heat zz the body; (3). To furnish the strength —
energy — which is expended in every movement. The chemical elements
which maintain these functions are found in combination in every article of
food, constituting its digestible matter; in the staple grains they occur in
nearly the proportions required by fowls under average normal conditions.

150. Food Elements may be classed as: Principal and Subordinate.

PRINCIPAL Foop ELEMENTS are:

(1). Protedds (or protein) albuminous, or nitrogenous matter; in grains,
gluten; in milk, casein; in meat and blood, fibrin; in bones, gelatin. Pro-
tein is the nourishing matter, supplying material for bone, muscle, blood,
feathers, eggs.

TIO POGIEERMACIATAT

(2). Carbohydrates (technically, ‘‘ nitrogen-free extract”), carbonaceous
matter, principally starches. Carbohydrates form the bulk of the dry matter
in nearly all foods, and are the principal sources of heat and energy, which,
as is well known, are cenvertible.

(3). /ats.— Found to some extent in every article of food. Their function
is to furnish heat and energy, on demand, in addition to the supply from the
carbohydrates, to store up fat as a reserve of heat and energy within the
body, and to furnish the material for elementary growth cells which are
developed by the protein. at also enters largely into the composition of the
ceg, forming nearly one-half its solids.

As far as known these elements have the same properties, no matter what
the form in which they occur. In the last effect, it makes no difference
whether the sources of the protein, carbohydrates and fats assimilated were
vegetable or animal. It is known, however, that in animal foods the elements
are more completely digestible than in grains, and more digestible in grains
than in vegetables and fruits; and it has been observed that of two foods, one
animal, the other vegetable, containing large and nearly equal proportions of
protein or of fat, the animal food is generally preferred — is more palatable.
In formulating working standards and in making practical applications of the
laws of foods, using the chemical analyses of articles, the principal elements
are regarded as completely digestible. The subordinate elements are regarded
as indigestible, and are omitted from calculations. The results thus obtained,
while not strictly accurate, are sufficiently so for practical purposes.

SUBORDINATE Foop ELEMENTS are:

(1). Ash—lime and other mineral matter, occurring generally in very
small quantities, except in such articles as bone and shell— partly digestible.

(2). &zber, husks or waste matter — mostly, if not completely indigestible.

151. Principal Elements Can Mutually Assist Each Other.— The
principal food elements, though having each its special function, are not wholly
independent. Within limits they may be said to be able, on occasion, to do
each other’s work. The relations of fats and carbohydrates have been indi-
cated. Carbohydrates are cheap fuels for ordinary use. Fats are expensive
fuels for emergency use. Any deficiency of carbohydrates and fats in a ration
will be at least partially made up by the diversion of a part of the protein from
its proper function. With a sufhiciency of carbonaceous matter, the entire
consumption of protein is available for growth and maintenance. Further than
this, a deficiency of protein is not made up from the other elements. Scientific
opinion as to the effects of feeding the various elements to excess is not unani-
- mous, nor are any of its expressions decided enough to be taken as authoritative.

TXOMGLE, TITER IC GTEINI DIE jieie

It is said that an excess of carbohydrates pours through the system undigested.
That supposition is contrary to the known effects of feeding heavily of carbon-
aceous matter. The immediate consequence of feeding fat to excess is scour-
ing. Some authorities on feeding say all the protein taken into the system is
an excess of protein is impossible. But this is not in accordance
with practical experience in feeding ‘‘ narrow” or highly nitrogenous rations.
Experience teaches that such rations cause digestive troubles as surely, if not
as quickly, as an excess of fats.

used: Zz. é.

152. Food Values.— There are two standards of measurements of food
values:

(1). The measurement of quality, of proportionate value of principal ele-
ments :— NUTRITIVE Rario.

(2). The measure of bulk, of content, of degree of concentration, of total
heating capacity : — POTENTIAL ENERGY.

The Nutritive Ratio of a food (single article or mixture) is the ratio of
its proteids to its carbohydrates and fats, reduced to terms of carbohydrates ; —
one part of fat by weight having a fuel value two and one-half times as great
as an equal weight of carbohydrates. The chemical analysis of a food being
known, the nutritive ratio is determined thus, taking corn as the example:

Corn (see table, 4153) contains 10.4 parts protein, 70.3 parts carbohydrates,
5 parts fat: its nutritive ratio is:

WOWALS Os (5 < Ao) = 1B co

The PorenTiIAL ENERGy of a food is the gross fuel value of its digestible
matter. It is expressed in calorzes per ounce. A calory is the amount of
heat required to raise one gram of water one degree centigrade. One ounce
of carbohydrates or protein has a potential energy of one hundred and sixteen
calortes. One ounce of fat has a potential energy of two hundred and sixty-
four calortes. The potential energy of any food substance of which the
chemical composition is known is calculated thus, taking corn again as the
example, and using the figures in the table as percentages of an ounce:

(264.X .05)-+(.703-+.104) 116 = 106.

The nutritive ratio and potential energy of each single article may, when
computing values of compound foods, or of rations, be regarded as constant
quantities. Asa matter of fact, they vary greatly in different samples of the
same article, but calculations from the figures in the table, which are averages
of a large number of analyses, may properly be assumed to give the average
and usual values of the different foods.

The values of a ration vary with its ingredients, and are calculated from
averages of the values of the ingredients. (See 4158).

112

POOLBLRIGCTEAT AT:
153. Table of Analyses and Computed Values of Food Stuffs.*

Gross Compositi f dry tter, in
contents, EB ND eared hepa near Valuation.
: : percentages of the whole. |
percentages. |
= an ae
Foops. 2 v o. = 5
cfs Silene 5S) al sete
Delete eon boos ee [eee Es | 62
G eRe ashi | a Or | Re | es See ee
= aS | eR WO cy Z av
Corn (Maize) and Corn
Products.
Field corn...........--- 10.9 | 89.1 1.9 1.5 | 10.4 | 70.3 FO) |p 368 G26) || uO
Sweeticonmcmri street 8.8 | 91.2 2.8 TOM LiL -On | OOsS Seles Yoh | nnn
Jetoyo) CONN 6 Sdop dd cdGaDdOe 10.7 | 89.3 1.8 TeaGu|) Tie 2|Oous So} ICR FoR 107
Small and immature ears
of field icornis-- <!-. 35. pO4e3 1.0 0.9 Te BulnS ONg Sarpall 108) Ga 68
@rackedicorn tee eicierre: Woe! eizfay, loooods 1.3 S:6n|| j-72- 1 Anatole mous 103
Gornpmealke cates 15.0 | 85.0 1.9 1.4 g.2 | 68.7 Be |p) She | CO
Corn and cob meal......- 15 stei|O49 6.6 Hols 8.5 | 64.8 Boy || 168 90 94
Coumyserm ye lelelelocisieass- 10.7 | 89.3 4.1 4.0 9.8 | 64.0 Tea eR) oct || = TOS
Hominy chops §...-.-.--- Teige7e| || Shs) 3.8 25 9-3 | 64.5 8:35) |e) 627i eos,
Gluten meal.........-.- 9-6 | .90.4 1.6 Oph BORA I Balen OER 308 2eB III
Starch feed (wet) ...---- 65.4 | 34.6 Bit 3-0 6.1 | 22.0 Zoi aes Ales 30
Wheat and Wheat Prod-
ucts.
Wheat ...-....+++.----- 10.5 | 89.5 15) Te Sai ale ON (N71 O) Aoi | 8 Oo 102
Wheat screenings ....... 11.6 | 88.4 4.9 eo) ||| ASIF || (Oar Br OMT sES 97
Low grade flour.......-- 12.4 | 87.6 0.9 On7) | LOLON 7/520 Wee) at 8 G67 101
Wiheat brates. « -0-<' <1 11.9 | 88.1 0.9 xo peti Bode Ih BSc) MEO! || 08 Alsi go
Wheat middlings ....... 12-1 ||| 879 4.6 B22) lneliGe On|! (Osa Al O}|| Uae 98
Dry bread ........--.--- Bienes || “GSso) lo pocdslloooaes 6.9 | 44.2 ONE 50 84) (0) 61
Oats and Oat Products. |
OENES c'o06'656 aodigsc010dc00 MIKO): |] SION | CHG fa IO |) seas}! PEO). GO) a8 Oat 96
Opi WHEY coodadoodcado09 TEOM O21 0.9 AAO) |] Ay || Oped Fok |B Gos 113
OPIN bode sucogsudacn Fol We CAegs |) He Ro] oi. {> ize) 2) ST ORO) 8r
gig stetelo booico pocccanods S|) yeas). ||] wales Ao || ALS | O53 a) 108. Boi 96
Oat middlings .......... 9-2 | 90.8 3.8 BoP) || POLO) ||) GO HO | 03 Bal 108
Barley and Barley Prod-
ucts. |
Barleiyir. cia. 2122010 «lei yen > 10.9 | 89.1 2.7 QeAe T2.401) GO.8 Toe nee) 100
Barley screenings ....... 12.4 | 87.6 7.6 BAO || WA |? Oita) ABO | 318 Saks 92
Bamleiygunleall perecircetiriee 11.9 | 88.1 6.5 BAS WOES |) C3 DP) NW 5e8 ps8) 93
Mailt ‘sprouts....-....... TO OOVOn|elOn7 Rel AB62) || Aes op | Be 2.3 87
Brewers’ grains (wet)..--| 75.7 | 24.3 BS) |f 3t(6) Soak i ik AD |S 3 24
Brewers’ grains (dry)-..-| 8.2 | 91.8 | 11.0 BAS) |} 5)sO)|} | Gita BHO= |! 1 8 BoB 07
Distillers’ waste......... 5-0 | 95.0 SO! || WSR! | Ayiody Pl Oot ||" AeA) || WS Daa 105
Buckwheat and Buck-
wheat Products. | |
Buckwheat ............. 12.6 | 87.4 8.7 PLO) WOO) ||, (ova Dyes oe i 83
Buckwheat groats || ..... 10.6 | 89.4 0.3 0.6 MS}. | eIBau QW |) 8 047 103
Buckwheat bran......... 14.0 | 86.0 | 14.7 Boak | wyfoit | Asch Mo |i 8 BoB 85
Buckwheat middlings -.-| 13.2 | 86.8 | 4.1 TRS) MN PASC) I ZMite) Wow || i 8 Boil IOI
Pye and Rye Products.
RWG pocscoadaddéovodd cade 11.6 | 88.4 ity] Wo), {I KONO) |) AGI HOG | 18, oP 100
IRW@: lino cood coop os DOC 11.6 | 88.4 Bas Bio wile, || Cees De) |) WB Ante) 98

* The analyses here given are taken principally from United States Government Bulletins.
|| Hulled or crushed buckwheat.

t Including fiber,

§ Baltimore meal.

+ In one ounce.

TAG Le TRA AC LEATAT..

Analyses and Computed Values of Food Stuffs.— Continued.

113

Gross ang ;
Composition of dry matter, in 5 ;
CO MANES, ercentacee of the whole. Valuation.
percentages.
Foops. 2 2 o I &
: a | S is 2 ©) 5 oO
SE Ree AP eSter mene ah Ga "| ase
S Se hig | 8 ees | ES | Se
S a a <q am | O cm Z oO
Mixed Feeds.
Ground corn and oats |

equal parts .....-... 1x46) |) Sait loaocoas 2.2 OHO || Wen. AoA Ie » S60) 106
Corn and bran feed, 8

parts corn, 5 parts .

RIM boin6c60 0000 0000 Wes || SoG lho codec Daly Fis 23ti an: Ol" eee 7 LO 105
Corn, rye and oats...... 10.4 | 89.6 ||...... 1.9 Ol WR Bev ae yA 106
**Provender,”’ 450 Ibs.

corn, 125 lbs. oats,

100 lbs. bran....... 9-4 | 90.6 | 10.4 Beat |) We zKo) || “ isis) og} |} 108 Baby 97
Miscellaneous.

Sorehuma seed, ...-...... WAS ||) tely/o 2.6 Df g.1 | 70.0 RO || 8 SG 102
Sorghum seed meal ..... 13.2 | 86.8 1.8 1.6 S53) || ples BeOw alan Oey; 102

Broom corn seed......-.-- 14.1 | 85.9 7.1 2.0 9-6 | 64.7 Baty | By Gie(6) 95

Broom corn seed meal...) 13.5 | 86.5 6.9 Aout 9-7 | 64.2 BA) I] 18 G53 95

Sorghum, chicken corn..| 14.8 | 85.2 8.7 4-3 | 10.6 | 58.9 Pol 8. Oss 87
(Clavlingse Cori Scavodedeon 7.9 | 92.1 1.8 Tees 9-6 | 75.5 Bol || He {cS} 108
Brown dhoura }........- 7.6 | 92.4 Te 10 7/ 9.0 | 76.0 NG | 568 OVS) 110
Millet ........-.--...... 13.5 | 86.5 9.5 BAO) || WAG || FCO). Bos ws Ke 83
Hemupeseedite cis -\-lye1 > <1 8.0 | 92.0 | 14.0 2.00) LO;O)) es O20 -On er Quy 119
Rapeseed eccie: --..-- 6: 35S) |e OO22) || 1OLO Bo) || OWL |) HOLL | |] 8 Ou} 147
Flaxseed .......--....-- 11-9) | 88.2 Hide) | Bark | Aiterh | OHO |) BECO | 08 141

Ground linseed ......... Sat |) OLeO 7.3 Ae | Pardo |) Dypsey | Boab |) eR. Ags 137
Linseed meal, old process) 9.2 | 91.8 8.9 arp) (BAC). II Blsoat He) We 8 Way 99
Linseed meal, new process| 10.1 | 89.9 9.5 Fats) ||| Bator |: BSiort BO) || 309 aoe gl

Cotton seed meal ....... SLA) || Oise 5.6 A || AAs" || ABAD || ago ies ioe IIt

Cotton seed hulls ......- ‘| 10.4 | 89.6 | 44.4 PSO) | AL) |) BXOH0 2). On| ila: e On 52
Sunflower seed...-...... SION O220) | 928.55 AKO) |) BO) Ae) || Plo | 0B Gay 105

IRWES! Sado ch anaes T2hAy | O70 0.2 0.4 Gea ||) Ff bly 138 3WO).(0) IOI

RUGS idiom one cos oenees OEY? | Coes, > CEE IP TOMO | Foie || AYO) |] Oso] Te Geo 95
Race hulls) eee «= Jo) |] Cig |) Saye || mene BAD || BIO. | COdi7 |] ue & sci) 48
Rice (flour) polish ...... 10.0 | 90.0 6.3 Gey) || Wisy || G8O Hoey || LS Oss S50
(Coeklemnramier rrr siert yer I1.1 | 88.9 g.2 Bo) || WOKS) || OBo' aly Wat Bo (OG 82

Cocoa dust .:.-......... He || CBG) 5-4 6.3 | 14.4 Ase) || BA@ | ne 7 129
Dry Hay. |

IRGol Clore Dangodd dobooT 5s lac4 7) 24.6 OB |) WIR |\ YSoir Bo) | 18 | Boy 67
White clover ..-.......-. ONTO. sigh 24ar SOR UGA || ROR BO) | 8 AC) fa

AAW, 00050 0dG00 ¢00000 8.4 | 91.6 | 25.0 Flock ||| idles | Pol DPN TS Boil 73

Timothy -.--..-.-.+-.-- 133) || RSLORD || PASO) || Ala) La). ZIeO) Pk. |) a8 3) 66
Grass and Tops.

Green grass, clippings.--| 76.4 | 23.6 4.1 2.4 DB || WRI 1 | 18 W 15

(CAIDISAEXS Good soopn0Gd00C go.5 9-5 Tals 1.4 2.4 3.9 Op |i 8 8
Dandelion tops -......-- Wo WEIR lo ocdue 0.5 Dols Hod OLD |} 108) Boks 13

Beet tops ----- +--+ -e-e-- @D46) || WOM jloacicec 0.1 1.3 oR O13 || 1 8.) Bae 5

Onion tops .....-....-.. gi. OO |lcoocoe O.1 0.8 3.0 Oe || 08 Bey 8

Lettuce ......+.++-+-.-- 95-9 4.1 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.6 Ox |) 8 8° Boi 4

S/OUREIElN > oopo Opodo aOUEC 92.4 7.6 0.7 1.9 Doi 2.4 OnE |g) Waly ig

*In one ounce. ft Including fiber. { Also, durra and dari, akin to Kaffir corn and Millo maize.

114 POOLE TRA= CRATE.

Analyses and Computed Values of Food Stuffs.— Continued.

Beaty Composition of dry ENE, in Valeo
percentages. percentages of the whole.
Foops. = Iie om = 2
es gas me |e
© s : o us) 2s Ss 0
S| 2) 8 ee ee) eee
es WE ese ee Ie fe oll yrs |) tes Z, oY
Vegetables — Seeds
IPGHIS: Odeo clogno oobeubloone 13.4 | 86.8 6.4 2) AM 22Ay gS 230 QO, |B) Dos 85.
Cowapeasemce iste ie oe TAS OM IO 5-20i|e ea B-2m) 2Osonl SS ey WRN 168 DoS) 2
IPGEL NEE coooben ooadooad 10.5 | 89.5 | 14.4 220i) 20.2) |misileerl 16. |) 03 ALS 85
White field beans ....... 15.0 | 85.0 Bo) Borel) Ao |) Od7/ nad || BB 93
Navy beans-..-.-......- 12.4 | 87.6 WD Bip Nene. Gate WeAk || 1B Bos go
Soja beans ....-...eeee. 10.8 | 89.2 4.8 AG All 24.0) 928280" 16:0) Pie Tos}
Vegetables — Fruits. | |
Tomatoes ....-.---....- 91.3 8.7 0.7 0.7 1.0 5-8 Oey R87 9
INDIES soeadlocedoane cuss yin |) “alyA6) 0.9 0.2 Oe || a2 On3 8 75 17
Cucumbers -..-....++-.. 96.0 0 0.7 0.5 YS) | Pos) Op ah By Bes) 3
Pumpkin, flesh ......... 93-5 (5 1.0 0.6 0.9 3.9 Oni || 8 ALG 6
Pumpkin, seeds and
stringy part .......-. 7-0 23) 3.9 aly) ||) OLO) Mey Il) GG) ||. 30. 8 2 21
Vegetables — Roots.
White potatoes ......... 78.9 | 21.1 0.6 1.0 Past | alrPegtalh | NOB P IER. 1.3 22
Sweet potatoes-......... 71.1 28.0 T923 1.0 as Mey O40 ere em 31
INEdiDEeESMertels fer alelelelnalele- Ska |)) siikaly 0.9 1.0 TG SO} Ope | B= Gos II
Sugar beets...--.....--- 86:5 |) 13).5 0.9) |, 0.9 1.8 9.8 Gut 8 5 13
Mangel wurzels......... go.9 g.1 0.9 Tet 1.4 Bels OWA PS 78 8
IMOPANOS cosbisagccegdoess 90.5 9-5 1.2) 0.8 ait 6.2 One P28 .© 8
Ruta bagas ...+..+....-- 88.6 | 11.4 i158 1.2 Tee) Hiab OQ P18 OL0 10
(CEMFHOUS) bio coacodovodecee iSS.Onln mtd 159 1.0 I.1 HAS pg Oe th S <7 8) II
eb OS .ocogoséaeacon4s (Ol OMl OOM O.3 1.0 1.6 8.5 HO) PB od 15
OMioms cosoocosooba dose Weis cal. |b = ay 0.6 1.4 9-4 One aiibs | W7o2 13
Peanuts, hulled........-| 10.9 | 89.1 Balk 3-8 | 31.5 | 46:9 Bas 8 Worl || TCO
Milk. |
Whole milk...... robeddeo S7oA|| Was. |acgo0cllaodooc 3.5 4.8 Ba foes \ al 18
Skim milk, raised ...... 90.4 OO loccodollooccuc Ber 4.7 Oss | 08.2 Il
Skim milk, separated-.--.| 90.6 Oy oggadollodcdas 2.9 5.2 O23 |,08 2 10
Buttermilk ............- go.1 ©)0) lo codoclloogove 3.9 4-0 tA |e 16 itil
Animal Food. | |
Beet scrap------+.2+---- 142) || OSs. ||aaaoec SO ||) L800) londoac BOLO) |r) BTA 154
IPO SEA) dsdooagbadouc CHS} || OO2 jJocacas 2.2 | 57.4 |------ ROG. || B86 170
IDE! IMoel coon bobo oon0 Oe7) |) C808 joecass 6.6 | 65.1 oleae at 82 O20 12
Green bones.-----.------ D6) ||| CBait loacon Milnls \| “HDR lic oaoor TONS ei ele 69
* In one ounce.
154. Working Standards of Nutritive and Potential Values.— The

feeding values, as determined by practical results, of the common articles
and compounds of food being known; the average proportions and
potencies of their parts, as determined by chemists, being also known; the
determination of working standards of nutritive ratio and potential energy
becomes a simple mathematical calculation.

POGETERIACRALT. Tarts

The mash described in 9146, (2), has — computing the values of its solids,
the amount of beef scraps being doubled, as the weight of milk used is not
known,—a nutritive ratio of 1:5.1; a potential energy of 99 calories per
ounce. The mixed grain fed with this mash has, in summer, a nutritive ratio
of 1:6.8; a potential energy of 95: in winter, a nutritive ratio of 1:6.8; a
potential energy of 96. The means of these values may fairly be taken as the
values of the complete ration, for fhe feed of green stuff given at noon is too
light to materially affect the values of the ration as a whole, and its tendency to
reduce these values is offset by the occasional noon feeds of grain with their
tendency to increase the values. The mean values are for the summer ration
nutritive ratio 1:5.9; potential energy 97; for the winter ration, nutritive
ratio 1:6; potential energy 97.5.

Wheat, the best grain for poultry, itself a practically complete grain ration,
has a nutritive ratio of 1:6.3; a potential energy of 102. Barley, the next
best grain, has a nutritive ratio of 1:6; a potential energy of 100. A mixture
of corn and wheat, equal parts, has a nutritive ratio of 1:7.1; a potential
energy of 104. A mash of 3 parts corn meal to 1 part shorts, recommended
by one of the highest authorities, on feeding (Rankin), to use with wheat and
corn as a food for young chicks, has a nutritive ratio of 1:7; a potential energy
of 100. (The green food used with that ration would slightly narrow the ratio
and reduce the energy). Germ meal, a mixture of equal parts ground oats,
corn, barley and wheat, has a nutritive ratio of 1:6.6; a potential energy of
ror. A mixture of bran, corn mealand oat meal, equal parts, has a nutritive
ratio of 1:5.5; a potential energy of ror. The mixture (see 4146 (5) ) of
100 lbs. bran, 75 lbs. corn, 100 lbs. oats, 50 lbs. linseed meal, has a nutritive
ratio of 1:5.5; a potential energy of 100. ‘* Excelsior Meal” (see 4146 (24) )
has a nutritive ratio of 1:6; a potential energy of ror.

The averages of these values give for the standard of Nutritive Ratio,
1:6; for the standard of Potential Energy roo calories per ounce.*

Computed values of approved fattening rations give a standard for nutritive
ratio, 1:8; for potential energy, 108.

* NoTeE.—The method which arrives at these standards is, perhaps, shirt-sleeves science.
It is more accurate, none the less, than the more tormal method of those who may rightly
be called the founders of the science of poultry feeding. This practical tests will show.
The trouble with students of the science of poultry feeding, has been that they were
better scientists than poultry men, and have been establishing standards and deducing
principles from the data of experiments, which, froma practical standpoint, were partial
failures. Such standards as, xwtritive ratio 1: 3.5 for young chicks; 1:4 for laying hens;
1:6 for special fattening ; with potential energies ranging from 50 to go, are not practi-
cable. The feeder learns this as soon as he begins to use them. They were suggested
by false analogies from cattle feeding standards. Milk, which is a perfect food —for a
young calf — has a nutritive ratio of 1:4. The chicks’ digestive organs are adapted to a
concentrated food: therefore — it was reasoned — the nutritive ratio for chicks must be
narrower. The contrary of this proposition is true: the nutritive ratio of a concentrated
food must be wiDER than of a bulky food. The reasons for this need not be given here.
The fact can be verified by examining the table. It will appear that natural foods having

116 POULTRY-CRAFT.

155. Use of Feeding Standards.— The practical value of a scientific
knowledge of feeding is that it enables a feeder to make up his ration ‘‘in the

’

rough”’ with absolute certainty that he has made no radical error —none that
will not in the natural course of things soon he adjusted. A ration based on
(not necessarily adhering rigidly to) a correct standard is, in the hands of
a skillful feeder, practically self-adjusting. The calculations of values in
approved rations show that for ordinary purposes variations from the standard,
if made at all, need be but very slight; for the differences between supply and
demand are not usually greater than will be controlled by the involuntary
adjustments of the natural checks and balances, viz. :— the limited capacity of
the digestive organs; the sense of taste, the instincts of hunger, the natural
cravings of a healthy appetite for the food articles best suited to meet present
requirements of the system; the convertibility of the principal food elements ;
the zexdency of the fowl’s system to make the most of the food taken, expend-
ing some in egg production, using some for growth, storing some as fat,
squandering some as exuberant energy —these are all constantly working to
bring about a proper balance of means and results, ane the feeder’s part must
be very badly done, indeed, if they fail.

156. Extent of Actual Variations, from the Standards, in Complete
Rations.— The system’s demands for material for growth, or maintenance,
and strength, are, on the whole, very nearly constant for mature fowls, and
uniformly increasing for chicks. Fluctuations in food requirements are due
principally to variations in the amount of heat required to keep the body warm.
The standards of ratio and energy ascertained are for average conditions, such
as obtain generally in moderate weather, and in warm houses in cold weather.
Under such conditions the values of the grain ration are the values of the
whole ration, the small quantities of vegetables and meat eaten affecting it but
little. In summer the food actually consumed by a properly fed fowl would
have a narrower nutritive ratio than 1: 6, and potential energy !ower than roo.
The reduction would follow reduction in the quantity of the grain ration, and
large increase in the quantity of vegetables eaten, and would be governed
solely by the appetites of the fowls. In winter the heat of the body is
maintained partly by feeding more heating foods, but mostly by warm housing
and by giving the food and drink warm. The actual variation of a ration from

narrow nutritive ratios are bulky foods, diluted either with water or with fiber. Low
potential energies are for hot-house conditions. Narrow nutritive ratios are extravagant.
Protein is the rarest and most costly food element. If one feeder uses a ration with a
nutritive ratio of 1: 4, and another a ration with a nutritive ratio of 1: 6, the general con-
ditions and the results in both cases being alike, the inevitable conclusion is that the wider
ratio furnished, at least, as much protein as the system needed, and that one-third of the
protein of the narrower ration was used for fuel. It would be no easy matter to find a
ration compounded with a view to cheapness and the best all round results, and proved
by long practical tests, which would, when computed, show a nutritive ratio anything
like as narrow as 1:4, or a potential energy lower than 90, except, possibly, in.
extremely hot weather.

F2OCUF LAR MVACT ATA: sine

the standard is much greater in warm weather than in cold. Computations
for summer rations, in the hottest weather, would, without doubt, sometimes
show nutritive ratio as narrow as 1:4, and potential energy as low as 50; —
but not very often. Computations of good winter rations, for rather cold
houses, would rarely show values exceeding those of the average fattening

ration.
»

157. The Balance of the Ration.
balanced only at rare intervals, and then, as it were, only for the instant. Then
if the ration is sufficient in quantity, there must be excess of either one kind of
elements or the other. For economic reasons it is desirable that the excess be
of the cheaper elements — the carbohydrates. The ration should always be a
little wzde, rather than a little zaxrow.

It is clear that a ration can be exactly

158. Examples in Balancing Rations : —

(1). To compute the values of the ration described in 4146 (2):

Corn contains (see table, §153) 10.4% protein, 70.3% carbohydrates, 5%
fat; wheat, 11.9% protein, 71.9% carbohydrates, 2.1% fat; bran, 15.4%
protein, 53.9% carbohydrates, 4% fat; beef scraps, 58% protein, 32.9% fat;

then

Protein Carbohydrates Fats
Ibs. Ibs. lbs.
94 lbs. corn contain 9-77 66.08 4.7
106 lbs. oats contain Hal 63.28 Na
100 lbs. bran contain 15.4 53-9 4.
12 lbs. beef scraps contain 6.96 eee 3-94
312 lbs. mixture contain 44.63 183.26 17.94

and the nutritive ratio of the mash is:
44.62: (17.94.% 2.5)-+-183.26 = 1: 5
and potential energy for 312 lbs. is:
(27.94 X 16 264)-+[ (44.63 X 183.26) 16116] = 494.208 calories,

and potential energy per oz. is 99 calories.

ST)
°
|

The computation of the whole grain given in this ration gives : —

Protein Carbohydrates Fats
Ss. Ibs. Ibs,
120 Ibs. wheat contain 14.28 86.40 2.52
64 lbs. oats contain Hols 35.20 BD)
120 lbs. buckwheat contain 12. 77.40 2.64
56 lbs. corn contain 5-82 39.36 2.8
360 lbs. mixture contain 39.65 241.36 11.16

Nutritive ratio, 1: 6.5; potential energy, 95 calories per ounce.

118 LONGEST IK CIA IE,

Protein Carbohydrates Fats
lbs. lbs. lbs.
(2)

20 lbs. potatoes contain 42 3.46 02
10 lbs. oat middlings contain De 5.62 76
10 lbs. corn meal contain 92 6.87 38

20 Ibs. wheat bran contain 3.08 10.78 8
3 lbs. pork scrap contain Wy gi2 . 1.18

63 lbs. mixture contain 8.14 26.73 3-14

Nutritive ratio, 1: 4; potential energy, 75 calories per ounce.

Fed with whole corn, one feed mash one feed corn per day, the ration has
a nutritive ratio of 1: 5.9; a potential energy of go calories per ounce.

Protein Carbohydrates Fats
lbs. lbs. Ibs.
(3)-
5 lbs. alfalfa hay contain 71 2aU3 II
20 lbs. corn meal contain 1.84 13.74 76
20 lbs. wheat bran contain 3.08 10.78 8
2 lbs. dried blood contain 1163 eI 33
47 lbs. mixture contain 6.93 26.75 Dye

Nutritive ratio, 1: 4.6; potential energy, 94 calories per ounce.

This fed for one-third the whole ration, the other two-thirds being corn and
oats equal parts, gives nutritive ratio, 1: 6.1; potential energy, 1or calories per
ounce. Fed with whole corn equal parts, it gives, nutritive ratio, 1: 6.1;
potential energy, 100 calories per ounce.

Protein Carbohydrates Fats
Ibs. Ibs. Ibs.
(4)-

5 lbs. cut clover contain 61 1.9 .16
5 lbs. cotton seed meal contain 2.11 1.18 65
20 Ibs. corn meal contain 1.84 13.74 -76

20 lbs. wheat bran contain 3.08 10.78 8
50 lbs. mixture contain 7.64 27.60 2.37

Nutritive ratio, 1: 4.4; potential energy, 94 calories per ounce.

Fed with corn equal parts, gives nutritive ratio, 1: 6.1; potential energy,
100 calories per ounce.

Fed with grain one-third rice, two-thirds corn, gives nutritive ratio, 1: 7.1;
potential energy, 100 calories per ounce.

In making trial formulas for rations, the simplest method ts to write
the formula for parts, by weight; 1 part being always 1 ounce, as in the
following examples:

LOOTED TOV AC TEAM. 119

Protein Carbohydrates Fats
OZS. OZS. OZS.
(5).

I part buckwheat middlings contains .289 -419 .O71
I part corn meal contains .092 .687 038:

I part wheat bran contains “154 -539 -O4
3 ounces of mixture contain 835 1.645 -149
I ounce of mixture contains 178 548 -049

Nutritive ratio, 1: 3.8; potential energy, 97 calories per ounce.
With corn equal weight, nutritive ratio, 1: 5.8; potential energy, roi calories

per ounce.

Protein Carbohydrates Fats
OZsS. OZS. OZS.
(6).

I part buckwheat middlings contains .289 419 O71
2 parts corn meal contain 184 1.374 .076

2 parts wheat bran contain 5 -ofRols) 1.078 08
5 ounces of mixture contain 781 2.871 E227
I ounce of mixture contains 26 -957 .075

Nutritive ratio, 1: 4.4; potential energy, 97.5 calories per ounce.

With corn equal weights, nutritive ratio, 1: 6.1; potential energy, r1o1
calories per ounce.

Protein Carbohydrates Fats
OZS. OZS. OZS.
(7): ;

I part buckwheat middlings contains .289 -419 .O7I
3 parts corn meal contain 276 2.061 -TIg

2 parts wheat bran contain 308 1.078 .08
6 ounces of mixture contain 873 3.558 20S
I ounce of mixture contains 145 593 044

‘Nutritive ratio, 1: 4.8; potential energy, 97 calories per ounce.

With whole corn, nutritive ratio, 1: 6.3; potential energy, ror calories per

ounce.

Protein Carbohydrates Fats
OZS. OZS. OZs.
(8).
3 parts dry bread contain 207 1.326 -O1
I part wheat middlings contains -156 604 -O4
2 parts corn meal contain 184 1.374 .076
6 ounces of mixture contain 547 3-304 126
I ounce of mixture contains .OQI a5 O21

Nutritive ratio, 1: 6.6; potential energy, 70 calories per ounce.

120 POGEDERTACTIAT A=

159. Hints as to Changing the Values of a Ration, the Bulk
Remaining the Same :—

To reduce the potential energy of a ration without materially changing
zts nutritive ratio: — add substances having nearly standard nutritive ratios
and low potential energies ;—for slight reductions hard grains, buckwheat,
oats, chicken corn, etc. ; for considerable reductions, such vegetables as beets,
turnips, carrots, etc.

To slightly reduce the potential energy, and make the nutritive ratio
narrower :—add raw meat, green cut bone, peas, beans, hay (clover,
alfalfa), having narrow nutritive ratios and low potential energies.

To considerably reduce the potential energy, and narrow the nutritive

ratio: —add green vegetables—tops, skim milk, having narrow nutritive

ratios and very low potential energies.

To reduce the potential energy while widening the nutritive ratio; —
add potatoes, or apples; wide nutritive ratio with low potential energy.

To increase the potential energy, and narrow the nutritive ratio: —add
dry animal foods, which have very narrow nutritive ratio with high potential
energy.

To increase the potential energy, the nutritive ratio remaining fixed :—
add substances rich in both protein and oil, nearly standard nutritive ratios
with very high potential energies, as flaxseed, ground linseed.

The above propositions will be found useful guides in varying standard
rations for special feeding, and also in bringing ill-balanced rations to the
standard. ‘They are stated with special reference to variety in rations. In
general feeding the necessary changes can be made by varying the proportions
of the articles used in a ration, as illustrated in some of the examples in 4/158;
and in general, if the grain ration is nearly standard, and feeding regulated as
suggested in 4138, the ration as a whole will be as nearly balanced as it can be.

ROWSE TRUACKARLT. 121

CHAPTER IX.

Egg Production.

160. Introductory.— The Objective Point in Egg Production.—
The final object of practical egg production is profit. A producer’s profit zs
the difference between the cost of production and his selling price. As the
difference between two small quantities may be greater than the difference
between two larger quantities, so the profit on a comparatively small egg
yield which costs little or nothing, may be greater than the profit on a large
egg yield secured at considerable expense. Simple as this proposition is,
and self-evident to everyone who stops to think about it, it needs to be
emphasized here because of the prevalent mistaken notion that successful,
profitable egg production depends on making hens lay as many eggs as
possible in a short time; and, therefore, every poultry keeper should use all
means to ‘secure an extraordinarily large egg yield.

As stated in 418, the bulk of the egg supply in this country comes from
hens kept under such conditions that the entire receipts for poultry products
sold are profit,— the produce consumed at home fully paying for the salable
food given the fowls and the little time spent in looking after them. Most
of these small flocks of hens are productive only during the spring, summer,
and early fall, when the conditions generally are favorable to egg production
from hens kept in a semi-natural state

as they are on most farms and
village lots. By giving them special care during the remainder of the year
these flocks could be made almost constantly productive. Whether it would
pay their keepers to give them the necessary extra care, is a question for
individual decision. As it costs practically nothing to keep the hens, the loss
when they are not productive is not an actual dead loss like the money one
who has to buy food for his hens pays out on feed bills when the hens ought
to be, and are not, laying. Nearly always those who do not give their fowls
good care, just taking the egg yield as it comes, would find it more profitable
to take some trouble, and, perhaps, go to a little extra expense for the sake
of a possible considerable increase in the output of eggs when eggs are worth
most ; yet it is a good plan, before making arrangements on account of better
laying, to reckon up and see whether it will really pay, and ow mach extra

122 PO GLLLTRAE CLEATS:

work and cost the probable better results would justify. Once in a while an
amateur poultry keeper allows his efforts to make a few hens lay to take time
and create expense not warranted by the best possible results.

It is not good advice to every poultry keeper to urge him, by all means, to
get the largest possible egg yield. Those who make a te aes of producing
market eggs must, if the fee is to pay its way and make the living, keep
the flocks producing nearly all the time, and must secure high average yields
of eggs; but even for such it is a question whether extraordinarily large ege
yields will in every case be most profitable. It should be a part of a poultry-
man’s business to determine this point in accordance with his circumstances,
and he should work always for the most profitable egg yield — large or larger
as the case may be — remembering that profit is measured in dollars and cents
when the books are balanced, and remembering, too, that it is often easiest
to increase profit by reducing expenses.

Of amateur poultry keepers whose interest centers in the production of eggs,
there are many whose regular occupations leave them time to give a few hens.
as much care as will keep them laying fairly well under favorable conditions,
but will not admit of their giving the fowls the careful regular attention
necessary to secure particularly good results in eggs. There is a limit to
what any person can do. A workingman, a business man, a_ professional
man is not always able to give his hens the little extra attention required for
a better egg yield: —even a farmer’s ability to make the most of every
opportunity afforded by the possession of land, is limited —though some
people, not farmers, seem to think otherwise. It is the easiest thing in the
world to flax all sorts of extra work — for other people. When it comes
to dotrg, most people have to choose between one thing and another, and
leave the less important thing undone, or do it indifferently. The latter
course is the only one open to very many poultry keepers. Those who are
wisest get what good they can out of their fowls, and are not disgusted
because their hens do not lay as well as the best. Poultry keeping that yields.
profit with little trouble deserves consideration as well as that which is made
profitable by great painstaking. Many who are not able to give hens the best
care, are still concerned that what time they can give them shall be used to
do the things it will pay best to do. Many whose fowls need little care want
to know enough about what good care is to know what does and what does.
not constitute neglect under the conditions to which their fowls are subjected.
However little time the reader is able to devote to his fowls, he is urged to
study the chapter as a whole; for until one has a general knowledge of the
ways and means of handling laying stock, he cannot determine how to handle
his stock most satisfactorily.

To avoid repetitions the text of the chapter is adapted to business poultry-
men making a specialty of market eggs. Information and suggestions for .
other classes of poultry keepers is placed in parentheses, or given in the foot
notes.

ELOWU DRA CTATIL:,. 123

161. What is a Good Egg Yield ?— There are ordinary, extraordinary,
and VERY EXTRAORDINARY egg yields.

An ordinary egg yield is from six to ten dozen eggs per hen per year.
An extraordinary yield is from ten to fourteen dozen per hen. Anything
over fourteen dozen eggs per hen is a very extraordinary egg yield.

Ordinary egg yields are obtained from average fowls under the general
conditions found on most farms, and from small flocks not given special
attention. Ordinary egg yields from flocks handled specially for heavy
laying, are also quite common when unfavorable weather or other unavoidable
contingency depresses the yield. The figures given for extraordinary egg
yields indicate the normal fluctuations in the product from good stock well
managed. Skill does not allow it to remain below the lower figure, and can
rarely sustain it above the higher. Whatever may be said of the desirability
of reaching an average of two hundred (or more) eggs per year per hen, the
cold fact is that a twelve dozen per hen flock is an uncommonly good bunch
of hens. Its record speaks well for its management.

162. The Early Winter Egg Crop.— Eggs in early winter are usually
the feature of a large egg yield, though very prolific layers beginning to lay
in mid-winter and continuing well into the fall can easily reach a high mark.
In handling hens for eggs only, it is in every way desirable to get the hens
to laying as early as possible, and take the chances of keeping them laying.
(Some early winter layers lack staying qualities, and are poor layers). One
who keeps fowls for eggs ought to do all in his power to get early winter
eggs, but need not feel unduly discouraged if his best plans and efforts result
sometimes in failure —total or partial—for here again the cold facts have
consolation and encouragement for those that fail. The usual condition
through November and December is that the hens are ‘‘ getting ready to lay.”
The beginning of the season of good laying is from December 15 to January
15, and, as has been said, hens beginning then can do highly satisfactory
work. Beginners in egg farming commonly think that by selection, breeding
for eggs, and feeding for eggs, they can establish a strain of hens that will
begin laying as naturally in November as most hens do three or four months
later. Selection and management e/p to get stock that can be put in
condition to begin laying early in the winter; but there are some very potent
factors working against early winter egg yields. These factors are: w2favor-
able weather, which may be expected about two years out of three; and the
natural reversionary tendency of hens not to lay in early winter,—this
tendency is always present, and acts with more or less strength, if given the
least opportunity. Those two factors can put up a combination against which
all the good breeding and skill in the world are powerless, unless resort is
made to hot-house conditions for laying stock—a cure which, in the end, is
worse than the disease. If this were not so very extraordinary egg yields.
and good egg yields in November and December would be the rule among-

iene POOLTR TF CRABT.

skilled poultrymen — not the exception, as they are now. When all is said
and done, the condition of the egg crop in November and December is just as
dependent on the weather as the condition of the wheat crop just previous to
harvest. The weather can make or mar it.

163. The Factors of a Good Egg Yield are: Good stock, comfortable
guarters, proper food, sufficient exercise, reasonable cleanliness, favorable
weather.

164. Selecting Laying Stock.— The descriptions of fowls in Chapter
V. indicated some varieties as good layers. It was also stated that hens
of any variety might be made good layers. Selection of laying stock for
immediate egg production must take account of stock more strictly than to
accept general character or possible development. In selecting laying hens
of unknown individual merit —as must nearly always be done—the only
reliable guide is the laying capacity of the particular stock from which the
hens come. Usually this mode of selection gives good average results. To
select individual good layers by appearance —by points—is impossible.
Prolificacy is entirely independent of physical structure, (barring some
deformities), and also independent of temperament. If, as is nearly always
the case, large eggs are desired, the hens selected should be :— if of a small
breed, large of their kind; if of a medium sized breed, medium to large; for
it is a physical impossibility for a small hen to be a very prolific layer of
large eggs; and, besides, the tendency to lay eggs large out of proportion to
her size is objectionable in a hen, because rendering her peculiarly subject to
trouble in extruding her eggs. Moreover, hens small of their kind are usually
runts, stunted, ill-developed. Medium to small hens of the large breeds lay
eggs as large as need be; but hens that are much under size lack the staying
qualities of better developed birds.

165. Exercise.*—What Kind ? — Fowls at liberty take exercise princi-
pally by walking and by scratching. It may be observed that when they
have a suitable place in which to scratch they pass much of the time there.
This propensity to scratch, long reckoned the hen’s peculiar vice, is turned
to advantage by those keeping hens in confinement. Without the littered
scratching-feeding floor, keeping hens healthy and productive in confinement
is dificult. With this provision for exercise, hens are kept in perfect health,
at the highest stage of productiveness,— not for a few weeks or months, but
for two or three years, during which they may never once leave the house
and small yard attached. Further, better results, in eggs, are obtained from
hens in confinement than from hens at liberty. On most of the best poultry
plants the littered scratching floors are considered indispensable. +

* Note.— House and yard accommodations and foods were considered at length in
preceding chapters.

+ Nore.— For fowls on free range, or in good large yards— in addition to the regular

LOGE TTY CRATA. 125

166. How Much Exercise ?—Poultry keepers, being human, are prone
to go to extremes. This is as true of plain poultrymen with their methods,
ideas and theories, as it is of fanciers with their devotion to points of form
and color, and perfection of development of non-essential features. Having
tried for years to keep fowls in confinement without adequate provision for
exercise, poultrymen are now, very generally, compelling too much exercise.
To keep fowls scratching all day —scratching busily for @// the grain they
get, is carrying a good thing too far. As much exercise as will keep them
in good condition is needed; more is superfluous, and, therefore, wasteful.
Exercise has to be paid for if food is paid for. The amount of exercise
needed will vary ; it can easily be regulated by watching the condition of the
hens. Atanyagea fowl in good condition is plump. A poor thin fowl
has no reserve force. A fowl in good condition will be kept so if obliged to
scratch about one-third of the day for one-third of its food. To bring a poor
fowl up in condition, the proportion of food secured by exercise must be
reduced. To reduce a fat fowl, compel more exercise — even going so far as
for a while to oblige the fowl to exercise for all food, and to go hungry as
long as it will not scratch.*

167. Exercise for Heavy Fowls.— What exercise suits a Leghorn does
not suit a Brahma or Cochin. In the first place, the Asiatics do not need as
much exercise as other varieties, and in just walking about they get much
more of what exercise they need. Even in small, rather bare yards, they
keep in pretty good condition without special exercise. As is well known,
the Asiatics are both the hardiest of fowls and the best suited to close confine-
ment. In the next place, scratching is harder work for them than for clean
legged fowls. With their feathered feet and legs they do not work easily
in heavy litter; so, while the rule of one-third of a day’s work for one-third
of a day’s ration can be applied to Asiatics, it is necessary to so litter the
floors that the rule will work right.

fowl-yard — the scratching floor is not absolutely necessary, and may even be superfluous:
if the hens have access constantly to a barnyard; but unless there is some other
convenient sheltered place to which the hens can resort in all weathers, it is best to
make regular provision for scratching exercise at the hen house.

* Nore.— There need be no fear of injuring a fowl by this process. People are some-
times too tender hearted to compel a lazy fowl to work. If the hens miss one or two
meals rather than work for their food, the owners take pity on them, and feed them as
usual. This is a common case, and one in which pity needs to be diluted with common
sense. The truest kindness to an animal is to keep it in such good condition that it will
feel like working — taking exercise, and when it gets out of such condition to put it in
condition again az once,— though stringent measures be required. The only case where
an overfat fowl ought not to be compelled to exercise is when its feet are so sore (scaly
leg) that it cannot use them. In this not uncommon case the foot disease must be
treated first, and it will do no harm to diet to reduce fat at the same time.

126 POUL RTACT ATAL:.

168. What to Use for Scratching Litter.— Straw and cheap hay,
make the best scratching litter. Those who grow their own grain, and those
who can get sheaf grain sometimes feed it unthreshed. Dry leaves, raked up
in the fall and stored to be used as needed, make good litter, but break up
quickly, and are not as easily handled as straw. On a large plant provision
must be made for a regular supply of litter in quantity. Sometimes the
rough manure, mostly soiled and broken straw from livery stables, can be
had for the hauling. It usually contains more than enough grain to pay for
hauling it. This can be used only in yards* or open sheds. Damp litter
should never be allowed to remain in the poultry house,— much less be put
there. A poultryman who can get the old bedding from a race track stable
shouid consider himself in luck, for it is nearly all good clean straw, but little
broken and soiled, and contains much good grain. In many places good
straw is so cheap that it is the cheapest litter obtainable. When straw costs
from five to eight dollars a ton it is time for those who use much to look for
cheaper stuff. When only enough litter for a few pens is needed, baled
straw, (even at the prices named) may be used. Shavings or other clean

rubbish — almost anything that conceals the grain, and can be “ scratched,”
will do.

169. To Keep a Scratching Floor in Good Order —the litter must be
often renewed, and yet be always in nearly the same condition. When litter
is long and the floor thickly covered with it, it takes fowls too long to scratch
out their grain — unless a considerable excess (over what is needed at the
time) of grain is thrown into the litter. Fowls cannot be fed evenly in this
way. If the litter is short it packs together, and the grain is not hidden when
thrown on it.. Then, unless the grain is raked or forked into the litter,— a
tiresome and tedious process, and unnecessary when the floor is managed
right —it is eaten rapidly, aud the fowls take too little exercise. Beginning
with a clean floor, as much litter should be put in as, when well scattered by
the fowls, will cover the floor loosely to a depth of four or five inches. As
soon as this is so broken that it packs, and does not conceal the grain scattered
on it, a little more should be added, and more, and more at regular intervals,
— the object being to keep four or five inches of litter of such length that
grain thrown on it is nearly all hidden at once. After about a month from
the time the first litter was put in, the coarser stuff on top should be raked to
one side, and some of the finely broken, dusty stuff next the floor removed.
Once the floor is filled up right—about an inch of fine — but not too finely
broken — litter next the floor, and three or four inches of coarse, loose litter
above it,— it can be kept right by adding long litter once a week and remoy-
ing broken litter about once a month.t

* Norre.— Where there is not too much wet and snowy weather the yard, or a part of
it, can be used as the exercise-feeding ground.

+t Nore.— This will be about right when the floor space is five to six feet per hen. With

PROWL LRAANC TALE, 127

170. Cleanliness.— Everything about ‘a poultry plant should be kept
reasonably clean — so clean that there are no offensive sights or odors. As a
rule the droppings should be removed daily. Where the quantity of drop-
pings to be removed 2ach day is small the common practice is to clean twice
a week, or once a week, or once a month. This is not a good plan. It does
no harm to let the droppings boards go uncleaned for a few days, occaszonally,
(at least it does no noticeable measurable harm) but it is not good for fowls
to sleep nearly always with their heads only a few inches above an accumula-
tion of their own excreta —and the lapse from daily cleaning ought not to be
permitted to occur often. It should be the inviolable rule to take up the drop-
pings daily,— zz wénzter, when the hens are on the roosts for fourteen or fifteen
hours of the twenty-four ; zz damp weather, and whenever some of the drop-
pings have the peculiarly offensive odor that gives warning of something
going wrong in the digestive system. After being cleaned, the droppings
boards should be sprinkled with land plaster, road dust, sifted coal ashes, or
air-slaked lime to absorb the liquid manure. *

THE FLoor of the roosting room, if not littered, should be raked or swept
clean once a week or once a fortnight —the period between cleanings being
regulated by the space per fowl and by the proportion of time the fowls spend
in the roosting room. Small bare yards should be cared for in the same way. t

Nests in which straw is used should be cleaned out, and new straw put in
about once a month — oftener if the straw becomes damp or is fouled. In dry
and sandy situations, bottomless nest boxes may be used on an earth floor
without nesting material. These nests need no further care than they get
when, in cleaning up the floor, they are set to one side, the floor beneath
them raked smooth, the nest box replaced. The hens hollow the earth in the
nest to suit themselves.

greater floor space the litter is not so soon broken; with less floor space it would be very
difficult to keep a floor in good condition without doing too much work.

* Nore.— If the droppings are saved to sell to tanneries, absorbents cannot be used on
the boards. Near large tanneries there are generally men who make a business of col-
lecting poultry manure. The price varies with the demand and supply, the average
being about seventy-five cents per barrel. it is an open question with some poultrymen,
who could use the manure on land, whether, all things considered, it does not pay better
to use the manure than to sell it. When the hen manure is to be sold for tanning, the
droppings boards cannot be kept in as nice condition; are more difficult to clean, and
may be a menace to the health of the fowls. The droppings board saturated with urine
is unsanitary, and though it may be used without bad consequences for a long time, it is
unsafe, for unsanitary methods have a way of going back on a poultryman just as he
begins to be sure that the opposition to them is all nonense.

+ Note.— These advices as to the frequency of the periodical cleanings are of course
suggestive; still they indicate very nearly the limits of time between cleanings when the
fowls’ quarters are kept reasonably clean. A poultryman who works systematically, soon
arranges a rotation of work which brings the regular cleanings near enough together to
keep things looking respectable.

128 POPLAR AZACT EAT:

FEED TroucGus should be kept clean. No sloppy food should be put in
them, nor should water ever be given in the feed trough. If only dry and
crumbly — non-sticky — foods are given in the troughs, it is little work to keep
them clean.

DRINKING VESSELS should be rinsed as often as the water supply is renewed ;
and when rinsing with cold water fails to clean effectually, should be well
scrubbed with scalding water.

Perfect dryness in a house is essential to the right kind of cleanliness. A
damp house cannot be kept clean. Dirt that is harmless when dry becomes
dangerously offensive when moist.

Whitewash sweetens and purifies a house, besides making the light inside
much better on dark days. The usual practice is to whitewash once a year.
Some whitewash twice, or even oftener, but there is certainly something wrong
with the house or the poultryman if such frequent whitewashings are really
necessary. Dry, well built houses, kept clean, ought not to need whitewashing
oftener than once a year; and that is as often as most poultrymen can afford
to do it. The most convenient time to whitewash is late in summer or early
in the fall. Whitewash made after the common method: 7. e.—lime slaked
in boiling water, then thinned to the proper consistency for applying, is gen-
erally used, and is nearly always applied with a brush, though some use white-
wash pumps. The disinfecting and purifying qualities of the wash are
improved by adding a spoonful of crude carbolic acid, diluted in about a pint
of water, to each pailful of wash. As an insecticide, whitewash has no per-
manent efficacy; it will kill what lice it reaches when first applied — that is
alle i

* NoTe.— Those who wish to use a wash that will not rub off, will find the following
recipes good. They have been long in use, and were published in the form in which they
are given here in the Amerzcan Poultry Yard:

(1). ‘*Slake in boiling water one-half bushel of lime, keeping it just fairly covered
with water during the process. Strain it to remove the sediment that will fall to the
bottom, and add to it a peck of salt dissolved in warm water; three pounds of ground rice
boiled in water to a thin paste; one-half pound powdered Spanish whiting, and a pound
of clear glue dissolved in warm water. Mix the different ingredients thoroughly, and let
the mixture stand for several days. When ready to use, apply it hot. If a less quantity
is desired, use the same proportions.”

(2). ‘*A good whitewash for use upon outside work may be prepared as follows:
Slake in boiling water one-half bushel of lime, and strain as before. Add to this two
pounds of sulphate of zinc and one pound of salt dissolved in water. If any color but
white is desired, add about three pounds of the desired coloring matter, such as painters
use in preparing their paints. Yellow ochre will make a beautiful cream color, and
browns, reds, and various shades of green are equally easily obtained.”

[The coloring matter used for whitewash should be dry ; colors mixed in oil cannot be
used. The quantity of color needed would have to be ascertained by trial. The wash in
the pail will have a much deeper, darker shade than when dry; so that to find out just
what the color is it is necessary to allow a little of it to dry. ]

(3). ‘‘ Another excellent wash, lasting almost as well as ordinary paint, may be pre-

BROOGLARVACR AVL: 129

171. Fall Management of Laying Stock. — The established poultry-
man’s year begins in the fall. The precise date is not a matter of consequence.
Many like to place it at October 1st. It is really governed in individual cases
by circumstances. It is not always possible to have everything in readiness
for winter as early in the fall as one would wish. Every effort should, how-
ever, be made to have the laying stock in winter quarters —and not over-
crowded — before the first cold rain storms or sharp cool nights come. The
time for these varies with the latitude, and sometimes they are postponed
until quite late; but it is the best policy to be prepared for them.

By early September pullets intended for early winter layers should be well
grown, and beginning to show signs of approaching maturity. Unless there
is room and to spare, all under-sized and poorly developed pullets should have
been sold. [Late hatched pullets that will come to laying in mid-winter, it
will pay to keep, if the stock of early birds is short, and there is abundance of
room; otherwise, the sooner they are sold, after reaching a marketable age,
the better. It never will pay to over-crowd stock that might lay early]. The
hens reserved to keep through a second winter, should be about half through
their moult; all others should have been disposed of. *

Both hens and pullets should be well fed. Whole corn may be used now
at night quite as freely as in the coldest winter weather. It is a mistake to
feed moulting hens short, and a mistake to feed them a too highly nitrogenous
ration. Hens moult better on a carbonaceous ration, quite a fattening one,
than on a narrower one, and will lay better afterwards. Moulting hens need
nitrogenous matter for feathers; they also need additional heat producing food
to keep them warm while growing new feathers. It is better that they should
be fat than poor, and safer to keep them a trifle over-fat, rather than barely
in good condition. Ifthe weather continues fine, most good layers (non-sitters
sometimes excepted) will, if well fed with an ordinary fattening ration, lay
every third or fourth day while moulting. The pullets can stand high feeding,
because only the most advanced are full-feathered. Few are full grown. In

pared for outside work as follows: Slake in boiling water one-half bushel of lime.
Strain so as to remove all sediment. Add two pounds of sulphate of zinc and one pound
of common salt, and one-half pound of whiting thoroughly dissolved. Mix to a proper
consistency with skimmed milk, and apply hot. If white is not desired add enough
coloring matter to produce the desired shade.”

* Note.— Right here comes up a point in management which is of particular interest
to farmers and to others who keep fair sized single flocks of poultry. It is a common
practice with such, when selling poultry, or killing it for the table, to select the best and
most salable birds, considering only the question of their immediate use, and not regard-
ing at all the effect of this practice on the flock. The result is that nearly always the
flock that is to furnish winter eggs —if winter eggs are obtained —is made up of the
““ryag, tag and bob-tail” of several seasons. To reverse this method of selection, and
keep only the best for layers, would do as much as any other one thing to improve the
general average of egg production. This is one of the ways in which those who have
little time to give their fowls can secure an increase of profit without extra labor.

130 LAO CHE PIANC T GAT? Ts

the earliest period of laying, a pullet is usually making growth of bone,
muscle and feathers, and producing eggs at the same time. The eggs are of
necessity small, and it is a good plan to postpone laying until the bird is well
developed. This can be done by shifting the pullets frequently from pen to
pen.

As the mean temperature of the atmosphere falls lower and lower, more and
more of the food consumed goes to keep up the heat of the body. The mash
should be a rich one, heavy in corn meal and meat—and fed warm. Corn
can be fed quite freely, and provision made for a constant and liberal supply
of cut bone or meat scraps. For feeding at this time no better vegetable than
cabbage can be found, and split and damaged cabbage can be had at this
season for the hauling, or for a merely nominal price. Sound cabbages are

often very cheap, and if one who cannot grow them himself is prepared to
buy what he needs for the winter now, cabbages may be about as cheap a
green food as can be had; bought later, they will probably cost several times
the fall price. It would, of course, be possible to keep the fowls comfortable
in cool weather by giving less heating food, and closing the houses up more
at night; but that system tends to keep fowls soft; while, as long as the
weather is not too cold, heating food and a cool house harden, while keeping
them comfortable.

Now as long as the weather continues fine and quite uniform, though slowly
growing colder, both hens and pullets will do so well that the poultryman
will begin to make estimates of what the egg yield will be by Thanksgiving
Day, at the present rate of increase.

Then possibly there comes a sudden fall in the temperature —a fall of 50°
to 60° Fahrenheit in a few hours, is not unusual at this season — and a change
of So° may occur inside of twenty-four hours. The demand of the body for heat
is enormously increased. If the poultryman can now keep his fowls warm
enough so that there is no sudden check to egg production, all is well. If the
cold snap is of short duration, everything goes on as before. If the weather
remains permanently cooler, one has only to take better care of the hens for a
few days until they become accustomed to the change:—as healthy hens do
very quickly; but if the poultryman fails to make such provision as is in his
power to counteract the effect of the change in the weather; or, if the fall in
temperature is so great as to check laying in spite of all that he can do, the
effects of the change do not pass away with the return to settled warmer
weather, and if changes follow each other rapidly, numerous slight shocks
have sometimes a worse effect than one extreme shock. In many cases the
shock to the system of the hen does not end with the stoppage of egg produc-
tion. Consider what laying is — what an egg is. Consider how any shock to
an animal organism acts upon the reproductive system, and this effect in turn
reacts upon the whole system. Similar instances are numerous in other lines

of animal life. When a change of weather causes a hen to stop laying, there
will be no more eggs laid until the system has had time to recuperate. The
time needed is long or short, as the shock to the system was more or less

POULTR?Y-CRAFT. 131

severe, and varies in individual cases —some hens being much more suscepti-
ble to change than others, and some of those easily affected recuperating
quickly, while others recover tone and vigor but slowly.

The foregoing statements give the problem of fall and early winter egg
production quite fully, showing how important is skillful management, yet
how impotent against extremely unfavorable changeable weather at this season.
Occasionally it happens that the weather is continuously mild, or uniformly
cool, then cold. In either case it is comparatively easy to get and keep hens
laying. There is a great deal of chance in this matter of fall and early winter
egg production; —there are many zfs; yet the man who intelligently does
what man can do toward getting the early eggs, has by far the dest chance.
More than that, when good management misses the best, it catches the next
best. Though it may fail to get eggs in November and December, it makes
January eggs practically a certainty; while poor management in the fall is
apt to result in no eggs before March.

172. Anticipating Weather Changes. —Some Little Things that
Count.
In poultry keeping it is the little things that count. In working for early
winter eggs, some little things may have big results, determining whether it is
to be eggs, or xo eggs. The wide-awake poultryman is weather-wise. He
anticipates the weather changes. He sees, or feels them coming, and takes

Poultry keeping is essentially an occupation made up of trivialities.

measures against them. A keen, cutting, chilling wind, springing up on a
warm day in the fall, will chill the hens through and through before they take
shelter, * and will, of course, make an open house as cold as out-doors. Such
cold storms, as also cold rain storms, an observant person can anticipate early
enough to get the fowls into the house, and close doors and windows. This is
a little trouble at first, but zt Bays. The house closed up with the fowls in it,
is full of warm air which cools gradually. The fowls hardly feel the change.
But there must be no coddling —no shutting up fowls for slight changes, no
keeping them in the house when robust well fed fowls should be comfortable
out-doors- Once a severe change has occurred, and what could be done to
mitigate its effects has been done; things should proceed in the regular routine.
On sharp frosty mornings, fowls may be kept in until they have had a meal,
but should never be confined late when the cold is not severe enough to nip
their combs. They should have the opportunity to go out-doors. Those that
will not use it are good to kill. They are the ones easily affected by cold, and
most subject to diseases emanating from colds. If the day is only raw and
bleak, the open scratching shed, or the house with windows open, gives as
much shelter as healthy fowls need. If it is stormy, without being very cold,

* NoTe.— Contrary to a common belief, hens, like other animals, most children, and
some people, have not the instinct of doing what is best to do in any given circumstances.
They learn by experience. After they have found out which is the most comfortable
place to go to when a cold storm comes up, they will go there every time. It is easier

to teach them what to do than to leave them to learn it for themselves —easier, and it
comes cheaper.

132 POOCPRER VAGRATCT:.

it is best to leave the small doors to the yards open, letting the hens run out
as they choose — which will be in every lull of the storm. There is nothing
more objectionable in the management of poultry than shutting them into close
houses when it is not extremely cold; it makes and keeps them soft, and after
a time they become more susceptible to moderate changes than rugged fowls
are to severe changes. ‘There is a vast difference between coddling fowls and
taking such ordinary precautions to keep them healthy and comfortable as
sensible persons learn to take for their own personal welfare.

173. Late Culling of the Laying Stock. — It is a good plan, as inti-
mated in the preceding paragraph, to watch the flocks closely during the fall,
and cull out all birds easily affected by inclement weather. These should be
put in condition to market for poultry. It is not worth while to nurse them
along in the hope that they will eventually become profitable layers. The
chances are against that; their presence in the flock is a standing invitation
to diseases which, once having gained a foothold in a flock, are apt to become
epidemic. Their room is worth more than the prospect of profit from them.

174. Distempers and Colds, Epidemic.— Changeable weather and
continuous damp weather often make colds epidemic in the early fall. A
common cause of colds and distempers is closing the houses too tight at night.
Fowls that have been roosting in open sheds, or in the open air, are almost
sure to take cold when moved into a warm, close house. When colds
become thus epidemic, simple remedies should be used af oxzce. A good
condition powder, fed regularly in the daily mash, is often effective.
Common hard soap, dissolved in water to the consistency of soft soap, a
tablespoonful to a gallon of water, will clear the nostrils and throat, and also:
act as a mild purgative. Indeed, this hard soap remedy alone is one of the
very best that can be used in mild forms of distemper. Colds may be
partially prevented,— the system fortified against them,—by feeding onions
liberally ; also by feeding in the mash red peppers, dried, chopped fine. If
these can be obtained they are to be preferred to ground red pepper
(capsicum ). It is of first importance to learn to what cause the colds are
due, and, if possible, to remove the cause. (Often colds are due to prevent-
ablecauses). Treatment cannot be thoroughly effective while the cause remains.

175. What to Do When it Snows.— No matter how good the in-door
accommodations for the hens, it is best to get them out doors for at least a
little while on every day when that is not utterly impossible. Except in
extreme northern sections it is not very difficult when snow comes, to keep
it cleared away from a strip six to eight or ten feet wide along the south side
of each house. Where snow does not lie long there is a temptation to wait for
the sun to take it off. Don’t indulge the temptation. The less fowls are
necessarily kept confined in winter the more urgent it is that they shall not be
shut in longer than is needful. They feel and are affected more by restraint
when it is of rare, than when it is of common occurrence. There is no need

TONLE Tiel CTA. 139

of being over-careful to prevent laying hens walking on and eating snow. It
is often said that either of these things will stop laying. To remain long
standing on snow, or on wet frozen ground either, undoubtedly has that
effect; so, apparently, has eating snow zzder some circumstances. Healthy
fowls that have dry comfortable quarters to which they go at will, are not
injured in the least by being on snow for a little while occasionally. Fowls
that can have water to drink when they want it will not hurt themselves
eating snow. Indeed, fowls provided with water do not voluntarily eat much
snow except when it is thawing, wet ; —then they seem to prefer it to water.

176. As the Days Grow Short — the old hens are getting well through
their moult; the early pullets are completely feathered, full grown. The
food eaten now goes to maintenance, warmth, and eggs; and, with the full
coat of feathers on, the heat of the body is better retained. A given quantity
of fuel food will go further in a given atmospheric temperature now than it
did earlier; and if the weather is fine and warm in November, the food needs
close watching; for it is very likely to prove that the hens need less food and
less heating food now than they did early in the fall. Now, too, the days are
growing so short that it begins to be difficult to get in three meals a day, even
if the noon meal is a light one, with intervals between meals long enough to
keep the fowls in good appetite. It would seem that fowls need to be up
and about for a while before they are ready to eat a breakfast. If at all well
fed at night they rarely eat a hearty meal until some little time after sunrise.
If the hens will not eat heartily soon after sunrise, the evening feed should be
reduced, little by little, until they do. A good way to feed in the short days
is — when the mash is fed in the morning — to give all they will eat clean of
a clover or vegetable mash, and scatter millet, or other small grain or broken
grain, where they can get it by scratching at any time through the day; then
about three o’clock in the afternoon give a feed of wheat, oats, barley, cracked
corn,— any one, or a mixture —in litter, feeding a little light; at dusk give
whole corn to hens that will leave the roost to get it. As to the quantity of
corn to be given, learn to judge that by comparing the appearance of the crop
at night and the appetite for mash next morning. When the mash is fed in
the evening and vegetables at noon, it is easier to regulate three meals a day.
Whether two or three meals are given, the feeder should learn to so regulate
the quantity given at each meal that the hens will be ready and waiting for
the next. If this is not done, hens soon go ‘ off their feed,” though not
over-fed. The trouble usually has its origin in allowing the fowls to get too
hungry before the evening meal, making them so greedy that when given an
opportunity to eat rapidly and heartily they swallow more than they can
comfortably digest. By being observant and careful, one soon acquires a
knack of feeding about right for quantity, and finds it a much simpler matter
than the amount of explanation necessary to make the need of cautious feeding
clear would indicate.

134 POULTRY-CRAFT.

177. Importance of Closely Observing the Physical Condition of
Hens.— In feeding for eggs it may be noticed, that, as in some breeds the
tendency is to convert surplus food into eggs, and in some to convert a surplus
into fat, and as similar differing tendencies are observed in different hens, of
the same breed, so the same hen will show at one time a tendency to fatten,
and at another a tendency to turn all surplus into eggs—and this altogether
apart from the influence of external conditions. When one function gets, as
it were, the upper hand of the others, it seems to have power to appropriate a
lion’s share of the surplus food taken into the system. This matter requires
watching, and sometimes makes it necessary to reassort a stock, putting hens
of similar tendencies together, that they may be given required special treat-
ment. One of the secrets, perhaps fhe secret, of getting big egg yields from
fowls of the large breeds, is to get the hens in such condition, axzd /aying,
that they acquire a certain momentum of egg production —then feed heavily.
For this one needs to be much among his fowls, watching them closely, and
handling them often. The feathers make it difficult to accurately judge a
hen’s condition by observation. In the case of large fowls the difficulty is
increased by the length and looseness of the plumage. Very docile hens can
be picked up at any time; others, not so easily approached, but still not
wild, may be caught at the feed trough, by lifting with the hand under the
breast, without being at all alarmed. A close examination is not needed; all
that is necessary is to get hold of the fowl in such a way that the weight rests
easily on the hand, and the fingers learn by touch the condition of the flesh.
Hens that would be too much disturbed by being caught by daylight, should
be handled on the roosts at night. Beginners generally need to watch their
hens’ condition more closely than old breeders, because the old breeder’s stock
as a whole has become habituated to his system of handling, and by the
inevitable process of natural selection fowls which do not do well under his
system have been largely weeded out.

178. Gentleness in Handling Laying Hens Important.— Careless
and rough handling of laying hens cause many bad breaks in egg yields.
Occasions are constantly arising in the poultry yard when one needs to
exercise all his powers of self-restraint to keep from doing things of which he
will afterwards be ashamed. Hens can be very aggravating, and cannot be
coerced with gentle force or mildly corrected as most domestic animals are.
A threatening movement, though carried no further, will often put every hen
in a pen in a bad state of fright; in a long continuous house the panic runs
like wildfire from pen to pen. <A disturbance of any kind measurably affects
the egg yield. The poultry keeper who is most a novice knows that a dog or
other unfamiliar animal, or a bevy of visitors is very objectionable near the
quarters of laying hens. Not all poultry keepers know that they themselves
often unknowingly cause bad disturbances. They see the disturbance, but
are unable to account for it. To abruptly enter a pen, to run past it, to go

PAOMSL, Tikar- C RAPE. 135

into it wearing clothes different from those usually worn, or carrying an
unfamiliar object, will often send panic through a whole flock. Changing
the quarters of laying hens is a thing to be avoided, if possible, unless it can
be done without making a disturbance. The best way to move hens short
distances is by driving. If this is done carefully, egg production may not be
affected at all. If the hens must be carried, they should be very carefully
handled, moved only at night; not caught or carried by the feet. Moving
short distances, they can be carried in the hands, one at a time; or under the
arms, two at atime. When this mode of handling is too tedious, the transfer
should be made in coops. With gentle handling the bad effects of moving
are diminished. During the natural laying season laying hens are less
influenced by disturbances than at other times.

179. In Coldest Weather.— Extreme cold weather is no bar to good
egg production if the hens come to it without having been suddenly
checked. The weather condition favorable to winter laying is wzéformity.
It is often said that winter eggs depend on the poultryman’s submitting his
hens to counterfeit spring conditions. This is but partly true. Hens that are
comfortably housed can be made to lay well in almost any kind of weather or
climate, provided fluctuations in temperature and humidity are not too great
or too numerous. In extreme cold weather a very carbonaceous ration may
be the best laying ration. The most highly carbonaceous ration that a fowl
can digest will fail to keep up the heat of the body and leave sufficient surplus
for a goodly number of eggs. A warm house helps, but in addition, (to
prevent unnecessary expenditure of food) the hens must be prevented from
chilling themselves with icy water and ice cold grain. Warm water should
be given. It ought not to be always warm. The hens want some cold water.
The point is, to make sure that they cannot, when very thirsty, drink freely of
water so cold that it chills them to the marrow. If the water is warm when
put into the drinking pans that is all that is necessary. For fowls with crests
and beards, and for males with long wattles, drinking fountains which prevent
the head furnishings from getting wet, should be used. In cold weather wet
damp crests are almost certain to cause roup. In a fairly comfortable house
the wattles of hens and of short wattled males are rarely frost bitten; but the
long wattles of Leghorn and Minorca males may be nipped while wet, when,
in the same degree of cold, they would not be injured if dry. When there is
danger of water freezing in the pans at night, the pans should be emptied
“every evening; otherwise valuable time may have to be given to removing the
ice from them in the morning. It is of little use to warm small grain that is
to be fed in litter; it remains warm only a few minutes, and the hens cannot
eat it fast enough to be chilled by it, anyway. Grain that can be eaten
quickly, it is an advantage to warm.

180. Ventilating in Cold Weather.— When it is so cold that the
poultry house has to be closed during all but six or seven of the twenty-four

136 POULTRY-CRAFT.

hours, ventilation requires close attention. Moisture rapidly collects on walls
and ceilings. Damp walls are good conductors of heat, and too quickly
equalize inside and outside temperatures. To keep the walls dry there must
be good circulation of air through the house for some hours daily. This
applies to clear cold as well as to wet cold weather. A house facing south
is likely to become much too warm through the middle of the day if closed
tight on a clear day, no matter how cold. Whenever the weather permits —
that is, whenever a storm would not sweep in at open doors and windows —
the poultry house should be well opened up, especially through the middle of
the day. The windows of a house fronting south should be open as much
and as long as the house can be kept comfortable with them open. They
should be both opened and closed gradually; not opened wide all at once
after the house has become over-warm, and closed tight all at once when it
has turned cold after sundown. A house with two rows of pens, facing east
and west, and with large doors at the north and south ends of the passage,
and small doors in the east and west sides, is nicely aired by leaving the.two
large doors open; or by opening all the small doors, or one large door and
the small doors on one side. The direction and force of the wind have to be

considered.

A good general rule for cold weather ventilation, ts to open the house as
much as can be done, and still leave it at a comfortable temperature for the

person doing the work tn tt.

181. In Warm Winter Weather, great caution needs to be observed in
feeding. If corn has been fed generously the quantity given should be much
reduced. Most cases of liver disease date from a warm spell in winter...
Heavy feeding and highly carbonaceous rations are continued when, for the
time, the hens need a narrower ration and much less food. In warm winter
weather mashes should have the proportions of hay or vegetables and of bran
somewhat increased ; oats should be substituted for a part of the corn fed. It
is the more needful to watch this point, because the bad effects of injudicious
feeding at such seasons are rarely discerned, either in the condition of the
fowl or in the egg yield, until disease is in an advanced stage. Most cases of
liver disease do not develop outward symptoms for some weeks, or even

months.

182. Care of Laying Stock in the Spring.— In the spring hens need
and will stand very heavy feeding; though it takes less of the food to keep
them warm, it takes considerably more for egg material. If fed no more
than they were in the winter, most hens quickly ‘‘ Zay themselves poor.” The
novice is not apt to discover this state of affairs until his hens begin to stop
laying, exhausted, and not likely to again be reliably profitable layers. Many
hens which should have been good layers for several years, are spoiled in this
way; and it is the best hens that are most likely to suffer. Whoever will keep

POULTRI-CRAFT. 137

such hens over and watch their later performance, will find that hens which

have once gone badly out of condition are usually uncertain layers afterwards.
g y ,

The principal cause of all this trouble is, that, having worried over feeding

I I ? —) 5

problems all winter, the poultry keeper thinks when spring comes and the

when, in fact, the

5)

hens are laying well, that he has the feeding ‘* down fine,’
hens are laying well in spite of poor management. In the spring every hen
that can lay will lay; fat hens lay themselves into good condition; sick hens
lay themselves to death. The fact that a hen is laying, is not by any means
a reliable indication that she is in perfect health and condition. A heavy egg
yield in the spring is not particularly desirable. If the hens have laid well
through the winter, they should be given a rest in anticipation of making
them do as well as possible through the summer, summer eggs being more
profitable than spring eggs. If the egg farmer rears his own laying stock,
(as nearly all do), it will pay him to set as many of his hens as go broody in
March and April, thus giving each a rest of about a month (if they only
hatch the chicks) when eggs are cheapest. With the non-sitting breeds this
course is out of the question. There will also be in nearly every large stock
of laying hens of the sitting varieties some heavy layers that will not go broody
until quite worn out with egg production. *

Such hens can sometimes be induced to sit by shutting them on a dark nest
full of eggs. Hens that persist in laying heavily should be given the very
best of care, and every effort made to keep them in tip-top condition; they
will rest later while moulting. Too often it happens at this season that the
poultryman’s time and thought are so fully occupied with the care of the
young stock and plans for the coming year, that his laying hens are more or
less neglected.

183. Summer Management of Laying Stock.— With the first hot
days of summer hens that have gone out of condition, and hens not bred for
continuous laying, are apt to quit. Nearly all the hens will show a dispo-
sition to stop laying, but judicious care and feeding will keep those that are
in condition, and have the staying qualities, laying fairly well all through the

* NoTE.— Some say that, zf fed properly, a hen is not exhausted by long continued
heavy laying. As weil say that a man, zf fed properly, cannot be overworked. Good
feeding is a factor of good laying, but good laying is a drain on the vigor of the best
nourished hens; they show it in the quality of the eggs, they show it in their late hatched
chicks, and, nearly always, show it in their appearance. ood, though of the best, and
abundant, zs zo¢ rest— and cannot be a substitute for rest. Every animal, every part of
an animal, every animal function, requires periods of complete or partial rest. Is it not
absurd to suppose that the most delicate of all animal functions can be kept constantly
working at high pressure? Is it not more than absurd, in the face of the fact, patent
everywhere in nature, that an overworked reproductive system leads quickly to decay and
degeneration, to assume that perpetual motion is successfully demonstrated in the hen
bred for eggs and properly fed? Why, even machines of wood and iron need rest, and
wear out with less actual work if they do not get it. Every analogy confirms the experi-
ence of the mass of practical poultrymen.

138 POCGELITERTACKAT 7:

heated term; extra good laying except in a few rare mdividual cases is
not to be expected. The hens need to be kept cool. The houses should be
opened wide enough to be comfortably cool at night. There should be cool,
shady loafing places in which they would pass the hottest hours of the day.
Their exercise should be early in the morning and late in the evening. It is
a good plan to feed grain mornings and evenings, and the mash at noon.
about the middle of the afternoon is the best time, — they

Once a day
should have all the green grass or vegetable tops they will eat. On exces-
sively hot days, green stuff may be fed to advantage, twice —just after the
morning feed, and just before the evening feed. They should have all the
cold water they want, and may also be given all the milk they will drink.
Milk is good at all times, but is most appreciated in warm weather. It does
not wholly take the place of water. Fowls would not suffer much from
thirst if given milk and no water; but they want water, and it should always
be accessible, whether they have milk or not. If one has plenty of milk, and
can give it constantly, the best way is to have two drinking pans in each

pen, one for water, one for milk — and let the fowls drink as they please.
When the weather is extremely warm, the mash for fowls in confinement
should contain but little corn meal, and no whole corn should be given. For
ordinary summer weather, the mash need not be much varied from that
used in winter, and the whole grain ration need differ only in the amount of
corn fed. If given the opportunity to eat vegetables freely, the hens will
balance the ration for comfort, not for egys. Indeed, unless fed vegetables,
as suggested, when they are not very hungry, the hens will eat a much larger

proportion of bulky food than is consistent with good laying. *

184. When Hens Stop Laying Too Early in Summer. — There are
always some hens, sometimes a large proportion of a flock, that cannot
be kept laying through the summer when handled in the usual way; these it
is not profitable to keep in idleness. (Too many poultry keepers do keep
them along until fall). They should be culled out of the general flock,
separated and fed differently ; — the object being to put them in market con-
dition. They should be fed a heavy laying ration, with little exercise. On
this treatment many of them will begin laying again. Those which do not
should be marketed as soon as fit, and those which lay for only a few weeks
should also go to market, as they stop laying again. Those which show a
disposition to keep right on laying should be given exercise to keep them in
condition. An egg farmer should never sell a laying hen unless he has more
eggs than he needs, or has another to take her place; as long as the hen

* Nore.— Those whose hens are kept on a good grass range, would do well to watch
this point. If the hens will not stop to eat grain in the morning, but go foraging, they
may be let alone as long as they lay well. If they are not laying as well as they ought to
be, it is worth while to try the experiment of keeping them in the yard attached to the

poultry house until they have eaten a light feed of grain, which will often give them just
the solid food they need to bring the egg yield where it should be.
AY 5 955 BY

POULTRY-CRAFT. 139

lays, it pays to keep her. The first choice of hens to be kept over should be
from those which began laying earliest, and were kept in laying condition
with the least trouble, and for the longest time. If there are not as many of
these as are needed, some of the hens that under special treatment laid through
the summer should be reserved. *

185. Old Hens as Layers.

many and which old hens to keep over for laying, comes up the moot question,

In connection with the question of how

whether: hens or pullets are better for egg production. Some authorities
advise selling off all old hens, claiming that pullets are better layers, and
therefore more profitable. Others say they get as good results in number of
eggs from hens as from pullets, and the eggs of the hens are more uniformly
of good size. There is much reason to think that these diverse results are
not due entirely or primarily to age, but are according to treatment and
selection for long lived layers. In truth, there is not much reason for think-
ing anything else. The fact that many poultry keepers do regularly get as
good egg yields from hens in the second, third, and sometimes fourth years,
as in the first, and as good as from good laying pullets kept beside them, is
proof positive that old hens are not necessarily poorer layers than pullets, and
that their capacity for producing eggs need not be impaired by the work of
their first season. It is a general truth that old hens have a greater tendency
to fatten. (A pouitryman who understands his business can easily regulate
that). In most cases where those who get good results from pullets do not
get good results from hens, the trouble seem to be in such things as: breeding
largely from immature stock, starting pullets to laying too early, allowing
them to lay themselves out of condition, and not feeding heavily enough
while moulting. Many poultry keepers are very careless about the old hens
while moulting, though careful enough at other times; and some are too care-
ful to feed nothing over and above what is needed to grow feathers. A better’
way than to make a low age limit when selecting laying stock, is, to make it
a rule to keep through the moult all hens that began laying early, and after
laying for eight or nine months are still in good condition, and to keep in
addition to these, as many of the next best (according to the same standard of
value) hens as are needed to keep the plant stocked to its full capacity with
productive hens. A hen which lays an egg a week while moulting pays for
her food, and most people find it easier to care for, say, a hundred moulting
hens than to rear a hundred good pullets. A good layer that continues in good
condition, is worth taking chances on until she is three or four years old.
Time enough to dispose of her when she is known to be unprofitable.

* Nore.— Many amateur poultry keepers whose hens stop laying in early summer, sell
them off for whatever they will bring. This is poor policy. Four times out of five the
hens are in poor condition, and the price obtained is the lowest going. Were the hens
put in market condition before being offered for sale, those sold would bring a much
better price; while those which resumed laying would give a profit in eggs while being.
kept in condition to market when they ceased laying.

140 POUL TRY-CRAFT.

186. About Broody Hens.— When hens are kept principally for egg
production, frequent and persistent broodiness is a bad fault, and should be
culled and bred out of the stock. Broodiness at long intervals and. easily
broken up, is rather an advantage than otherwise, for it gives the hens
occasional short complete rests from laying. It is noticeable that hens
of the non-sitting varieties lay less while moulting than hens of sitting
varieties; the latter if well fed, are apt to lay (a from 20% to 40% yield)
right through the’ moult. The non-sitters take one long rest; the sitters
several short rests. If it is desired to keep the hens laying as stzadily as
possible, using none for incubation, they can be most easily broken of broodi-
ness and most quickly brought to laying again by confining them with a
reserve male in a pen from which the nests have been removed. On a large
plant, one, two, or more pens are, during the spring and summer, needed tor
hens undergoing the process of breaking up. The broody hens should be
well fed. To break up broodiness promptly, and bring them to laying with-
out delay, two objects must be attained, viz.: the hens must forget about
incubating; they must be kept in good condition. Confinement in coops, as
described in 457, is, on the whole, slower and less effective. than penning
‘with other broody hens anda male. In the pens the hens can be got to lay-
ing again in four or five days, sometimes, and it rarely takes longer than ten
days, unless they are badly out of condition. This method is not always
practicable in small yards. Starving to break up broodiness, is a cruel remedy
—not more effective than simple removal from nests, and certain to postpone
much longer the resumption of laying.

187. The Cause of Broodiness. — Sick Hens Going Broody. — The
condition of the hen is sometimes supposed to determine the time of broodi-
ness —even to cause broodiness,—some asserting that whether hens are
sitters or non-sitters, is merely a question of diet. Many think a fat hen goes
broody. It is quite a common practice to feed grain heavily to induce broodi-
ness. This method fails as often as it succeeds. There is nothing in the
‘¢fat hen theory” of broodiness further than that, if a hen has the sitting
instinct well developed, she will, in the breeding season, go broody when she
stops laying, whether she stops because :— foo fat, too poor, or sick. Com-
plaints of sitting hens dying on their nests are numerous every season.
Sometimes a poultry keeper reports his sitting hens as nearly all dying
mysteriously during the period of incubation. Such hens are mostly sick
when set; though broody, their actions are so different from those of healthy
broody hens, that after two or three experiences with them a poultry keeper
who is as observant as he ought to be, will not make the error of setting
them when they ought to go to the hospital. Broodiness is hereditary and
constitutional. Ifa hen comes of non-sitting stock, heavy feeding will force
egg production or will fatten —it will not cause broodiness.

ROCGLTRAAGCK ALT. 141

188. About Eggs.— Very SMALL Eccs are often laid regularly by
hens so fat internally that there is not room in the egg passage for a normal
sized egg to form. The remedies are: redaced food, and exercise.

Sorr SHELLED AND THIN SHELLED EcGs are due, sometimes, to a lack of
lime in the food, sometimes to the hens being over-fat, but, perhaps, most
often to inability to retain the egg until fully developed, its extrusion being
premature, and due to the same causes as the dropping, at one time, of
several eggs in different stages of development.

WueEn SEVERAL EGGS ARE DROPPED AT THE SAME TIMEB, it is because
the hen is temporarily weak and unable to retain the weight of eggs she is
carrying. The best treatment for such cases is to put the hen a@/ove in a
warm roomy coop, where she can take a little gentle exercise, and feed light
—to retard egg production,— especially avoiding stimulants which act on the
ovaries. A hen in general good condition recovers quickly from such a
mishap (miscarriage). With the regular ration, she may lay a pertect egg
the second day after dropping three or four partially formed ones. It is better
that she should not lay so soon again. By postponing laying the risk of a
second attack is diminished. A second attack is apt to have more serious
consequences than the first. The hen should be kept away from the male for
several weeks, as the attentions and weight of the male retard her complete
recovery, even when not the direct cause of a second accident. The first
causes of the weakness which leads to the dropping of several eggs at once,
are obscure; (they might not be, if hens could talk). The accident happens
to hens of all ages, and in all conditions. It is often preceded by bowel
troubles, which cause extreme weakness; and there is little doubt that in
some cases it results from abuse by the male or by other hens. Frights and

injuries of which the keeper knows nothing

g, are other possible causes.

Dovus_eE Ec6s are generally attributed to over-fat hens. Clearly a mistake.
Fat hens sometimes lay double eggs; so do hens in good condition, and hens
in rather poor condition. A double egg is a twin egg. The tendency to pro-
duce twins, as observed in human beings and in farm stock other than fowls,
seems to be hereditary. It is not known that twins are more often produced
by fat than by lean mothers.

MissHAPEN Eccs.— Some hens never lay an egg with-a good shell. Such
hens should be killed; their eggs spoil the appearance of a lot, and are,
besides, most apt to be broken. When hens which have been laying perfectly
formed eggs lay eggs with badly formed shells, the cause may be: for a single
egg, a slight accident or fright; for a number of badly formed eggs laid con-
secutively, the commonest cause is rheumatism.

189. Egg Eating.—Its Cause, Prevention and Cure.— A soft or thin
shelled egg broken in the nest, is the usual cause of egg eating. From eating’
broken eggs hens soon learn to break eggs. The vice is communicated to all.

142 POGE TR IEACRAPT:

the hens in a flock in short order. Dark nests, as shown in Bigs: 12s AiG.
and 36, are the best preventive of egg eating. Once the vice becomes fixed in
a flock, such dark nests in an ordinary well lighted pen do not stop it, for
enough light finds its way into the nests to enable the hens to see to eat the
eggs, if they are very eager to do so. To effect a cure, the pen itself must be
so dark that the hens can just see to make their way to the nests. Then the
nests are so dark that the hens cannot possibly see well enough to break and
eat the eggs. The point is to prevent the hens breaking eggs until they have
had time to forget about it. Fowls have short memories. From one to two
weeks of complete prevention usually effects a lasting cure. Some poultrymen
report having cured egg eating by giving the hens china nest eggs to pick at
until they gave up in disgust. This may work sometimes ; — it has been tried
and failed. The pitch dark nest is a sure cure.

190. Condition and Food, and the Quality of Eggs.— Hens that are
fat without being over-fat lay the best eggs. Generally the eggs of corn fed
hens are richer than those of hens fed principally on other grains.

Tuin, Watery EcGs come from using too much sloppy food, or vegetable
food, and from hens in poor condition generally, no matter what the kind or
quality of the food.

PaLEe Yovks result from lack of green food, and of faz, oil. It is rarely
possible to have anything like as good color in the yolks of winter eggs as in
eggs laid in May and June; but by using hay cured green, and by feeding
corn quite freely, much better color is obtained than when root vegetables
only are fed, and corn almost excluded from the ration.

191. Nest Eggs.— The use of nest eggs for laying hens is unnecessary.
One may as well save the few dollars—or few cents —they would cost.
Hens in confinement have no opportunity to hide their nests. Most of them
go to the nests provided for them, and when hens show partiality for a
particular nest, the use of nest eggs in all the nests will rarely prevent
their crowding to the nest they favor. Hens which have opportunity and the
disposition to hide their nests, will do so though the nests provided for them
be filled with nest eggs.

192. Practical Every Day Use of an Egg Record.— In every pen of
laying hens there should be tacked up a sheet, ruled gne way for the months,
and the other for the days of the month, on which to record the number of
eggs laid each day. A record of diet and weather is valuable, but that can
be kept on one sheet for many pens. The egg record sheet in each pen
furnishes a good guide in feeding; is almost indispensable when one person
does the feeding and another collects the eggs, and is most useful always,
for memories are treacherous. The egg record shows the exact nature and
extent of fluctuations in the egg yield, and shows at once when something is

POULTRY-CRAFT. 143

going wrong. In using the egg record as an index of the condition of the
flock, the feeder should keep in mind that a falling off in the egg yield for one
or two days may be due to the mere coincidence of the ‘‘off days” of an
unusually large number of hens; but, after a shortage which cannot be
accounted for by change of weather or a serious disturbance in the flock, on
two successive days, he should begin to handle the hens to exactly ascertain
their conditions. Nine times out of ten he will find that he has been feeding
too light.

144 ROGEDRIANETAT A.

CHAPTER X.

Principles of Breeding,— Selection and Care of
Breeding Stock.

193. The Law of Inheritance.— The principles of breeding being
based on one universal law, the law of inheritance, the transmission of
qualities in generation, a correct appreciation of this law is essential to a
right understanding of the principles of poultry breeding. In its operation
the law of inheritance shows, always, two phases which appear to result from
conflicting laws. Thus while fowls of the same pure breed produce offspring
unmistakably like themselves, the offspring are never exactly like either parent,
or like each other, so that it is commonly said that there are two laws: (1)
The law of heredity; of family, or race, likeness; and (2) The law of
variation, of individual diversity, and it is considered that ‘« heredity anne
‘‘ variation” are visible effects of opposing forces, the first working to preserve
a race as it has existed, the second to produce change; and that these forces,
especially that which controls variation, work in some Hue ROU capricious
way which the breeder cannot fathom.

There are not two laws. There is but one: —the law of inheritance.
‘¢ Heredity ” is the inheritance of 7z7ke qualities; ‘* variation” the inheritance of
ani¢ke qualities,* and it is as strictly in accordance with the law of inheritance
that the unlike characteristics, the individual differences, should pass from
generation to generation with changing kaleidoscopic effects as that the like
qualities should be transmitted practically unchanged.

194. One Law Explains All the Phenomena of Reproduction.—
Congenital, or inherited, variations may be divided into three classes: (1)
Slight variations, differences in degree of like qualities; (2) Considerable
variations — either extraordinary development or degeneracy of a race quality,
or, a new quality which is at once recognized as resulting from a union of
ancestral qualities; (3) Variations, which constitute new qualities not
traceable to known ancestors, or to supposedly possible combinations. It was
only necessary to make such a classification of congenital variations to show

*Notre.—In this generalization acquired variations must be excepted. Acquired
variations which are directly due to external causes are the initial variations, the begin-
nings of differences between individuals, and are inheritable.

POULTRY-CRAFT. 145

that all variations except the small number coming in class 3, are due to
inheritance ; for it is a matter of common information that offspring do not
inherit equally from both parents; that offspring of the same parents do not
inherit alike; and that inheritance is not the transmittance of qualities from
one generation to the next in a lump, — but goes back, ‘‘ takes back ” through
several of the nearest generations, and in less degree to more remote genera-
tions. Now if the law of inheritance accounts for likenesses, slight differences,
and a part of the greater differences, including some unusual, new, qualities, it
is to be expected that it can account for so-called ‘‘ spontaneous” variations,
which are simply variations of which the causes are not immediately apparent.
Further, the law of inheritance requires that such phenomena of heredity as
these spontaneous variations shall occur from time to time, just as imperatively
as it requires that they shall take place only at long intervals. There is no
place in this work for an extended demonstration of this proposition. It can,
perhaps, be made sufficiently clear in a few words.

Some observed facts of heredity, observations of the number of generations
required to establish, ‘‘ breed in,” a desirable trait, or to ‘* breed out” an
undesirable one, give the general rule:—A descendant inherits one-fourth of
the total of his qualities from each parent, one-sixteenth from each grana-
parent, one-sixty-fourth from each great-grand-parent, one-two hundred
and fifty-sixth from each great-great-grand parent. To put it another
way: an individual, a fowl, may inherit an appreciable fraction of its qualities
from each and every one of thirty ancestors, representing possibly the extremes
of divergence from the breed type in a dozen different respects. The number
of inheritable qualities is very great.. The number of possible variations due

- to inheritance is enormous, practically infinite. The mathematical rule based

-

on a few facts of inheritance teaches that slight variations should be very
numerous, considerable variations more rare, and that at long intervals
remarkable variations due to a fortuitous combination of two obsolete qualities,
or of known and obsolete qualities, should occur. And since the law of
inheritance, of the transmission of qualities, caz explain the transmission of
unlike as well as of like qualities, it is neither sensible nor scientific to
attribute a few phenomena to some other mysterious cause. The breeders’
maxim, ‘* Lzke begets like,” is literally true, and applies to differences as well
as to resemblances. Every principle of breeding must conform to the law
of inheritance. Every phenomenon of reproduction can be explained in
accordance with the law, when @Z/ the the facts are known.

195. What the Law of Inheritance Is, and What It Means to the
Poultry Breeder.— The law of inheritance is a xatural law; it simply
expresses the relation between descendant and ancestors. It does not, and
cannot show how heredity can be so controlled as to effect the direct trans-
mission of such particular qualities as the breeder esteems, and the immediate
suppression of all others. As this is precisely what the poultry breeder would
like to learn how to do, of what value is such a law to him? Just this: the

146 TE ONGGE, HIS (EOI SA BIE

demonstration of oze law of inheritance to account for a/Z the phenomena of
likeness and unlikeness in fowls of the same blood and breeding should show
him that he can have virtually complete control of his stock, if only he will
breed in conformity to principles proved by the law of inheritance, rejecting
such so-called principles as will not stand the test. The right interpretation
of the facts of inheritance should show him that the uncertainty of results in
breeding, which he so often deplores, is not due to a conflict of mysterious
forces, but to his own avoidable mistakes. The law of inheritance shows that
by continued selection of the specimens most alike, the number and extent of
possible differences in the offspring are constantly reduced. There is nothing
new in this teaching. Successful breeders have followed it for years. But
that there is one law, azd only one, which applies to a/Z the phenomena of
reproduction, is the thing which, more than all others, the great mass of those
who are trying to breed poultry need to know. When once they get firm hold
of that fact, and form the habit of testing their methods by it, they will discard
some fallacies that now stand in the way of better general progress in the
improvement of domestic poultry.

196. Selection.— Inheritance perpetuates undesirable, as well as desir-
able, qualities. Its variations are as apt to be toward deterioration as toward
improvement. Among animals in a state of nature, zatural selection, the
‘* survival of the fittest,” constantly operates to maintain the old features, and
preserve and establish the new ones most beneficial to the race. In the
breeding of domestic animals natural selection necessarily plays a part, but
the chief factor is artzfictal selection, the ‘‘separation of the choicest,” in
accordance with the interests or whims of the breeder. As an artificial
standard seeks to secure exact similarity in many details, or, very superior
excellence in one or more qualities, it is only by the most rigid selection of
the individuals allowed to propagate their kind that a high stage of improve-
ment can be reached and maintained. Rigid, severe selection is the key to
success in poultry breeding. If a breeder desires uniformity in his stock, the
breeding birds must be as nearly alike as can be had, and bred from dzke birds
for many generations. If he wishes to secure high excellence in a particular
quality, he must breed consecutively from the individuals in which that quality
is best developed — wzthout detriment to other qualities.*

* Nore.— While a breeder should always select the best, he must expect that if a dest
bird is so much better than the type in any particular that it is markedly wzdzke the type,
its progeny will not (unless it happens to be strongly prepotent with regard to the feature
which constitutes its excellence) show an equal excellence. On the contrary, it is in
accordance with the law that only a small proportion should do so, and that an equal
number should be as much worse than the poorest progeny of the mediocre stock as the
best are better than their best. So that, on the whole, the immediate progeny of
phenomenally good birds may be disappointing. But by breeding from fhe dest again
and again, the marked advance made in any feature by an individual can be established
as a race feature,— provided always that it can exist without detriment to other qualities.

POULTRY-CRAFT. 147

Good food and good care are not less important than good stock, but come
later in order of time; and to justify their use one must give them to good .
stock. Food and care, though of the best, cannot make a good layer of a hen
that is constitutionally a poor layer; or put a round full breast on the
descendant of a line of flat breasted fowls; or clean color on the offspring of
a race weak in color. It is in the failure to carefully select the specimens used
in the breeding pens that most breeders,— not merely most breeders of Stand-
ard fowls, but most breeders, most people who hatch and rear fowls, — fail
to make their work pay.

197. The Common Mistake.—One who keeps a dozen hens in his
back yard and rears annually sixty to seventy chicks, selects a good male bird,
perhaps paying a good price for him, then hatches from the eggs of the entire
flock. His hens are a fair average of their kind, not uniform either in appear-
ance or quality, some fairly good, some poor. ‘That is about as such flocks
run. According to the common theory, as the best hens lay the most eggs,
and throw the strongest chicks, the greater proportion of the chicks reared
will be from those best hens. That theory takes for granted several things
that may not be so. The result desired is not impossible; it is improbable,
if the eggs are hatched, as they usually are in such cases, by hens. See how
it works. One point of improvement is to be prolificacy. The best and
earliest layers are not always the first to go broody, but they are very likely to
be. They are set on eggs from the flock. If any of their own eggs happen
to be in the lot, such eggs are the poorest they had laid. These hens incubate
for three weeks, remain with the broods for six or eight weeks more. So it
happens that nearly all the chicks reared are from the poorer hens. Is it any
wonder that results in grading up scrub stock and improving stock of poor
quality are not always satisfactory? Selection implies separation. Sefara-
tion ts the object of selection. If two or three or more of the best of a dozen
hens are separated from the flock, the poultry keeper can know that he is
breeding from those hens, and no others.

198. The Farmer’s Mistake. — It is a very usual practice for a farmer
having a flock of, say, one hundred hens, when buying blood to improve his
stock, to buy six or eight males of the dollar-and-a-half to two-dollar kind to
run with the flock; then use for hatching eggs collected from the flock. The
chances are against any considerable number of the few hundreds of chicks
reared being from the best hens. If twelve or fifteen of the best had been
separated from the general flock for the breeding season, and mated with a
male worth two of the kind used, the eggs from these hens only could have
been set, and more improvement made in the stock in one year than by follow-
ing the hit azd miss method for three.

199. The Breeder’s Mistake.— Many breeders of pure bred stock, who
breed from a single pen, will use in that pen anything they may happen to

148 PP OGLEMPRAANCT MATS:

have in the way of a hen, that is not so poor that for very shame they cannot
use her, trusting to a good male to stamp his quality on all the offspring.
Thus they lumber their premises with a lot of cull chicks, which over-crowd
the better ones, and prevent the few good ones from developing into what
they might become if given more room and better care. Others, who breed
{rom several pens, instead of mating best males to best females, make com-
promise matings * in order to get more and larger breeding yards; sacrificing
quality to quantity at every point. This is not good breeding, neither is it
good business policy. Good breeders breed only from the best of their good
birds.

200. One Law for Fancier and Farmer. — The wisdom of close cull-
ing in breeding fancy stock is generally admitted, but many amateurs still
insist that for them such close culling is impracticable. Most practical breeders,
also, do not cull as closely as they should. One who has not much room will
say that it is not worth while to take such pains for a few chicks. He ought,
rather, to think it most important that none of his limited space be wasted on
poor chicks. If he has room to rear chicks, he certainly has room to separate
as many of his best hens as are needed to lay the eggs from which to hatch the
chicks. One who must rear a large number of chicks will say that if he culls
as closely as he knows he ought to, he will not have hens enough to lay the
eggs he needs for hatching. That by no means follows. What is more likely
to happen is, that with better average breeding stock, less crowded and _ better
cared for, he will rear more and better chicks, though not as many eggs are
set.

201. The Points to be Considered in Selecting, are: Pedigree,
Appearance, Performance, Condition.

202. Pedigree.— Good fowls from poor stock are worth little as breeders.
Good fowls of unknown ancestry are to be used with extreme caution. Good
fowls of known good ancestry are valuable in the breeding yard in proportion
as their ancestry was continuously uniformly good, when measured by the
standard by which the progeny are to be measured. The mere fact that a
fowl is ‘* pedigreed,” the names, or band numbers of its ancestors known, is
worth nothing at allin breeding. The important thing to know is, how like
they were to the desired type, and in what they differed.

203. Appearance includes Shape, Stze and Weight, and Color.— Typ-
ical shapes of pure bred fowls are shown in the illustrations in Chapter V. In
selecting for breeding, the breed type should be followed closely; departures
from it should be made only for the purpose of strengthening a feature in

* NoTte.— Every mating is to some extent a compromise, a balancing of merits and
defects. The reference here, however, is to the practice of using birds that for the good
of the breed should go to the pot, in extreme matings which produce many birds that
look all right, but are of little value as breeders. :

POUL TRY-CRAFT. 149

which specimens of the breed are generally weak. As a rule, deformities are
to be avoided. It will occasionally happen that a deformed fowl is of such
uncommon general or special excellence that the breeder will profit more by
using it, breeding its excellence into and its defects out of his stock, than by
rejecting it. These cases are rare, and before using a disqualified bird a
novice should make sure that it really has the excellence he supposes it to
have. In any case, it should be used in a special mating, and not allowed to
communicate its defects to the general stock. A male and female having a
deformity in common should not be mated together; nor should fowls having
the same defect, not amounting to a deformity, be mated together. Shape is
universally recognized as more important than color, yet in judging and in

breeding, shape is too often sacrificed to color. The trouble is that color

2)
defects are, to most people, more conspicuous than shape defects. Many
cannot distinguish between the different types of form; but nearly everyone
can appreciate a color fault when once attention has been called to it. Besides
this, there is a mercenary side to the question. When rigid selection is made
for both shape and color, the breeder finds only one good bird where, if shape
defects are overlooked he would have two or three.

Fowls lacking in size and weight should be rejected as breeders; or, at
most, used with great caution. Lack of size is a common fault in all -breeds.
Of the thoroughbred fowls for which the Standard has weight requirements,
the greater number produced never attain Standard weight when in breeding
condition. Some breeders advocate breeding from ‘* medium sized” * males
and large females, claiming that the female gives size and shape, the male
color; or that the female gives size and practical qualities, the male shape and
color.f Unless the size of the large females is objectionable, to make such
matings a system is bad business. It will take only a few experiments in
crossing males of small breeds on females of large breeds to convince anyone
that the greater part of the progeny will come intermediate in size, a few
being as small as the sire, a few as large as the dam. The prevalence of the
intermediate size may not at first be noticeable in the offspring of small males
and large females of the same breed, but a second medium sized male mated
to large pullets from the first will get so few large chicks of either sex that
the breeder will begin to know where he is ‘ at.”

* Nore.— With some few medium-sized means, of Standard weight or a little more ;
but more often the ‘‘medium sized” males are below Standard weight, and very much
smaller than the best developed males of their kind; —and in speaking of best developed
males, excessively large, coarse specimens are barred.

+ Nore.— In the face of facts accessible to anyone who opens his eyes to see them,
such broad generalizations are absurd. The most frequently recurring case of the com-
monest form (offspring resembling one parent more than the other) of direct heredity, is
that daughters resemble the sire, sons the dam. This is known as ‘cross heredity.’
Though the most common case, it is not by any means a rule, for cases where sons most
closely resemble the sire, daughters the dam, and cases where offspring of both sexes
inherit quite equally from sire and dam, are numerous.

I50 POOGELTRICRATLT .

Excessively large males should be discarded. They are rarely good in
shape, and not infrequently the excessive growth of bone and muscle is
correlative with defective generative organs. In all breeds having Standard
weight, best results, as far as results depend on size, are obtained by using
birds whose weight, in good breeding condition equals or slightly exceeds the
requirements of the Standard. In the smaller breeds most satisfactory results
are obtained by using the largest birds having typical shape.

In selecting breeding fowls of cross bred, grade, or mongrel stock, selection
for uniformity in shape, size, and color is advisable, the type used in each
quality being that most desirable for the breeder’s immediate purpose. In
breeding thoroughbred fowls uniformity of color is imperative. Color
matings for Standard fowls are described in 4215 — 226. -

204. Performance.— Under this head prolificacy is considered from a
little different point of view than in treating of egg production. A hen may
be a great layer and a poor breeder. The points most valued in a breeder are :
(1) Ability to produce numerously vigorous offspring of the general type;
and (2) Prepotency, breeding power, ability to stamp individual qualities on
offspring. The combination of marked prepotency and great excellence is
rare. It would, perhaps, be discovered oftener if more accurate records of
matings and results were kept. The distinction between prepotency and
prolificacy should be observed. In breeding high class stock a very prepotent
fowl may be valuable as a breeder, though not specially prolific ; but generally
birds low in prolificacy cannot be profitably used.

205. Condition.— Fowls selected for breeding should have strong con-
stitutions, should be in perfect health when put in the breeding pen, and
should never have been seriously sick or badly out of condition. Fowls
which as chicks were puny or backward, though finally nursed into good
condition, are not desirable breeders; nor are those which though never
seriously sick, have been marked as subject to slight disorders. Cordztzon
of the breeders is of greatest importance. Hundreds of thousands of chicks
are hatched, weak in constitution, predisposed to certain disorders, destined
to die prematurely in spite of all that can be done for them.

206. Selecting Breeders to Produce Laying Stock.— The male
should be from good laying stock: the females selected for individual
performance in egg production, and when possible, according to the laying
qualities of their daughters. One who is much among his fowls, observing
them closely, can form a pretty good idea of the relative laying capacities of
the hens. If the hens cannot be watched quite closely, trap nests should be
used. In selecting young hens for breeders, pedigree counts most, for the
performance observed can only be for a few weeks or months prior to the
time of mating. In selecting hens, judgment can take account of a year’s

PO OLA «T= CREALEM. I51

work, a season’s breeding, and a short period of the laying of pullets from
them. For this reason, if for no other, hens are more desirable breeders than
pullets. Shape and size of eggs laid by each hen must be considered, and
sometimes color of eggs also. The laying-breeding hen should be well built,
symmetrical. Defective shape may be tolerated in an individual, but ought
not to be perpetuated.

In breeding from extraordinary layers, particular attention should be given
to condition. To the statement in 4196, that a breeder should select those
specimens in which desired qualities were best developed, the proviso,

>

‘* without detriment to other qualities,” was added because artificial standards
sometimes require things which are incompatible; but more particularly
because in breeding practical poultry the development of laying or table
qualities is easily brought to the point where further development is at the
expense of other qualities, and thus detrimental to the stock. Chicks from
eggs laid in the first two months of a mature hen’s laying, are, on the whole,
better than those from eggs produced when the hen has been laying continu-
ously for three or four months. The best layers should be ¢vzed as breeders
if they are in good condition at the season. There are some big layers that
are uncommonly good breeders; but in general, a hen that lays a hundred
and fifty eggs a year is worth more as a breeder than one which lays several
dozen more.

207. .Selecting Breeders to Produce Market Poultry.— In selecting
stock for this purpose shape is most important. Figs. 47-54 show good types
for broilers and small roasters. Figs, 56-62, 73, 74, show good types for
general market fowls. In selecting from common stock preference should be

given to specimens approaching one of the good meat types. Stock for
breeding broilers should be quick maturing, early laying, and generally good
laying stock. Quick growth is an important point in broiler production.
Only hens that lay early and well can be depended on to produce market
poultry, roasters as well as broilers, for the earliest demand. The early
roaster is, as a rule, just a broiler grown older. For large roasters, slow
maturing stock is best, as the meat of the young males remains soft much
longer. A point of much importance is how the fowl fattens. Fowls which
are prone to put on internal fat do not make good breeders.

208. Age of Breeding Stock.— Fowls should be at their best their
second season, at the beginning of which they are-generally twenty to twenty-
four months old. If they are not then in tip-top condition, more ‘ fit” for
breeding than in the previous year, the breeder should look for something
wrong in his method of handling breeding stock. A hen coming two years
old, if not forced as a pullet, and if properly handled between seasons, will
lay as well the second year as the first, and lay larger eggs, which will hatch
stronger and better chicks. A cock of the same age that has not been over-

152 I KOKO LE ISK We CIR AV ITE

worked as a cockerel, and neglected between seasons, that is, as he should be,
én hts prime, will get better chicks than it was possible for him to get as a
cockerel. The mating of males and females of this age will, other things
equal, give better results than any other age or combination of ages. Well
grown young fowls make better breeders than two-year-olds not in prime
condition. A method favored by many breeders is to mate a cock bird to
pullets, and a cockerel to hens. Generally these matings give better results
than matings of cockerels and pullets not as good as matings of two-year-olds.
Fowls in their third season will often get as good chicks at the height of the
breeding season as they did the previous year. Old fowls, however, are not
reliable breeders early in the season.

209. How Many Hens to a Male? — The general rule is: — for
Asiatics, 6 to 10; for Americans, § to 12; for Mediterraneans, 10 to 15. A
great deal depends on the male, and whether his attentions are well
distributed. Sometimes good results in fertility are obtained from a male
with twenty, twenty-five or thirty hens; but the quality of the chicks from
such matings is rarely what it should be. Even in using the smaller numbers
suggested in the rule, it is better to keep low rather than high. Small
matings of one, two, or several hens with a male, are sometimes desired.
Some males worry the hens when confined with so small a number. In that
case the usual method is to introduce hens, as many as needed to keep the
male peaceable, of a breed which lays eggs easily distinguished from those of
the breeding hens. When more hens are kept together than one male can
take care of, various expedients are resorted to to prevent males interfering
with each other, or exhausting their power. When two males are used, the
commonest practice is to run them with the hens on alternate days, though
some make the periods several days or a week; and some think they get
better results by using one male as long as he keeps in condition, then
substituting one held in reserve for that purpose. A favorite method with
larger flocks is to use three males, giving each two days work and a day’s rest
alternately. It is, perhaps, needless to say that these methods are not used
by good breeders for good stock. For market poultry and laying stock, they
answer; but unless the hens are all ood of their kind, it is better to reduce
their number to as many as can be kept with one male. Sometimes a male
is given too many or too few hens, for the purpose of influencing the
transmission of the qualities of sire and dam, it being known that the parent
in best condition is most prepotent. This practice is a questionable one, for
it really amounts to deliberately putting one side or the other out of condition.

210. Can Sex be Controlled ? — No one has yet succeeded in demon-
strating that it can —not in fowls. The numerous reczpes given do not prove

at all reliable.

211. Contamination.— It is sometimes asserted that a hen once served

TONQUE VIR I CL OGTROZU LIES 153

by a male of another variety cannot be depended on to breed true. It is only
in rare instances that eggs laid ten days after contamination hatch chicks
which show in any way the influence of the foreign male. Few, perhaps
none, of the reported cases of the influence of a male of another breed
persisting for months or years, rest on indisputable evidence. The same
thing may be said of alleged cases of ‘* mental impressions.”

212. Introducing New Blood.—Inbreeding.—It is commonly believed
by poultrymen that to maintain the vigor of a stock new blood must be
frequently introduced. Many go so far as to say that any inbreeding at all is
bad; that it is from the outset the beginning of deterioration. If a man
inbreeds, and his stock is weak, the weakness is invariably attributed to
inbreeding. Most of the evils. assigned to inbreeding are not due to
inbreeding, but to careless selection. There is no evidence that the breeding
of males and females of the nearest kin necessarily initiates degeneracy.
There is abundant evidence that with proper selection for stamina, and to
avoid common defects, very close inbreeding can be followed for a long time
without injuring the stock. There is also abundant evidence that breeding
unrelated fowls without careful attention to vigor, and avoidance of common
defects, is at once attended with precisely the same results as breeding fowls
of near kin under the same conditions. The prejudice (for it is nothing else)
against inbreeding, is one of the serious drawbacks to general improvement
of poultry. A breeder who does not confine his matings within narrow blood
lines slips back about as fast as he crawls forward. Nearly every new
breeder wastes a number of years trying to breed good stock without
inbreeding. Practical poultrymen will notably improve their stock by
inbreeding, then throw away results by bringing in new blood because of the
fear that they may carry inbreeding too far. In time nearly all breeders come
to admit that inbreeding is absolutely necessary (in breeding fancy fowls) in
color breeding, yet few can be found who do not think it unquestionably bad
for the practical breeder. As has already been said, there is not one law of
breeding for one class of breeders and another for another class. If
inbreeding is necessary to fix superiority in color, it is necessary to fix it in
shape ; if it is necessary to fix it in shape, it is necessary to fix superior laying
capacity or rapid growth, or vzgor. Inbreeding is necessary hecause there
cannot be intelligent breeding without inbreeding. One who does not breed
within close lines cannot £zow his stock as far back as he must know it if it
is to be mated with reasonable assurance that the matings will produce the
desired results. To secure uniformity inbreeding is necessary, because the
number of inheritable differences must be kept as low as possible, and this
can only be done by close inbreeding. The vigor of a flock is sustained not
by regularly introducing new blood, but by selecting breeding birds for vigor.
Vigorous birds generally beget vigorous offspring ; weak birds weak offspring,
whether akin or not.

154 POULTRI-CRAFT.:

Let it be fully understood that to breed from birds decause they are related,
without making selection for points desired, is as wrong as to refuse to mate
related birds. The whole matter is well put, in a nutshell, by a writer on
cattle breeding when he advises to ignore the fact of relationship altogether,
and breed from the best individuals obtainable. Then the question for the
poultry breeder is whether he can get, or can afford to get, better birds than
he has. By breeding only from vigorous selected stock, and observing the
rule not to mate fowls having bad defects in common, mating together only
fowls which in individual merit and in pedigree — whether akin or no kin —
are what they should be for the purpose of the mating, a breeder may be sure
that he is avoiding the mistakes of those who miss it when they inbreed, and
also of those who miss it when they do not.

213. Cross Breeding.— To breed crosses regularly, is not good policy
for any poultry keeper. J/¢ zs not a rule that:crosses are hardier or better
layers than fowls of pure blood. Some crosses give good results, others do
not. As to comparing all crosses with all pure bred fowls: the breeder of
crosses generally, very soon leaves them for thoroughbreds. In crossing, the
breeds selected should have such unlike qualities as when combined to form
an intermediate type, would give the result sought. The cross of two breeds
having a bad fault in common, should never be made. — Crossing to give stock
vigor, is not better than using vigorous blood of the same variety; it is not as
good. Crossing two weak stocks in the hope of producing a strong one, will
give satisfactory results in very very few instances. Some good crosses are
White, Brown, or Buff, Leghorn and Light Brahma, or Buff, or White, Cochin ;
Brown Leghorn and Partridge Cochin; White Plymouth Rock, or Wyandotte
and Light Brahma; Golden, or Buff, Wyandotte and Buff Cochin; Indian
Game and Light Brahma, or Buff, or Partridge, Cochin, or Plymouth Rock,
or Wyandotte: all these give yellow skin and legs. Good crosses, not right
in color for ‘* yellow” poultry, are Indian Game and Langshan; Black
Minorca, or Houdan, and Langshan; Houdan and Brahma. In crossing birds
differing much in size, males of the small breeds and females of the large
should be used. In color, cross bred pullets most often resemble the sire,
cockerels the dam; though the likeness is not very complete, and often quite
different colors result. In shape and size, the progeny of both sexes is mostly
intermediate. Occasionally the cross offspring are larger than either parent.

214. Mating Standard Fowls.— With a copy of the Standard and an
illustration of his variety before him, a novice who has studied the remarks
on selecting for shape (4203), will not need to have the points of shape
desired explicitly set forth in the directions for mating each variety. The
matings as described in the following paragraphs are mostly color matings ;
but a few points on shape which need special mention are introduced, and in

POUL TRY-CRAFT. 155

a few cases representing quite different types of fowls, fuller suggestions
about shape are given. ‘The particulars of shape to which attention is called
are those requiring most attention. The beginner usually needs to be advised
where to look for the weak points in his stock; for some of the most trouble-
some are overlooked unless attention is especially directed to them. Above
all else, a novice needs to guard against being carried away by admiration
for uncommon excellence in any one particular. It is the all around good
birds that make the best breeders. In most of the varieties good Standard
birds of both sexes are produced from a mating of Standard birds; but, in a
few, distinctly different matings are required to produce first class specimens
of each sex. In many varieties for which a single, Standard mating is used,
it is sometimes necessary to use birds rather strong in color to restore color
lost in breeding continuously from Standard birds.

It must be kept in mind that often the Standard allows considerable lati-
tude in the matter of color, and in such cases it may happen that a breeder
who follows the Standard as he interprets it, will fail to produce stock that
comes well up to the Standard as interpreted by other breeders and the judges.
Thus, in breeding Light Brahmas, one might breed pullets with wing flights.
(primaries) nearly half white, but when he comes to show or sell his birds,
he would find that such wings are considered faulty, nearly black primaries.
being preferred. And, in breeding buff varieties, one might get what he
considered the correct shade, only to find quite a different color in vogue.
The only way a breeder can learn what the public wants, is by keeping in
touch with other breeders of his variety, visiting accessible shows, and exam-
ining all reputed good specimens he has opportunity to handle. In mating
birds of varieties for which both double and single matings are used, the
system by which the stock was produced should be followed.

215. Mating Barred Plymouth Rocks. — A. C. Hawkins’ rules
(adapted from the American Plymouth Rock Club Catalogue ).

‘*To produce both sexes of Standard color from the same mating, has been the study
of thousands of breeders for the last thirty years. That some fine specimens have been
produced by the single mating system, is true; but, unquestionably, more than ninety
per cent of the winning Barred Plymouth Rocks in the country for the last twenty years,
have been the product of the special mating system; and it is no doubt the surest and
safest method of producing the highest scoring specimens of the breed.

‘*To PRODUCE STANDARD FEMALES, use in the breeding pen only females of the
highest type of color and form, with the qualities desired in the female progeny; or in
other words, the very highest scoring specimens that have no (bad) defects. To these
females mate a male bird of medium light color, and evenly barred all over, including
wings and tail; and whose dam and szre’s dam were of the same high standard in form
and color desired in the female progeny.

‘*The male should have the blood in his veins of the same general character as that in
the females he is mated with. He should have a deep full breast, broad concave back,
small well serrated comb, orange yellow legs,—all important and desirable qualities in
his produce.

156 POULTR?-CRAFT.

‘“Such a mating can be depended on to produce ninety-five per cent of first class
breeding and exhibition females. The males from it will be of the same color as their
sire — not exhibition birds, but useful for breeding choice females.

‘* Do not use males with very light necks and tails in these pullet breeding pens, as
these defects will be reproduced in the progeny in pullets with splashy light necks, and
blurred poorly barred tails.

‘*Pullets of even color, and distinctly barred all over, are what is desired; and with
careful selection of the breeding stock, it is not difficult to get them. Such pullets are
rarely, if ever, produced from Standard colored males—and, if they look well, are not
reliable breeders.

‘“«To PRoDUCE MEpDIUM DARK BLUE BARRED MALES AS REQUIRED BY THE STANDARD:
—put at the head of the breeding pen the very finest exhibition male of Standard color,
even serrated comb, broad concave back, deep full breast, small spreading tail, orange
yellow legs, evenly barred all over and to the skin. Do not use a male with any serzous
defect, even if he scores high. ;

‘‘ With this male mate females of the same line of breeding as himself; not necessarily
akin to him, but females whose szre and dam’s s¢re were high scoring Standard colored
birds. These females should be medium dark in color, zo¢ smutty ; but evenly barred all
over and to the skin, with good combs, torms and legs. From such a mating ninety-five
per cent finely colored males suitable for breeding and exhibition can be produced. The
females will be of the same general character and color as their dams, too dark for
exhibition, but useful for breeding choice males. :

‘* By this special mating system, and by careful selection of the breeding stock, the
Barred Plymouth Rock is sure to improve each season, and the longer they are bred in
line the more perfectly will their Standard qualities be brought out.”

_ 216. Mating Brown Leghorns. —A. C. Smith’s. rules (specially
contributed for this book).

The methods and means that must be employed to mate Brown Leghorns successfully
for exhibition specimens of both sexes, vary with the style of bird the breeder desires to
produce. Most breeders use what is known as the double mating system —that is, a
separate mating for the production of each sex. Some breeders use the single mating
system, depending upon one mating to produce exhibition males and females. But the
growing tendency in this, as in almost all varieties of fancy fowl, is toward the double
system. ‘The single mating may be used in this variety with far more success than in
most others.

While it can hardly be said that each system has its advantages, it can be said that
each system has its place. The best system is certainly the one that will produce the
greater per cent of exhibition birds. Which system will do that, depends upon the style
of male and female described in the Standard extant. The present demand is for what
may, in general, be described as a dark male and light female. Such birds are, from a
breeder’s standpoint, direct opposites. Far better results may be obtained in seeking
these diametrically opposite types by making a distinct mating for each sex.

The Double Mating System.

Mating for Exhibition Males.—[THE MALE]. The mating for exhibition males
should, first of all, contain as fine an exhibition specimen as can be reared, bought, or
borrowed — and I am inclined to say, stolen. The most important feature of this bird
(if one feature is more important than others) are, undercolor, which should be dark and
deep; a good metallic stripe in hackle and saddle; a concave shaped back, giving the
gracetul touch to every part of the bird; an even plumage, 7. e., showing the same shade
of red in all sections that call for that color; and sufficient station to infuse the bird with

POGLLR IA CRAM. 157

style and life. These are qualities that a flock takes generally from the male. The other
sections should, of course, be as near Standard requirements as possible; but the writer
believes that more improvement can be made in comb, eyes, wattles, lobes, color of legs,
and many minor points with the female, than in color of plumage, length of leg, and
general appearance.

[THe FemMALE].—The females selected for this mating should be dark in color of
back and wing, with dark undercolor throughout. The color of the neck should be as
near red as possible, and the stripe as near a metallic black as can be had with the other
requisites. The comb should be small, and very evenly serrated. If it stands erect it is
rather an adyantage than otherwise. Such females are prone to have pale or black legs.
In this case they should not be used if others with the same general characteristics can
be procured; and while a pale leg may be tolerated, a black, or dark colored leg should
never be used. Should either male or female fail in this respect, the breeder should see
that it is strongly offset in the opposite sex.

Mating for Exkibition Females.—[THE MALeE].—The mating for exhibition females
should first of all possess a male bird that is the son of a splendid female, and was sired
by the son of a splendid female. The further this line can be followed back the more
certain the breeder may feel of a large percentage of exhibition females in the flock
reared from this mating. This male should havea five pointed comb, smooth and straight
over the beak; a light orange hackle, with a fairly good black stripe. His saddle should
be the same shade of color as the hackle; but the black stripe is not wanted in the saddle
of a pullet breeding male. The wing bow should be about the same shade of orange as
the back, and should be large, running well down into the wing bars.

[THE FEMALE].—The females should be the best exhibition specimens procurable.
Far better to breed from a single pair or trio than to use inferior females in this mating.
The female of the present Standard is a rather light colored specimen as Brown Leghorn
females run. She should have a nicely lopped comb, standing straight in front, and
gradually drooping to one side, and a small, smooth, white or creamy white lobe.

The style of female just described, and the male, which is very clearly described in
the Standard, can be bred successfully only by the double mating system.

The Single Mating System.

The single mating system might, dy chance, produce fairly good specimens of the
types; but even so, the blood must be properly balanced, and who is to foretell that such
is the case? The single mating is one in which the best exhibition male and the best
exhibition females are mated together to produce exhibition birds of both sexes. Its
merit is not known under the present Standard. Its fault is that it seldom produces a
bird of either sex of exhibition merit. It has for a recommendation only the beauty of
its simplicity. It will become of use only when males and females of a medium shade of
color are in vogue.

The Intermediate Mating.

A plan of mating that advocates of a single mating very often use, and, no doubt,
think is a single mating,— though it is not, but may be called an intermediate mating —
will succeed very well, but not as well as the double and separate matings. This plan
involves the selection of a male mid-way between the types described for breeding
exhibition males and for breeding exhibition females. That is, select a medium colored
male, and mate him to females of both types.

These are the methods employed, given in a general way. The details must be
observed and studied by the individual breeder.

158 POUL TERT CRATE:

217. Mating Silver and Golden Wyandottes.— These varieties being
alike except in ground color of plumage, the rule for mating to get correct
markings is the same for both. The breeder of Golden Wyandottes has an
added difficulty in the task of getting the desired shade of golden bay in the
ground color. The methods of mating to establish a good ground color are
similar to those used to produce a uniform buff. (See F 226). To produce
the finest Standard specimens of both sexes a mating of exhibition males and
females is the best that can be made. The rule as given specially for Silvers,
by A. C. Hawkins, in Farm-Poultry, is :—

‘‘ Mate a male of good size, fine in form ; medium short legs, giving a blocky appearance ;
medium sized comb, even and well pebbled on top, and curving with the head; breast
medium dark, with no edging on the feathers; a strongly striped hackle and saddle;
white wing bow, clearly defined double bar on wing, flights free from extra white; with
females of full or over weight, good combs, clear open laced centers on breast and back;
well striped hackles, white wing tips, tails not too high; both males and females with good
legs.”

The females with /arge open centers all over, favored by some judges and
breeders, are not Standard birds. (The Standard requires medium, not large
centers in back). Still, the method of producing them is of interest to
Wyandotte breeders, for if large open centers all over are demanded, notwith-
standing the Standard, breeders must produce them, and if the fad persists,
the Standard will eventually be changed to conform to it. It should be noted
that the rules given below do not properly constitute a system like the double
mating systems used for Barred Plymouth Rocks and Brown Leghorns.

Ira C. Kellar’s rules (condensed and arranged from a series of articles on
oD

Golden Wyandottes, in /eel¢able Poultry Journal) :

(1). To Produce Large Centers on Cushion.— In breeding for large centers of cushion,
depth of breast lacing in the female is lost.. To produce these large centers, mate females
that have them with a male that has a strong well laced breast, with not too large centers,
with neck, beak, back, saddle, and wing coverts well daced. Such a mating should pro-
duce a fair per cent of pullets with good sized centers all over, and nice very open laced
cockerels.

(2). To Produce Strongly Laced Males,— mate cockerels from above mating with
fairly heavily laced females.

(3). Lf Females are so Open as to Grow Weak in Breast,— mate witha Standard male. *
Some of the pullets from such a mating will be well laced all over, with quite heavy
lacing. These mated to a male well laced zz every sect/on will produce some pullets up
to Standard, anda good per cent of Standard marked cockerels.

(4). To Produce Pullets with Clear Open Large Centers all over, a fair Per Cent of
which will Moult tnto Clear Centered Hens,— breed year after year from males well
laced all over. Clear centered hens cannot be obtained by breeding Wyandottes heavily
laced.

218. Mating Light Brahmas.— The mating of Standard exhibition
birds, as bred by the best breeders, is the best that can be made, and will
produce a very small per cent of inferior specimens of either sex. In shape

POC DPRASCTUATL I .. 159

the Cochin type on the one hand, and the Langshan type on the other, are to
be avoided. The comb should be well developed, but firm, well set, the
three divisions and the serrations well defined. Particular attention should
be given to the combs of females. ‘These are so small that inconspicuous
irregularities in them are often overlooked. These same inconspicuous
irregularities, wrinkles and poorly marked divisions and serrations, are very
unsightly when they reappear much magnified in the male offspring. The
head should be broad and strong, with projecting, beetle brows. The neck
neither so. long as to give the bird a gawky look, nor so short as to make it
look dumpy ; the breast broad, full, well rounded; the back broad, narrower
across the saddle than at the shoulders, but not conspicuously so, flat across
the shoulders, medium in length; deep bodies, well spread tails; legs to
correspond with neck in length, set well apart; shanks well feathered on the
outside, and outer and middle toes well feathered. .

The common color fault is weakness in black points, too little black, and
that not of good quality. The black should be clear and bright, with
metallic sheen; the hackle striped exactly as described in the Standard; the
primaries black in the male, nearly black in the female. [The Standard
allows a zear/y black wing in males, and a wing just more than half black
in females,— but to produce first class specimens of the type popular, black
wings in males and in females nearly black must be used]. The main tail
feathers and inner row of coverts should be free from white, the outer coverts
edged with white. Black may be conspicuous in the foot feathering, but is
discredited in the back. The under color should be an even bluish white.
Old fowls that lose little black in moulting are especially valuable as breeders.

219. Mating Dark Brahmas.— A double mating system, in which
both matings are ‘‘ Standard” matings, is used. The Standard calls for a
breast, ‘‘ black or black slightly frosted with white,” in males. Males with
black breasts are used with Standard females for the cockerel mating, and
males with frosted breasts with Standard pullets for the pullet mating.

220. Mating Partridge Cochins. — Both systems of mating are used;
the single mating of Standard birds; the special cockerel mating Standard
males to females as dark as the Standard allows; the pullet mating light
colored males with brown or red in breast to light colored Standard females.
The remarks on Light Brahma shape apply generally to Cochins. The
Cochin has not the broad skull and overhanging brows; but aside from that,
the differences in form are chiefly due to differences in length and density of
plumage.

221. Mating Colored Indian Games.— Double matings are used: for
cockerels, Standard males with dark females, not well penciled; for pullets,
laced males (the Standard male is not laced) with Standard females.

160 POCLTRI-ACKAF SD.

222. Mating Houdans. — Houdans lose black very rapidly in eachsuc-
ceeding moult, and in mating the age of the specimen has to be considered.
Young birds of either sex in which the black does not largely predominate,
should not be used. Good matings are: (1) A cock a little darker than
Standard, with Standard hens. (2) Cock as above, with pullets a little too
dark for exhibition. (3) Cockerel nearly black, with Standard pullets.
(4) Cockerel as in (3), with light colored hens. Special attention should
be given to the crest of the male. It is never as good as in the best females,
but unless it is fairly developed and good in form, the greater part of the
offspring are likely to have very poor crests.

223. Mating Spangled and Penciled Hamburgs and Polish. — For
all these varieties, single matings of Standard birds are used. Experts in
these varieties advise that a mating which gives good results be kept unchanged
as long as the birds comprising it can be used for breeders.

224. Mating White Varieties. —In those white varieties for which
the Standard requires pure white plumage and bright yellow legs and skin,
the best mating is of fowls with shanks and skin a good yellow, and just the
faintest creamy tint in the plumage, a little stronger on the backs of the males
than elsewhere, and generally a little stronger next the skin than on the surface,
but not anywhere approaching a straw color. The backs of young males
should be quite white. As a rule a cock will show more color than he did as
a cockerel. Those which at two years old show little color are most desirable
breeders. In breeding the white varieties which do not have yellow skin and
legs, the pure white plumage is less difficult to get.

225. Mating Black Varieties.— The correct black is a brilliant black
with greenish luster; the faulty black has a dead rusty look or a purplish cast.
The commonest color defect in black fowls is white, or gray, in the flights,—
often only a mere tip of grayish white. Breeders have found it difficult to
breed this entirely out, and the usual practice is to tolerate it in all round good
specimens, at the same time avoiding mating together males and females having
the faultin common. In black fowls with yellow skin and legs :— Cochins,
Wyandottes, Leghorns,— clean yellow shanks are rarely produced. In Black
Langshans yellow in the feet generally indicates the presence of Cochin blood.
Breeding from birds having the fault not only retains the objectionable color,
but makes it harder to maintain the true Langshan shape.

226. Mating Buff Varieties.— The buff varieties, with the exception
of Cochins, are all new, and the up-to-date Cochin might without great
impropriety be styled a new variety. Though buff is. called a * solid” color,
it is by no means an easy color to handle. Breeders find it quite as difficult
to get one uniform shade of buff in all sections axd keep zt, as to get any
combination of colors and markings described in the Standard. At present

BROCE DR Y= CRA RL: 161

the popular shade is a golden buff, between the reddish buff and the pale yellow,
which were the extremes of color which different breeders have been calling
buff. In mating buff fowls, the best method is to use birds of both sexes as
near the desired golden buff as can be obtained, avoiding the mating of birds
having color defects in the same section, whether the defects are similar or
oppostte. The common color faults in buff fowls are white, or black, in
wings and tails; red on the backs and shoulders of males; very light breasts
on females; black ticks or lacing on necks and backs; mottled plumage, slaty
under color, white under color —no under color. Black or gray in any part
of the plumage except the primaries and main tail feathers, should cause a
bird to be rejected, no matter how good otherwise. In the sections excepted,
a little dark color may be admitted if the mate of the bird is good buff in them.
In any case it is not advisable to breed from a specimen in which the foreign
color is distinct. Birds with positive white in wings and tails should be
rejected; also those in which the upper and lower webs of the feathers are of
distinctly different shades. Faded, and slightly mealy wings and tails, may
be admitted if the bird is pretty good all round, and can be mated with one
good in wing and tail. A bird extra good in wing and tail can generally be
used to advantage, though rather weak in other sections. In breeding to get
the red out of the backs of males, the lightest females that can be found that
are a good bright even surface color, the same on back and breast, should be
mated to males as free from red as they can be had, and fairly uniform in all
sections. Specimens with pale eyes should be rejected. In an exhibition
bird surface color is worth more than under color; but in breeding, a bird good
in under color will get more good even colored chicks than one better on the
surface and not so good in under color.

227. The Breeding Season is early or late, long or short, according to
the purpose and progress of the breeder. For breeding early market poultry
stock should be mated late in the fall. In producing laying stock the chicks
of different breeds should be hatched at such times that the pullets will come.
to laying maturity tolerably early in the fall, yet not so early that after laying
a few eggs they moult like old hens. Brahma and Cochin pullets begin to lay
at seven to nine months; Langshans, six to eight months; American breeds,
five to seven months; Leghorns and the smailer breeds generally, four to six
months. Very precocious stock may lay earlier, very backward pullets later,
than the periods specified.. If it is desired to have pullets coming to laying
maturity from September first to November first, hatches should be: —for
Brahmas and Cochins, February and March; for Langshans, March and April;
for Plymouth Rocks, March fifteenth to May fifteenth; for Wyandottes, April
first to June first; for smaller varieties, May first to July first. The breeding
pens should be mated up at least five or six weeks previous to the earliest date
given for hatching each class of fowls. When breeding fowls are shipped
from a distance, it is best to buy so early that the birds have several months in
which to become acclimated before the beginning of the breeding season.

162 POCLAR IAC RATS:

Large breeders of exhibition and stock birds try to have stock ready to sell for
exhibition at any and all times, from the earliest fair to the latest poultry
show. A few hatch practically the year round. It is always better to be a
little in advance of the season, than to run the chance of a set-back which will
put operations so far behind that the loss cannot be recovered that season.

228. Care of Breeding Stock. — Many breeders try to discourage their
breeding hens from laying in the winter; not merely that they may lay more
eggs when eggs for hatching are wanted, but because they wish to have them
in tip-top physical condition during the breeding season. They are not a
entirely successful in this, but by keeping them a little fat, generally keep eg
production below the point where it begins to tell on vitality. Those who use
the same hens for laying and breeding should, if the hens lay early in the
winter, give them a few weeks rest just before the breeding season. (If only
the best hens are used for breeding, this need not cause a break in the total
yield of eggs. Sometimes the rest will come about naturally ; the hens after
some weeks or months of laying going broody. They may then be allowed
to hatch a brood of chicks (to be reared by another hen ‘or in a brooder) or,
if chicks are not wanted * at that season may be allowed to. sit for a while on
nest eggs. In either case they should be well fed.

If the breeding stock can be given range, well and good. If that cannot be,
it will be found that with exercise, green food, and meat furnished as needed,
as good chicks can be obtained from fowls in confinement as from fowls at
liberty —by far the larger number of good fowls are from yarded stock.
The stock should not, however, be crowded; considerably more space per
hen should be allowed than is generally given laying hens.

The food need not be different from that of the laying stock, except that if
the layers are given stimulants of any kind, it is better to leave them out of the
food for the breeders. A very gallant male is sometimes so solicitous that the
hens shall get all the food they can eat, that he neglects to eat himself. When
this is the case the male must have extra food to keep him in condition. A tame
bird may be fed from the hand when the others are fed; a shy bird should be
removed from the pen in the evening, fed by lantern light, and given a good
feed again next morning before being returned to the pen. If at any time a
bird in the breeding pen seems dull, though not downright sick, it should be
removed until in good condition. The males need such attention most.

* Notr. — Early chicks hatched in this way generally come in very acceptably for
market or for the table. They need not be from the breeding stock, and can be eaten
and out of the way before the later better chicks are crowded by them.

.

+ Nore. — There is a great deal of nonsense talked and written about free range and
unlimited range. The truth is, our American improved varieties of domestic fowls are
pre-eminently domestic in their habits, and confine themselves to quite narrow limits
unless literally starved into extending them. A man caw take as much exercise in a
garden plot as on a ten thousand acre ranch.

POGETTAAChAL TL. 163

Slight disorders, which would quickly pass off were the bird isolated, may
develop serious trouble if he is continued in service when not in condition.
A hen out of condition, and moping, is likely to be injured by the male, or
worried by other hens unless removed from the pen. Hens that go broody
should be broken of the fever, and kept laying as long as their eggs are needed
for hatching. After that it is better to allow them to hatch and rear a brood.
Whenever it is feasible, a breeder, though using but one mating, should
have a good male in reserve, in case the one he has put in the breeding yard
prove impotent, or meet with an accident, or prove in any way unsatisfac-
tory. Breeders who use many matings always hold a number of good birds
in reserve. Unless one does so, be may lose a season’s work from a good
pen of hens. When eggs are no longer needed for hatching, it is better to
remove the males from the pens, and not allow them to run with the hens
again until the next breeding season. They only worry the hens, and retard
their own moult. Often the old males show no attention to the hens except
to viciously drive them about.

229. About Eggs for Hatching. — The eggs should be gathered daily —
oftener if there is danger of their becoming chilled

and given a distinguish-
ing mark, or marks, which will identify them as from a particular pen. If
one has more than one mating of a variety, the name, or initials of the name,
of the variety is not enough; the number of the pen or mating should be
added. The need of this is obvious. If the breeder does not accurately
mark all eggs when taken from the nests, he never knows what he is hatching
himself, and his customers buying eggs, as they suppose, from several matings,
and wishing to keep account of the chicks from each, are not at all favorably
impressed if the eggs sent them are all marked alike, or not marked at all.
Who can blame them, in such a case, if they are a little skeptical as to the
shipper knowing as much as he ought to about his stock? There cannot be
intelligent selection without accurate knowledge of the results of matings ;
there cannot be such knowledge without proper identification of eggs and
chicks from each mating.
In sorting, culling the eggs, the rule should be to reject imperfect eggs,
small eggs, and very large eggs; but the rule must be applied with judgment,
allowing exceptions in some circumstances. A hen which it is most desirable

to breed from may lay a poor egg; and it may be more advantageous to breed

her good qualities into the stock —and this fault, if it appears, out—than to
reject her eggs. Many eggs with imperfect shells, which would quite
certainly be broken if given hens to incubate, can be hatched in a machine.
Extra large eggs, which in most incubators could not be hatched with smaller
eggs, can be hatched under hens if there is an object in hatching them.

Eggs for hatching should be kept in a cool dry place; —a temperature of
40° to 50° F. is best. They do not need to be turned at all while thus kept,

nor is it necessary that they should be placed in any particular position. This

164 POUL TR?Y-CRAFT.

statement is contrary to advice commonly given, but is in accordance with
general practice: — few breeders turn the eggs, and it has not been observed
that turned eggs hatch better — and is confirmed by the highest authority on
artificial incubation. (See Cyphers’ ‘‘Incubation and Its Natural Laws,”

P- 53)>

PQGUG TEV CLAL MN. 165

CHAPTER XI.

Hatching and Rearing Chicks.

230. The Two Systems.— There are two methods of hatching and
brooding chicks: the zatwra/, in which the chicks are hatched and brooded
by hens; and the artzficéal, in which they are hatched in incubators and
brooded in houses, as described in. 446-48, or in separate out-door brooders.
The conditions which would determine the choice of method were stated in
60. The natural method is still in most general use. The other is oftener
used by those operating on a large scale, and is coming, year by year, into
more general use. As to results, —that depends more on the operator than
on the method. * As good chicks can be reared without hens as with them.
In using the natural method, the operator divides the responsibility with the
hens; in using the artificial method, he assumes it all. After weaning, the
treatment of the chicks is essentially the same, no matter which method had
been previously employed.

THE NATURAL METHOD.

231. Remarks.— The sitting hen’s reputation for fickleness and _ per-
versity is not deserved. The trials of those who find the care of sitting hens
and hens with chicks too troublesome, are mostly due to the failure to furnish
proper facilities for the work, and to handle the stock systematically. It is
easy to handle hens and chicks in large numbers if one goes about it in the
right way. The complaints against hens are: they do not persist in broodi-
ness; they will not sit elsewhere than on their laying nests; after being set,
they desert the eggs; they remain too long away from the nests, allowing eggs
to become chilled; they quarrel among themselves, and break eggs; they
trample chicks in the nests; they kill each other’s chicks; their chicks are
lousy, etc. These are preventable evils.

* Nore. — That those who fail with one method often succeed with the other, is to be
attributed to personal differences in taste and temperament, and in the denz of talent. It
seems to be impossible for some persons to acquire the little, elementary, engineering
skill required to successfully operate an incubator; yet these same persons may be very
expert in the use of the natural method. And there are many people who will never
force themselves to do the routine work of caring for sitting hens in such a way that good
results are a practical certainty; but will take pleasure in working with machines, and
will be very successful with them. Many poultry keepers work equally well with either
method; and not a few people who try to raise fowls fail, no matter which method they
try.

166 POUL TRAI-~CRATFETL.

232. Selecting Hens for Sitters. — As has been said, results in general,
depend on the operator more than on the method. In using the natural
method, the operator has an early opportunity to display good judgment in
the selection of the hens to be used for sitters. Not all hens make good
sitters. Not all that have done well through the period of incubation, can be
trusted to bring out the chicks and nurse the broods. A hen that is not in
fair condition — neither thin nor grossly fat,— or that does not feel hot to the
hand when handled (with the hand under the body, and the fingers touching
the skin), or that will not allow herself to be handled freely, after dark, at
least, should not be used. * Nor should a hen with a vicious disposition be
used ; a point of prime importance in this method is to use hens that are easily
managed.

There is a general prejudice against large heavy hens as sitters, because
eggs are so often broken by them. It is, to say the least, questionable whether
that prejudice is well founded. The large hens are usually very gentle and
quiet, deliberate in their movements. When. they break eggs with good
shells, it is because they are lousy, or because suitable nests have not been
provided for them. If their nests are roomy, easy to walk into and from,
there will be little trouble with cleaz hens breaking good eggs. There are
some hens of all sizes that are nervous, excitable, and break eggs constantly.
Very small hens are not desirable sitters in cold weather.

233. Where to Set the Hens.
year, the nests can be placed almost anywhere that the hens will be free from
annoyances. When more than three or four are to be sitting at one time, it is

When only a few hens are set each

best to provide special quarters for them. Fig. 39, shows a good arrange-
ment for a small plant, one which relieves the operator of the trouble of
moving the hens to new nests. On large plants, where hens are used for
hatching, the usual arrangement is to set them in the surplus stock pens, or
in pens from which the laying stock has been removed. Whatever plan is
adopted, it is important to have the sitters at one of the most accessible parts
of the plant, and all near together.

234. The Nests — should be like those shown in Figs. 37 and 38. (This
is not absolutely necessary, but a nest with a front just high enough to retain

* NoTE. — Some shy hens lose their shyness when broody. Others cannot at first be
touched by daylight. If their services are needed for hatching, it is quite an easy matter
to win the confidence of such hens, and make them quiet enough to handle. All that is
necessary is to approach them cautiously, coming near and putting the hand as close as
they will allow without leaving the nest, then withdrawing it before they have quite made
up their minds to fly. Continue this at convenient intervals until, finding they are not
to be hurt, they remain quiet, and at length allow themselves to be handled. It takes a
little patience, and a few minutes daily for several days. Too many poultry keepers try
to subdue their hens by main strength and awkwardness — principally awkwardness. In
no case should a hen that cannot be handled, be set,— not if the keeper wants to manage
things himself.

POOGELLTRIACRALRT. 167

the nesting material is most convenient for examining the eggs, if necessary,
when the hen is on the nest, and is about the only style of handy nest in which
a hen can be confined). If only two, four, or six hens are set in the same
apartment, open nests may be used —though even for that small number, the
closed nest is safer and surer ;— but where many hens are set together nests
that can be closed are indispensable. The nest boxes may be with or without
bottoms. They should be placed with backs to the walls, all facing the center
of the pen. If with board bottoms, a few inches of earth should be put in
each nest, slightly hollowed, and the corners of the nest filled up high (that
if eggs are accidentally pushed toward them there may be no depression into
which they can slip, remain and get cold), before the nest material proper is
put in. Bottomless nests are more convenient, and more easily kept clean.
They are, however, hardly suitable to use on a board floor. On an earth
floor the bottomless nest is by all odds the best. The floor where the nest is
to go should be raked smooth, and after the nest is in place the earth under it
should be formed and firmed as:described for the other nests.

For nesting material, straw, hay, or excelsior may be used. Very long
coarse hay or straw is not suitable. Soft hay or straw of medium leagth is
better than cut stuff;—the nest made of it keeps its shape better. Just
enough material should be used to make a good firm mat over the earth.
Unless there is to be a period of probation, on china eggs, for the hens, each
nest should be shaped and well fred with the hand before eggs are placed
in it; or the hen in trying to shape the nest with eggs in it will break some of
them. It is a good plan to thoroughly dust the nest with insect powder before
placing the hen on it. If this is done, and the hens were quite free from lice,
they need not be powdered again for eleven or twelve days.

235. Setting the Hens.
a week is often enough — for setting hens, and to set as many as possible each
time, that if there are many infertile eggs the sittings may be doubled up, and
that the broods hatched may be equally distributed to just as many hens as are

It is a good plan to have regular days — once

needed to take care of them. If open nests are used the hens are often given
a few days probation on nest eggs, before being trusted with the eggs which
they are to incubate. If closed nests are used, such probation is unnecessary,
and a distinct gain of several days for each hen is made. (Those who use the
open nests find it necessary to close in some hens at first, using a board or box
for that purpose. The movable cover is handier, though used only for a
few days).

v The hens should be moved at night, carried gently, one or two at a time.
One who is about the poultry houses much in the daytime can generally do
such work without a light much more quickly and with less annoyance to the
hens, than if a lantern is carried. If a light must be used, and any of the
hens are at all shy, it is best to place the lantern where it will throw just

168 P.OCIGTAR AAO ATI:

enough light into the sitters’ pen to enable one to see his way to the nests.
The hens placed on the eggs in the dark will immediately settle down. The
cover should be fastened in place, and, if there is any uncertainty 4s to how
a hen will behave on finding herself in a strange place in the morning,
a piece of burlap should be thrown over the nest to keep her quiet. If this is
not done she may struggle to get out, and in her struggles break many eggs.
The burlap need rarely be used longer than one or two days.

236. The Eggs Set should be quite fresh,—the fresher the better.
Eggs three weeks or more old, will hatch well sometimes, but the chicks
will be longer in coming out, and be less vigorous than chicks from the
fresher eggs from the same breeding pens. If it is desired to set eggs of
different varieties under the same hen, and one kind of eggs is a little slower
hatching than the other, the slowest eggs can be given the hen first, and the
others put in a day later.

237. Keeping a Record of Hatches. — The simplest way to keep
account of the hens and eggs set is to tack on or above the nests, where they
can be easily read, cards numbered consecutively, beginning with No. 1, for
the first hen set, and having on them: (1) The date when set; (2) The
number of eggs set; (3) Variety or kind; (4) Date of first test, number
fertile,— infertile,— dead; (5) Second test and notes; (6) Hatch,— number
of live chicks taken from nest,—number killed or dying after hatching,—
number failing to break the shell,—to get out after pipping. Such cards can
be preserved, and will furnish complete data of all hatches. If it is preferred,
the records can be kept in a note book, the nests being identified by numbers,
or by descriptions of the hens; but the card method works better,—is more
economical of time. .

238. Food and Care of Sitting Hens — The best food for sitting hens
is whole corn. When open nests are used, a dish of corn, a pan of water,
a box of grit, and a dust bath are provided, and the hens left very much to
themselves. With the covered nests, food, water, etc., are provided just the
same. The hens are let out two or four at a time, and the nests closed again
after the hens go back, which they should do in about twenty to thirty
minutes, remaining off longer, as a rule, in warm weather than in cold. This
work can be looked after by the attendant as he passes and repasses the sitters’
pens through the day. Pens eight to ten feet square accommodate twelve to
twenty sitting hens. They can usually be let out four at a time; so that it is
a simple matter to get the hens all fed, watered and shut into their nests com-
fortable and safe for another twenty-four hours without taking an appreciable
amount of time for the work. The nests should be opened in the same order,
and at about the same time day after day. Hens that do not return of their own
accord within a reasonable time, should be driven back. Any that are too

POOLE DRA CLRATIM. 169

wild to do this with, should be fed late in the evening. As hens come off,
the condition of each nest should be noted. If any contain broken eggs they
should be cleaned at once, if still moist; if dry, it is as well to mark the
nest, and clean all such at the earliest convenient time. Hens will be more
content, keep in better condition, and hatch better and stronger chicks if
allowed to go out doors every time they leave the nest. They should be well
powdered with insect powder about the eleventh or twelfth day of incubation,
and again a week later.

239. Testing the Eggs.— The eggs incubated ought always to be tested
as early as fertility can be certainly determined — that is, about the fourth or
fifth day for white shelled eggs, and two to four days later for eggs with dark
thick shells. The removal of the infertile eggs gives those left a better chance.
If there are many infertile eggs a part of the hens can be reset. If the plan is
to set hens once a week the test of the eggs last set may be made early the same
day, and hens reset with the new lot. Testing ought not to be neglected. It
is not to the breeder’s interest — unless he merely wants to rest his hens from
laying —to allow hens to devote their time to eggs that will not” hatch.
During the season he needs to get chicks out as rapidly as possible, and it is
poor policy to ‘‘ go it blind,” as they do who do not test the eggs. Even if
eggs are running high in fertility, it is better to test, for there may be some
dead germs, rotting. A rotten egg breaks easily, and when one does break in
a nest the chances of a good hatch are reduced — besides, there is the nasty job
of cleaning the nest and eggs. ;

Egg Testers — are sold by incubator manufacturers and dealers in poultry
supplies. A home made tester can be made in a few minutes of a small box
of such size and dimensions that a common hand lamp or a lantern can be set
in it. Ifalamp is to be used, one side of the box should be hinged, or slide in
grooves; a hole should be cut in the top directly over the flame, another in
one side opposite the flame. Over this last hole a piece of felt or of an
old rubber boot leg, having in it a hole a little smaller than an egg will pass
through, should be tacked. If a lantern is used all that is necessary is to knock
one end out of the box, that the lantern may be put down in it, and fix the hole
opposite the flame as described above.

The testing should be done in a dark room. If the pen in which the hens
are set cannot be made dark enough by covering up the windows, it is best to
test after dark. The quickest and easiest way is to place the tester on top of
the nest box, stoop down, take all the eggs from under a hen, putting them on
the floor in front of the nest. As the eggs are examined replace the fertile
ones under the hen, and throw the infertiles aside; then go on to the next
hen. ‘

In testing, the light shining through the egg held against the hole in the side
of the chimney or box shows the condition of the egg. An infertile egg is
clear. An egg containing a live germ, after being incubated for a week, is

170 IPOMGI GT ty MCSE DIES

quite evenly clouded, but lightest at the small end; has the air space at the
large end clearly defined, and the line marking the air space remains fixed as
the egg is turned before the light. An egg containing a dead germ may show
more faintly clouded than a fertile egg, as if less advanced; or the germ may
be discernible, black and unstable — not dark red and in a fixed position, as in
the live egg. As decomposition proceeds and the egg becomes decidedly
rotten, it appears more unevenly clouded, and the line of the air space tends
to remain level as the egg is turned before the light. The infertile eggs may
be fed to chicks and fowls.

The novice must expect to make some mistakes in testing. Give the egg
the benefit of the doubt; mark it, and test again a few days later.

240. Moistening Eggs during incubation is not necessary. In a dry
climate, if the heat is intense, or a dry wind is blowing while the eggs are
hatching, it may be necessary to dampen the nest and the earth about it to
prevent drying of the membrane after the shell is pipped; but sprinkling
before the shell is broken can hardly have any-effect on the contents of the

oo
ege.

241. Chilled Eggs. —TIf hens are set in covered nests, and the keeper
sees that they go back in time and shuts them in, there will be no cold eggs.
If eggs do get cold, it is as well to continue incubation, and note results. In
the early part of the period their condition can be determined by testing; later
one must wait until the time is up; then, if chicks are hatched, judge from the
chicks themselves whether they are worth keeping. Eggs under hens will
stand much more cooling than in an incubator. Many instances have been
known of eggs exposed to an almost freezing temperature for some time hatch-
ing good strong chicks. Chilling seems to be less injurious during the second
week of incubation than earlier or later.

242. When the Chicks are Hatching — it is best to watch them quite
closely. Some hens become excited when the chicks begin to ‘‘ cheep,” and in
their restlessness crush eggs, so that the chicks cannot turn in the shells.* If
possible, such hens should be changed with hens that have been sitting for a
shorter period. A few hens, perhaps one in a hundred, will kill chicks as
fast as they hatch, and one must be on the lookout for these. Trampling
chicks in the nests after hatching, is as often due to weak chicks as to clumsy
hens; but there are some hens not to be trusted, and some that will get along
very well if the nests are not.too full, but not so well with a full nest. When
there are many hens available, it is not hard to so shift them around that the
Josses of chicks in the nests are kept low.

243. Helping Chicks Out of the Shell. —If chicks are alive, and seem

* NoTE.— Such restlessness is not due to annoyance at being disturbed by the
attendant examining the eggs. These restless hens will fuss and crush the eggs though
left entirely to themselves,— and the same is true of many hens that trample chicks.

POEL T= CALM. 171

to be strong, though apparently unable to get out of the shells after pipping,
they should be let alone until all that can get out by themselves are out; then
the shell may be gently broken, and the cap removed. If the membrane is not
dried to the chick, it should be left to help itself out. If the membrane
adheres to the down, it should be moistened with warm water—or saliva,
which is better — and carefully detached. If this can be done without causing
bleeding, the chick is likely to come on all right; if it bleeds, it will probably
die.

244. After Hatching.— When the chicks are hatched and dry, they
should be removed from the nests and distributed among the best of the hens,
each medium sized hen being given from ten to twelve chicks in cold weather,
and eighteen or twenty in warm weather. Larger broods are sometimes
given, and hens may do well with them; but the chicks do not often make as.
good growth as when less crowded. It is better to limit the number to as
many as the hen can keep warm the coolest nights she has to brood them.
It must be remembered that the chicks constantly increase in size, while the
hen remains the same. A hen that has made a poor hatch, for which her con-
dition seems to be responsible, ought not to be given a brood. It is likely
that her vitality is low, and that instead of nourishing the chicks, she will rob
them of vitality when she broods them, and they will in consequence dwindle
and die, seemingly without cause. A scaly legged hen ought never to be used
as a mother — though if not too bad, she may be used to incubate eggs.

245. Puny and Deformed Chicks should be killed at once. It is.
neither kindness nor policy to keep them. This is one of the hardest lessons
for the poultry keeper to learn. The weaklings appeal to his sympathies.
He cannot find it in his heart to take away their slender chances of life, and
he is averse to voluntarily giving up any results of his labor except for value
received. If one will make a practice of killing every weakling as he takes
the chicks from the nests, he will see the general condition of his young stock
much improved, and will be far less troubled with the common ills of chick-

hood.

246. Marking Chicks. —If the chicks are to be marked, it should be
done by making punch marks in the webs of the feet as they are removed
from the nests, using one of the markers made especially for the purpose.
Marking can be done at any time, but chicks may become mixed after being
taken from the nests; and further, if the marking is done when they are but a
few hours old, the cut will bleed but little, and there is not the danger of
chicks picking each other’s feet as they often do when marking is postponed
until they are older, and the cut bleeds more freely. As there are two webs
in each foot, it is possible so to mark the chicks that the offspring of sixteen
different matings of each breed or variety can be readily identified by the

172 POULTRIY-CRAFT.

absence of a mark for mating No. 1, and the
positions of the punch marks for Nos. 2 to 16,
inclusive.

247. Keeping Chicks Free from Lice. — If
the sitting hens have been treated to prevent the
rapid increase of lice while they are incubating,
the chicks should be quite free from lice when
taken from the nests; but, as lice are elusive
creatures, and not always found when wanted,
and as a very few of them can do a great deal of
damage to a young chick in a short time, it is best
to powder all the young chicks when taken from
the nest, and at intervals of about a week, until
three or four weeks old. After that they need
not be powdered unless unmistakable inelieaiions
of the presence of lice are observed.

The easiest, quickest, and surest way to treat
chicks for lice, is to powder them in the coops in

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the evening or early in the morning, using a large
powder gun, which can be bought at any store;

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Cr

or a box with a perforated cover, giving the chicks

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a good sprinkling of it —the hen being meantime
held in one hand, — working it well into the Fig. 78. Puncw Macro nenen
feathers of the hen, held head downward, and

puffing it into every corner of the coop, which should then be closed. If the
work is done at night, it should be left closed; if in the morning, it should be
kept closed for half an hour or so. When coops like that in Fig. 44 are used,
the coop is tipped back during the operation of powdering. At first thought this
may seem an awkward way to go at it, but it will be found that neither hens
nor chicks can get out through the slide door as they can through a hinged top
when it is moved. Some poultrymen use lard on the heads, under the wings,
and at the vents of young chicks, to kill lice. This mode is effective, but too
slow, as it necessitates the handling of each and every chick. With the
powder twelve or twenty chicks are treated as quickly as one, and with fresh
strong powder the treatment is effective every time.

248. Colors of Chicks When Hatched.— Those not familiar with the
appearance of chicks of the various pure breeds when first hatched, are often
disappointed when they see the color of the chicks in the down so different
from that of the mature fowl, and imagine that there is something wrong with
the stock. Chicks of white varieties are generally canary colored when
hatched; but White Plymouth Rock and Wyandotte chicks are often quite
dark gray. Light Brahma chicks are mostly canary colored, or canary colored
with one or two small irregular black spots on head and back. <A few are

POUL TRY-CRAFT. 1493

quite gray. Chicks of black varieties are mostly black on the backs; canary
colored on the breasts. Barred Plymouth Rock chicks are gray on the backs,
lighter underneath, with generally a light splash on top of the head. The
cockerels are much lighter colored than pullets from the same matings. In
nearly all varieties there is more diversity in the color of the chicks when
hatched than when feathered.

249. The First Feed for the Chicks need not be essentially different
from those which are to follow; nor need the food given the first few weeks
be different in kind from that given later. The young chick needs precisely
the same kinds of food that the older chick and the mature fowl need; but it
needs it in form adapted to smaller digestive organs, and needs food oftener.
The matter of feeding has been so fully covered in § 137 —146, special
rations for young chicks being given in §f 146, 21 — 28, that the same ground
need not be gone over here. Chicks may be fed as soon as they will eat.
There is not the slightest danger of their injuring themselves by eating before
their systems are ready for food.*

250. Water for Young Chicks.— It is possible to grow young chicks up
to four or five weeks of age without giving them water. Nearly all expert
poultry keepers are agreed, however, that the chicks ought to have water from
the start. They should have constant access to it, and if by any chance they
are deprived of it long enough to become very thirsty, they ought not to be
allowed to drink freely of cod water immediately. By giving the water warm
at first, cramps and chills are prevented.

251. About Cooping.— For the first few days the chicks are as well off
indoors in a box just large enough for the hen to move about comfortably. If
the weather is cold and wet, they should be kept in still longer; but not in
too close quarters. A good plan is to confine the hens in small coops — boxes
with slats across the fronts will do —and allow the broods of several hens to
run on the same pen floor. When the time comes to put them outdoors, the
hens should still be confined. Many promising broods are ruined by the hens

29

running the chicks ‘‘ off their legs,” wearing them out completely. Even
after the chicks are strong enough to keep up with a foraging hen, it is better
_ to place the hen under restraint; then each chick can run just as much or as
little as it pleases, and those that are weaker than the others — yet not weas-
lings — have a better chance than when compelled to keep the pace set by
the hen or the strongest chicks.

Many hens which are themselves model mothers, are vicious toward the

* Nore.— It is often stated that chicks are injured by being fed before the yolk
absorbed previous to exclusion is assimilated, and that they should not be fed until
twenty-four hours old. Some chicks will eat within twelve hours of being hatched, and
some will not eat for thirty-six hours or more, though food is frequently before them and
the hen inviting them to eat.

174 POULTRY-CRAFT.

*
chicks of other hens, picking and worrying them whenever they come near.
This can only be prevented by making it impossible for. the hens to get at
strange chicks; or, making it easy for the chicks to escape from angry hens.
With coops as shown in Fig. 44, having the slats of the coop pens perpen-
dicular, the chick which wanders into a strange coop will almost invariably
get away before being hurt. The coop shown in Fig. 45, gives still more
complete protection, but is too expensive to use unless it is necessary to
protect from hawks and cats, for which purpose that coop was specially
constructed.

With a coop that is tightly built, and can be closed tight, chicks can be
reared outdoors in winter when the thermometer ranges to 20° below zero.
(Chicks hatched in winter stand cold much better than late chicks — early
summer chicks— stand extreme heat). This, of course, cannot be done
when there is much snow, but in a snowy country such coops can be set
under a rough shed where the ground is tolerably dry, and good chicks reared ;
not on a commercial scale for market,— but for hardy stock birds of the large
breeds.

Sometimes hens do not brood their chicks as much as they should on cold
bleak days. In that case they should be shut into the coop house, and the
door left open just enough to let the chicks pass in and out. The coop should
be made quite dark. In the dark the hens will brood the chicks whenever
they come to them.

When coops with perpendicular sides are used, shade can be given by
spreading pieces of burlap over the tops of the runs. A grain sack, which
gives two thicknesses of burlap, will keep the ground inside the pen dry
through quite a long shower, and dry all day through a drizzling rain.

Coops placed on grass should be moved every few days. When coops are
kept permanently in one spot, the ground under the coop pen should be
frequently cleaned of droppings. The coop houses need cleaning about twice
a week while the chicks are small. As soon as the chicks are so large that
one night’s use of the coop leaves it dty, coops should be cleaned daily.

If the coop floors become damp, and there is not sunshine to dry them, a
few handfuls of dry chaff, or a little dry road dust or coal ashes, should be
spread over them.

252. Making Hens Lay While Brooding Chicks, and keeping them
brooding chicks after commencing to lay, relieves the poultry keeper at the
same time of two of the most objectionable features of the natural method.
Generally the hens wean their chicks shortly after beginning to lay. If they
continue brooding the chicks they rarely lay. In coops with roomy pens the
hens can be got to laying in about a fortnight after the chicks are hatched,
and will continue laying and brooding the chicks as long as is desirable. The
hens are put in laying condition by being fed only three times a day, instead
of five or six times, as when fed with the chicks; all but three of the feeds

POULTRY-CRAFT. 107)

On

given the chicks being placed away from the coops out of the reach of the
hens. Then after the hen has laid for a few days, she stops clucking to the
chicks; but as hen and chicks use the same coop, she cannot help brooding
them. Often hens will go broody while laying in the coops, and after sitting
on the floor for a few days come out as attentive to the old brood as when it
was hatched. Not one hen in fifty will drive her chicks from her after she
begins laying if she has no chance to associate with other fowls.

THE ARTIFICIAL METHOD.

253. Remarks.—The circumstances to which this method is_ best
adapted, the choice and placing of incubators, and the different arrangements
for brooding, were considered in {[ 60, 61, and § 45—48. The use of machines
to take the place of hens does not relieve the operator of the necessity of giving
continuous close attention to the details of incubation. On the contrary, his
work becomes, in a way, more exacting. Machines do not run themselves,
nor cana child run them. Purchasers of. incubators and brooders get with
their machines the manufacturers’ directions for running them. ‘These are
not always fully adequate; they cannot apply exactly im all cases; there is
always something left to the judgment of the operator. More new operators,
however, make mistakes in disregarding or misinterpreting instructions than
in following them too closely. Radical changes from prescribed methods are
almost certain to be wrong. In departing from instructions— (a course to
be taken only when he is fully convinced of its necessity, and has a clear idea
of what he expects to accomplish by the change)— the operator should feel
his way as cautiously as one balancing scales when weighing out a costly
article. ypu

While there are differences in the methods of running different machines,
and like machines in different places, there are certain general facts of
universal application, and it is by these that the operator must be guided in
adjusting instructions to suit his circumstances. In the following paragraphs
the statements of noted experts and authorities have been arranged to give in
condensed form the latest and best opinions and advices on the principal
points in artificial hatching and brooding.*

254. The Care of the Lamp.—

‘¢ The lamp should be trimmed every day. I prefer morning to any other time. The
charred portion of the wick can be cut off with a pocket knife. Turn the wick down just
a little, to make sure there is no sound wick above the burner tube. ‘Then place the heel
of the knife on a level with the top of the tube, and draw the full length of the blade
while crossing the tube. This will make a clean cut. Be very careful to hold the knife

* NotE.— Most of the statements credited to Mr. Cyphers, in subsequent paragraphs,
are from ‘‘ Incubation and Its Natural Laws.” Those credited to Mr. McFetridge, are
from ‘‘ Poultry.” Others are from contributed articles in Marm-Poultry, and from earlier
books by Mr. Boyer, in this series.

176 POULTRY-CRAFT.

at a true level, so that one cut will do. Then turn wick down so as to preserve its
smoothness while cleaning the tubes. Wipe all bits of loose charred wick otf. Then
with a small piece of sandpaper make the burner bright. The sandpaper should be very
fine, so asmnot to scar the burner * *) *

‘« Always wipe all oil from the top of the lamp. Never fill quite full. Now and then
lift the screen that is around the burner, and thoroughly clean all dust from it. Should
the light flicker, see if the screen is not filled up with dust. The dust absorbs ott from the
wick, and should the burner ever get hot enough to form gas tt will explode. * * *

‘Tt is a good plan to turn on a low flame at first after trimming, and in the course of
twenty minutes go back and see if the flame is sufficient; if not it can then be safely
turned to the desired point. Remember that the flame increases, instead of diminishing,
after being trimmed. This alone causes serious trouble sometimes, as some operators
when they have trimmed their lamps turn the flame on full, thus heating the burner, and
increasing the flame till the lamp begins to smoke, and the chimney fills with soot. Asa
consequence the lamp goes out. * * *

‘<The lamp should have flame enough at all times to keep the regulator in operation,
but not to excess. Keep all draft from the lamp. The flame should be steady, and
should never ‘flick up.’” (McFetridge).

255. Temperature.—

‘¢The bulb of the thermometer should be placed on a fertile egg, and its temperature
maintained as nearly uniform as possible at 102 degrees during warm weather, and 102 1-2
degrees during the colder. * * * Eggs will stand considerable variation in temperature
before the lives of the germs are destroyed. During the earlier stages of incubation the
development will proceed slowly under a temperature of 98 or 99 degrees; no more dying,
if as many, as when incubating at a temperature of 101; and if the heat is gradually
raised the chicks grow quite rapidly during the last stages, and are excluded on time. A
high temperature during earlier stages of incubation, however, is usually fatal. * * *
After the eleventh day a temperature of 110 or 112 degrees, if not too prolonged, is not
necessarily fatal. The greatest excess of heat can probably be withstood after the
sixteenth day.” (Cyphers).

‘©Tf the egg chamber is 104 or 106 degrees, which is the extreme limit without injury
to the embryo, taking the temperature from dead eggs, the heat of the live ones may be
as high as 110 or 112 degrees. If the temperature is taken from the eggs (which is the
only proper method) the heat should be either 102 or 103 degrees at the start, and never
exceed 105 degrees—106 being the extreme limit of safety. Eggs which have been
heated to 110 degrees may hatch oui, but nine times out of ten the chicks are not worth
raising.” (Campbell).

‘¢When a maker tells you his incubator is self-regulating, and will hold the correct
temperature, he does not mean it will do your thinking for you, predict weather changes,
etc. When he tells you to keep the temperature at a certain dezree, you are certainly
making a mistake and wasting your energies if they are devoted to preventing the interior
of the egg chamber showing any variation from the degree mentioned. A good regulator
is one which maintains a proper equipoise, and if from any cause whatever the interior
temperature changes, it will automatically and gradually bring the temperature back to
the proper point without permitting it to reach a dangerous point on either side of the
hatching degree. A very little patience, and a knowledge of the fact that a fluctuation of
several degrees, (if not too long maintained), will not injure the hatch in the least, will
save you a great deal of annoyance on that score.” (Homan).

‘Tf at any time before the tenth day you find the thermometer registering 101 1-2 or
102 degrees, say in three hours after you have attended to the machine, it is all right.

POULTRY-CRAFT. 174

Don’t try to force the temperature up, as it will incline to raise rather than lower, unless
the room in which you have the machine is very cold; but on the contrary, if the
machine goes up to 103 degrees, and is going over that point, you will have to adjust the
regulator a /ttle.” (McFetridge).

256. Ventilation and Moisture.— The egg chamber requires to be
ventilated, that the gases generated in the eggs may be promptly thrown off.
The currents of air created by ventilation may cause a more rapid evaporation
of the fluids of the egg than takes place in natural incubation. Some
operators use no moisture, some none until the seventeenth or eighteenth day,
some @ J@zttle throughout the hatch. The principle upon which the
application of moisture depends is thus lucidly explained by Cyphers :

‘‘Evaporation from the egg must be held at such a point that the fluids in the
embryonic structures are ample to keep the membranes moist up to the time of exclusion,
and the rate of evaporation is not the same under any two degrees of temperature. Eggs
may be successfully incubated under a temperature that will exclude the chick by the
beginning of the nineteenth day, or under one that will not exclude the chick until the
twenty-second. ‘The most vigorous chicks will be produced when the eggs are incubated
under a temperature that will ripen the embryo by the close of the twentieth day; and any
variation from this temperature will proportionately affect the vitality of the chicks and
lower the percentage of the hatch. If we have a rate of evaporation to balance the
temperature for a twenty-day exclusion, this rate of evaporation will not answer for a
nineteen or a twenty-one-day —there being too great an amount of evaporation for a
nineteen-day, and too little for a twenty-one-day. In neither case will many of the eggs
hatch, but if we supply more humidity (the rate of movement of the air remaining the
same) for a nineteen-day, and less for a twenty-one-day exclusion, we will have a chance
fora fair hatch. If we have a degree of humidity to balance a twenty-day exclusion, and
then raise or lower the temperature half a degree, it will injuriously affect the hatch,
while a greater variation will ruin it. A constant variation of a degree in temperature
will have no injurious effect, but if the temperature is permanently raised or lowered a
degree, the atmospheric conditions for a twenty-day exclusion will not answer.

‘“Tt has been universally believed that evaporation from the eggs could only be con-
trolled by controlling the humidity of the air in the hatching chamber. The humidity of
the air is but one controlling factor, however, as with the same degree of humidity
evaporation will be slow or rapid according to the rate of movement of the air, while it
is not the same under any two degrees of temperature; and the constant variation in these
two factors is the cause of the extremely varying results. With a due appreciation of
these facts, artificial incubation should be more successfully prosecuted in the future than
it has been in the past.

‘“ Evaporation is mainly influenced by the rate of movement of the air within the
hatching chamber, and secondarily by the degree of humidity. The rate of movement of
the air is controlled by the area and location of the ventilating openings and temperature
of the outer atmosphere. The degree of humidity cannot be maintained constant when
maintaining a constant movement of the air, and it is not necessary that it should be.
The first consideration is to secure a constant rate of movement, and then keep the air
from becoming too dry. This is practically all that is necessary in supplying humidity
when the rate of movement of the air is maintained constant.”

Cyphers’ rules for ventilating, applying specially to bottom ventilation, will
not be given here. His method is to adjust the ventilation to keep the air

178 SONG HI Wa CLA IA TE

pure, then ascertain by experiment the amount of moisture needed to maintain
proper evaporation. The simplest method of determining the exact quantity
of moisture necessary is by testing the eggs. According to Boyer:

‘“« The air cell on the fifth day should measure about
a quarter of an inch; on the tenth day, a half an inch;
on the fifteenth day, about five-eighths of an inch;
and about three-quarters of an inch on the nineteenth
day,— the measurement taken in the middle of the
egg. Such air cells indicate the proper amount of
moisture; if less than that, too much moisture is
given; if more, there is a lack of moisture.”

257. Turning the Eggs.—

‘The eggs should be turned twice a day up to the nine-
teenth day.* If this is not done, many of the germs will
dry fast to the shell during the early stages, owing to the
influence of a high temperature and the breaking up of
the arrangement of the albumen, which then allows
the germ to be pressed upward with some force. * * *

Fig. 79. Deen Showing Correct Pro. When the egg is not turned during the later stages of
portions of Air Space at Different Stages of incubation, the embryo does not attain a natural
Incubation. position, and has little chance of being excluded.

(By courtesy of Prairie State Incu. Co.) When turning the eggs during cold weather it should
be done as quickly as possible, so that eggs and chamber lose but little warmth. The
position of the trays should be shifted at least once a day, so as to equalize the heat, as
in no large machine can the eggs be heated sufficiently near a uniform temperature to

warrant leaving them in the same relative position throughout the hatch.” — (Cyphers).

258. Cooling, or Airing, the Eggs.— Some of the highest authorities
disagree on this point. The disagreement when analyzed, seems to be more a
matter of form than of fact. Cyphers maintains that cooling is unnecessary,
and seems to leave the reader to infer that it is objectionable. Campbell and
McFetridge, while admitting that good hatches may be made without cooling
the eggs, assert that better, more vigorous chicks are hatched when the eggs
are properly aired. Campbell’s rule for airing is: ‘* None at all in cold
weather; a great deal in hot weather, with variations to suit between.” The
directions for cooling given by McFetridge are:

Witu A Hor WATER MAcHINE.— Commence to cool on the fourth day. Keep them
out for a few minutes only at first. Always close the doors of a hot water machine, and
cool the eggs outside. (If the doors of a hot water machine are left open, the water in
the tank, which is the source of heat, is cooled). Do this every morning. Toward the
last part of the hatch,— about the seventeenth day,— let them cool twenty minutes with
the temperature of the room about 60 degrees.t

* NoTE.—Some operators do not begin turning unti! after the fourth day, but all authorities are agreed as to the
necessity of turning from that time up to the nineteenth day, and that after the nineteenth day they should not be
turned.

t Nore.— As to the rate at which eggs will cool, Cyphers says: —‘‘ Under the influence of an atmospheric

TAO GLE ME 1 CLEA Ts 179

Witn A Hor Air MAcHINE.— Cool the eggs by leaving the doors open with the eggs
in the machine. Never cool below 85 degrees. Don’t cool down to 85 degrees every
time — in general to 90 or 92 degrees. * * * With the hot air machine I cool the eggs in
the evening; and in a room where the temperature is about 60 degrees, on the sixteenth
day and after, leave the door open as long as twenty minutes. Sometimes on the
nineteenth day I leave the door open for nearly an hour. * * The proper time to cool
eggs is when they are turned. In cooling a hot air machine, say for instance, twenty
minutes, always open the door for ten minutes before and ten minutes after turning.

Testing Eggs —see J 239.

259.. When the Chicks are Hatching.— Instructions which state that a
machine is to be kept closed while a hatch is in progress, are not to be under-
stood as meaning that under no circumstances is the door to be opened ;— only
that the door is not to be opened unnecessarily — out of mere idle curiosity.
Most machines have glass doors, through which the progress of the hatch may
be watched, and the need, if such exist, of intervention from the operator, be
discovered. What to do when chicks are hatching, is thus briefly and fully
stated by Campbell :

““To get out the largest possible number of chicks, I wait until quite a lot of the shells
are pipped; then I open the machine, and as rapidly as possible turn all the pips up, and
piace the eggs as close to the door as possible. Those which pip in the air cell, are safe;
those which pip below, very often choke at once if not turned up; prompt turning up
will save most of them. If the weather is cold this turning up process is done only
twice; if hot, it can be done as often as desired. Then when they begin to come out keep
an eye on them, and all that can turn around and break through both shell and membrane
will get out best if let alone. Those which turn and do not break through every time
they move, are very apt to smother. All such need help by simply pulling off the top
part of the shell to give them air, and then let them come out. This must never be done
until the chick is struggling to get out; neither must the trays be pulled out. Open the
door and reach in, and work as quickly as possible. * * * Many operators make
mistakes in removing the chicks from the egg chamber. If the day is hot and close the
chicks will suffer very much after they become dry if too many are out at once. If they
are all removed in a cold day the heat will drop too suddenly for what are stili to come
out. Myrule is to remove them as soon as dry if they pant; but if it is cold I only
remove a few at a time, as they become too much crcwded for comfort.”

260. Brooding Young Chicks.— It is often said that hatching chicks is
comparatively easy; to successfully rear them, is the difficult thing. There
might be less seeming foundation in fact for this statement if a larger per cent
of the chicks hatched artificially were really f7¢ to live when taken from the
machine. ‘There are chickens and chickens.

The chicks are generally left in the incubators for from fifteen to twenty-
four hours after hatching. They are then removed to brooders, as described
in § 46—48. Points on feeding brooder chicks are given in § 146, 16 —20.
temperature of 65 degrees, the eggs, during the early stages of incubation, will lose one degree each two minutes.
Under an atmospheric temperature of 35 degrees, they will lose more than a degree a minute. In the latter stage of

incubation, when the egg has in itself a source of heat, the rate of loss is lower, and consequently the egg cools more
slowly in a given temperature.”

180 POULTRY-CRAFT.

The impression is gaining ground among experts that the most important
thing in brooding chicks, is the temperature ; that a wrong temperature has
been responsible for many troubles attributed to food or other causes. The
mistake most often made has been, keeping the brooders too warm. On this
point Boyer says:

‘‘ Begin the heat at 90 degrees, and keep it as near that as possible for the first week or
ten days. Then gradually reduce until (after the chicks are removed to the large brooder )
they become accustomed to a temperature ot 70 degrees, which should be when about
three weeks of age. What a mistake to begin at 100 degrees, and thus compel the little
ones to endure torture, instead of comfort. This high temperature is what makes weak
and delicate chicks. * * * Thermometers can and should be used to determine the heat;
but after the chicks are made to ‘feel at home,’ a better sign that all is well is the manner
in which the chicks act. If, when closing up the house for the night, it will be seen that
the little ones are stretched out on their brooder floor, with their bills buried in the sand,
we know that nothing more can be done for them; everything is right. If, on the other
hand, they crowd up together, unsettled, there is not enough warmth. Or, if they sit
with their mouths open, the heat is too great.”

Brooder chicks must be confined more closely than chicks with hens, but
should still have fresh air and outdoor exercise, especially if they are to be
reared for stock birds. ,

The brooder house, of whatever style, must be ventilated. In this the same
principles apply as in ventilating houses for adult fowls, with the difference
that the amount of cold air admitted to the house must be very much less,
because it is necessary to keep the house for young chicks warmer. ‘The rule
in this, as in determining the temperature in nursery brooders and under hovers,
must be the condition and conduct of the chicks —the house must be kept com-
fortable for them to run about in, and warm enough to keep the temperature
under the hovers up to the required degree.

261. Preventing the Common Ailments of Chicks.— The ailments
most common to young chicks under both systems of management, are ‘‘ bowel
trouble,” ‘* cramps,” ‘¢ roup,” ‘* drooping wings,’’ which terms cover a multi-
tude of greater and lesser ills. Sometimes the real origin of a trouble is in the

condition of the parent stock. Sometimes the keeper is directly at fault.
Often a poultryman uses a dangerous diet or method for years without bad
results —if his treatment is on the whole good; but eventually it is going to
cause trouble. When ‘‘ bowel trouble,” * ‘‘roup,” or ‘‘ drooping wings ”
prevail in a flock in a mild form, they should yield to good care, proper food,

b)

and simple remedies. If they have become acute, it is better to kill chicks
affected — though in doing so the entire lot be cleaned out.

‘“BowEL TrousLEe” is due to sloppy foods, some kinds of rich foods,
chills, colds, over-heating, etc. It can be checked in the beginning by keeping
the chicks warm — zo¢ hot —indry quarters, at a uniform temperature, giving

* NorE.— For more correct descriptions of all these complaints, see the chapter on
diseases.

POULTRI-CRAFT. ISI

rather dry food, and boiled milk to drink. The chicks ought not to be allowed
to reach the stage of being ‘‘ gummed up behind” before treatment is begun ;
nor should the treatment be carried so far that it will bring on the opposite
constipation. Even in the best lots there will be from time to time
isolated cases of this; but with right conditions it cannot become epidemic.

evil

‘¢ Roup,” colds, and kindred ailments, are due to dampness, exposure, filthy
quarters, over-crowding. Wrong conditions should be corrected, and such
remedies used as are prescribed for hens in 4 174.

‘‘CRAmps” are often nothing more than the death struggles of chicks that
have been ailing for some time. The cramps which kill healthy chicks in a
short time are mostly caused by drinking too heartily of very cold water, by
choking, or by extreme heat of the sun when the chicks are not hardened
tO) it.

‘*Droopinc WuincGs” are due to general debility, which may result from
any one, or from several of a great variety of causes. The chick simply lacks
strength to hold itself together properly, exect would be said of a human being.
The fault is most noticeable in Leghorn chicks, but is common in poor con-
ditioned chicks of all varieties. Prevention must begin in the condition of the
parents, and continue in the management of the chicks. Proper food and care ©
will correct the trouble if not of too long standing. Chicks which have been
going about long with drooping wings, are not worth trying to cure or rear.

262. Keeping the Chicks Growing. — Success with chicks requires
that they be kept constantly growing from the shell to maturity. The slightest
check is a loss that cannot be made good. Growing chicks is exacting work.
One must get up early in the morning (unless he adopts the method of the
breeder who said it was not necessary to get up early, if one sat up late enough
planning how to get the work done without early rising). The beginner
cannot expect to do uniformly good work. With the best of instruction,
advice, and attention, mistakes will sometimes occur. To do everything as
and when it ought to be done, requires greater familiarity with the work than
any one can reach in one or two seasons.

263. Weaning Chicks.— No definite age can be given as the right one
at which to wean chicks. The condition of the stock and of the weather must
guide. Chicks should remain with hens or in brooders as long as they need
or are likely to need heat in addition to that generated in their own bodies.
Early in the season they need some heat until ten or twelve weeks old. They

“may not die without it, but exposure to a temperature so low that they huddle
together, will always retard growth. Chicks reared by hens may be left in the
coops, only the hen being removed, as long as they are not too crowded at
night. In coops as shown in Fig. 44, they will generally roost on top of the
coop or lie outside on the ground as soon as it becomes uncomfortable inside.
One of the best methods of handling weaned chicks is in coops of the

182 POGTEARAZ ERAT es

style shown in Fig. 46. In these they can be colonized until the time comes
for putting them into winter quarters. When removed to these coops, they
should be confined to, and fed in them, for a few days, until they will return
to them when let out. Directions for feeding are giving in 4 146, 21—28.
Beyond keeping the coops clean, supplying food and water regularly, clos-
ing the coops at night, and opening them in the morning, the chicks now
should need no care—even the closing and opening of coops may be
omitted if there is no danger of their being molested at night.

264. Teaching Chicks to Roost.— Chicks of Leghorn and other light
weight breeds will begin roosting of their own accord when six or eight weeks
old. Chicks of the heavier breeds often do not roost until taught to do so by
the keeper. The general practice is to keep chicks of medium sized breeds on
the floor until about three months old, and chicks of the largest breeds for a
month or two longer. Unless the floor is kept clean and the chicks well
bedded, it is better to teach all to roost early. If suitable wide roosts are used
there is no more danger of crooked breasts than, on the floor, and many poul-
trymen think the general advantages of getting the youngsters on the roosts
where they cannot crowd and huddle in corners, and are not soiled by their
own and each otner’s droppings, more than compensate for what keel bones
are twisted.

Often chicks can be taught to roost by putting in low roosts and placing
with them one or two old hens or chicks that are in the habit of roosting. If
this plan cannot be tried, or does not work, a wide board should be placed
close to the wall, about a foot from the ground, and the chicks placed on it
after dark, night after night, until they will go to it of their own accord.
After that, a wide roost the regulation distance from the wall, may be substi-
tuted for the board.

265. Separating the Sexes.— When the chicks are weaned the cock-
erels and pullets of the more precocious breeds should be separated. The
slow maturing breeds may be allowed to run together for four or five months
if it is not convenient to keep them apart; but in any case the separation
should be made at a relatively early age — before the cockerels begin to annoy
the pullets. If the young males can be put where they never see a fowl of
the opposite sex, they live together more peaceably, and develop better. There
is not often any difficulty in distinguishing the sexes when the time comes for
separating them. Once in a while there is a cockerel which looks more like
a female than a male at that age; but such a bird is not likely to annoy the ~
pullets, and if put with the cockerels may be buffeted about a great deal.

266. Rearing Chicks in Confinement.— Chicks reared specially for
market are always kept quite closely confined, that all food eaten may go to
the production of flesh; but there is a feeling among poultry raisers that stock

SOWIE, TIS NOTA AIL 183

chicks should be given range while growing. The bald fact that chicks are
confined, or not confined, counts for nothing either way. Unquestionably the
most favorable condition for obtaining the best development at least expense,
is found where the chicks have a range which furnishes them a considerable
part of their food —all green food and insect food, and seeds in variety — with-
out their foraging so far that too much of what is eaten is expended in muscular
energy. This condition depends on quite small flocks being widely separated,
and is found much less often than is generally supposed; for most people who
give their chicks range expect them to forage over a considerable area, and.
indeed, compel them to do so; sometimes intentionally by withholding food +
sometimes unintentionally by neglecting to give a variety of food. The
method of colonizing the growing stock generally gives range only in name,
for there are so many placed on so small an area (and often so little forage on
the ground) that the amount of food each chick gets by foraging is insignifi-
cant. It is, therefore, necessary to feed quite as much and as often as if they
were confined in bare yards. The real advantage of the method is its cheap-
ness and convenience, not the superiority of the stock produced by it. The
coops cost little. No fences are used. The chicks are reared outside of the
winter quarters (occupied by adult stock the year round) and thus the old stock
is not crowded out at sacrifice prices to make room for the young ones — and
can be worked off seasonably, gradually, and profitably.

Not all poultry keepers are so situated that they can give their young stock
range even by colonizing. This need not deter them from rearing chicks, nor
need they think it impossible to rear as good chicks as those who give the
youngsters range. Just as good chicks can be reared in confinement (rather
close confinement, at that) — as on the best range ; —if the keeper will avoid
crowding, keep them free from lice, keep their quarters clean, feed a liberal
well balanced ration judiciously, and give opportunity for such exercise as is
given laying hens and breeding stock in confinement — but less of it compul-
sory. Indeed, when the stock runs well up in the hundreds, confinement is a
much better plan than colonizing with the flocks so near together that they
can— and consequently do — feed as one flock; for in large flocks the chicks
are crowded, (crowd each other), no matter how much room they have. The
question of giving the growing stock range is just a question of opportunity
and convenience. If one can give them the right kind of range, that is a very
great advantage fo hem. If one must keep them confined, he is handicapped
to some extent, but not so badly that he cannot get results as good as the best,
—only he must work harder for it.

267. Culling the Growing Stock.—In breeding poultry for market
exclusively, culling proper is not practiced. The chicks are merely sorted,
the marketable ones taken as needed —the others left until better grown. In
breeding laying stock, a very few of the choicest cockerels may be reserved
for breeding purposes; the rest should be marketed at the age when they will
bring most profit. The culling of the pullets extends only to marketing poorly

184 POOL LRA CRATE:

developed specimens and those showing defects likely to diminish their future
usefulness. In breeding thoroughbred stock, proper culling is of great
importance. It is not often that a poultryman has such superabundance of
room that it will pay him to keep inferior specimens until grown. The
economic aspects of the question will be considered in the next chapter.
Here comment will be limited to suggestions as to the selection of the poorer
specimens.

There are five classes of defects to be considered in culling : —

(1). DeErormrTIEs, which are constitutional and ineradicable. These are
not always noticeable in very young chicks, and those that are noticed then
may be of such character that they do not affect table qualities. Chicks so
deformed, should be allowed to live until large enough to be eaten, and no longer.

(2). GENERAL WEAKNESS AND WoRTHLESSNESS, which may be consti-
tutional, or may be due to mismanagement affecting particular chicks more
than others. These chicks are simply spoiled in the growing. It is useless
to try to make good stock of them.

(3). BLeEmisHEs (according to the Standard) WuicH ARE IRREMEDIABLE.
Of this class are such faults as feathered legs on chicks. of clean legged
breeds, scantily feathered legs in full feathered varieties, color faults that will
not be outgrown, radical departures from typical shape. Birds thus defective
are not worth keeping for stock birds; but many of the pullets may be
reserved for layers zf there zs room for them, and if they can be used or sold
as such; otherwise, the quicker they go to market the more profitable they are.

(4). BremisHes Wuico May BE OutcGrown— such color defects as
white in the flights of black chicks, red in white ear lobes,— or the reverse, —
poor muscular development on big framed chicks, scant plumage on chicks
with good bone and muscle, etc.

(5). Faurtts Wuicu (to the uneducated taste) APPEAR TO BE EXCEL-
LENCIES. * The most conspicuous example of this kind,—really the only one
of importance,— is premature attainment of the symmetry of a mature fowl.
This fault is frequently met in all varieties. It is an accompaniment of
precocity. The symmetrical chicks are at first much more attractive than
their less precocious companions, and the novice is apt to think he has a
when he has only a miserable runt, as he finds when all are

?

‘¢ world beater,’
matured.

The beginner cannot practice very close culling, for it requires a few years
of watching chicks as they grow, and noting the changes as they approach
maturity, to enable him to know the defects which will be outgrown, and
those which will increase. Each year, however, he should cull closer and
closer, both in selecting for the breeding yard, and in handling the growing
stock.

POGLLRANE RAE. 185

268. Caponizing.— The question of the profitableness of caponizing
cannot be settled for all classes of poultry keepers, in all sections of the
country, on the same basis. Such matters have a way of gradually adjusting
themselves to conditions. There can be no doubt that the practice of caponiz-
ing is growing. It seems at present equally clear that caponizing is being
found profitable mostly in sections where grain is cheap, and is gaining favor
more among farmers than among poultrymen. The reasons for this seem
clear. The special poultry farmer, with limited accommodations, and under
the necessity of buying food for his stock, cannot afford to keep on hand any
considerable quantity ot stock that is not earzzzg something to swell his
current income. He makes more by devoting his space and time to laying
hens than he could by buying grain to feed to capons; but with the general
farmer it is otherwise. He has not the special facilities needed to handle
many early chicks, and therefore cannot always get his surplus cockerels to
market while they will bring good prices as broilers or soft roasters. The
food consumed by a fowl costs him comparatively little, even when he feeds
salable grain. If instead of marketing ‘his cockerels when, at five or six
pounds each, they would bring him only a few dollars a dozen, he can
caponize them, and with twenty or thirty cents worth of corn, (or, even
using a more costly grain), he can produce capons which will weigh ten or
twelve pounds when the market is at its best, and may then net him twelve
to sixteen cents a pound, he can make cockerels every bit as profitable as
pullets.

The demand for nice large capons is constantly increasing — small ones are
salable, but do not bring the best prices. The supply now comes chiefly
from Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa,—all great grain growing and poultry
producing states.

The operation of caponizing is not particularly difficult. To perform it,
instruments specially made for the purpose are required. These can be
found advertised in poultry journals, and as full instructions for operating, and
for the care of the birds before and after the operation, are furnished with
each set of instruments, the details of the operation need not be given here.
The operation, of course, requires skill, which comes only with practice.
The per cent of loss of birds caponized by a skilled operator, is small. The
large breeds make the best capons. Chicks not capable of making large
growth are hardly worth caponizing. The operation is performed at two or
three months — preferably before the comb begins to develop.

186 PO GLLRAAE ATT.

CHAPTER XII.

Selling Poultry and Eggs.
SELLING MARKET EGGS AND TABLE POULTRY.

269. The Poultry Crop Does Not Move Itself. — The saying: ‘* Good
poultry sells itself,” originated among the marketmen, the mzddlemen. It
may be true for dealers who display their wares daily in public places. It is
not always true for the ordinary producer: — not without qualifications, and,
especially, not in the beginning. To sell to best advantage; to dispose of
different products at just the right time; to get the best possible returns for
everything produced, usually requires thought, foresight, and some energetic
hustling for custom. The instances where a poultry keeper’s product, how-
ever small, is well sold with little effort on his part, are comparatively rare.
Even when his surplus is sold a¢ the door, he needs to give some thought to
market conditions, and keep informed of fluctuations in prices; for however
honest the buyer may be, the interests of buyer and seller in the same transac-
tion cannot be identical, and the buyer, as is natural and right, looks after
his own interest frst.

270. From Producer to Consumer.— There are several ways of dis-
posing of goods. They may go from producer to consumer direct, at first
hand; or, by longer and more devious channels, through many hands. The
farmers’ wives sell their eggs and fowls to collectors going about the country
with wagons, or trade them for supplies at the grocery store or meat market,
or sell them to families in the nearest town. The keepers of a few dozen hens
sell their small surpluses to neighbors, or barter them at the stores. The
business poultryman sells direct to private families, or to hotels, or to
retailers who want choice stock; or, if he has not succeeded in getting such
customers for his products, or finds it more to his interest to give all his time
to producing, and let others sell for him —for some good poultrymen are very
poor salesmen; and sometimes a commission house can handle a poultryman’s
product more profitably for him than he can for himself, — ships all his stuft
to a commission merchant. The producer has to settle for himself which way
of disposing of goods will pay him best. It is a question of local market con-
ditions, personal circumstances, and the kind of business done,— whether
large or small, and what special combination of the different branches of
poultry culture has been made.

POULTRY-CRAFT. 187

271. Good Stock is Sometimes Hard to Sell.— This, those who have
something to sell only at irregular intervals soon find out. A man may go
into the best market in the world with a first class article in good demand at
the time, and experience some difficulty in getting rid of it; because while the
supply as a whole is unequal to the demand, very many buyers will have all
they need, and no sale will be made until a consumer is found who has not
been supplied. One condition of selling to the best trade is to be able to
supply stuff regularly. The producer who can do that, having sold one lot
that gives satisfaction, finds that this sale brings him a standing order.

272. When to Sell Eggs.— As a rule, producers realize most on eggs
by selling them while strictly fresh. Not one ina thousand is in a position to
preserve eggs, or could make anything by doing so if he were. The profit
on preserved eggs is for those able to handle them in large quantities, by the
best cold storage methods. Perhaps the only time it is to the producer’s
interest to hold eggs for higher prices, is when prices are rapidly going up.
Then it may be worth while to hold any not needed for a regular trade for a
week or so—not so long that they cannot be honestly sold as fresh eggs — to
get the few cents per dozen he would gain by holding them. One who is
supplying a regular trade, especially family trade, should give his customers
all they want at current prices, regardless of the few dollars possible profit to
be made by holding them back. It pays to favor good customers a little when
eggs are high. There comes a season, every year, when eggs are plenty and
cheap, and what favors are going come from the customer.

273. How Eggs are Sentto Market.— Eggs in quantity are shipped
mostly in thirty-dozen cases, (though thirty-six dozen cases are sometime
wsed).0 ouch cases are put up for sale in knock-down bundles. There are
several styles. The cheaper ones, with pasteboard fillers, are most used.
For small lots of eggs, half-cases, or cases holding ten dozen each, are often
used. For the family trade, which takes only two or three dozen eggs at a
time, pasteboard boxes of suitable sizes are desirable. Such boxes can be
purchased of paper box manufacturers, or of dealers in poultrymen’s supplies.
They are very convenient for delivering eggs from wagons; are sometimes
used to deliver market eggs by express, though the proportion of transporta-
tion to value on such small packages is too large for the practice to become
general. However sold, eggs should be c/ean, and assorted according to size
and color. One should never attempt to work off the small eggs with the
others. If there are more than can be used at home, they should be sold for
what they are—cull eggs. Everywhere medium to large eggs sell best.
The preferences of different localities for eggs of different colors, were given

in § 101.

274. Shipping Eggs to Commission Merchants.— There are many

188 SAONWGL, ICTR HE CIRAIGT.

poultry keepers, farmers especially, who could ship one or more cases of eggs
weekly, and would like to send them to one of the larger markets, and get a
little better price than they can from local buyers, if they could sell through
a reliable commission house. Small shippers, who cannot make personal
investigation of the standing of the parties to whom they consign goods, are
inclined to be shy of commission merchants; and not without reason, for they
and their neighbors have lost again and again through commission merchants
of the here today and there tomorrow variety, who offer them big inducements
to ship goods, and then fail to make returns on shipments received; but
there are plenty of reliable commission merchants, and in all the large cities
there are firms well known by reputation to all readers of poultry papers, to
which the small shipper may send his goods with full confidence that he will
be treated fairly, and receive every cent due him. Nearly always the large
houses are glad to get even small shipments of first class stock, if they are
sent regularly — irregular consignments they do not care so much about. In
establishing relations with such houses, the best method is to send a sample
shipment, at the same time stating the quantity that could be shipped
regularly. The best time to begin doing business with these firms is when
eggs are not very plentiful. Having eggs to ship when eggs are scarce is, in
the eyes of the commission man, one of the best recommendations the shipper
can have. He feels from the first that this man is to be depended on for
regular shipments; while he is always uncertain about those who are ready to
begin when eggs are plenty, for his experience has been that in a very short
time most of them fail him.

275. When to Sell Poultry.—In producing poultry specially for
market, one ought to aim to have as much as possible of the product market-
able when prices are best, and to have everything sold before prices reach a
point too low for profit. There is some demand for poultry throughout the
year; but the demand for chzéckens is so much lighter between August and
February than during the remainder of the year, that the producer’s profit,
on stuff sold in the fall and early winter, (except on extra choice stock), is
small.

The érocler season is from February to September, prices being good
throughout that period, and at their best in April and May. Many of the
broilers shipped in September, October, and November, are put in cold stor-
age and held until the beginning of the next season. The market for roasters
is most active throughout December, January, and February; but better prices
are obtained in May, June, and July, when, though the demand is more
limited, the supply is much more limited. Capons are in demand from
December to May, inclusive, and bring best prices at the close of the season.

The egg farmer marketing his cockerels and cull pullets, and the breeder
of pure-bred poultry disposing of his culls, can hardly —if their chicks are
seasonably hatched for their purposes— get the top prices for much of what

POUL TRY-CRAFT. 189

poultry they have to market, but still can get very good prices. One of the
worst mistakes in marketing poultry is made by those who hold their stuff
until cold weather, selling it about the holiday season, after having fed it sev-
eral months longer, for less than it would have brought in July and August.
That practice is a relic of a by-gone age is poultry culture. If it will not pay
to caponize the cockerels they should be sold as well as possible while the
prices are still fairly good. ;

276. What the Market Wants, and What It Does Not Want.—
‘* Now by first class stock we mean well fatted, so that the breast bone does
not stick out like the keel to a boat; yellow meated, well dressed, cleanly
picked, not roughed all up or torn, no pin-feathers left in, nor the legs and
feet left dirty. Such stock, if packed to present a neat and inviting appear-
ance, will command good prices nine or ten months in the year.”

‘* We call particular attention to the fact that our quotations are for first
quality, quick grown, straight breasted, yellow meated, plump stock.
Stunted chickens several months (too) old, hump-backed, white meated, and
crooked breasted, are not wanted. We have very little call for such stock at
any price * * * and the returns made for it will be discouraging to the

shipper.” (W. H. Rudd, Son & Co.’s circular).

277. Sizes and Weights Preferred.— Arozlers should weigh from
one and one-fourth to two pounds each, the lighter weights being in demand
from January to July, the heavier for the remainder of the year. Broilers
weighing three-fourths of a pound each, called ‘squab broilers,” have for
some time been used in parts of Europe, to take the place of small game, and
there is a growing, though still limited, demand for them in this country.
They are in demand only through January, February, and the early part of
March. Roasters range from five pounds per pair early in the season to ten
and twelve pounds per pair in the fall and early winter; quality being equal,
the largest birds bring the best prices per pound.

In capons birds weighing about six pounds each command readiest sale;
but larger birds, nine, ten pounds and more, bring better prices.

Flens weighing four to five pounds each, sell better than either larger or
smaller stock.

N. B.— The above weights are all for dressed poultry.

278. Selling Poultry Through Commission Merchants. — The large
commission houses in the cities furnish shippers full instructions for dressing,
packing, and shipping poultry to their market, and also keep large shippers
informed of the fluctuations in prices and condition of the market. The
requirements for different markets vary; some cities use proportionately
much more live poultry than others; capons bring relatively better prices
in some cities than in others, etc. Ifa poultryman had located with reference

190 ROGEURA= ORAL:

to a particular market, he would, of course, have produced as nearly as he
could to meet the demand in that market. When it is a question of one
already located finding the best market, he needs to study markets thoroughly,
and, perhaps, send trial shipments to several different places before he decides
where to sell. Transportation facilities decide the shipping question for many
producers.

In shipping to commission houses, in the smaller cities, which do not
furnish instructions to shippers; and to provision dealers; and in preparing
poultry for special family or hotel trade, the Zoca/ requirements of the leading
markets in the vicinity should be observed. It is especially for this class of
shippers that complete instructions for marketing are given here.

279. Shipping Live Poultry. — Poultry of all kinds can be shipped
alive during about half the year, from April to October, and, for short distance
shipments, will net the shipper quite as much as if dressed. In fact, if he is
inexpert in preparing fowls for market, good live fowls would bring him more
than he would get for the same fowls, poorly dressed. Through the late fali
and winter months, when dressed poultry is easily kept, live fowls are not
much in demand. Commission men strictly warn their shippers against send-
ing live fowls at winter holiday seasons, as at such times they have to be sold
on the market for whatever they will bring, and may not realize enough to
pay expenses of transportation and sale.

_ Live fowls are shipped mostly by express,
in slatted coops, each holding from one to
two dozen grown fowls, and of chickens a
jlarger number, according to size. Over-
crowding is to be avoided, both because of
its inhumanity, and for economical reasons ;
it is not right, and it does not pay. Crowded

Fig. 80. Slatted Coop for Shipping Live fowls lose in weight, and also in quality of
Poultry to Market. fe eca)h

280. Dressing Poultry.— There are two methods of dressing poultry:
dry picking, and scalding. ‘The first is used generally in the east, and used
everywhere in dressing poultry specially for the best trade in the eastern
markets ; the second is used generally throughout the west and south, in prepar-
ing poultry for the markets of those sections. A few dealers in some of the
eastern cities will not receive scalded poultry at all. In some places it is hard to
sell, but in most places, even when the dry picked stock is given preference,
scalded stock of good quality finds ready sale at satisfactory prices. In western
markets scalded stock sells best for the home trade; yet the large commission
houses prefer dry picked stock; for, as a very large part of the poultry sent to
market must be shipped east to find consumers, the dry picked stock can be
handled to best advantage.

FOGLE LARA CLATLM: 1QI

281. Fowls Must Fast Before Being Killed —that when killed the crop
and intestines may be empty. No food should be given for at least twelve
hours previous to killing, and a longer fast — eighteen to twenty-four hours —
is desirable. i

282. The Killing is Done by Bleeding in the mouth or neck with a
sharp knife. (Knives made specially for poultry killing can be procured).
It used to be the practice to stun the bird by striking on the head or back with
a stick before bleeding. This was discontinued because when stunned the
birds did not always bleed properly. Bleeding in the mouth is the method
most favored, because the cut is hidden, and thus the carcass is more sightly.
As it is the more difficult way, one who is uncertain of his ability to do it
right, should bleed in the neck the fowls he kills to sell until by practice on
fowls to be used at home, he has become expert in bleeding in the mouth.

The method of making the cut, is thus described by Boyer : —

‘The bird’s legs are fastened to a stout cord suspended from the ceiling, anda hogs-
head or barrel is placed underneath to catch the blood and feathers. Then the operator
gets in front of the bird, placing it under his left arm; * * runs the knife back in the
mouth, and then bringing it a little forward, cuts crosswise, severing an artery. The
mouth, during the operation, is held open with the fingers of the left hand. Great care
is taken not to cut too much, for fear of the bird dying before the feathers are all
removed, in which case it would be difficult to pick.”

All operators do not make the cut in the same way. Cooper says:

‘Make a sharp cut dexgthwése in the mouth, to make them bleed; then a slot upwards,
which penetrates the brain.”

McFetridge :

‘‘ Have a weight, say two pounds, with hook attached, to fasten in the chicken’s lower
beak to keep the head steady, and over the barrel. With a sharp knife make a cut
crossing at the base of the brain inside the mouth; then turn the knife blade and make
a deep cut in the roof of the mouth into the brain.”

Novices can take their choice of these methods. Each will settle on that
which comes handiest to him.

283. Dry Picking.— In dry picking the feathers are removed while the
bird is still alive (though paralyzed). The success of picking by this method
depends on removing @d/ the feathers while the bird ts bleeding. In dressing
broilers, the pin-feathers and stubs must be removed afterwards with the fingers
and a small knife. When the bird is perfectly clean, the blood is washed from
the mouth and throat, and the carcass is placed in cold water, to which a little
salt has been added, and allowed to remain there for several hours, until
thoroughly cooled. it is then taken from the water and hung up to dry before
being packed.

284. Scalding.—In scalding the success of the operation depends en
having the water at the right temperature — as near boiling as it can be — and
yet not boil,—and getting all the feathers to be removed thoroughly and

192 PO GLE TRA ACATL Ms:

quickly wet. If the water is not hot enough the feathers are not loosened, and
are removed with difficulty; if it is too hot, the skin is partly cooked, and the
carcass when cold is blotched and discolored. The legs are dry picked before
scalding. The bird, held bythe legs azd head, that the comb may not be
discolored and the eyes shrunk by the scalding water —is plunged into the
water several times (sowsed) that the water may thoroughly saturate the
feathers. Then the feathers are removed as quickly as possible. When
clean, the carcass is plumped by being plunged for a few seconds in very hot
water, then, immediately in cold water. In warm weather it should be cooled
as described for dry picked fowls, in water; in cold weather it may be hung
up to cool.

285. A Few Important Points.— Whichever method is used, the
appearance of the carcass is improved by scalding and skinning the feet.

If the skin is torn in picking, it should be sewed up with common white
thread.

The general rule is to leave heads on and entrails in, but sometimes fowls
shipped in cold weather are headed and drawn — except broilers, which are
never sent to market drawn and headed.

In dressing capons the feathers are left on the neck, tail, wings, and thighs.

The object of cooling is to get the animal heat out of the body as quickly as
possible. Putrefaction begins very early in a warm carcass.

286. Packing Poultry for Shipment.— Poultry should be packed in
boxes or barrels zed with paper, but should not be wrapped in paper; nor
should straw be used in the packing. The packing should be done in such
manner that the carcasses will retain their shape, and will not shift in the
package. The method of packing fowls is

shown in Fig. 81. Some packers pack

Te

broilers also in this way; others pack them

with breasts down on the bottom layer, and
| up on the top layer. Commission men

a W & \ “h
t | iy
ul i

}

HH ‘Nx
ids fi VV Mn | y
\ NGS SAT

Fig 81. Method of Packing Fowls. Fslalas: Gavel Il ber | le d ]
(By courtesy of W. H. Rudd, Son & Co.) e€1g aths inch lum 9eY, and Made a eep enoug a]

advise shippers to use boxes in preference to

barrels for shipping poultry, and recommend

using neat boxes of clean, planed lumber,

uniform in size, because attractive packages

sell better. Boxes should be made of five-

to contain two layers of carcasses. The dimensions of the boxes vary with
the sizes of the fowls, and the number to be placed in each. As giving a
general idea of the proportions to be observed : — one commission house rec-
ommends using boxes 8 x 16 x 22 inches; another, boxes 10 x 20x 30 inches.
Not more than one kind of poultry should be put in a package. The kind and
weight of poultry in the package, and full shipping directions, should be
marked on it.

POCGTETLLEY = CLLATOTE 193

287. Packing Iced Poultry in Warm Weather.—

‘* Leave heads on and entrails in. Strong sound barrels (sugar barrels preferred) are
best for ice packing, and the ice should be washed before using. Place a good layer of
broken ice on the bottom of the barrel, then a layer of poultry, commencing in the middle
and packing in a circle, with heads down, backs up, and feet toward the center; then
alternate iayers of ice and poultry, filling the barrel to within six inches of the top, taking
care to have ice between the poultry and the staves of the barrel; top off with large pieces
of ice, and cover the barrel with bagging, (which insures its being kept right side up),
and mark with brush or stencil. If shipped from any considerable distance, put an extra
large piece of ice on top, and if properly packed, the poultry can be on the road fifty
hours without injury; and if heavily iced and shipped in refrigerator car, can safely be
four or five days in transit; but even for short distances, it is better to use ice, as poultry,
especially if not drawn, packed without it in warm weather, if only for an hour or two,
will turn green across the back, and become almost worthless.” \(W. H. Rudd, Son &
Co.’s instructions to shippers).

288. Shipping Dressed Poultry in Cold Weather.
a great deal of dressed poultry is shipped by freight. Shippers are usually
advised to send small lots going a considerable distance by express, especially
if transfers are to be made en route, because under such conditions small lots
are often delayed, and arrive in poor condition. The greater cost of transpor-
tation by express is more than offset by the better returns received for the
shipment.

In cold weather

289. Hints on Selling Poultry and Eggs to Family Trade. —

Establishing a Route.— A poultryman producing choice goods, can get
better prices by selling direct to the best family trade than a provision dealer
could get from the same people for the same goods. If located near enough
to a large city or town to make regular deliveries, weekly or bi-weekly, one will
often find it most profitable to retail his own produce. A good route is not
established in a day. Into whatever territory one goes, he finds the field
already partially occupied. He has to work for what trade he gets. The
quality which most appeals to the largest number of consumers is cheapness.
The only object a poultryman can have in selling direct to consumers, is to
get the highest price obtainable. He finds some customers ‘‘ ready made;”
but while building up trade, his work is largely in the line of educating
buyers’ tastes to the point where the cheapness of eggs and poultry no longer
appeals to them. This process takes time. The work of building up a
good route of desirable customers whose requirements can be calculated to a
nicety in advance, who buy freely and pay promptly, is not often completed
in less than two or three years.

Regular Deliveries cannot be profitably made oftener than twice a week
when poultry products alone are handled; nor is it to the interest of the pro-
ducer to make them less often. Eggs a week old are too old for this class of
trade. ‘Tuesdays and Fridays—the days defore baking-days —are the best
for delivering eggs,—especially if one has more eggs than his established
trade takes, and desires to extend his route. Most people — when they want

194 POULTRY-CRAFT.

poultry — want it on Saturday (for Sunday), but not nearly all want it every
Saturday — and occasionally they like to vary things by using poultry in the
middle of the week. A few customers will take poultry regularly twice a
week the year round. A good arrangement is to deliver eggs on Friday, at
the same time taking orders for poultry for both Saturday and Tuesday
delivery; make a special delivery of poultry on Saturday; and on Tuesday
a regular delivery, covering the entire route, of eggs and poultry.

Eggs may be packed in large shipping cases, and counted out as wanted, or
put up in small pasteboard boxes made specially for this trade, and often used
also by grocers.

Poultry should be dressed the day before delivering. When cool it should
be weighed, and a small tag with weight marked on it attached to each carcass.
Each order may be separately wrapped in paper, or a covered box can be used
for carrying poultry in the wagon, and the fowls delivered unwrapped. (This
is the better way, for customers generally like to see their poultry when
delivered, and it is easier to keep a damp cloth in the box, and if carcasses are
at all soiled wipe them clean as taken out —than to handle them done up in
paper).

Fowls should be killed only on order :— except that it is a good plan to have
a few extra for possible new customers or for increased orders. Orders should
be for so many fowls of definite weights, and fowls that will make these
weights should be selected for killing. A fowl shrinks, according to size,
about one-fourth to one-half, (or a little over), pound in dressing.

Carcasses should be cooled as thoroughly as if for shipment, that if properly
kept the meat may be at its best when used. It is coming to be better under-
stood that fresh killed poultry lacks the flavor and delicacy of properly
ripened poultry, and it is to the producer’s interest to have the stuff at its
best when eaten.

All goods should be sold for cash on delivery, or cash on presentation of
monthly bills. A poultryman cannot afford to do a credit business.

Selling the Inferior Stock.—The poultry product is never entirely
uniform in quality ; there is always some that cannot be sold to the best trade.
The producer should aim to get proportionately as good a price for his poorer
stock as for his good stock. He cannot afford to let it go for less than the
best price obtainable. Paradoxical as the statement may seem, it is none the
less true that, while a first class family trade must be built up by selling to
that trade only good stock, no small part of the poultryman’s profit depends
on his success in selling his poorer stock. It is often said that anyone at all
can sell good goods, but selling poor goods tests a salesman.

To dispose of a// his product to ées¢ advantage, the producer, while cater-
ing specially to the best trade, must establish a sort of complementary trade
that will take his inferior stock. This trade, by itself, would not be desirable
or profitable, but as accessory to the other, it is worth a great many dollars
in the course of a year. It does not injure the better trade in the least as

POUL TRY-CRAFT. 195

long as all poultry is sold for exactly what it is, and every transaction is open
and above board. If one tries to work off poor stock at the price of good,

or sells the same grade of stock at several prices according to what buyers

are willing to pay, trouble is sure to come of it.

SELLING BREEDING STOCK AND EGGS FOR HATCHING.

290. Advertising is the first step toward making sales of eggs or stock
of pure bred poultry. Without advertising, only a few neighborhood sales
can be made. Advertising in local newspapers does not often pay. The
consensus ‘of opinion among successful advertisers of poultry, is that adver-
tising in other than poultry papers does not pay, though sometimes advertise-
ments in agricultural papers with good poultry departments, bring good
returns.*

How Much to Spend in Advertising —is a perplexing question. It is
sometimes said that an advertiser ought to be satisfied for some time if his
sales from advertising are paying his advertising bills. Not many people,
however, can long afford to pay out good money for advertising which does
not result more substantially than that. If advertising is not bringing in sub-
stantial returns, the advertiser who is in the business for a living must look
for the reason, and find a remedy; for there is no way in which money can
be thrown away faster, and with less hope of its ever coming back again, than
in advertising wrong.

The first thing for a man to do when placing his advertising on a business
basis, is to decide how much he can afford to spend for advertising. If he
has income from other sources, it might pay him to spend for advertising in
the first season 25%, or even 50%, of what he estimates his produce would
bring if fairly well sold; + but if he has no income other than from his poultry,
he cannot afford to plan for an expenditure for advertising to exceed 10% of
his most judicious estimate of sales resulting from advertising. The amount
thus appropriated may seem small; it is the more needful that it be invested
wisely. Slow and sure is as good a rule now as it was when he began to
build, and to buy and breed stock.

The next step is to find out what poultry papers have the best circulation

* NoTE.— Some very notable exceptions to the statement that general advertising does
not pay poultrymen, are worthy of mention. There are a few poultrymen who are both
extensive breeders of and dealers in poultry at popular prices, and these use the leading
magazines, and make it pay.

+ Nore.— Even conservative methods of ‘‘ counting chickens before they are hatched,”
are apt to result in excessive estimates. An expenditure for advertising of 50 per cent of
estimated possible sales, would be likely to turn out 100 per cent of the actual sales; but
if the advertising appropriation had been made on the basis of 100 per cent of estimated
receipts, the poultryman would come out away behind.

196 POULTRY-CRAFT.

in the territory in which one is located. It makes no difference to the adver-
tiser where the paper is published. The circulation is what interests him,
and circulation in territory adjacent to him is what he must value, for he
cannot at first make more than an occasional sale of birds or eggs to be
shipped to a distance.

If it is decided to use a single paper, the wisest move at this stage is to
write the business manager of the paper, stating the amount available for
advertising, and asking advice in placing the sum most advantageously.
Managers of papers of standing and influence willingly give sound advice to
advertisers regarding the kind of advertisement to be used, relative amounts
of space to be used at different seasons of the year, etc.; and the new
advertiser is more likely to be satisfied in the end if he follows the suggestions
given, than if he follows his own ideas. If advertising is to be placed in
several papers, the same course should be taken for each as has been outlined
for one.

If having taken the advice given him, the advertiser does not get the returns
he might reasonably expect, he ought not to find fault with the paper as an
advertising medium, and change at once. The mere insertion of an advertise-
ment in a good medium does not guarantee sales. There is art in advertising.
An advertisement must attract attention. It is not enough to have for sale an
article buyers want; one must tell them so in language which attracts favorable
notice, without in any way conveying a wrong impression of either the breeder
or his stock. Often advertisers complain that their advertisements bring
plenty of inquiries, but they make no sales. In that case the fault is usually
with the advertiser; either he has so worded an advertisement that it attracts
a class of buyers whose orders he cannot fill, or he is unable to sell stock by
correspondence. This last is the trouble with a great many who are unsuc-
cessful advertisers. Some people can write letters that will drive custom
away as fast as ‘¢ ads.” in a dozen papers bring it to them.

In general, a well worded, well placed advertisement in any poultry paper
having a good circulation in his section, will bring a breeder numerous letters
of inquiry; and, though he cannnot expect every inquiry to result in a sale, if
he is prompt in attending to correspondence, writes a fair business letter, and
has the stock to justify his advertising, he will get his share of orders. If
results are unsatisfactory, he cannot justly find fault with the advertising
medium used, unless he finds that its circulation has been misrepresented to
him, or his-advertisement has not been well placed.

When more than one paper is used, advertisements should be ‘‘ keyed,” a
' little different address given in the advertisement in each paper.

In addition to and in connection with his advertising in the poultry papers,
a breeder of Standard stock should aim to exhibit at at least one poultry show
each year. Advertising premiums won is a drawing card. Even though at
first one may miss the premiums, as an exhibitor and regular attendant at
shows, he has a better standing as a breeder than he would otherwise have.

POULTR?-CRAFT. 197

291. The Breeder’s Stationery and Correspondence. —

Czrculars. — It is customary for breeders to issue circulars, describing their
stock more fully than is possible in an advertisement or convenient in a letter,
giving directions for ordering, prices, stating terms, etc. Such a circular is
almost a necessity. A few well known breeders who sell stock of exceptional
quality do not issue circulars, because sales of stock of that class cannot be
made on general descriptions and general statements of prices. The breeder
of ordinary stock who has any considerable amount of it to sell, and can fully
inform possible purchasers of its merits without issuing a circular, is the
exception — the thousandth man. The expense of printing from three to five
hundred circulars (which will be enough for the small breeder to begin with),
is small. If there is not a first class job printing office in the vicinity, it is
better to send the work to one of the offices advertising poultrymen’s printing
as a specialty.

Correspondence Paper and Envelopes should be of good quality, with neat
letter heads and requests to return. Some breeders print their circulars on the
backs of their letter paper, —or, write letters on the backs of their circulars.
This does not look well, nor does it create a good impression. It is never
possible to trace the sales due to neat stationery, but one can easily judge
something of its influence by comparing the impressions made on himself by
the receipt of letters and circulars of varying neatness and quality. The use
of poor, unattractive stationery is the worst recommendation in the world for a
poultryman whose work is supposed to demand in large measure the possession
of genuine good taste.

Circulars should be sent free to all applicants. Each year the custom of
asking stamps for circulars falls more into disuse. It is not bad policy for a
new advertiser to enclose with each circular sent in response to an application,
a brief and courteous letter soliciting patronage.

All correspondents should be promptly and courteously answered ; postal
cards treated as respectfully as sealed letters.

292. Terms of Sales —should be, cash with the order for mail trade;
cash on ‘delivery for local trade. Exceptions should be made only in case of
a customer well known to the breeder, and of whose ability and willingness
to pay he is sure. A poultryman cannot aftord to do a credit business. His
business is carried on under such conditions that the common evils of the
credit system are many times increased, and general credit giving would break
him in a very short time. A beginner whose stock is selling slowly is often
tempted to give credit rather than lose a sale. If he does so, he is likely to
regret it. If he cannot carry the stock he had better sell it as market poultry.
Shipping poultry and eggs C. O. D., is quite as risky as crediting, for a
customer cannot be compelled to take the goods, and if he refuses the shipper
must stand transportation charges both ways, or lose the stock.

293. Selling Stock. — Parts of the observations on buying stock and on
prices of eggs and stock, in Frro, 113 — 114, are so easily adapted to selling,

198 POULTRY-CRAFT.

that their substance need not be repeated here. Those paragraphs should be
re-read in connection with the following remarks, which are more specially
pertinent to the new breeder as a seller of stock.

The beginner, generally, is a poor judge of stock —though generally he does
not thus think of himself. He can make broad distinctions between his best
and his worst, but when it comes to accurately placing values on his mediocre
stock, he is most apt to make mistakes, and in consequence make some bad
blunders in filling orders. Mistakes due to ignorance are often aggravated by
one’s carelessness — pricing or shipping stock without carefully examining it;
sometimes catching birds in the dark, and cooping them almost without
looking at them, — filling orders by.the catch-as-catch-can method. If one is —
frank and straightforward with his customer, such blunders are easily rectified
without injury to either party, and without ill-feeling on either side.

Some breeders prefer to have their stock scored, and sell by, thelsconesmelt
is questionable whether there is any. real advantage in this. Private scoring is
so open to abuses that private scores are generally discredited. The full
responsibility of filling orders educates a seller in values more quickly than
anything else.

One of the most serious mistakes of beginners is selling their best birds.
A breeder — no matter how low down in the ranks — ought never to sell his
best birds, unless he is sure he can replace as many as he needs of them for
less money than these bring him. If he does not keep a little in advance of
his customers, he cannot long hold their trade.

Nearly all new breeders carry too many low class iaalee through the
winter. Males of the quality sold for crossing or grading rarely bring over
$1.50 to $2 each. At such prices it does not pay to carry them until the
beginning of the breeding season, when they will be in demand. Some old
breeders say that it does not pay to winter a male that cannot be sold in the
spring for $5. The new breeder cannot place his limit quite as high as that,
for he cannot at any time get the prices the older breeders get; but if he will
make it a rule to keep over no male which he cannot sell for $2.50 or $3,
one of the worst leaks in his business will be stopped. Pullets of like inferior
quality can be made to pay their way.

An unknown breeder cannot expect to get the prices a breeder of wide
reputation gets for stock of the same quality, as far as appearances show.
At the same time, he ought not to make the mistake of cheapening his stock
and himself by offering goods for less than the ordinary small breeder
gets for similar stock. At first glance it would appear that if one cannot
dispose of most of his eggs for hatching at $2 or $1.50 per sitting, it is better
to sell for 75 cents or even 50 cents, than to eat them; or if he cannot get $3
or $2 for birds well worth those prices, it is better to let them go at $1 for
breeding, than at 50 cents as poultry. Every dime saved this way is a dollar
lost in future sales. The beginner who has good stock should keep his prices

at a fair medium.

SAO GIL TM, MNOTEIANT OIL 199

Orders should be promptly acknowledged, and also promptly filled.

Every customer should be given good value for his money. It is better to
err a little on the side of good measure than to give scant value; but, even in
giving good measure, it is best not to go too far — you cannot afford it.

In quoting prices stock should be honestly described, and faults as well as
excellencies mentioned: they are equally important to the breeder, and it is
only fair to the customer who cannot personally examine birds before order-
ing. The breeder who does this, competing with those who do not accurately
describe their stock, is sure to lose some sales. It is much better to have a
correspondent buy of the other fellow and wish he had bought of you, than
buy of you and wish he had placed his order elsewhere.

In selling stock on approval, the usual understanding is that it may be
returned if not as represented; that is, if it does not answer the description
given, and the buyer can faily claim he has not been sent what he ordered.
Sometimes the special arrangement is that if the stock does not suzdt the
purchaser it may be returned.

294. Shipping High Class Fowls. — Breeding and exhibition fowls are
shipped by express in light coops made of wood, or of wood and canvas.

Fig. 83. Coop for Shipping Fowls to Exhibi-
tion. Same Coop with ordinary Slat Top is often

Fig. 82. Box Coop for Shipping Thoroughbred used for Shipping Fowls to Customers.

Fowls. (By courtesy of F. L. Sewell).

If properly cooped, and provided with food and a cup for water, they can be
safely shipped any distance. Expressmen feed and water fancy fowls in
transit. Some of the companies are very strict in their requirements in this
matter, obliging their employees to mark the fact and time of each feeding on
the shipping bill. For fowls in all wood coops, and in coops of wood and
canvas, so constructed that were the canvas removed the fowls would still be
securely confined, the express rate is the regular merchandise rate, known as
the ‘‘first class” rate. For fowls in canvas covered coops, so constructed
that the canvas is required to confine them, the express rate is ‘** double first
class,” just twice as much as in the other style of coop. Figs. $2—83 show

200 LOCL TE AAOTAAT ST”.

styles of coops commonly used. All wood coops can be bought in knock
down bundles, ready to nail together. In making the slat coops with canvas
lining lath, empty grocery boxes of light wood and cheap muslin can be used,,
and the cash cost of a coop for four or five fowls need not exceed fifteen cents.
If many coops are needed, it is better to buy new lumber, which can easily be
cut to the dimensions required, than to take the time to work up scrappy stuff.

A little chopped straw or hay, or some chaff, should be placed in the bottom
of the coop. Before the fowls are placed in it their legs should be cleaned,
and combs, wattles, and faces wiped clean of dust and soot, and rubbed with |
vaseline, which not only brings out the color of the comb, but protects the
parts treated from the cold, and prevents swelling and puffing of the face
should the birds be exposed to a draft. The breeder should be very particular
that no lousy bird is shipped from his yards, and if lice have been giving him
trouble, should coop the birds—in exhibition coops—for some days before
shipping, and treat for lice. The top of the coop, whether in one piece or
in several, should be so securely nailed that the coop can be lifted by any one
slat. Coops are not supposed to be lifted that way, but the precaution is a
wise one, none the less.

A bag containing sufficient grain for the fowls for the journey, should be
tied to the coop in such a way that the grain can be easily got at. A few
pieces of bone with some meat adhering to them, and a large piece of mangel
wurzel put in the coop before nailing the slats down, help to keep the fowls
contented. The drinking cup should be fastened in one corner, high enough
up to prevent it being filled with dirt from the bottom of the coop, and in such
position that water can be poured into it through the space between the slat
and the side of the coop. ‘The address of the consignee, very plainly written
on a tag, should be affixed to the coop, and unless the tag bears the shipper’s
name he should tack one of his cards conspicuously on the coop.

The purchaser should be notified of the shipment of his birds — time of
leaving, and by what express—even though previously informed of the date _
when shipment would be made.

If the shipper desires the coop returned to him he should so state when
sending notice of shipment, and should enclose ten cents for return charges,
which must be prepaid on ‘* empties.”

295. Selling Eggs for Hatching — is, in general, considered less
satisfactory to both buyer and seller than dealings in fowls. Still, while
there are a few who do not sell eggs for hatching, the vast majority do sell
them, either because it is the general custom, or because they make it pay,
and think that on the whole the advantages of that method of selling pure
bred stock more than compensate for its drawbacks.

Advertisements of eggs for hatching should be started in January —

certainly not later than February. Few high priced eggs are shipped

POULTRI-CRAFT. 201

while there is danger of their being chilled in transit, but intending buyers
begin making inquiries early, and many orders are placed in January and
February for March and April delivery.

As with fowls, the price should not be put too low. If the stock is of
quality to justify the price, a breeder is quite likely to sell as many eggs at
$2 as at a lower price, and sell to a better class of customers, better informed
of the ups and downs of buying eggs for hatching, and consequently more
reasonable and more agreeable to deal with. Nearly all breeders make reduc-
tions in- prices for several sittings ordered at one time. This one can well
afford to do, for the work of selling and handling one sitting costs quite as
much as for two or three.

It is quite a common practice to reduce the price of eggs for hatching late
in the season. Those who do this think the eggs, while worth less than
earlier in the season, are still well worth the price asked for them, and that
the reduction extends their trade and the general interest in pure bred poultry
by giving an opportunity to those least able to buy to start with good stock.
Those who hold to one uniform price throughout the season, think it, in the
long run, to their own best interest, and for the good of the varieties they
breed, zo¢ to encourage people to hatch late chicks from stock more or less
debilitated by a season’s producing.

The practice in regard to guaranteeing hatches, is divided. The breeder’s
usual guaranty is that the eggs shipped are true to name, from the stock
described in his advertisements and circular, fresh, and running high in
fertility ; — just such eggs as he sets to hatch his own stock; carefully packed
and delivered to the express company in good condition. Not many breeders
guarantee more than this. All honest breeders, however, replace eggs if their
own hatches and general reports of customers indicate that their stock is not
breeding right. Some guarantee six, seven, nine, or ten chicks from each
sitting of eggs; some replace eggs that gave poor hatches at half-price, and
duplicate very poor hatches and total failures free. If a breeder has fulfilled
the conditions of such a guaranty as is outlined above, he is under no obliga-
tion to do more, for a good hatch depends on too many contingencies altogether
beyond his control

296. Packing and Shipping Eggs for Hatching. — Eggs are shipped
by express, always. Small lots of one, two, or three sittings, are packed in
baskets specially made in various sizes for this purpose, or in common splint
baskets, or in fruit (grape) baskets. Often a shipper can get other baskets
more conveniently and at less cost than the special egg baskets, and many
prefer them, irrespective of cost. With the regular egg baskets, pasteboard
boxes having compartments for each egg are used. In packing, a little chaff,
or fine excelsior is first put in the bottom of each compartment, then the eggs
are put in, small end down; the spaces around them filled up with chaff, and
the cover of the box securely tied. Excelsior is packed under, around, and

202 POOGUIETRAACTATT:

over those boxes when placed in the baskets; then the basket covers are very
securely tied with strong twine. The covers furnished with the baskets have
printed on them the notice, ‘‘EGcs ror Harcuinc — Handle with care.”
The consignee’s name and address, plainly written, should be placed on a tag
attached to the handle of the basket.

In using the ordinary oblong, flat bottomed, splint baskets, a mat of excelsior
from one to two inches thick, is spread evenly in the bottom of the basket;
similar mats are placed around the sides; then the eggs, each carefully
wrapped in newspaper, or in a wisp of excelsior, are packed in close, and the
interstices filled with excelsior. If more than one layer of eggs is put in a
basket, a thin mat of excelsior should be placed between layers. When all
the eggs are in, cover them with excelsior to the thickness of several inches;
sew on a cover of muslin, drawing it tight over the excelsior, and sewing to
the edges of the basket. Paste on this cover a printed label with description
of contents, and warning against rough handling, address and tag, as above.

To pack in grape baskets, use either excelsior, chaft, or cut hay; wrap eggs
in paper or excelsior, and pack as firmly as possible without crowding too
much. (The secret of packing eggs to go safely, is to have the package firm
enough to prevent shifting, yet elastic enough to protect the eggs from jolts and
jarring). The bottom, sides, and cover of a grape basket being much
stronger than of the common splint basket, less’ packing material is needed
between the eggs and the sides of the basket. Tie the cover on strongly, and
label and tag as directed above. Ifa breeder will save his empty fruit baskets
each year, and ask a few of his neighbors to do the same, he can get baskets
for several hundred sittings of eggs at no cost beyond the trouble of collecting
and storing them.

POGLARA]|CILATIT « 203

CHAPTER XIII.

Exhibiting Poultry.

297. The Business Breeder Should Be an Exhibitor. — The educa-
tional and advertising advantages which a breeder may get from poultry
shows, have been mentioned more than once in preceding pages. There is
another and a stronger reason why every business breeder of thoroughbred
fowls ought to do all that he can do in reason to make a poultry show in his
section a success and a permanent thing. A live poultry show extends the
interest in poultry as few other agencies do —increasing the demand for the
poultryman’s goods, and thus affording a better market for what he has to
sell. In this way the show benefits him, though he shows and fails to win,
and even though he does not show at all. (If he never goes near the show,
he still is indirectly benefited by it).

The breeders’ duty on this point is, when the matter is looked at in the right
light, clear. Poultry associations are not money making affairs. Those who
promote them often have to go down intheir own pockets to pay deficits. It
does not often happen that there is a balance on hand when the bills are paid.
With the simple fancier, maintaining a local poultry show is only a matter of
pride; with the breeder it is a matter of profit as well. While he ought not
to put himself in a position where the support of a show would fall too heavily
on him, he is much at fault if he allows the benefits, direct and indirect, which
a live show gives him, to be withdrawn or reduced for lack of his support.
Where the interest in poultry is already strong, the support of one breeder
does not often matter greatly; but in the many sections where the pure bred
poultry industry is still in its infancy, the support of one breeder may mean
a great deal to a show.

A fancier to whom poultry breeding is recreation, the competition of the
show room ‘‘sport,” is not in any way under obligation to support shows
unless he chooses to make such obligation his. The breeder, as a business
man, owes it to himself, to those dependent on him, to his community,— to
all interested in his success or affected by his failure,—to use every means in
his power to make the business successful. Of aids to the breeders’ success,
there are not many more efficient than a live nearby poultry show.

298. General Care of Exhibition Stock. — The general preparation of
birds bred specially for exhibition, begins from the time when they leave the
shell. The chicks are given every opportunity to make the best development
of which they are capable. Nothing that would hurt them is permitted;

204 POGEMRINOG LATA ..

nothing which will help them neglected. They are not handled in a
specifically different way from other good stock, well cared for. It is
only that the breeder uses every means to assure the best development, and
does not resort to the narrow balancing of cost and profit which must be
followed in rearing lower priced poultry. That one way which is better than
others, he follows regardless of trouble; that food which gives best results, he
uses regardless of cost.

299. Special Selection of Specimens for a Particular Show— should
be made about two months before that show occurs. The birds on which the
breeder has had his eye, looking at them as possible winners, ought then to be
separated from the rest, and thoroughly inspected in every section to see just
what shape they are in, and what individual treatment each requires to put it
in the best possible condition for the show room.

The novice in exhibiting is apt to rely too much on the general appearance
of the fowl. The veteran exhibitor never takes a bird at his face value as he
runs in the yard or stands in the coop. As soon as the specimen is in his
hands he makes a thorough search for hidden defects and faults only found by
close inspection. A bird having bad faults which cannot be remedied, is
rejected; blemishes which can be removed by legitimate means, are corrected.
In selecting specimens for the show room, it is looks that count; looks count
for everything. Blemishes which might be passed over in a breeding bird are
inadmissible ina show bird. The smallest positive disqualification immediately
throws it out of the category of exhibition birds. As disqualifications are
distinctly specified in the Standard, there is little excuse for even the greenest
exhibitor entering a bird which will be debarred from competition. One has
simply to take each bird in hand, and with a list of disqualifications before °
him, make sure that the specimen is free from each and every one of them.

The selecting process must proceed still further. Not every bird that is
free from disqualifications is capable of winning, even in weak competition.
A bird that is very faulty in several sections has little chance of winning.
The all around good bird is the exhibitor’s reliance. Once in a long time a
bird is found fit to go from the yard to the show room (and in that case the
exhibitor’s effort is directed to preventing injury, and keeping it in good
condition), but in most cases a great deal needs to be done before the bird is
ready to show... To show to advantage, birds must be in perfect condition,.
and must have been so handled that they are not ‘‘ coop shy,” are not disturbed
by the inspection of visitors or the handling of the judges, but will pose and
show themselves to best advantage.

300. While Being Prepared for Showing—fowls are best kept in
small pens, in which they are easily caught and handled. If there is no such
provision for them, they may be kept for a few days in exhibition coops, then
in the pen with yard, then in the coop again, etc. —the object being to have

IZONQYL; IITA OFA ZI 205

them easy to get at when it is necessary to handle them, to accustom them
to being handled, and at the same time not keep them too closely confined.

No males should be allowed to run with females which are to be exhibited,
nor should two males be allowed to get together. Extraordinary precautions

must be taken to keep males from fighting, or a good bird may easily be

spoiled for showing, and weeks of painstaking work gone for nothing.

301. Care of the Plumage. — One of the first things to be done in fitting
the specimen is to pluck out all broken, stained, and foul* feathers, that new
ones may grow out in their places. Old birds need to be very carefully looked
over for dead stubs of feathers that failed to moult out. The backs of hens
often contain feathers broken by the feet of the male; and there are nearly
always some worn and broken feathers on the feet of Asiatics.

The plumage can be cleaned and polished by compelling the birds to
exercise in clean straw, and by furnishing a dust bath containing a liberal
proportion of clean fine sand. The plumage of white fowls, if not made
clean enough by these means, can be washed.

‘“* Washing Show Birds. — Use Pear’sor Ivory soap, as soap with rosin in it will ruin all
chances of a successful washing. Thoroughly soap and lather to the skin, and leave it
on long enough to cut all dirt, or any gummy or adhering substance in the plumage.
Then remove to a second tub of clean lukewarm water, deep enough to submerge the fowls,
and by gently rubbing with a large sponge w7th the feathers, remove every bit of soap.
Then shake the plumage in the water thoroughly, and rub it to the usual Smooth condi-
tion. At last plunge in a tub of cold water that has been blued as the housewife blues the
water for the linen in her wash. By gentle manipulation of the plumage thoroughly rinse
it with this blue water, and take the bird out into a wire bottom dripping cage, allowing
the specimen himself to shake the water out, and then he may be removed to either of
two rooms.

‘‘ Now the best in the world is a room the floor of which is covered four inches deep
with sea beach sand, and the atmosphere heated to 100 degrees, having been warm
long enough to heat the sand to 100 degrees. Then allow the room to cool to 70 degrees

* Nore. — If false colored feathers grow in off-color again, they must beagain removed
if the bird ts to be exhibited. Their removal is wrong, in that poultry associations have a
rule prohibiting it. Like all rules and laws, this is effective only as far as it can be
enforced — and can be enforced only when infringements are detected, and public opinion
sustains those who attempt to enforce the law. The removal of a few feathers from the
soft plumage of a fowl could only be detected after a most searching examination. If there
were a disposition to enforce the rule, the removal of foul feathers could only be proved
in the case of one caught in the act dy some one intercsted in furnishing such proof.
Notwithstanding the rule, the plucking of a few foul feathers will never be regarded, by
those who know how rarely birds are produced without them, asa flagrant sin. Indeed,
the more general opinion is that it is the rule that is wrong —in not making sensible
exceptions,—and that the practice is justifiable, if not absolutely right. Inasmuch as
feather plucking is done openly and universally, it does not really constitute a deception
except on those who wish to feel themselves deceived. The matter is one that causes new
exhibitors a great deal of concern. Unless one can satisfy himself that ‘‘ plucking” is
excusable, he will feel more comfortable if he leaves his birds at home.

206 POSER TACTEATT

at the height of a man’s waist. This will cause the heat to rise from the sand, and the
fowls will, with the water in the plumage, secure a steam or Turkish bath that will make
the plumage spread out to its fullest extent, and be immaculately white.

‘“Or, put the bird in a cage with a wire bottom and cut straw that is absolutely clean,
and set this cage over a register so as to heat the straw to 100 degrees in a room of 7o
degrees; and in this let the bird steam dry. When washing brush the black dirt out
from under the scales of the legs and toes, as one cleans one’s finger nails.” [I. K. FELcu,
in feeliable Poultry Journal. |

If a bird does not carry its wings right; if the tail is too fan-like, or too
pinched; if the sickles do not set right; if anything of this kind is wrong, it
can and should be made right by pauenty stroking, shaping, and manipu-
lating the feathers with the hands, until at last they take proper positions.

302.
be adjusted by a little manipulation with the fingers. The comb of a Leghorn

does not set quite right, it can often

hen that does not lop nicely can be formed in a very short time to shape just
as desired, and will stay that way through the show and afterwards. The
comb of a male that does not stand true, or bulges over the beak, can be very
much improved by simply working it as near what it should be as possible
with the fingers. The wattles, too, yield to treatment ;— and all such methods
are perfectly legitimate.

Just previous to the show the head, comb, and wattles should be sponged
clean, to free them from dirt and dandruff, then rubbed (not smeared) with
vaseline.

303. Care of the Feet.—TIf the feet are at all scaly, the thing first in
order is to get rid of the parasites, (4.315); afterwards the shanks and toes
can be well rubbed with vaseline or olive oil. A sound foot once lost can
never be restored, but if the bird is otherwise good, and the company he is
going into not too hot, it is worth while to put the bad feet in condition —they
ought to be taken care of, whether the bird is to be shown or not.

304. The Food Previous to Exhibition need not vary from the regular
diet, unless it is necessary to force a fowl to bring it up to weight. If a fowl
in good condition is much short in weight, forcing is very likely to impair _
its future usefulness in the breeding pen. If the fowl is in poor condition,
judicious heavy feeding will do it good, aside from increasing its chances of
winning. For rapid forcing Felch recommends a diet of whole corn, grit,
and raw beef. On this diet, he states, from seven to fourteen ounces can be

put on a bird in a week. Some breeders use bread and milk and sugar for
forcing.

A few exhibitors make a practice — and it is surely a good one — of feeding
the birds to be exhibited, for some days prior to sending them to a show, ona
diet as nearly as possible like what they will get at the show. Thus the birds
are not subjected to an abrupt change of diet as well as of other conditions

when sent to the show room.

OGL A= ELLATAM:. 207

305. Leg Bands are nearly always needed. A few shows do not allow
them. It depends on the systems of cooping and judging used. The show
premium list furnishes explicit instructions. If bands are used, they ought to
be removed when the birds return. The feet are often badly hurt by bands
left on too long.

306. Exhibition Coops.— When the show association furnishes coops,
the birds may be shipped in common
shipping coops, illustrated in Figs.
82 — 83. When the exhibitor is
required to furnish his own coops,
combined shipping and_ exhibition
coops (see Fig. $4), should be used.
Often the associations suggest certain
sizes of coops, that the display may be
more uniform, and neater in appear-

ance. If the dimensions of the coop
are left to the exhibitor, he ought
always to be sure to give his birds
plenty of room, and never make the
mistake of sending birds ina low coop. The dimensions of the coop illus-
trated are: height, 30 in.; width, 30 in.; depth, 24 in. Whether birds are
sent in a shipping or in a shipping-exhibition coop, a neat, clean coop should
‘be used. It is not at all creditable to a breeder to send out his fowls in 2
rough, dirty coop.

Fig. 84. A Combined Exhibition and Shipping Coop.

In shipping exhibition birds which are to be returned to the same owner, it
makes no difference in cost of transportation which style of shipping coop is
used. If birds are sent in a coop that takes them at single rate, the express
companies charge for returning them; if they go at double rate, they are
returned free. ;

307. Ought an Exhibitor to Accompany His Birds ?— It is better that
-he should, but it is not really necessary. Many poultry men will not show
unless they can go with their birds. It is, of course, a matter in which each
must judge for himself. If all followed that course many persons would be
unable to exhibit, and there would be fewer and poorer shows. ‘The absent
exhibitor’s stock is not always looked after as he would look after it himself.
On the whole, however, it is pretty carefully handled.

308. After the Show —the returned fowls should be kept quiet, and fed
rather light for a few days. It frequently happens that fowls coming out of
a winter show strike weather much colder than any they had experienced
before going into it — weather so severe that the change from the warm show

208 POOLETRAI=-CRALIM.

room to any ordinary poultry house would be too great for safety. In that
case it is better to keep them in the coops, and. the coops in a warm place for
a day or two.

309. Exhibiting Dressed Poultry and Eggs. — Though there are, as
yet, only a few poultry shows having dressed poultry and egg departments, it
is probable that, before long, practical exhibits will be a feature of every show
room. Fowls are dressed for exhibition in exactly the same way as for market.
A poultryman who has fine market poultry to sell cannot advertise it better
than by exhibiting some of his best. A breeder whose fancy stock possesses
good practical qualities, finds it well worth while to make a reputation as an
exhibitor of dressed poultry and ‘‘ most fancy fresh” eggs. Eggs packed in
small lots for exhibition go best in such boxes or baskets as are used for
packing hatching eggs. In making an exhibit of a dozen eggs, it is advisable
to use, if possible, eggs laid by one hen.?

POGLTRIACRAFT. 209

CHAPTER XIV.

‘Diseases, Parasites, and Enemies of Fowls.

310. The Unprofitableness of Doctoring.—To succeed in ‘ doctoring”’
a stubborn case of sickness or a persistent epidemic in his flock, is one of the
worst misfortunes that can befall a poultry keeper. It puts him ona wrong
course — his stock on a bad footing. It gets him into the habit of fussing
with and dosing his birds, and, in consequence, his place is soon stocked with
fowls of enfeebled constitutions, predisposed to disease. The greater one’s
success in treating well developed disease the more sick fowls he will have.

Still, the poultryman needs to know enough of the symptoms of different
diseases to be able to detect each at an early stage; enough of the causes of
particular diseases to enable him to take efficient preventive measures for the
well fowls when sickness does appear in his flock ; and something of the modes
and effects of using the simple remedies which, if used in time, will often
check a disease before it has reached a danger point. He needs to learn in
which diseases (and at what stages) it will Aay—both immediately and in
the long run—to use drugs, and when it is best to resort to the hatchet and
the spade; and he needs to get firm hold of the fact that when once disease
has become established in a flock, a good sharp hatchet, vigorously used, will
do more for him than all the medical knowledge and all the drugs in the world.

On the whole, diseases of fowls closely resemble human diseases. No doubt
they are in many cases identical. If correctly diagnosed a case of sickness in
the poultry yard can often be identified as ke some common human malady,
and may be successfully treated in the same way. This is a good thing to
remember, because in an emergency one may have in the house a ‘“ family”
remedy which will be effective if immediately applied to a sick fowl, while if
no remedy were given until a regular poultry medicine could be obtained, the
fowl would be lost. A considerable proportion of the cases of sickness in the
fowl yard yield to very simple treatment if taken in time; the great trouble is
that they are not observed soon enough, or there is nothing at hand to give the
. sick bird. It is possible to cure many bad cases; but —the life of a well fowl
is not as a rule worth much in dollars and cents, and the life of a sick fowl is
worth so much less that a poultryman ought not to begin a course of doctoring
when circumstances call for individual treatment for many fowls, or for a long
course of treatment for one or several individual birds. It is not only the cost
of the medicines and the value of the time spent in administering them, and

210 POSE LR AE CLALIT e

in giving the fowl the special care demanded by its condition, that have to be
taken into account. The cost of feeding and housing and caring for the con-
valesced fowl until again productive, must be reckoned up against doctoring.
When to this is added the well established fact that a fowl once dangerously
sick with an organic disease is afterwards worse than worthless* as a breeder,
the poultry keeper should have no difficulty in making his estimate of the zzs
and outs of physicking fowls show that unless an epidemic is so mild that it
yields readily to simple remedies, applied in the ordinary food and drink, and
corrected sanitary conditions ;— or an individual case not yet past ‘the stage
when a very few treatments could be expected to prove eflective, it is better to
kill than to try to cure.

311. Some General Rules for Preventing Diseases.

(1). By good care — with all that that includes: correct sanitary conditions,
good houses, well sunned, aired or closed, according to weather and tempera-
ture; proper food, exercise, cleanliness.

(2). By quarantining all new fowls as long as there is danger of their
contracting diseases from or transmitting them to old stock.

This is a matter of very great importance. The germs of some diseases to
which acclimated fowls have been immune often infect unacclimated fowls,
which are for the time less able to resist, and having thus gained a foothold
will successfully attack the acclimated fowls. The contrary also often happens.
The new fowls bring with them the germs of disease which in their old home
they had successfully resisted, but to which they now succumb, and if the
breeder is at all careless the whole stock may be affected.

(3). By preventing fowls from outside flocks from coming in contact with
members of the flock, or even feeding on the same ground. Pigeons, also,
should be kept away; they are the worst disease mongers of all domestic birds.

(4). By promptly caring for fowls which seem the least indisposed, and
correcting wrong conditions as soon as their effects are noted. Too often such
measures are neglected until disease has positively developed.

* NorEe.— Such fowls are worse than worthless as breeders, because there is born in
their offspring a strong tendency to contract the same disease at the age at which the
parents had it. It happens so often as to justify saying that it is the rule, that among
the offspring of fowls recovered from a severe attack of diphtheritic roup, that disease
will become epidemic, when the offspring of fowls which had never had the disease are
not at all affected, though kept under the same conditions, and sometimes in the same
house, unless the disease is literally forced on them by constant contact with sick fowls.
The loss of a single bird is at most a loss of only a few dollars. An outbreak of disease
among the descendants of a fowl debilitated by that disease, may cause a loss of hundreds
of dollars, for under such circumstances the disease is apt to be so virulent, its course so
rapid, that such treatment as would ordinarily succeed in the early stages of the malady,
proves ineffective.

POGELRAZCIA LT, 20

Entire prevention of disease is not possible when any considerable stock of
poultry is kept; nor is it continuously possible under any conditions. Ina
small flock of fowls, healthy and well cared for, one, two or three seasons may
pass without a sick fowl, even though the raze of /oss, as finally determined 7s
greater than ina large stock in which there are deaths every month in the
year. There are people who claim to breed poultry on quite an extensive
scale without losses from disease ; but such statements are not credited by per-
sons who have had experience in handling fowls in large numbers.

312. Hints to Guide in the Diagnosis of the Ailments of Fowls. —
The common diseases of poultry, their causes, symptoms and simplest remedies,
are given in the next paragraph. The hints given in this are to help the
reader to go as quickly as possible to the information he needs. Such hints
cannot be infallible, but will be found right in the great majority of cases.

When a fowl sneezes, waters slightly at the nostrils and eyes, the face puffs
up —any or all of these symptoms indicate a common cold.

When it rattles in the throat, it has a cold with bronchttes.

When it experiences great difficulty in breathing, it has, probably, preumonda.

When cankers form in the mouth and throat, it has d¢phtherda or diphthe-
TULUC OUP.

When discharges from the nostrils are profuse and ill-smelling, it has
common roup, influenza. Looseness of the bowels accompanies many dis-
eases, and if there are symptoms indictating the presence of another disease
(not intestinal), that should be treated first.

Looseness of the bowels, the feathers around the vent smeared and gummed
with the discharges, is déarrhe@a.

A bloody diarrhea may be either dysentery or enteritis.

Greenish discharges, turning to frothy white, are given as a symptom of
cholera; but greenish yellow, frothy white discharges frequently accompany
roup, and are often found under such conditions that it is impossible to
suppose cholera.

A dark purplish comb and face, generally ruffled appearance, and brownish,
watery discharge, indicate congestion of the liver.

Symptoms as above, but more pronounced, and with yellowish discharges,
indicate that the disease has developed into zzflammation of the liver.

Small hard lumps under the skin of the face, occur in rou.

Ulcers about the head and face are generally chicken pox.

A yellowish looking head and face, indicate general debility, anemia, or
consumption.

General listlessness without symptoms of specific disease, indicates
tndigestton.

Lameness is generally the result of an accident, or of rheumatism. -

Twisting of the head and neck is due to cramps, rheumatism, giddiness.

Jerking of the head 1s due to pressure of blood on the brain, that is, to head-
ache.

212 OGLE TR MNCT ATI gs

Fowls dying suddenly had apoplexy; heart fatlure; choked. Many so-
called sudden deaths are sudden only because the keeper failed to note plain
symptoms.

313. Diseases of Poultry. — In the following list of diseases no special
effort has been made to have descriptions and terms technically correct. The
object is to describe the diseases for those who have neither time nor inclination
to give such matters more study than is required to learn when to physic and
when to kill. Those who wish to look into the subject more fully, or who
prefer to doctor whenever a cure is possible, should get a more extended work
on poultry diseases. Neither space nor the plan of this book would admit full
descriptions here.

Anemta, —a condition of the blood, oor blood, due generally to lack of proper food,
fresh air, or sunshine. Remedied by correcting conditions.

Apoplexy, — rush of blood to the head, caused by over-eating, violent exercise, fright,
extreme heat; rarely observed until the victim is too far gone for treatment. Bleed from
give two drops of croton oil.

Bowel Trouble — see Diarrhea; also 4 261.

Break Down Behind —if simply due to over-fat, may be remedied by putting hen on
light diet; if the disorder is due to derangsment of the oviduct, it is: generally incurable.

Broken Bones —easily treated if the break is in the shank; put on light splints, and
wrap firmly. If the break is anywhere else, the fowl should be killed.

vein in under side of wing; if possible,

Bronchitis —a catarrh, a bad cold accompanied by coughing or rattling in the throat:
give aconite, as for a cold; or use any convenient remedy suitable for coughs and colds.

Bumble-foot — an abscess on the sole of the foot, caused by bruising by jumping from
the roost: treatment, if taken early, wash with strong vinegar, and apply tincture of
cocaine; if the abscess is well developed, open by making two cuts, crossing thus, X;
wash out all matter with warm water containing carbolic acid; apply nitrate of silver,
ten grains to one ounce of distilled water.

Canker — see Roup.

Chicken Pox — small ulcers on the head and face: wash with carbolic soapsuds; anoint
with vaseline or fresh lard.

Cholera —a contagious disease of the bowels, caused by combined conditions of filthy
quarters, improper food, and extreme heat. Most so-called cases of cholera are dysen-
tery. Treatment of sick birds generally useless ; apparently well birds should be given
sulpho-carbolate of zinc in the drinking water, one-eighth of an ounce of the drug to a
quart of water.

Colds — aftect fowls variously, and if neglected, often lead to something serious; —
give aconite in the drinking water, a dozen homeopathic pellets toa quart of water. A
good remedy to keep on hand to use for colds, bronchitis, etc., is: equal parts cayenne
pepper, ginger and mustard, mixed as stiffly as possible in lard, then flour worked in to
make a stiff dough; form in slugs or pellets about the size of a small hazel nut; give by
opening the mouth and dropping down the throat. A single treatment often cures; if it
does not, it should be followed by another dose in twenty-four hours.

If the cold is accompanied by puffing of the skin of the face, bathe the parts affected
every two or three hours with warm water containing about 1 per cent carbolic acid; keep
in a warm dry place; at night rub with vaseline.

For treatment of colds, see also J 174.

Constipation — caused by lack of exercise and of green food; in young chicks by too

POULTRY-CRAFT. 213

much boiled milk. or ‘‘ binding” food. Correct conditions for chicks: for adult fowls
give castor oil, castoria, etc.; any laxative that happens to be convenient will do.

Consumption — follows colds, pneumonia, etc.; bird grows thin and weak, ‘‘ goes
light;”” sometimes has good appetite, but passes food from the bowel undigested. In
early stages this disease may easily be confounded with anemia. Treatment useless.

Cramp — see Rheumatism.

Crop Bound — give castor oil, or warm water; knead contents of crop, and try to force
them out gradually through the mouth of the bird, held head down; if this fails, open the
crop, removing a few feathers and making a short incision through the breast, at the top
of the crop; remove contents, and sew up, taking care not to sew skins together.

Crop, enlarged — can be treated by cutting out a part of the skin and sewing up; not
often worth the trouble.

Crop, Inflammation of — generally due to eating a poisonous or irritating substance;
not likely to be correctly diagnosed, and in most cases useless to treat when discovered.
Keep such substances away from fowls.

Debility — general weakness, without indications of organic disease; give good care,
and start on the up grade with tonics or stimulants.

Diarrhea — check by giving boiled milk to drink and dry food.

Diphtheria — see Roup.

Distemper —a term loosely applied to a variety of diseases, generally a mild cold or
fever.

Dysentery a, mostly incurable.

£gg Bound— treatment not often permanently successful; give dose of castor oil; if
this fails wash the vent with warm water, and pass in a feather dipped in sweet oil.

Egg Broken in Body —hen will die.

Enteritis —a non-contagious, acute diarrhcea, due to poison or irritants, or to the
presence of worms.

Feather Eating— probably originates in an abnormal appetite. Nearly always the
spread of the vice can be prevented by killing the guilty bird. Watch for it.

Frost Bite —to combs apply two or three times a day a mixture of vaseline, five table-
spoons; glycerine, two tablespoons; spirits of turpentine, one teaspoon. When feet are
badly frosted kill the bird.

Gapes— gape worms in the windpipe. Place the birds, a few at a time, ina large box
covered with a coarse cloth, and having a door in the side; dust air-slaked lime on the
cloth. The lime breathed in by the birds causes the worms to relax their hold, and they
are coughed up.

Giddiness —a mild form of apoplexy ; can often be relieved by bleeding under the wing.

Indigestion — generally due to over-feeding ; correct the diet, give abundance of green
food, compel exercise, avoid stimulants.

Itch —a warm weather eruption on the skin, often followed by loss of feathers: anoint
with mixture one part carbolic acid, two parts lard.

Lameness— due to accident or rheumatism.

Leg Weakness — generally due to forcing, or to lack of bone forming material in the
food: discontinue high feeding, but still feed well, giving cut bone or bone meal liberally.

Liver Disease — due to over-feeding ; begins in congestion of the liver: if allowed to
reach the stage when inflammation sets in, does not yield to treatment. Usea good liver
pill, and, of course, correct wrong conditions.

Pip — a condition of the tongue accompanying diseases when the bird is obliged to
breathe through the mouth; treat the disease; wet the tongue frequently with glycerine.

Pneumonia — brought on by exposure to extreme heat or cold, and by sudden change,
dampness, etc.; generally incurable.

fattling in the Throat — see Bronchitis.

214 POULTRY?Y-CRAFT.

Roup.—The term is used to apply to a variety of diseases affecting the head and
throat. The present tendency is to limit the use of the word roup to diphtheria, or
diphtheritic roup, and to call ordinary roup not seriously affecting the throat, influenza.
Influenza can be treated asacold. For diphtheria a number of different treatments have
been successful at one time, and failed at another. Whether or not a cure can be effected,
probably depends as much on the constitution and antecedents of the fowlasa treatment.
Most of the roup remedies advertised have been successtully used in manycases. Exfer7-
enced practical poultrymen do not doctor fowls which have diphtheria. They killand bury,
or burn them. For those who wish to try to save their birds, the following remedies are
given:

One ounce oil of sassafras, one ounce best Jamaica ginger, one ounce tincture of iron,
one ounce alcohol, a half-ounce prickly ash fluid extract, one-fourth ounce oil of anise.
Dose, fifteen drops to one teaspoonful to each gallon drinking water.

The following treatment, suggested by A. V. Meersch, has been successfully used in
many cases : — Clean out the pus, if in the mouth, with a little wooden spatula ; if you
make it bleed a little, don’t be alarmed. When this is done, wash the mouth with cotton
wadding, attached to a little stick of wood, saturated in peroxide of hydrogen, then drop
a little aristol on each sore place; repeat this operation morning and evening for three
days. ;

Dr. H. A. Stevenson reports having both cured sick birds, and immunized others by
injecting antitoxine.

Worms are properly parasites. Two kinds affect fowls. /tound worms are quite
common; tape worms rare. The presence of worms is-not often detected except by
examination after death. If a bird dying is found to have had worms, give well members
of the flock turpentine in the soft food in proportion of two or three drops of turpentine
to each fowl. :

White Comb —a scurfy condition of the comb, due to unsanitary surroundings; use an
ointment — heaping teaspoon oleate of zinc to half-teacup of vaseline — wash the comb
and head with carbolic soap and warm water before applying.

Wind Puffs— due to injury to lung tissue; relieved by pricking, but not always
curable.

314. Hospital and Medicine Chest.— For the simple treatment, of
which the object is to check incipient, rather than cure established disease,
the poultryman should have an isolated building, small, but comfortable, and
should keep on hand a few of the remedies most efficacious in checking
common diseases. It is prompt work that counts.

315. Parasites. —

Lice probably exist in small numbers wherever there are fowls; but as long
as fowls are healthy and active cannot increase rapidly enough to seriously
annoy the birds. On sick and injured fowls, scaly legged fowls, sitting hens,
and very young chicks, they thrive when the general stock is comparatively
free from them. Frequently they come in in force on new fowls. It should
be an inviolable rule to treat new fowls thoroughly for lice before permitting
them to mingle with the flock, for the lice not only annoy fowls, they carry
the germs of infectious diseases from fowl to fowl. The most effective means
of ridding fowls of lice are given below, quoted from Wood. (See also

q 234 and 247):

ROGER CIAL. ZING

‘‘ FUMIGATION — Use ordinary sulphur candles: one candle will serve for an ordinary
poultry house having about one hundred and fifty square feet of floor space. Drive the
fowls from the house, and carefully close all doors and windows before lighting the
candle, which should be put on an old tin can cover placed on a pan of wet ashes. After
lighting the sulphur shut the house up tightly, and keep it so for four or five hours. Air
the building thoroughly before allowing the fowls to return. Treat the fowls for lice
at the same time.

‘‘InsEcT PowprERs— most of the insect powders in the market are good. Those lice
powders containing tobacco dust are best. Dusting with insect powder is of no value
unless thoroughly done, and repeated at least three times, at intervals of a week or ten
days. The best way to dust a fowl is to hold it by the legs, head down, over a box or
some receptacle to catch the surplus powder, and then, with the free hand, work the
powder thoroughly into the feathers and down to the skin.

‘« KEROSENE — is one of the most common, cheapest, and best insecticides for use in
the poultry house. Kerosene applied every month to the roosts is a good remedy against
mites. It may also be applied with a brush to the walls and all cracks in the poultry
house.

‘“ KEROSENE EMULSION —is effective in place of whitewash for ridding the house of
vermin. It is made by dissolving a pound of hard soap in a gallon of boiling water,
remove from the fire and, while hot, add two gallons of kerosene. Churn or agitate
briskly for ten or fifteen minutes, or until the mixture becomes thick and creamy. Then
add about twenty gallons of cold water, and stir in thoroughly. It can be applied to the
ccop by a sprayer, a watering pot, or an old broom. It should be driven well into all
cracks.

‘“LIME AND SULPHUR—a disinfecting powder is made of lime and sulphur as
tollows:—To half a bushel of fresh, thoroughly air-slaked lime add ten pounds of
powdered sulphur and a fluid ounce of carbolic acid; mix thoroughly by stirring with
a stick. This powder is harmless to fowls, and may be used freely about the house, and
in nests and dust boxes.

‘“ToBacco STEMS and sweepings are excellent addition to nest material as a vermin
preventive.

‘** Carry on the warfare against vermin zx the poultry house, and on the fowls at the same
¢zme, and you will get results.”

Besides the common hen lice, fowls suffer from attacks of other insects:

Mosquitos often bite combs, faces, and wattles; apply a little carbolated
vaseline.

Buffalo or Turkey Gnats in swarms attack fowls along river bottoms,
especially in Mississippi valley states. Preventive measures are: building
smudge fires, and smearing exposed parts with carbolated vaseline, or some
stinking oil.

Chiggers, Flarvest Mites are common in the Mississippi valley as far north
as Iowa. They harbor in weeds and bushes, and the only known preventive
is to keep the fowls out of such places.

Fleas sometimes infest poultry houses. They are destroyed by usual
treatments for lice.

Bedbugs can be exterminated by using whitewash, to which turpentine has
been added, or by applying to the spots they haunt: ‘‘ Half-pint each of

216 P-OCLE DRAG Cf ATie

turpentine, ammonia, and kerosene, with four ounces of camphor. Dissolve
the camphor in the turpentine, then add the others ; apply with a brush meal”
Scaly Leg is caused by a mite which burrows under the scales of the feet
and shanks. ‘The crusts can be loosened by soaking in warm, soapy water,
or by vigorous brushing with an old tooth or nail brush. When they have
been removed, apply sulphur ointment, or a mixture of lard and kerosene.
Depluming Scab Mites often damage feathers. Woods suggests as
remedies sulphur ointment or carbolized vaseline locally applied, adding that
large areas ought not to be covered at one time, as the effect on the fowl is
injurious: dusting with carbolized lime is also recommended.

316. Enemies of Fowls. — Domestic fowls have a host of feathered and
four-footed enemies, against which the poultry keeper must be continually on
his guard. Preventive measures are surest and best. Secure houses and coops
to prevent night raids of cats, dogs, skunks, and other vermin. For those which
molest the fowls in the daytime, a shot-gun is the best thing when circum-
stances admit of using it. The poultry keeper is wisest when he is always
prepared for marauders. A good dog can be trained to keep cats, hawks, and
other dogs away from the fowls in daytime, and to keep watch against chicken
thieves at night. If properly trained and kept about the fowl yards the dog
will not molest, annoy, or frighten the chickens. Electric burglar alarms are
sometimes used by poultrymen in cities. When it is found that a dog, cat,
skunk, weasel, hawk, or anything else, is carrying off fowls, chicks, or eggs,
the keeper should give himself no rest until he has put a stop to the proceed-
ing. It has to be done sooner or later, and it is better to sit up all night after
the first raid, than to permit a second. Poison is one of the most effective
means of ridding a place of pests, but must be handled with the greatest
caution.

ey

fut et

TAO GUPTA = CTR ALOT.

i)
I
“J

CHAPTER XV.

BANTAMS.

317. Bantams May Be Made Profitable.— Breeders of thoroughbred
fowls often find the popular varieties of bantams quite as profitable to handle
as most varieties of large fowls, and though bantams are not suited to market
poultry keeping they can often be used to furnish eggs and some poultry for
a small family living where large fowls cannot be kept. The hardier breeds
of bantams will thrive in very close quarters, and bantams of any kind can be
kept on a lawn or in a garden, without fear of their damaging it as large fowls
would. As layers, bantams are like other fowls — good, indifferent, and bad.
One who keeps them for the eggs must select and breed for eggs, and if he
favors birds large for bantams, can get very fair sized eggs. For poultry,
bantams can hardly be used until well grown; then, weight for weight, they
are equal to any fowls. Indeed, there are few varieties of large fowls that

make as plump carcasses as bantarns do.

318. Management of Bantams.—In a general way the methods of
caring for large fowls are applied also to bantams but in a few particulars —
to which attention will be called in the proper connection —some of them
have to be considerably modified. Bantams ought not to be kept with other
fowls. Even when there is no danger of contamination, the bantams suffer
when obliged to compete for food with larger, heavier fowls, and very often
the ocher birds are spiteful toward and abuse the bantams. The rules for
mating bantams are except in one or two cases the same as for large fowls.
In general matings of Standard birds produce a good percentage of Standard
chicks.

The prominent characteristic of the bantam is, of course, its diminutive
size. In the exhibition room the smallest bird, other things being equal,
wins. It is thus an advantage to an exhibitor to have his birds below
Standard weights — provided other things are equal; —that is if, though
under-weight, they are in good condition, of typical shape, and have perfectly
developed plumage. Many bantam breeders in their eagerness to get light
weight specimens, produce birds which fail in these most essential points.
To get small bantams various means, such as late hatching, semi-starving,
are frequently resorted to; but such methods do not produce fine, well
developed specimens. The principal factor in producing small bantams is
selection for the breeding pen of the smallest obtainable specimens that are

218 POULTR?-CRAFT.

good in form and color. A breeder will rarely find that he has many such
birds under Standard weights; the light weight birds nearly always failing in
shape. Late hatching is not desirable. Early hatched chicks are likely to be
better than those hatched late; but chicks hatched in late May or early June
generally turn out best. Hens of the large breeds are not suitable for.
hatching and rearing bantam chicks. The best results are obtained when
bantam hens are used. If it is not practicable to use bantam hens, ‘* scrub”
hens of three and four pounds weight should be used. The bantam chicks
being so small, there is special need of guarding them from accidents, and
the chicks of the less hardy varieties need to be carefully kept from cold and
damp. They can be fed much as other chicks are, though they cannot eat

Fig. 85. Bantams.

Rose Combed Black. Exhibition Game.
Rose Combed White. Sebright. Cuckoo.
Cochin. Rumpless. Japanese.

(By courtesy of W. W. Clough).
large grains at an early age. The best developed bantam chicks are obtained
by giving as much liberty as possible, and feeding no more than is necessary
to keep them growing, avoiding forcing on the one hand, and stunting on the
other. Forcing makes coarse specimens; stunting makes peaked, scrawny

ones.

VARIETIES OF BANTAMS DESCRIBED.

319. Game Bantams.—Of these there are eight Standard varieties:

fon)
Black Breasted Red, Brown Red, Golden Duckwing, Silver Duckwing,
Red Pyle, White, Black, and Birchen, corresponding respectively in form

BOOT IMM]GE Cie ATG T,. 21g

and color to the Standard Exhibition Games of the same names. The
Standard weights for Game Bantams are:—-cocks, 22 ozs.; cockerels, 20
ozs.; hens, 20 ozs.; pullets, 18 ozs. Game Bantams are generally hardy,
fair layers, fond of being handled and petted. The Black Breasted Red is
the most common and popular variety, though all the varieties mentioned are
so generally bred that they are not anywhere unfamiliar to persons interested
in fancy fowls.

Malay Game Bantams, which resemble Malay Games, are rare.

320. Sebright Bantams.— There are two varieties, the Go/dex and the
Szlver, qeene: only in the ground color of the plumage, which is in the
former a golden yellow, and in the latter a
silvery white. Each feather is laced with
a narrow edge of black. Sebright Bantams
have rose combs, slate colored legs and toes.
A peculiarity of the breed is that the males
are ‘¢hen feathered ;”— that is, instead of
having the flowing hackle and saddle feathers.
and abundant tails, as is usual in male fowls,
the Standard Sebright Bantam male has
plumage differing from that of the female
only in that the two upper tail feathers may
be shghtly curved at the ends. The produc-

tion of such plumage on males is abnormal,
Fig. 86. Exhibition Game and White Crested

and, as is usually the case when individuals
White Polish Bantams.

of one sex assume characters of the opposite
sex, the ‘* best” Staxdard males are often partly or wholly infertile and
worthless as breeders. Consequently the breeders of Sebright Bantams often
find it necessary to use in the breeding pens males having plumage too much
like that common to male fowls to admit of their being shown in the exhibition
room. Sebrights are among the most popular varieties of bantams, and are

fairly hardy.

321. Rose Combed Bantams.— Of these there are two varieties, the
White and the Black, the Whites pure white, with white or yellow legs; the
Blacks brilliant black, with black or dark lead colored legs. Both varieties
are quite common, and fairly hardy. The Standard weights are the same
as for Sebrights.

322. Booted White Bantams.— All white, single combed, shanks and
outer toes heavily feathered, prominent vulture hocks; weights as for Sebrights.
This variety might be mistaken by one not familiar with the different breeds,

220 POULTR?Y-CRAFT.

for the White Cochin. The two have some general resemblances, but differ
essentially in size, shape, texture of plumage, and color of legs.

323. Brahma Bantams.— Two varieties, Lzght and Dark, resembling
respectively the large fowls of the same names. These are newly made
varieties, not yet extensively bred. Standard weights are— cock, 30 ozs.;
cockerel, 26 ozs. >) hen, 26.028. :pullet, 24\'ozs),

324. Cochin Bantams.— Four varieties: Luff, Partridge, White and
Black, miniatures of the large Cochins. The Standard weights are — cock,
30 ozs.; cockerel, 26 ozs.; hen, 26 ozs; pullet, 24 ozs. Cochin Bantams are
very hardy. The Buff variety is most popular, but all are common enough
to be well known. In breeding these bantams— more perhaps than in any
others—the breeder ought not to try to keep his birds below Standard
weights, for in the very small birds it is hardly possible to get good Cochin
shape.

325. Japanese Bantams.— Three varieties —the Black Tazled, which
are white except the tail and flights; the Wzte, andthe Black. Standard
weights are the same as given for Sebrights. Japanese Bantams are delicate
and rare as compared with some of the other breeds.

326. Polish Bantams.— Two varieties —the White Crested White,
and the Buff Laced, which resemble the Buff Laced Polish fowls. Both
varieties are delicate and rare. Standard weights are the same as for

Sebrights.

PE OCGLATACT ATID, 221

CHAPTER XVI.

Turkeys.

327. The Turkey —the Farmers’ Fowl.
fowl for the general farm. Market conditions and the characteristics of the
fowl combine to confine profitable turkey growing on a business scale to
farms where the birds can have an extensive foraging ground. Turkeys can
be, and are, grown on small places, but in very limited numbers. The
turkeys produced elsewhere than on large farms hardly affect the trade either

The turkey is peculiarly a

in market or breeding stock.

The heaviest demand and best prices for turkeys come seasonably for the
‘farm poultry keeper. The poults can be hatched at the ‘‘ natural” season,
and grown to a salable maturity in time to get the best prices of the year.
This feature of turkey growing is one of its strongest recommendations to
farmers’ wives and daughters, who are usually the poultry keepers. Though
it is open to question whether there is really as much to be made from turkeys
as from chickens on the farm, it seems plain that the women on farms
usually think turkey growing more profitable than any other branch of
poultry culture, and it is probably true that the income from turkeys comes
easier than that from chickens. There is greater satisfaction in producing
something that is marketable when the market is at its best, and will bring in
a large lump sum, as a flock of turkeys will. Then the receipts from the
turkeys are a distinct addition to receipts from other poultry products. Tur-
key growing need not interfere with or curtail operations with poultry.
Turkeys forage further than chickens, and thus the two kinds of fowl are
kept on the same farm with little interference, the turkeys ranging mostly
over an area outside of that used by the hens. In growing turkeys, as in
growing chickens on the farm, the flock can be of a size proportionate to the
foraging ground, and the turkeys may be, after the first few weeks, reared —
and sometimes fattened for market —on what they pick for themselves.
Even when they require regular feeding and heavy feeding to fatten, there is
at least as much profit in feeding grain to them as to any stock produced on
the farm. The production of exhibition and fine breeding stock is also limited
mostly to farmers who are fanciers, and to some special poultry breeders occu-
pying large farms. The few prominent turkey breeders located on quite small
farms farm out most of their stock.

222 POUWETRA-CRALT:

328. Turkeys Can Be Grown in All Sections, —but not in every
situation. Low, damp places and cold, heavy soils do not suit them. They
are healthiest and develop best on rather high ground, and soils from which
the water drains quickly. The bulk of the turkey crop—as of the crop of
chicken products—4is produced in the central west, where the large grain,
grass, and stock farms furnish unrivalled foraging grounds; but there is no
section of the country where turkeys are not profitably raised by those situated
favorably for handling them. Exclusive turkey farms, on the lines of chicken
and duck farms, are unknown. The nearest approach to anything of the kind
is found in Rhode Island, where on some farms three hundred, four hundred,
— or even more — turkeys are produced annually.

329. Profit in Turkeys. — It is not easy to make a satisfactory estimate
of the profit from market turkeys. Very few growers keep accounts. From
the few accounts and close estimates which have been made public, it would
appear that the average profit is about a dollar per head — rather iess than
more — and that the profit in most sections where turkey growing is carried
on extensively does not often vary much — either way — from the average.

p)

Reports of the amounts ‘‘ made” on flocks in different sections indicate no
great differences in net profits on Connecticut, Rhode Island, or Vermont
turkeys, which bring the highest prices in the eastern markets, and western
turkeys, for which the grower receives, possibly, only half as much per
pound.

The profits on high class stock are proportionate to the reputation of the
breeder and the volume of his trade. It is commonly considered that the pro-
duction of turkeys of fine exhibition and breeding quality is less profitable

than the breeding of chickens of similar quality.

330. Houses for Turkeys. — Perhaps the commonest practice among
turkey growers is to allow — or compel — their stock to roost outdoors in all
seasons, and through all weathers. This practice is not limited to those who
are indifferent to the welfare of their fowls. It obtains among progressive
breeders, and is even approved and recommended by some authorities on
turkey growing. The reasons given for continuing and sanctioning a practice
condemned in every other line of stock keeping, are various, but are in gen-
eral much the same as those once used by writers who advocated making

hens. *sroueit.:: But though all too common, this practice is by no means

* Nore.—In comparison with the methods of up to date ex men, some of the methods
common among successful turkey growers seem thriftless— not to say barbarous. As
compared with current instruction relating to chickens, much of the teaching of authori-
ties on turkey culture seems antiquated. One at all familiar with the recent progress of
poultry culture can hardly fail to have observed the striking similarity between present
general teachings about turkeys and the kind of instruction on matters relating to chick-
ens which was most in vogue twelve or fifteen years ago: nor can he fail to have noticed

ENGLER A CLEA. 223

universal. Many growers provide suitable buildings for both old and young
turkeys; some turn them out in summer, and house in winter; some, while
leaving the turkeys free to roost outdoors, provide, near the usual roosting
places, sheltered perches to which the fowls may go in severe weather. This
latter method is unsatisfactory, —is in fact quite useless, (except as a sop to
the conscience of the keeper), because it is only when a storm is uncommonly
rough at roosting time that turkeys will desert their usual perches for shelter.
Some will not do it voluntarily under any circumstances.

Turkeys certainly need shelter sometzmes. (This most of the advocates of
the open air method admit). To suppose that they do not, is to assume that
the laws of nutrition are reversed when applied to turkeys —in bad weather.
Young turkeys in preparation for market, exposed to the cold storms of fall
and early winter, cazzot make the weights they would if protected ; —it is
not possible. If breeding stock subjected to the rigors of a northern winter,
attains the development or keeps the condition it would if sheltered — which
is, to say the least, very doubtful—#it is at increased cost for maintenance.
Now it is a principle — and a fundamental one —of profitable poultry culture,
that the poultryman ought always to be prepared for those contingencies,
which, though the exact time of their occurrence is uncertain, he knows are
sure to happen. In the matter of shelter, for instance, the wise poultryman
provides such accommodations, and so habituates his fowls to use them, that
when the weather is worst the fowls can be kept comfortable, and that with-
out the keeper being obliged to do extra work under disagreeable conditions.
And it is surely no more than common prudence for a turkey grower who
wants to make the most of his opportunities, to provide suitable quarters and
train the birds to roost under cover, at least through that portion of the year
when cold rough weather prevails.

Turkeys do not need as warm houses as chickens. Wherever the winter is
not severe, a shed with front of slats or strong wire netting is sufficient. Even

that the trend of progress and of some of the best teachings on turkey topics is foward
the best methods of the chicken keepers. That the precise methods used for chickens
will ever be applied to turkeys, does not appear at all probable; but in whatever respects
popular methods of handling turkeys are not truly economical and humane to the fowls
and to the keeper, the changes already made by a few growers are sure to be more widely
adopted. Much of the close adherence to old methods has been due to the prevalent belief
that as turkeys are not ascompletely domesticated as other fowls, they cannot thrive unless
allowed to continue many of the habits of their wild ancestors. Treatment of them has
proceeded on the assumption that they are essentially different, zz nature, from other
domestic fowls. This assumption is correct in so far as it asserts that turkeys generally
now have certain habits, different from those of thoroughly domesticated fowls, which
habits render them less amenable to methods which suit the keeper; but it is wrong in
that it presumes that these habits cannot be modified. (ithe turkey is undoubtedly capa-
ble of becoming as completely domesticated as the hen (chicken), and it is highly proba-
ble that such modification of habits would be followed by increased prolificacy —a most
desirable improvement.

224 BOOTLE ANG Ke AU ielas

in the coldest parts of this country, they will be contentedly comfortable in a
fairly tight, but unlined building. A shed or house for turkeys should be
somewhat higher than for chickens. The roost should be placed further from
the ground. The droppings should not be allowed to accumulate beneath
the roosts. ;

331. Yards for Turkeys.— As may be inferred from what has been said
of the conditions of profitable turkey growing, turkeys are rarely yarded.
Some breeders yard the breeding stock during the breeding season; some
confine the laying hens until after the eggs have been laid each day, thus
preventing them from laying in hidden or distant nests. This latter method
recommends itself to those so situated that the breeding stock can have liberty.
It is absurd that so many turkey keepers should spend hour after hour and
trudge many rough miles in locating the nests of hen turkeys at liberty to nest
where they please. The enclosure for laying turkeys shut up only a part of
each day, need not be large. <A yard fifty by one hundred feet will do for a
flock of a dozen to twenty hens. A five-foot fence of woven wire or wire
netting will keep the hens in bounds. Indeed, heavy hens will hesitate long ~
before attempting a four-foot picket fence, and often refuse to try it.

332. Keeping Turkeys in Confinement, — While for business turkey
keeping fairly large range must be considered a necessity, a person who wishes
to keep and rear a very few turkeys for pleasure, may do so on quite a small
piece of ground — on a village lot of, say, an acre. The semi-confinement is
not necessarily injurious. The task of keeping them within bounds will be
easy, or difficult, according to the individual dispositions of the fowls and the
relative force of attractions inside and outside of the home grounds. Keeping
them healthy is principally a matter of keeping their quarters clean, and using
good judgment in feeding. Old birds are much easier to handle than young
ones. If there is nothing special to induce the old ones to leave home, they
remain there apparently well contented. The young ones, unless prevented,
will wander off as soon as they are able. They can, however, be kept
yarded, fed about as chickens are, and make good growth, develop into really
fine specimens.

Handling turkeys under such conditions furnishes amusement until the
novelty wears off. To one interested in such matters, the experiment is
interesting as showing how far and in how short a time, the habits of the
fowls can be modified. But not many who may try this kind of turkey keep-
ing will continue it beyond a second season, for it would hardly be possible
to undertake anything in the poultry keeping line that would give as meager
results for the expense and trouble incurred.

333. Kinds of Turkeys. — The Standard recognizes six varieties of
turkeys, classifying them as sub-divisions of one breed. The so-called

POULTRY-CRAFT. 225

common turkeys are mostly mixtures of the varieties, or stock of pure varieties
so much deteriorated that the variety characteristics are no longer distinctive.
The wild turkeys still found in some parts of the country are of the same
species as the domestic birds, breed quite freely with them, and the introduction
of wild blood has been a favored method of restoring vigor of degenerate stock.

BronzE TuRKEYS —
are the largest, hardiest,
most popular, and most
profitable variety. Stand-
ard weights are: adult
cock, 36 lbs.; yearling
cock, 33 lbs.; cockerel,
As Mosk Ines Zo) Ills. 2
pullet, 16 lbs. Speci-
mens) exceeding, these
weights are not un-
common, but the heavy
weight birds are bred
mostly by and for fan-
Ciers.. Bronze hens are

«. reputed poorer layers
than those of the other

varieties and common

Fig. 87. Bronze Turkeys. hens.

NARRAGANSETT TuRKEYS —are second in size, and, probably, in popu-
larity. The Standard weights are: cock, 30 lbs.; cockerel, 20 Ibs.; hen, 18
Ibs.; pullet, 12 lbs. In color they are gray—the ground of the plumage
being black, and each feather ending in a steel gray band edged with black.

SLATE, Burr and Brack TurKkEys—should be uniformly of the colors
which give the varieties their names, but in the first two, specimens good in
color are quite rare. Standard weights
aiierecOck, e277. lbs.;, cockerel,) 18 ‘lbs.
hen, 18 lbs.; pullet, 12 lbs. These varie-
ties are not popular, but are pretty well
distributed.

Wuire Hoiianp TurKrys—are the
smallest variety. Standard weights are:
cock, 26 lbs.; cockerel, 16 lbs.; hen, 16
lbs.; pullet, ro Ibs. In some sections

they rank next the Bronze in popularity. Fig. 88. White Holland Turkeys.
Turkeys called ‘‘ Mammoth White” have been exhibited and advertised. These
are generally supposed to have been produced by breeding White Hollands
to white sports of the Bronze variety.

226 RPOCSEIR AAC THAT:

334. About Breeding Stock. — The principles of breeding as given in
Chapter X., § 193—213, apply generally to turkeys. A few points, however,
require special mention here. In breeding exhibition stock size is of first
importance, markings next: big framed birds as near Standard in color as they
can be got, are most desirable. To produce quick growing market turkeys
small boned plump specimens are used. Old birds, if in good condition, —
not too fat,—are the best for breeding. The male turkey does not attain full
growth until his third year. Birds of either sex may be used for breeding
until eight or ten years old.

One male to ten or twelve females, is the usual rule, though a male is some-
times used with twenty or more females with most satisfactory results as to
fertility of eggs and vigor of offspring. A single impregnation generally fer-
tilizes all the eggs in a litter, and sometimes all laid during a season.

335. Management of Laying Turkeys.— The hen turkeys usually
begin laying in March or April, the period varying with the latitude, and, to
some extent, according to the season. If the hens are yarded, nests are distrib-
uted about the enclosure, sometimes in coops,* boxes or barrels; sometimes
heaps of straw or hay are placed in convenient half-concealed places in corners
or among shrubbery. When the turkeys are not confined at all it is still a good
plan to place nests near the dwelling house, and, if the hens are disposed to
wander off, prevent it until they have laid in one of the nests provided.
Having used a nest once, they rarely desert it.

If at liberty the breeding turkeys find a variety of food, and need be fed only
with grain. Many growers feed corn only, but wheat and oats, or a mixture of
corn, wheat, and oats, is considered better. Some soak the grain thoroughly
before feeding. Some feed a mash f in the morning and hard grain at night.
If turkeys are yarded during the laying period, a variety of food must be fur-
nished — mixed grains, green stuff, animal food, shell, grit, azd plenty of
water.

As a rule turkeys are not very prolific. Many hens lay not more than eight
or ten eggs before going broody. Not many lay more than seventeen or
eighteen in the first litter. Eighteen or twenty eggs in the season is probably
the average, though an uncommonly good layer may lay twice as many. As

* NotrrE.— A grower who uses coops in preference to either barrels or boxes makes the
coops three feet square on the ground, two and one-half feet high in front, and one and
one-half feet high in the back, with board roof, and a good sized opening in the front for
a door.

+ Nore. —In regard to feeding mashes to turkeys, it should be said that authorities are
mostly against it. Nevertheless, many people do feed mashes with the best of results.
The trouble with those whose birds go out of condition when fed mashes, is that their
mash feeds are wrong either in composition, consistency, or quantity fed, — sometimes
in all. It is worth noting that one authority, while roundly condemning mashes, highly
commends soaked grain, which is to all intents and purposes a soft — or mash — food.

POCE RR Y= CR ATT: 227

the hens lay so few eggs, it is the common practice not to allow them to sit
until they have laid two litters of eggs. To avoid breaking or chilling, and
also to induce the hens to lay longer, the eggs are removed from the nests
daily, and if there is danger of the hens deserting their nests because of the
removal of the eggs, a few chicken hens’ eggs are placed in the nest.

336. Hatching Turkeys. — The natural methods of hatching and brooding
are used almost exclusively in turkey culture. A few growers hatch the first
eggs in incubators, and brood the poults in brooder houses (with large runs)
or in outdoor brooders. Though those who have tried this have been fairly
successful, artificial methods, as applied to turkey growing, must be considered
as still in the early experimental stage.

Many turkeys are hatched and brooded by chicken hens, (most growers use
them to hatch the eggs laid first), but the general opinion is that the young
turkeys never do so well as when reared by turkey hens. *

When chicken hens are used to incubate the turkey eggs, the nests are made
and the hens handled just as if for hatching chickens. Nine to eleven turkey
eggs are enough for a hen. When turkey hens are used, they must, if wild,
be set on the nests where they had laid. If gentle they can be moved if the
keeper so desires, the same precautions being taken as are described for
chickens in 235. A turkey hen can cover fifteen to twenty eggs.

The period of incubation for turkey eggs is twenty-eight days. It is some-
times prolonged to thirty days. As the eggs are almost uniformly fertile,
testing is not as necessary as with chicken eggs, and as a rule the only test
made is three or four days prior to hatching, when the eggs are put in warm
water, and only those that ‘ kick,” which contain live poults, returned to the
nests.

When the poults are hatching, the commonest practice is to remove the
first hatched, wrap them in flannel, and keep in a warm place, and thus relieve

* Nore.— The relative advantages of using chicken and turkey hens, are thus neatly
summed up by Mrs. Hargrave, in the Reliable Poultry Journal :—‘*T have found the
advantages of turkey hens as mothers as follows: They are more quiet with little ones;
are better protectors from hawks and animals; will not wean the turkeys so soon as
chicken hens; are kinder to little turkeys other than their own broods ; are better foragers:
will take their little ones to the range where they can pick insects, grass seeds, etc.; the
little ones are not subject to so many lice as when running with a chicken hen. The
main objection to turkey hens is, they are troublesome about coming to the accustomed
roosting place with the brood and getting them sheltered for the night.

‘‘ Advantages of a chicken hen are that the little turkeys will be more tame as a rule
than when mothered by the turkey, and the hen always takes her brood to the coop in the
evening and puts them to roost; but as a hen is more restless, she keeps the little ones
on the move the first few days, when they ought to be very quiet. This can be overcome
by tying her or fastening her in the coop. * * * J endeavor to set eggs under a
turkey hen, and some chicken hens at the same time, so when the chicken hen weans her
brood they will, with a little effort on your part, take up with the turkey hen and her
brood, and all go on the range together.”

228 POOGILLRAECTLATAT.

the crowded condition of the nest, and prevent the little ones being trampled.
Some of the best growers, however, advise letting the turkey hen alone until
she brings the brood from the nest. This method is probably the better one
to use with hens not accustomed to being handled, or of vicious dispositions.

337. The Care of Young Poults.— The young turkeys will not eat for
twenty-four to thirty-six hours after hatching; hence no food need be offered
them the first day. The mother should be fed. If the nest in which the
poults were hatched is such and so situated that a small pen can be made in
front of it, the brood can remain there for some days; if not, they should be
removed to a suitable coop — one with board bottom being preferable — with
pen attached. The pen for a brood of turkeys should be made of boards
twelve to sixteen inches wide, set on edge, and enclosing a space about eight
feet one way by twelve to sixteen the other. To this pen they should be
confined for a week or ten days — until. they are strong enough to run about.
If the pen cannot be placed on grass land, green food should be provided from
the start, for little turkeys seem to need green food about as soon as they need
anything, and suffer if they do not get it. Grit and charcoal should be pro-
vided. Lice must be fought just as on little chicks. Dampness is to be
avoided by keeping the coop dry, by keeping the poults.in the pen,—or if
the pen is on grass, in the coops—while the dew is on the grass, and by
getting them under cover before rain storms.

While the young turkeys are confined to the pens, these should be moved as
often as necessary to new ground. ‘The coops should be kept scrupulously
clean. When five or six weeks old they may be allowed to range freely, but
still need watching when severe storms threaten, and to insure their being
home at night. A great advantage in giving an evening feed, even when it is
not really needed, is that it induces the turkeys to come home regularly, and
saves the trouble of hunting them up. At six to eight weeks of age the poults
begin to roost, and roosts placed three or four feet from the ground should be
provided, either under cover or where they have the partial protection of trees
or buildings.

From the time they ‘*‘ shoot the red,” that is, from the time that color begins
to develop on the head and throat, turkeys become hardier, and if their range
is good, need little care beyond what is necessary to protect them from their
natural enemies, and to prevent their becoming too wild.

338. Feeding Turkeys from Shell to Market. — Remarx.— The
rations given here are those used by successful turkey growers. It will be
observed tuat good results are secured from quite different systems of feeding.
Differences in systems may be due sometimes to differences in circumstances ;
but as a rule they depend more on the keeper than on conditions. The fact
that some growers are successful with very simple rations, shows that much
of the work done by those who furnish more elaborate bills of fare is super-

POULTRY-CRAFT. 229

fluous. At the same time, it is to be observed that not a few who succeed
when they fuss a great deal with chickens or turkeys, fail utterly if they
attempt more economical methods.

(1). Ration for Young Turkeys.—(CraANGLE).— ‘‘ After about thirty-six hours
old, or after the hen leaves her nest, we feed for three or four meals, equal parts of hard
boiled eggs and stale bread. After that mostly stale bread moistened with milk. For
two or three weeks we give curdled milk to drink. After two weeks we mix a little red

pepper with the bread twice a week.”

(2). Ration for Young Turkeys.—(Curriss).— ‘‘ Our first feed is bread and milk,
with the milk so pressed out that the bread will crumble. This is fed for the first two
weeks, after which the feed is gradually changed to milk curd and meal, one-half part
each, and a little cracked corn is given at night.”

(3). Ration for Young Turkeys on Good Range.—( Mrs. Mackey ).— ‘‘ The first
feed I give is milk curd, with onion tops and tongue or pepper grass cut very fine
seasoned with black pepper. I give this morning, noon, and night. It is a mistake to
feed very often or too much while they are young. If poults are fed three times a day
from the time they are hatched until they are grown, they are fed often enough. Yet
they must have something to pick all the time, hence I would advise that they be kept in
a grass yard where the grass is kept low.

‘“ As they grow older I add other things to the food. Table scraps are splendid for
them. If I have infertile incubator eggs I boil them and mix with the other food, but
never use fresh eggs, simply because I do not consider it necessary. I give milk instead
of drinking water when it is plentiful. I keep grit constantly before them. Wheat is
one of the finest feeds for young turkeys. Cracked corn is splendid when they are older.
My rule has been to mix grains of wheat in the food from the first, so that when they are
old enough to change from curd to grain it will not be so hard to change foods.”

(4). Rations From Shell to Market.—(Mrs. HarGrave).—‘‘I feed poults every
two hours until about ten days old, giving stale light bread softened in sweet milk (or
water), squeezed dry, mixed with hard boiled eggs, including shells, finely broken. This
food is alternated with bread and clabber cheese, oat flake and egg, or cheese seasoned
with a little salt and pepper. After the little ones are about a week old I begin mixing a
little whole or cracked wheat, Indian corn, Kaffir corn, or millet with the cooked food,
and thus they learn to eat grain. Always try to feed no more than they will eat up clean
each time. When they are about a week old I begin to drop the white bread, and give
them instead what I call a brown light bread made the same as white bread, using one-
half white flour (a cheap grade will do) and the other half about equal parts of shorts
and bran, with a handful or two of corn meal. The meal makes it crumble easily. The
bread should be allowed to dry for a day or two before feeding; if fed fresh it may choke
the poults. I gradually drop the white bread and eggs, and feed instead the brown bread
and cheese. When about six weeks old they have become accustomed to the grain food,
which since they were three weeks old has been kept by them in troughs, in coops so
constructed that the little turkeys can get in and the older fowls are kept out. By the
time the poults are nine or ten weeks old I have dropped the soft or cooked feed to once
or twice per day. By September the older poults are dependent upon grain food and
range. For fattening I had good results with a mixture of grains proportioned as
follows: —two bushels whole corn, two bushels cracked corn, one bushel oats, one
bushel Kaffir corn.”

230 POULTRYIY-CRAFT.

(5). An All Corn Ration.—(CusHMman).— ‘‘ Successful Rhode Island growers as a
rule feed their turkeys from start to finish on northern white flint corn, which they grow
themselves. They take great pains to feed nothing but well seasoned old corn, because
they have found that new corn causes bowel trouble. Turkeys not only like northern
flint corn best, and fatten best on it, but it makes their flesh more tender, juicy and
delicious. That given the little ones is coarsely ground, and mixed with sweet or sour
milk, or made into bread that is moistened with milk. This is gradually mixed with
cracked corn, which when they are about eight weeks old, is fed clear or mixed with sour
milk. In the fall whole corn is given. After June ist those at full liberty are usually
fed but twice daily. They are hunted up and fed in the fields, that they may stay away
from the farmyard, and outbuildings. Many give the turkeys no food from August rst
until cool weather. They get their own living until they come up from the fields in
September or October. Upon the approach of cold weather they come to the house to be
fed, and thereafter roam but little.

‘To fatten them for Thanksgiving, they are fed in November all the whole corn they
will eat three times per day. It is not necessary to coop them. The full feeding causes
them to rest and sun themselves. Dough is not much used for fattening in Rhode Island.
One grower who gives it every morning, and whole corn at night, mixes condition
powder with the dough, and finds it causes them to eat more and gain faster. Some
raisers give a little new corn mixed with the old at this time, but most consider it safer
to feed clear old corn. It is not best to heavily feed turkeys that are to be held for a later
market, or those to be kept over for breeding.”

339. The Market for Turkeys.— The heaviest demand for turkeys
comes at the winter holiday season. The bulk of the crop is marketed in
about two months. Usually the best prices of the year are obtained for
‘*Thanksgiving turkeys.” Through the remainder of the year there is a
limited demand, and it will happen once in a while that prices are as good
in the late winter as at any earlier time. It would be no object for the grower
to hold marketable turkeys over the period of best demand, in expectation of
better prices; but good prices in February and March may give him better
profit on any late turkeys he may happen to have.

At some of the eastern summer resorts there has lately arisen a demand for
turkey brotlers, ten or twelve weeks old. At the prices obtained, growers
near these resorts may find it as profitable to sell the turkeys at that age as to
mature them for the winter trade. This demand is confined to a very few
places, and it is as yet impossible to say whether it is likely to continue and
become more general.

The description given in § 276 of the kind of chickens in demand, applies
also (with some slight changes which immediately suggest themselves), to
turkeys. The popular demand is for medium to small turkeys. During
Thanksgiving week twelve to fifteen pound turkeys command the best prices ;
but good stock of ten pounds (or even less; the buyer finds) weight brings
good prices. Very large birds—as is the case in all kinds of poultry —
go mostly to the hotel and restaurant trade, and do not bring as good
prices as stock of the same quality in the weights required for the family
trade.

POULTR?-CRAFT. 231

340. Preparing for Market and Selling.— The information given in
Chapter XII., in regard to marketing poultry, (see § { 269—271, 278—z289),
applies generally to turkeys. There are, however, a few points deserving
special mention.

The turkey grower ought always to reserve as many of his best devel-
oped birds as he needs to replace breeding stock, or for his trade in breed-
ing stock, if he carries on that trade. There is often a strong temptation
to market the best birds when prices are best, and trust to the later birds
developing in time to be sold or used as breeders. This is bad policy, and has
doubtless done more than any other one thing to deteriorate flocks of turkeys.

It is very important to prevent the turkeys being frightened or bruised when
caught for killing. A bruised carcass does not bring the price a perfect one
does. The method of catching birds that have not been sheltered is thus
described by Cushman :—

‘“The usual plan is to get the birds into a barn or carriage shed, and shut them in. In
order to do this, they are fed for a long time in front of, or just within the place where
they are to be caught. Later, the feed is placed within the building, and they become so
familiar with it that they are unsuspicious when within. When they are to be caught,
the doors of the building are suddenly closed; or a covered yard of wire netting is built
in front of the building and closed when all are in. Usually when they find they are
confined they become frightened, and fly back and forth, or huddle up in corners. * * *
To overcome this drawback, certain raisers have improved the usual makeshift catching
~ place by building a long, low, dark pen back of the barn or shed. This pen extends
alongside of the building, and is at right angles with the entrance to it, and at the extreme
end is about two feet high. Up to the time of their being caught, the end is left open,
and the birds frequently find their way through it. When they are to be caught, only
what the pen will comfortably take are driven in. They do not discover that the end is
closed until it is too late to turn back. The turkeys that are not to be caught, are first
driven away; otherwise they may be alarmed, and become unmanageable. No turkey
that is thus caught, and has learned the mysteries of the trap is ever allowed to escape,
or its suspicions would be communicated to the others. When shut in this pen they are
quiet, and when a man goes to catch them, there is no struggle; he simply reaches out
and takes them by the legs. The pen is too dark and narrow for them to fly, and too
low for them to crowd one upon another.”

341. Selling Exhibition and Breeding Stock.— Preparing for Exhi-
bition.— A breeder of fine turkeys who does not also breed other fine poul-
try, is likely to find it hard to sell them profitably, except what a local trade
will take. Ordinarily the trade will not be large enough, or the prices
obtained high enough to warrant advertising for turkeys exclusively.

With many exhibitors preparation for exhibition consists simply in taking
the bird from the range to the exhibition coop. If the birds are to show
themselves to advantage, though, they should be accustomed to the coop and
to being handled and inspected before going to the show room.

342. Diseases of Turkeys.— Doctoring sick turkeys is mostly unprofit-
able business. It does not pay to attempt it except under conditions as stated

232 IA ONOME SET §¢ HN GIS ATL

for chickens in § 310. Turkeys are affected by many of the same diseases as
chickens, and by a few which are either peculiar to the turkey or attack it in
a different form.
Diseases most prevalent among and disastrous to turkeys, are : —
Blackhead —which has been long common and troublesome in the east,
and frequently appears in other sections. According to Cushman:

‘“Tt is an infectious liver disease, similar in its nature to human dysentery. The
disease takes its name from the fact that turkeys of a certain age, when attected, look
shrunken, pinched, and purple about the head. Turkeys having the disease probably
affect the land they run upon. The organisms are present in their excrement, and if
taken in with food or water, may produce the disease in other turkeys. Sick birds
should be killed and burned or deeply buried. Buildings, coops and feeding and drinking
vessels which they may have contaminated, should be disinfected. Birds once having this
trouble, even if they have apparently recovered, may still not be free from it, and be able
to scatter infecting material. It is therefore not best to keep specimens that have ever
been affected. Take great pains to clear out the sick from both young and old, and then
if it is possible, change the well ones to new ground. Some turkeys resist infection
where others succumb to it. Doubtless some have.such vigor and power that they over-
come or destroy infection if it reaches them.

‘* Little turkeys are most susceptible. They are infected early in life, and the disease
develops fast or slow according to how numerous the organisms are, or to the strength
of the turkey. Wet, stormy weather aggravates the disease. Their feathers look rough;
they have diarrhcea, with bright yellow excrement; and they weakly drag one foot after
the other for some time before they die. Here (in Rhode Island) they usually die in the
latter part of July, early in August, and at the beginning of cold weather.

‘‘In some cases both ceca are affected, in others but one, or a part of one. Those
having but a small part of the liver invaded may live through the winter, and not die
until spring.

‘* Prevention is possible, but cure is difficult. By breeding them to secure great vigor,
by feeding to counteract any tendency to diarrheea, and by giving preventive treatment
upon the slightest symptoms of abnormal looseness, much may be done to help them
resist this disease if they are exposed to it.

‘¢ A tonic and stimulant for the liver and bowels will help prevent the disease; confine-
ment and over-feeding favor it. Pepper and ginger, and something sour are indicated as
well as an astringent. Sick turkeys sometimes recover after they can eat all the acorns
they want; they administer the astringent themselves. One beginner, after losing many
little turkeys, reports that he cured a lot in two weeks by giving them a saturated solution
of epsom salts in milk to drink, and nothing but grass to eat.”

Colds and Roup — see { 313.

Gape Worms —see ¥ 313.

Lheumatism — see ¥ 313.

Tape Worms —are very common in turkeys, and often kill whole flocks of
young ones. Freshly powdered kuosso is a highly recommended remedy.
Tansy and pumpkin seeds are also recommended. See also § 313.

POULTR?Y-CRAFT. 232

CHAPTER XVII.

DUCKS.

343. Introductory.— The duck business as carried on by ‘* duck farm-
ers,” usually combines the growing of ‘* green’? * ducks for market, of stock

for exhibition and breeding

g, and the production of eggs for hatching. Eggs

are not produced specially for table use, as hen eggs are, and only a small per
cent of duck eggs go to market. A few duck farmers confine operations to
the growing of market ducks.

The duck business presents several features worth special mention : — Duck
growing for profit really has to do with only one of the numerous varieties of
ducks, that one being for the purpose far superior to all others. In striking
contrast to the turkey —the general farmers’ fowl —the duck is a fowl for the
specialist, peculiarly suited to intensive poultry keeping. Ducks are remark-
ably free from disease and vermin. They grow twice as fast as chickens and
turkeys. Of all fowls they are most easily managed in close quarters. Some
of their bad points—as well as the good ones—are to the advantage of the
specialist. They are of all fowls the most difficult to dress properly, and the
most unsalable when not marketed in nice condition. Thus in handling them
skilled labor with convenient appliances has greater advantages over make-
shift arrangements and unskilled or half-skilled labor than in any other branch
of poultry keeping.

Until a few years ago the growing of green ducks for market, which is the
principal branch of the business, was carried on only in a few localities within
easy reach of New York and Boston; but of late, poultry keepers all over
the country, excited by stories of large profits from ducks, have ¢rzed duck
growing. Some large farms have been established at interior points, and
thousands of poultry keepers have been producing ducks in quantities ranging
from a few dozens to as many hundreds. Very few of those thus engaging in
duck growing had any knowledge of the real condition of the duck market —
further than that ducks were generally bringing much better prices than other
poultry,— or realized how very limited was the demand for green ducks
outside of the large eastern cities. The duck, has been, as arecent writer justly

* NoTEe.—‘‘ Green” ducks :— quick grown ducks marketed at between two and three
months of age — corresponding to soft roasters in chickens.

234 POULTRI-CRAFT.

says: ‘*more the food of the clubman and the epicure than the staple dish of
the family.” This was the case where the edible qualities of quick grown,
grain fed ducks were pretty well known. Elsewhere the reputation of
‘* duck” as a food was about as unsavory as the flesh of the common puddle
duck, the only kind of which people generally knew anything. Consumers
of poultry were apt to look askance at their poultryman when he tried to sell
them duck as a delicacy, and at a higher price than chicken. Thus the
growth of a popular taste and demand for ducks is necessarily slow, the more
so because so many regular consumers of good poultry can eat duck only
occasionally, or only in cool weather; or, perhaps, not at all. Under the
circumstances, the first who tried ducks in each locality usually found it much
easier to produce duck meat than to sell it profitably. The natural result was
the congestion of the surpluses from all quarters in the few markets where
the demand had been good. Following this came demoralization of prices,
particularly in the latter part of each season.

Though the business has been temporarily overdone, well established farms
are able to make a very fair profit; and duck growing still offers opportunity
for a living or a part of a living according as one engages in it extensively and
exclusively, or on a smaller scale in connection with other branches of poultry
culture, or with some other business. Wherever good ducks are produced,
the demand for them will steadily increase, and though it is neither likely nor
— for the best good of the industry — desirable, that there should be a return
to the high prices of earlier years, the inevitable adjustment of supply to
demand will hold prices high enough generally to give the grower a living
profit.

544. Profit From Ducks.— On large plants the estimated total cost of
producing ducks is 6 to 8 cts. per pound. At the lowest prices yet reached
this gives the grower a net profit of 15 to 20 cts. on each duck. As a large
part of the product is marketed before very low prices are reached, the average
net profit, at prevailing prices, should be about 25 cts. or more, per duck. At
that figure a plant producing ten thousand to fifteen thousand ducks annually
yields a substantial profit. A plant of such capacity, however, is not built in
a season, nor is it every man who tries duck growing that can successfully
manage such a plant. It represents a total investment of hardly less than
$10,000, and the ability to produce ducks at the cost figures given is gained
only with years of practical experience. In a business conducted on a smaller
scale the cost of production is greater, and the profit less. A plant which one
man could manage, with a little assistance during the marketing season, would
hardly do more nowadays than give him fair remuneration for his own labor.
His net income would probably be about the same as that for the oze man
poultry business described in § 4. The amounts credited to different items
would differ; the totals would be nearly the same. This estimate, however,
is merely suggestive. As a matter of fact, but one duck grower in a hundred

POGEDPRHACKATAT:. 235

would find it advisable to run a duck business on a one man scale. Where an
exclusive duck farm will pay it must be on a larger scale; elsewhere generally
duck growing must be carried on as one branch of a combination.*

345. Ducks Adapted to All Sections.—Sites for Duck Plants and
Houses.—The information given in Chap. II., (18, 20, 21, 23—26, applies

generally to duck culture. Exclusive duck farming can be made profitable
only near a large city, where there is good demand for ducks. A few ducks
can be profitably grown almost anywhere. As has been intimated, the duck
growers, like the breeder of high class chickens (19), awakens interest in
and creates an ever-increasing demand for his product.

Though water fowls, ducks need a well drained soil and dry houses. For
breeding ducks a pond or stream of water is an advantage, but not absolutely
necessary. Natural shade is desirable. If there is none, artificial shade must
be provided, for ducks are extremely sensitive to the heat of the sun.

346. Houses and Yards.

For BreEepinc Ducxs.— Duck houses are built on the same general plans.
_as houses for chickens. Either of the houses shown in Figs. 1 and 4, would
make a good house for a small flock of ducks. For a very small flock a good
sized coop may be used. The coop shown in Fig. 46, would do very well for
a few ducks and a drake. On large plants the houses are usually built on the
continuous plan, (see Figs. ri and 12), modified to suit the ducks and the
methods of duck keeping. The pens for ducks are generally larger than for
chickens, and as it is desirable to have them as nearly square as it is practica-
ble, most duck houses are wider, though some narrow houses are in use.

On one of the largest duck farms the pens are 15 x 20 ft., in houses 18 ft. wide,
and of such lengths as are desired and the *‘ lay of the land” permits. These
houses are 6 ft. high at the back, where the walk is, and four feet high in front ;
with double pitched roof 12 ft. to the peak. In the south side (front) of each
pen are two half-windows and a door to give the ducks access to the outside
runs. In the north wall, opposite the middle of each pen, is a half-window
for ventilation in warm weather. The partitions between the pens and between
pens and walk are of boards, and are about 30 in. high. In the partition
between each pen and the walk is a gate wide enough to admit a wheelbarrow
when the pens are to be cleaned. In feeding, gathering eggs, etc., the gates
are not used; the attendant easily stepping over the partitions. About forty
breeding ducks are kept in each pen. The yards connecting with the pens are
20 ft. wide by too ft. long.

* Note. — In most places poultrymen growing both chickens and ducks, will usually
find the latter more profitable as long as theirhome market is not over-stocked ; especially
is this true of those producing for a family trade. To illustrate: — A plant having an
annual capacity of three thousand table chickens, old and young, may have trade that
will take only twenty-five hundred fowls at profitable prices. There is then no object:

236 POOL DRY-~ CRATE.

On another farm the houses are built without walks; are 15 ft. wide, 8 ft.
high in front, 5 ft. 4 in. high at the back, with shed roof. In the front are the
doors to outside runs, and half-windows every ten feet. In the back, at the
middle of each. pen, is a half-window through which bedding is renewed and
litter removed. For economy of construction and convenience in working,
this style of house is hard to excel.

On still another plant thirty-five breeding ducks are kept in each 13 x
13 ft. pen, connected with which is a yard 26 x 125 {t., of which 26 x 36 ft. is
water.

Fixtures.—The necessary interior furnishing of the duck house is of the
simplest. When the ducks are fed and watered indoors, drinking fountains,
feed troughs, and boxes for shell and grit, complete the furnishing. Some
breeders feed outside. Nest boxes are not needed; duck keepers agree that
fewer eggs are broken or lost when the ducks scoop out nests in the litter or
earth, each one as it suits her.

Frences.—VYhe yard fences, like the inside partitions, are low, 2 it., 24 ft.,
sometimes 3 ft. high. Wire netting attached to stakes driven into the ground,
is used for fencing.

Brooder Houses, as described in ¥§ 46, 47, and illustrated in Figs. 29—32,
are used for ducklings.— Separate brooders are also used.—The partitions,
both in the houses and outside, need be only 1 ft. high for the small ducklings.

DUCKS DESCRIBED.

347. Kinds of Ducks.— Fowls were described in § 68 as:— common, or
mongrel; cross bred; grade; pure bred, and Standard bred. These terms
apply to ducks also, though crosses are much rarer than among chickens.
Many flocks of so-called Pekins are grades produced by the systematic use of
Pekin drakes on white ducks starting from common white ducks. Common
ducks are often very good layers, but grow slowly, and their meat is inferior
to that of the improved varieties.

348. Pekin Ducks.—Though White Pekin ducks may not merit all that
is said of them by enthusiastic breeders, it is certain that without the Pekin
duck the business could not have grown to its present proportions, and that
as a market duck this breed has no rival. They are hardy, quick growers,

in producing to the full capacity of the plant. But, if without any diminution of sales of
other poultry, five hundred ducks can be profitably sold—as in many cases they could
be,—it would pay to raise that many ducks, and the ducks would probably pay pro-
portionately better than the chickens. At the same time, it might be a bad mistake to
suppose that because the ducks were paying better it would be wise to reduce the produc-
tion of other stock, and increase the number of ducks grown.

POULTRY-CRAFT. 237

prolific layers of large white * eggs, and thrive in close confinement. Standard

acon

Fig. 89. Pekin Drake. (By courtesy of A. J. Hallock).

weights aera acuilit:
drake, 8 Ibs.; young
drakey( 7albs;) seadullt
duckie jon lbs youn'c:
duck, 6 lbs. The body
of the Pekin duck is
very long and deep,
well rounded and full,
both in breast and in
the) eat. 9) Whe plum
age, which is_ softer
and more downy than
that of other varieties,
1S) Oly a) tainty creamy,
white surface color,
with yellow sometimes
quite strong in the
under color. The beak
is deep yellow, and

according to the Standard should be free from black marks. In adult drakes,

black streaks and black knobs
(at the end of the upper man-
dible),;' are rarely absent.
Many breeders affirm that
the most vigorous’ drakes
usually show some dark color
in the beak. The legs and
toes should be of a _ reddish
orange color. The principal
faults are an exceedingly timid
disposition, and the coarse stri-
dent voice of the female.

349. Aylesbury Ducks
resembles the sibhekinsis ims) a
general way—they are large
white ducks,— but have bodies
more oval shaped; whiter,
harder plumage; flesh colored
beaks, and light yellow feet.

iN

=

= Boas S
os <I

Fig. 90. Pekin Duck,

* Notr.— From every large flock of Pekins, some green eggs are gathered. These are
usually rejected for incubating. The birds producing them are supposed to have a taint

of foreign blood.

238 PO CLARO R ALA:

According to the descriptions of this breed as grown near the English town
trom which it takes its name, Aylesbury ducks should be quite the equals of
the Pekins in market quality and in capacity for quick growth. In the hands
of the American growers they have so far been decidedly inferior. Standard
weights are: adult drake, g lbs.; young drake, 8 lbs.; adult duck, § lbs.;
young duck, 7 lbs.

350. Rouen Ducks have the same Standard weights as Aylesburys. In
color they resemble the common colored ducks, though in well bred stock the
colors of the plum-
age are clearer, and
in the male more
> brilliant than is
usual in common
ducks. * _ Consider-
able differences of
Opinion exist as to
the merits. of the
Rouen duck. A
result of the ac
knowledged superi-
ority of the Pekins
for the purposes of
the duck farmer,
has been to throw
other varieties — no
matter how many
good qualities they
Pig. 91. Rouen Ducks. (By courtesy of “ Poultry,” England). possess — into the

shade. That good Rouen ducks aré inferior to Pekins in vigor, prolificacy,
capacity for rapid growth, or actual quality of meat, remains to be proved.
The color of the Rouen is against it as a table duck. As the duck industry is
principally the growing of ducks for the table and of stock from which to pro-
duce table ducks, the Rouen never can be seriously considered a competitor of
the Pekin ducks in economical duck growing. It is a duck for the fancier and
for those who keep ducks for home use, and do not object to the dark pin-

feathers.

351. Cayuga Ducks have the same standard weights as Pekins, but prob-
ably average much lighter. They are classed as hardy, early maturing birds,

* NoTe.— Wright supposes the common colored ducks to be degenerate Rouens. It
would be more natural to think the Rouen a vastly improved common duck.

POOELDRI-CRALTL. 239

and good layers. In color they are a lustrous greenish black,—the flight
feathers of the females sometimes brownish. In most sections of the country
they are rare.

352. Call Ducks are bantam ducks. There are two varieties: the Gray,
in color resembling Rouens, and the Wzte. They are kept only by fanciers,
and as ornamental fowls.

353. Black East Indian Ducks are small black ducks, not common,
and kept mostly for ornamental purposes.

354. Crested White Ducks are almost sufficiently described by their
name: they are of medium size, and quite rare.

355. Muscovy Ducks are specially distinguished by the bare face with
much carunculated skin, giving them a savage appearance, and a reputation for
viciousness which the males, at least, richly deserve. Standard weights are:
adult drake, ro lbs.; young drake, 8 lbs; adult duck, 8 lbs.; young duck,
7 lbs. They are reputed very poor layers. Before the advent of the Pel in
the White variety of this breed was used by Long Island duck growers.
There are two varieties: Colored Muscovy Ducks are black and white, irregu-
larly marked, the black generally predominating; with dark colored bills,
and legs ranging from yellow to black. White Muscovy Ducks have pure
white plumage, flesh colored beaks, and yellow legs.

356. Indian Runner Ducks were but recently introduced into this coun-
try. They are small; Standard weights: males, 44 lbs.; females, 4 lbs. Their
color is a light fawn (or gray). They are valued chiefly for laying qualities.
Rare, and not likely to become popular.

357. Buying Stock.—The remarks on buying stock, 4 111, 112, apply
to ducks as well as to chickens. .Prices of ducks and of duck eggs, while
ruling about the same as prices of chickens, for good breeding and ordinary
exhibition stock, (4113), never reach the extreme high prices mentioned for
chickens. As to starting with eggs or with stock, the remarks in § 114 apply,
except that Pekin duck breeders sometimes advise starting with eggs rather
than stock when the shipment has a long distance to go. The ducks go off
badly on a long journey, and are not likely to be worth much as breeders the
first season in their new home.

358. Points on Breeding.—As much of the information contained in
Chap. X., 9 193—214, as is of general application, applies to duck breeding.
Points requiring special mention are : —

240 IEXO GUE SIRE OJAI EIS

Selecting Breeding Stock.— »

In mating ducks to produce high class stock, standard specimens of both
sexes are in every variety used to produce exhibition specimens of both sexes ;
there are no double matings.

In mating ducks to produce market stock, deep keeled, meaty specimens,
strong (not coarse) in bone, should be selected. They should have been
hatched in April, May or June.* If rapid growth is desired in the offspring,
it is advisable that the breeding birds selected should be known to have made
quick growth; but table quality ought not to be sacrificed to quick growth,
for the worst fault of ducks generally is that they carry too little meat for
their weight.

Lf very early ducklings are wanted, young ducks must be kept to lay the
eggs from which to hatch them. The young ducks lay a month or more
earlier than the yearlings and two year olds. The older birds throw better
ducklings. Most large operators have breeding birds of different ages,
depend on the younger birds for early eggs, and use only eggs from older
stock for hatching ducklings for breeding stock.

Number of females to a male. — The usual rule is #ve until June, after
that fez. The birds are kept in flocks of twenty-five to forty of both sexes.
Some breeders who have good water range, say that with it they can run one
drake to seven, nine, or even twelve ducks throughout the season.

The breeding season covers as much of the laying season as the grower
wishes. Some breeders hatch nearly every egg laid, continuing operations
until late in summer; some hatch only for the period of good prices. The
pens should be mated up early. If forced for eggs, some ducks begin laying
about January rst, (a few, perhaps, earlier); many will be quite a month
later. Under ordinary conditions, the ducks in flocks not managed for eggs
rarely begin laying before March. The laying season lasts until June, July,
or August, varying for individual ducks, and depending much on the care
and general condition of the flock. As to the average number of eggs laid,
there are wide differences of opinion. Estimates placing the average at 160,
150, 140, have been given, but one well informed duck grower thinks the
average for large flocks nearer to roo than to any of those figures; and
another states that in his own flocks the yearly product per duck varies from
100 to 135.

CARE OF BREEDING STOCK.

359. About Water Range. — Though some of the largest growers give
their breeding ducks no water except for drinking, there are few who do not
think access to a pond or stream of water, or a range on marshy ground a

* NotE.— Some breeders use only April or May hatched birds; some say the June
birds are just as good; all agree that very early and very late hatched ducks are not
desirable as breeders.

OGLE TCA TLT:. : 241

decided benefit to the breeding stock. As is often said, they can do without
it; they will do de¢¢er with it. Swimming, paddling about in marshy places
and along margins of streams, is to the duck what scratching is to the hen —
a natural and favorite exerczse. Ducks in all dry yards are in the condition
of hens in bare yards and on bare floors—they have nothing to do between
meals. The benefits of such exercise as can be secured in even a little pool
just large enough for a few ducks to paddle in at once, are immediately
noticeable when such a pool is furnished ducks which had been kept without
water. * Water for bathing ought to be considered as necessary for ducks, as
the dust bath is for hens. The important results of giving breeding ducks
water range, are: greater fertility of eggs, more vigorous ducklings, and the
birds themselves always looking well groomed.

360. Cleanliness is important. Feed troughs and drinking vessels
should be kept clean. The floors of the pens are generally littered with
cheap hay, shavings, or similar material, and cleaned out and the bedding
renewed as often as is necessary to give the ducks reasonably clean dry bed-
ding at all times. The yards need to be swept or scraped occasionally, and
the accumulation of droppings removed. Many breeders so arrange that the
yards can be disinfected by plowing up in the fall and sowing to yes) Vibhis
serves the double purpose of purifying the soil, and furnishing green food for
the ducks in winter and spring.

361. Gentleness and Quietness — are all-important in the duck yard.
Pekin ducks are absolutely fearless until it has been necessary to catch some
of them when they have grown too large to be taken easily by the body in
the hand. After some of a flock have been caught by the neck, all become
shy of the keeper, and if an attendant is hurried and reckless when moving
among them, or if they are disturbed by visitors or dogs, the egg yield usually
falls off. The breeding pens once made up, no birds should be removed.
Stock for sale ought never to be kept with breeding stock.

362. About the Eggs.— When the ducks have access to water, it is
necessary to keep them from it until all have laid in the morning. Usually

* NoTE.— Without doubt some ducks kept without water do better than some given
constant access to water ;— there may be differences in breed, feed, and general care; but
as between water for swimming, or at least tor bathing, and water for drinking only,
it seems incredible that any one who has tried both w7th the same ducks could have any
other opinion than that enough water for bathing is a necessity, and that more is
desirable. Pekin ducks which have not been accustomed to water may seem shy of it
if an attempt is made to drive them to water away from their quarters, and may
hesitate, but not for long,—to plunge into a pool prepared for them in a yard where
there had been none.

242 TOMO ESI SINEKCTE MATE

all will have laid by eight o’clock. (Ducks generally lay at night or very
early in the morning). In cold weather eggs should be gathered as early as
possible to prevent their becoming chilled. Soiled eggs should be washed at
once, and in cold weather should be wiped dry after being washed. The
eggs should be kept in a cool place. (See {[ 229).

363. Feeding Breeding Ducks. — Ducks are fed mostly on mixtures of
mill stuffs wet with cold water. Very few large duck growers cook the food,
though some scald it in winter. Cooked food can be used if convenient, but
unless the food must be cooked for other stock, there is no object in cooking
it for the ducks. The common experience of breeders is that they do just as
well on raw food. Many feed the ducks’no whole grain at all. Their
digestive apparatus is not suited to a diet composed largely of whole grain;
still they appreciate a little of it occasionally. There must always be water
near the feeding troughs at feeding times, and except in freezing weather,
the ducks should have drinking water always accessible. Ducks are greedy,
dirty feeders. They will consume a larger proportion of coarse bulky food
than hens will; yet they are not as heavy feeders as is commonly supposed. *
In general it is both economy and good feeding to give ducks fed a pretty
good meal of grain stuffs morning and evening; all the green food they
will eat during the day. Where ducks are kept in rather close confine-
ment, the most common error in feeding is giving grain food too often,
and not providing green stuff in abundance. Ducks need grit, shell, and
charcoal.

Ducks ranging as many small flocks do, often find food which imparts a
strong flavor to eggs and flesh. If the eggs are used only for hatching this is
immaterial; if some of them are wanted for cooking, the ducks must be kept
from the objectionable food. The rations given below are from well known |
duck growers. They present less variety than the rations given for hens
and chickens ({146), but the ingredients used are mostly such as may be
obtained anywhere.

(1). Ration for Breeding Ducks.—(Hattocx).— Four pails corn meal, 2 pails

bran, 1 of middlings, 1 of oats, 1 of wheat, mixed with 2 bu. chopped grass or greens or
chopped clover used when greens cannot be had.

(2). Rations for Breeding Ducks.—( RANKIN ).— During the fall feed to both old
and young stock 3 parts wheat bran, 1 part Quaker oat feed, 1 part corn meal, 5 per

* Note.— It is often said, even by those who should know better, that it is impossible
to satisfy the appetite of a duck. Such statements lead people to think it much more
expensive to feed ducks than to feed other fowls. A flock of grown ducks will not eat
more than an equal number of average chickens; nor does it require more food to grow
a duck than to grow a chicken of the same weight.

IAQ GY GIL I AN CI RU BIE 243

cent beef scraps, 5 per cent grit, and all the green stuff they will eat* in the shape of
corn fodder cut fine, clover or oat fodder, etc. Feed this mixture twice a day, all they
will eat.

For laying birds— 5 parts wheat bran, 5 parts corn meal, 4 parts Quaker oat feed, 2
parts boiled potatoes or turnips, 3 parts of clover rowen, I of grit; add green rye or
refuse clover cut fine. Feed twice a day all they will eat, with a lunch of corn and oats
at noon.

(3). Ration for Breeding Ducks on Grass Range.—(Porrarp).— Feed night
and morning what they will eat of a mixture of 3 parts Indian meal, 3 parts wheat bran,
I part low grade flour, 1 part beef scraps; the whole salted slightly, and thoroughly
mixed, not too wet, with cold water. Never cook the food except in winter, when it
may be mixed with hot water. Zz winter give a liberal allowance of boiled turnips
mashed in with the grain, say one-third turnips every other morning, and give cabbage
or any other green food obtainable at noon.

(4). Rations for Breeding Ducks.—(WeseER Bros. )— In fall keep on grass range,
and feed light. From the middle of November, when put in laying houses, until
December 15th, feed equal parts shorts and ground oats, to which add five per cent beef
Scraps; give this twice a day, morning and evening; give green food at noon. After
December 15th give full laying ration: equal parts corn meal and shorts, with ten per
cent beef scraps added. If green food is not available add one-fifth cooked vegetables to
the mash. Give raw vegetables at noon two or three times a week.

HATCHING AND REARING.

364. Which Method ?— In duck growing on a large scale, only artificial
methods of hatching and brooding are used; small growers frequently use
hens. (Ducks are rarely used to incubate their own eggs. The Pekins are
non-sitters). If one has the hens, it may pay better to hatch with them when
not more than a tew hundred ducks are reared; but to get or keep hens
expressly to hatch ducklings, would be very poor policy. In any case when
more than two or three hundred ducks are to be hatched, artificial methods
should be used.

365. Hatching in Incubators.—The artificial method as described in
Chapter XI., (§ 253—259, applies to duck eggs, except in the few points noted
below ; —

The period of incubation for duck eggs is twenty-eight days.

They require more ventilation than hen eggs, because the egg is larger, and
therefore more difficult to dry down, and because it has to be dried down to an
air space proportionately larger than in the hen egg, (see Fig. 79). A larger
air space is needed to give the larger head and bill of the duckling room to
work.

Operators advise cooling duck eggs longer than hen eggs.

* Nore.— If the food contains too much green stuff, the ducks eat the grain and as much green food as they want,
leaving the remainder in the troughs.

244 POOLE TRIAS CKRATA.

Ducklings generally pip the shells thirty-six to forty-eight hours before leav-
ing them. If unable to get out themselves after the twenty-eighth day, they
may be helped out, and will generally ‘‘ make a live of it.”

366. Brooding Ducklings.—The ducklings are usually left in the
machines for twenty-four hours, or longer, before being removed to the brood-
ers. In small brooders not more than fifty ducklings should be kept together ;
as many as one hundred and fifty may be started in each pen of a large brooder
house. Temperature and ventilation should be according to instructions for
chicks in § 260. For the first few days the ducklings must be confined quite
near the heat, not allowed to get far from it. In the piped brooder houses
they are kept near the hover by boards just long enough to reach across the
pens placed at the desired distance from the front of the house, about a foot
from it at first, the distance increased a little each day, until at four or five days
the ducklings are allowed full run of the pens. Ducklings do not need heat as
long as chickens, and at three to six weeks of age, according to the season, are
able to do without artificial heat, and may be removed to cold houses.

367. Feeding Ducklings.—The instructions as to methods of feeding
incorporated with some of the rations given below, cover the ground quite
fully. It is well, however, to impress it on the novice that ducklings must
always have water near their food when eating, and that sand or fine grit with
the first feeds is essential.

(1). Rations for Ducklings.—(Ranxn ).— First three or four days :— 1 part hard
boiled egg, 3 parts stale bread crumbs; after that equal parts of corn meal and wheat
bran, with boiled potatoes and a little beef scrap.

(2). Rations for Ducklings.— (HALLock).— First week—equal parts of corn
meal, middlings, crackers or stale bread, and green stuff; mix in a small handful of sand
to each quart of food. Give occasionally bread soaked with milk for a change. Second
week —4 parts corn meal, 2 parts wheat bran, 2 parts middlings, 1 part beef scraps,—
sand; mix with about one-third the quantity of green stuff. A/ about s’x weeks put ducks
in fattening pens, and feed § meal, the remainder about equal parts of bran, middlings,
and greens; add about 12 per cent of the whole beef scraps.

(3). Rations for Ducklings.—(Cooper).— First three or four days— soaked bread,
or cracker dust, and hard boiled eggs chopped fine, mixed and fed moist. Then feed
bran, corn meal, shorts, and a little beef scrap — increasing the amount of beef scrap as
the ducks grow older —mix well and feed moist. Gradually add vegetable food, consist-
ing of boiled roots, turnips, potatoes, etc., or green oats, rye, corn fodder, or clover cut
fine as possible in a feed cutter; mix the roots and grass with the feed. A growing duck
may be fed one part green food to two parts grain mixture to get a large frame. The
last two weeks before marketing shorten up the green food, and give more corn. Too
much green food makes the duck soft and flabby, and injures its sale. By fattening on

“

LONG TE, HIRE CSI IE IU, 245

grain the flesh is made firm, and will ‘‘ stand up,” as the dealers say. Fish is an excellent
food for young ducks, but if very much is fed it taints the meat. The ‘“ beef scrap ”’
duck is the best flavored, and will bring the best price.

(4). Rations for Ducklings.—(PoLLarp).— At first feed —# wheat bran, 4 Indian
meal, wet to a crumbly mass with milk, either skimmed or whole, but not cooked.
Cover floor in front of hover for some distance with fine gravel or sand; six or eight
inches from the hover place small dishes containing food slightly sprinkled with sand
the first time, and a fountain of lukewarm water. After all this simply keep the
ducklings warm, and let nature work. If worth rearing they gradually get out from
under the hover, and it is astonishing how quickly they will begin to stow away the food
and water. Keep food before them all the time for the first three days, and water all
night. After this they may be fed every three hours, till seven or eight days old. After
the fifth day they may be fed 5 per cent of beef scrap instead of milk, or both may be
given. Af two weeks make the food 4 meal, 4 bran, and add 10 per cent beef scraps. As
three weeks — 3 parts each of bran.and meal, with 1 part low grade flour, and 15 per cent
beef scraps; continue this food until killing time, not changing for any heavier or more
fattening food. After the fifth week feed only three times a day. Feed green food, or
_ not, as convenient; it is good for those intended for fattening, but not necessary for

market ducks. h

368. Hatching and Brooding With Hens.— For the management of
sitting hens see {] 232—235, 235—244. The principal faults of hens as duck
mothers are that they usually trample too many ducklings in the nests — more
ducklings than they would chicks; and that hen brooded ducklings are apt to
be affected with lice. The first fault may be partially remedied by removing
the ducklings as fast as hatched, returning them when the hatch is complete,
and they are stronger. For the other the hen should be treated with insect
powder, and the ducks provided with drinking pans deep enough to allow
them to get their heads entirely under water. The hens must be kept confined
to coops, such as are used for hens with chicks, and the ducklings to pens built
around or adjoining the coops. If the coops are reasonably tight and warm,
the ducklings require brooding only about three weeks in moderate weather.
In warm weather they pay little attention to the hen after the first few days.
If the grower is raising chicks and scalding or baking food for them, it can
be used for the ducklings as well; it will not be necessary to prepare food
specially for them. Some authorities say food for ducklings must be wed
(besides there being water to drink at hand) or they cannot swallow it. In that
they are wrong. Coops and pens should be kept clean.

369. Management of Ducklings After Weaning is the same, whether
previously kept in brooders or with hens. Those intended for market will be
grown quicker and at less cost if given only as much yard room as they need
to keep themselves and their yard decently clean,— when the keeper does his
part at regular and not too long intervals. The flocks should not be too large ;
one of the best authorities on the subject gives fifty as the largest number that
should be kept together. The market ducks grow faster if not given water for
swimming.

246 POULTRY-CRAFT.

Ducks designed for breeding are better if given more liberty from the time
they are weaned; but the usual practice is to run all the ducklings together in
close quarters until they are of an age for marketing, then sort out those .
wanted for breeding, give them’ more liberty, a grass, and, if possible, a water
range. In sorting stock novices are often at a loss to know how to distinguish
the sexes. After they are about five or six weeks old the ducks ‘+ quack”
loudly when caught; the drakes give a low sound between a quack and a hiss ;
or sometimes make no noise at all.

370. Selling Ducks.—The ducks produced on large farms are always
sold dressed, and go mostly to wholesale dealers. Small growers, remote from
the large markets, must be governed by the conditions of their markets. In
some places it pays better to sell the ducks alive, in others to dress them; gen-
erally the best profit is obtained by selling direct to consumers. Green ducks
are marketed at nine to twelve weeks old, and should weigh nine to twelve
pounds to the pair; the average weight is rather more than ten pounds per
pair. The demand for them begins in April (a little) and May, and the
highest prices are obtained in those months. Early in the season, when prices
are high, with a tendency to take big drops, many ducks are marketed at nine
weeks old; later they are held longer. If not killed before the pin-feathers of
the adult plumage start, (at eleven to fourteen weeks, the exact time being
determined by inspection, and, by the expert, quite accurately by the general
appearance of the ducks), they must be held for a month or more longer, until
the plumage has grown enough to make clean picking possible. At this time
they weigh heavier and are really much better ducks, their flesh being firmer
and better distributed; but, if from large stock, they will be too large for the
general trade, and growers try to get all ducks marketed at the earlier age.
The ducks of an age for market are sorted the day before the killing. In
catching they are taken by the neck. If caught by the feet, there is danger of
dislocating the legs. Those to be killed are kept without food.

371. Killing and Dressing Ducks.—If the feathers are to be sold, the
ducks must be dry picked. The feathers will very nearly pay the cost of pick-
ing. For the eastern markets only dry picked stock is wanted. As experts
say that while it requires more experience to properly dry pick a duck, that
method, once learned, is easier and quicker, it will pay one who is dressing
many ducks to learn and use that method, even though his market does not
require it. Cushman thus describes the methods of killing and dry picking : —

They are stabbed in the back of the roof of the mouth,* after which they are stunned
by a blow with a club, or by striking the head against a post. The latter is said to be

* Notr.— As to the manner of holding the bird when making the cut, Rankin says: ~“‘ The bird should be held
between the knees, the bill held open with the left hand, and a cut made across the roof of the mouth just below the
eyes.” McFetridge’s method is: —‘‘ Take the duck under the left arm with its head in your left hand, etc.”

POULTR1-CRAFT. 247

less apt to disfigure them.* The picker sits beside a box (for the feathers) about level
with his knees, with the duck across his lap. He holds its head between his knee and
the box to prevent its fluttering and soiling the feathers with blood. In removing them
his hand is frequently wet in a dish of water. This causes the feathers to stick to it,
and enables him to grasp and pluck them with little effort. The wing, tail, and hard
feathers are thrown out; the others are saved. They are nsually removed by a sharp jerk
in the opposite direction from which they lie, the skin meanwhile being drawn taut. If
very tender the skin at the roots of the feathers is held between the fingers, and they are
pulled out straight a few ata time. The pin-feathers are wet down to cause them to
stick to the hand, and then caught between the thumb and the blade of a knife held in
the hand. The soft feathers are left on the wings, and the head and neck are not
plucked. The ducks are not drawn or headed. The wings are held in place by a string
tied about the body. The legs are washed, and the blood washed from the mouth and
head. The ducks are soaked in fresh water fora time, then put in ice water. If placed
breast down the abdomen will look more plump and attractive in shape after they harden.
The small stern bones which otherwise would stick out, are previously bent down.

Scalding Ducks.—Ducks are killed for scalding as described for chickens,
in § 252. The method of scalding is described in § 284. The plumage of
the duck being more dense, the scalding ‘takes a little longer. Some pickers
wrap the scalded duck in a blanket, and let it steam a few minutes; but this
practice is condemned because it partially cooks the skin, thus spoiling the
appearance of the duck.

372. Packing and Shipping instructions are the same as given in
qq 286—288, but in packing ducks they should be placed breast down, in
barrels; and in boxes, breast down in the bottom layer, and up in the top
layer.

373. Exhibiting Ducks.—Ducks should require little preparation for the
show room. Here is where the superiority of a water range is undeniably
evident. Ducks which have always had the opportunity to keep clean are
brighter, more sprightly, firm in plumage. Showing is very hard on ducks,
especially on the timid Pekins. They lose weight rapidly. Some breeders
will not show the same ducks twice in a season, and will not show at all
except at shows early enough to leave them time to get the birds in breeding
condition again early in the season.

374. Diseases of Ducks.—Ducks that are at all well cared for are rarely
sick. Sick ones are detter dead. There are no diseases peculiar to ducks,
but ducks which run with other fowls sometimes contract diseases from them.
Damp quarters often cause lameness. Occasionally a duck will show slight
symptoms of cold—a frothy scum covering the eyes. They should be washed
clean with warm water containing a little carbolic acid, and the bird treated
for a cold (¢ 313). If the cold is at all severe, it is better to kill the duck.

* Notre.— By preventing proper bleeding.

248 POUL TRY-CRAFT.

375. Feather Pulling is a common vice among ducklings kept in large
numbers in small yards, and a difficult one to deal with. There is no sure
cure. It begins when the large quill feathers of the wings are coming through
the skin. They often cause bleeding, and curiosity and the taste of blood
develops the vice. If taken in time, much may be done to stamp it out. At
first both victims and offenders are few in number, and if they are removed,
or even if the offenders only are removed, there is no further trouble. If the
vice becomes general, about all that can be done is to feed heavier of meat,
and try to keep the ducks busy. A few large bones with a little raw meat
adhering, placed about the yard, will help in this.

POULTRY-CRAFT. 249

CHAPTER XVIII.

Geese.

376. Conditions of Profitable Goose Culture.
turkey, is a fowl for those who can give it room, and is generally made profit-
able only where it can pick the most of its living. While geese cannot be

The goose, like the

advantageously kept in close confinement, they are not rovers— like turkeys.
They are contented on a comparatively small range, and easily kept within the
bounds allotted them. Geese are grazers. Grass and weeds, when they can
be had, form the greater part of their food. Given a dry place to sleep in,
they can live and thrive on low marshy ground suitable only for water fowls.

Goose growing is nowhere in this country carried on as an exclusive
business ; nor is it carried on extensively except in a few localities near New
York and Boston, and by a few large breeders of thoroughbred poultry. In
most places geese are rare in comparison with other fowls, and though they
come in large quantities to some of the big western cities, the demand for
them is relatively ight. The fact is that outside of the eastern localities
alluded to, most of the geese sent to market are of rather inferior quality, and
the reputation of ‘¢ goose” meat is about on a par with that of ‘¢ duck” where
really good ducks are unknown. Even in the cities where the supply of first
class geese is best, the demand for them is small as compared with the demand
for chickens, turkeys, or even ducks. Still the present supply of good stock
does not equal the demand, and one situated favorably for raising geese near
one of these markets would, if reasonably successful, make a very good profit
on as many as he could conveniently manage. Even in favored localities
growers generally do not think it advisable or practicable to attempt growing
geese on such a scale as chickens and ducks are produced. In most places
growing geese for market ought to be undertaken only when the conditions
are such that, whatever the income from them, it is nearly all profit.*

* NoTE.— It may be said here, as was said of ducks, that a good product will gradually
create a better demand;—but geese cannot be successfully grown in confinement, as
ducks are, and one who could give them room for exercise but not for pasture, and was
therefore at expense in feeding them, would introduce and create a demand for good geese
only to find that as soon as there was an evident demand, persons conveniently situated
for keeping geese without cost would supply it at prices with which he could not com-
pete. It will undoubtedly pay those who now keep poor geese anywhere with some
profit, to get better geese; and many people who do not keep geese at all could do so
with profit. The poultryman who is crowded for room had better let geese alone.

250 BOCLRRMA CLALIT,

377. Profit in Geese. Growers say that geese are more profitable than
ducks, but cannot be grown in such quantities. Goslings-——green geese —
are produced at about the same cost as ducks (6 cts. to 8 cts. per pound) when
they are fed heavily; at less cost when they have good pasture. The prices
for good stock range from 35 cts. per pound at the beginning of the season,
in June, down to 15 cts. later. Some growers sell the goslings at five or six
weeks of age to fatteners. It is reported that in a series of years, one, per-
haps the largest grower in New England, received for goslings at this age an
average price for each year not lower than $1.09, and from that up to $1.17.
In this case the cost of raising the goslings, aside from the labor, was not
great; but it is to be observed that the breeding stock from which he produced
in one season nearly eleven hundred goslings, represented an investment of
about $500,— possibly more. In sections where there is not much demand
for geese, the profit is never large, even when the expense of growing them is
small, for prices are usually low. Growing mongrel geese — hybrids of the
wild and domestic goose —is for those who have skill and facilities for it, the
most profitable kind of goose raising. Mongrel geese of 12 to 14 lbs. weight
sell readily at the holiday season for double the price of other geese.

378. Shelters and Fences.— Geese need little shelter, a low shed to
protect them in bad weather being sufficient. A fence of almost any kind,
wire, boards, or pickets, will do for geese. The height for the heavier breeds
need not be greater than two or three feet. For those better able to fly, the
fences should be higher. It is sometimes necessary to clip one wing of each

bird.

379. Kinds of Geese.—The kinds of geese are: — common, cross bred,
grade, pure bred, Standard bred, and mongrel. As applied to geese, some
of these terms are not used in the same sense as when applied to chickens

(168).

Common geese are — presumably — descendants of early importations
brought from Europe by settlers. They are usually rather small, hardly
larger than good sized ducks of the Pekin, Aylesbury, or Rouen breeds.

Cross bred is applied by goose breeders to the offspring of cross matings of
pure breeds, and also to the offspring of thoroughbreds mated with common
geese.

Pure bred, thoroughbred, and Standard bred have the same signification

as in 4 68.

Mongrel geese are true hybrids, and sterile. They are produced by crossing
wild and domestic geese.

SEROUS T 5 HA CI gral OI 251

BREEDS OF GEESE DESCRIBED. .

380. Toulouse Geese attain the greatest size, often exceeding the Stand-

ard weights, which are :—adult gander, 20 lbs. ; young gander, 18 lbs.; adult

goose, 18 lbs.; young goose, 15 lbs. In color they are eray, upper surfaces
dark gray, shading to lighter gray on the breast, body, and thighs, with white
gray, 8 S Stay ’ y) gus,

Fig. 92. Toulouse Geese.
(By courtesy of Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station)

on the belly. Bill and legs area reddish orange. The females are good lay-.
ers, young geese laying 18 to 24 eggs in the season, and old ones 30 to 36 or
40. This breed is by far the most popular, though for the market it is con-
sidered inferior to some others. They are quiet, and the best suited to range
without water.

381. Embden Geese have the same standards for weight as the Toulouse,
but run smaller. In color they are white, with bill and legs orange yellow.
They are less widely distributed than the Toulouse, and many of the Embdens
in this country are very poor specimens. As layers they are rather poor.
They dress better for the market than any other breed.

382. African Geese.—Rare in most sections, but some large flocks kept.
Weights same as for Toulouse. Color gray; upper surfaces,dark gray, under
surfaces lighter; neck light gray, with longitudinal dark stripe on back; bill

252 POULTRIV-CRAFT.

black, with large knob at the base of the upper mandible; prominent dew-
lap under the throat on exhibition birds, mconspicuous or absent in many

Fig. 93. African Geese.
(By courtesy of Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station).

specimens; legs dark orange. Better layers than Embdens; not as good as
Toulouse. Very difficult to dress, adult birds especially so. Having dark
pin-feathers and down and a dark skin, do not make as attractive a carcass as
the white breeds.

383. Chimese Geese in shape resemble the African, and have also the
knob on the beak, but are smaller. Standard weights: adult gander, 14 lbs. ;
young gander, 10 Ibs.; adult goose, 12 lbs.; young goose, § lbs. There are
two varieties : —

Brown CHINESE GEESE —resemble Africans in color as well as other
points mentioned. They are the most prolific of all varieties. The females
generally lay forty to fifty eggs each in a season, and the eggs are remarkably
fertile. It has been said that of aM breeds they pluck hardest, and look worst
when dressed.

Wiuitrr CurnesE GEESE —are usually smaller than the Brown. In color
they are pure white, with orange yellow bill and legs. As layers the females
equal those of the other variety, but their eggs are apt to be infertile. When

dressed they rank next to the Embdens.

POULTRY-CRAFT. 253

384. Wild or Canada Geese —are of a different species from the
domestic goose, and in structure and habits more resemble swans. Stand-
ard weights are the same as for the Chinese. Color very dark gray; bill and
legs black. They are often
kept in captivity as orna-
| mental fowl, and in such
circumstances rarely breed.
When bred to produce
birds for breeding mon-
grels they are given more
liberty. One wing is crip-
pled to prevent flight.

385. Egyptian Geese.
— Standard weights: adult
J gander, 10 lbs. ; young gan-

Fig. 94. Wild Geese,—in the foreground. ; der, 8 Ibs. ; adult goose, 8

(By courtesy of Chas. McClave). lbs. ; young goose, 6 Mos.

Purely ornamental fowls, handsomely colored with black, gray, and buff;
bills purplish, legs reddish yellow.

386. Buying Stock.— For the goose breeder it is particularly desirable
that stock should be purchased early in the fall. If purchased near the begin-
ning of the breeding season, the birds may not mate satisfactorily; and as the
female is not likely to lay well until acclimated and accustomed to new sur-
roundings, the better part of the season is lost even when the birds do mate.
Old birds are more desirable as breeders than young ones. Females are said
to be profitable up to ten or twelve years of age, and males to the age of six
or seven years. Prices for ordinary good breeding stock are from $3 to $5
per bird. Eggs are sold generally at so much apiece,— 25 cts. to 50 cts.,— or
at so much a dozen — $2.50 to $5.

387. Mating — Points for the Breeder.—(See also J 193—214).
Standard specimens of both sexes are used in matings to produce exhibition
stock, in all varieties of geese, and generally by growers using thoroughbreds
to produce market stock, most of whom sell as many as possible of their best
birds for breeding.

In breeding geese for market only, cross breeding is usual in the localities
where geese are grown most extensively. A mating preferred by one of the
best growers in Rhode Island is:— African ganders with common white or
gray geese. ‘This mating gives goslings larger than common stock, less diffi-
cult to pick, and more attractive when dressed than the African.*

* Nore.— Numerous crosses have been made on an experimental scale at the Rhode
Island Agricultural Experiment Station. The results are of great interest, indicating

254 POULTRY-CRAFT.

The mongrel, hybrid, geese so famous in the markets, are usually produced
by mating wild males with domestic females, preferably dark ones,—African,
Toulouse, or Brown Chinese. The reverse mating,—domestic male with
wild females —is sometimes used, but the other is better, as the wild females
lay few eggs. The wild ganders do not mate until two or three years old,
and often will not mate the first year in captivity. Usually they mate with

but one goose.

flow Many Females to a Male?—¥rom one to four. Geese are disposed
to pair. Young ganders often take up with only one goose. Older birds will
generally mate with more. One breeder of Toulouse geese allows two geese
to each gander. A breeder who gives his numerous matings a common range,
mates four geese with one gander; yards them by themselves the first season,
and puts two or three extra ganders with the large flock.

388. Care of Breeding Geese.— Geese at pasture require little attention.
If kept in confinement, they must be provided with green food, not fed too
heavily on grain, and care taken to prevent their becoming too fat, and unfit
for breeding. They should always have water for drinking, and frequently
for bathing. If shut up at night, the place must be cleaned at regular inter-
vals. Geese do not generally lay until near spring, though occasionally some
lay in January. Boxes or barrels containing straw, hay, or suitable litter, are
placed in corners and out of the way places for nests. In cold weather the
eggs must be removed to prevent their being chilled. It is advisable always
to have a nest egg —not necessarily a goose egg—any kind will do. To
break up broody geese they should be removed for four or five days, and the
nest in which they have been laying destroyed or removed to a new position
before they are returned. Methods of feeding do not differ much, variations
being due mostly to differences in pasture.

how by crossing a market breed superior to any of the established breeds might be pro-
duced. For the ordinary breeder the wisdom of crossing except under conditions as
stated in § 69, or to produce something exceptional, as the mongrel goose, is question-
able. For those who may find it advantageous to make crosses, results of a few of the
best crosses made at the experiment station are quoted from its report : —

‘©The Embden-Toulouse * * * would appear to be the best all around cross for general
purposes, for both early and late markets, and especially for the production of large
geese for the Christmas and New Year’s markets. They are large, hardy, and when
dressed present a fine appearance.”

‘* Of those here compared (African-Toulouse, Toulouse-Embden, Embden-African) the
Embden-African seems to be next in desirability, and if goslings are sold early in the
summer, or before they are eight weeks old, this cross would be preferable to all others.”

‘“* The Embden-White China cross picked the easiest of these crosses, were white when
dressed, and although small, presented the most attractive appearance.”

ROCLLRASCRAL TL. 25

nN

(1). Feeding Breeding Geese.— (Witsur).— Turn out on pasture from June until
fall; feed no grain while grass is available, then feed lightly of oats and whole corn.
After February 1, give full ration:—a mixture of corn meal, shorts, beef scraps, boiled
potatoes or turnips in the morning; whole grain in the afternoon.

(2). Feeding Breeding Geese.—(Newman).— They must have a pasture where
from early spring they will live almost exclusively on green rye, clover or grass, needing
but little grain, and thriving well. Do not feed much corn in winter, as it is apt to get
them too fat for breeders. Oats and barley are better. The way I feed is this: —I take
some boxes about eight inches deep, and put the grain in them. These are placed in the
pasture away from other fowls. One need not be careful in feeding them as in feeding
other poultry, You cannot spoil their appetites, and by putting boxes of grain in the
runs, they get a good run, and a light feed, and are in no danger of overfeeding. Give
corn only in the hardest weather — when it is storming, or there is so much snow they
cannot go foraging.

(3). Feeding Breeding Geese.— (Rupp).— Adult geese can be turned out to
pasture precisely the same as cattle, and in this latitude (Massachusetts) will obtain their
own living more than six months of the year, during which the cost of keeping them is
simply the value of the grass consumed. Through the laying and breeding season, in
addition to grass they should be fed twice a day with shorts and Indian meal, equal parts,
thoroughly moistened with cold water, but not too wet, lest it produce diarrhoea; the mass
should be dry enough to crumble. (If stale bread can be had at reasonable prices, soak
it and use instead of shorts). Add ten per cent of beef scraps or its equivalent. Feed all
they will immediately eat up clean. Supply shell liberally, and abundance of water to
drink.

389. Hatching Goslings.—As geese lay so few eggs, breeders usually
keep the geese laying as long as possible, and hatch most of the eggs with
hens. So far, hatching goose eggs in incubators has not been satisfactory.
The hens are given five, six, or seven eggs each, according to size. After
five or six days the eggs can be tested, and infertiles removed. The period of
incubation is usually thirty days. It may be a little longer. When the eggs
are hatching the hens should be closely watched to prevent the goslings being
trampled upon or killed by hens that will not own them. The goslings, as
hatched, should be given to quiet, gentle hens, or wrapped in flannel and kept
in a warm place.

When geese are used to hatch the eggs, they may be given about fifteen
each. Usually they must be set where they have been laying. They wall
bear little interference when incubating.

390. Rearing Goslings.—The goslings should be allowed to remain
warm and quiet for at least twenty-four hours after hatching, and for the first
few days every precaution must be taken to prevent their being chilled. By
the time they are a week old they need no artificial heat if the weather is at
all moderate. They do not require much care. Until strong enough to have
full liberty they should be confined to small movable pens, which can be
moved to new grass each day. With each pen some sort of shelter must be

256 RPOOLALRICTVATTE:

provided to protect them from sun and storm. Their sleeping places must be
kept clean. Other items of management requiring special mention will be
found included in the methods of feeding given below :

(1). Feeding Goslings.—(NEwMAN).— The first two or three days keep them in a
warm place, and give them a little soaked bread and water. In nice weather, turn them
out in small inclosures which can be moved every day. After a week, let them go. The
first four or five weeks, give nothing but stale bread occasionally; but always leave them
at liberty to get all the grass or clover they want. Do not soak the bread, as they do not
like it so well. After five weeks, give a mash of 2 bran and $corn meal. To fatten —
after six weeks, feed 4 bran,4 corn meal; do not feed it sloppy. Never allow goslings to
go to the water until rully feathered, and then only let those go which are to be kept for
breeders.

(2). Feeding Early Goslings.—(Rupp).— They can be fed at first on $ Indian meal
and 3 shorts, wet cold, and squeezed almost entirely dry. Sloppy food must be avoided.
They should be fed as often as hungry, which will be at least every two hours — perhaps
oftener. The important points at this stage are to keep them warm, dry, and supplied
with food. As they grow older they need outdoor air and exercise. As spring advances
and grass begins to grow, they can be put in movable pens on the grass. When three or
four weeks old (depending on the weather, condition of grass, etc.), they should if possible
be given a wide range — turned out to pasture; but the enclosure, of whatever size, should
be fenced gosling proof. They should be fed twice a day with § shorts, 4 Indian meal,
thoroughly wet, then squeezed or pressed dry —all they will immediately eat up clean.
The drinking vessels should never be empty. Jf they are to be fattened, they should be
confined and fed less shorts and more meal, adding some beef scraps; gradually increas-
ing the proportion of meal and beef scraps until shorts are discontinued, and the food is
about 10 per cent beef scraps and go per cent meal.

(3). Feeding Goslings.—(CusHMAN).-—Goslings are better off if they get nothing
but tender grass and water the first day they are put out, or before they are 48 hours old.
The next day they should be fed two or three times, but very lightly, with scalded
cracked corn. This is probably as good food as can be given from then on, provided
they have at all times an abundance of tender grass to eat, and the amount of cracked
corn fed is such as will always leave them hungry for grass. An exclusive diet of grain
or dough, without plenty of grass, or too great a quantity even with grass, will spoil
them — cause them to lose the use of their legs, anddie. If grain is fed sparingly while
they are young, grass being three-fourths of the food, few will be lost. To make the
best growth they should have succulent green food before them while they can see to eat.
If shut in for a short time morning or evening, or on a stormy day, they should have a
continual supply of freshly mown rye, oats, clover, or corn fodder. Otherwise they will
fret and lose much in weight. When the object is to raise show birds of great size and
frame at maturity, it may be best to feed oat meal, gluten feed and bran liberally, as well
as corn and grass or clover; but there will be less uniformity under this feeding, and
more will be lost.

391. Marketing Geese.—Goslings of the large breeds should weigh 9 lbs.
to 12 lbs. each at ten weeks of age; some may weigh more. Asa rule it pays
better to market them at that age than to hold them until mature. Mongrels
are reserved for the holiday trade, for at that time they bring more per pound

POUL TRY-CRAFT. 257

than any green geese but the earliest on the market bring in summer. The
demand for green geese begins about June Ist, and geese are in demand from
then until March.

Methods of KiLL1nG, DRESSING, PACKING, and SHIPPING, are practically the
same as for ducks, and do not require special description. Remarks on
EXHIBITING ducks apply also to geese.

392. About Plucking Geese for the Feathers.—Whatever may be said
in justification of this practice, the fact remains that it is cruel. It is also ques-
tionable whether on the whole it is profitable. To the frequent plucking of
geese it is no doubt largely due that so many of those sent to market are
of very poor quality. A goose which goes through an enforced moult four or
five or more times (some authorities (?) advise plucking every six or seven
weeks) cannot produce meat of fine quality ; —the flesh is sure to be tough and
stringy. As to the effect of plucking on breeding stock, Newman says:
‘¢ Their feathers are an item worth considering, but do not pluclt your geese
twicea year and expect them to be good breeders. A goose so treated will
not lay as early, nor as many, nor as fertile eggs, as one that is left to go
through the changes naturally.”

258 LO CLALRAACT ALA

APPENDIX.

A Little General Information Concerning the Poultry and Allied Industries.

The value of the poultry and eggs produced in the United States in 1890, was estimated
at $290,000,000. This estimate was based on census returns for that year, which, though
not complete, and not always accurate, were the best available. An analysis of the
statistics given will convince anyone familiar with the business that if the estimate errs,
it is not in placing an extravagant valuation on the goods in question. ‘The statistics
furnished by the next census will probably be more complete and more accurate, and will
surely show an enormous increase in products of this class.

On the supposition that the Jer capcta production of poultry products continues as in
1890, the census of 1900 should show poultry products to the value of $350,000,000; but
as there is much reason to suppose that the rate of increase of production of eggs and
poultry has exceeded the rate of increase of population, it need surprise no one if the
coming census shows an annual production of eggs and poultry approaching $400,000,000
in value.

Large as this sum is, it does not by any means represent the cost to consumers of the
poultry and eggs produced. Itis assumed that one-half of the entire product is consumed
at home by the producers, the other half being sold to non-producers. This general
assumption ‘is based on sufficiently accurate data from counties or towns for which such
data has been carefully collected.

Taking the figures for 1890 :— $290,000,000 represents the value of the crop to the
producers. If half of this is marketed there must be added to its first cost, transportation
charges, commissions, and retailers’ profits amounting to many millions of dollars before
the total cost to consumers is obtained.

When one attempts to give figures even approximately representing what is thus added
to the value of these products, he is all at sea, for he has no statistical information to
enable him to make good guesses; but when one considers how large.a part of the
business of the express companies is in handling eggs and poultry, alive and dressed;
how many persons are engaged in rural districts in collecting and preparing these goods
for market; how many in the cities in distributing them to consumers ;— and when,
further, one considers how every general store, grocery store, and meat market handles
eggs, and nearly as many handle poultry also, it becomes easy to suppose that at least
$50,000,000 is thus added to the original value of that part of the crop which goes to
market; and it is not at all difficult to imagine that this increase may go nearer to the
$100,000,000 mark.

The figures so far given refer only to the value of the poultry product at market prices.
They make no account of the fact that considerable quantities of eggs and a large number
of fowls are sold annually at ‘‘fancy” prices. This trade in pure bred fowls, and in
their eggs for hatching purposes, is of little consequence compared with the greater trade

POULTRY-CRAFT. 259

in market stock, yet it is of itself a most important industry, keeping a great deal of
money in circulation, and making or helping to make a living for thousands of people.

One may begin to realize something of the magnitude of the interest in thoroughbred
poultry if he considers the rapid increase in the number of poultry shows held annually,
and the large increase of production of poultry literature.

There will be nearly three hundred poultry association shows held in this country
during the show season of 1899-1900. Besides these there will be displays of fine pouttry
at nearly all state and county fairs. Many of these exhibits rank with some of the best
among the special poultry shows.

In this connection it is not out of place to call attention to the fact that the judging of
standard fowls at shows offers an ever widening field of fairly lucrative employment to
those who will qualify themselves for such work, and whose work in this line will
commend them to show managers and to exhibitors. Not only is the number of regular
poultry shows increasing out of all proportion to the increase in the number of competent
judges, but it is becoming more and more the custom to secure the services of experts to
pass on the merits of the fowls exhibited at the agricultural fairs. It is worth while for
one engaging in the breeding of high class stock as a business to consider this phase of
the matter. A reputation as a breeder is of value to—more, it is essential for a poultry
judge; a reputation as a judge is worth a great deal to a breeder; and it is entirely
possible for a man who is disposed to be honest to combine the two callings to his own
profit, and to the satisfaction generally of those with whom he may have dealings in
either line.

It is hardly necessary to inform those at all acquainted with such matters that the
shows are supported by the efforts of the breeders of pure stock, or that it is this class
of poultrymen whose advertising patronage is the chief financial support of the poultry
press. It does not, however, seem to be so generally understood that the subscribers to
the poultry journals are, for the most part, persons who are keeping and raising pure
stock. With occasional exceptions those who keep and rear only scrubs or grades have
no lasting interest in poultry literature. The readers of poultry papers generally are
people who have progressed far enough in poultry culture to have proved thoroughbreds
best, or whose teaching on that subject has convinced them that such is the case.

There are now published nearly one hundred papers devoted exclusively or principally
to poultry. Of this number about one-third have attained an age and standing which
warrants including them in the list given on page 261. Some of the others, though too
new to be included in such a list, give fair promise of permanent usefulness. The
greater number are destined to an early death or a spasmodic existence; but even if the
list had been cut down to include only the twelve or fifteen best papers, there would still
remain such a list of papers devoted to this specialty as probably no other such specialty
could equal. The phenomenal increase of interest in fine stock which has occurred in
the last ten years, has impressed everyone who has been ina position to observe it. No
stronger evidence of it can be found anywhere than is to be seen in the growth of the
leading poultry journals, and in the feeling constantly manifested from many quarters
that there is room for more.

Interesting evidences of the extension of the poultry business are furnished by the
growth of businesses which are in whole or in part dependent upon it. Most con-
spicuous of these is the manufacture of incubators and brooders, a business which now
engages large amounts of capital, and furnishes employment to a small army of
mechanics and salesmen. Another industry of considerable magnitude is the manu-
facture of bone cutters. A number of firms are doing a large business in the sale of
prepared meats for poultry food, in green and dry cut bone, and in ground oyster shell.
Still others find it profitable to produce ona large scale and advertise extensively special
brands of mixed grain stuffs for poultry food. There are several manufacturers of grit

260 POGL LRA ECLeALT A.

for fowls, and several firms making a specialty of clover cut ready for use: At least two
establishments are doing a big business in the manufacture and sale of insecticides
prepared especially for poultry keepers.

Then there are other articles, not used exclusively by poultrymen, of which poultry-
men are heavy consumers. Wire netting for fences, and prepared roofing and sheathing
papers are of this class. There are also many articles manufactured in large quantities
for poultrymen and dealers in poultry by firms making a variety of articles from a single
kind or class of raw materials. In this category might be mentioned shipping coops,
egg cases and egg baskets, of which great quantities are used, and such articles as feed
cookers, hay cutters, caponizing instruments, etc.

It is only within recent years that the poultry industry has grown to anything like its
present proportions, only recently that its development has been along lines which
developed what might be termed subsidiary industries, and only very recently that it has
come to be recognized by well informed people generally as an industry of vast impor-
tance. Great as the industry is today, it is hardly more than an ‘‘infant industry.”
Only a small fraction of the number of people who could make poultry profitable are
doing so, and only a few of those who are making poultry profitable are getting ‘‘all
that’s coming to them.” Though, as has been stated (1 5), production and consumption
practically balance each other, it is not hard to understand how this balance might be
preserved though the production were much increased. Taking the figures of the census
of 1890, and allowing $60,000,000 as the cost of distribution of the product marketed, it
is found that the fer capita expenditure of the American people for all sorts of poultry
products : — for eggs for all purposes, for chicken and duck for all occasions, for turkeys
for Thanksgiving, and geese for Christmas, is but $5.55 per annum, or 48 cents per
month, or 12 cents per week.

POULTR?-CRAFT.

POULTRY “PAPERS.

American Fancier, weekly, Johnstown, N. Y. - -
American Poultry Advocate, monthly, Syracuse, N. Y. -
American Poultry Journal, monthly, Chicago, Il. - -

A Few Hens, monthly, Boston, Mass. - - = -
California Poultry Tribune, monthly, Los Angeles, Cal.
Fancy Fowls, monthly, Hopkinsville, Ky. - = -
Fanciers’ Gazette, monthly, Indianapolis, Ind. -
Fanciers’ Monthly, monthly, San Jose, Cal. - = =
Fanciers’ Review, monthly, Chatham, N. Y. - :
Fanciers’ Star, monthly, Jacksonville, Ill. - - -
Farm-Poultry, semi-monthly, Boston, Mass. - -
Feather, The, monthly, Washington, D. C. - : -

Inland Poultry, monthly, Indianapolis, Ind. - -
Inter-State Poultryman, monthly, Tiffin, O. : - -
Michigan Poultry Breeder, monthly, Battle Creek, Mich. -
New England Fancier, monthly, Yarmouthport, Mass. -

Ohio Poultry Journal, monthly, Dayton, O. - -
Oregon Poultry Journal, monthly, Salem, Or. - =
Pacific Poultryman, monthly, Tacoma, Wash. - -
Poultry Chum, monthly, De Kalb, Il. - - -
Poultry Culture, monthly, Kansas City, Mo. : ~
Poultry Graphic, monthly, Geneseo, III. - - =
Poultry Herald, monthly, St. Paul, Minn. - - -
Poultry Keeper, monthly, Parkesburg, Pa. - - -
Poultry Monthly, monthly, Albany, N. Y. - - -
Poultry Tribune, monthly, Freeport, Ill. - - =
Practical Poultryman, semi-monthly, Whitney’s Point, N. Y.
Reliable Poultry Journal, monthly, Quincy, Ill. = :
Southern Fancier, monthly, Atlanta, Ga. - - -
Southern Poultry Journal, monthly, Dallas, Tex. - 2
Stock-Keeper, The American, weekly, Boston, Mass. =

Western Garden and Poultry Journal, monthly, Des Moines, Ia.

Western Poultry Journal, monthly, Cedar Rapids, Ia. -

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262 POULTRI-CRAFT.
INDEX.
Abbreviations of names of varieties, 8o. Barred Plymouth Rocks, description, 65.
Accompanying exhibits, 207. mating, 155.
Adapting business to location, 19. Bed bugs, 215.
Advertising, 195. Beef, raw, 97.
African geese, 251. scraps, 97.
Age for weaning chicks, 181. Beginning with eggs or stock, go.
of breeding stock: small capital, 13.
chickens, 151. without capital, 13.
ducks, 240. Black R. C. Bantams, 219.
geese, 253. Cayuga ducks, 238.
turkeys, 226. Cochin Bantams, 220.
eggs for hatching, 168. Cochins, 71. te
Ailments of chicks, preventing, 18o. East Indian ducks, 239.
Airing eggs in incubators, 178. Hamburgs, 76.
Alfalfa, 98. Javas, 68.
Alternate yards, 21. Langshans, 72.
American Dominiques, 68. Leghorns, 73.
Poultry Association, 12. Minorcas, 74.
Standard of Perfection, 79. Orpingtons, 78.
Anemia, 212. Polish, Wr Gay 75¢
Analysis of foods (table), 112. Spanish, 75.
Andalusians, 74. turkeys, 225.
Animal meal, 97. varieties, mating, 160.
Anticipating weather changes, 131. Wyandottes, 67.
Apoplexy, 212. Blackhead, 222.
Approval, selling stock on, 199. Blood, dried, 97.
Artificial methods, general remarks on, 175. | Blue Andalusians, 74.
Ash, Ilo. Bone cutters, 60.
Ashes, using, on droppings boards, 127. Bones, dry, 100.
Aylesbury ducks, 237. green, 97.
Boxes for droppings, 45.
Balanced ration, a, 101. grit and shell, 56.
Balancing rations, examples, 117. nest, see /Veszs.
use of mash in, 103. Bowel trouble, 212, 180.
Bantams, care of, 217. Brahma Bantams, 220.
description of varieties of, 220. | Brahmas, Dark, description, 69.
profit in, 217. mating, 158.
Barley, 95. Light, description, 69.
screenings, 95. mating, 158.

POWULTERIECRART.

Bran, wheat, 94. |
rye, 96.
Bread, waste, 97.
Breakdown behind, 212.
Breeding ducks, points on, 239.
geese, care of, 254.
season for chickens, 161.
ducks, 240.
stock, care of, 162.
selling, 197.
Breeds, comparison of, 62, 63.
description of :
Bantams, 218.
chickens, 64.
ducks, 236.
geese, 251.
turkeys, 224.
for a breeder, 84.
city lot, 86.
fancier, 86.
farmer, 85.
village lot, 86.
to be avoided, 84.
Brick poultry house, a, 27.
Broiler raising not profitable as an exclu-
sive business, 10.
Broilers, market for, 189.
packing for shipment, 192.
profit in, 9.
rations for, 106—7.
weights of, 189.
Broken bones, 212.
feathers, plucking before exhibition,
205.
Bronchitis, 212.
Bronze turkeys, 225.
Brooder houses for pipe system, 46.
separate brooders, 49.
Brooders, 59.
care of chicks in, 179.
ducklings in, 244.
for young turkeys, 225.
nursery, 47.
temperature in, 18o.
Broodiness, causing, 137.
Broody hens, breaking up, 140.
coops for, 56.
sick, 140.
Broom corn seed, 96.
Brown eggs — where in demand, 82.
Leghorns, description, 72.
mating, 156.

Buckwheat, 96.
middlings, 96.
Buff Cochin Bantams, 220.
Cochins, 70.
Laced Polish, 75.
Leghorns, 73.
Orpingtons, 78.
P. Rocks, 66.
turkeys, 225.
varieties mating, 160.
Wyandottes, 67.
Buttalo or turkey gnats, 215.
Builders, hints to, 50.
Bumble foot, 212.
Business, adapting to location, 19.
duck keeping, 233.
locating for, 17, 18.
poultry keeping as a, 7.
risks in poultry keeping, 8.
the poultry, not overdone, 5.
as an investment, II.
Buying breeding ducks, 239.
geese, 253.

stock, general remarks on, 87, 89.

building materials, 5r.
eggs for hatching, go.

land for a poultry plant, 19.
old stock, go.

supplies in quantity, 100.

Call ducks, 238.
Calory, definition, 111.
Canada geese, 253.
Canker, 212.
Capital, beginning with small, 13.
how much, g.
Caponizing, 185.
Capons, dressing, 192.
weights of, 189.
Carbohydrates, 110.
Carbonaceous foods, definition, 110-
Catching ducks, 246.
turkeys, 231.
Cat proof coop, 58.
Cats, to keep away, 216.
Cayuga ducks, 238.
Cellars, incubator, 46.
Charcoal, 100.
Cheese, 99.
Chicken corn, 96.
pox, 212.

264

Chicks, colors of when hatched, 172.

cooping, 173.

coops for, 56.

deformed and puny — should be killed,

7G.

in brooders, care of, 179.

keeping free from lice, 172.

marking, 171.

preventing ailments of, 180.

rations for, 106—S.

rearing in confinement, 182.

roosting coops for, 58.

teaching to roost, 182.

water for, 173.

weaning, 181.

what to do when they are hatching in

incubators, 179.
under hens, 170.

Chiggers, 215.
Children, poultry keeping for, 15.
Chilling, effects of—on incubated eggs, 170.
Cholera, 212.
Chop, corn, 93.

mixed, 93.
City poultry keeping, breeds for, 86.
Clams, 97.

Classification of poultry keepers, 7.
Cleanliness, general remarks on, 127, 241.
(see also, How often to clean).

Clover, 98.
Cob and corn meal, 93.
Cochin Bantams, 220.
Cochins, 70.
C. O. D., shipping poultry, 197.
Coldsir13g27.2i2%
Colony plan, 26.
Color of market eggs, 82.
Pekin duck eggs, 237.
Colored Dorkings, 73.
Colors of chicks when hatched, 172.
Combination of fancy and market poultry,
18.
the profitable, in poultry keeping, 9.
Combining poultry keeping with other busi-
ness, 10.
Commission merchants, selling to, 188—g.
Common chickens, 61—2.
ducks, 236.
geese, 250.
turkeys, 225.
Comparison of branches of poultry keep-

ing, 10.

POSE LRANLCTGATLTLY §s

Comparison of breeds, general remarks, 62,
63.
(see also remarks in descriptions
of varieties of fowls).
of methods of feeding, 103.
Complete plant under cover, 42.
Compromise matings, 148.
Condition and egg production, 134.
of breeding stock, 150.
powders, 99.
Confinement, care of breeding geese in, 254.
ducks adapted to, 233.
keeping breeding stock (hens) in, 162.
turkeys in, 224.
rearing chicks in, 182.
market ducks in, 245.
Constipation, 212.
Consumption, 212.
Contamination, 152.
Continuous, or sectional, houses, 29.
Control of sex, 152.
Cookers, feed, 60.
Cooking food, 103. .
Cooling dressed poultry, 192.
duck eggs, 243.
eggs in incubators, 178.
Coop, cat and hawk proof, 58.
exhibition, 207.
roosting, for weaned chicks, 58.
Cooping young chicks, 173.
ducklings, 245.
goslings, 255.
turkeys, 228.
Coops for broody hens, 56.
little chicks, 56.
shipping, exhibition and breeding
stock, 199.
: live poultry to market, 190.
Corn, 92.
an all corn ration for turkeys, 230.
broom, 96.
chicken, 96.
chop, 93.
Egyptian, 96.
fed hens lay best eggs, 142.
Kaffir, 96.
meal, 92.
Cornish Indian Games, 78.
Correspondence, 197.
Cotton seed meal, 97.
Cracked corn, 93.
Cracker crumbs, 97.

IEXOMGLL, TATE VN CTROA tT fh 26

Cracklings, 97.
Cramp, 212.
Crested White ducks, 239.
Crevecceeur, 76.
Crop bound, 213.
enlarged, 213.
inflammation of, 213.
Cross bred, definition, 61.
geese, 250, 253.
breeding, 62, 154.
Cull stock, selling, 194.
Culling growing chicks, 183.
in fall, 132.
laying hens in summer, 138.

Curd, 99.

Damaged food, 93, 100.
Dampness objectionable, 21, 127, 128, 222,
235.
Dark Brahmas — description, 69.
mating, 159.
nests, 54.
Debility, general, 213.
in growing chicks, 184.
Debt, importance of keeping out of, 13, 19.
Deformed chicks, 171.
Depluming scab nites, 216.
Desiccated fish, 98.
Diarrhea, 213.
Diphtheria, 213.
Diphtheritic roup, note, 210.
Diseases, descriptions and remedies of, 211.
general rules for preventing, 210.
hints to guide in diagnosing, 211.
of ducks, 247.
turkeys, 231.
Distemper, 213, 132.
Doctoring, unprofitableness of, 209.
Dominique Leghorns, 74.
Dominiques, American, 68.
Dorkings, 77.
Double matings, 155—6.
Drainage, 21.
Dressed poultry, exhibiting, 208.
packing, 192.

(Note 61, 65).

in warm weather, 193.
shipping in cold weather, 193.
Dressing chickens, 191.
ducks, 246.
geese, 257.
turkeys, 231.
Dried blond, 97.

nN

Drinking vessels, 55.
cleaning, 128.
water, warming, 135.
Drooping wings in young caicks, 181.
Droppings boards, 53.
boxes for, 45.
how often to remove, 127.
selling, 127. (Note).
Dry picking poultry, 191.
Duck eggs, care of, 241.
growing adapted to all sections, 235.
general remarks on, 233.
Ducklings, brooding artificially, 244.
with hens, 245.

)

care of after weaning, 245.
feather pulling in, 248.
feeding, 244.
hatching in incubators, 243.
with hens, 245.
Ducks, descriptions of breeds of, 236.
diseases of, 247.
dressing, 246.
exhibiting, 247.
houses and yards for, 235.
packing and shipping to market, 247.
profit in, 234.
to tell sex of, 246.
when to market, 246.
Durra, 96.

Earth floor, best, 24.
renewing, 39.
East Indian ducks, 239.
Eaves, to make joints at, wind-tight, 39.
Egg bound, 213.
Egg breed, what is an, 63.
broken in body, 213.
eating, 141.
foods, 99.
production, average of, 123.
effect of condition on, 134.
weather on, 123.
general remarks on, 121.
record, keeping an, 142.
testers, 169.
type, 124.
yield, factors of a good, 124.
what is a good, 63.
Eggs, care of duck, 241.
chilled during incubation, 170:
double, 141.

exhibiting, 208.

266

Eggs, for hatching, age of, 168.
buying, go.
care of, 163.
packing for shipment, 201.
selling, 200.
marketing, 187.
miscarriage of, 141.
misshapen, 141.
moistening, during incubation, 170.
nest, not necessary, 142.
pale-yolked, 142.
quality of, affected by food and condi-
tion, 142.
shipping, to commission
188.
small, 141.
soft shelled, 141.
testing, 169.
watery, 142.
winter, 123.
Egyptian corn, 96.
geese, 253.
Elements, food, 109.
Embden geese, 251.
Enlarged crop, 213.
Enteritis, 213.
Excelsior meal bread, 108.
Exercise for heavy fowls, 125.
how much, 125.
what kind of, 124.
Exhibiting poultry, general remarks on,
203.
Exhibition coops, 207.
Games, 78.
stock, general care of, 203.
special preparation of, 204.

merchants,

Fall management of laying stock, 129.
False or foul feathers, plucking, 205.
Family poultry, 13.
trade, hints on selling to, 193.
Fanciers, breeds for, 86.
Fancy, keeping poultry tor, 14.
poultry, combining with market, 18.
Farm, breeds for, 85.
flock, continuous house for, 30.
Farmers’ mistake in breeding, 147.
Farming, duck, 233.
poultry, 17.
Fat, effect of feeding to excess, III.
how to reduce, 125.
Fats, I10.

POULTRY.CRAFT.

Fattening attected by conditions, 102.
for methods of fattening, see ations.
Feather eating, 213.
in ducklings, 248.
Feathers, plucking foul, 205.
geese for, 257.
Feed cookers, 60.
how much to, 104.
often to, 104.
mixers, 60.
troughs, 54.
keeping clean, 128.
Feeding breeding ducks, 242.
geese, 255.
damaged foods, 93, 100.
for special results, 102.
grain in litter, 126.
laying hens in extreme cold weather,
TG
warm winter weather, 136.
spring, 136.
summer, 135.
turkeys, 226.
little chickens, 173.
methods compared, 103.
moulting hens, 129.
onions, 98.
potatoes, 98.
requires skill, 108.
science in, 109.
sitting hens, 168.
special — before exhibition, 206.
standards, use of, 116.
stimulants, 99.
turkeys from shell to market, 228.
when the days are short, 133.
Fiber, digestibility of, 110.
Fish, desiccated, 98.
feeding to ducks, 245.
scrap, 98.
Fleas, 215.
Floor, earth—best, 24.
keeping clean, 127.
renewing earth, 39.
to keep scratching in order, 126.
Food, cooking, 103.
elements, 109.
need of variety of, 101.
requirements of fowls, IOI, 109.
value, III.
Foods, analysis of, (table),-112.
changing, 102.

POUL TRY-CRAFT. 267

Foods, using damaged, 93, 100.

Foreign breeds, 79.

Fowls, kinds of described, 61.
compared, 62.

Frizzles, 79,

Frost-bite, 213.

Fumigating, 215.

Game Bantams, 218.

Games, Cornish Indian, 78.
Exhibition, 78.

Malay, 79.
Pit, 78:

Gapes, 213.

Geese, descriptions of varieties, 251.
houses and fences for, 250. :
kinds of, 250.
mating, 253.
profit in, 250.

General purpose fowls, 63.
Gentleness in handling ducks, 241.
hens, 134.

Giddiness, 213.

Gnats, 215.

Golden Hamburgs, 76.

Polishy 75. 9)
Wyandottes, description, 67.
mating, 158.

Goose culture, general remarks on, 249.

Grade, definition, 61.
Grading, advantage of, 62.
Green bone, 97.
ducks, 233.
geese, 250.
Grit, 100.
boxes for, 56.
crushers, 60.

Hamburgs, description, 76.
mating, 160.
Hatching, care of chicks after, 171.
chicks in incubators, 175—179.
with hens, 165—171.
ducklings in incubators, 243.
with hens, 245.
goslings, 255.
turkeys, 227.
Hawk proof coop, 58.
Hay, 98.
cutters, 60. |
Helping chicks out of shell, 170.
ducklings out of shell, 244.

Heredity, 144.

Horse meat as poultry food, 97.
Hospital for fowls, need of, 214.
Houdans, description, 78.

mating, 160.

House, a two pen, 28.

continuous for farm flock, 29.
with walk, 30.
without walk, 29, 39.
for town lot, 24.
monitor top, 32.
scratching shed with walk, 37.
without walk, 34.
semi-monitor top, 34.
with scratching shed underneath, 25.
two rows of pens and passage in
the middle, 32.

Houses, brooder, 46.

colony plan, 27.

duck, 235.

for complete plant under cover, 42.
geese, 250.
turkeys, 222.

keeping clean, 127.

How eggs are sent to market, 187.

many breeds should a poultryman keep,
81.
many females to a male:
chickens, 152.
ducks, 240.
geese, 254.
turkeys, 226.
many eggs does a fowl lay:
duck, 240.
hen, 123.
goose, in descriptions of
breeds, 251.
turkey, 226.
much exercise, 125.
income, 8.
land, 19.
room per fowl, 50.
to feed, 104.
to spend in advertising, 195.
often to feed, 104, 133, (see also:
Feations).
to get satisfactory stock, So.
learn poultry keeping, 12.

Hulled oats, 95.

Iced poultry, packing, 193.
Inbreeding, 153.

268

Income from poultry, 4.
Incubation, period of :
duck eggs, 243.
hen eggs, 177.
goose eggs, 255.
turkey eggs, 2
Incubator cellars, 46.
Incubators, 58.
management of, 175.
Indian Runner ducks, 239.
Games, description, 78.
mating, 159.
Indigestion, 213.
Inflammation of crop, 213.
liver, 213.
Inheritance, law of, 144.
Introducing new blood, 153.
Insect powders, 215.
Invalids, poultry keeping for, 15.
Investment, poultry keeping for, 11.
Rtchyy 203%

Japanese Bantams, 220.

Javas, 68.

Johnnycake, directions for making, 107.
Joints at eaves, to make wind tight, 39.

Kaffir corn, 96.
Keeping chicks growing, 181.
Kerosene emulsion, 215.
for lice, 215.
Killing poultry, methods of, 191, 246.

Land, buying for poultry plant, 19.
how much, 19.
La Fleche, 76.
Lameness, 213.
Lamp, care of, 175.
Langshans, 71.
Lard cracklings, 97.
Late hatched pullets, when does it pay to
keep them, 129.
Law of inheritance, 144.
Lay, to make hens while brooding chicks,
174.
Laying hens, fall management of, 129.
late culling of, 132.
selecting, 124.
spring care of, 136.
summer care of, 137.
qualities and size, 124.
stock, selecting breeders to produce, 150.

POULTRI-CRAFT.

Laying, to postpone, 130.
Learning poultry keeping, 12.
Leg bands, 207.
Lice, 172, 214.
Light Brahmas, description, 69.
mating, 158.
Lime, air-slaked on droppings boards, 127.
and sulphur for lice, 215.
Linseed meal, 97.
Litter, feeding grain in, 126.
for scratching floor, 126.
Liver disease, 213.
Localities suited to chickens, 17.
ducks, 235.
geese, 249.
turkeys, 222.
Locating for business, 17.
Location, adapting business to,. 19.

Malay Games, 79.
Mammoth White turkeys, 225.
Market, consideration of in selecting loca-
tion, 17.
eggs, profit in, 9.
poultryman, breeds for, 82.
stock, selecting breeders to produce,
TS iLie
Marketing ducks, 246.
eggs, 187.
poultry:
chickens, 188.
ducks, 246.
geese, 256.
turkeys, 230.
Marking chicks, 171.
Mash, value of, 103.
Mashes, directions for making—see Razzons,
105, etc.
elaborate compounds not necessary in,
101.
Materials for building, buying, 51.
lists of for buildings, 28, 31, 34, 36, 39,
Ait
Mating Barred P. Rocks, 155.
black varieties, 160.
. Brown Leghorns, 156.
buff varieties, 160.
Colored Indian Games, 159.
Dark Brahmas, 158.
ducks, 239.
geese, 253.
general remarks on, 154.

POULTR?I-CRAFT.

Mating Golden Wyandottes, 158.
Hamburgs, 160.
Houdans, 160.
Light Brahmas, 158.
Partridge Cochins, 159.
Polish, 160.
Silver Wyandottes, 158.
Standard fowls, 154.
turkeys, 226.
white varieties, 160.
Matings, compromise, 148.
Meal, animal, 97.
barley, 95.
corn, 93.
cotton seed, 97.
linseed, 97.
oat, 95.
Meat breeds, definition, 63.
foods, 97.
horse, for poultry food, 97.
Medicines, keeping supply of, 214.
Methods of feeding, 103.
making cut in killing, 191.
Middlings, buckwheat, 96.
wheat, 94.
Milk, 99.
Millet seed, 96.
Millo maize, 96.
Minorcas, 74.
Mistakes, common in breeding, 147.
Mixed chop, 93.
feed, 60.

Moistening eggs during incubation, 170.

Moisture in incubators, 177.

Mongrel geese, 250, 254.
hens, 61, 62.

Monitor top house, 32.

Mosquitos, 215.

Mottled Javas, 68.

Moulting hens, feeding, 129.

Moving laying hens, 135.
sitting hens, 167.

Muscovy ducks, 239.

Names of varieties, abbreviations of, So.
Narragansett turkeys, 225.
Nest boxes, 53.
eggs, 142.
Nests for ducks, 236.
geese, 254.
turkeys, 226.
keeping clean, 127.

New blood, introducing, 153.
breeds, 64.
Nitrogenous food, definition, 109.

Non-popular varieties to be avoided by busi-

ness breeders, 84.
Non-sitters, 64.
Nursery brooders, 47.
Nutritive ratio, 111.

| Oat meal, 95.

Oats, 94.

Old fowls as breeders, 90, 151.
hens as layers, 139.

which to keep, 139.

stock, buying, go.

Onions, 98.

Orpingtons, 77.

Oyster shells, 100.

Packing dressed poultry, 192.
ducks for shipping, 247.
eggs for hatching, 201.
iced poultry in warm weather, 193.
Paints 52)
Partridge Cochins, description, 71.
mating, 159.
Pedigree, importance of in breeding, 148.
Pekin Bantams, see Cochin Bantams.
ducks, 236.
Picking, dry picking, 191.
scalded poultry, 191.
PATO); ZIUZ%c
Pit Games, 78.
Plucking false or foul feathers, 205. (Note).
geese for the feathers, 257.
Plymouth Rocks, description, 64.
mating Barred, 155.
Pneumonia, 213.
Polish, 75.
Bantams, 220.
Pork scraps, 97.
Potatoes, 98.
Potential energy, 111.
Poultry business as an investment, 11.
farming, 17.
keeping as a business, 7.
as an adjunct, Io.
employment, 11.
for pleasure, 13.
children, 15.
invalids, 15.
women, 14.

270

Poultry keeping, how to learn, 12.
selling through commission merchants,
189.
Prepotency, 150.
Preserving eggs not advisable, 187.
Preventing common ailments of
chicks, 18o.

young

disease, general rules for, 210.
Prices of (chicken) eggs and stock, 9, 98,
198.
ducks, and duck eggs, 239.
geese, and goose eggs, 253.
Profit in bantams, 217.
ducks, 234.
geese, 250.
hens, 9.
turkeys, 222.
Profitable combination in poultry keeping,
9.
Prolificacy, consideration of in selecting
breeding stock, 150.
Proteids, 109.
Protein, 109.
Provender, 93.
Puny chicks should be killed, 171.
Pure bred, definition, 61.
fowls, relative merits of, 63.

Quarantining fowls, 210.

Range for breeding stock:
ducks, 240.
geese, 254.
hens, 162.
turkeys, 227.
young chickens, 183.
ducks, 246.
geese, 255.
turkeys, 228.
Ration, a balanced, Io1.
changing value of, 120.
narrow, definition, III.
wide, preferable, 117.
Rations, changing, 102.
different for different kinds of fowls,
102.
examples in balancing, 117.
tested for breeding stock:
ducks, 242.
geese, 255.
hens, 104.
turkeys, 229.

POULTR?I-CRAFT.

Rations, tested for young chicks, 106.
ducklings, 244.
goslings, 256.
turkeys, 229.
Rattling in the throat, 213.
Record, keeping an egg, 142.
of hatches, 168.
Redcaps, 76.
Relative merits of breeds, 63.
Renting, 19.
Risks in poultry keeping, 8.
Rhode Island Reds, 69.
Rolled oats, 95.
Roofing papers, 51.
Roost, teaching chicks to, 182.
Roosting coop for chicks, 58.
Roosts, 53.
for young turkeys, 228.
on warm side of house, 39.
Rose Combed Bantams, 219.
Rouen ducks, 238.
Round worm, 214.
Roup, 214.
Rumpless fowls, 79.
Russians, 79.
Rye, 95.
bran, 96.

Scalding ducks, 247.
poultry, 191.
Scaly legs, 216.
Scratching, see Hxerczse.
litter, what to use, 126.
floor, how to manage, 126.
shed house, 34.
with a walk, 37.
houses, suggestions for, 36.
in front of house, 28.
under house, 25.
Screenings, barley, 95.
wheat, 93.
Sebright Bantams, 219.
Second floor space, use of, 51.
Selecting breeders to produce laying stock,
150.
market stock, 151.
breeding stock, points to consider, 148.
ducks for breeding, 240.
geese for breeding, 253.
turkeys for breeding, 226.
hens for sitters, 166.
laying stock, 124.

POUL TRY-CRAFT. 271

Selection the first principle in breeding,
146, 153.
ot fowls for exhibition, 204.
Selling breeding and exhibition stock, 197.
eggs and poultry, general remarks, 186.
for hatching, 200.
ducks, 246.
exhibition and breeding turkeys, 233.
geese, 256.
inferior poultry, 194.
market turkeys, 239.

poultry and eggs to family trade, 193.

stock by the score, 198.
Cs Os ID HOW)
on approval, 199.
Semi-monitor top house, 34.
Separating the sexes while growing, 182.
Separation the object of selection, 147.
Setting hens, 167.
Sex, control of, 152.
Sexes, separating, 182.
Shape, importance of, 148.
Shell, boxes for, 56.
oyster, I00.
Shelter for:
geese, 250.
goslings, 255.
poultry house, 21.
turkeys, 222.
Shingles, 51.
Shipping dressed poultry to market, 190.
eggs tor hatching, 201.
to market, 187.
fowls to shows, 207.
high class fowls, 199.
live poultry to market, 1go.
Short days, difficulty in feeding on, 133.
Shorts, 94.
Sick hens going broody, 140.
Silkies, 79.
Silver Duckwing Leghorns, 74.
Gray Dorkings, 77.
Penciled Hamburgs, 75.
Polish, 75.
Spangled Hamburgs, 75.
Polish, 75.
W yandottes, description, 67.
mating, 158.
Sites for duck houses, 235.
goose growing, 249.
Sitting hens, care and food of, 168.
Situation, general remarks on, 20.

Size and laying qualities, 124.

importance of, in breeding stock, 149.
Slate turkeys, 224.
Snow, effects on fowls, 132.
Soils suited for poultry keeping, 21.
Sorghum seed, 96.
Spanish, White Faced Black, 75.
Squab broilers, 189.
Standard fowis, mating, 154.

of food values, 115.

Pertection, 79.

Standard bred, definition, 61.
Stationery, the breeders’, 197.
Stimulants, 99, 116.
Sulphur and lime for lice, 215.
Sultans, 79.
Sumatras, 79.
Sunlight, importance of, 21.
Surplus stock house, 49.
Sweet potatoes, 98.

Tape worms, 214.
in turkeys, 232.
Temperature of brooder, 180.
egg chamber, 176.
Tested rations, see ?eations.
Testers, egg, 169.
Testing eggs, 169.
foods, 97.
varieties, 82.
Thoroughbred, definition, 61.
Tobacco for lice, 215.
Tonics, 99.
Toulouse geese, 254.
Town lot, breeds for, 86.
cheap house for, 24.
Troughs, feed, 54.
Turkeys adapted to all sections, 222.
care of laying, 226.
young, 228.
catching, 231.
diseases of, 231.
dressing for market, 231.
feeding from shell to market, 228.
ground suitable for, 222.
hatching, 227.
houses tor, 222.
keeping in confinement, 224.
market for, 220.
mating, 226.
profit in, 222.
raising artificially, 227.

Turkeys, varieties described, 224.
yards for, 224.

Turning eggs in incubators, 178.

Two-pen poultry house, 28.

Values of food stuffs (table), 112.
Variety of food needed, rot.
Variation, law of, 144.
Variations from feeding standards, 116.
Vegetable foods, 98.
Ventilating duck eggs, 243.
in cold weather, 135.
Ventilation in incubators, 177.
of incubator cellar, 46.
Ventilators, 51.

Wages on poultry plants, 11.

Walk, continuous house with a, 30.
plan for doing work from, 32.
scratching shed house with a, 37.

Warming drinking water, 135.
grain, 135.

Washing show birds, 205.

Waste bread, 97.

Water for ducks, 240, 242.

; geese, 254.
young chicks, 173.
supply for large:plant, 45.

Weaning chicks, 181.

Weather changes, anticipating, 131.
effect of on egg production, 123.

Weight of breeding stock, 149.

Weights preferred for market poultry, 189.

What most breeders can do, 84.
the markets want:

ducks, 240, 246.
chickens, 189.
geese, 249, 254.
turkeys, 230.
to do when it snows, 132.
Wheat, 92.

POUL TRIY-CRAFT.

Wheat, damaged, 92.
screenings, 92.

When to buy breeding geese, 253.

stock, 89.

Whey, 99.

White Bantams, 219.
Crested Black Polish, 75.
Cochins, 71.
Dorkings, 77.
eggs, where in demand, 82.
Faced Black Spanish, 75.
Hamburgs, 76.
Holland turkeys, 224.
Langshans, 72.
Leghorns, 73.
Minorcas, 74.
Muscovy ducks, 236.
Orpingtons, 78.
Plymouth Rocks, 65.
Polish, 75.
varieties, mating, 160.
Wonders, 68.
W yandottes, 67.

Whitewash, 128.

Wild geese, 253.

Wind puffs, 214.

Winter eggs, 123, 131.

Worms, 214.

Women as poultry keepers, 14.

Wyandottes, descriptions, 67.
mating, 158

Yard room, 50.

Yards, alternate, 21.
cleaning, 127.
colony plan with, 26.
for ducks, 235.

geese, 249.
goslings, 256.
turkeys, 224.

Yolks, pale, 142.

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