SS
SS
SANK
RRA \
NN Ss AX AS
SS SS Wh RIN
WN
‘
NASA
RRA RS SA
x SN NEENAH
% WAS SN MX S
. RA RAY
Ly
SS
AN ws
tj
Le,
GLEE:
e-
SANS
8 RA
S \
We
Zs
es
Ze
ey
Te,
Lo
oye
\
SX NSS
SRS
RN
WS
SEV RVRVAVH SY
NS Y
RO AN RAR
SIN RNAS
AGG
S
A
\
PEERY
RA Qq“°¢“ A
RRA
SS
NYS
We Iw LAS Y SS .
RRR Ay S SVK SKY sys SQ we
SO ARRAS RRR
* SRY \ ~ . \
SS AS \ x RAW \
\ SY . SSS SV aa~qags~“v
RRR SA RAY ASS
AS WY WS AN S
SS
SS WS AN \\ \ WS SS
AN ANS SS \
\ LR ww
LRA
CO
RAS
\ A WN
WN
WS
WN \
LS S
CA
EON
SS SR
WS AS
e
‘ SSeS
RRR
caning wot
Class.) fF Ges_
Book if Te
ty &
Copyright N°__< Ge 7
COPYRIGHT DEPOSI:
ei
sont
ins
VETERINARY MEDICINE SERIES
: No. 2 :
Edited by D. M. Campbell, D.V.S.
POULTRY DISEASES
Wath A @hap ter On i hie
ANATOMY OF THE FOWL
BY
Bal WAU IE vio, Dav vi
Pathologist and Poultry Investigator, Animal Industry Division, North
Carolina Experiment Station and Agricultural and Mechanical College;
Formerly Director of Anatomy Laboratory, Kansas City Veterinary
College; Formerly Pathologist, Colorado Agricultural College
and Experiment Station; Bopuenyy, Veterinary Inspector,
Be eAy a:
. SECOND EDITION
Revised and Enlarged
Published by
AMERICAN VETERINARY PUBLISHING CO.,
Chicago
Copyright 1917 By
AMERICAN VETERINARY PUBLISHING CO.
DEC 15 1917
Oc.a4si0ii
>»
FOREWORD TO SECOND EDITION
This book is written to fill a demand from veterinary stu-
dents, students in poultry husbandry courses at agricultural
colleges, veterinary practitioners and others interested in the
scientific treatment of poultry diseases.
An effort has been made to make the language so plain that
all can comprehend the subject matter, which is a summary
of results of experimental research in the laboratory of path-
ology of the author and of many other investigators.
For the purpose of simplification, the synonyms are given
for the various names of diseases. Then follow, in order, the
cause, or causes, the symptoms, the conditions found upon
post-mortem examination, and lastly the treatment and means
of eradication for each disease.
The author is indebted to Dr. D. M. Campbell, editor of the
American Journal of Veterinary Medicine, for helpful sug-
gestions as to arrangement and other matters.
The first edition being exhausted in so short a time is evi-
dence that it met the expectations of the author and the pub-
lisher—that it filled a real need. This second edition has been
thoroughly revised and brought down to date. Much new
information in the chapters on anatomy of the fowl, foods
poisonous to fowls and poultry materia medica has been
added.
West Raleigh, N. C., October, 1917. IB, Jel; IROAUNE IE
CONTENTS
TGS te stat OND Ua Stas ear TT OT ea a Se ee 9
INS OE ECO GOIN aap eae aU ee EC se errr 17
The skeletal anatomy of the fowl; the musculature; the
visceral anatomy; structure of the digestive tract and its.
adjacent organs; structure of the respiratory tract; the cir-
calatory system; the blood of normal fowl; the nervous sys-
tem; organs of special sense; the reproductive organs of the
hen: the male reproductive organs; the urinary secretion.
SECTION II.
CSU ip alrite Fa UO Oba ht cakes te ee ne NPL el a el a NN NOM CSE A ON AM AGL Eas eta eS 53
Site for poultry plant; buildings and runs; water sup-
ply; disinfection; disposal of sick and dead birds.
SECTION III.
TORT @VA Mea: IDF REVS) ec a ee eee neem poe een eeeeeae 65
Lice of birds; effects of louse infestation; dealing with
louse infestation; scabies; scaly legs; air sac disease; chig-
ger or red mite infestation; fleas affecting birds; tick in-
festation; the begbug of poultry; fungi affecting birds;
thrush or sore mouth; tinea favosa; pneumomycosis; my-
cosis of pigeons; white scale of the comb; bee stings; the
eray canary louse; the canary mite; baldness of canaries.
SECTION IV.
Trmp@verne il TR TRAVSIIOS) seca er ce pease ecetade reorebecetorodtsecoaeesbeaSSees 87
Important round worms: unimportant round worms;
tapeworms; the thorn-headed worms; flukes.
SECTION V.
Diseases of the Digestive Tract...............---------------------------s2e------2 2 101
Obstruction of the beak; pip; stomatitis; impaction of
the crop; impaction of the intestines; tympany of the crop;
enlarged crop; gangrene of the crop; catarrh of the crop;
depraved appetite; chicken cholera; enterohepatitis; dys-
entery; white diarrhea; croupous inflammation of the pig-
eon; coccidiosis in wild ducks; protozoal hepatitis of
pigeons; renal coccidiosis; blastomycosis of the goose; sar-
cocystis; cloacitis; peritonitis; ascites; nephritis; calculi;
purulent inflammation of the abdomen of the hen; intes-
tinal diseases of canaries.
6 CONTENTS
SECTION VI.
Blood Diseases
Apoplectiform septicemia in chickens and pigeons; sep-
ticemia of geese; fowl typhoid; myeloid leukemia; sleep-
ing sickness of chickens; septicemic diseases of canary
birds; fowl pest; thrombosis; spirochetosis; pericarditis;
endocarditis; rupture of the heart and large blood vessels;
hypertrophy of the heart.
SECTION VII.
Constitutional Diseases
Going light; tuberculosis; pseudo-tuberculosis; actino-
mycosis; disease of the subcutem.
SECTION VIII.
DIS CAS ESO E: HIM NTS TY CT eeu hs ele ee Ce ee
Fatty degeneration; fatty infiltration; rupture of the
liver; inflammation of the liver; inflammation of the bile
ducts; enterohepatitis; unimportant diseases.
SECTION IX.
IDISGASES Ol Tae Onvenay Bunch: ONGC 2
Prolapse or eversion of the oviduct; obstruction of the
oviduct; rupture of the oviduct; broken eggs in oviduct;
prolapse of the cloaca; abnormal eggs; epizootic abortion
in birds; inflammation of the oil gland.
SECTION X.
Hematoma; multiple tumors of the ovary; cystic ovary;
abdominal cyst; contagious epithelioma; sarcoma; tera-
toma; adenoma; epithelioma; osteoma; horny growths on
the cuticular surface of fowls.
SECTION XI.
Diseases of the Respiratory Passages --.._.....22222222..-22-2eeeeeeeneee ee
Obstruction of the trachea; catarrh; asthma; ulcerative
pharyngitis; bronchitis; congestion of the lungs; pneumo-
nia; phneumomycosis; swell-head in young turkeys; chick-
enpox; diphtheric roup; pox of turkeys; contagious inflam-
mation of the air sacs in geese; contagious nasal catarrh
of birds; conjunctivitis; ulceration of the cornea; respira-
tory troubles of canaries; asthma of canaries.
SECTION XII.
Diseases of the Organs of Locomotion..............--..--.22220.2.22.----eeee eee
Leg weakness; infectious articular inflammation in
young geese and ducks; paralysis of the wings of pigeons;
abscess of the foot; gout of fowls.
149
153
159
167
187
CONTENTS us
SECTION XIII.
Diseases of the Brain and NerveS.........2..--002222...22ccc 22 eeee eee eeeeeee cee eeeeeeeeee 195
Dizziness; hemorrhage of the brain; epilepsy; myelitis;
polyneuritis; paralysis of the auditory nerve of the fowl.
SECTION XIV.
Bacteria of the Intestinal Tract of Chickens... 2.20002... 201
SECTION XV.
MUR TANS T RD eR eS TSN RN PE ree Rc ape AT ta eM 203
Composition; parasites in eggs; bacteria of eggs; bac-.
teria in fresh eggs.
SECTION XVI.
Wail fOnRM a tO Misa se ell stelle ee ees ee Ne Teh eee aie AI DL ee aoe Nae 207
SECTION XVII.
Fractures—Wounds—Anesthesia...-_....--22.--222-- 22220 eee ee eevee eee eee 211
Repair of the fracture of bones of the domestic fowl;
wounds; anesthesia and restraint of the fowl; injury to
the sternum; gangrene; frozen combs; broken beak.
SECTION XVIII.
CastralbiOme Ort: les Tyre See es oe ee ee 221
Caponizing; ovariectomy of the pullet.
SECTION XIX.
HOOUSBE OLS ONOUS REO MEO Wal Seese sue nee sanee tes ae eee See sie 227
The rose chafer; arsenical poisoning; salt poisoning;
other mineral poisons; ptomain poisoning; botulism; corn
cockle poisoning.
SECTION XX.
OUT FS EVE TINS CTE Seer ee are Ea ee CPi Re Ol ee Ng Sen 231
Poultry materia medica.
TETGNG HS 5 Sa a TO ec ee J et SS a re EDU 2 SAE RE ORE LE 241
ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
The Bony Skeleton of the Domestic Fowl... 12
The Visceral Organs of the Hen...........0.222 ese 14
Visceral Organs of the Right Side of a Fowl... 3
Visceral Organs of the Left Side of a Fowl.............000222..0....... 24
Section Through the Median Line of a Pullet__.......... 25
Transverse Section Through the Thoracic Region..........:..-.... UT
Heart of Fowl with Its Main Branches..............----...--0------.--- 30
Blood Vessels of the Pelvis and Thigh of the FowlL................. 35
Brain and hyveball: of the: Howl eee Be
Section Through the Hye of a Hen..............0.20--2- 2 39
(CYn@lnileewe Ie O TENA, OE Gy VALS TT oe pee te 40
The -RelviciOrganslotiay Pullet= 3 ee ee es 42,
MNP elival CRO Rea MISK Oiler ahs CTs oN ie eel ete eee SUN 43
Section” of Ovarycot the Hen ee eee 45
Diagrammatic Structure of the Hgg..__... 222.2 eee 46
Generative Organs of a Cockerel............-.2..---02.-22-- 2 48
Belwacm Cavadibyr ots ain© 0 Chester ens a NOU ee) O Une Ue 49
SHI OEN CRTC OVA OYE ete AINE a asia a oN ihe 1) le trl en re 2A oe TRUE EEN 50
INTE MOM OWE US | Vee GUNN a a tee ei aes a Ae ae hd ae 66
INISG AO OKO Nay JEL WICC HU tao ea aS et ape ae EA ae uaa 66
Gomocotesm Holo casters se ele Sea IRE It Ue een net 67
BA CUES MIMS CA BUG ero ST eel ei ural ee Cink ON ee eal 67
GOMTOMES USC yi rs ae a a ee eC Ul Sere ee NA 67
Vay Oy SAW EAD HSI oe] BEE WU IS TY ST Se ce eV ae sta 8 Se 68
EHegs of the Goniodes Stylifer............2....0002.2.2222222222ee cence eee 68
Inexpensive, Durable Spray Pum)............200002...22222222222escseeeeeeeeeee tale
SUE WI CHOY) ON ECSYSH STUN ETD Mor a Spe IN ee ee eA 73
S Cary EC BIS Pate = Reese NS. Bere a Naoend Ph COYNE, ute eae DELANO RANA: ese 74
VEO CITES) INIUTCLUTS 28s ree tila Nad aL RN Sa SL eel ese ae 75
Aixoremoyichibnon, 1elOVloSerealCeybhan. ee 76
ANB) TTY EATS SUL SS oe Gee DMT a ae ah IES TRU te ane 79
APU Hal see NG UTA see A IN a NOG YR ee WD Ta A at OSE 80
SareoDp Sivalllaia Gall laine Ce aes eae ue Delete, Cas einen ee 81
BANG SSeS TAY Ea ma SW US Te AOU IC eS TT IES WR aes ly en US NODS 82
ACG air t Hail heel © CO Teese ee aaa ere es Rn eae aU ten eee aw) Aa ea 83
IAS CATS em linilesma ecard sick at linoneein ole ld Rie yess h ele ae sah te eS 88
Fle renal sm Pap ill OS aeerire ee Sees Soe te eee iar Pee cre a onal 88
Heterakis Papillosa, Head Extremity... 88
Heterakis Papillosa, Tail Hxtremity_.....0022.2.-222222222-2. een 90
SSOLTRO DUS), JEU WONT COS ces see ee 91
SiS AV US er aC hay See Ne Sls ee ee as 92
RE ySpraneiksy, ra Ewe Eat ow ECO TONS ese ere ocean teee 96
SING GLU ERY eT Ay TAT AST Se a rs I EPA Ne Ie eet een Mea tale Mela OT
Blood Smear from Case of Cholera_..........----.--..--------------- 107
IDAHO ASHORE Thm, ey DONNA 112
Cloudy Swelling Due to Enterohepatitis...........----..---. NeoOeee Na 113
Section of Liver from a Case of Enterohepatitis................... 114
Blood Smear from a Case of Enterohepatitis...._.. ee sare eee a 115
Section of Kidney from Turkey That Died of Enterohepatitis 116
Cecum from a Case of Enterohepatitis in a Turkey_................ Waly
FIG.
D1.
52.
D3.
54.
55.
56.
57.
D8.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
(Be
74.
75.
76.
(ile
78.
79.
80.
ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Hemorrhagic Enteritis in a Hen....... 222222 118
Section Through Cecum from Case of White Diarrhea.......... 122
Coccidium Tenellum in Various Stages......-.0.222220022020-222c-2eeeeeeeeee 122
Croupous Inflammation in a Pigeon. ....--..22.2.202-----.22222222sseseee eee 124.
Pulmonary Coccidiosis in a Duck._____.... ne 127
Intestinal Coccidiosis in a Duck uu. cece eee 127
Thrombosis Ania Helen cue oes sn ere es Re Rs ee een 137
Spiroeche tay Galil evra sk eon eo Se 138
AGUte=“SpInO CMebOSTS i. eee ae Le eee ee ee Oe gee 138
lelerinehionneh Oye Ohba inte) dele ee ee nliyG
Multiple Tumors of Ovary of a Hen _.ui-22.22.... 222i eee 161
Jalen \Wrnday Ela /NoyslonampnmeENl Onsen 162
Heads of Two Chicks Affected with Contagious Hpithelioma 163
OPStrWe Lon vO wee Mera Che eee eee tes eee 167
CMTC RO OR ee ae a aad hap EN Re ee rece SRE SY Nd OW ce a 174
ROU) 1m ays Clad Gera ee oa ea a Eee 175
IDyy ae avereO WON Tha Gy (CNC eo ee eee cceee tence 177
Skiagraph of Head and Neck of Chicken___.............--02....... 181
Wiceratione ol te MC OTe ass eee eee ee een ee ne ee 184
APH OTM JAD SCES Sioa 2 es ee ee ee ee 190
Raralysis of the Auditory NeliVic- eee 199
Monster Chick (dipygus tetrabrachium) ...................-..-----------.---- 207
Oy Vr Sie he ea ERE ie apie ne et OE Reh cle ys alles 208
[Whran|oibi@ewl TElereie, Ok el, IBN ON (CO) Clea eerste 209
Sections Through Bones at Ditferent Stages of Fractures....213
Poultry Operating Table... NE enn AE Re Ree ee EE 216
Imyuny ato Stern tims nk saws pe eee ee eh 217
GanerenenOts Che HOO tote aly UIs Ke yee eee 218
Adoyo) Gre IBeieMell ANS AN) (Oyoeieennnee WENO ee 223
Capon andl © © Cle see eee Su a si Le ES eh ee 225
“52
Fic. 1. THe Bony SKELETON OF THE Domestic Fowt.
PPE ANA TON: Obey FlGs 1
Head and Neck
1, os incisivum—premaxilla; 2, anterior nasal opening; 3, os nasale
—nasal bone; 4, os lacrimale—lacrimal bones; 5, lamina perpen-
dicularis of the ethmoid bone; 6, os dentale—inferior maxilla or
lower jaw; 7, the malar bone; 8, os quadratojugal; 9, os pterygoi-
deum—pterygoid bone; 10, os quadratum; 11, os auriculare; 12,
foramen or opening for the passage of the fifth nerve from the
cranial cavity; 13, atlas or first cervical vertebra.
Trunk and Limbs
14, os carpi radiale; 15, radius; 16, first digit (thumb)—false wing
bone; 17, metacarpus; 18, second (middle or large) digit; 19, third
(rudimentary) digit; 20, os carpi ulnare; 21, os ulnae (elbow);
22, os humeri; 23, dorsal (thoracic) vertebra; 24, os scapulare;
25, ilium; 26, foramen ischiaticum; 27, coccygeal (caudal) vertebrae;
28, ploughshare bone; 29, foramen obturatum; 30, ischium; 31,
uncinate process of the rib; 32, vertebral portion of the rib; 33,
os clavicula; 34, os coracoideum; 35, femur (thigh bone): 36, pubis;
37, sternum—breastbone; 38, lateral internal process of sternum;
39, costal process of sternum; 40, keel of the sternum; 41, sternal
portion of the rib attaching to the sternum; 42, lateral external
process of the sternum; 43, fibula; 44, posterior process of the
sternum; 45, internal notch of sternum; 46, patella (knee cap);
47, tibia; 48, metatarsus; 49, 50, 53, principal digits; 51, rudimentary
digit; 52, first toe.
ye
ee
Fic. 2. THe Viscerat ORGANS OF THE ELEN.
EXPLANATION OF FIG. 2
Digestive and Genito-urinary Tract
1, beak; 2, tongue; 3, pharynx; 4, esophagus (gullet); 5, crop;
6, second portion of esophagus; 7, proventriculus; 8, gizzard; 9, duo-
denum; 10, first portion of the small intestine; il, floating portion
of small intestine; 12, ceca; 13, blind extremities of ceca; 14, colon;
15, rectum; 16, cloaca; 17, opening of egg sac into rectum; 18, anus;
19, mesentery; 20, opening from ureter into rectum; 21, kidney;
22, left ovary; =-, egg canal; 25, pancreas; 26, liver (turned back) ;
27, gall bladder; 28, spleen.
Organs of Respiration
29, nostrils; 30, frontal sinus; 31, maxillary (infraorbital) sinus;
32, turbinated bone; 33, posterior nares; 34, glottis; 35, larynx; 36,
trachea (wind-pipe); 37, false larynx; 38, lung.
Organs of Circulation
39, heart (pulled down to bring it into view); 40, aorta: 41, left
brachial artery; 42, cartoid artery.
SECTION I
ANATOMY OF THE FOWL
In the young bird the bones, for the most part, contain
cavities filled with red marrow. In the adult bird these cavi-
ties are largely filled with air. The air passes from the res-
piratory organs into these cavities. This air is supposed to
be renewed in the process of respiration. In the running
birds most of the bones contain marrow. Separate bronchial
tubes of the lungs are continued by the air sacs which com-
municate with the air spaces of the bones. The air spaces are
more abundant in the larger bones as the humerus, ulna and
radius.
The air passes into the air passages and bony eavities of
the head, then through the superior larynx, trachea and in-
ferior larynx into the bronchi. From air tubules here, the air
passes into the air cells of the body cavities and then into
the air cells of the bones. In the process of breathing the
air is drawn out of the air sacs located in the body and bone
eavities. .Fresh air in turn is forced through the small com-
municating tubules which enter the hollow bones through
small openings in their bony walls.
For study of the skeleton it may be divided into the three
regions: head and neck, the trunk and the limbs.
THE HEAD AND NECK
(The numbers refer to Fig. 1)
The bird’s head is rather small and conical in shape and
is composed of several bones as shown in Fig. 1. The og in-
cisivum or premaxilla (1) forms the anterior point and
base of the upper jaw. It is elongated anteriorly into a V
point in the fowl and flattened in the water fowl as the duck
and goose. This portion constitutes the beak. This bone,
together with the os dentale (6) forms the prehensile organ
or means of picking both solids and liquids. This organ con-
tains the anterior nasal opening (2) through which air passes
on its way to the lungs. The lamina perpendicularis of the
ethmoid bone (5) forms a thin wall between the two orbits
or eye cavities. It contains an opening or foramen for the
passage of the optic nerve and a smaller opening, the ethmoid
foramen, for the passage of the ethmoid nerve. The os
palatinum or palatine bone encircles the guttural opening of
the nasal passage and forms the greater part of the hard
18 POULTRY DISEASES
palate or roof of the mouth. It articulates with the pterygoid,
superior maxilla and premaxilla. The os pterygoideum. or
pterygoid bone (9), articulates with the sphenoid and os
quadratum (10). The os quadratum articulates with the
temporal, maxilla, zygomatic and pterygoid. The os auricu-
lare (11) is interposed between the maxilla and quadrate
bone. The atlas (13) or first cervical vertebra articulates
anteriorly with the condyle of the occipital bone and the axis,
the latter being located posteriorly.
There are fourteen cervical vertebrae in the fowl, fifteen
in the duck, eighteen in the goose and twelve in the pigeon.
The long column of cervical vertebrae serves as a sort of
balaneing pole, and by changing in form and direction it
varies the center of gravity. In flying, the bird changes the
center of gravity from the region over the legs to the region
of the wings. When at rest the head and neck are thrown
backwards, carrying the center of gravity back over the legs.
The first cervical vertebra is the atlas. This is the smallest
of the vertebrae and is ring-shaped. Anteriorly it articu-
lates with the single condyle of the occipital bone. This
anterior articular surface is half-moon shaped and forms a
deep articular joint called a ball and socket joint. This
type of joint makes possible, movements in all directions.
The condyle of the occiput also touches an articular end of
the odontoid process of the axis or second cervical vertebra.
Posteriorly there are found two small lateral wings possessing
articular facets which articulate with similar facets on the
lateral wings of the axis. The posterior part of the body
is provided with an articular facet which articulates with a
similar articular surface on the anterior portion of the body
of the axis.
The body of each succeeding vertebra articulates with the
one immediately anterior and posterior to it. Between each
two is a pad of fibro-cartilage. Above these bodies and
below the neural spines, we find a large neural canal which
is occupied by the spinal cord. Between each two vertebral
segments in the cervical region, the neural canal is exposed,
due to the neural arches incompletely bridging the canal in
that location. This space is protected or bridged over by an
intervertebral ligament.
The dorsal spines of the cervical vertebra are very small,
the ventral are more distinct. The anterior oblique spines
are provided on their under surfaces with articular facets,
which articulate with similar articular facets on the upper
side of the posterior oblique process of the vertebral segment
in front. The ventral spine on the last cervical segment is
ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 19
well developed. The transverse processes on either side of
the cervical vertebra are penetrated by a vertebral foramen.
Through each of this series of foramina passes a vertebral
artery, vertebral vein and a spinal nerve. The transverse
processes of the last cervical vertebra are provided with
ridges and excavations for muscular and tendinous attach-
ments.
TRUNK
(The numbers refer to Fig. 1)
The dorsal or thoracic vertebrae (23) number seven in the
fowl and pigeon, and nine in the duck and goose. ‘These
bones are usually fused or consolidated, giving great support
and stability to the wing. The dorsal vertebral region is
short. The first and sixth vertebrae articulate similar to
the cervical vertebra, that 1s, by the bodies and the oblique
processes. The seventh dorsal is fused with the first lum-
bosacral vertebra. The transverse processes of the dorsal
vertebrae from the second to the sixth are well developed and
bridged over with a thin wing of bone. The ventral spines are
well developed and partly fused to form a continuous ridge.
In the bird the lumbar and sacral vertebrae are consolidated.
In the embryo there are fourteen distinct vertebrae which
soon consolidate with each other and with the ribs. With
these vertebral segments are fused the last dorsal and first
coccygeal vertebral segments. This fusion is so complete that
the segments are indicated only by the intervertebral foraiina
through which the spinal nerves extend. This fused lum-
bosacral region forms the roof of the pelvic region. ‘The
lumbosaeral vertebrae and ilia are fused. The dorsal spines
of the vertebral segments are indicated only in the anterior
portion.
The joints of the coccygeal or caudal vertebrae (27) are
freely movable since in the birds of flight the tail is used as
a rudder. The terminal bone (28) is called the ploughshare
bone.
There are seven coccygeal vertebrae. The last segment is
the larger and is supposed to have originated from the fusion
of several segments. It is shaped like a ploughshare and 1s
called the pygostyle. It supports that part which gives rise
to the twelve main tail feathers.
The ribs are divided into the true and false.
The true ribs articulate with the sternum by means of an
intermediate bone. The false ribs do not articulate with
the sternum, but are floating.
The first rib articulates with the quadrate portion of the
20 POULTRY DISEASES
last cervical vertebra and the first dorsal segment. The last
rib articulates with the under side of the ilium at its ante-
rior alar portion. This rib is situated similar to the true ribs,
but instead of articulating directly with the sternum the see-
ond portion les against the second portion of the rib just
anterior to it. The ribs are provided with two articulaz
facets on the dorsal portion, and these articulate with sim1-
lar facets on the dorsal vertebrae. The true ribs are called
sternal ribs, and each succeeding sternal rib is longer than
the one preceding it. Nearer and nearer these ribs assume 1
horizontal position. The proximal end of the sternal rib
articulates with the distal end of the vertebral rib. The
sternal end is provided with two small ridges.
From the posterior border of the second, third, fourth and
fifth vertebral ribs and near their middles are flat uncinate
bony processes projecting upward and forward overlying the
succeeding rib, giving greater surface for muscular attach-
ments and greater stability to the thorax. The vertebral por-
tion of the rib (32) articulates inferiorly with the sternal
portion (41) joining it to the sternum or breastbone, with
which it articulates. The two portions of the rib are joined
by a diarthrodial articulation. The uncinate process of the
rib (31), is flat and projects backward onto the succeeding
rib, giving added stability to the thorax. These processes
are absent from the first and last ribs.
The sternum or breastbone is a large four-sided plate of
bone, the posterior portion of which overlaps the ribs on tlie
outer side. On the inferior portion of the sternum there 3s
a leaf-like ridge called the crista sterna or breast ridge
(or keel). This bony expansion gives a greater surface for
the attachment of muscles.
The sides are provided with an external and an internal
process forming an internal and an external notch. These
notches are bridged over by a broad ligament, to which the
muscles are attached. In the poor flyers, as the fowls, these
notches are large. The sternal end posteriorly is called the
zyphoid process. Anteriorly it is provided with lateral ex-
ternal processes, the costal processes. In the center of the
anterior part is the episternal process.
LIMBS
The os scapulare (24) is elongated, narrow and presents
smooth surfaces. Anteriorly it forms a portion of the gle-
noid cavity and is united to the fork of the coracoid by means
of fibro-eartilage.
The os clavicula (33) terminates below in the hypocleideum
ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 21
(57) and unites to the breastbone by means of a ligament.
The superior extremity rests within and opposite the glenoid
cavity, against the scapula (24) and coracoid (34). These
three bones form a passageway through which extends the
tendon of the levator muscle of the wing. This bone is termed
the “‘wish bone.’’ Its forks are elastic and prevent the wings
coming toward each other during contraction of the depressor
muscles. The os coracoideum (34), with the scapula, forms a
elenoid cavity at its proximal end in which articulates the
head of the humerus. Inferiorly it articulates with the ster-
num. The os humeri (22) presents an articular head inferiorly
which oceupies the glenoid cavity. It articulates superiorly
with the radius (15) and ulna (21). The os ulnac is
larger than the radius. This bone articulates inferiorly
with the humerus and superiorly with the carpus in company
with the radius and is provided with a short olecranon in-
feriorly. The two bones meet at both extremities but bow
apart in the middle. A strong ligament binds the ends so
that pronation and supination is impossible. This limits
movements to a gliding motion lengthwise. The carpus is
made up of two bones, the os carpi radiale (14) and the os
carpl ulnare (20). The metacarpus (17) consists originally
of two bones but they are fused or consolidated at the ex-
tremities. The first digit, thumb or false wing bone (16) is
a styloid-shaped phalanx. The second, middle or large digit
(18), consists of two phalanges, the second phalanx (34), and
the third or rather rudimentary finger (19).
The pelvis is voluminous and very strong. The three pairs
of bones composing it are: the ilium (25); the ischium (30) ;
and the pubis (36).
The ilium is long and is consolidated with the last two
dorsal, the lumbar and the sacral vertebrae. It is excavated
on the internal face to receive the kidneys.
The ischium forms a part of the sides of the pelvic cavity.
The pubis is long and thin and extends along the inferior
border of the ischium.
The femur or thigh bone (35) articulates superiorly with
the ilium by the cotyloid cavity. This cavity is provided
with a foramen or opening at its bottom which passes through
the bone. The femur articulates inferiorly with the patella
(46), the fibula (48) and with the tibia (47). The fibula
articulates superiorly with the external condyle of the femur
and the head of the tibia and inferiorly is consolidated with
the tibia. The tibia terminates below in two condyles which
articulate with the proximal end of the metatarsus, (48). The
22 POULTRY DISEASES
metatarsus terminates inferiorly with three articular sur-
faces or facets which articulate with the three principal digits,
(49), (50) (53). A conical eminence is noted near the inferior
third which turns backwards and is the base of the spur. Most
fowls have four digits. The os metatarsale or rudimentary
digit (51) projects backward and is made up of three pha-
langes. The second or internal toe (49) is provided with three
phalanges, the third or middle toe (53) is provided with four
phalanges, and the external or fourth toe (50) is S prey iee
with five phalanges.
VISCERAL ANATOMY OF THE HEN
THE DIGESTIVE TRACT
Mouth
The mouth cavity is characterized by the changing of the
jaw bones into the beak. There are no teeth. The tongue is
shaped like an Indian arrow, with prominent, rather hard
and sharp pointed papillae, along its posterior border.
There is an upper and lower beak. The upper beak is pro-
vided with sharp free edges. There are no lips or cheeks.
The upper jaw forms the base of the upper beak, and the
lower jaw forms the base of the lower beak. The beaks are
covered by a continuation of the epidermis. The beak is
formed of horn-like material that is rather hard and resists
wear to which itis subjected.
In many water birds, as geese and ducks, a thin dermoid
structure is formed over the edges of the beak, in which
numerous branches of the trigeminus terminate in taste buds.
In chickens the beak terminates in a sharp point, while
in water birds, as geese and ducks, the beak is flat, spatula-
like, and grooved transversely at its free margin. The roof
of the mouth (hard palate) is provided with a slit that ex-
tends antero-posteriorly, and is about one inch in length;
this is the posterior nares. There are on the hard palate four
or more cross bars, each of which is provided with hard fili-
form papillae that point backward. The tongue presents @
flat surface superiorly, and is covered by a thick strata of
corneous epithelium. The dorsum (upper surface) 1s pro-
vided with many small filiform papillae, that point back-
wards. The body of the tongue is made up of muscles and
connective tissue. The tongue of swimming birds is thinner
than that of chickens. The tongue is an organ possessing
both of the senses, taste and touch. The transverse row of
filiform papillae of the posterior portion of the roof of the
ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 23
mouth marks the border between the oral and pharyngeal
cavities. Both palatine and maxillary salivary glands are
present. The parotid, submaxillary and sublingual glands
are present also in some species of birds, but are rather rudi-
mentary. They have ducts through which their secretions are
discharged into the mouth.
Pharynx
The mouth cavity terminates in the pharynx. The pharynx
is covered by a mucous membrance. There is a transverse
ridge, provided with filiform papillae pointing backwards,
Fic. 3.. VISCERAL ORGANS OF THE RIGHT SIDE OF A FOWL.
The right abdominal and thoracic walls have been removed; 6, duodenal loop; 7,
pancreas; 8, small intestines; 10, rectum; 11, ceca; 12, right lung; 12a, right lobe of
the liver; 13, base of the heart; 17, kidney; 18, the gall bladder located on the right
lobe of the liver. The gizzard is not visible from the right side.
and located on the supero-posterior portion of the larynx, that
marks the posterior edge of the pharynx.
The pharynx communicates with the mouth cavity anteri-
orly and with the esophagus and larynx posteriorly.
Esophagus
The esophagus is a muscular tube lying posterior to the
trachea. The first portion passes over to the right side as it
reaches the anterior surface of the breast, where it forms an
expansion called the crop. The second portion enters the
thorax through the anterior thoracic opening and occupies a
24 POULTRY DISEASES
space between the lungs and passes over the base of the
heart. Some areas of the mucous membrane of the crop
contain mucous glands. The crop is simple in the fowl, form-
ing two symmetrical sacs in the pigeon and spindle-formed
in ducks and geese. In the pigeon during and shortly after
hatching time, in both sexes, it produces a milky fluid which
serves aS nourishment for the young. The esophagus termi-
nates in the stomach.
Stomach
Some anatomists call the proventriculus the pars glandula-
ris and the gizzard the pars muscularis. The pars glandularis
Fic. 4. VISCERAL ORGANS OF THE LEFT SIDE OF A Fowt.
The left abdominal and thoracic walls have been removed; 4, the proventriculus; 5,
gizzard; 6, extreme end of the duodenal loop; 7, pancreas; 8, the small intestines; 12,
lungs (it will be noted that the lungs occupy the superior part of the thoracic cavity
and that there is no distinct pleural sac, but that the lungs push up between the ribs;
in fact, the ribs are covered on the inner and lateral sides by the lungs); 12a, the
liver; 13, base of the heart; 17, kidney; 18, diaphragm.
(proventriculus) lies dorsal to, and midway between, the two
lobes of the liver, taking an oblique course to the left. It
terminates in the gizzard. Its mucous surface is studded by
papilla-lke projections, which furnish openings to glands of
the type of those in the fundus of the stomach cf the horse
and other quadrupeds.
Gizzard
The pars muscularis is round, muscular and flattened lat-
erally and lies to the right and posterior to the proventriculus.
ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 29
It hes partly behind and partly between the lobes of the liver
and consists of a hollow organ. It is somewhat contracted
at the sides and stands obliquely in the abdominal cavity.
In gramniverous birds the walls are very thick, being made
up for the most part of two powerful muscles. The cavity
is lined with a very thick stratified epithelium. These heavy
horny pads form grinding surfaces. Certain portions of the
mucous lining contain mucous glands, which by some anato-
mists have been regarded as modified pyloric glands of mam-
mals.
The small intestine originates on the same side of the giz-
Fic. 5. Section THrouGH THE MepiAn LINE OF a Two-Pounp PULLET.
No. 1, the stump of the first portion of the esophagus; 2, left wall of the crop; 3,
second portion of the esophagus located just below the vertebra; 4, the proventriculus
lying anterolaterally to the gizzard, superoposterior to the liver and to the left of
the spleen; 5, the gizzard; 6, duodenal loop; 7, pancreas; 8, floating portion of the
small intestines; 9, ovary; 10, rectuin; 11, ceca; 12a, liver; 13, heart.
zard that the proventriculus enters and about one-half inch
distant.
Small Intestine
The first portion of the small intestine is called the duode-
num, which forms a long loop ealled the duodenai loop. This
loop passes obliquely to the right side and proceeds along the
outer right abdominal wall, passing round toward the right
side, following along the posterior abdominal wall, where the
terminal portion of the loop rests. The remaining portion of
the small intestine forms a thick coil supported by a mesen-
26 POULTRY DISEASES
tery and occupies the space between the two large abdominal
air sacs.
Large Intestine
The large intestine is very short. At the point where the
small intestine terminates in the large intestine, there is
given off two long blind pouches—the ceca. These blind
pouches are directed toward the head. The ceca in pigeons
are comparatively short, while in fowls and ducks and geese
they are quite long. The major portion of the ceca is narrow,
becoming larger in calibre near the blind extremity. The
large intestine or colon extends backward in a straight line
with the under surface of the vertebrae and terminates in the
cloaca.
The entire length of the alimentary tract in fowls is five
to six times, and in geese and ducks four to five times, the
length of the body.
Cloaca
The cloaca is a sacculation with greater diameter than the
large intestine and communicates anteriorly with the large
intestine and opens to the external world through the anus.
It receives the feces, urinary secretion and the eggs from
the oviduct in the female. The vas deferens of the male
opens through a papilla on the anal mucous membrane. At
the point where the rectum (large intestine) empties into
the cloaca, there is a strong, oblique fold of mucous mem-
brane. The ureters empty at the summit of small papillae
midway between the vasa deferens. The mouth of the oviduct
is a slit. In the males of ducks, geese and swans there is
present a copulatory organ, somewhat resembling the penis
of mammals.
A small round or pear-shaped sac called the bursa of Fabri-
cus is located in the dorsal wall of the cloaca. The cavity
communicates, through a short canal, with the posterior bor.
der of the cloaca close to the anal wall. The mucous mem-
brane lining the bursa contains glands. The bursa is larger
in the young, but decreases in size with age. It apparently
reaches its greatest size in chickens at about four months of
age, at which time it may measure two to three centimeters
by one and one-half centimeters. By ten or eleven months
of age it has become quite rudimentary. Its function is not
known. Glands similar to those of mammals are located in
the intestines.
Liver
The liver is the largest gland in the body and consists of
two lobes—a right and a left. The right lobe is somewhat
ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 27
larger than the left, in most birds, except in the turkey and
euinea, where they are of equal size. The liver lies behind
the heart, the apex of which extends into the fissure between
the anterior portion of its two lobes. The inferior surfaces
Fic. 6. TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH THE THORACIC
Recion, LookinGc BacKWARD.
No. 1, spinal cord; 2, esophagus; 3, trachea; 4, skin;
5, pectoral muscles; 6, lungs; 7, heart; 8, breastbone;
10, liver.
of the liver are convex and covered by a layer of visceral
peritoneum. The two lobes are held together by a small hga-
ment. A filiform ligament extends from the inner surface
of the sternum and becomes lost in the serous covering of
28 POULTRY DISEASES
the liver. This ligament assists in holding the liver in posi-
tion. Most species of birds are provided with a gall bladder,
which is located on the posterior surface of the right lobe of
the liver. In birds without a gall bladder (pigeons, guineas)
the main gall ducts of the two lobes of the liver unite and
empty as one duct into the duodenum. In birds having a
gall bladder the ductus hepaticus passes from the left lobe
of the liver to the duodenum, while the bile from the right
lobe empties into the gall bladder, from whenee the gall 1s
carried to the duodenum through the ductus cysticus.
In fowls the ducts of the liver and pancreas empty into
the duodenum in the following order: First, the ductus
pancreaticus, from the pancreas; second, the ductus hepati-
cus, directly from the left lobe of the liver; and, third, the
ductus cysticus, from the gall bladder of the right lohe of
the liver. In ducks the ductus hepaticus and ductus cysticus
are united. This common duct empties into the duodenum
close to the pylorus. The two branches of the pancreatic
duct empty close behind the hepatic duct. In the pigeon
the ductus hepaticus is double and extends from the left
lobe, while a third duct carries the bile from the right lobe.
(Gadow.) There are apparently three pancreatic ducts in
this species.
Pancreas
The pancreas is a pale, long, yellowish, lobulated gland,
sometimes called the abdominal salivary gland, and hes bhe-
tween the two branches of the long duodenal loop. In some
species of birds the gland is divided into three distinct lobes,
each provided with its own duct, whicn carries the secretion
to the duodenum.
Spleen
The structure of the spleen is the same as in other animals.
It is reddish brown in color in the fowl, shaped like a horse
chestnut, and hes to the right in an angle formed by the
proventriculus, liver and gizzard. Its shape varies in the
different species of birds. In some it is globular, while in
others lenticular.
THE RESPIRATORY TRACT
Nasal Cavities
The nasal cavities are short and narrow. The two nasal
passages are separated by a cartilaginous septum and, in
part, by a bony wall. In ducks and geese the external nasal
opening is found toward the base of the beak. Through the
ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 29
openings one can see through from one nostril to the other
(nares perviae). The external openings are either round or
slit-like. They are often surrounded by a thin dermoid struc-
ture and a border of peculiar feathers. Each nostril is pro-
vided with a turbinated bone divided into three parts, which
may be considered as three turbinated bones. The middle
turbinated bone is the largest and the lower one the smallest.
A small, flat gland, peeuliar to birds (fowls, dueks and
geese), lies on the frontal bone in close proximity to the mesial
corner of the eye. A duct extends from this gland forward
and empties into the nostrils. The posterior nares opens into
the mouth cavity through a slit-like opening in the roof of
the mouth.
Larynx
Air passes through the nostrils and pharynx into the su-
perior larynx. The superior larynx is a musculo-cartilaginous
valve located at the superior extremity of the trachea. There
is no epiglottis. A ring-like cartilage, the cricoid, is located
at the base of the larynx. This forms the principal support.
This cartilage is divided into four parts, namely, two side
parts, one unequal ventral part and an unequal dorsal part.
Some of these parts at times and in some species are fused.
The arytenoid cartilages, three in number, are flexible and
joined to the superior part of the ecricoid. These cartilages
bound supero-posteriorly the entrance of the larynx. At
times the arytenoids become partially bony.
The walls are smooth and in the superior larynx there
are no vocal cords. This organ is sometimes ealled the larynx
cranialis, in contradistinction to the true larynx or larynx
eaudalis. The true larynx is located at the bifurcation of
the trachea into the right and left bronchi; it is provided
with delicate vocal cords. This organ is absent in voiceless
birds. It is sometimes called the larynx bronchio-trachealis.
In fowls it is flattened laterally. The last rings lie close
together in fowls, but are connected in pigeons and more or
less completely fused in geese. This structure is called the
tympanum (drum). A bony, arrow-like passage is found
between the tympanum and the opening into the bronchi.
This bears a small half-moon-shaped fold, which is concave
from above. On either side of this passageway there is lo-
eated an elastic membrane, the mebrana tympaniformis in-
terna, which forms the inner wall of the adjacent bronchus.
Laterally and between the tympanum and the two bronchial
rings on either side there is a membrane ealled the mem-
brana tympaniformis externa. Singing birds possess a well
30 POULTRY DISEASES
developed muscle which in fowls, ducks and geese is rudi-
mentary. In the male duck the inferior extremity is en-
larged into a large sac, called the bulla tympaniformis. The
left bronchus has a perceptible share in the formation of
this bulla. This bulla is a resonance box.
Trachea
The trachea consists of closed rings round in shape and
connected by short connecting bands. In fowls these rings are
cartilaginous, while in singing birds they may be partly bony.
The trachea is moved by means of two muscles.
Lungs
The lungs are two in number, red to pink in color and
firmly connected with the costal wall. The ribs indent the
lungs, allowing a part of the outer surface to project slightly
between them. The ventral free surface is turned towards
the body cavity and is covered by the rudimentary diaphragm.
The rudimentary diaphragm contains some muscular struc-
ture and is attached to the ribs and vertebrae. The pointed
anterior lobe extends to the first rib. The posterior part
terminates in a broad surface and extends back as far as the
anterior end of the kidneys. The bronchi communicate with
the air sacs by openings from the posterior border. The two
bronchi are broadened after they enter the lung, which is at
the beginning of the second third and on the ventral sur-
face. They lose their cartilaginous rings and continue as
duct-like channels to the extreme posterior edge, where they
terminate into cartilaginous rings called the ostium caudale,
from which point they communicate with the ventral or large
abdominal air sacs. Hach bronchus gives off a ventral
bronchus, called the bronchus diaphragmaticus caudalis,
through which the air is conducted to the ostium intermedium
caudale and into the caudal cella thoracica diaphragmatica.
Each bronchus gives off lateral bronchi which extend to the
ventral surface of the lung. They form blind pouches or air
saes (alveoli) near the surface of the lung.
Two bronchial systems take their origin from the main
bronchus, the ventral and the dorsal. The bronchus eclavicu-
laris arises from the dorso-medial wall of the main bronchus
a Short distance after it enters the lung and before it broad-
ens out. This bronchus gives off a large branch, called the
bronchus cervicalis. It bends round the base of the main
bronchus and the pulmonary artery and supplies the dorsal
surface of the lung, and through the ostium claviculare it
supplies air to the air sacs on the respective side (dorsal air
ANATOMY OF THE FOWL ol
sac). It terminates close to the middle of the lung, where it
communicates, through a small opening, with the diaphrag-
matic air sac.
The bronchus cervicalis extends forward in the direction of
the original trunk and anteriorly communicates with the cer-
vical air sac through the ostium cervieale.
There is also given off from the main bronchus the bronchus
eervicularis dorsalis and medialis. The first extends with a
few bronchi into the elavicular air sac. The bronchus dia-
phragmaticus cranialis extends laterally, dorsally and medi-
ally, and terminates in the thoracic air sae through the ostium
intermedium eraniale. The bronchus caudalis originates
from the dorso-median wall and extends to the caudal and
middle portions of the lung. There is given off another
bronchus called the bronchus lateralis from this lateral bron-
chus.
There extend from the main bronchus several bronchi in
the medial half of the lung. There are six to ten dorsai
bronchi (bronchi dorsales). Numerous perpendicular, nar-
row, thick-walled tubes lying close to each other are given off
from the dorsal wall of the main bronchus and other bronehi
mentioned. These tubes have been called the ‘“‘lung pipes,”’
which by lateral pressure become five- or six-sided tubes. The
mass of the lungs are made up of these tubes. These tubes
terminate near the surface of the lung. The ends of these
tubes, which le at right angles to the main channel, form
sacculations somewhat simulating the air sacs of mammals.
Connective tissue, through which pass blood vessels and nerves,
fills in the space between these lung tubules.
Air Sacs
The air sacs are bladderlike structures with delicate walls.
The saes are lined with a mucous membrane which is a con-
tinuation of the mucous membrane of the bronchi. They are
eonnected with the bronchial tubes but do not communicate
with each other. They also communicate with air spaces in
mony of the bones of the trunk and limbs. Bronchial tubes
extending to the surface of the lung communicate directly
with these air cells. The air sacs continue partly into the
bones and line the walls of these spaces. These air spaces,
some of which are of considerable size, add to the bulk of the
body of the bird without increasing its weight. They reach
their highest state of development in the fliers and swimmers
and are less developed in running birds. The air sacs are as
follows: The anterior thoracic air sac, from which arises the
32 POULTRY DISEASES
axillary cell which extends to the humerus, breastbone and
ribs. This is the only air sac that is single, the balance exist-
ing in pairs. The cervical air sacs lie on the iast cervical
vertebra and extend into the cervical vertebra. The infero-
posterior thoracic air sac (ventral, phrenic or diaphrag-
matic). The supero-posterior thoracic air sacs (dorsal phrenic
or diaphragmatic air sacs). These air sacs or cells lie he
tween the lungs and the abdominal viscera at the rudimen-
tary diaphragm and aid in keeping separate the thoracic and
abdominal viscera. The abdominal air sacs, which are by far
the larger of all the air sacs, extend from the anterior to near
the posterior border of the abdominal cavity. Part of the
abdominal viscera lies between them. They extend to the
pelvis and thigh bones. The cavities of the head receive their
air from the nasal passages.
Thymus Gland
The thymus gland is present in young birds and is located
along each jugular vein in the neck. The parts of this gland
are elongated and lobulated.
Carotid Glands
These are two round or oblong glands abundantly supplied
by blood vessels and lie at the base of the carotid arteries.
Adrenal Glands
These small reddish-like bodies lie at the anterior end of the
kidneys.
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The heart is located in the thoracic cavity with the base
directed in a cranio-dorsal direction. The apex directed
downward and backward lies in the anterior portion of tke
fissure formed by the two lobes of the liver. It is surrounded
by a pericardial sac which is often attached by means of con-
nective tissue to the adjacent air sac. The structure of the
heart is similar to that of mammals, except that the tricuspid
valves of the right auriculo-ventricular opening are replaced
with a strong double muscular plate which extends from the
outer chamber wall. The papillary muscles are absent in the
right chamber. The aorta is given off from the left ventricle
and the pulmonary artery from the right ventricle as in mam-
mals. The bicuspid valve frequently is provided with three
points. The venae cavae (two anterior and one posterior)
empty into the right auricle. The pulmonary veins empty
through one common opening into the left auricle.
ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 33
The structure of the blood vessels are the same as in mam-
mals. The pulmonary artery emerges from the right ventri-
ele, is short and divides into a right and a left branch, which
go to the respective lungs.
The aorta emerges from the left ventricle, is short and
oives off the right and left coronaries
and bifureates into the brachioce- flee) Mey
phalie dexter (the right branch) and 1) 2
the brachiocephalic sinister (the left je LY
branch). The brachiocephalic dexter 5 (7 C f
gives off the posterior aorta which
winds round the right bronchus and Ap RA
passes along the lower portions of the Ke
vertebrae. It then bifurcates to form ¥
the right carotid and right subclavian i . RV
artery. Farther along the left and
right carotids communicate and at -
this point the thyroid gland is located. — fie. 7. Heart or Fown wit
The brachiocephalic sinister bifurcates 4 1's Main Brancues.
. : ils rtoid artery; 2, sterno-
into the left carotid and the left sub- {yaricuiarus artery; 3, axil-
elavian artery. ‘lary artery; 4, thoracic cran-
Q : jalis artery; 5, thoracic cau-
In some species of birds the two dalis; 6, posterior aorta; LA,
carotids unite and form one carotid [c% ice Re en aay,
called the carotid primaria. The _ tight ventricle.
earotids give off branches to adjacent
parts as they pass toward the head. Martin. At autopsy
there were found small cysts attached to the capsule of the
liver. The cysts varied in size up to a pea. They are seldom
if ever found in the liver substance. The cysts are yellowish-
white in color, fluctuate and resemble somewhat the small
echinococcie cysts. Upon microscopic examination yeast-like
bodies were found which somewhat resembled the Oidium
albicans. Some may be found in the process of budding. The
liquid of the cyst is of a yellowish color and of a gelatinous
consistency. The cells are provided with a capsule and ¢on-
tain a homogeneous protoplasm in the center of which is ob-
served a nucleus.
SARCOCYSTIS
Sarcocystis is also called psorospermosis. It is duc to a sin-
gle-celled sporozoal parasite. It may affect the striped and
unstriped muscular tissue, connective tissue and at times the
visceral structures.
Kuhn has described a sarcocyst as affecting the domestic
fowl.
CLOACITIS
Symptoms.—The anus becomes red (inflamed), protrudes,
and later ulcerates. In a case treated in the laboratory anth-
septics were applied and injected into the cloaca with the
view of destroying the germs causing the trouble, but the bird
died. Upon autopsy it was found that acute inflammation
had extended the entire length of the rectum. See Fig. 2 for
this portion of the anatomy. The latter condition would be
called a proctitis.
Hoare describes a contagious catarrh affecting the cloaca
and sometimes extending to the mucous membrane of the
lower portion of the oviduct and to the rectum. It may be
communicated from bird to bird by copulation.
Treatment.—In these cases apply a solution of sulphocar-
bolates compound, five per cent carbolized vaselin, or a solu-
tion of five per cent carbolic acid in warm water. The solu-
tions may be injected with a syringe and the ointment applied
with the finger.
The best results have been obtained by the injections of a
five per cent solution of sulphate of iron three times a day.
PERITONITIS
Acute peritonitis is rare. It may result from the irritation
that follows from rupture of the oviduct. It may accompany
aspergillosis or fowl cholera.
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 129
Symptoms.—Pain on palpation of the abdomen, and pain-
ful defecation. There may be a loss of appetite, dullness, and
later marked prostration and death.
Chronic peritonitis is more common than the acute type.
Post Mortem Appearance.—The surface of the peritoneum
appears rough and flakes of purulent material are found
among the intestines and other abdominal organs. This type
is a purulent peritonitis and is the one most common.
ASCITES
Ascites has been observed in both fowls and eanaries.
It has been found to appear in certain diseased conditions
of the liver, kidney or heart. It may also appear in chroni:
nonsuppurative inflammation of the peritoneum.
Symptoms.—Great distension of the abdomen. Upon shak-
ing the bird the liquid may be heard within. Palpation does
not reveal the abdominal cavity filled with hard objects.
Treatment.—Tap the abdominal cavity and allow the liquid
to escape. For this purpose a hollow needle (a hypodermie
needle will do) is used. Give two grains of potassium iodid
in capsule by the mouth twice daily.
NEPHRITIS
Acute nephritis is frequently met with in fowls. Baby
chicks which are allowed to be exposed to cold rains and be-
come chilled or which are not properly cared for and improper
heat supplied, suffer with acute congestion and inflammation
of the kidneys.
Symptoms.—Acute and chronic inflammation interferes
with the appetite, arrests growth and at times there is a loss
of coordination.
Post Mortem Exanunation.—The kidneys are increased in
size; the tissue is rather firm in consistency in the chronic
type. The organ may, in chronic cases, be of a greyish-yellow
eolor. There is hypertrophy of the interstitial connective tis-
sue. The uriniferous tubules are partly destroyed and the
epithelium in many parts may be in a state of fatty degenera-
tion. |
Chronic indurative nephritis is noted often.
Acute parenchymatous nephritis has been observed in hens
dying of purulent peritonitis and purulent inflammation of
the air sacs.
130 POULTRY DISEASES
SUPPURATIVE INFLAMMATION OF THE GIZZARD .
A Single Comb Rhode Island Red cock two years old, used
as a breeder, showed a slight diarrhea, ‘‘mopiness’’ and no
interest in life. He became gradually weaker and died.
The carcass was thin there being an absence of retroperi-
toneal fat. There was a suppurative inflammation of the pos-
terior half of the gizzard. The posterior portion of the giz-
ard cavity contained a quantity of cheesy pus. The liver
weighed 60 grams and presented a greyish mottled appear-
ance. The testes were in an atrophic condition showing that
he was entirely inactive as a breeder.
A section of the gizzard including a portion of apparently
normal gizzard tissue and through the involved area was pre-
pared and sectioned and stained with hematoxylon, eosin and
pierie acid. A portion of the adjacent muscle was densely
infiltrated with polymorphonuclear leukocytes as well as a
zone of newly formed connective tissue. This was apparently
a chronic suppurative inflammation. The pus consisted of
fibrinous material and masses of pus eells.
Sections of the liver prepared and stained with hematoxylon
and eosin showed intense active and passive congestion with
hemaciderosis. There was an acute inflammation, the poly-
morphonuclear leukocytes appearing more densely infiltrated
in the perivascular spaces and immediately adjacent tissue. In
some areas the inflammation appeared rather diffused while
in other parts of the liver there appeared a tendency toward
foealized areas of inflammation.
CALCULI
Urinary sediment in the form of calculi has been found in
the fowl. These deposits may be located in the small collect-
ing and transporting tubules of the renal tissue and may
consist principally of uric acid. These deposits appear as
small nodules.
PURULENT INFLAMMATION OF THE ARDOMEN OF THE
HEN
Purulent abdominal inflammation is quite common in hens.
Especially is this the case with hens of two or more years of
age. Nonspecific infections are the cause of a portion of these
cases.
The following case serves as an example of purulent peri-
tonitis of the hen.
The subjéct was a two-year old S. C. Rhode Island Red hen.
After death the unfeathered region of the head was of a deep
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 131
purplish red. There was slimy mucus in the mouth. The general
condition of the plumage was fairly good. The carcass had a fair
amount of fat on it. The liver appeared dark, but normal in size.
The gall bladder was full of bile. The peritoneal surfaces were
covered by a mildew-like material. The carcass was cold due to
the fact that it had been in refrigeration over night. This mildewed
condition may have been due, in part, to this cause. The spleen
was normal in size and appearance. The intestines appeared normal
except for the above described condition. Ingesta and a small
amount of gas were contained in the intestines. The ceca and
large intestines contained a small amount of ingesta. The pancreas
appeared normal. The kidneys were of a light mottled grey, the
anterior lobes appearing swollen and highly congested—apparently
blocked with the pasty, white urinary secretions. There was
present cloudy swelling. The ureters were distended with urinary
secretions of a pasty nature. The ovary was inactive and of a
pinkish color. The accumulated material of the right ureter was
thinner and more slimy than the left, and upon a microscopic ex-
amination, was found to be teeming with short, chained, strep-
tococci; pus cells of both mononuclear and polymorphonuclear
varieties and sodium urate crystals were present. There was about
5 ee. of a thin, milky liquid in the peritoneal cavity. The strep-
tococci seemed to be confined to the abdominal region affected with
purulent inflammation. Microscopic examination of the pleural
fluid, lungs, blood and heart blood revealed nothing abnormal.
A microscopic examination of sections from the kidneys stained
with hematoxylon and eosin showed both active and passive con-
gestion, with cloudy swelling. ‘There were pus cells and hemorrhage
into the collecting tubules. Areas here and there showed localized
nephritis as evidenced by the area being packed with polymor-
phonuclear and mononuclear leukocytes, similar to those found in
the peritoneal exudates.
INTESTINAL DISEASES OF CANARIES
_ Intestinal troubles in canaries are usually due to errors in
feeding and watering. In diarrhea remove all green feed and
do not give any soft feed. Give just the normal seed supply.
Feed the bird with a small piece of wet bread on which has
been sprinkled subnitrate of bismuth. If the case does not
yield to this treatment place in the drinking cup one ounce
of clear water in which has been placed four drops tincture
of opium and fifteen drops whisky or brandy.
In case of constipation give plenty of green feed such as
lettuce, apple, chick weed. Add a pinch of Epsom salts to the
drinking water. Make the water so that it has a faintly saline
taste of the Epsom salts.
Yang
ae
SECTION VI
BLOOD DISEASES
Under blood diseases come the septicemias, as apoplectiform
septicemia, septicemia of geese, typhoid of fowls, and spiro-
chetosis, all caused by germs which live and multiply in the
blood stream.
APOPLECTIFORM SEPTICEMIA IN CHICKENS AND
PIGEONS
This disease is due to the Streptococcus gallinarum, which
grows in long or short chains. It can be readily grown upon
artificial media and does not liquefy gelatin. Experimental
inoculations with this organism killed the following animals:
chickens, mice, rabbits and swine. It does not kill guinea pigs
or dogs. The germ multiples in the blood.
Symptoms.—Apoplectiform septicemia is rapid in its prog-
ress. The bird shows great prostration, feathers ruffled, loss
of appetite, and the condition rapidly terminates in death.
Often birds die in from twelve to twenty-four hours after the
first symptoms appear. Birds in which no symptoms of the
disease had been noticed may be found dead under the roosts.
This disease often causes great loss to pigeon fanciers.
Postmortem Findings.—The spleen is enlarged, dark and
soft; foeal necrosis is noted in the kidneys, spleen and liver.
Cloudy swelling also oceurs preceding this state. Pneumonia
may be present. The germs can be isolated in pure culture
from any of the organs named.
Treatment.—Observe the rules of sanitation, as directed
for chicken cholera (Page 110). If possible, separate the well
birds from the sick. Vaccination with a vaccine made from
the Streptococcus gallinarum kas given good results. Sulpho-
earbolates compound may be tried, as outlined in the article
on chicken cholera before mentioned.
SEPTICEMIA OF GEESE
This disease has been described as being caused by a germ
which closely resembles the polar staining germ of chicken
cholera. It multiplies in the blood.
Symptoms.—Geese are often found dead without having
been noted to have been ill. The majority die very quickly,
that is, within two or three hours after the first symptoms
appear. Occasionally a bird may live for several days and
finally die.
134 POULTRY DISEASES
Postmortem Findings.——Small pinpoint hemorrhages may
be noted, especially in the mucous lining of the intestines.
Usually the digestive tract contains feed in all stages of diges-
tion, indicating that the disease is very rapid in its onset.
Considerable mucus may be found in the mouth and throat.
Inflammation may be noted in the liver, pericardium (heart
sac), spleen and kidneys.
Treatment.—Sanitary measures the same as those given for
chicken cholera. (See page 110.)
FOWL TYPHOID. INFECTIOUS LEUKEMIA
This is due to a short, plump germ with rounded ends. It
is called the Bacterium sanguinarium, and is easily isolated
from birds dead of the disease. It reproduces the disease in
inoculated birds, multiplying in the blood.
The disease is confined to chickens. The period of incuba-
tion is given as one to two months. The course of the disease
is from one to two weeks to as long as three months. Birds
rarely recover.
Symptoms.—Anemiec or blanched appearance of the mucous
membrane of the head, with a dull appearance and great pros-
tration, usually ending in death in about four days, is charac-
teristic of this disease. In some cases the affected bird may
live three to four weeks. Moore reports a decrease in red blood
cells and an increase in white blood cells, the latter princi-
pally the polymorphonulear leukocytes.
Postmortem Findings——The liver is enlarged and mottled
with greyish patches, due to areas of leukocytic mvasion. The
germ can be isolated from the internal organs. The kidney
shows congestion, which may be recognized by the minute red
lines. The intestines may be congested. The spleen usually
appears normal in size and color. The red blood cells gradu-
ally diminish and a leukocytosis (an increase of the white
blood cells) appears.
MYELOID LEUKEMIA
Schmeisser has shown that spontaneous leukemia occurs in
the fowl. It is transmissible by the intravenous or intra-peri-
toneal injection of an organic emulsion.
The chemical picture and changes produced in the blood
and organs are analogous to those which occur in human leu-
kemia.
In a case of spontaneous leukemia the following differential count
was found:
Polymorphonuclear with eosinophilic rods -........-....---...-.---- 8 per cent
Polymorphonuclear with eosinophilic granules --...........- 0 per cent
BLOOD DISEASES 135
TE AWA MYO) ANOLON AILS ISS Ses ee eee ne em ee 2 per cent
Wansenmonoculeanicelll so eee ee ee ete ences 30 per cent
DIMES COVEN NS a I Ae ane 0 per cent
Mononuclear myelocyte with eosinophilic granules.............. 52 per cent
WIM CLASS THe Cie Cells iret ee a ia ee eee 8 per cent
100 per cent
It is associated by an infiltration of large mononuclear leu-
koeytes. Atrophy of the bone marrow is noted. There is noted
an accumulation of white blood cells in the bone marrow,
spleen and liver. The bone marrow appears greyish-red in
color.
Treatment.—Prompt isolation of the well from the sick
birds and sanitary measures as given for fowl cholera should
be observed.
SLEEPING SICKNESS OF CHICKENS
This disease is due to a gram-positive encapsulated strep-
tococeus. As prominent symptoms there is noted reddened
and swollen conjunctiva. The bird appears ‘‘droopy’’ and
drowsy. The comb and wattles appear pale. There is a diar-
rhea and emaciation rapidly ensues.
SEPTICEMIC DISEASES OF CANARY BIRDS
Septicemia of Canary Birds
This disease is due to a motile bacillus. The cultures on
potatoes are a characteristic yellowish-grey. As a prominent
symptom there is noted a soot-like discoloration of the skin.
At autopsy there is noted small necrotic foci in the liver.
Cholera of Canary Birds
This disease is due to a non-motile bacillus. It does not take
the polar staining. In cultures it produces fetid gases. On
potato it produces yellowish colonies. It is very fatal run-
ning a rapid course. Chickens and pigeons inoculated with
the pure culture succumb to the disease.
Infectious Necrosis of Canary Birds
The bird appears droopy with loss of appetite. Singing
birds cease to sing and remain quiet on the perch. Upon
examination of the mouth cavity diphtheric areas are noted.
On autopsy small necrotic areas are noted in the liver and
spleen. The germ is a short non-motile Gram-negative bacillus.
Typhoid of Canary Birds
This disease is due to a bacillus of the enteritidis group.
The prominent symptoms are those of debility, difficult respi-
136 POULTRY DISEASES
ration and diarrhea. The course is rather rapid. On autopsy
there is noted an acute gastro-intestinal catarrh, and a fibri-
nous inflammation of the serous membranes and cloudy swell-
ing of the liver and kidneys.
FOWL PEST
(Pestis Avium)
This is an acute contagious and infectious disease of fowls.
It may attack chickens, geese, turkeys, pheasants, sparrows,
parrots, pigeons and owls. The infective agent is contained in
the blood, nasal discharges, nervous system and droppings.
The disease may be transmitted to chickens by inoculation
of emulsions from these sources from the infected fowl. These
emulsions filtered through porcelain and the filtrate injected
into a chicken produced the disease. Landsteiner claims that
the blood corpuscles are more virulent than when serum alone
is injected.
The virus kept in sealed glass tubes retains its virulency for
at least three months. The filtrate proved virulent for only
one week. Centanni found that a temperature of 65 degrees
Fahrenheit killed the virus at once and 55 degrees Fahrenheit
in thirty minutes. The virus remained active in dried liver
and spinal cord for 200 days, and in blood mixed with gly-
cerin 270 days. Drying in a thin layer kills it (Ostertag). It
is destroyed by five per cent creolin, three per cent chlorate
of lime and one per cent corrosive sublimate.
The disease is probably spread by contaminations from the
droppings and nasal secretions. The feet of man and animals,
utensils and clothing coming in contact with the contagion
may transmit the disease. Birds introduced into the flock
from infected flocks or placed in infected runs or coops may
serve as a source of infection. Macerated parasites (blood
sucking) removed from sick birds and these injected into sus-
ceptible birds did not produce the disease.
Symptoms.—The period of incubation is from three to five
days. The bird first appears depressed with loss of appetite;
later dull and sleepy. The comb and wattles appear dark red
and the bird sits with droopy wings, and gives a peculiar loud
ery when picked up. The walk is irregular and staggery.
Toward the end of the disease greyish scales sometimes de-
velop on the skin, especially on the face and around the eyes.
The nasal discharge is of a reddish or greyish color and rather
viscid in consistency. Similar secretions are noted in the
mouth and throat. The bird if distressed by obstruction from
mucus accumulation may throw its head causing a discharge
of a quantity of the secretion. The droppings are grey or
BLOOD DISEASES 137
greenish and occasionally diarrhea accompanies the disease.
The disease is fatal in from two to three days to seven days,
depending on the natural resistance of the bird and the viru-
leney of the causative organism.
Autopsy.—In very acute cases lesions may be absent or only
lightly marked. There may be hemorrhages in the serous
membranes as the peritoneum, pericardium or on the viscera,
and congestion of the liver, spleen and kidneys. In less acute
cases there may be edema of the subcutaneous connective tis-
sues of the neck and breast. The pericardium may contain a
quantity of pale yellow, shghtly cloudy fluid. Fibrinous exu-
date has been noted in the pericardium and peritoneum.
There is a catarrhal swelling of the conjunctival mucous mem-
branes. The mouth and nasal passage contain a quantity of
mucus. The lungs may be congested. The intestines may be
congested or there may be inflammation. Hemorrhages may
be noted.
Treatment.—Steps should be taken as in other contagious
and infectious diseases. Maggiora claims that hyperimmu-
nized goose blocd has curative properties as well as capability
of producing passive immunity.
THROMBOSIS
A bird was sent to the laboratory with the history that it
had been sick for several weeks. There was a partial loss of
appetite, finally complete
loss; the bird showed weak-
ness and a gradual emacia-
tion. The hen died in
about two weeks after com-
ing to the laboratory.
On autopsy there was
noted great emaciation.
All organs appeared nor-
mal except the circulatory
system. There was throm-
bosis (complete plugging)
of the right brachial artery
(artery to right wing) and
the same of the large ves-
sel to the liver, as well as
of the ilae and femoral
artery of the left side( ar-
tery to left leg). Upon mi- Fre. 57. TuHrompos:s In A Hen.
croscople exam ination A, pelvic bone, central portion; B, muscle
: Gchichy ©, bloods vessel) containing aawLie
Hhere we ywerey mrOunTde white entre ek ey eae
138 POULTRY DISEASES
thrombi. Fig 57 illustrates this condition. It may be seen
that the blood vessels are quite distended by the blood fibrin.
SPIROCHETOSIS
This is a blood disease (septicemia) due to a spiral-like
microscopic organism that is supposed to be carried from bird
Fic. 58. SprrocHETA GALLINARUM.
This drawing, made from a blood
smear, shows red blood cells (oval),
thrombocytes and leukocytes (round)
and spirochetes (corkscrew-like).
to bird by means of the chicken
tick; illustrated in Fig. 34.
Fig. 58 shows a drawing of the
germ. It is the Spirocheta
gallinarum; the shde from
which this drawing was made
was kindly sent to the author
by Dr. Balfour of Khartoum,
Sudan, Africa. It may affect
the chicken, goose, lark and
other birds.
This disease was first recog-
nized in Brazil; it is found in
Africa and Europe. A disease
occurs in the southern part of
the United States, where the chicken tick is abundant, that
presents symptoms similar to those of spirochetosis; so far
as the author knows, no definite work has been done to deter-
inine the true cause of it.
Fic. 59. Acute SPIROCHETOSIS (AFTER BALFOUR).
Spirochetosis is most common among chickens, but also
infects geese, ducks, pigeons and sparrows.
Symptoms.—Dullness, loss of appetite and rapid emaciation
BLOOD DISEASES 139
first; the head and tail are down, and the bird stands around
in corners or on the roost, with its eyes closed. Fig. 59 shows
a photograph of a typical case. Note the attitude of head,
tail and body.
Another form of septicemia in chickens is caused by a com-
ma-shaped germ—the Spirillum Metchinikovi or Vibrio Met-
chinikovt.
The symptoms are similar to those of fowl cholera, except
that there is no, or at most but slight, elevation of the tem-
perature. Diarrhea is constantly present. Inflammation of
the bowel and enlarged liver (hepatitis) is noted. The disease
has not been reported in this country. It may exist unrecog-
nized.
PERICARDITIS
This is an inflammation of the pericardium or heart sac;
there is usually a sero-fibrinous effusion about the heart, and it
is often spoken of as dropsy of the heart sac or dropsy of
the heart. It is, of course, not strictly a blood disease, but
it is often associated with diseases of the blood and of the
lungs, as a complication; further than this its cause is not
known, but may result from exposure to cold and dampness.
It may be a complication of fowl cholera, of acute tuberculous
origin, or pneumo-pericarditis, the latter an extension of
the inflammation from the lung structures to the pericardium.
Symptoms.—A diagnosis of pericarditis cannot ordinarily
be made during the life of the bird, but is easily demonstrated
on autopsy. Among the symptoms are intense dyspnea, the
beak being held open. Tumultuous heart action, extreme ex-
haustion on exercise may exist. The bird may fall if forced to
move and death may occur from syncope. There may be a
degeneration of the heart muscle and possibly a rupture of
the pericardium.
Treatment.—Treatment is unsatisfactory; numerous cases
occurring in the same flock should lead to the enforcement of
better hygienic conditions, especially to better protection from
cold and dampness.
ENDOCARDITIS
This is an inflammation of the hning membrane of the heart,
usually affecting the valves also. Nothing is known of its
eause, but it is of not infrequent occurrence during the course
of certain diseases of the blood. It cannot be diagnosed dur-
ing life, and therefore cannot be treated. From what we
know of the cause of endocarditis in man and animals, we
should expect exposure to cold and dampness to be a factor in
140 POULTRY DISEASES
the cause of this disease, and as such to be avoided. Verrucose
pericarditis has been found. The nodules form in a line or in
an irregular manner in the vicinity of the valves. These nod-
ules may become so large that they interfere with the action
of the valves and a regurgitation of the blood results.
Chronie endocarditis is often found. In old birds ealeifi-
eation of the aortic walls has been observed.
RUPTURE OF THE HEART AND LARGE BLOOD VESSELS
Internal hemorrhage (bleeding) due to rupture of the heart
or large blood vessels is common in overfed fowls. It may
be caused by any excitement or overexertion in such birds.
It is described in this section because affecting organs of cir-
culation.
Symptoms.—There is a sudden blanching of the comb and
mucous membranes followed by great weakness, coma and
death. No treatment is practicable.
HYPERTROPHY OF THE HEART
The causes of this condition have been thought to be ob-
struction of the circulation due to tuberculous growths in the
liver or mesentery and also a sequela of gout and rheumatic
conditions. It is found in both fowls and cage birds.
Symptoms.—The most prominent symptom is that of dysp-
pea aecompanied by a wheezing sound.
SECTION VII
CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES
Under this head we class ‘‘going light’’ and tuberculosis.
Both cause considerable loss to the poultryman. There is
much doubt as to whether the former should be classed as a
disease; certainly this term as usually applied refers merely
to a symptom of a disease (often tuberculosis or enteritis) or
a condition in which there is a progressive loss in the weight
of the bird.
GOING LIGHT (ASTHENIA)
Those who look upon going light as a specific disease con-
sider it as one that affects chickens and pigeons. It may affect
old or young birds. It is called going light because the bird
becomes gradually lighter until emaciated. It is a disease that
is found in all parts of the United States. A germ called the
Bacterium asthene has been isolated by one investigator from
the intestines of sick birds. It resembles the Bacillus coli
communis always present in the intestinal tract of chickens.
The affected birds have a good appetite; in fact, at times a
ravenous one. The loss of flesh is continuous for a few weeks,
when the bird dies.
In eleven cases of going light examined by the pathological
laboratory of the United States Bureau of Animal Industry
three were found to be infected by the Bacillus enteritidis.
This germ is dangerous to man. It affects cattle and has re-
sulted fatally to those persons eating infected meat.
Postmortem Findings—Usually on autopsy all organs ap-
pear normal so far as gross appearance goes, but extreme
emaciation as described above is noted.
The following is the result of a blood study in these cases:
Report of Cases of Asthenia
Two outbreaks have been investigated by the author. One in a
flock of Rhode Island Reds, in which flock there were about two
hundred birds which should have weighed about two pounds each.
The disease affected a gradually increasing number. The feed con-
sisted of grain, insects picked up from the fields, and plenty of
green grass. As it was irrigation time, the birds had access to
the irrigating ditches. The henhouse and yard were kept clean.
It was advised to change the run and continue giving a variety
of good green feed and grain with a good supply of water. The
disease finally disappeared from the flock. All efforts at the labora-
142 POULTRY DISEASES
tory to isolate any germ which might have been the cause of the
disease were unsuccessful.
The second flock was from eggs that had been produced by birds
in which roup had appeared the preceding winter. Five pirds
about four months old were sent to the laboratory for study with
the following history: The birds had good hygienic surroundings,
were moved from place to place, given fresh water and good quality
of feed, with plenty of green stuff, but without success; the birds
not only did not thrive, but continued to lose flesh and finally died,
notwithstanding that most of them had a ravenous appetite.
Chick No. 3.—Hemoglobin, 65 per cent; erythrocytes, 2,920,000;
leukocytes, 28,000. Differential count: polymorphonuclear neutro-
philes, 39 per cent; eosinophiles, 30 per cent; lymphocytes, 29 per
cent; mast cells, 2 per cent.
Chick No. 4—Hemoglobin, 65 per cent; erythrocytes, 2,600,000;
-leukocytes, 14,000. Differential count: eosinophiles, 31 per cent;
mononuclears, 8 per cent; lymphocytes, 60 per cent; basophiles, 1
per cent.
Chick No. 5.—Hemoglobin, 75 per cent; leukocytes, 34,000; eryth-
rocytes, 3,000,000. Differential count: polymorphonuclear neutro-
philes, 4 per cent; eosinophiles, 50 per cent; basophiles, 3 per cent;
mononuclears, 4 per cent; lymphocytes, 39 per cent.
Chick No. 6.—This bird was about four months old, stunted in
growth, “going light,” and had contracted roup from another bird.
The blood study shows the following: hemoglobin, 60 per cent;
leukocytes, 16,000; erythrocytes, 3,600,000; thrombocytes, 436,000.
Differential count: eosinophiles, 3 per cent; mononuclears, 4 per
cent; lymphocytes, 89 per cent; mast cells, 4 per cent.
All efforts to isolate germs from the liver, spleen, kidneys and
heart-blood were unsuccessful.
More study must be done on this disease to determine the true
cause, before rational treatment can be outlined.
Treatment.—Best results, in flocks of young birds, have been
obtained by giving one tablespoonful of Epsom salts to each
12 birds. Dissolve the Epsom salts in water and use this
water to mix with bran or mash. Repeat twice weekly. See
that the flock has plenty of shade and clean, pure water at all
times.
The birds should receive one-fourth to one grain ferrous
sulphate once a day in soft feed. The prognosis is not hope-
ful.
With our present knowledge we will look to sanitary sur-
roundings for the control of this condition—clean coops and
yards, good feed and water. A tablespoonful of powdered
ginger to each dozen hens may be given with advantage once
or twice a day in soft feed.
In going light in addition to a cathartic of Epsom salt the
following given once daily has yielded fair results: calcium
carbonate 120 grains, magnesium sulphate 240 grains, sodium
bicarbonate 360 grains, sodium chlorid 60 grains, sodium sul-
phate 120 grains. This is one dose for 120 birds.
CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 145
TUBERCULOSIS
This is a disease of great importance to the poultryman, not
only on account of its destructiveness to his flock, but also
on account of its relation to the health of himself and family ;
for while fowls are not very likely to contract tuberculosis
from domestic animals or from man, yet fowls that have the
disease are a serious menace to the other animals on the farm
as well as to the poultryman and his family.
Cause—The Bacillus tuberculosis, which was discovered by
Koch in 1882, is the cause of this disease. There are four prin-
cipal types of this organism. The one most commonly in-
fecting man is designated as the human type. The one pe-
euliar to cattle is designated as the bovine type; and the one
peculiar to fowls the avian type; and there is still another type
of the tuberele bacillus which affects fish and other cold-blocd-
ed animals.
While there are some differences in the shape of the organ-
isms grown for a considerable time in the various animals and
some differences (biochemically) when grown in artificial
media after isolation, yet the type peculiar to any of the
warm-blooded animals will grow in any of the other warm-
blooded animals, that is, the types are interchangeable, which
means that the bovine type may cause tuberculosis in man and
the human type may cause tuberculosis in birds, ete. Most
authors consider that while the chicken has considerable ,re-
sistance to the human type, it will and does become infected
by this type. ;
It has been found that a large percentage of hogs fed swill
from houses where tuberculous persons have expectorated into
it, become tuberculous, and when slaughtered, there is a con-
siderable loss from condemnation of those badly affected.
(Busman. )
Tuberculosis among chickens is rare in some portions, and
is very common in other localities in the United States. Al-
though it is widespread throughout the United States and
Canada, it was first reported in this country in 1900 and
received but slight attention until 1903. It also occurs in tur-
keys, pigeons and pheasants, and two eases in wild geese were
reported at the Ontario Agricultural College. The loss from
this disease seems to be increasing.
Vans and Schalk have produced tuberculosis experiment-
ally in twelve sparrows by feeding them chopped tuberculous
liver of a hen.
Mode of Spread.—In the progress of tuberculosis of chici-
ens at times there is noted a diarrhea. In these cases there
are tuberculous ulcers of the mucous lining of the intestinal
144 POULTRY DISEASES
tract and the spread is very rapid through the flock, as birds
are continually picking feed from the ground and floors where
contamination is sure to have taken place.
If scraps be fed to which tuberculous sputum has found
its way or if the birds are allowed to devour parts of an ani-
mal dead of the disease, there is a lability of their contracting
tuberculosis.
They may also contract the disease by the introduction of
a tuberculous bird into a flock. Tuberculosis among wild birds
has been mentioned as a possible fact. There is also danger
of spread from eggs from a tuberculous hen where the eggs
are purchased for hatching—prenatal infection.
There is also a possibility that birds, by following tuber-
culous cattle, may become infected, as do hogs. It has been
argued that the temperature of the bird is so high (105° F.
to 107° F.) that it furnishes an unfavorable field for the
human and bovine types of germs, which thrive at tempera-
tures close to 98° and 101° F., respectively. It has, however,
been found that these germs soon adjust themselves to such
changes in temperature and to a certain degree to differences
in food.
One case, a hen, was sent to the laboratory with the history of
having had access to the sputum of a person afflicted with tubercu-
losis. Upon autopsy small pearl-like nodules were found through-
out the liver, in the lung substance and over the serous lining
covering the intestines and abdominal cavity. A microscopic ex-
amination of the lesions revealed the bacillus of tuberculosis. It
more closely resembled the human than the avian type.
Symptoms.—An absolute diagnosis cannot be made during
life from the physical signs. The symptoms observable are
common to many conditions, especially in the early stages
when there are no positive external symptoms by which it
may be recognized. The bird becomes emaciated. The ra-
pidity of emaciation, like in other animals, depends on the
progress of the disease; that is, the susceptibility of the bird,
as well as the degree of infection.
The comb appears pale, the bird becomes dull and sleepy.
If the joints become affected there will be lameness, in case
the affection is in the legs, and swollen joints, and often in
affection of the skin and visible mucous membrane there is
ulceration (sores). This latter condition has been observed
especially in parrots. These skin lesions are made up of a
cheesy material (caseation necrosis), which is covered by a
thick, rather hard crust, whitish in color. At times these
erusts become rather horny in nature.
The red blood cells in a tuberculous fowl may be greatly
reduced (as low as 1,000,000), and the hemoglobin as low as
CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 145
thirty-five per cent. The white blood cells are slightly in-
ereased in numbers.
Diagnosis—Many investigators claim that birds will not
react to subcutaneous injections of tuberculin or to tuberculin
dropped into the eye of a tuberculous bird. VanEs and
Sehalk have shown that tubereulin (50 per cent) made from
the avian type tubercle bacilli, injected rather superficially
in the comb or wattles (intradermal method) will produce
a swelling as in similar tests in mammals. Only about one
drop is injected. In a test of 600 birds it was found that the
intradermal test was accurate in 97.77 per cent.
Post Mortem Fandings.—Owing to the fact that most birds
are infected with tuberculosis through contaminated fcod,
we find most of the lesions in the abdominal organs. Of
these the liver is the most often diseased. Next in frequency
may be named the spleen, peritoneum or lining of the ab-
dominal cavity, ovaries, gizzard, intestines, lungs, kidneys and
bones.
As indicated above, the areas may appear as pearly, grey-
ish-white nodules varying in size from a pin-head to a pea,
or even larger. In these larger nodules there will be noted
a cheesy mass which, as the lesions become older, becomes
impregnated with calcium (lime) and then cuts like gritty
material. Lime deposits in tuberculous lesions of birds are not
so abundant as in tuberculosis of mammalia. In healed
tubercles there may be a solid calcareous (stony) mass.
Usually the diseased organs are enlarged.
Upon opening the intestines of a tuberculous bird there
may be noted ulcers, usually small in size, and a thickening
of the wall. The abdominal lymph glands are tuberculous.
At times these show small tubercles from the size of a pin-
head to larger, at other times a cheesy mass (caseation ne-
erosis), and in still older areas an infiltration with lime salts.
Small tubercles may also be found in the lungs and other
adjacent tissue.
Like in the higher animals, the bones become tuberculous,
there is noted swelling, tubercles and ecaseation; later calcifi-
cation. al
Treatment.—Treatment of the affected bird is not to be
thought of. As shown above, the germs of the disease are
so often spread through the droppings that the only sure
means of eradicating the disease from a flock is to kill all the
birds in the flock and if possible move the henhouse to a new
location and have new runs. If this is not practicable, thor-
oughly disinfect with five per cent carbolie acid or five per
146 POULTRY DISEASES
cent ecreolin, all fences, feed troughs, watering tanks and
buildings, as indicated under cholera.
The tubercle bacillus is resistant to external influence. A
contaminated poultry yard may remain infected for a long
time, many months and possibly years. The action of disin-
fectants on the tubercle bacillus is slow. Direct sunlight on
the surface of infected material kills the bacillus in a few
hours.
Birds from an infected flock should not be sold for breed-
ing purposes, and the birds from such a flock that are killed
for food should be inspected by a competent veterinarian, so
that none may be used for food purposes that are diseased
to such an extent as to render the food unfit for use.
All birds in a flock infected with tuberculosis that die
should be cremated to prevent further spread of the disease
from that souree. All droppings and cleanings from the henr-
house and runs should be disinfected with ealeium chlorid, a
five per cent solution of carbolic acid or other reliable disin-
fectant before spreading on the fields.
. Inoculations of Birds by Mammalian Strains
Auclair has found that pigeons injected intraperitoneally with
pure cultures of human tubercle bacilli, died after one to three
and one-half months, without showing any signs of tuberculosis.
In a second series, pigeons were infected in a similar manner with
tubercle bacilli from a similar source. At the sixth, seventh and
fourteenth days afterward, the pigeons were killed and the livers,
lungs and blood injected into guinea pigs. A few of the pigs died
without any evidence of tuberculosis. Only two died of local tuber-
culosis.
From this Auclair concludes: first, that pigeons infected with
human tubercle bacilli die without any observable tuberculous
changes; second, that tubercle bacilli may retain their vitality and
virulence in the body of the pigeon, for at least fourteen days;
third, that the tubercle bacilli localize themselves in the pigeon
by preference in the liver and in the lungs, but not, so far as
could be shown, in the blood; and fourth, that the tubercle bacilli
passed through the pigeon give rise to a slowly developing tuber-
culosis.
Van Es and Schalk after experimenting with many chickens
come to the following conclusions:
A considerable number of birds into which mammalian tubercle
bacilli are introduced, either by ingestion or by inoculation, Gie in
an extremely emaciated state.
As a result of the incorporation of such bacilli into the bodies
of birds, the latter may retain the organisms for long periods with
their pathogenic characteristics fully preserved.
In consequence it is well within the range of possibility that
biros may serve as intermediary carriers and transmitters of mam-
malian tuberculosis.
CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 147
PSEUDO-TUBERCULOSIS
The symptoms are similar to those of true tuberculosis.
Upon autopsy the lungs may be noted to be thoroughly
studded with nodules varying in size up to that of a pea.
The nodules are firm to the touch and when sectioned are
found to be dense and appear homogeneous.
The lesions may be mistaken for tuberculosis, parasitic cysts,
nodular taeniasis, aspergillosis or coccidiosis.
ACTINOMYCOSIS
Furlan reports, that in four geese three months of age
there was found a fibrinous exudate over the pericardium and
peritoneum. Microscopic examination of scrapings from these
lesions showed colonies resembling those of actinomycosis.
DISEASE OF THE SUBCUTEM
There is found, at times, peculiar dise-shaped yellowish or
yellowish-grey bodies in the loose connective tissue that at-
taches the skin to the underlying structures. These bodies
are only one or two millimeters in diameter and upon being
sectioned and studied under the microscope show by their
microchemical action that they contain calcium salts. ‘This
condition is found in birds of any breed and in any condi-
tion, but is most common in birds rather thin in flesh. There
is no evidence of it being an acute reaction of the tissues and
is apparently of no constitutional significance. All efforts to
isolate an organism or to reproduce the condition have been
negative. There is a possibility that it may be a calcification
of a parasitic invasion.
SECTION VIII
DISEASES OF THE LIVER
Inflammation and necrosis of the liver as seen in many of
the infectious diseases have already been referred to under
the discussions of these different diseases, as chicken cholera,
blackhead, tuberculosis, ete. Aside from diseases of the liver
due to infection, the commonest cause of ailments of this dr-
gan is improper feeding. It is with great difficulty that dis-
eases of the liver can be recognized except upon postmortem
examination. Treatment, as a rule, is useless.
FATTY DEGENERATION
There is a disease process in the protoplasm of the liver
cells, by which the normal secreting cells of the liver are to
a greater or less extent replaced by fat celis. The liver is
smaller than normal, unless fatty infiltration is also present;
it appears slightly yellowish, and when eut through with a
knife, the blade of the instrument will have a greasy appear-
ance, due to the fat that adheres to it.
Symptoms.—Birds affected with fatty degeneration of the:
liver show varied symptoms, but ordinarily they are dull, eat
little and the comb turns dark to black. They gradually be-
come thin in flesh and finally die. Usually the bird will live
from two or three weeks to three months after the symptoms
first appear. On autopsy all organs as a rule appear normal
except the liver.
Treatment.—There is very little that can be done for this
condition. Podophyllin in one-grain doses every three days
may be given with some hope of relief.
FATTY INFILTRATION
This condition may be a physiological or normal process
until the accumulation of fat occurs in such quantities as to
interfere with the function of the liver cells.
The liver is one of the so-called storehouses of the body for
fat. In it is stored a surplus until needed by the body for
use (for combustion for the production of heat and energy)
Overfed hens, or those closely housed and not forced to
work, or fed too heavily on carbohydrates (starchy feeds)
store up much of the surplus nutrition in the liver as well
150 POULTRY DISEASES
as in other portions of the abdomen, especially in the mesen-
tery and in the abdominal walls.
In these cases, on autopsy, the liver will be found to be
enlarged, brownish or greyish-brown in color (mottled), fri-
able (tears easily), and when cut through appears ‘‘greasy,’’
much fat adhering to the knife blade. In these cases rupture
of the liver often occurs when the hen is stepped upon by a
large animal, is thrown or jumps a long distance on hard
ground or a concrete floor. Heavy hens with clipped wings
are prone to this injury.
In the liver, in which excessive fat is stored up, there is,
after a while, an encroachment upon the protoplasm to such
an extent that the cells cannot properly functionate and
then death of the bird may occur. In these cases a micro-
scopic examination shows the nuclei of the cells to be pushed
to one side, and the protoplasm atrophied and disappearing.
This is a pathological condition.
RUPTURE OF THE LIVER
In cases where the liver is excessively congested with biood
or is overly filled with fat, as mentioned above, violence may
result in rupture.
One case that may be of interest came to the laboratory, and at
autopsy was found to be ruptured, with considerable blood (hemor-
rhage) in the abdominal cavity (among the intestines). The rup-
ture or tear was about three-quarters of an inch long and on the
left lobe. The organ was double its normal size. Upon microscopic
examination it was found to be congested and occasional small rup-
tures (hemorrhages) were found throughout the liver substance.
This bird was in a yard with a horse and it is supposed to have
been kicked or stepped upon, as the left side was bruised.
CONGESTION OF THE LIVER
There are two kinds of congestion of the liver, active and
passive. Active congestion precedes inflammation and is a
state in which the capillaries, arterioles and arteries are en-
gorged with blood. It is caused by local irritation.
Passive congestion of the liver is usually due to a weak
heart or a leaky valve between the two cavities of the right
side. The blood backs up into the liver, and the central
veins of the lobules and capillaries, between the columns of
liver cells, become engorged. It gives the cut surface a pecu-
lar yellowish mottled appearance called ‘‘nutmeg liver,”’
from a fancied resemblance that it bears to the sectional sur-
face of a nutmeg.
DISEASES OF THE LIVER 151
INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER
Inflammation of the liver may be the result of absorption
of poisonous products from the intestines. These products
(toxins) lodge in the liver, or the inflammation may be due
to infection (germs) as in chicken cholera. The irritation
causes active congestion followed by a migration of great
numbers of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (white blood cells)
and thromboecytes, constituting inflammation. The liver is
enlarged, dark, and easily torn; it appears very full of blood.
In many, and in fact most, of the contagious diseases in-
flammation of the liver (hepatitis) occurs.
The following case report will serve to illustrate these cases:
A valuable rooster was sent to the small animal ward of the
division of veterinary medicine of the Colorado Agricultural College
for treatment. The bird had been sprinkled with some proprietary
lice killer and had immediately taken ill. There was a loss of
appetite and it had become weak in the legs and remained so till
its death. Late in the course of the trouble the bird was not able
to stand at all, but lay on its side. It became emaciated and lived
only about three weeks after it was taken sick.
On autopsy the liver was found to be enormously enlarged, weigh-
ing 176 grams (normal weight would have been about forty grams
for a bird of that size). The surface had a grayish mottled appear-
ance. Upon microscopic examination these pale gray, irregular
areas proved to be liver areas packed with leukocytes (white blood
cells) and thrombocytes—an aggravated case of hepatitis (inflam-
mation of the liver).
Another similar case was brought to the laboratory, except that
it did not have the history of having been sprinkled with an insect
powder.
INFLAMMATION OF THE BILE DUCTS
Angiocholitis and cholecystitis are occasionally met with in
the livers of birds. A post mortem examination of the gall
bladder shows its contents to be rather mucilaginous and con-
taining only a small amount of the biliary elements.
ENTEROHEPATITIS
This is a disease of turkeys and to a less extent of other
birds, which extends from the intestine and involves the liver.
It is discussed under diseases of the digestive tract. (See
page 111.)
UNIMPORTANT DISEASES
Abscesses and twmors of the liver appear to be very rare
in chickens and other fowl. Sarcomas and carcinomas (can-
cers) of this organ are usually associated with similar tumors
of the ovary.
152 POULTRY DISEASES
Jaundice 18 very rare, and appears to result from a long-
continued mild congestion of the liver.
Cercomoniasis (spotted liver) is a type of disease of the
liver due to infection (Monocercomonas gallinarum) that may
be associated with severe diarrheas.
Aspergillosis is a disease due to a fungus (Aspergillus
fumigatus, and sometimes other species). It commonly af-
fects the lungs (pneumomyecosis, which see), but may, and
oceasionally does, affect the liver.
Amyloid degeneration of the liver, spleen and kidneys has
been noted in birds afflicted with tuberculosis. In some eases
the liver appears granular and brittle. Amyloid deposits in
these organs have also been observed in this laboratory in
hens dying of purulent peritonitis.
SECTION IX
DISEASES OF THE OVARY AND OVIDUCT
PROLAPSE OR EVERSION OF THE OVIDUCT
This is a common ailment of laying hens. Stimulating
feeding and aggravated constipation have been found asso-
ciated with this condition. When the eggs are large and
considerable straining takes place during their passage, and
in inflammation of the mucous lining of the oviduct or egg
eanal, prolapse or a protruding of the mucous membrane
through the cloaca may be observed. In constipation, the bow-
els becoming gorged, and this in addition to the obstruction
when the egg canal contains one or more developing eggs, and
the ovary, being active, is larger and adds to the bulk, pre-
disposes to prolapse.
This condition is most often seen in hens that are heavy
lavers. It perhaps occurs most often in old hens. If the
prolapsed or protruding mucous membrane is allowed to ex-
tend through the anus, it soon becomes inflamed from ex-
posure to the air and infection. Later the parts may become
ulcerated as a result of mechanical injuries or the attack of
oerms.
Treatment.—Wash off the accumulated material on the vent
feathers with clean, soapy, warm water. After cleansing the
hands, replace the protruding mass, using on the fingers car-
bolized vaselin, three to five per cent strength. Keep the
hens on a light diet for several days so that the parts may
have a rest and the irritation causing the trouble subside. It
is best to give only soft feed and liquids. Give the hen a
tablespoonful of olive oil and plenty of clean water.
OBSTRUCTION OF THE OVIDUCT (Egg Bound)
This is a common ailment of laying hens, perhaps the
commonest of all discussed conditions of the oviduct. The
poultry raiser calls it ‘‘egg bound,’’ by which he means there
is something in the oviduct which the bird cannot force out.
The upper portion of the oviduct, or that part which re-
ceives the ovum (yolk) as soon as it is fully formed in the
ovary and delivered, is lined with secreting cells. In this
part the albumin which surrounds the yolk is formed. Further
along the glands secrete the shell or calcium layer after form-
154 POULTRY DISEASES
ing around the mass a fibrous membrane or sac. It can be
readily seen, for all this to be brought about, there must be
an abundant blood supply. An inflammation of the egg duct
(usually the result of infection from the digestive tract by
way of the cloaca) means an arrest of function of these glands.
There are other cells that secrete mucus which lubricates the
passage way, and these, too, are arrested in their function.
The result is a stoppage of the egg.
Other causes are: eggs of too large size, exhaustion of the
bird and atony and paralysis of muscular walls of the oviduct
and vagina, volvulus or twisting and stricture of the oviduct.
Weakened muscles, the result of disease, improper nourish-
ment and overwork are contributing factors.
Symptoms.—The hen goes frequently to the nest and re-
peatedly makes expulsive efforts but cannot lay. If the
obstruction is well along in the egg canal the egg may be
felt as a hard object in the posterior part of the abdomen. In
many cases the obstruction is so far up the oviduct it cannot
be felt or seen and we must depend for diagnosis upon the
action of the bird, which suffers acutely under these conditions.
Treatment.— First be sure that the bird will not lay the
ege unaided. Allow her to remain quiet and alone for a
couple of hours; she will often relieve herself unaided If
it is evident that the bird must be given help, wash the hand
carefully with soap and water and lubricate the fingers with
three to five per cent carbolized vaselin, which can be se-
cured at any drug store, pass the fingers through the anus
and cloaca into the egg canal and remove the egg. At times
the egg is large and it may be necessary to break the shell
in order to remove it. If the egg is broken, make sure that
all parts of the shell are removed. By referring to Fig. 2
the relations of these organs may be seen.
After the removal of the egg give the hen a tablespoon of
olive or castor oil and place on a light feed for a few days.
Recovery usually occurs in the simple uncomplicated eases
which form the majority; in complicated cases death is often
the result.
RUPTURE OF THE OVIDUCT
This is usually a complication of obstruction of the oviduct.
It is frequently fatal in a very short time and in such cases
can be diagnosed only upon postmortem examination.
Cause.—Vigorous contraction of the muscular walls of the
egg canal in expulsion efforts sometimes results in a rupture of
the wall. When this occurs the usual sequel is peritonitis
(inflammation of the serous lining of the abdominal cavity)
DISEASES OF THE OVARY AND OVIDUCT 155
and the death of the bird. Disease processes sometimes so
weaken the wall that it gives way under the stress of natural
contraction.
Symptoms.—The hen ceases to lay, the abdomen becomes
larger and often one or more eggs can be felt by palpating
the lower portion of the abdomen. Often the hen is noted to
sit up penguin-like-fashion, walking with tail and posterior
portion of the abdomen dragging the ground. There is
nothing to do except to kill the bird. At autopsy there will
be found many yolks in the abdominal cavity, possibly one
or more with shells and possibly an inflammation of the lining
of the cavity (peritoneum).
BROKEN EGGS IN OVIDUCT
Eges in the oviduct, as well as ova still undelivered, are
often found broken as a result of a kick of a large animal or
of the hen being stepped upon. Death usually follows, if not
immediately from the injury, which breaks the egg, after sev-
eral days as a result of complicated obstruction of the oviduct
resulting from the fibrous exudate thrown out about the broken
yolk.
We have also studied cases of ruptured ova due to heavy
hens roosting on high roosts and by jumping upon the hard
floor, causing rupture of the larger forming yolks or ova or
of eges in the ege canal.
PROLAPSE OF THE CLOACA
This may oceur in heavy laying hens that roost on high
perches and fly a long distance to the ground, and especially
when the wings are clipped. If these birds are allowed low
roosts and put on a limited diet they recover. Some of these
conditions have been studied in the author’s laboratory and
the trouble overcome by observing this rule.
ABNORMAL EGGS
Many different kinds of abnormal eggs are produced by fowls
owing to various diseased or other abnormal conditions of the
generative apparatus. Because of the rarity of their occurrence such
eggs are of little importance to the practical poultry raiser, but
thev possess much interest for the scientific investigator.
Soft-shell Eggs—This is a condition where eggs are laid without
a sufficient amount of shell substance covering the shell membrane.
The commonest cause is overfeeding, another cause is the lack of
sufficient shell-making material in the feed; still another cause is
fright, which may cause a premature detachment of the yolk.
The cause should be remedied and the condition will disappear
without further treatment.
Yolkless Eggs.—These are small eggs, in which the albumen and
156 POULTRY DISEASES
shell are formed about a small portion of detached yolk, a minute
piece of hardened albumen or a bit of coagulated blood instead of
the normal yolk.
Double and Triple Yolk Hggs.—These eggs with two yolks are
common. They are caused by two yolks getting into the oviduct and
being enclosed together in the albumen and shell. Three-yolked eggs,
which are rare, have a similar origin.
Bloodspecks, Blood Rings, Egg Inclusions.—These have little sig-
nificance; particles of coagulated blood, due to hemorrhage when the
ovum (yolk) is discharged from the ovary, are most common, but
lumps of bacteria, worms, fecal matter, etc., have been found.
Blood clots may be found in either the yolk or white (albumen).
If hemorrhage occurs in the yolk, the clot has formed in the
ovary before it was delivered into the oviduct. If the clot is in
the white it has occurred in the upper portion of the oviduct.
Dwarf Eggs
Dwarf eggs of fowls vary greatly in size and shape. There are
two distinct types; first, the prolate spheroidal shape, similar to
a normal egg; and second, the cylindrical type.
The internal structure of the dwarf egg varies in its makeup.
Some dwarf eggs contain a small yolk surrounded by a membrane,
others a small quantity of yolk without a yolk membrane, and
still others no yolk. When yolks are present usually there is no
germinal disc.
The albumen in the dwarf eggs differs in its density. It may be
dense and appearing like that of a normal egg. There is also found
all gradations between these two extremes. The tendency is to a
density greater than normal.
The size of the egg is apparently related to the size of the
nucleus which by its presence gives stimulus to albumen secretion.
A bird may suffer a disturbance in her physiological functions
of reproduction, and produce dwarf eggs since normal eggs are
produced both before and after dwarf egg formation and the cause
of such dwarf egg production is of a temporary character. Dwarf
egg production appears in both pullets and old hens and occurrs
at a rate of five to eight per 10,000 eggs produced. It may occur
at any time during the laying period, but most often in the spring
or early summer.
The yolk of an egg constitutes, on an average, 24.37 per cent of
the weight of the egg, and 33.91 per cent of double-yolked eggs and
35.52 per cent of triple-yolked eggs.
The shape of the eggs is determined by the action of the circular
and longitudinal muscular fibers of the oviduct wall.
The egg being a semifluid body has a tendency when free, to
assume a globular shape, but at the time of the formation of the
membrane it is larger than the oviduct lumen, hence there is a
tendency under pressure exerted by the oviduct wall to elongate
the mass in the direction of the long axis of the oviduct as this
is the line of least resistance.
The degree of pressure will depend upon the size of the egg and
the tonicity of the muscular coats of the oviduct.
The exact length as compared to the breadth will depend upon
the tonus of the circular and longitudinal muscular fibers. A strong
tonus of the circular fibers and weak longitudinal fibers may
greatly alter the normal shape of the egg. The two sets of muscles
are independent in their action.
DISEASES OF THE OVARY AND OVIDUCT 157
EPIZOOTIC ABORTION IN BIRDS
Under this head, there have been mentioned by several writers,
an affection in birds in which the eggs were expelled from the
oviduct before the formation of the shell had taken place. We
have noted this in flocks when crushed oyster shells were kept
constantly before the birds. The question arises, is there any con-
nection in the train of causes in the bird and mammals?
INFLAMMATION OF THE OIL GLAND
In the fowl there are no oil glands nor sweat glands found
in connection with the feathers. This is compensated for by
an oil gland located in the posterior dorsal region of the
abdomen and at the base of the tail. The bird obtains the
oil with its beak and stripping each feather separately oils
them.
Inflammation of this gland has been noted. The region
of the gland becomes swollen, red, and painful to the touch.
Microscopie examination shows a true acute inflammation.
The duets are occluded and the bird suffers considerable
pain. Hot applications are indicated.
SECTION X
TUMORS
Tumors of various kinds affect birds, but are less common
than in higher animal life. There is almost no literature on
the subject. The following reports from the author’s labora-
Fic. 60. HrmaromMa or Ovary IN A HEN (NATURAL SIZE).
A, diseased ova; B, sectioned surface of two of the blood tumors.
tory are given for their interest, rather than their utilitarian
value.
Occurrence of Tuwmors.—Some definite data as to the occurrence
of tumors is given by the Maine Experiment station in the Journal
of Agricultural Research.
160 POULTRY DISEASES
It was found that of 880 birds autopsied at that station 79, or 8.96
per cent, had tumors; that is, there were 90 cases of tumors per
1,000 birds.
There was no significant difference in frequency of occurrence of
tumors between birds that died from natural causes and apparently
normal birds that were killed.
There is a significant correlation between age and the occurrence
of tumors. Only 7.37 per cent of the birds under two and one-half
years of age had tumors, while neoplasms were present in 19.17
per cent of those that were over that age.
In birds with tumors which died from natural causes, the tumors
were the probable cause of death in from one-third to one-half of
the cases.
There was a tendency to the association of hypertrophied liver,
spleen or kidney with the presence of tumors in other organs.
Death often resulted from internal hemorrhage from the tumors,
the underlying tissue, or the hypertrophied liver or spleen.
The tumors can be classified into cystic and tissue tumors; 22.78
per cent of the tumors were cystic and 74.68 per cent were of solid
tissue structure. There were two cases of tissue tumors to which
cysts were attached.
In the females the organs most frequently affected were the genital
organs; 37.76 per cent of all tumors being in the ovary and 18.36
per cent in the oviduct and oviduct ligament.
In most cases the tumors were confined to one organ. In fifteen
cases, however, the tumor had evidently undergone metastasis, since
tumors of similar nature occurred in from two to four organs.
HEMATOMA, BLOOD TUMORS
Occasionally considerable hemorrhage takes place in the
ova as they are in process of formation. These fail to find
their way into the oviduct and become hematomata, or blood
tumors. Fig. 60 illustrates one of these cases, natural size.
The sectioned surfaces of two of the tumors is shown.
Exciting causes, like those that cause inflammation and
congestion, are present. A rupture of a small, congested
vessel causes the clot. Ergot in small quantities should be
given to combat the condition.
MULTIPLE TUMORS OF THE OVARY
One of the commonest of tumors consists of yolks, or ova,
which have formed, but failed to enter the oviduct. later
these masses become hard and irregular in shape, yellowish
in color, consisting of dried (inspissated) yolks forming con-
centric layers. Ovarian infection by the Bacterium pullorum
is a common cause of this condition. Fig. 61 illustrates one
of these cases, natural size.
CYSTIC OVARY
Cystomata, or cysts, are found at times in the ovaries. These
eysts are apparently imperfectly developed ova varying in
TUMORS . 161
size, and contain a colorless liquid. They are attached to the
ovarian mass by pedicles.
Fic. 61. Muntrere Tumors oF Ovary or A HEN (NATURAL SIZE).
A, ova that have undergone degeneration. Note the pedicle-like
structure joining to the ovarian mass.
A CASEOUS ABDOMINAL TUMOR
A single comb Rhode Island Red hen, two years old, was kept
on one of the test farms for breeding purposes, that is, as a part
162 - POULTRY DISEASES
of the farm flock. She was apparently in good health. “80. far as
indicated by actions and general appearance.
Upon palpation of the abdominal cavity there was noted a teen:
like mass, freely movable and located in the left posterior quadrant.
The mass was apparently about the size of an average sized hen
ege. A diagnosis of tumor was made and it was decided to operate.
The bird was brought from the pen in which she had been kept,
receiving the usual care. After an anesthetic (chloroform) was ad-
ministered the feathers were plucked from over the region of the
tumor and the seat of operation was sterilized with fifty per cent
alcohol.
An incision about three inches long was made over the region
of the tumor. After
making the incision
through the skin and
controlling the cuti-
cular hemorrhage, a
mass of retroperito-
neal fat about three-
fifths inch thick was
encountered. Incising
this fat caused very
little hemorrhage and
in fact lipectomy was
resorted to in order
to remove. the ob-
structing mass. A
tumor 7 cm. long and
5 em. in diameter
was easily dissected
out of the mass. The
tumor apparently had
its origin from the
superior ligament of
on ; the oviduct.
Fic. 62. A Hen WitH AN ABDOMINAL Cyst. The tumor was
The upright attitude is a diagnostic symptom of an hardened in i ten
abdominal tumor or ruptured oviduct. per cent solution for-
maldehyd and an in-
cision was made through the center when it was found that the
tumor was cyst-like, containing a semi-solid or putty-like, finely
granular, yellow material. The mass was surrounded by a rather
thick, fibrous capsule.
AN ABDOMINAL CYST
A one-year old rose comb Rhode Island Red hen. This bird was
from the same flock as the preceding bird.
The hen assumed an upright position as shown in Fig. 62, other-
wise appeared in good condition.
Choloroform anesthesia was administered. The feathers were
plucked from over the posterior abdominal region and the skin
sterilized with a fifty per cent solution of alcohol. An incision
three inches in length was made through the skin and aponeurosis
of the abdominal muscles. The layer of retroperitoneal fat was
very thin. A cyst about four inches in diameter was encountered.
TUMORS 163
The cyst wall was made up of white, fibrous connective tissue The
wall was thin. The cyst contained a colorless liquid which escaped
from the punctured cyst wall. The cyst was attached by means
of a pedicle to the roof of the lumbo-pelvic cavity about midway
of the kidneys. The cyst apparently had its origin from the su-
perior ligament of the oviduct. The oviduct contained in its pos-
terior portion a fully developed egg with shell.
CONTAGIOUS EPITHELIOMA
Cause.—This is a specific infectious disease. It is trans-
mitted from one bird to another in the infected flock. It is
quite widely distributed, being reported in Europe and other
Fic. 63. PHOTOGRAPH OF THE HEAps oF Two Cuicks AFFECTED W1ITH ConrTAGIOUS
EPITHELIOMA.
countries and has been observed in many sections of the
United States.
Symptoms.—The disease appears first as a ecatarrhal in-
flammation of the mucous membranes of the head followed
by the development of epitheliomatous enlargements which
may involve any part of the head, especially the unfeathcred
portions. These epithelial growths at first appear small, have
a smooth surface and a hyperemic zone; later they may de-
velop to the size of a hazelnut or larger. Necrosis may take
place in various portions of the new growth; the sloughing
may leave ulcerative surfaces which may cicatrize. The
lesion may obstruct the sight and even obliterate the eye.
The nasal lesions may interfere with respiration and cause
the bird to hold its mouth partly open.
A microscopic examination shows the structure to be that
of an epithelioma. The cells are arranged in more or less
irregular rows supported by a network of connective tissue
164 POULTRY DISEASES
which is arranged in bundles between the nests. The cells
are of the epithelioma type. There may be observed necros-
ing foci.
Birds having contagious epithelioma always die, while those
with chicken pox show a very large percentage of recoveries.
The two diseases are easily distinguishable.
SARCOMA
Sarcomata are a type of malignant tumors; that is, they
spread in much the same manner as cancers (carcinoma).
They are fatal in time. The flesh of birds affected with sar-
coma should not be eaten.
A ease of sarcoma was studied by the writer, in which the
tumors involved the ovary, intestines, peritoneum (lining of
the abdominal cavity) and the liver. These tumors vary in
size, are whitish-yellow, and soft when sectioned. The study
under the microscope showed it to be a spindle celled sarcoma.
Rous has reproduced spindle celled sarcoma by transplant-
ing portions of a sarcoma obtained from a Brown Leghorn
hen, into the breast of both Barred Plymouth Rocks and Leg-
horns. He obtained better growths from the inoculations
into the Plymouth Rocks.
The filtrate also produced sarcoma but the tumors did not
appear until several months had elapsed after the inoculation
of the filtrate.
Round-celled sarcomata are often found in the fowl. We
have succeeded in transplanting a round-celled sarcoma from
a Single Comb White Leghorn hen into a Partridge Plymouth
Rock Cockerel.
TERATOMA
An interesting case of teratoma in a black Wyandotte cock about
twenty-one months old is described by Mr. Sheathes in the Journal
of Comparative Pathology. (Vol. XXIV, part 2).
The tumor was found in the abdominal cavity and involved the
mesentery. The left testicle was absent. The growth measured
3x4x6 inches and was enclosed by a thin, fibrinous membrane. The
tumor mass consisted of a multitude of cysts ranging up to the
size of a pea, islands of cartilage, cavities lined with stratified
epithelium and minute feathers. The conclusion was drawn that
this tumor probably originated from the left testicle.
ADENOMA
An adenoma is a tumor that has some resemblance to a
normal gland. It is made up of connective tissue and asini,
or cavities, lined by columnar or cuboidal cells. One tumor
of this type affecting the spleen of a hen was sent to the
laboratory. The spleen was about twice normal size.
TUMORS 165
EPITHELIOMA
This is a type of cancer. A case was brought to the labora-
tory with the history that it had a ‘‘growth’’ on the side of
the head for several months. The tumor was flat and about
one inch in diameter. A microscopic examination revealed it
to be an epithelioma.
OSTEOMA
Osteoma is a term applied to a tumor that consists of case-
ous tissue. This kind of tumor usually arises from the bones
of the skeleton but may develop in parts away from the nor-
mal bony structure.
Osteomata usually occur singly in the body, that is, they
are localized. If the new bony growth arises in connection
with the skeleton it may be designated according to its loca-
tions and relations.
If the new bony growth is small and circumscribed and
attached to the old bone it is called an osteophyte. If it be
larger and more tumor-like it is called an exostosis. If the
newly circumseribed bony growth is located within the bone
cavity it is called an enostosis.
New bony growths not attached to the skeleton may be
classified as follows: those which have their seat in the peri-
osteum but are separated from the bone are called movable
periosteal exostoses; those lying near the bone are ealled
periosteal osteomata; those located some distance from the
bone, in muscle and tendon and disconnected, osteomata; and
those situated in other organs, as the lungs, mucous mem-
brane of the trachea, the skin or abdominal walls, are hetero-
plastic.
Osteomata may occur either single or multiple. Frequently
there are found multiple, cireumseribed bony growths in great
numbers on the bones of the extremities and trunk. The
favorite seat of these new bony growths appears to be on the
epiphyseal ends of the bones and the point of insertion of
tendons, or both may be involved in the same individual and
at the same time. Zeigler says it is probable that such growths
are to be referred to as inherited predisposition of the part
affected to overgrowth, or to a disturbance in the development
of the skeleton. The bony plates and spicules, which in rare
cases develop in the lungs or in the mucous membrane of the
air passages, may occur in large numbers.
The development of the bone takes place partly through
the formation of osteoblasts, and partly through metaplasia
of formed tissues. The matrix is formed chiefly from the
166 POULTRY DISEASES
connective tissue of the periosteum, as well as that of the tissue
from which the osteoma arises; and also from that of the
perichondrium and endosteum. If an exostosis develops in
such a manner that cartilage is first formed from the prolifer-
ating periosteum or bone marrow, and from that cartilage,
bone is later developed, it is called a cartilaginous exostosis ;
when the exostosis is formed directly from the proliferating
periosteum without an intermediate stage of cartilage, it is
known as a connective tissue exostosis.
If the connective tissue in a bony tumor is abundant, and
in fact a predominating substance, it is called an osteofibroma.
This form of tumor appears quite commonly among hony
tumors.
An abundant production of bone in a chondroma leads to
the formation of an osteochondroma. These latter are usually
found in the long bones.
A condition in which the muscles become bony in nature
is called myositis ossificans. The tendons of birds and es-
pecially those of the leg often become ossified, especially in
old birds. This is also the case in some of the vertebral hga-
ments.
One ease of generalized osteoma has been studied in a fowl.
HORNY GROWTHS ON THE CUTICULAR SURFACE OF
FOWLS
Horny growths are reported as occurring on the cuticular
surfaces of fowls, by Gadow. Horny growths have been ob-
served on the cuticular surfaces and on different parts of the
body of cattle and other animals.
A ease which we have observed is of importance on account
of its immense size as compared to the size of bird upon which
it was found.
Dr. Leonard of Asheville sent to this laboratory a specimen with
the case history that it was excised from the thigh region of a
two-year-old hen. No further history could be obtained. The spec-
imen measured 14 centimeters long and 7.5 centimeters in diameter
at the base. The outer structure is horn-like, resembling the horny
structure of the spur or claw. There will be noted that here and
there a feather has developed. The inner core consists of con-
nective tissue and some adipose tissue and is soft in consistency.
PAPILLOMA—WARTS
True papillomata have been observed in the fowl. They
occur on the cuticular surface and consist of a connective
tissue core covered by stratified epithelia.
SECTION XI
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY PASSAGES
In the fall, winter and spring, these diseases are a scourge
to the poultry raiser, unless strict sanitation is observed.
OBSTRUCTION OF THE TRACHEA
This 1s uncommon, except as a result of gapeworm infes-
tation. Fig. 64 illustrates a case that was sent to the labora-
tory with the statement that it had ‘‘gapes.’* This bird would
extend its head high into the air, gasping for breath as one
whose trachea is obstructed
by gapeworms; it was weak
and unable to stand square-
ly upon its feet. It was
destroyed for examination.
A piece of a grain of corn
was found in the trachea,
surrounded by an acecumu-
lation of mucus due to the
irritation its presence in
the trachea had caused.
The foreign body and the
accumulated mucus were Fic. 64. OBstTRUCTION OF THE TRACHEA.
str ino t o Showing depression (drooping wings, in-
obstructing the Passage of ability to stand, etc.) from partial asphyxia-
air to the lungs; henee, the © tion.
asphyxiation. In some
cases a whole grain of corn has been found lodged in the
trachea of an adult fowl.
CATARRH, COLDS
Cause——Sudden changes in the weather, cold, damp weather
roosting in drafts and chilling by getting wet in cold rains
are often factors in the production of catarrh among birds.
Such affections are more or less contagious, but bad sanitation
plays an important part in their spread. Weak stock and
poorly nourished birds are predisposed to this contagion.
Symptoms.—The appetite may be somewhat diminished.
The bird sneezes, throws its head and may expel some mucus.
The discharge at first 1s watery and later becomes more or
less thick (muco-purulent). The eyes may show more or less
inflammation (conjunctivitis) and the eyelids may become
adherent. The characteristic offensive order of roup is absent.
168 POULTRY DISEASES
Treatment—The same treatment as outlined under roup
(see page 179) has given us uniformly good results.
The following report of one of the experiments by Mr.
Coulton, under the direction of the author, illustrates the
course and treatment of colds in birds:
With the advent of cold weather, early last fall, a large number
of our chickens contracted colds, which was extremely discouraging,
to say the least. We had over one hundred chickens, besides tur-
keys, and fully twenty-five per cent were affected at one time. In
addition to the colds which affected the throat, nostrils and eyes,
many were affected with canker in the mouth. The ordinary reme-
dies, kerosene, roup cures, etc., were all used, with little effect. We
finally got from the drug store (at the suggestion of Doctor Kaupp)
some sulphocarbolates compound tablets and used them, but the
improvement was not very marked. Later tablets furnished by the
pathological laboratory of the Colorado Agricultural College (sulpho-
carbolates compound, thirty grains, with six grains bichlorid of
mercury to the tablet) were tried. This was not only placed in
the drinking water, but a solution was used in a syringe to wash
out the nostrils and mouth. This treatment was marvelously ef-
fective. It acted like a charm. The catarrhal condition continued,
however, until the following treatment was used (also at the sug-
gestion of Doctor Kaupp):
The nostrils were washed out with a twenty per cent solution of
common baking soda; then with peroxid of hydrogen, and finally
with the following preparation: oil of eucalyptus, twenty drops;
oil of thyme, one dram, and petrol oil, two ounces. A warm solution
of the soda was always used and the other materials were warmed
by setting the bottles in hot water. This treatment was also applied
to the eyes, and the ulcers in the mouth were swabbed with it. The
results were remarkable. It was almost impossible to make a record
of these cases, as a large portion of the flock were affected. Further-
more, it was impossible to give them all the daily treatment pre-
scribed. Sometimes they would go several days without treatment.
In mild cases, however, from two to three applications effected a
cure.
March 17th we found a young cockerel in a very roupy condition.
He had been hatched late in the fall and had never been very
vigorous. His eyes were swollen shut, nostrils discharging badly,
and, withal his was not a promising case. We isolated him and
gave him the regulation treatment, as described above. Notwith-
standing that it stormed severely and he was not well feathered,
the next day he was showing a decided improvement, and after
three treatments, covering about five days, all evidence of the
trouble had disappeared and today he is apparently in better con-
dition than at any time during the winter.
A day or two later we found two others belonging to the same
brood in about the same condition and after one treatment there
was evidence of improvement, but after a few days, not having
been able to give them careful attention or regular treatment, they
seemed to be worse, and we used the hatchet treatment. I am satis-
fied, however, from our experience, both with chickens and the
turkeys, when taken in time and treated regularly, it is seldom
necessary to lose one. We estimated that by this treatment we
saved ninety-nine per cent of those affected.
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 169
ASTHMA
Cause—Asthma in fowls and canaries may be due to as-
pergillosis of the air passage or it may be due to other
eatarrhal conditions of the mucous membranes of this passage.
Symptoms.—Wheezing sounds are noted and in expiration
there is a creaking, whistling sound.
Treatment—Good sanitary surroundings, clean coop, no
draft. Treat local condition of which this is a symptom.
ULCERATIVE PHARYNGITIS
Symptoms.—The bird may remain on the roost much of
the time; there is an unkempt appearance of the plumage;
there is gradual loss in flesh when the appetite is interfered
with, and the bird may find it difficult to swallow. In eat-
ing corn, wheat and particularly whole unhulled oats the
throat is irritated and swallowing is difficult, the bird chok-
ing down, opening its mouth, and sometimes protruding its
head into the air. A coughing sound is made as the bird
throws its head. While on the perch or standing tucked up
around the yard, the bird may be noted to occasionally open
its mouth, and in fact sitting or standing with its mouth partly
open is a diagnostic symptom.
Appearance.—When the mouth is opened and the pharynx
observed it will be noted to be covered, to a more or less de-
gree, with yellowish white ulcers varying in size from a wheat
grain to as large as one’s thumbnail.
Microscopic_—In an examination of the sections from dis-
eased areas under the microscope one finds an ulceration of
a diphtheric nature. .
History.—This condition has been studied in many flocks
where roup has not appeared for years and where there were
no symptoms of any of the three types of roup. It is not
believed to be caused by the roup microorganism, but an en-
tirely separate disease.
BRONCHITIS
In some cases we have noted catarrh commencing in the
head, principally the nasal chambers, extend down and in-
volve the trachea (wind-pipe), and even to the bronchi
(branches of the trachea leading to the lung tissues). Sud-
den changes in the weather, dampness and roosting near a
-erack in the henhouse so that a cold wind blows upon them,
or, in fact, in any draft, are the principal causes of bron-
chitis. .
Symptoms.—A rattling sound may be heard in the region
170 POULTRY DISEASES
of the trachea and bronchi (neck and anterior part of the
thorax)—mucous rales. The bird may be seen to gasp for
air by extending the head upward. This is due to an accu-
mulation of mucus in the air passages which partially closes
them, thus preventing the bird from getting enough oxygen
into its lungs. The affected bird coughs, and there may be
dullness and partial loss of appetite.
The condition may pass off in a few days, may respond to
treatment, or may last for several weeks and end in recovery
or in death. In the latter case there is marked emaciation;
in the former the bird coughs up mucus for a long time, but
otherwise appears well.
Treatment—A_ tablespoonful of castor oil, to which 5 to
10 drops of turpentine have been added may be given, and if
eatarrh be present, treatment should be as outlined under
roup. Give one-grain doses quinin sulphate three times a
day. Place the bird in warm, clean, comfortable quarters,
free from drafts. Give plenty of clean water and soft feed
(bread or middlings moistened with milk), to which has been
added 2 grains of black antimony for each bird. Feed twice
daily.
There is a bronchitis and tracheitis found among fowls that is
apparently contagious. This disease occurs in the same pen each
year when young, apparently susceptible birds are placed in such
yards. The affected bird manifests a rattling in the throat and
trachea, wheezes, coughs, the comb and face appear dark and the
bird loses flesh. Laying hens cease to lay and cocks cease to
fertilize eggs. .The treatment that has given excellent results con-
sists of injecting into the trachea some of the menthol and oil
mixture mentioned under treatment for roup. To do this one
attendant must hold the bird, a second hold the mouth open and
the operator forcing the larynx up with one hand drops, with a
medicine dropper, some of the above mixture into the trachea.
Usually about three or four drops are sufficient. This should be
repeated every two or three days if necessary.
CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS
This is an engorgement of the blood vessels of the lungs.
Congestion of the lungs is quite apt to result in pneumonia,
of which it may be said to be the first stage. It has been
observed in young birds and in birds during their molting
season, when they are poorly clad with feathers and exposed
to inclement weather.
Young chicks that are allowed to run out in the early morn-
ing and become wet with cold dew, and chicks allowed to
become wet with the cold spring rains and become chilled.
are likely to suffer from congestion of the lungs and pneu-
monia.
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 171
A contraction of the blood vessels of the skin and periphery
forees an abnormal amount of blood to the internal organs,
and congestion is the result. Improper feeding and lack of
exercise are also contributing factors. Birds having this ail-
ment will be noted to be sleepy and stupid, and to breathe
rapidly. In some cases the breathing is difficult. The comb
becomes bluish and the bird may die because it cannot get
enough air into the lungs (asphyxiation). Upon postmortem
examination the lungs will be found engorged with blood.
The pressure of the blood in the engorged blood vessels
of the lungs may close the smaller air passages which they
surround, or may burst their thin walls and fill the bronchi
with blood. In either case rapid asphyxiation occurs. .
Treatment.—Congestion of the lungs runs an exceedingly
rapid course, terminating in recovery, pneumonia, or death.
Treatment is impractical. The ailment should be prevented
by good feeding and adequate protection from cold or wet
weather.
PNEUMONIA—INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS
Bronchitis, described in the foregoing, often terminates in
pneumonia (bronecho-pneumonia). It has been the experi-
ence of the writer that broncho-pneumonia, following an at-
tack of bronchitis, is the commonest form of the disease.
The causes of pneumonia are the same as the causes of
colds and bronchitis, except that the exposure is often more
severe.
Symptoms.—There is an entire loss of appetite, with thirst
and constipation. The bird stands with the head drawn in,
drooping wings and ruffled feathers; breathing is rapid and
painful, and there may or may not be coughing. There is
usually a discharge of thick, adhesive mucus from the nos-
trils; the eyes may be inflamed and water freely. The bird
has every appearance of severe illness.
Treatment.—Except in the case of birds of unusual value,
treatment is wholly impractica!, owing to the amount of care
and nursing necessary and because of the doubtful outcome.
If treatment is undertaken, the birds should be warmly
housed and the best of ventilation maintained. Spirits of
eamphor, two drops, and brandy, 10 drops, should be given
hourly in a teaspoonful of warm milk; if the comb becomes
dark, add one drop of fluid extract of digitalis to the medi-
eation.
Autopsy.—Upon opening the bird that has died from pneu-
monia, the affected part of the lung will be found to be
dark red, and when cut through it is liver-hke in appearance
172 POULTRY DISEASES
and texture. Serum (yellowish fluid) and blood may exude
from the surface.
PNEUMOMYCOSIS—ASPERGILLOSIS
This disease is due to a fungus belonging to the genus
aspergillus, an organism similar to the common green molds.
The species that usually affects the lungs of birds is the
Aspergillus fumigatus.
Symptoms.—The affected birds are sluggish and stay apart
from the remainder of the flock; they sit about on the roosts,
or in some corner; they are very weak, and later become un-
able to stand. There is a loss of appetite; the feathers have
an unkempt appearance; the wings are drooping and the eyes
partially closed. The respiration is accelerated and there is
a rattling of mucus in the trachea and bronchi. Fever is
present, and there is ordinarily considerable thirst. The
affected bird usually dies after a prolonged illness.
Postmortem Appearance.—Whitish or yellowish nodules,
varying in size up to a pea, will be noted in the affected
parts; which may be the trachea, bronchi, lungs and the vari-
ous air sacs. The fungus may grow upon the surface of the
mucous membranes forming, at first, a felt-like, whitish mass
which takes on color according to the species of the fungus
as it fruits (forms spores). This membranous material, te
the naked eye, resembles a fibropurulent exudate. The ob-
struction of the air sacs causes the difficult breathing and
asphyxiation.
Inflammation is evident in the diseased areas. Sections
through these areas of disease show the mycelia (thread-like
branches of the mold) and the characteristic spores. Foeal
necrosis, preceded by cloudy swelling, is noted in the kidneys
and other vital organs. A secondary invasion of pus-produc-
ing organisms may take place and on autopsy abscesses may
be found in the liver, kidneys, spleen and other organs.
Treatment.—This is a difficult problem. Placing the af-
fected birds in a close box and smoking them with tar has
been advocated. Efforts should be made to eradicate the
disease from the premises by cleaning and disinfecting them
as for roup and other infectious diseases. (See pages 110
and 179.)
SWELL-HEAD IN YOUNG TURKEYS
The most characteristic symptoms of this ailment is swell-
ing of certain parts of the head, especially in the region of
the maxillary or infraorbital sinus, which becomes filled with
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 173
a gelatinous, colorless substance. (For location of this sinus
see Fig. 2, No. 31.)
These swellings may disappear in a few days or weeks or
may remain for several months. In the latter instance the
swelling may contain a cheesy material of foul odor, and in
some cases cause death.
Treatment.—Open the swollen part and allow the morbid
collection to drain out. In addition, use the same treatment
as outlined under roup.
CHICKENPOX
This disease affects chickens, turkeys, pigeons and geese.
Cause.—Some investigations indicate that it is due to an
ultra-microscopie virus (germ) and that the same germ is also
the cause of avian diphtheria, or roup. The two conditions
are, In many cases, found associated. (An ultra-microscopic
germ is one that will pass through the pores of porcelain
filters and cannot be seen with the microscope or grown in
visible quantities upon culture media. )
In structure the nodules resemble an epithelioma. Con-
tagious chickenpox can be transmitted from an emulsion of
the material of a pox nodule, by inoculating the face and
comb of a healthy bird.
It has been proved that a maceration of the scrapings from
the pox in physiological salt solution and injected subcutane-
ously, will render immunity against further inoculation of
the disease by searification and introduction of the virus in
the face and comb.
-One investigator has claimed that chickenpox is due to a
protozoon (an animal parasite microscopic in size), but other
investigators have failed to find this organism.
Symptoms.—The disease appears as small nodules, varying
pnin-point size up to the size of a pea, or even much larger.
It may be accompanied by roup; in fact, we have studied
both diseases in the same flock, an occurrence which is not
uncommon. The question naturally arises, Are both due to
filtrable viruses, and are both present in the same outbreak,
or are both due to the same cause? Fig. 65 illustrates a
ease of this disease. The nodules or pimples are at first
smooth and firm. They may be red and have a hyperemic
zone. Later the surface may uleerate and spread until a sore
a half-inch in diameter is observed. With proper treatment
these usually heal. The general tendency of chickenpox is to
run a mild course.
Mosquito bites form red pimples, which must be differenti-
ated from pox nodules.
174 ~ POULTRY DISEASES
One investigator has reported that immunity BIg ab chick-
enpox does not confer immunity to roup.
Haring and Kofoid have shown that there is a specific antibody
developed in birds affected with chickenpox. By the use of the
complement-fixation method the blood from the diseased fowl ex-
hibited fixation of the complement not shown by normal fowl
blood, thus showing that it is a specific germ disease. The antigen
was prepared both from the tumors on the head and from the liver
of birds sick of the disease.
Treatment.—The same sanitary regulations should be put
into force as under fowl cholera. No birds should be sold
Fic. 65. CHICKEN Pox.
A, epithelial, tumor-like nodules; B, an ulcer.
from the flock while the disease exists among them. Clean-
ing of yards and houses and keeping them clean, as well as
frequent disinfection, are essential. Antiseptics, as recom-
mended under cholera, may be given in the feed and water.
The heads of affected birds should be bathed in an antisep-
tic solution. The nodules may be touched with lunar caustic
and 24 hours later covered with vaselin.
DIPHTHERIC ROUP
There is considerable confusion regarding contagious epithe-
lioma and diphtheria of fowls, and authorities upon infec-
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 175
tious diseases are not agreed as to whether they are distinct
diseases or somewhat different types of one affection. The
reason for this confusion is readily apparent when a careful
study of the diseased birds is undertaken, provided a suffi-
cient number of outbreaks are considered. Until recently
they were considered as two distinct diseases; the former pre-
senting ‘‘seab-like’’ nodules upon the skin of the unfeathered
portions of the head; the latter diphtheria-hke false mem-
branes in the nose, mouth, throat, eyelids and cavities in the
head. Diphtheritic roup occurs in outbreaks in which the
skin is never affected. Contagious epithelioma may attack
the comb and wat-
tles alone, but it
frequently affects
also the lining
membranes of the
eyelids, the cover-
ing of the front of
the eyeball and the
mouth and nostrils.
It is_ especially
likely to attack the
borders of the eye-
lids and the cor-
ners of the mouth,
extending thence
to the surface of
the adjacent lining
membranes. When
the latter are af-
fected, the tissue changes cannot be distinguished from those
which occur in outbreaks of diphtheria in which the skin is
never affected.
In many infectious diseases the microorganisms which cause
them may be distinguished microscopically by some structural
or staining peculiarity; or they may be isolated and culti-
vated in artificial media by standard bacteriological methods
and recognized by some property possessed by them; in still
others there are certain specific reactions which may be util-
ized for differentiation; again the inoculation of test animals
may serve to identify and separate them from some other In-
fections. In this disease or group of diseases, those methods
are not available. The microdrganism which causes roup is
not known; it cannot be grown artificially in cultures, nor
have the attempts to cultivate that which causes chickenpox
or contagious epithelioma succeeded. Fowls can be success-
Teq|
Fic. 66. Roup IN A CHICKEN.
A, bulging of infraorbital or maxillary sinus.
176 POULTRY DISEASES
fully inoculated with contagious epithelioma, producing typ-
ical tissue changes upon the comb and wattles, or in the eye
and mouth, using the virus contained in the scabs removed
from the comb or wattles of sick birds for inoculation. Such
inoculations, however, do not serve to distinguish one disease
from the other, provided contagious epithelioma and diph-
theria or roup are separate and distinct diseases.
Transmission of the disease is not very difficult. Usually
about 70 per cent of healthy birds will show symptoms of
the disease after associating with an affected one for a short
time. Actual contact is not necessary, as is shown by the
spread of the disease at poultry shows. It has been noted
that in experimental work in using an infecting bird with
pox lesions, mucous membrane lesions of roup would appear
in the birds subjected to and developing the disease, and in
some cases where the roup type was used, pox lesions would
develop in the exposed contracting birds.
Emulsions of scrapings from either cutaneous or mucous
membrane lesions injected subcutaneously, submucously or ap-
plied to scarified areas on the skin, would in some eases pro-
duce the generalized form of the disease, that is, both pox and
roup types combined.
As hinted before in this disease, there are secondary in-
vaders which cause aggravated symptoms. These infections
manifest themselves after the filtrable virus has produced
more mild symptoms. The more common of these secondary
invaders is the Bacillus diphtheriae columbarum of Loeffler.
Therefore the filtrable virus is the necessary primary in-
vader which lowers the bird’s resistance and thus prepares
the tissues for the invasion by the secondary organisms.
Neither factor alone will cause the typical disease.
Mode of Spread.—Diphtheriec roup is spread by birds intro-
duced into a flock from infected premises, and by exposure, as
at poultry shows.
struggles very little and is soon completely under its influ-
ence. The cover is then removed or held one or more inches
from the nostrils as indicated by appearance of the bird. If
an overdose be given, open the mouth and resort to artificial
respiration as with other animals; many are thus revived.
Fic. 76. Pourtry OPERATING TABLE.
Note is made of respirations and eye reflexes as in anes-
thetizing other animals.
After the limbs are entirely relaxed an assistant holds the
bird on its back or it may be tied to the operating table.
A poultry operating table has been designed by the writer.
This table consists of a top (a) two feet wide and
thirty inches long. This table is provided with four-
inch cross-pieces as shown in the cut (c) which are located
FRACTURES—WOUNDS—ANESTHESIA 217
about half way from the top to the ground. These cross-
pieces are provided with two awning hooks on either side.
Holes are bored through the top at suitable locations. The
loop of the string is run through the hole on its respective
side and over the legs or base of the wings (h) and the legs
and wings drawn down snugly to the top and the free por-
- tions of the string wrapped around the hook and given a half
hitch. ;
INJURY TO THE STERNUM
If chicks are allowed to roost on small limbs of trees or
sharp poles before the breastbone becomes sufficiently ossified
Fic. 77. Injury to STERNUM, A ReEsuLtT oF RoostING ON SOME SHARP
Osyect WHILE Quite IMMATURE.
there is hkely to be a dent or curvature of the free margin.
Fig. 77 illustrates this kind of an injury. The dressed ear-
cass from such a bird would bring at least two cents less per
pound on the large city markets than if the breast was straight
and presented a pleasing appearance.
CURVATURE OF THE SPINE
Eges should lie on their sides in the incubator. If allowed
to stand on end in the last days of incubation there is
218 POULTRY DISEASES
likely to be some deformity. Curvatures of the spine have
been noted to appear suddenly in young, developing birds.
Injury to the Spme.—Often, large animals, step upon or
knock over fowls in walking. This may result in broken bones,
internal hemorrhage as a result of crushing, and injury to the
spine or other parts.
GANGRENE
There are two kinds of gangrene, moist and dry. Death of
a part en masse constitutes gangrene and death cell by cell on
a surface constitutes ulcer-
ation. If the part which
dies has poured out in it
much serum, there is likely
to result infection and ne-
erosis with gas formation.
This gas is very offensive.
If the part is poorly sup-
pled with blood and there
is no serum secreted there
may be a dry gangrene,
that is, the part mummi-
fies, does not give off an
offensive odor and becomes
dry and hard. Dry gan-
erene is likely to occur in
dependent parts, as in the
illustration, in the foot of
a turkey.
FROZEN COMBS
The degree of cold at
which the wattles and comb
freeze depends upon many
Fic. 78. GANGRENE OF THE FOOT OF A factors. The humidity in
2 . Beare dees e the house and the physical
ommenced with fluctuating abscesses be- ee .
tween the toes which when lanced gave off condition of the bird and
an offensive cdor and seemed somewhat its heart action are the
gaseous. Later the parts became in a state 3
of dry gangrene. A smear from the pus most important factors. A
showed many eosinophiles, lymphocytes and
coljmerpndleukocicai a eee |. y wealc Meant oneamsiansiies
gish circulation and the
more sluggishly the blood flows the slower it passes through
the dependent parts and the quicker the comb freezes.
Wattles usually freeze sooner than combs because when the
bird drinks it usually gets its wattles wet.
Birds in open front houses can stand lower temperatures
FRACTURES—WOUNDS—ANESTHESIA 219
than when the house is tightly closed, because the more free
circulation of air allows the watery vapor from the lungs of
the birds to disseminate more rapidly and humidity is les-
sened.
When wattles and comb are frozen, remove the bird to a
warmer room but not one heated by a stove. Apply carbolized
vaselin twice a day.
BROKEN BEAK
The beak often becomes broken through fighting or some
other violence. Such a fowl needs attention. It may starve
through its inability to pick up feed or its beak may grow
deformed.
The bird should be given feed in such a manner that it can
easily pick it up, or the new and developing horny material
may become injured. Mash, both wet and dry, given in a cup.
is recommended. The cup should not be allowed to become so
nearly empty that the bird strikes the bottom with its beak.
Often chicks are hatched with crossed beaks making the
act of prehension a difficult one.
SECTION XVIII
CASTRATION OF THE BIRD (CAPONIZING)
There are great possibilities in the more extended practice
of capon production. The fact that there is a growing de-
mand, making their value as a meat product superior to that
of the cock or cockerel, and the fact that they bring about
thirty cents a pound while the uncastrated bird brings only
about fifteen cents, together with the fact that they become
very much larger, makes this phase of poultry husbandry a
productive and remunerative one.
The male bird after the removal of his reproductive organs
loses his masculine appearance, becomes sluggish and gains
weight rapidly as a result of his inactivity.
From the loss of that internal secretion manufactured in
the testes we note that there is the same difference which is
observed in other animals under the same treatment. The
development of the gelding as compared to the horse and of
the barrow as compared to the boar, are some concrete ex-
amples.
The same improvement in meat is noted in the castrated or
caponized bird as in the steer over the meat of the bull or the
meat of the barrow compared with that of the boar, hence
capon raising is highly desirable and if properly managed is
a profitable undertaking.
A eapon of the Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte or Rhode Island
Red breed should weigh fully seven or eight pounds when
eight months of age.
Light capons are produced from the Rocks, Wyandottes
and Reds while the heavy eapons are produced from the
Brahmas and Cochins.
The cockerel should be ecaponized when he weighs from one
to one and one-half pounds, which will probably be about the
eighth to the tenth week. ;
If the birds are allowed to become too old before operation
the testes are found to be very large, the removal of which
may prove fatal to the bird. If the birds are hatched from
March to May the operation could be performed in the months
of June to September and with proper feeding and care these
birds should then be ready to market from December to
March.
The equipment needed to perform this operation is a table
222 POULTRY DISEASES
provided with means of confining the bird on it and instru-
ments consisting of a knife or sealpel with which to make
the incision or cut through the abdominal wall, a hook for
tearing through the peritoneum or lining of the abdominal
cavity, air sac walls and at times through the mesentery and
a spreader for holding the wound open while the removal
of the testes is accomplished.
The intestines may be pushed to one side by aid of the end
of a scalpel.
An improvised table may be made by taking a barrel,
using two cords and two weights of sufficient size to hold the
bird down, usually about the size of a half brick. The cords
are doubled and one is looped around the legs, the other
around the base of the wings and a half brick tied to the free
ends as shown in Fig. 79.
A poultry operating table designed by the writer consists
of a top two feet wide and thirty inches long. This table is
provided with four-inch cross pieces, as shown, (Fig. 76)
which are located about half way from the top to the ground
and provided with two awning hooks on either side. Holes
are bored through the top at suitable locations. The loop of
each cord is run through the hole on its respective side and
over the legs or base of the wings and the legs and wings
drawn snugly down to the top and the free end of the cord
wrapped around the hook and given a half hitch.
If the bird or birds are to be operated on in the forenoon,
no feed should be given on the previous day. It is also well
to withhold water as an abundance of water causes more
hemorrhage, owing to the increased amount of liquid in the
body tissues. It is rather difficult to accurately and satisfac-
torily operate when the intestines are gorged with feed.
The operation is best performed in the bright sunlight un-
less the operator is provided with a head reflector.
The instruments should be kept in a shallow pan of anti-
septic, as creolin, or better, formaldehyd solution. A small
amount of absorbent cotton should also be at hand. After the
bird is confined pluck a few feathers over the field of oper-
ation (between the last two ribs). It is well to place a small
chunk of ice in the pan of antiseptic and use the ice water
in sponging the field of operation. The cold water thus acts
as an antiseptic as well as causing a contraction of the capil-
laries of the region and less hemorrhage will result.
When ready to make the incision pull the skin over so that
after the incision is made and the skin released the wound
into the abdominal cavity will be closed. Jn making the in-
cision through the skin the bird will struggle very little. The
CASTRATION OF THE BIRD 223
knife or scalpel should be very sharp and the incision made
quickly to minimize pain. The upper point of the incision
should be about one-half inch from the center of the backbone
or vertebrae. The incision should be about one inch long. As
a nerve, artery and vein pass along the posterior border of
each rib, it is necessary not to cut close to the posterior border
but make the incision close to the anterior border of the
last. rib. .
A second incision is now made in the same wound, this time
euiting through the abdominal muscles. Care must be exer-
cised not to cut too deep and injure the internal organs. If
the peritoneum is not cut this can be broken through by aid
Fic. 79. Top of Barrel As An Operating Table.
of the hook and insert the spreaders. Now tear through the
walls of the air sac and push the intestines to one side and
the uppermost testis will be in plain view. The testis will
appear bean-shaped, about one-half inch long and yellowish-
white in color. It lies close to the body of the vertebrae and
large abdominal blood vessels, being attached by connective
tissue. If it is the desire to remove both testes through the
one opening it is necessary to tear through the mesentery or
web-like membrane supporting the viscera, care being taken
not to make the opening too close to its attachment to the
vertebrae or fatal hemorrhage may take place as a result of
rupturing these delicate vessels.
If the opening has been properly made the lower testis will
224 POULTRY DISEASES
be in plain view. Always remove the lower one first as, if
the upper one be removed first, some hemorrhage may take
place that will make it very hard to find the lower one later.
For beginners it is better to operate from both sides, each
time removing the upper one.
The testicular tissue is very soft and it 1s necessary to use
ereat care to remove all of the tissue. If it is crushed it will
be very difficult to successfully remove it so that it 1s neces-
sary that the operation be done with skill. If care is not
used often the end of a testis will break off and this part
remaining makes a “‘slip.’’ This small particle will furnish
some internal secretion and the bird can be regarded neither
as a cockerel nor as a capon. Slips are undesirable. The acci-
dents may be as follows: on account of the testes lying close
to the vertebree in close proximity to the abdominal aorta and
other large vessels and the capsule of the testis being attached
to them, too much traction or improperly applying the tractors
may result in rupture of the vessel and fatal hemorrhage occur
at once. If the aorta is ruptured there will be noted a hissing
sound and the bird becomes pale in the face and comb and
immediately collapses. In this case cut off the head and the
bird can be used for food. If the bird is allowed to struggle
after the operation a large vessel already injured by the oper-
ation may rupture and fatal hemorrhage result.
After the operation if the incision has been properly made
no suture is necessary, but if the opening in the abdominal
wall be large it is well to take one or two sutures with clean,
sterile cotton or silk thread.
After the operation is completed remove the bird as care-
fully as possible and quietly place in a clean coop or run bed-
ded down with clean straw. Do not allow them in coops or
inclosures where they can jump upon boxes, perches or fly,
as they must be kept down on the floor for a few days.
Supply the birds with clean, fresh water and give them
ground feed mixed with milk as soon as they are placed in
their runs. They apparently do not suffer any inconvenience
from the operation and will eat heartly immediately after.
On the third day examine each bird to make sure there are
no ‘‘wind puffs’? or emphysematous conditions, that is, air
worked under the skin from the edge of the wound or incision.
If wind puffs or emphysema is present puncture with clean,
sterile, sharp knife and allow the air to escape. Birds have
a great resistance against the common germs of wound infec-
tion, as staphylococci and streptococci and fatalities from this
cause are very rare, if at all.
The wound should be entirely healed in three weeks’ time.
CASTRATION OF THE BIRD 220
Fig. 80 shows a Barred Plymouth Rock capon and a Barred
Plymouth Rock cock. Note difference in head and general
appearance between the capon and the cock. Capons are
usually marketed at about ten months of age.
OVARIECTOMY OF THE PULLET
An unsexed (spayed) pullet is called a poulard. Spayed
pullets make more rapid growth without the handicap of egg
production, at a later stage, and the meat is of improved
quality and flavor. The spayed pullet takes on some of the
Fic. 80. 1, capon; 2, cock.
appearance of a cockerel. The poulard, like the capon, be-
comes an outeast and is never known to eackle.
The pullets are usually operated upon at about the same
age as in caponizing the cockerel and usually in the late
spring or early summer. The pullets are prepared in the
same manner as cockerels for caponizing. The incision 1s
made in a similar manner as in the cockerel and the unde-
veloped egg cluster is found in the pullet in a similar location
to that of the testicles in the cockerel. With a pair of artery
forceps grasp the undeveloped oviduct, which will be found
to he about the size of a broom straw, and remove about one
inch of this and the ovary. Care must be taken not to eut
or rupture any of the large abdominal blood vessels lying
just back of the ovary and against the vertebrae (a similar
precaution as in caponizing). The removal of a section of the
226 POULTRY DISEASES
oviduct and ovary prevents the further development of the
ege canal and functionating of the cells of the canal and the
formation of eggs. Pullets that have begun to develop eggs
cannot be successfully operated upon.
The after treatment is the same as for capons.
SECTION XIX
FOODS POISONOUS TO FOWLS
THE ROSE CHAFER
(Macrodactylus Subspinosus Fab.)
In the spring of the year when the grapes are in bloom,
large numbers of the common rose-chafers (rose bugs) often
appear to feed upon the blossoms and later attacking the
young and developing fruit and leaves of the plant. The
beetle is about one-third inch long, of a lhght brown color
and is covered by numerous lighter hairs. It is provided with
long, spiny legs. This bug may also be found on roses, from
which its common name is derived. It may also be found on
other shrubs and upon apple, plum, cherry and peach trees.
When numerous and its preferable food scarce, it may attack
different grasses and grains.
The bug passes through the four stages, namely: ova, larva,
pupa and adult.
Lamson has shown that when large numbers are eaten by
small chicks death may occur from their poisonous effects in
from nine to twenty-four hours. It was found that fifteen
to twenty rose chafers were sufficient to kill chicks seven days
old in seven days; twenty-five to forty-five proved fatal to
chicks twenty-one days old. Chicks over ten weeks old did
not die from their effects.
The symptoms usually appear an hour after the bird eats
a large quantity of these bugs. The first symptoms noted
are those of a dozing attitude, the bird becomes weak, and
finally prostrate and is unable to walk. Some may recover
from the poison. Occasionally convulsions are noted in the
dying chick. The poison appears to be a neuro-toxin. Post
mortem does not reveal any lesions.
Prophylactic treatment consists of keeping the young chicks
away from parts of the premises that are infested by these
bugs.
ARSENICAL POISONING
Arsenical poisoning may occur from the birds drinking
spray mixtures containing paris green or other arsenical com-
pounds, from eating rat poison, ete. Cases have been brought
to our attention where birds had been poisoned by eating
oerasshoppers. The grasshoppers had been given arsenic in
228 POULTRY DISEASES
bran, and the birds, devouring large numbers of them, became
ill, and many of them died.
Symptoms.—tLoss of appetite, black comb, dullness, sitting,
moping and unsteady gait, increasing weakness, and death.
Judging from the effect of poisonous doses of arsenic on high-
er animals, the poisoned birds must have been in considerable
pain, but they did not show it; birds do not manifest pain
as other animals do.
Autopsy.—The liver was normal, except that it was a trifle
dark in color. There were no noticeable changes in the other
abdominal organs, except the intestinal tract. Upon opening
the intestines there were noted patches of hemorrhage and
areas of congestion and inflammation.
Treatment.—This is scarcely worth while. Demuleent
drinks, as water in which slippery elm bark has been soaked,
or even milk, are indicated, after a full dose of castor oil.
SALT POISONING
Poisoning among chickens and turkeys from eating common
salt or drinking brine is quite common and the losses from it
are large. It may occur from eating salt pork, or fish, or from
drinking the brine left from freezing ice cream, and in many
other ways. The symptoms and treatment vary but little from
arsenical and other poisons.
Dr. Geo. H. Glover, Colorado, reports a case in which a lady in
baking a cake made a mistake and used common table salt instead
of sugar. After the cake was baked and the mistake discovered the
young housewife concluded to feed it to her nice flock of chickens,
consisting of twenty-three hens and one rooster. All the birds ex-
cept the rooster died.
It has been determined that twenty-five grains of salt per
pound of live weight is sufficient to produce death in birds.
OTHER MINERAL POISONS
Saltpeter poisoning, from eating fertilizer ; phosphorus poi-
soning, from eating rat poison; Jead and zinc poisoning, from
eating paint, and copper poisoning, from driking bordeaux
mixture, have been described; all are infrequent.
PTOMAIN POISONING
Limber neck is one of those convenient generic terms which
poultrymen sometimes apply to any ailment in which the bird
is too sick to hold up its head. It is a very prominent symp-
tom in all forms of ptomain poisoning.
Cause.—Ptomain poisoning may be due to eating any kind
FOODS POISONOUS TO FOWLS 229
of food in which putrefaction has set in, but is usually the
result of eating decaying meat or fish.
Because of the more favorable conditions for the rapid
putrefactiton of meat in very hot weather, ptomain poisoning
occurs chiefly in mid-summer, and on tarms where the fowls
have an extended range, including patches of high weeds that
effectually conceal dead animals from the caretaker, until the
loss of a large portion of the flock compels cutting weeds and
a diligent search for the carcass.
The beginning of ptomain poisoning in a flock is usually
something like this: During very hot weather a bird dies in
the tall weeds, it may be from disease or from violence, and
in three or four days its careass is filled with maggots and
in an advanced stage of decomposition; it 1s found by the
other birds and devoured, with the consequent death of many
of them, some of them dying in out of the way places and
remaining undiscovered by the keeper, and in turn poisoning
others, and so on.
Oftentimes the keeper is responsible for the beginning of
the trouble by thoughtlessly throwing some small animal
which he has killed (opossum, weasel, rat, ete.) where the
fowls find it. If the weather conditions are favorable to rapid
decomposition, ptomain poisoning in the flock will result and
the ‘‘vermin’’ dead will destroy more birds than ten of its
kind would destroy during life.
Maggots are usually found in the crops of birds dying from
eating putrid flesh, and if the poultryman holds autopsies on
the dead birds, he is quite apt to conclude that the maggots
have killed them. Such is not the case.
Treatment.—Give a tablespoonful of castor oi] and one-
fifth grain doses of sulphate of strychnin, the latter every
four to six hours.
Experiments have been conducted to determine the exact
dosage of strychnin for an average-sized hen. It has been
found that the dose should be from one-sixth to one-fifth of a
erain three times a day. The author has given one grain re-
peatedly without ill effect, but when given in solution and on
an empty crop it killed the bird.
BOTULISM
(Limber Neck)
Dickson has recently reported the results of several outbreaks
of botulism among persons and the same condition among fowls
where they had eaten some of the same kind of meat. In one
case fifty fowls were affected after eating home-canned corn which
had caused the death of a woman who had tasted it. In another
case between fifty and one hundred fowls became paralyzed and
230 POULTRY DISEASES
died at the same time that a woman who cared for them had died
of “bulbar paralysis.” Hight fowls, in another case, showed the
same symptoms and died after eating home-canned string beans
which had caused the death of a woman who had tasted them. And
in still another case seven fowls died after eating home-canned
apricots which had also caused the death of five people.
In all cases in human and fowls the symptoms and the course
of intoxication were the same as those of botulism and in the
histologic examination of one case, after autopsy, showed the typical
thrombosis and hemorrhages which have been shown to be char-
acteristic of the condition. The organism recovered from the fowls
were identical in morphological and cultural characteristics to the
Bacillus botulinus. The toxin from these cultures produced typical
symptoms when fed to other fowls. The birds become dull, inactive,
refuse to eat, remain quiet; their feathers are ruffled, and the
birds gradually become weak.- This is manifested in the legs, wings
and finally in the neck, so that they are unable to stand; drop
the wings; the neck is limber, the beak rests on the floor and
finally prostration results. Death usually occurs in less than
twenty-four hours after feeding. It has veen fuund that the Bacillus
botulinus may develop in decaying vegetables so that limber neck
due to this organism may be obtained from this source as well as
decaying meat.
CORN COCKLE POISONING
Chickens eating large quantities of corn cockle, in ground
form, incorporated in their feed in the form of mash, have
been poisoned.
The seed contains a poison, sapotoxin, which causes a severe
inflammation of the entire digestive tract, including the crop.
Great prostration and death follow.
SECTION XX
POULTRY REMEDIES
With the development of veterinary medicine there has
come a knowledge of drugs and their applicability to diseases
of the domestic fowl. The author has devoted much time and
thought, the past few years, in rational medication of fowls
and has worked out a dosage based on the physiological tests
of the drugs upon healthy fowls and also the appleation in
disease.
The following brief discussion of poultry materia medica
and its therapeutic application is thought best in this volume.
In medicating birds it will be well either to give the drug
by the mouth in capsule or in tablet form, since in a large
number of cases the liquids administered as a drench find
their way down into the trachea and bad. results follow.
’ Liquids may be mixed with mash or soaked in bread in eases
where the fowl has not completely lost its appetite or where
it does not object to the taste.
The larynx of the fowl is not provided with an epiglottis
and, in struggling birds, stands more or less open.
Birds require a comparatively larger dosage to obtain the
full physiological results than do mammals. A large amount
of unsatisfactory medication of fowls in the past has come
about through the lack of rational medication.
Poultry Materia Medica
ALOIN
Source—A neutral principle obtained from aloes.
Properties—Small acicular erystals, in color yellow to yellowish
brown; odorless and bitter taste.
Use—Cathartic.
Indication—Constipation.
Dose—For adult fowl, 1 to 2 grains.
AMMONIUM CARBONATE (SMELLING SALTS)
Source—A mixture of ammonium chlorid or sulphate, and cal-
cium carbonate, is sublimed and resublimed.
Properties—White, hard, translucent, striated masses, having a
strong ammoniacal odor and a Sharp salty taste.
Action—A heart and respiratory stimulant.
Indications—Acute bronchitis, pneumonia or in colds.
Dose—For an adult fowl, 20 grains given in capsule.
232 POULTRY DISEASES
ARECA NUT (Betel nut)
Source—From the seed which resembles nutmeg in shape and
color.
Properties—A brownish powder.
Action—Destroys intestinal parasites.
Indications—Infestation of intestines with worms, and acts as
a cathartic.
Dose—For adult fowl, 5 to 10 grains, given in wet mash.
ARGENTI NITRAS FUSUS (Lunar caustic)
Source—Melted silver nitrate, 3 parts, and potassium nitrate, 6
parts, cast in suitable moulds.
Properties—White, hard, solid pencils which appear finely gran-
ular at a broken end.
Action—A caustic.
Indications—The pencil lunar caustic may be used to lightly burn
ulcers in the mouth or head as in roup or sorehead.
BARBADOES ALOES
Source—The dried or inspissated juice of the Aloe vera.
Properties—A hard mass, orange brown and opaque. Odor, sat-
ron-like and bitter taste.
Action—A cathartic.
Indications—Constipation.
Dose—For adult fowl, 10 to 20 grains.
BELLADONNA FLUID EXTRACT (Deadly Nightshade)
Source—An extract of the leaves of Atropia belladonna.
Properties—Blackish-brown liquid of characteriste odor.
Preparations—Extract; fluid extract and tincture.
Action—A stimulant. Lessens mucous secretions. Small doses
do not affect respiration but large doses make breathing quicker
and deeper.
Indications—Acute inflammation of the air passages as bronchi
and lungs.
Dose—To adult hen, five drops, repeated every three hours. May
be dropped in mouth by aid of medicine dropper.
CARBO LIGNI (Wood Charcoal)
Source—Soft wood is charred by piling it in a heap, igniting, and
covering it with sand and dirt to prevent rapid combustion.
Properties—A black, odorless and tasteless powder or bits, free
from gritty matter.
Action and Indications—It is indicated in indigestion, chronic
gastritis, and intestinal catarrh and diarrhea.
How Given—May be kept in compartment of dry mash hopper
where the birds have access to it. Use large size pieces for adult
fowls and chick size for smaller ones.
CASTOR OIL
Source—A fixed oil expressed from the castor oil bean.
Properties—A pale, yellowish and almost odorless, transparent
viscid fluid and possessing an offensive taste.
Use—A cathartic.
Indications—Constipation.
Dose—One tablespoonful to each four fowls. May be given in
wet mash.
POULTRY MATERIA MEDICA 233
CHLOROFORM
Source—Alcohol and water are heated in a still to 37.7° C., when
chlorinated lime is added and chloroform is evolved.
Properties—A heavy, clean, colorless, mobile and diffusible liquid
of a characteristic ethereal odor, and a burning sweetish taste.
Action—Anesthetic.
Use—It is used as an anesthetic in preparing birds for operation.
Chloroform and ether are an excellent combination for anesthetic
purposes.
COAL-TAR DISINFECTANT DIPS (Standardized)
Source—Coal tar distillation products, the active principles of
which are cresols and hydrocarbons.
Properties—They are a rather thick, black tarry liquid which
turns the water a milky color, due to the soapy emulsion that
results upon the addition of the water.
Use—A destroyer of germs and parasites.
How Used—If the product so standardized has a coefficiency of
5, then a two per cent solution in water (one ounce or two table-
spoonfuls to each two quarts of water) should be used for spray-
ing purposes for parasites and germs.
CONVALLARIA (Fluid Extract) (Lily of the Valley)
Source—An extract of the plant.
Preparations—Extract, fluid extract and tincture.
Action and Indications—Similar to digitalis.
Dose—F er adult fowl, ten to twenty drops.
CREOLIN
Source—Obtained from soft coal by dry distillation, its composi-
tion is very complex. It is said to contain cresol and higher homo-
logues of phenol.
Properties—A dark-brown syrupy, alkaline liquid of a tarry taste
and odor.
Action—A powerful disinfectant, antiseptic and parasiticide.
Use—As a spray for poultry houses and equipment use one to
five ounces to each gallon of water.
DIGITALIS (Fluid Extract) (Fox Glove)
Source—From the leaves of digitalis.
Preparations—Extract, fluid extract and tincture.
Action—It strengthens the heart beat.
Indications—It has a tendency to correct the rapid, weak, irregu-
lar pulse.
Dose—For adult hen ten to twenty drops.
ETHER (Sulphuric Ether)
Source—Obtained by distillation of alcohol with sulphuric acid.
Properties—A transparent, colorless, mobile liquid, having a
characteristic odor and a burning, sweetish taste.
Action—To produce anesthesia.
Use—It is used as an anesthetic in preparing for operations on
birds.
EUCALYPTUS, OIL OF
Source—A volatile oil distilled from the leaves of the eucalyptus
tree.
234 POULTRY DISEASES
Properties—A colorless or faintly yellowish liquid. It has a
characteristic aromatic odor, and a pungent, spicy and cooling
taste.
; Action—It- is an antiseptic and disinfectant, being three times
as effective as carbolic acid.
Indications—Catarrhal conditions of the nasal mucous mem-
branes, and mucous membranes of trachea and bronchi.
Use—As a steam inhalation or as a spray or injection in catarrh
and roup combined with other drugs, as follows:
Oil of eucalyptus........................ 20 drops
Oilvot thy mess eee 1 dram
Mie mito] esate eS AO eee 10 grains
Oil: spetrol ee eens 2 ounces
Mix and inject into nasal passage.
FERROUS SULPHATE (Copperas, green vitriol)
Source—Iron wire is dissolved by boiling in diluted sulphuric
acid.
Properties—Large, pale, bluish green, monoclinic prisms, with-
out odor and having a salty taste. Changes to a fine powder on
being exposed to air.
Action—Externally it is an astringent and stimulant.
Indications—In a solution of one ounce to one gallon of water
for wounds of any kind in the fowl.
FORMALDEHYD (Formic aldehyd)
Source—Obtained by partial combustion of wood alcohol, with-
out ignition, by evaporation of the spirit in contact with a hot,
platinized, asbestos plate.
Properties—A pungent gas. Sold in aqueous solution (40 per
cent gas in water). It is very volatile.
Uses—A strong disinfectant. Used in about the same dilution
as lysol for disinfecting purposes.
GENTIAN, POWDERED
Source—Obtained from the gentian roots.
Properties—A yellowish brown powder possessing a bitter taste.
Action—Improves the appetite and stimulates digestion.
Indications—Indigestion, loss of appetite and malnutrition.
Dose—Same as for ginger, which see.
GINGER, POWDERED (Zingiber)
Source—F rom the roots of the Zingiber officinale.
Properties—A yellowish-brown powder with bitter taste.
Action—A bitter tonic.
Indication—Indigestion, loss of appetite; malnutrition.
Use—Combined for tonic with other drugs, as follows:
Powdered ginger.....................--. 2 ounces
Powdered gentian...................... 2 ounces
Powdered nux vomica.............. 2 ounces
Mix one teaspoonful to each twelve fowls. Given twice daily in
wet mash.
GLYCERIN
Source—A liquid obtained by the decomposition of vegetable or
animal fats or fixed oils.
Properties—A clear, colorless liquid of a thick, syrupy consist-
POULTRY MATERIA MEDICA 235
ency, oily to the touch, odorless, very sweet and slightly warm to
the taste.
Action—lIts affinity for water causes it to keep moist the surface
to which it is applied.
Indication—Inflammation or injury of the mouth, pip, stomatitis.
HYDROCHLORIC ACID (Muriatic acid)
Source—From a distillation of sulphuric acid, sodium chlorid and
water. The resulting gas is passed into distilled water.
Properties—A colorless, fuming liquid of pungent odor, and an
intensely acid taste.
HYDROCHLORIC ACID (Dilute)
Made by taking 100 parts concentrated hydrochloric acid, 219
parts distilled water.
Action—It aids digestion by stimulating the formation of secretin
in the stomach and intestines and excites the activity of all the
glands giving rise to the secretions concerned with digestive ac-
tivity.
In concentrated form is caustic.
Indication—Indigestion.
Dose—One tablespoonful to each gallon of drinking water.
LINSEED OIL
Source—A fixed oil expressed from linseed or flaxseed.
Properties—A yellowish, oily liquid, peculiar odor and bland taste.
Use—A cathartic.
Indication—Constipation.
Dose—One tablespoonful to each six fowls. May be given in wet
mash. Raw oil must be used.
LYSOL
Source—From that part of tar oil which boils between 190° and
200° C., by dissolving in fat and saponifying in alcohol.
Properties—A clear, brown, oily liquid of a feeble creosote-like
odor.
Action—Destroys germs and parasites.
Use—One-half to two per cent solution in water to disinfect water
or feed containers and to spray houses.
MAGNESIUM SULPHATE (Epsom Salts)
Source—It is obtained from native dolomite, a double carbonate
of magnesium and calcium.
Properties—Small, colorless, rhombic prisms, without odor, and
having a cooling, saline and bitter taste. Slowly becomes a fine
powder in dry air.
Action—A hydrogogue cathartic. A feeble diuretic.
Indications—Constipation.
Dose—For adult as a mild laxative, one tablespoonful to each
twelve fowls. Best given in solution in water and this mixed with
dry mash. One teaspoonful given by the mouth in solution will
produce action in about four hours.
MENTHOL (Peppermint Camphor)
Source—Obtained from the official oil of peppermint.
Properties—Colorless, acicular or prismatic crystals. It possesses
a strong, pure odor of peppermint.
236 POULTRY DISEASES
Action—Allays irritation.
Indication—Catarrh of the head.
Use—Same as oil eucalyptus, which see.
MERCURIC CHLORID, CORROSIVE (Corrosive Sublimate)
Source—A heated mixture of mercuric sulphate 20 parts, sodium
chlorid 16 parts, manganese dioxid 1 part.
Properties—Heavy, colorless, rhombic crystals, odorless, and hav-
ing an acrid or persistent metallic taste. Permanent in air.
Action—A severe caustic.
Indications—May be used in contagious bowel diseases in fowls
in drinking water. To each gallon of water add 6 grains mercuric
bichlorid and 3 grains citric acid. It may be used in a solution of
one, to one-thousand, as a disinfectant.
MERCURIC CHLORID (Mild) (Calomel)
Source—Heat mercurous sulphate and sodium chlorid. Calomel
sublimes. ;
Properties—A white, impalpable powder; odorless and tasteless.
permanent in the air. Insoluble in water.
Action—A cathartic.
Dose—For adult fowl, 3 to 5 grains.
NAPHTHALENE (Naphtalin)
Source—A hydrocarbon obtained from coal tar by distillation be-
tween 356° F. and 482° F. The impure naphtalin resulting is treated
with sulphuric acid and sodium hydroxid, and is further purified by
distillation with steam, and then by a mixture with strong sulphuric
acid and finally by distillation.
Properties—Colorless, shining, transparent laminae, having a
strong characteristic odor resembling that of coal tar, and a burn-
ing aromatic taste. It is slowly volatilized on exposure to air.
Action—An excellent destroyer of parasites.
- Uses—As a powder in nests to destroy lice. Dissolved in kero-
sene (from 5 to 10 per cent) to saturate perches to kill mites. Five
per cent in vaselin as an ointment in scaly legs. This ointment
gives good results in sore head.
NUX VOMICA (Powdered)
Source—From the seed of the Nucis vomicae.
Indications—Indigestion, paralysis, loss of appetite.
Action—Powdered nux vomica is a bitter tonic, increasing the ap-
petite, gastric secretion, and motion. A nerve stimulant.
Dose—For adult fowl, ten to twenty grains, repeated three times
a day. May be given in capsule or doughball. As a tonic, one-half
ounce in mash to each 12 hens. Twelve “stroke measure” teaspoon-
fuls of nux vomica make one ounce.
PETROL OIL
A neutral thick oil used as a vehicle in which to mix liquid prep-
arations.
PETROLATUM (Vaselin, cosmolene)
Source—A mixture of hydrocarbons, chiefly of the marsh gas
series, obtained by distilling off the higher and more volatile por-
tions from petroleum and purifying the residue when it has the
desired consistency.
POULTRY MATERIA MEDICA 237
Properties—A colorless or more or less yellowish, oily trans-
parent liquid, without odor or taste; or giving off when heated, a
faint odor of petroleum.
Use—As a vehicle for other drugs in the preparation of ointments.
PHENOL (Carbolic Acid)
Source—Obtained from crude carbolic acid by agitation with
caustic soda, heating to 338° F. and adding hydrochloric acid; then
by agitation with sodium chlorid, digestion with calcium chlorid
and distillation at a temperature between 336° and 374° F. and
finally by crystallization, phenol results.
Properties—Colorless, interlaced or separate, needle-shaped crys-
tals, or a white crystalline mass, sometimes acquiring a reddish tint.
It has a characteristic and somewhat aromatic odor and when it is
greatly diluted with water has a sweetish taste. It goes into solu-
tion with a very small amount of water.
Action—An antiseptic, and in five per cent solutions it is a para-
siticide.
Use—As an intestinal antiseptic, use one to two teaspoonfuls to
each gallon of water. As a spray for poultry houses, use one to
five ounces to the gallon of water.
PODOPHYLIN (May apple)
Source—Obtained from the roots of the may apple.
Properties—A fine non-crystallizable powder. It is yellowish in
color and possesses a peculiar, faintly bitter taste.
Action—A powerful, though slow, acting cathartic. In experi-
ments on baby chicks, one-eighth grain doses proved fatal in 42 out
of 43 tests.
Indications—Constipation.
Dose—For adult fowl, one-fourth grain.
POTASSIUM DICHROMATE
Properties—It is a reddish-yellow crystalline potash product.
Use—A pale, straw-colored solution in water is astringent and is
indicated in sore throat or sore mouth.
POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE
Source—Caustie potash, chlorate of potassium and black oxid of
manganese are fused together.
Properties—Slender, monoclinic prisms, of a dark purple color,
odorless, and having a taste first of sweet but afterwards disagree-
able and astringent. Permanent in dry air.
Action—An intestinal antiseptic.
Indications—In contagious bowel diseases, as fowl cholera. Make
drinking water lightly purple. About one ounce to four gallons of
water.
PYRETHRUM (Persian insect powder)
Source—The powdered flowers of Pyrethrum roseus.
Properties—A coarse, greenish-yellow, pungent powder.
Use—Destroys fleas and lice.
Indication—May be used to dust in nests and on birds for lice.
Only the pure product will give satisfactory results, and too liberal
quantities should not be employed. Some depressing results have
been observed when used too freely upon birds.
238 POULTRY DISEASES
QUININ SULPHATE
Source—Obtained by boiling cinchona bark with hydrochloric acid
and adding lime to the filtered decoction.
Properties—White, silky, light and fine needle-shaped crystals,
with bitter taste.
Action—Retards metabolism and thus lessens the production of
heat in the tissues. It dilates the vessels of the skin and therefore
induce loss of heat.
Indications—Cold, bronchitis and pneumonia.
Dose—For adult fowl, 2 to 3 grains three times daily.
SANTONIN
Source—A neutral principle obtained from santonica. Santonica
is derived from worm seed.
Properties—A colorless, flattened, prismatic crystal, odorless and
almost tasteless.
Action—Destroys intestinal parasites.
Indications—Infestation of intestines with worms.
Dose—For adult fowls, one-fourth grain.
SODIUM CHLORID (Common or table salt)
Source—Mined in native state or obtained by evaporation of brine,
spring or sea water.
Properties—Colorless, transparent, cubical crystals or a white
erystalline powder with salty taste, permanent in dry air.
Action—Hssential constituent of the food, since it is necessary to
the composition of hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice and of
blood plasma, from which it is constantly eliminated in the urine.
Herbivorous and grain-eating animals require sodium chlorid in ad-
dition to that contained in their food. While the blood is rich in
sodium salts, vegetables are particularly rich in potassium salts.
Birds deprived of salt suffer from anemia and general weakness.
Birds cannot tolerate large doses of table salt.
Use—The mash should contain from one-half to one pound to
each one hundred pounds of mash, and this should be thoroughly
mixed.
SODIUM SULPHATE (Glauber, salts)
Source—The neutralized residue left in the manufacture of hydro-
chloric acid from salt with sodium carbonate.
Properties—Large, colorless, transparent monoclinic prisms or
granular crystals, odorless and possessing a bitter, salty taste. Upon
exposure to the air it gradually becomes a fine powder and loses its
water of crystallization.
Action—A cathartic producing a watery stool.
Dose—One tablespoonful to each 12 adult fowls. Younger birds
in proportion. It is best given dissolved in water and this mixed
with mash. It is dangerous to attempt-to pour liquids down the
throat of birds, as there is great danger of their passing into the
superior larynx and lungs. By looking into the throat of a bird
while holding the mouth open one can observe the entrance into
the air passage open and close.
Indications—Constipation.
STRYCHNIN SULPHATE
Source—The alkaloid (an active principle of nux vomica). Strych-
nin sulphate is formed by the action of sulphuric acid on strychnin.
POULTRY MATERIA MEDICA 239
Properties—Colorless, transparent, octohedral or prismatic white
crystalline powder. Odorless and with an intensely bitter taste.
Action—A nerve stimulant.
Indications—Paralysis.
Dose—For adult fowl, one-fifth grain twice to three times daily.
SULPHOCARBOLATES OF CALCIUM, ZINC AND SODIUM
Source—The action of sulphuric acid and carbolic acid on me-
tallic zinc, sodium or calcium.
Properties—A white, crystalline powder.
Use—In diarrhea, as an intestinal antiseptic.
Dose—Of the mixture of equal parts of sulphocarbolate of calcium,
sodium and zinc, dissolve thirty grains in a pint of water and use
as drink or with which to mix mash.
SULPHUR SUBLIMATUM (Sulphur)
Source—Obtained from native sulphur by sublimation.
Properties—A fine, yellow powder, having a slightly characteristic
odor and a faintly acid taste.
Action—Dissolved sulphur as in the lime and sulphur dip (7
pounds unslaked lime, 21 pounds sulphur, 100 gallons water) is an
excellent destroyer of parasites. In a dry state it has no effect
upon mites and perhaps none on lice.
THYME OIL
Source—A volatile distillate from the Thymus vulgaris; source
of thymol.
Properties—A thin liquid of characteristic odor.
Use—In catarrhal conditions.
THYMOL
Source—A phenol occurring in the volatile oil of thyme.
Properties—Large, colorless, translucent crystals of the hexagonal
system.
Action—Destroys intestinal parasites.
Indications—Infestation by round worms.
Dose—For adult fowl, three grains, followed by a physic.
TOBACCO
Properties—From a golden yellow to a chestnut brown, contain-
ing an active principal, nicotin.
Use—Nicotin is very destructive to parasites, as lice and mites.
Tobacco stems and leaves have no effect upon them. Dry leaves
and stems in nests are useless. A decoction made by boiling
tobacco stems or leaves in water is destructive to parasites and
contains nicotin in solution. As a spray, nicotin in one-fourth
of one per cent solution will destroy parasites.
WORM SEED, OIL OF
Source—Obtained from santonica.
Properties—A volatile oil, yellowish in color with characteristic
odor.
Action—Destroys worms.
Indications—Intestinal worms.
Dose—For adult fowls, one teaspoonful to each twelve birds.
240 POULTRY DISEASES
ZINC SULPHATE
Source—Prepared by dissolving metallic zinc in sulphuric acid.
Properties—Colorless, transparent, rhombic crystals, without odor
and having an astringent, metallic taste. Changes to a fine powder
when exposed to dry air.
Indications—One per cent solution in distilled water and two or
three drops in the eye in case of inflammation (conjunctivitis).
INDEX
A
Page
Abdomen, purulent inflammation
OP GING eee ee x
Abdominal cyst --......-.
Abdominal tumor ...
Abnormal eCSg°s .......-.---------2----
Abortion in birds, epizootic..
Abscess of the foot..........----......
Abscesses of the liver-
Acanthia inodora .........
Acanthocephala ......---....-
Achorion schoenleinii --
Actinomycosis ............-.---- ee
WAC CLETUS Ta eee ee se ee cece et ee ee ae
Adrenal glands, anatomy of the.. 32
YATE ENO ACUISSRISS Soccer eeseeeeerer acces 74
Air sacs, anatomy of the-............... 1
Air sacs, inflammation of the-......182
Ameba meleagridis ~...........--.......----- 111
Amyloid degeneration —........-........ 152
Anatomy of the adrenal glands... 32
Anatomy of the air sacs........--.....- Sill
Anatomy of the carotid glands... 32
Anatomy of the circulatory sys-
{Be Oa es ES eee eee ee 32
Anatomy of the cloaca...................- 26
Anatomy of the digestive tract... 22
Anatomy of the esophagus............ 3
Anatomy of the eyes.....-....--.----------- 38
Anatomy of the female repro-
GBI IEIINAD) ONG WANS ee eer
Anatomy of the gizzard...
Anatomy of the head...
Anatomy of the kidneys
Anatomy of the large intestine.. 25
Anatomy of the larynx..............-.--.- 29
Anatomy of the liver...... us
Anatomy of the limbs as
Anatomy of the lungs............-----...---
Anatomy of the male reproduc-
AVE OT UTS oe ese ea ea ea 48
Anatomy of the mouth-................-.- 22
Anatomy of the nasal cavities... 28
Anatomy of the neck.__.........-..-...-.-- il&/
Anatomy of the nervous system... 35
Anatomy of the organs of hear-
TG by ce eee te te ee Pra BN eae SS) 39
Anatomy of the organs of smell 40
Anatomy of the organs of special
Anatomy of the organs of taste. 40
Anatomy of the organs of touch 40
Anatomy of the pancreas.............. 28
Anatomy of the pharynx............... 23
Anatomy of the respiratory tract 28
Anatomy of the small intestine.. 25
Anatomy of the spleen................... 2
Anatomy of the stomach
Anatomy of the thymus gland.... 32
Anatomy of the trachea 83
Anatomy of the trunk........
Anatomy, visceral ..............--
Anesthesia of the fowl.....
Angiocholitis
Aphtha ae
Apoplectiform septicemia .............- 133
INO OS Wms) CMS OVEN EXOD Reeeceeeececeeceeeeeecacere
Argas Miniatus ....2...........
Arsenic, poisoning from
Arthritis, infectious =-2,---.---, Pane
Articular inflammation, infec-
IOUS ee ee a ae ee 189
Ascaris inflexa
Ascites
Aspergillosis. -......-.......-..-.----
Aspergillus fumigatus...... e ies 172
Aspergillus glaucus
Asthenia
AS thimiay ya ee ee
Asthma of canaries
Auditory nerve, paralysis of the_.198
Autopsy, mode of performing...... 63
B
Bacillus avisepticus
Bacillus botulinus ....
IBEIGILGIOIE, Wit CYYSS ae
Bacteria of the intestinal tract-.201
Bacterium asthene .....--......-2:..--------
Bacterium pullorum .............
Bacterium sanguinarium
Baldness of canaries.......-.....
Beak broken ee
Beak, obstruction of the..
Bedbug of poultry.....-.....--..-
IBeeu Sting Sots fe eee
Bile ducts, inflammation of the..151
Binds licen Oe sess sae 65
Blackhat fetes sien eee ee 111
Blastomycosis of geese............---.---- 128
Blood diSeaSe@S ........-.-...--c----ee--e0eee-- 133
Blood of normal fowl..........--.....-.----- 34
JBSOYONC|, THOU ANVOTAS So eect ce moseeeecec see 160
Blood vessels, rupture of the-....... 140
Bone, reparative processes of......212
Bones, structure oOf.........-...---------:--- 211
HEXO GLEN NNST GaNe) anata ee a eee ear 229
Brainy Giseases) Os) (eh Cleese nese serene 195
Brain, hemorrhage of the.............- 195
SRO TNG Wai S cee eos sore eer 169
Balin es Sian ey Sheen ee 54
Buildings, disinfection of................ 57
Cc
(OPW WUII ihe ase eee eee ieee rae 130
Canaries, asthma of......
Canaries, baldness of..
Canaries, cholera of......---.....-.....------
Canaries, infectious necrosis of..135
Canaries, intestinal diseases of..131
Canaries, intestinal worms of...... 99
Canaries, respiratory troubles of..184
Canaries, septicemia of..............-.---- 135
Canaries, septicemic diseases of..135
Canaries, typhoid of. 13
Canary louse, gray...-
Walmealiyantihiit@nensesceceaeess
Caponi Zines ee ee eee
Carotid glands, anatomy of the.. 32
Sastre tio mses ea eee 221
242
(Glaitaier ny 22S se SOR tee eee ie cone
Catarrh, nasal .......... ;
Catarrh of the erop....
Cercomonas hepatis ..
CercomontasiS ieee eee
Chick, umbilical hernia of the_..209
Chickensicholeray= ees 106
@hicken pox) Sse a eee 173
Chickens, apoplectiform septi-
CeMuIlas Mess Re ates soe Se ee ae kena 133
Chickens, sleeping sickness of....135
Chigger infestation —_.-.----..........-----. 76
Choanota infundibuliformis ........ 96
CholeGyStitisi ps ee alli
CGhiolenai yee ae ee ..-106
Cholera of canariés.......-..----...--.:---.- 135
Circulatory system, anatomy of
LED OS yc ee ae a eee ae ale 32
Cloaca, anatomy of the.................. 26
Cloaca, prolapse of the............-------- 155
CHOBE DET See reer oot 128
Coceidiosis in wild ducks.............. 126
COCCIGIOSIS Gena) liy eee ere AeA
(Com@emelitnan Bwiiehon. eee 127
Cocciaiumastente ima ee enone 119
Cochlear nerve, paralysis of the..198
Colds
Comb, white scale of the.
Combs) trozente =
Congestion of the liver_...
Congestion of the lungs...
Conjunletivaibiss =
Constitutional diseases ...
Contagious epithelioma ...-..............
Contagious inflammation of the
ERUEAS ECS eee ie a ee eee Pens 182
Contagious nasal catarrh................ 182
Copper, poisoning from.................... 228
Cornea, ulceration of the.............. 184
Coryza avium contagiosa................ 182
(CrHO IO); CRW ONE Tn ere eeceesccceee 105
Cropabound ee 103
Crop menlanrsedie se eee ee 105
Crop, gangrene.of the_..................... 105
Crop ISAS COusige= eke Aes 104
Crop, impaction of the_.................. 103
(CHRO, 1OSVACHONVOWIS, cei ecerce eeceoace 105
(Ciao, WAAeM Oe ON OIE 18) NC ecesssccceceers 104
Croupous inflammation of the
DISCO: Sas cs ee ee Rs 24
Curvature of the spine._.................. 217
Cuticular surface, horny growths
OnGEhie es aS ee ees il
Cyst, abdominal .
yiStiCloOviayae a
Cytodites nudus
Davainea echinobothrida ............-- 98
Davainea tetragona g
Dermanyssus avium ......
Dermanyssus gallinae ...
Diarrhea, non-specific... oe
IDMENAAMI@EL, ARMING) eececetessceesaecceaceceeeeeece
Digestive tract, anatomy of the.. 22
Digestive tract, diseases of the101
Diphtherie inflammation of the
(ENC i eae eee ...-180
IDIOMA AEC) TONY) eoceeeessceree eel 7/4
Dipygus tetrabrachium ...... 207
(DUST Cis! Onan ee eens 5 OT
Disinfection of buildings.... _ wl
Disinfection of yards............ 61
Dispharagus laticeps Pin Ce OW
INDEX
Page
Dispharagus nasutus cece 4
Dispharagus spiralis - 0.222220... 94
Disposal of sick and dead birds.. 62
Dizziness. (8.4. ee eee 195
Drepanidotaenia infundibulifor-
TMS) Sipe ee ee Fe 96
Ducks, coccidiosis in..........---..- 126
Ducks, infectious articular in-
PURITY ANET OT Tee eee 189
Ducks, inflammation of the eyes
Li aes ae ne ee 18
Ducks, lice of.....
Dwarf eggs ...---...-..-
DY SENtCry. 282 kee ee eee
E
Hehinorynechus polymorphus .......- 98
Wo) Hound we ke ee nee 153
Hes, composition of the...............--. 203
HKgeg shell, composition of the........ 203
DSHS, ev ovaVongaae yl eee tere reeeeeceeecee 155
Eggs, animal parasites in............. 203
NSss" pActeria 0 hese eee 203
Hess. dwar 2. 156
Endocarditis ard lay)
Hy MGeritisies se ey,
PMterohe patti Sie ee 111
pile pS yen ee ee een 195
SE FONG Fae Ven 0 rar ea ae ee ee 165
Epithelioma, contagious ....... 163
Esophagus, anatomy of the... - 23
Eversion of the oviduct......... eel 98)
Eyes, anatomy of the...................- 38
Eyes, diphtheric inflammation of
i al = alee a eee RS oD eS 180
F
Face, white scale of the................ 85
Fatty degeneration of the liver....149
Fatty infiltration of the liver
Feathers, anatomy of the.............-
Milaria. titel 22222 =
Fleas
Make spe 2 ws 2 ee ae
Foods poisonous to fowls.
Foot, abscess of the...........
Hoot mane ce
Fowl cholera ....
Fowl pest .........-
Howl typhoid). eee 134
Fracture of bones, repair of the..211
Braectures 2 ah i eee 21
Fractures, treatment of...
Frozen combs
Fungi affecting birds
Ganerene® 2203 Se eee
Gangrene of the crop............ ie
Geese, blastomycosis of
Geese, infectious articular in-
imleooWaM EON, Ta ee eet 189
Geese, inflammation of the air
sacs in 182
Geese, lice Of..---2..222-----.--:0eeee0--0-+
Geese, iosi
Geese, septicemia of............
Gizzard, anatomy of the
Gizzard, suppurative inflamma-
tion Of the... 13
Going light —-...........
Goniocotes gigas
INDEX
Goniocotes hologaster ..............-..-.- 66
Goniodes dissimillia
Goniodes stylifer -................... =
(ENCODE ee ee eee Se ee Oana, he een
H
EVeadeeanacvomiyaOnethieee tse 17
Hearing, anatomy of the organs
(OYE cies ee ia Gi OE Ea Bega eee ete 39
Heart, hypertrophy of the eas
Heart, rupture of the_................
FETE TV ANt OVNI eas es eee
Hemorrhage of the brain.........
FL PALES wp ROCOZ Odi eee ee eee
Hernia of the baby chick, um-
RHEL ea eee cas ee eee
Heterakis compressa
Heterakis differens -.....
Heterakis maculosa .
Heterakis papillosa .......
Heterakis perspicillum
Honey-comb ringworm
Horny growths on the cuticular
surface
Impaction of the crop......................
Impaction of the intestines.
Infectious leukemia _._......--......-
Infectious necrosis of canaries....135
Inflammation, articular _............. 189
Inflammation of the abdomen...... 130
Inflammation of the air sacs........ 182
Inflammation of the bile ducts....151
Inflammatiton of the eyes in
CUIC] ESN aie He Si PA eee ste ge aT St 180
Inflammation of the gizzard........
Inflammation of the liver...
Inflammation of the lungs
Infammation of the oil gland......157
DIN Sal UlsVal Spe oe aes ee ne coe Ra 105
Injury to the sternum................-... 217
Intestinal tract. bacteria of the..201
Intestines, anatomy of the_............ 25
Intestines, impaction of the.......... 104
AFM BW ONG ICKY) atte See meee eeer ee
Jigger or red mite
K
Kidneys, anatomy of the_.............
Kidneys, coccidiosis of the
L
Large intestine, anatomy of the 26
Larynx, anatomy of the 29
Lead, poisoning from...........
Leg SOL ISS She oceans wat
HH SZS NS Cally eens eeee ne eee
Leukemia, infectious -.......
Leukemia, myeloid ............
Lice, life history of-.............
UVC OC WOL LG'S ieterccee eset
Lice of canaries...
Lice of ducks....
WICEY Of NZECSC 2. eee woe scence ttceees
DEICOmOf OU S CONS eeeetesrsesesee rete eee eemeeee
Lice of turkeys... a
TGiIMIPS RN CCK aes cecssecereceres ocsee
Limbs, anatomy of the
Lipeurus baculus ...............----.-
Lipeurus infuscatus
Lipeurus jejunus. .....................
Lipeurus polytrapezius ns
Lipeurus squalidus . .............-........---
Liver, abscesses and tumors of
=p pee an ee a
Liver, anatomy of the
Liver, congestion of the os
Liver, diseases of the...
Liver, fatty degeneration of the..149
Liver, fatty infiltration of the....149
Liver, inflammation of the ......... 151
Liver, rupture of the... 150
Louse infestation, dealing with_..69
Louse infestation, effects of_....... 69
Lungs, anatomy of the_..... .- 30
Lungs, congestion of the .......... 170
Lungs, inflammation of the_.......... al7/al
IANO WESSCIS: sae ceccceceen so Hesereceeeeeece 35
M
Macrodactylus subspinosus Fab.227
IMTEWETOMEN IOI «oe oeeeeeeecoceeeceeee ee 207
NW IIB ORES) ROY) Genes eee escene eee enemtecr 72
Materia medica ......-.--.-..- ...231
Menopon biseriatum ..... E00
Menopon obscurum .......... ae (OU
Menopon pallidum ~..-............... ace (85)
Monocerecomonas gallinarum
Mouth, anatomy of the...........
TWLOUREIO, SKOVEE) Se eeccececossereeeecocecs
Mycosis of pigeons...
Miyelitis een ee
Myeloid leukemia
N
Nasal ecatarrh, contagious.............. 182
Nasal cavities, anatomy of the... ue
Neck, anatomy of the-.2.--.....-..-..- 1
Nephritis oe
Nerves, diseases of the
Nervous system, anatomy of the 35
Nodular tapeworm disease...........- 7
Notocotyle verrucosum ...............--- 99
oO
Obstruction of the beak..................
Obstruction of the oviduct...........--
Obstruction of the trachea es
(OniGlitetion AWONCAINS) satcsecceecerececcteeseeccsase 84
Oil gland, inflammation of the....157
Organs of locomotion, diseases
(OA 6) GY saree ce eee ree eee ee ee ear 187
Organs of special sense,
omy of
Osteoma
OV AGIC CEO MA yan eee 225
Ovary and oviduct, diseases of
the
Ovary, cystic
Ovary, multiple tumors of the_..160
Oviduct, broken eggs. in.................. 155
Oviduet, obstruction of the-........... 153
Oviduct, prolapse or eversion of
(ETT eee 0 cee ee re Feet a 2 ee 2 153
Oviduct, rupture of the.................. 154
244 INDEX
P S
Page
Pancreas, anatomy of the.............. 28 Saccharomyces albicans ..............-
Brey oul Nkovaakelwhh eee Eee a 166 Salt, poisoning from..............
Paralysis of the auditory nerve..198
Paralysis of the cochlear nerve..198
Paralysis of the vestibular nerve.198
Paralysis of the wings of pig-
,eons
Parasites, external .... 65
Parasites in eggs....... Be 0
Parasites, internal . 87
IRERiCALGiG See eee 139
FE TETE OM tl Seer eo eens asl PAS
IPSS BGT TAs Se 136
Pharyngitis, ulcerative -..... ...-169
Pharynx, anatomy of the... 23
Phosphorus, poisoning from. 228
(GEE Tala arise i as Ny Cees Oat ad Veh 106
Pigeons,
Zaauicelenti ql) enue Sel aCe ye eee hw ASL Beaty, 133
ESO DS, croupous inflammation
Fa RA aie ee a LE IMI ne SERN I Sp
Pigeons, lice of.............
Pigeons, mycosis of
Pigeons, paralysis of the wings
OTe ae SUI ae), eprtettatieh 2 ee 189
Pigeons, protozoal hepatitis of_...127
ETDS cee SN ha a Ee ee en 102
Pneumomyecosis - 85, 172
PME UMLOMNIA Ne oe eee ee eee 171
Poisoning from arsenic...
Poisoning from coppev...... we
Poisoning from lead__........ 2228
Poisoning from phosphorus..........228
Poisoning from rose chafer.....
Poisoning from salt.............
Poisoning from saltpeter..... E228
Poisoning from Zinc.............. ......... 228
Poisoning, ptomain .......................... 228
ZO SONOS MO OC Sie er 227
EZOU VAMC NUS Mee ee eee a LE es 208
FOL YMS UTES eee ee ene 196
Polyneuritis gallinarum ....
Poultry plant site for 53
[POSE OLN EU ey SB ee es eS ae 180
Prolapse of the cloaca____................ 155
Prolapse of the oviduct................. 153
Protozoal hepatitis of pigeons....127
Pseudo-tubereculosis 147
Psorospermosis ee) sas
Ptomain poisoning
TEAD UNEP ee INA DN aay eeesas ee Ree ES eee 80
R
Remedies for poultry...-............... 231
Renal coccidiosis
Reproductive organs of the male,
IMAL OMAK Ole te eee ee eee ee
Reproductive organs of the fe-
male, anatomy of........................ 42
Respiratory passages, diseases
MOP belt 228 hes ee Bee ihe ee 167
Respiratory tract, anatomy of
HE] AUS oa ee Saal AIS Re ee DS SE be 2
Respiratory troubles of canaries.184
Restraint of the fowl..................... 215
Rosenchaer ta3 oe eee 227
Round worms, important...__........ 87
Round worms, unimportant.......... 93
VOU eee Oa a cee) fee ee eee b 174
Rupture of the heart and large
blood-vessels
LED OUIOORS Ole WlaveS WNYC eeeerertoro sees 150
Rupture of the ovidu
Saltpeter, poisoning from....
Sanitation: - eee eee
Sarecocystis .......
Sarcoma) eee
Sarcoptes mutans .........
Sarcopsylla gallinacea .
SIGHT Onaysy en ners
SCaly lessr 222 eae
Septicemia, apoplectiform
Septicemia of canaries
Septicemia of geese...............
Septicemic diseases of cana iB
Skin, anatomy of the_.................. 0
Sleeping sickness of chickens... 135
Small intestine, anatomy of the.. 25
Smell, anatomy of the organs of.. 40
Sores mouth), 262 eae
Spine, curvature of the...
Spirocheta gallinarum ....
Spirochetosis _....---......... 138
Spiroptera hamulosa ... ee0)
Spleen, anatomy of the... 28
Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus.189
Sternum, injury to the... 217
Stomach, anatomy of the. . 24
SSHEO NAAN CI ENSY | oe ie eet 103
Streptococcus gallinarum ____... Eeeilt ey
Subcutem, diseases of the _-...... 147
Swell-head in young turkeys... 172
Syngamus trachealis .....................- 92
T
Taenia infundibuliformis .............. 96
Tapeworm disease, nodular........ 97
Tapeworms
Taste, anatomy of the organs of 40
Teratoma
Thrombosis
TRATUSH See 2s SO eee
Thymus gland, anatomy of the. 32
ANT GK TIRES Gat Tales eee ene eee 82
Tinea fa viOSal. 222. eal er eee 84
Touch, anatomy of the organs of 40
Trachea, anatomy of the_.......... 0
Trachea, obstruction of the.........
Trematodes
TTC MOMUOMIASTS) eres eee
Trichosoma contortum .
Abicl@in@sormaybiaay ee
Trinoton continuum ..............
Trombidium holosericeum ..
Trunk, anatomy of the..........
FRU EC UNO SIS eee eee eee
Tumor, caseous abdominal..
SIMUTINOT Sis es Nee ee ae
TTRUNNN OT Ss 1 © Cee ees ee ee
Tumors of the ovary, multiple....160
Munkey Ss, lies ote
Turkey Siu POX (Ols... 2" ae
Turkeys, swell-head in... r
Tympany of the crop.....
Typhoid =
Typhoid of canaries..................--------
U
Uleeration of the cornea................ 184
Uleerative pharyngitis -............ 169
Umbilical hernia of the baby
ChiGki pe 2s 22 ee eee
Urinary secretion
INDEX
Vv
Page
NAGLE ERG YS a aes se ene oe ee 195
Vestibular nerve, paralysis of
UE AVS R: ieee ten Lo NR OR ARM oa ee 198
Walserercenl eh ywononay? Aap caso eee secs 22
WwW
\YAUCEWT CS as Cosa eek (ee aed EE eae a fea 166
WVASTCRISSUID Dla ee eee eee . 56
Wattles, white scale of the.......... 85
Wvlannie) GbE EL jena ereneeccceesererneeee 119
White scale of the comb, face
ands Wwattless sues ee ee ee 85
Wild ducks, coccidiosis in-........... 126
Wings, paralysis of the..................
Worms, eradication of...
Worms, flat segmented...
Worms of canaries.........
Worms, round ................---
Worms, thorn-headed ...
Wounds
WARS GiSiMhe CilON sO lessee eee 61
Z
ZN OISONIN Ly fNO Mle see 228