S j^JN LJBRARY-AGRiqULTURE DEFT.

The
Poultry man's Handbook

A CONVENIENT REFERENCE BOOK

For All Persons Interested in the

Production of Eggs and Poultry for Market

and the Breeding of Standard-Bred

Poultry for Exhibition

BY

International Correspondence Schools

SCRANTON, PA.

2nd Edition, 38th Thousand, 8th Impression

SCRANTON, PA.
INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY

1920

(f>/

/

COPYRIGHT, 1912, 1920, BY
INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY
COPYRIGHT IN GREAT BRITAIN
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

MAIN LIBRAE "^FNCULTURE: DEFT.

PRESS OF

INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY
SCRANTON, PA.

76519

PREFACE

This handbook is intended as a book of refer-
ence for poultrymen generally. The publishers
have not attempted to produce a condensed cyclo-
pedia covering the broad field of poultry hus-
bandry, but they have aimed to present to the
public a handy reference book convenient to carry
in the pocket — a pocketbook in reality — and con-
taining such information as is most often needed
by poultrymen who handle fowls commercially
in large numbers, by persons who keep a few
fowls in the back yard, and by breeders who aim
to produce poultry of the best quality for exhi-
bition. -Although the treatment of some subjects
is of necessity brief, it has been the aim so to
distribute the space available that it would cover
the more important subjects as fully as possible.

The more important poultry foods are briefly
described and discussed, and sample rations are
given for the feeding of fowls, chicks, turkeys,
guinea fowls, pheasants, ducks, geese, pigeons,
etc. Much useful information in regard to incu-
bation and brooding is given. Eggs and market
poultry, the various methods of breeding, and the
enemies and diseases of poultry are discussed,

469891

iv PREFACE

and the insecticides and remedies for poultry are
given. The various methods of poultry judging
are explained and samples of the various score
cards shown.

The glossary of technical terms is a feature
that will be appreciated by poultry fanciers, as it
is one of the most complete that has ever been
compiled. The book closes with several pages of
miscellaneous information, which will be found
of general interest.

This handbook was prepared under the per-
sonal supervision of Thomas F. McGrew, Prin-
cipal of the School of Poultry Husbandry, as-
sisted by A. F. Stokes and H. D. Boone.

INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS
SCRANTON, PA.

June,

INDEX

Age of fowls, How to as-
certain, 241
Aid to the injured, First,

. 330
Ailments and treatment,

186

Alfalfa, 53

American Poultry Associa-
tion show rules, 203
standard of perfection,

208
Angles or arcs, Measures

.of. 292
Animal foods for poultry,

54
Animals destructive of

poultry, 177
Anniversaries, Names of

wedding, 314

Apothecaries' fluid mea-
sure, 290

weight, Table of, 289
Apples, 50
Arithmetic, 287
Artificial light to increase

egg production, 150
respiration, 332, 341
Avoirdupois weight, Table
of, 288

B

Baffler, Cornell wind, 15

Bale, 299

Bands for marking poultry,

Bantams, Houses for, 23
Barley, 44

Barrel, Cu. ft. in, 309
of flour, pork, or beef,

Weight of, 290
Barron method of selecting

layers, 149
Beans, -45
Beets, 48

Bins, Measurement of, 309
Birds and fish, Care of, 315
destructive to poultry,
, 178

Birthday stone for each

month in the year, 314

Black Orpington, Picture

of, 121

Bleeding, Treatment of, 334
Board measure, 306
Boiling point of water, 298
Bone for poultry food, 55
Books, Size of, 299
Breeding, 160

Breeds and standard and

non-standard varieties

of poultry, 210

Brickwork estimations, 308

British thermal unit (B.

T. U.), 296
Broilers and roasters,

Classes of, 156
and roasters, Time re-
quired to raise, 156
Feeding of chicks for, 7S
Bronchitis, Treatment of,

187
Brooding of chicks, 108

Points in successful, 112
Broom corn. 44
B. T. U., 296
Buckwheat, 44
Bumblefoot, Treatment of.

190

Bundle, 299

Burns, Treatment of, 340
Bushel, Cu. in. in, 309
Legal weights of various

commodities per, 245
pounds in, 290
Business, Rules of, 316

C

Cabbage, 49

Calcimining estimations,302

vi

INDEX

Calendar for the poultry-
man's year, 233
California, Housing prob-
lems in, 31
Calorie, 296
Canary seed, 48
Capacities of bins, cisterns,

etc., 309
Capacity, Measures of, 289

Metric measures of, 293
Care and preservation of

eggs, 129

of birds and fish, 315
Carpeting estimations, 305
Carrots, 50

Casks, Gauging of, 310
Catching and holding pig-
eons, Proper way of, 244
Cement floor, 12
Centigrade and Fahrenheit

degrees, 297, 298
Certificate of deposit, 318
Charcoal, 57
Checks, 317
Chicken pox, Treatment of,

190

Chicks, Brooding of, 108
Feeding of young, 66
for broilers, Feeding of,

75
Circular measure, Table of,

292
Cisterns, Measurement of,

309
Classes of broilers and

roasters, 156
of market poultry, 154
Cleansing mixture for

hens, 78
Clover, 53

Coal, Volume of 1 ton, 310
Coins of the United States,

294

Color of eggshell, 114
Comparison of poultry and
certain other foods, 153
score card, 196
Composition of eggs, 114
of eggs and certain other

foods, 116
of foods, 34

Compound interest, Years
at which a given
amount will double, 322

Conversion of thermometer
readings, 298

Cord of wood, 301

Corn, 42
Broom, 44
Kafir, 43

Cornell feeding schedule,

method for judging fowls
for egg production, 143

Correspondence, 326

Cottonseed meal, 47

Cross-breeding, 162

Cubic measure, Table of,
288

D

Degrees, Centigrade and
Fahrenheit, 297, 298

Diarrhea, Treatment of, 188

Difference of sun time be-
tween New York City
and other parts of the
world, 300

Discount rates, 321

Diseases, 180
and enemies of poultry,

163

and treatment, 186
Fundamental principles

of treatment of, 182
of legs and feet, Treat-
ment of, 189

of the intestines, Treat-
ment of, 187

Dislocations and sprains,
340

Distances and time by

postal routes, 311
Measures of, 301

Dorking, Picture of, 152

Dozen, 298

Drafts, 320

Drawn-weight value com-
pared with live and
plucked weight, 159

Dressing fowls, Loss of
weight in, 154

INDEX

Drowned persons, Restpr-
ing of apparently, 341
Dry mash, 71

Eggs, Testing fertility of, 95
Relation of weight of, to
egg production, 119

measure, 290

Uses of, 114

Ducks, Feeding of, 80

Washing of, 118

Due bill, 320

Weight of, 115

Eggshells, Color of, 114

E

Electric shock, Treatment

Egg and fowl, Composition
of, 64

of, 337
Embryo, Development of

crop, Percentage of loss

the, 95

of total, 118

Enemies and diseases of

eating in fowls, Treat-

poultry, 163

ment of, 190

English money, 295

prices, 140
production, Artificial

English money, Equiva-
lent of, in United

light to increase, 150

States coinage, 295

production, Barron meth-

od of selecting layers

F

for, 149
production in the United

Fahrenheit and centigrade
degrees, 297, 298

States, 3
production, Judging fowls
for, by Cornell method,
143

Fainting, Treatment of, 331
Farm flocks, Judging, 197
Feeding mixtures, Special,

77

production, Monthly rec-

of chicks for broilers, 75

ords of, 122

of ducks, 80

production, Relation of,

of fowls,' 63

to season, 120
production, Selecting

of fowls during molt, 74
of geese, 84

hens for, 142

of guinea fowls, 79

receipts in seven large

of laying hens, 69

cities, 5
Eggs and certain other
foods, Composition of,

of pheasants, 79
of pigeons, 85
of turkeys, 78

116

of young chicks, 66

Care and preservation of,

of wild water fowls, 85

129
Composition of, 114

schedule, Cornell, 67
the sitting hen, 92

Food value of, 114
for hatching, Care and

Feedstuffs, Composition of,
37

selection of, 98, 99
Grades of, 123

Fertility of eggs, Testing,
qc

Judging, 138
Official score card for,
139

yj
First aid to the injured, 330
Fish and birds, Care of, 315

Packages and packing of,
128

Flaxseed, 46
Floor space for fowls, 11

Preserving of, 134

Floors and their construc-

Price of, 5

tion, 11

Quality of, 132

Food required by one hen

Standards for, 123

in a year, 73"

viii

INDEX

Foods for poultry, Animal.

54

Green, 51

per quart, Weight of, 65
Poisonous, 58
Poultry, 34

Foreign money, Equivalent
of, in United States
coinage, 296
Fowl and egg, Composition

of, 64
Names of parts of, 144,

257

Fowls, Feeding of, 63
How to ascertain age of,

241

Internal organs of, 59
Marking of, 226
Fractures, 338
Freezing point of water,

298

Fumigating and cleansing
poultry houses, 175

Gallon, Cu. in. in, 309
Gapes, Treatment of, 187
Gauging of casks, 310
Geese, Feeding of, 84
Glossary of technical terms
used by poultrymen, 256
Grading of eggs, 123
Grains and seeds, Compo-
sition of, 37
Green crops. Miscellaneous,

54

foods, 51
Grit, 57
Gross, 298

Guinea fowls, Feeding cf,
79

H

Hatching, Rules for, 105
Hawks, 178

Hay, Bulk of 1 ton, 310
Heat, 296
exhaustion, Treatment of,

340

units, 296

Hemorrhage, Treatment of,
334

Hemp seed, 47

Hens, Feeding of laying,

69

for sitting, 89
Names of parts of, 144,

257

Hogshead, Cu. ft. in., 309
Holding of fowls, Proper

way of, 242
of squabs, Proper way of,

243

Holidays, Legal, 323
Houdan, Picture of, 158
House, Method of ridding,

of parasites, 175
Unit, 27

Houses and yards for dif-
ferent varieties, 21
for bantams, 23
Form and arrangement

of, 16

Position for poultry, 15
Poultry, 7

Housing problems in Cali-
fornia, 31

Ice, Melting point of, 298
Inbreeding, 161
Incubation, 86
Artificial, 97
Factors that influence

sucess in, 106
Natural, 87
Period of, 93
Incubators, 100
and brooders, Mammoth,

113

Indian Runner drake, Pic-
ture of, 237
Insecticides, 165
Fume, 172

Instruments for apply-
ing, 173
Instruments for applying

insecticides, 173
Interest rules, Simple, 321
Years in which a given
amount will double at,
322

Internal organs of fowls,
59

INDEX

ix

Judging eggs, 138
fowls for egg production,

Cornell method of, 143
of farm flocks at fairs

and shows, 197
of poultry, 191

K

Kafir corn, 43

Killing and plucking of

poultry, 157
of parasites, 174

Layers, Barron method of

selecting, 149
Cornell method of judg-
ing for, 143
Laying hens, Cleansing

mixture for, 78
hens, Feeding of, 69
Legal holidays, 323
weights per bushel of
various commodities, 245
Length, Measures of, 287
Metric measures of, 293
Letter ^writing, 326
Lice killers, 165
that attack domestic

fowls, 164

Light Brahma male, Pic-
ture of, 47
Linear measure, Table of,

287

Line breeding, 160
Linseed meal, 47
Liquid lice killer, 171

measure, 289

Live-weight value com-
pared with plucked and
drawn weight, 159
Long-ton table, 289
Loss in dressing fowls, 154
of total egg crop, Per-
centage of, 118

M

Maine ration, 72
Mammoth incubators and
brooders, 113

Mangels, 48
Market poultry, 152
Marking of fowls for iden-
tification, 226

of pigeons, 230
Mash, Dry, 71
Masonry estimations, 307
Mating, Methods of, 162
Measures of angles or arcs,
292

of capacity, 289

of distances, 301

of extension, 287

of money, 294

of time, 291

of volume, 301
Meat and meat products
for poultry, 54

Tainted, 55

Metric equivalents of
pounds, feet, etc., 299

system of measures, 292
Milk for poultry food, 56
Millet, 46
Mineral matter for poultry,

Minorca, Picture of, 179
Miscellaneous information,

241

tables, 298
Missouri ration, 73
Moisture and temperature

in incubators, 102
Molt, ^Feeding of fowls

during, 74

Money, Equivalent of Eng-
lish, in United States
coinage, 295

Equivalent of foreign, in
United States coinage,
296

Measures and tables of,
294

IV

Nails, Weight of one keg,

Names of parts of a fowl,

257

Nest box, 89
Notes, 319

INDEX

O

Oats, 41

Official score card for eggs,

139

Onions, 49 %
Ontario ration, 73
Orpington, Picture of

Black, 121

P

Packages and packing of
eggs, 128

Painting estimations, 302

Papering estimations, 302

Parasites, Killing of, 174
Method of ridding a

house of, 175
that attack domestic
fowls, 163, 164

Parts of a fowl, Names of,
144, 257

Peanut meal, 47

Peas, 45

Peck, Cu. in. in, 309

Perch of stone, 301

Petroleum, Weight of gal-
lon, 290

Pheasants, Feeding of, 79

Pigeon fanciers, Terms
used by, 283

Pigeons, Feeding of, 85
Marking of, 230
Proper way of catching

and holding, 244
Varieties of, 280

Pint, Cu. in. in, 309

Plastering estimations, 302

Plucked-weight value com-
pared with live and
drawn weight, 159

Plucking and killing of
poultry, 157

Plymouth Rock female,

Picture of, 64
Rock male, White, Pic-
ture of, 97

Poisonous foods, 58

Postaldistances andtime,311

Potatoes, 49

Poultry and certain other
foods, Comparison of,
153

Poultry and poultry prod-
ucts, Value of, 2

Animals destructive to,
177

Classes of market, 154

exports, 6

foods, 34

house, Method of ridding,
of parasites, 175

houses, 7

houses. Adaptation of, to
locality, 7

houses, Arrangement of,
16

houses, Position of, 15

judging, 191

Killing and plucking of,

Market, 152

Marking of, 226

prices, 159

production, Rank of ten

leading states in, 4
raising, 1
shows and associations,

202

Simple remedies for, 183
Standard and non-stand-
ard varieties of, 209
Standard weights of, 221
Powder guns, 173
Preserving eggs, 134
Prevention of infestation
by fowls from other
flocks, 174
Prices, Egg, 140
of poultry, 159
Production, Monthly rec-
ords of egg, 122
Pumpkins, 50

Q

Quart, Cu. in. in, 309
Quintal of fish, Weight of,

290
Quire, 299

R

Rape seed, 48

Rations for laying hens, 71

Ream, 299

Reaumur thermometer, 298

INDEX

Records of egg production,

Monthly, 122
Remedies for poultry,

Simple, 183
Respiration, Artificial, 332,

341
Restoring of apparently

drowned persons, 341
Rice, 46

Roup, Treatment of, 186
Rules, American Poultry

Association, 203
for hatching, 105
of business, 316
Rye, 44

Score, 298

card, Comparison, 196
card, Decimal, 194
card for eggs, Official,

139

card for farm flocks, 198
card for judging hens by

Cornell test, 148
card of American Poultry

Association, 192
Season, Relation of egg

production to, 120
Selecting hens for egg pro-

duction, 142
Shade for poultry, 26
Shock, Treatment of elec-

tric, 337

Treatment of, 333
Show rules, American
Poultry Association, 203
Shows and associations,

Poultry, 202
Sitting hens, 89
Scratch grain, 71
Sorghum seed, 46
Specific heats of metals, 296
Sprains, Treatment of, 340
Sprayers, 173
Squabs, Proper way to

hold, 243
Square measure, Table of,

287

Standard and non-standard
varieties of poultry, 2C9

Standard of perfection,

American, 208
Standard weights of poul-

try, 221

Standards for eggs, 123
Sterilizing, 331
Strain breeding, 161
Sun stroke, Treatment of,

341

Sunflower seed, 46
Surface, Metric measures

of, 293
Surveyors' square measure,

Table of, 288

Temperature, 298
and moisture in incuba-

tors, 102
Terms used by pigeon fan-

ciers, 283

used by poultrymen,
Glossary of technical,
256

Testing fertility of eggs, 95
Thermometer readings, Con-

version of, 298
Time and distances by

postal routes, 311
Difference between that
of New York City and
other parts of the
world, 300
Measures of, 291
required to raise broilers

and roasters, 156
Toe markings, 226
Ton, Avoirdupois, 288
Long, 289
Metric, 293
Shipping, 311

Troy weight, Table of, 289
Turkeys, Feeding of, 78
Turnips, 48

tJ

Unit house, 27

United States money,

Table of, 294
Uses of eggs, 114
Utility score card, 201

INDEX

Value of fowls live,
plucked, or drawn, Rel-
ative, 159

Varieties of poultry, Stand-
ard and non-standard,
209

Volume, Measures of, 301
Metric measures of, 293

Vegetables for poultry
food, 48

W

Washing of eggs, 118
Water, Boiling point of,

298

Freezing point of, 298
glass for preserving eggs,

Wedding anniversaries,

Names of, 314
Weight, Metric measures

of, 293
of eggs, Relation of, to

egg production, 119

Weight, Loss of, in dress-
ing fowls, 154
Measures of, 288
of eggs, 115
of poultry foods per

quart, 65
Weights of poultry,

Disqualifying, 221
per bushel of various
commodities, Legal, 245
of poultry, Standard, 221
Wheat, 39
Wild water fowls, Feeding

of, 85

Window construction, 12
Wounds, 338
Wyandotte, Picture of, 160

Y

Yards and houses for dif-
ferent varieties, 21
for poultry houses, 25

Years in which a given
amount will double, at
various rates of inter-
est, 322

The Poultrymaii's
Handbook

POULTRY RAISING

Poultry and poultry products add to the wealth of the
country each year more than wheat, cotton, or gold.
Poultry can be kept successfully in almost every part of
the world and is the most profitable kind of live-stock
that can be kept. A few fowls can be kept by the inten-
sive system in very confined quarters, and enough to
provide poultry and eggs for a small family can be raised
profitably in a corner of a small town lot; more can be
kept on a little additional space.

An attractive feature of poultry raising is that fowls
may be kept for pleasure as well as profit. A fancier
may use the best of all the fowls he raises for exhibi-
tion, sell a few of equal or almost equal quality to others
for the same purpose, sell eggs from pens of mated fowls
for hatching, and the culls of the flock will be the best
of market poultry. At the same time the flock will fur-
nish a large part of the egg and meat diet for a small
family.

Poultry farming can be followed by almost any one
who has a small piece of ground and a few dollars to
begin with. The business should be begun in a small
way and built up gradually. Thousands of men and
women are becoming independent each year from a
beginning with a little piece of ground on which they
raise poultry and vegetables. On a small town lot
50 ft.XlOO ft. almost enough vegetables may be raised to

2 VALUE OF POULTRY

provide for a family for a year, and at the same time
a small enclosure for poultry may be built on a corner
of the lot.

It will be an advantage in raising vegetables and
poultry on a small piece of ground, to practice migratory
yarding. This consists in moving the house and yard
or simply in moving 'the fence to enclose a different
spot of ground. In this way space occupied by the poul-
try one year will be highly fertilized for the growing of
vegetables the next year, and the fowls will be bene-
fited in health and vigor from having new, sweet earth
to travel over and scratch in.

VALUE OF POULTRY AND POUL-
TRY PRODUCTS

The U. S. census of 1910 places the value of poultry
and poultry products at $663,858,452. This amount is the
value of these products from farms, and does not include
poultry and eggs raised in towns and villages and on
small farms by persons who made no returns.

The census separates poultry into two classes, the
mature fowls kept for egg production and the young ones
raised each year. The figures for the value of each class
as well as for the total value of poultry and eggs are
as follows:

Total value of mature fowls $154,663,220

Total value of young fowls raised in 1 year... 202,506,272
Total value of all eggs produced in 1 year 306,688,960

Total value of both poultry and eggs $663,858,452

The following table, taken from the U. S. Census,
shows the number, total value, and average value of
fowls and eggs as reported for 1910. The table also gives
the number of farms reporting and per cent, of all farms
reporting.

AND POULTRY PRODUCTS 3

NUMBER OF FOWLS AND VALUE OF POULTRY
AND EGGS IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1910

MH

g

.1

O M &0

Number

Value

8-1

11

i!

All fowls . .
Chickens . .

295,880,190
280,345,133

$154,663 220
140,205,607

$ .52
.50

5,585,032
5,578,525

87.8
87.7

Turkeys.. .

3,688.708

6,605,818

1.79

871,123

13.7

Ducks

2,9-06,525

1,567,164

.54

503,704

7.9

Geese

4,431,980

3,194,507

.72

662,324

10.4

Eces

19,095,736,452

306,688,960

.016

5,634,780

88.5

In 1910 there were also reported 1,765,000 guinea fowls,
valued at $613,000; 2,731,000 pigeons, valued at $762,000;
and 6,458 peafowls, valued at $18,300.

The total value of all poultry and eggs in the United
States in 1910 is estimated to have been more than
$750,000,000, and for the year ending June 30, 1912, the
total value is estimated by the Department of Agricul-
ture as approximately $950,000,000. The value of poultry
and eggs in 1918 is estimated as over one billion dollars.
On November 27, 1912, one of the large New York daily
newspapers published the following figures giving the
comparative value per annum of leading American farm
products for a period of 5 yr. :

Eggs (average price to farmer 22| c.). .$1,800,000,000

Corn 1,500,000,000

Wheat 625,000,000

Hay 720,000,000

Cotton 685,000,000

Oats 390,000,000

All kinds of farm products 8,000,000,000

Accepting this as a fair estimate, we cannot help
realizing the immense value of poultry products in the
United States.

VALUE OF POULTRY

and

incr

The rank of the ten leading states in the number and
value of fowls produced is shown in the accompanying
table.

RANK OP THE TEN LEADING STATES IN THE
NUMBER AND VALUE OF POULTRY PRODUCED

1

State

Number

^i

State

Total
Value

1

Iowa

23,482,880

1

Iowa

$12,269,881

?,

Illinois. . . .

21,409,835

?

Missouri

11 870 972

3

Missouri ....

20,897,208

ft

Illinois

11,696,650

4

Ohio

17,342,289

4

Ohio

9,532 672

f>

15,736,038

5

New York . . .

7,879,388

6

kidiana

13,789,109

6

Indiana

7,762,015

7

Texas

13 669,645

7

Pennsylvania

7,674 387

8

Pennsylvania .

12,728,341

8

Kansas

7,377,469

Q

Minnesota .

10 697 075

q

Texas .

4 806 642

10

New York....

10,678,836

10

Minnesota. . .

4,646,960

This table shows that the wholesale price of poultry
in the state of Missouri was greater than in the state
of Illinois; that the price of Texas poultry was less than
the price in Pennsylvania; that the price in New York
was considerably greater than in other states.

The census reports shows that the average wholesale
value of live chickens in New England was 74 cents;
in the Middle States, 68 cents; in the Southern States,
from 38 to 44 cents; on the Pacific Coast and in the moun-
tainous districts the price was from 62 to 82 cents each.
These values indicate that the price of poultry increases
as the population becomes denser.

The following table shows the egg receipts by months '
for the years 1913 and 1916 in seven of the largest
cities of the country and indicates the months of highest
and lowest production. The highest prices are obtained,
of course, when the yield is lowest. The seven cities
in which the eggs were received were Boston, Chicago,
Cincinnati, Milwaukee, New York, St. Louis, and San
Francisco.

AND POULTRY PRODUCTS 5

RECEIPTS OP EGGS IN SEVEN LARGE CITIES
DURING EACH MONTH OF 1913 AND 1916

Months

1913

Cases

1916
Cases

January

508,673

1,325,131

February

685,160

551,158

March

1,281,153

1,802,467

April .

2,218,638

2,844,042

May

2,390,427

2,549.954

June .

1,863,412

1,837,307

July

1,344,824

1,317,385

August . ...

1,000,157

1,070,635

September

841,684

814,533

October

667,834

777,954

November

403,146

531,355

December .

399,277

398,286

Total

13,604,385

15,820,207

In December, 1913, the total number of cases of eggs
received at these seven stations was 399,277. The lowest
price for eggs during that month was 35 cents and the
highest price for the same month in New York was
63 cents. The lowest wholesale price for eggs in New
York during 1913 was 20 cents, the highest wholesale
price was 65 cents, which was received in November.

The total importation of eggs into this country during
1913 was 1,367,224 dozens, which amounted to $205,632. Of
egg yolks bought by the pound there were 228,305 pounds,
which cost $36,892. Ostrich feathers were bought at a
cost of $6,252,298; and other kinds of feathers for
$1,985,084.

There were exported from this country in the year 1913,
20,409,390 dozens of eggs, for which $4,391,653 was received,
and egg yolks worth $57,854 were exported. The value
of exported feathers was $690,612.

The total number of eggs received during 1917 and 1918
in the seven cities mentioned is recorded in the follow-
ing table. Only yearly totals are, given, the monthly

6 VALUE OF POULTRY

records not having been compiled when this table was
printed.

RECEIPTS OF EGGS IN SEVEN OF THE LARGEST
CITIES DURING 1917 AND 1918

City

1917

Cases

1918

Cases

Boston . . .

1,501,956

1,604,289

Chicago

5 678 679

5 049,743

Milwaukee

134,625

180,616

St. Louis

1,373,120

934,668

San Francisco

715 768

666 845

Cincinnati

184,022

176,733

New York

4,357,061

5,026,548

Total

13,945 231

13,639,442

During the years 1917 and 1918 on acount of the world
war, feed and grain of all kinds advanced so much in
price as to have an influence on the keeping of poultry.
Many who had been engaged in the production of poultry
and eggs for market reduced their flocks considerably.
Notwithstanding this the production of eggs was remark-
ably good. The receipts in both these years were in
excess of 1913, but not so good as in 1916, which was the
banner year for egg production. The world has now
returned to near a normal condition, and there is likely
to be an increased production of both market poultry and
eggs.

It is difficult to state definitely the amount of poultry
exports, as the records of these are kept as poultry and
game and $1,303,379 worth was reported as having been
exported from this country in 1913. The greater part of
all the poultry and eggs put in storage and sent from
this to other countries is grown in the Western States.
They are gathered from many sections into the packing
houses at Omaha, Kansas City, St. Louis, and Chicago,
where the eggs are selected, candled, and graded for

POULTRY HOUSES 7

quality. The best eggs are packed into new egg cases.
The greater part of these selected eggs go into cold
storage, only a small portion of them being sent abroad.

Poultry for export is gathered from the West and
Northwest into these same packing houses, where it is
crate-fattened and made plump and tender. The packers
know that to sell poultry in foreign countries it must be
the very best, because it must compete with poultry from
European countries where the growers have had years
of experience in feeding for the London and Paris mar-
kets. The packing houses have never been able to sup-
ply enough of this quality to satisfy the foreign trade
and for this reason very little, if any, has been offered
for sale in this country.

This should be a lesson in quality to all who grow
poultry for the market. The highest prices for market
poultry are paid only for the best. It costs but little
more to produce the higher grades and the most profit,
of course, will be made from growing and selling the best.

POULTRY HOUSES

ADAPTATION OF HOUSES TO LOCALITY

The many changes and developments in poultry-house
construction during the last few years make necessary
a careful consideration of all plans, so as to be reason-
ably certain of having a house that will be suitable for
the locality where it is built. It is comparatively easy
to designate the type of house best suited for any one
locality but when we attempt to choose the style best
suited to all localities the selection is difficult. In
America alone we require protection from continual ice
and snow on the north and from the burning heat of the
tropics on the south. Between these two extremes will
be found great variation in weather and temperature.
During the months of February and March, it may be

8 POULTRY HOUSES

so pleasant in Florida that little chicks can run about
on the ground. At the same time it may be so cold in
the Dakotas as to require unusual effort to keep larger
animals sufficiently warm. Notwithstanding this, it is
possible through care, management, and proper construc-
tion of buildings to use about the same type of house in
both localities.

What is known as the open-front house, or some modi-
fication of it, is best suited for all localities. In Florida
and in lower California fully one-half of the front of
the house should be open and there should be some
arrangement in the rear and perhaps at both ends of the
building to clear the house of hot air during the warmest
months.

Less open front will be needed in the temperate zones
than farther south, and less from the Dakotas to Alaska
than in the temperate zones. The greater the number
of fowls kept in each house, the more open the front of
the house should be, and the fewer kept in each house
throughout the temperate and the northern zones, the less
open front will be needed. All poultry houses used north
of latitude 35° should have both glass windows and open-
front or cotton-cloth windows in them. In recent years
there has been a practice of putting a window in each
end of a house. This is a good plan for the summer, but
it is objectionable for the winter unless the windows can
be closed so tightly that no cold drafts can enter around
the edges.

In temperate zones there should be about 1 sq. ft. of
open or muslin-covered windows to each 10 sq. ft. of floor
space and about three-fourths as much glass window as
muslin window. In the far north, in Winnipeg and in
Manitoba, about half as much muslin-covered windows
with fully one-third more glass window will answer.
The glass windows in all houses should extend from 18 to
24 in. above the floor to near the roof, to permit the sun-
shine to get into the interior of the building.

Although it is possible to use the same style of exterior
construction in all localities, it is necessary to under-

POULTRY HOUSES 9

stand climatic conditions where the house is built and
follow the kind of construction that seems best suited
to that locality. In sections where the winters are of
long duration and very cold, there should be no hips or
pockets in the roof nor any extra amount of overhead
space. The ceiling should be straight and there should
be some means of carrying away damp cold air and of
keeping an even temperature and distribution of air
throughout the entire house. Inside conditions as they
exist in the coldest and dampest weather furnish the best
means of determining proper housing. If the interior of
the house is dry or nearly so when the weather is cold
and the air is damp, the conditions inside the building
are very nearly ideal for poultry. A sure test for dry-
ness inside of the house is freedom from frost or mois-
ture on the side walls and glass windows and the condi-
tion of the litter on the floor. If the litter is damp, it
indicates that the floor is damp and that the inside of
the building is not as dry as it should be. Dryness
inside the house is an absolute necessity for the health
of fowls.

One of the best types of house for a very cold climate
is one that is not more than 6J ft. high to the eaves, has
a gable roof, and a loft for storing straw overhead. The
floor of the loft should be of strong boards to sustain
the weight of the straw. It may be made of planks 2 in.
thick and 6 in. wide, with the planks laid 4 in. apart.
The filling of straw overhead makes the building warm
in the winter and the straw will absorb whatever mois-
ture may arise. It may be removed in the spring, thus
giving more overhead ventilation and a cool house for
summer.

Both glass windows and cloth-covered windows should
be used in every locality where the weather is cold.
There should be a lining of boards from 1 ft. above the
floor, behind the dropping-board and roosts of the back
wall, and on the side walls next to the roost. This
covering of boards should extend up over the dropping-
board and about 2 ft. beyond it, thus affording a con-

10 POULTRY HOUSES

tinuous current of air from the floor to the ceiling behind
the lining and overhead between the lining and the
rafters, making the roosting place much warmer in win-
ter than it would be if there were no lining in that part
of the house. This same lining assists in ventilating
the house during hot weather. For this purpose openings
are cut through the rear of the building so that the air
will come in and flow up between the rafters overhead,
driving the hot air out of the house through openings
very close to the roof in front.

FEATURES OF POULTRY HOUSES OF
PROPER CONSTRUCTION

Sufficient advantages are gained through proper con-
struction to warrant some expenditure above what would
be necessary if the buildings were less carefully erected.
If the poultry houses are perfectly dry inside during the
winter, properly ventilated, and kept in a sanitary con-
dition, the hens that are raised in them will be healthy
and vigorous, and they will produce more eggs than they
would if housed in damp and unsanitary buildings. Per-
fect health and vitality are of prime importance, and
these depend upon proper shelter, ventilation, and care,
without which the very best hens will not be profitable.

The principal features of houses of proper construction
are floor space sufficient for indoor exercise during in-
clement weather, convenience of interior equipment for
the keepers, window construction that will admit sun-
shine to all parts of the house, and govern the tempera-
ture inside of the house, thus preventing excessive heat
in summer and intense cold in winter. The floor should
be of a kind that will prevent the entrance of moisture
from below and assure protection against the ravages of
rats and mice; in addition to this there must be such
ventilation and sanitation as to insure a dry interior.
Careful practice of these rules will create and maintain
vigor, vitality, and health in the fowls.

POULTRY HOUSES 11

Floor Space for Fowls. — The best results are obtained
in houses where there is at least 4 sq. ft. of floor space
for each fowl. One square foot less will answer for the
Mediterranean varieties, provided the house is kept per-
fectly clean; an extra square foot should be provided
for the American and English varieties, because they are
larger and require more space both for roosting and
scratching than the Mediterranean varieties, with the
exception of the Minorcas, which will need fully as much
space as any of the American varieties.

Poultry-House Floors and Their Construction.— For
poultry buildings an earth floor is satisfactory when it
can be kept dry and sanitary. For general purposes, the
board floor is better and is the cheapest one that can be
laid. About the only objections that can be lodged against
it are that perfect dryness is not always assured and that
rodents can gnaw through it. The best floor, although
the most expensive, is the cement floor, because it insures
perfect dryness, keeps rodents from digging through, and
can easily be kept -in a sanitary condition. A cement
floor may be cold and rough for the feet, but these
objections can be overcome, if desired, by laying a board
on top of the cement.

The floors of poultry buildings should be above the
ground level. For the ground floor, the most satisfactory
way is to lay a foundation of stone, brick, or cement
6 in. high all around, fill it in with dry earth, and pack
it down solid.

Board floors should be laid on 2"X4" joists and the
spaces between them should be packed with any kind of
filling. If the joists are set in a bed of concrete and
concrete is filled in between them level with the top, a
perfectly dry floor and the exclusion of rodents will be
assured. When the board floor is laid a coating of hot tar
should be spread on top of the concrete and covered with
a layer of tar paper and on top of this another layer of
hot tar. Such preparation makes a perfect underlay for
a board floor. The flooring, which should be of grooved
boards, should be laid on the tar while it is warm and

12 POULTRY HOUSES

be nailed close together to prevent cracks in the floor.
A floor made in this way is an ideal one for poultry.

For a cement floor, the foundation should be laid all
around at least 18 in. deep and extend at least 6 in.
above the ground. The enclosed space should be filled in
with dry sand or ashes to within 6 in. of the top and the
material should be packed down solid. On top of this
should be laid another concrete layer made of 2 parts of
sand and 1 part of cement, troweled down very smooth
and worked until the moisture comes to the top. A floor
made in this way will be smooth and will not hurt the
feet of the fowls if the work is carefully done.

Conveniences of Management.— A great saving of time
and labor will come through having an interior equip-
ment adequate for caring for the fowls. This equipment
may consist of dropping-boards, with roosts and nests
beneath them, all of modern construction. In addition
to this there should be feed hoppers and watering pans
placed up above the floor on platforms, out of the way
of litter and dirt. Hopper feeding is.a convenient, eco-
nomical, and labor-saving method that can be practiced
by all who keep poultry either in small or large
numbers.

Window Construction. — Window construction may well
be considered as an interior equipment. When so con-
structed that they can be opened or closed quickly and
easily, they are a great convenience, but when heavy
and cumbersome and hard to move, they will make more
difficult the changes necessary for controlling temper-
ature, windstorms, and ventilation. Window sash con-
taining glass will be convenient if hung on pivots as
in Fig. 1 (a). The cloth-covered windows are best when
of small size so that the frames covered with cloth will
be light and handled easily and quickly. When of small
size, a part of- them can be open while the others are
closed, thus providing the necessary amount of open front
to meet the demands of different kinds of weather.

There are several types of windows well suited to
poultry houses. The one most convenient for a small

POULTRY HOUSES

13

building is the sliding window, which is simple and
cheap to construct. For a house o ft.XlO ft., a single
sash should slide either to the right or the left. A frame
made of wood of the same size as the sash can be covered
with muslin and used, when needed, in place of the glass
window. The outside of the opening should be covered
with heavy i-in. galvanized wire cloth to prevent birds

(f)

*"
FIG. 1

or fowls from going in or out through the window and
to admit air and light when the windows are left open.
The window sash or frame should slide in a groove,
as shown in Fig. 1 (&). This is made by a 2"X4" or a
2"X2" strip, according to the size and needs of the build-
ing. The frame for the sliding sash should be suffi-
ciently long to permit the sash to be entirely open, and
there should be provision made for replacing or chang-
ing the sash by sliding the cloth-covered frame over the
opening and leaving the glass-filled sash in the groove.

14 POULTRY HOUSES

A sash hinged at the top and opening outwards, as
shown in Fig. 1 (c), is a modern construction for venti-
lation. When opened slightly, a window of this kind
will give ventilation and yet turn rain or snow away
from the opening. This kind of window serves best
•when used for the outer covering. Inner protection can
be had by fastening a window frame to the inside of
the window, this frame to be covered with heavy gal-
vanized wire cloth with a mesh no larger than \ in.

One of the very best types of glass window for pro-
tection and ventilation is represented in Fig. 1 (a). The
sash in this window is hung on pivots or sash centers.
A glass window of this kind provides almost ideal venti-
lation; it can be opened any distance from an inch to
a foot. The air coming in is driven to the roof and is
spread out there and distributed throughout the entire
house. Proper ventilation and a dry interior result
through the use of these windows without the use of
open fronts or muslin windows.

Where the open fronts, the muslin windows, and this
type of glass window are used, the process of ventilation
is simple. When the sashes are closed and the front
open the sun shines bright and warm through the win-
dows into the most remote part of the building. The
admission of fresh air and sunshine through the open
front dries and tempers the atmosphere. When the
weather is cold or stormy or when the wind is blowing
fast or cold, or snow is coming into the house, ventila-
tion may be had by entirely closing the open front with
muslin -covered frames, as shown in Fig. 1 (cO, and open-
ing the glass window a few inches as may be needed.

A wooden shutter or ventilator as a substitute for open
windows has been used at the Missouri State Poultry
Experiment Station. This ventilator is shown in Fig. 1
(e). It should contain 1 sq. ft. of surface for each 10 sq.
ft. of floor space. The strips used in the construction
should be 4 in. wide and set at an angle of about
45 degrees, leaving a space of 1| in. between the strips.
Where the weather is extremely cold, thin muslin can

POULTRY HOUSES 15

be tacked over the inside of the ventilator and removed
as soon as the cold weather is gone.

Considerable attention has been given to poultry-house
ventilation, and hundreds of suggestions have been made
for different kinds of ventilators. The most recent ven-
tilator is the Cornell wind baffler, which differs materi-
ally from the Missouri shutter ventilator. The construc-
tion of the Cornell baffler is shown in Fig. 1 (f). This
has L-shaped bafflers in place of the flat strips of wood
used in the shutter ventilator. It would seem to be
almost impossible for rain or snow to pass through the
baffler. More glass windows are needed for light in
houses where shutters or baffler is used than in houses
that have cloth-covered windows.

POSITION FOR POULTRY HOUSES

Position for Poultry Houses. — Houses for poultry should
face toward the south; and to meet this condition con-
siderable study in the arrangement and layout of the
yard will be at times required. When poultry buildings
are erected in the rear of the dwelling house and the
front of the dwelling house faces the north, it is easy
to have the poultry building in the rear face the south.
If the dwelling faces the south, the poultry houses would
have to be built facing south, at the rear end of the lot.

In erecting a poultry house at the rear of the lot
facing south, the rear of the building should be next to
the back fence so that the watershed of the roof will be
away from the center of the yard. To have the neces-
sary amount of sunshine and ventilation in a house so
placed requires that the south end and a portion of
either the east or the west end be of glass and open
front, with the roosting place for the hens at the north
end of the building. A house so built is shown in
Fig. 2. In this illustration the rear part of the poultry
building is placed toward the east, the windows facing
the south and the west. The reason for locating I'::

16

POULTRY HOUSES

building on the east side is to gain the greatest amount
of sunshine inside the house during the winter months.
If the dwelling house faces the south, the poultry
building placed at the rear end of the lot can face south.
If the house faces the west, the rear of the poultry
building can be against the fence on the north side; the
same position should be used if the dwelling house faces
the east. When the buildings are so arranged, good
ventilation and the maximum of sunlight in winter will
be assured.

FORM AND ARRANGEMENT OF HOUSES

The most efficient and economical style of poultry
house is the straight-front, slant-roof building with open

FIG. 2

front or with glass and cloth-covered windows in the
front, constructed according to the needs of the locality
where the house is erected. This type of house can be
constructed with extreme simplicity, or it can be em-
bellished according to the taste of the builder. Under
no conditions, however, should it be built in a way that
will detract from its usefulness.

Wide houses are best suited to any locality where the
laying hens must be kept inside for a considerable length
of time during the winter months. Such houses are
warmer, afford better protection from the cold, and are
more satisfactory than narrow buildings. Houses from

POULTRY HOUSES 17

18 to 20 ft. wide are generally favored, especially where
several hundred hens are kept during the winter.

The open-front house should be of close construction,
with both ends, back, roof, and floor as nearly air-tight
as they can be made, and with a front having the proper
arrangement of open and glass windows. Such construc-
tion is shown in Fig. 2, which shows a small house, well
suited for the side of a city lot. The roosting apartment
is to the left and the open runway to the right. This
house allows 4 sq. ft. of floor space in the roosting apart-
ment and 6 sq. ft. in the runway for each fowl. That
would be 20 fowls for 80 sq. ft. in the roosting house
and for 120 'sq. ft. in the runway. This house is intended
for fowls that are kept shut in. When there is no danger
of their injuring the crops, they may be permitted to
run about in that portion of the yard used for a garden
or for flowers. The runway can always be kept sanitary.
When it needs cleaning, the fowls can be shut inside the
roosting place, and with a hoe and a rake the filth can
be scraped up, carried away, and replaced by fresh earth
from the garden.

Houses of this type can be built of almost any size
required. If there is plenty of room in the yard, the
runway may be made larger or an open runway added
to the end of the closed run. A cover of canvas can be
spread over the wire front to keep out heavy rains .and
snow. When the weather is wet or cold the open front
in the roosting place should be closed with a frame made
of wood and covered with muslin. A covered runway
affords dry footing for the fowls, and no opportunity for
rain or snow to fall into the runway and make the
ground unfit for the fowls to use. Such a runway can
be kept sanitary if cleaned frequently, and such yards
and houses will be a pleasure to the owner.

For some reasons it may be better for the roof to slope
away from the yard rather than toward it. In Fig. 2
a tin water spout is shown that conducts the rainwater
to the left of the building down to a cistern from which
the stored water may be taken for sprinkling the gar-

18 POULTRY HOUSES

den. The water could be so stored even if the slope of
the roof were toward the north. In that case, however,
the heat of the southern sun would not serve to keep
pipes from freezing or promptly to melt the snow on the
sloping roof.

The roosting place of the fowls should be located at
the left in the rear of the building. The latticework
shown between the open runway and the roosting place

FIG. 3

affords better ventilation during the warm nights of
summer, and it also allows free circulation of fresh air
into the roosting place without causing drafts.

It is possible to keep poultry in the most densely
populated sections of a town without offense to the
neighbors. A suggestion for a model backyard poultry
run in shown in Fig. 3. This is taken in part from a
photograph made of poultry runs at Cheltenham, Eng-
land. Two flocks of hens without males can be kept in
these runways. The roosting apartment in the rear end
is equipped for two flocks; covered runways on each side

POULTRY HOUSES 19

are attractive in appearance and furnish plenty of room
for exercise out in the open yet afford protection from
the rain and snow that makes conditions quite unsani-
tary when permitted to fall in small runways that are in
constant use.

The walks on both sides of the flower garden are made
of cement. The gutters a for drainage are laid along
the front of the runways and next to the cement founda-
tion. The cement extends beneath both the runways and
the roosting place. A foot of closely packed earth is
filled in on top of the cement making a dry ground floor
for the runways. This earth can be dug out and replaced
by fresh earth as frequently as necessary, thus keeping
the house and yards sweet and clean and avoiding all
chance of offensive odors or contamination of the soil.

Where there is sufficient room, the runways can be
extended and used for young chicks. Where there is
not space enough for this, pullets for replenishing the
flock must be raised elsewhere. This plan was intended
only for the housing of hens kept for egg production,
but the same construction could be adapted for breeding
pens.

The baseboards as shown in the illustration cover the
cement foundation wall of the runways and the roosting
place. Openings are cut through the rear wall of each
runway; they are covered on the outside with heavy
iron screen and are closed on the inside with shutters or
doors hung on hinges. These doors can be turned up
against the roof during warm weather. The free circu-
lation of air through these openings will reduce the
temperature inside the runways during the warmest
weather. The same kind of ventilation can be applied
to the rear of the roosting place. This would be neces-
sary, however, only in tropical climates or where the
nights are excessively hot.

The front of the roosting house is 9 ft. high and the
front of the runway is 8J ft. high, affording sufficient
space overhead and better ventilation during hot weather
than a lower house would give. Iron posts are attached

20 POULTRY HOUSES

to the rear end of the roof both on the roosting house
and the runways. Heavy barbed wire stretched between
these posts prevents approach from the rear.

The arrangement of house and yards shown in Fig. 4
was evolved in England to meet the food-shortage emer-
gency. The house in the rear is an open-front, scratch-
ing-shed house, in which the poultry can be confined in
all kinds of weather, especially when it rains and the
ground is wet outside. The interior of the house can
be arranged to suit the convenience of the owner. The

FIG. 4

roosts should be placed to the extreme right of the
house and the nests to the left of the roosts, to make
it convenient for those who go into the house through
the door in the center to gather the eggs and to clean
up without disturbing the poultry. The vegetable garden
and poultry yard are alternated yearly. To make the
change, the front fence and the line of fencing along the
pathway should be moved over to enclose the garden
patch for a poultry yard, the other side then being used
as a garden plot. When this change is made, the front
sections at the extreme right and left are changed so

POULTRY HOUSES

21

as to transfer the small doorway through which the hens
come out into the yard. At the same time, the roosts
and the nests are moved from the right to the left end
of the building.

HOUSES AND YARDS FOR DIFFERENT
VARIETIES

Special arrangements must be made for housing and
yarding several varieties of chickens on a limited space.

FIG. 5

They must be kept separate, each variety by itself. To
accomplish this, the fences around the enclosure and
between the yards must be high enough and so well
constructed that the fowls cannot get out of the yards
alloted to them. The fences shown in Fig. 5 are 8 ft.
high; these yards were used for Hamburgs and Bantams.
The lower part of the fence is 2 ft. high, and is made of
boards; the upper part is made of 6-ft. wire fencing.
Fences 6 ft. high will do for Plymouth Rocks, Wyan-

22 POULTRY HOUSES

dottes, Orpingtons, or fowls of equal or larger size. A
fence of this height would have wire fencing 4 ft. wide
above the boards.

The building shown in Fig. 5 is 12 ft. wide and 100 ft.
long, and is divided into twelve compartments. The
yards are 8 ft. wide and 24 ft. long and can be made
longer when space will permit. One male and six or
eight females can be kept in each compartment; more
may be kept, but when this is done there is danger of
contamination, loss of vitality, and less fertility. The

house is 9 ft. high in front and 5 ft. high in the rear;
there is an opening close to the roof in front and one in
the rear, which should be left open during hot weather.
This permits circulation of air through the house and
between the rafters, thus driving out the heat; the rear
opening is closed tight when the weather is cool or cold.
The one in front is closed in the cold seasons. The
house can be built lower, or there can be a lower ceiling
to make the house warmer in cold weather.

The doors that lead from one division to another should
be hung on self-closing double-acting hinges. The in-
terior equipment of one apartment is shown in Fig. 6.

POULTRY HOUSES 23

The nests are under the dropping-board. The coops for
broody hens are to the right of the roosts, the feed
hopper is fastened against the partition or hung on the
uprights, and the shelf for the water pan is to the right
of the hopper. The pan goes through or under an open-
ing in the partition, thus providing for two pens of fowl.
A house of this kind will be excellent for bantams,
and if not more than five or six of them are kept in each
yard, green stuff of some kind can be grown in the
yards. Such pens can be used for a male and four or
five female bantams of any breed or variety, and the
hens should be permitted to hatch their own eggs and
raise the brood of chicks in the same enclosure.

HOUSES FOR BANTAMS

A house of small size is most suitable for bantams.
The higher the roof and the more extensive the space

FIG. 7

inside, the colder and less comfortable will be their
quarters during very cold nights. The box house illus-
trated in Fig. 7 can be built out of packing cases that
are 3l/2 ft. wide, Al/2 ft. long, and of the average height,
the front elevation of the building being 4^ ft. and the
rear elevation Zy2 ft. The floor of the house, which is
made .first, is 4 ft. wide and 5 ft. long, and is elevated
12 in. above the ground by cleats nailed all around on
the under side flush with the edge. The walls of the
house are nailed to the edge of the floor; the boards in
the rear and on the sides reach to the ground and close

24

POULTRY HOUSES

the space under the floor on three sides. In front, the
boards extend 6 in. below the floor and to within 6 in.
of the ground, leaving an open space a of 12 in. under
the floor. When the siding is in place the roof is put
on and covered with roofing paper.

One 8"X10" pane of glass in front admits all the
light that is needed; the single-board door admits the ban-
tams and permits the gathering of the eggs and the
cleaning of the house. A round roost pole across the
rear end and some small nest boxes complete the house.
This house will provide quarters for ten or twelve ban-
tams. It can be moved beneath the shelter of a tree
during the summer months, placed under a shed or

FIG. 8

moved to the basement during the severe cold weather,
or left in the open throughout the entire year. It is, in
fact, a comfortable house for bantams in all kinds of
weather. The dust bath for the bantams is beneath the
house. When the nights are cold the open space a in
front should be closed. In localities where it is very
cold, and where there are spells of severe weather, the
outside of the box should be covered with tar paper to
close the cracks against the wind.

For Brahama or Cochin Bantams, a low, compact house
is the best. These bantams can withstand the coldest
weather if they are well protected as are other fowls.
The house shown in Fig. 8 is 8 ft. long and 6 ft. wide;
it is 6*/2 ft. high in front and 5 ft. high in the rear; the
fence for the enclosure is 5 ft. high. If desired, this

POULTRY HOUSES 25

house can be divided through the middle and be used
for two separate lots of bantams. When this is done, a
division fence should separate the two pens. The interior
of the house may be arranged to suit the convenience of
the poultryman. The building has a double door, the
inner screen door a swinging to the inside and the board
door swinging to the outside. The outer door should be
left open during warm weather and on bright days dur-
ing cold weather to prevent dampness. The house should
have a board floor.

YARDS FOR POULTRY HOUSES

Purpose and Size pf Yards.— Fowls are confined in
yards to prevent them from trespassing and from going
where they may do harm or where they may injure
themselves. They are also confined when an effort is
being made to secure a large egg yield by intensive
methods, and when several varieties of fowls are kept
for breeding purposes, in which case the flocks must be
kept separate in order that each breed may remain pure.

Yards cannot be too large and are frequently too small.
Less than 100 sq. ft. of yard room per head is not
enough to secure the best results in producing eggs;
a yard 50 ft. wide and 100 ft. long will be sufficient for
fifty hens, provided special care is taken to keep the
soil in a sanitary condition. If the yard is 100 ft.
square, the fifty hens will do much better. Two and
one-half acres will answer much better for five hundred
hens in 'one flock than the same space divided into
ten yards for fifty hens each. The reason for this is
that when the five hundred hens are confined in the
space of 2l/2 A., each one has the free range of the entire
area, and when the space is divided into ten yards, each
fowl is confined to a space about equal in size to that
of an ordinary town lot.

Close confinement causes the flock to become discon-
tented, and overcrowding the yard lessens the egg
yield. If either one or both of these conditions is of

26 POULTRY HOUSES

long duration, the health and vitality of the fowls is
undermined and destroyed. Asiatic fowls can be kept
in health and vigor in much less space than can the
American varieties; Leghorns must have more than
double the space that is necessary for other varieties.
These remarks apply to the keeping of laying hens and
not to forcing a few fowls to an early maturity for the
market on a space so limited that they neither produce
eggs nor maintain vitality. The more closely hens are
confined, the greater the necessity for cleanliness, care,
and proper feeding.

SHADE FOR POULTRY

There is a great need of shade for poultry kept in
confined quarters during the summer months. Poultry
houses should face toward the south, because the direct
rays of the sun are needed inside of poultry buildings
to assist in keeping the interior dry and free from germs.
But shade of some kind must be provided so that the
fowls can be sheltered during warm weather when they
are in the yard the greater part of the day.

Shade may be furnished in a way that will add attrac-
tiveness to the poultry houses and yards. The fences
about the poultry yard should be built straight and
strong and attractive in appearance, and they may be
overgrown with vines of some kind which will serve as
a shade and protect the fowls from the direct rays of
the sun.

There are a number of kinds of vines that can be used
for this purpose. Throughout Maryland, Virginia, and
other states there are honeysuckles that grow profusely
and can be trained over the fences and over frames
built for the purpose. There are several varieties of the
rambler roses which can be trained over the fences and
which will beautify the surroundings as well as furnish
shade. Sunflowers may be grown along the outside line
of the fence. These grow rapidly and provide feed as
well as shelter from the sun.

POULTRY HOUSES 27

Another vine, commonly known as Dutchman's pipe,
is a profuse grower, and is often used as shade for poul-
try. Hop vines, gherkins, and morning glories also may
be grown for the purpose of shelter.

The use of Jerusalem artichokes for shade has been
recommended because they grow quickly and come up
year after year, affording shade in abundance. It is
said that this plant can be grown inside of poultry yards
if protected until it gets a good start, and that fowls
will not eat the leaves even though no other green stuff
is available. Castor-oil plants, where they can be pro-
tected from disturbance until well started, will grow
profusely and become very large, and will provide abun-
dant shade beneath which the growing chicks may run
and be protected during the warmest weather.

Sweet corn makes a splendid shade for poultry. When
fairly well up, the mother hens and young chicks may
run through it without harming the plants or the ears
of corn. When the corn is ready for the table the ears
can be removed without breaking the stalks, which con-
tinue to furnish shade. Corn fields on farms furnish a
most attractive shelter from the direct rays of the sun
and the fowls like to wander through them hunting bugs
and worms. Some of the best exhibition fowls grown
spend the first few months of their life in the corn fields.

When no other shade can be provided, awnings of
muslin should be stretched over frames and placed so
as to prevent the sun from shining too directly inside
of the poultry buildings. Frames made like tables, with
the tops of muslin or cloth of some kind, can be placed
here and there to protect the fowls from the sun. Tar
paper or building paper can be used in place of muslin
for the same purpose.

UNIT HOUSE

The demand for houses for large flocks has brought
into use a style of house that is called the unit house.
A house of this kind may be built in two or more sepa-

28 POULTRY HOUSES

rate units 20 ft. long by 16 or 18 ft. deep or wide. This
would be called a connected unit house, meaning that

^Dropping Board

= I Removable
= frames CCY- ^ I
ere d with - ^

ffl

Front Elevation
FIG. 9

several units would be built at one time or at separate
times and used as separate houses or as one connected
house.

Such houses are built where laying hens are kept in

POULTRY HOUSES

29

large or small flocks. The rule is to build them in mul-
tiples of 20 ft. by whatever width or depth may be pre-
ferred. Some unit poultry houses have been built 24 ft.
square, with a gable roof. Houses of this width answer

-3 ply Rubberoid Roofing

2^6 Rafters^
2-0" on <£

Wind Shield \

I " Matched^-

Boards

FIG. 10

Well for large flocks kept in California or in any other
locality having like temperature. The best width for
general use is 16 or 18 ft.

The most modern type of a unit house is shown in
Figs. 9 and 10. This house is 20 ft. long and 18 ft. wide
and is 9 ft. high in front and 6 ft. high in the rear.

30 POULTRY HOUSES

This house has 360 sq. ft. of floor space and will be large
enough for 90 Leghorn hens kept for laying eggs during
the winter months. This same house will be large
enough for 75 laying hens of the larger kind. The house
can be divided by partition into two pens 10 ft.XIS ft.

The advantage of this kind of house is that it can be
built section by section as needed. Two sections like
t'-iese might be called a double connected unit house.
Any number of sections can be added to such a house
and all of them connected. When two or more sections
are used for large floors, the wooden partition between
each 20 ft. should extend about half way forward from
the rear through the house.

As shown in Fig. 9, this house has the modern style
of windows, that is, two glass and three cotton-cloth
windows, which are shown in the front elevation. These
windows are properly proportioned for a front 9 ft. high
and 20 ft. long. If two units of 20 ft. each are built, the
cloth-covered windows can begin either to the right or
to the left of the glass windows and thus give a con-
tinuous line of glass and cloth windows or they may be
as shown in the illustration. The house can be built 7
or 7/^2 ft. high in front and be either 4^ or 5 ft. high in
the rear; the lower the roof or ceiling overhead, the
warmer will the house be during both hot and cold
weather. The two openings in the 'rear shown in Fig. 10,
are for ventilation, and should be open continually dur-
ing the warm weather. The air passing in through them
will go over the roosts between the inner lining and the
outer covering of the rear wall and the roof. This will
cool the house by carrying the hot air out overhead.
These openings must be closed during the winter.

The inner lining can be nailed to the uprights; it may
extend from near the floor up the rear and overhead in
front of the roosts and dropping-board. This protects
the fowls on the roost from the cold that might other-
wise be deflected from the rear and overhead onto them.
Such protection is worth much more than it costs. The
best arrangement for the interior is shown in Fig. 6.

POULTRY HOUSES 31

When houses like this are built for large flocks of
laying hens, they can be built in sections 20 ft. long
and 20 ft. wide. Five sections, or units, of this size, all
connected, can be used either for one large open house,
which will be 100 ft. long and 20 ft. wide, or it may be
divided into five or more separate houses.

Five units of this size will contain 2,000 sq. ft. of floor
space, which is sufficient for 500 Leghorn hens; or they
may be separated into five units, each house having 100
Leghorn hens. Leghorn hens will do very well with
4 sq. ft. of floor space for each hen. This will provide
scratching place for the hens during the winter months.
Fowls of larger sizes should have from 5 to 6 sq. ft. of
floor space.

HOUSING PROBLEMS IN CALIFORNIA

When considering the climatic conditions of California
it must be remembered that in that state, which extends
from Oregon on the north to Mexico on the south, great
variations in temperature are found. The northern lati-
tude temperatures of California are about the same as
those of Denver, Indianapolis, and Philadelphia.

The conditions as they exist in California have been
described in the following words by Prof. J. E.
Dougherty of the College of Agriculture:

"Abundant ventilation can and should be provided at
all times of the year, because the climate is so mild
that cold weather does not have to be considered,
whereas the intensely hot days of summer represent the
California poultryman's most unfavorable season just as
the cold winter period is the worst season in other states.
Where the temperature reaches the vicinity of 100° F., a
house closed on three sides, even though the front is
entirely open, becomes a veritable oven. Add to this the
fact that a large number of our poultry farms are, under
present conditions, supplied with very scant outdoor
shade, And the fowls remain largely indoors out of the
sun during the hot part of the day, and one can realize

POULTRY HOUSES

how they can be made to suffer from the heat in poorly
built houses.

"The hot summer sun dries up all vegetation not arti-
ficially watered, the ground becomes hot and dry, and
the fowls prefer to stay in and close to the houses where
it is shady. They will not get out on the sun-baked
ground, but live largely in the houses during hot
weather. As a result, a good many fowls are lost every
year from heat prostration. In fact, such mortality rep-
resents a serious loss, and its prevention is a subject
worthy of most careful consideration.

"In order to obviate the hot-box condition, provision
must be made to throw open the rear of the house on hot
days, in addition to the open front, so that every breath
of air may be caught and the air in the house be kept
moving as much as possible. There is invariably at least
a little breeze blowing from one direction or another,
and by having at least two sides of the house open
during the day these breezes circulate through the house
and keep it quite cool.'*

Very heavy rainfall accompanied with wind prevails
during the winter in California. These storms are fre-
quently so severe as to blow away cloth curtains, and
for this reason they are not recommended as suitable
for that locality.

Mr. Dougherty says further that trees in the runs and
about the houses are of great value in furnishing cool
shade. Deciduous trees of heavy foliage are best, be-
cause they furnish dense shade and shed their leaves
in winter. Since evergreen trees do not shed their
leaves, they ought not be located close to the houses, as
they will cut off the sun from the houses in winter. Fig
trees are especially fine for shade in the runs. The use
of two-story houses also makes for coolness, for the
upper story keeps the lower floor cooler than it would
•otherwise be, and by hanging windows on all sides of
the lower floor the additional coolness resulting from free
ventilation on all sides is secured. »

A good type of house for California is a square house,

POULTRY HOUSES 33

say 24 ft. square, or one 48 ft. long by 24 ft. wide, accord-
ing to the number of fowls to be kept in the house.
This house should be 9 ft. high all around with a gable
roof, and have glass windows on all four sides. All of
these windows should be kept open when the days are
very warm.

If the wind blows, the windows should be shut tight
on the side from which the wind conies. When it rains
and blows very hard, all the windows in the house
should be closed except those on one side against which
the wind does not blow; that is, if the wind blows from
the northeast the windows on the north, the east, and
the west would be closed and the windows on the south
left open. If the wind blows from the southwest, the
windows on the north would be left open and the other
windows be closed tight.

When a house of this kind is used, the roosts should
be placed in the middle of the room lengthwise, directly
under the peak of the roof. The dropping-board should
be built on legs like a low-set table, the roosts running
lengthwise above the table, with the nest boxes
beneath it.

Such a house should have ventilators in the peak of
the roof; those of galvanized iron with hoods over the
top are well suited for this purpose. Such ventilators
will work well during all kinds of weather. When it is
warm and hot, the air will pass out through them. When
the wind blows it causes a current around the hood and
the pipe; when the rain falls hard the hood-shaped lid
on top will prevent the rain from beating down through
the ventilator. Through these ventilators the warm air
comes out of the upper end of the pipe and passes
through the open space between the top of the pipe and
the lower side of the hood.

34 POULTRY FOODS

POULTRY FOODS

COMPOSITION OF FOOD

Food is any substance that a plant or an animal may
take into its body and use for building up wasted
tissues and maintaining natural conditions. Besides
•water, which is present in all foods, the different com-
pounds of which solid animal foods are composed have
been grouped into four classes; carbohydrates, fats, pro-
tein, and ash. All the compounds belonging to these
classes of food elements, or principles, are not completely
digestible, and the value of poultry food is determined
largely by the amount of these food constituents that
can be digested by the fowls.

When food is digested it forms blood, which circulates
throughout the body and sustains life. By means of
the blood the nutritious portions of the food are assimi-
lated, or incorporated into the body of the fowl for the
purpose of nourishing it and for renewing wasted tissues.
Eggs are composed largely of the same kind of materials
that are utilized in the formation of blood and flesh.

All foods contain water; dry grains, meals, and hays
contain from 7 to 10%, and grasses, green plants, roots,
and unripened grains contain from 60 to 70%. The flesh
of fowls and their eggs are from 41 to 65% water, 1 doz.
new-laid eggs containing almost 1 Ib.

The greater portion of the solid part of poultry food
is composed of carbohydrates, or nitrogen-free extracts, as
they are sometimes called. Carbohydrates are made up
largely of starch, sugar, gums, vegetable acids, and crude
fiber. Carbohydrates are used by fowls to supply energy,
to produce animal fats and oils, and to maintain the
body heat.

The food elements known as fats, or oils, differ from
carbohydrates in being able to produce more heat. For
this purpose, 1 part of fat is equal to 2^4 parts of carbo-

POULTRY FOODS 35

hydrates. For this reason, when estimating the heating
value of foods, it is customary to multiply the amount
of fat in them by 2% in order to express its equivalent
in carbohydrates.

That portion of the food which contains nitrogen is
known as protein. The lean meat of the fowl and the
white of the egg are composed largely of this principle.
As a source of heat and energy, protein is about equal
to the carbohydrates, but animal heat obtained from
protein is very expensive. Protein is much more costly
than the carbohydrates and fats, and no more of it should
be fed to fowls than is absolutely necessary to renew
waste, make new growth, and furnish the needed quan-
tity for egg formation.

That part of food which would be left if the food
were burned is called ash, or mineral matter, and it con-
tains calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, iron, and
other elements. When assimilated by fowls, ash enters
largely into the composition of bones and the shells of
the eggs. There is not enough ash for egg and bone
formation in the food usually fed to fowls, and for this
reason it is necessary to supply them with such mate-
rials as oyster shells, clam shells, limestone, grit, etc.

Foods that contain a large proportion of crude fiber
are spoken of as roughage, and those that contain little
crude fiber and that are nearly all digestible are known
as concentrates. Clover hay is an example of roughage;
corn meal is an example of a concentrate. Although of
little direct value as a food for poultry, roughage, or
crude fiber, is important in a food because in passing
through the digestive organs it distends them and serves
as an irritant that stimulates their mechanical action
and assists them in digesting their contents.

When feeding fowls it is always best to have a suffi-
cient quantity of ash, fiber, and roughage in their
rations to extend the crop and to keep the gizzard
actively employed in grinding. During the process of
grinding the coarso foods become thoroughly mixed with
the concentrated foods and all pass through the intes-

36 POULTRY FOODS

tines in a manner that makes their assimilation much
more natural and, therefore, of more real benefit to the
fowls than would be the case without them.

Clover and alfalfa hay and bran are very highly con-
sidered as roughage for poultry, and they not only well
serve the purposes mentioned but are also valuable as
food. Clover and alfalfa contain a large percentage of
ash and fiber and are among the best substitutes for
green food as well; although but little of the bran is
digested, it is most valuable as an intestinal irritant.

When feeding clover or alfalfa hay it is well to throw
bundles of it into the houses on the litter and permit
the fowls to pick the leaves and scratch in the hay as
they do in the litter.

Uses of the Food Elements.— After being digested and
absorbed into the blood, the different food elements
are used by the body for various purposes. From protein
are formed the muscles, or lean meat, and this element
also enters largely into the composition of the bones
and feathers, and, most important of all, the egg.
Protein can be more completely utilized than the other
food elements and some hens seem to have the power
to utilize practically all of the protein contained in the
food they eat.

Carbohydrates are mainly used to keep up the body
temperature. The utilization of carbohydrates for this
purpose is really a slow form of burning, which is just
as necessary for the life of the fowl as the fire beneath
the boiler is for the running of the steam engine. Car-
bohydrates are also the source of much of the energy
used when the fowl moves itself about and performs
other work.

The function of fats is similar to that of the carbo-
hydrates. Fats, however, are a more concentrated fuel,
1 Ib. of fat being equal to about 2J4 lb. of carbohydrates.
Fats can also be stored for future use in the fowl's body,
a thing that cannot be done with carbohydrates.

POULTRY FOODS
COMPOSITION OF FEEDSTUFFS

37

Feedstuffs

Water
Per Cent.

Ash
Per Cent.

i<§
*&

Carbo-
hydrates

Fat
Per Cent.

£»

Icj

gl

8

^V *

m

!*iE

£

Grains and seeds:
Barley

10.8
13.4
10.6
11.3
8.4
9.9
12.1
9.0
10.4
7.9
15.0
7.5
12.4
11.7
8.0
8.6
10.5
11.6

10.9
12.8
9.4
15.0
7.0
10.3
9.9
9.2
9.5
9.6

9.7

9.8
7.9

2.5
2.0
1.5
1.4
3.9
1.6
2.8
2.3
3.2
2.0
2.4
2.4
.4
4.8
3.9
2.6
1.8
2.9

5.7
5.0
1.2
1.4
6.6
5.9
2.6
2.0
1.5
2.7

5.5
5.5
2.0

12.0
10.8
10.3
10.5
11.5
11.2
10.9
10.7
11.4
14.7
23.7
27.9
7.4
33.5
11.5
16.3
11.9
12.5

23.2
26.7
11.2
9.2
45.3
19.7
18.0
25.0
33.8
10.5

37.5
33.9
14.7

4.2
11.7
2.2
1.7
11.1
2.7
8.1
3.0
10.8
.9
7.9
7.0
.2
4.5
11.5
29.9
1.8
4.9

3.8
4.4
11.9
1.9
6.3
14.4
3.0
6.8
2.0
4.9

8.9
7.3
.9

68.7
59.7
70.4
70.1
62.9
71.5
62.6
72.2
59.4
67.4
50.2
15.6
79.2
28.3
62.9
21.4
71.9
65.1

54.9
44.3
60.1
68.7
24.6
38.7
62.5
53.5
46.6
64.3

36.4
35.7
67.4

1.8
2.4
5.0
5.0
2.2
3.1
3.5
2.8
4.8
7.1
.8
39.6 •
.4
17.2
2.2
21.2
2.1
3.0

1.5
6.8
6.2
3.8
10.2
11.0
4.0
3.5
6.6
8.0

2.0

7.8
7.1

Buckwheat
Corn, dent

Corn, flint

Emmer

Kafir corn

Millet seed . . '

Milo maize

Oats in hulls

Oats, hulled

Peas, Canada

Peanut kernels

Rice

Soybeans

Spelt

Sunflower seed. .

Wheat, whole

Wheat screenings
Meals:
Bean meal

Buckwheat middlings. .
Corn bran

Corn meal

Cottonseed meal .

Coconut cake
Flour, red dog
Gluten feed

Gluten meal

Hominy feed, chop. . . .
Linseed meal, new proc-
ess

Linseedmeal.old process
Oatmeal

38 POULTRY FOODS

COMPOSITION OF FEEDSTUFFS— Continued

Feedstuflte

Water
tPer Cent.

Ash
Per Cent.

Protein
Per Cent.

Carbo-
hydrates

Fat
Per Cent.

t-. &

£ <u
.00

Sl

<u

2 ^

*ts g

g2U
60 1< *"
2w &

%

Meals:
Oat middlings

8.8
10.7
10.5
9.7
10.2
11.2
11.3
10.8
11.9

8.5
6.0
34.2
90.2
10.8
10.7
87 1

4.5
4.9
2.6
9.7
8.1
4.4
5.9
6.7
5.8

4.6
37.4

22.8
.7
29.2
4.1

.7

.7

10.6
4.5
1.0
1.0
8.1
.9
.5
1.1
.9

16.2
47.6
20.2
11.9
12.0
16.9
42.7
32.8
15.4

84.4
39.5
20.6
4.0
48.4
71.2
3.6
3.1

15.4
8.1
1.5
1.1
16.32
2.1
1.3
1.9
1.3

7.1
5.1
14.4
12.0
5.4
6.2
6.0
13.5
9.0

33.3
17.5
.9
1.3

17.84
.4
1.7
1.2
1.2

56.5
23.7
51.1
46.6
51.2
56.2
28.1
27.1
53.9

6.3
1.9
4.0

.3

4.9
5.3

32.5
60.8
8.0
7.6
45.99
17.4
5.2
26.8
6.3

6.9
8.0
1.2
10.1
13.1
5.1
6.0
9.1
4.0

2.5
10.8
20.5
1.1
11.6
13.7
3.7
.3

1.4
.7
.1
.4
1.75
.1
.4
.7
.2

Peanut cake

Pea meal

Rice bran

Rice meal . .

Shorts

Soybean cake
Sunflower-seed cake . . .
Wheat bran

Animal foods:
Blood, dried

Bone and meat meal . .
Bone, fresh cut
Buttermilk
Fish, dried
Meat scrap

Milk whole

Milk skim

90.6

6.8

8.4
88.5
88.6
10.0
79.1
90.9
68.3
90.1

Hav and vegetables:
Alfalfa hay

Beet pulp, dry

Beets

Carrots . . .~ .

Clover hay

Potatoes

Pumpkins

Sweet potatoes
Turnips

The preceding table gives the average composition
of various poultry foods.

POULTRY FOODS 39

SEEDS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS

Foods the quality of which is unquestionably good are
the most economical for poultry. Shriveled, immature,
or imperfect grains do not contain the full amounts of
digestible nutrients, and such grains are likely to be
deficient in protein. When the best results are desired
none except good, plump, mature grains are used. The
same principle applies in selecting the by-products of
grains.

The relative value of poultry foods can best be esti-
mated when the food value of each is well understood.
It is usually more profitable to buy the foods rich in
protein than those lacking in this valuable principle.

WHEAT

Whole Wheat.— A grain of wheat is made up of an
outer shell, an inner lining, and a food center, its
structure in a general way resembling that of an egg.
The shell of the wheat kernel is composed largely of
crude fiber; the central part contains some protein, but
consists mainly of starch. The protein, or gluten, of the
wheat is the most valuable part of it, and no other grain
will fill the place of wheat as a food for the production
of lean meat and eggs by fowls. Wheat is rich in both
protein and the fat-forming principles, but it is a better
food for making blood, flesh, and feathers than for fat-
tening purposes; hence, it is a better food for egg-
producing hens than for those intended for the market.
Wheat is commonly one of the several grains used in
making up a ration for fowls. Although the best whole
grain for hens, it does not form a perfect ration when
fed alone.

Second grades of wheat can be purchased at a lower
price than the higher grades. If they are sound and
have good feeding qualities, these second-grade wheats
can be used to advantage; but if they are shriveled or
blighted, they have little value. Burned, wet, musty, or

40

POULTRY FOODS

otherwise damaged grains are not fit for feeding to
poultry.

The accompanying table shows the digestibility of the
various food principles found in wheat of good quality.
Although about 20% of its dry matter is indigestible,
wheat, on account of its palatability, is the best possible
whole-grain food for fowls.

DIGESTIBLE MATTER IN WHEAT

Parts of Wheat

Per
Cent.
Digest-
ible

Parts of Wheat

Per

Cent.
Digest-
ible

Organic matter

81.86

Crude fiber

None

Protein. .

77 12

Carbohydrates

86 59

Fat

39 67

Wheat Screenings.— The value of wheat screenings as
a food depends on the quantity of weed seeds and other
materials that are mixed with the wheat of inferior
quality. Good wheat screenings have a food value equal
to that of oats; screenings of poor quality have a food
value that may be less than that of oat hulls or straw.
Although fowls will eat a large portion of the weed
seeds in screenings, many of them have no food value.
Wheat screenings as a food for poultry are used in con-
nection with an animal food and corn.

Wheat Bran. — The amount of gluten contained in
wheat bran, which is a by-product in the manufacture
of flour, determines its value as an egg-producing food.
If the bran has the appearance of being kiln-dried, it
probably contains so little digestible material that it
is worthless as a food for hens. As dry bran free from
gluten is practically all crude fiber, it is valuable only
as a bulky substance for distending the intestines so
that concentrated foods may be digested.

POULTRY FOODS 41

Middlings and Shorts.— The terms middlings and shorts
are applied to by-products of the manufacture of flour.
Wheat middlings are made from the membrane that lies
between the outer shell and the starchy interior of the
wheat kernel; they contain some gluten, a substance
composed largely of protein. Shorts as usually sold are
made up of small, or ground, bran and wheat sweepings.
Thirds, or fine shorts, are middlings of good quality.
Middlings are worth more than bran and are much used
in making dry-mash rations.

Flour.— When it can be cheaply obtained, the lower
grade of dark flour is sometimes used for feeding to
poultry. This flour is rich in protein and other food
principles, and can be mixed with middlings and corn
meal. The resulting mixture may then be baked like
bread and fed to young or growing chicks. A small
quantity of this flour mixed with mash forms a crumbly
mass.

OATS

Whole Oats.— The determination of the value of whole
oats by their appearance is exceedingly difficult. Good
oats rank next to wheat as a poultry food, but the one
objection to oats is that they vary widely in the propor-
tion of hulls, or husks, which are indigestible. Some
oats are two-fifths husks, which are of no value as food.
The weight of oats varies from 25 to 50 Ib. per bu. Light
oats are unfit for food for fowls; heavy oats with full,
plump kernels are one of the very best. Hulled oats are
preferable for feeding poultry; heavy-weight clipped
oats stand next in value; ground oats of the best quality
are also an excellent food for poultry.

Oatmeal and Hulled Oats.— In the manufacture of both
oatmeal and hulled oats, which have the same nutritive
ratio, the hulls are removed; consequently, the food value
of both oatmeal and hulled oats is greater than that of
whole oats. Oats thus prepared are extensively used in
making rations for young or growing chicks. Whole
oats have a nutritive ratio of 1 to 6; hulled oats and
oatmeal, 1 to 4. (By nutritive ratio is meant the ratio

42 POULTRY FOODS

between the protein and the total of fats and carbo-
hydrates.) Consequently, prepared oats are better than
whole oats as food for young chicks and laying hens.
Either hulled oats or oatmeal is one of the best single-
grain rations for fowls.

Oat Hulls. — As 'a poultry food, oat hulls, apart from
their value as manure, which is small, are worth no
more than sawdust. Ground oat hulls are liberally used
as an adulterant to lessen the cost of other foods in
preparing poultry feeds, and the presence of much of
this adulterant may so reduce the value of the feed as
to make it useless.

CORN

Whole Corn.— The structure of the corn kernel is
similar in a general way to that of the wheat grain.
Corn is the grain that is ordinarily the most attractive
to poultry. Some corn is almost a necessity for suc-
cessful poultry feeding, but an all-corn ration is
injurious because it is too fattening. Corn alone, how-
ever, will not fatten a fowl in the best way, nor will
it produce a good yield of eggs. Corn is rich in carbo-
hydrates and fats; it provides heat for the body, and
oil and fat for the feathers, for the yolk of the egg, and
for the flesh. Corn contains too little protein and ash
for successful egg production, and to produce the best
results is combined with other grains. A balanced
ration is formed by the use of corn and some other
•grains and meat.

Corn Bran.— The outside of the grain, or the shell,
from which corn bran is made, is removed from corn
when it is made into food products for human beings.
This shell is hard and dry and has almost no food value,
being composed almost entirely of indigestible fiber and
a little ash, and is, therefore, of no use in poultry
rations.

Gluten Meals and Feeds. — Gluten, a by-product of corn-
starch manufacture, is sometimes sold as gluten meal,
and is a very important food for dairy cows. Good

POULTRY FOODS 43

gluten meal that does not contain corn hulls or other
waste products is also useful as a part of the meal ration
for poultry. Gluten meal is a concentrated food, rich in
protein, nearly all of which is digestible. Not more
than 10% of a ration should consist of this meal.

The germ of the corn is rarely sold separate from the
other by-products. Like gluten meal, it should be fed
sparingly to fowls.

Gluten feed, which is much more commonly sold than
either gluten meal or the corn germs, is made by grind-
ing the germs, hulls, and gluten together. Gluten feed,
although not so rich in protein as either the gluten meal
or corn germs, should not be fed too liberally to poultry.

Hominy Chop.— Hominy is made from the hard or
flinty part of the corn. The hulls, corn germs, and some
gluten left after the hominy is made, are ground into
coarse meal and sold as hominy chop, which, if of
good quality, is fully equal in value to corn meal as a
poultry food. Like the value of all grain by-products,
the value of hominy chop depends on its quality, and
it should not contain too much crude fiber.

Corn Cobs.— The coarse meal made from corn cobs
cannot be prepared in any way that fits it for food.
It has about the same chemical composition as straw,
and as food for poultry both corn cobs and straw are
valueless.

MISCELLANEOUS GRAINS AND SEEDS
Kafir Corn.— Both Kafir corn, or dari, and broom corn
belong to the sorghum family of plants. The fact that
Kafir corn is used largely as food by people of Africa
and in other countries is evidence of its nutritive value,
Kafir corn being, in this respect, about equal to barley
or buckwheat. Kafir-corn grains are very hard; tests
made by the feeding of old, very dry grains to fowls
show that many of them passed through the fowls with-
out being broken up. The same grains resisted for a
time an effort to soften them by boiling. When broken
into bits, however, the small pieces could be eaten and

44 POULTRY FOODS

digested by young chicks. In some localities where
bugs and worms are plentiful, the entire grain ration
for the summer months is Kafir corn, a plentiful supply
of insect food with this kind of grain making a nearly
balanced ration. Kafir corn can be used with safety in
the ration for the full-grown fowls, and, if broken into
small pieces, for chicks as well.

Broom Corn.— The seed of broom corn as a food for
poultry is about equal in value to sunflower seed.
Broom corn is fed sparingly; a ration containing more
than 10% of this grain cannot be fed with safety to
fowls. In order to avoid fermentation and mildew, the
heads of the grain are spread out and kept in a dry
place. Cryptogamic poisoning is liable to be produced by
the eating of moldy grain or seed of any kind.

Rye.— The use of rye as a food for poultry should be
avoided; fowls do not relish it and bad results may come
from its use.

Barley.— The grains of barley, if plump and of good
quality, contain almost as much protein as oats, more
than corn, and more of the carbohydrates than oats but
not so much as corn. Good barley is about 15% hulls;
poor barley may have a much larger percentage of hulls,
and the grains themselves may be so shriveled as to be
valueless as food. Good barley meal is useful for form-
ing a part of the meal ration for fattening fowls. It is
one of the best meals for this purpose; but the ordinary
barley meals are likely to be made of a mixture of
barley and waste products, which tend to deprive the
meal of its feeding value.

Buckwheat.— Fowls have to acquire a liking for buck-
wheat; they are not naturally fond of it, and as the
hull, which forms a large percentage of this grain, is
indigestible, buckwheat is not good as a single-grain
ration. Buckwheat whitens the flesh and improves its
flavor when fed liberally to fowls. The yolks of eggs
from hens fed freely on buckwheat are light in color.
Although a small quantity of buckwheat may be used

POULTRY FOODS 45

as a part of an all-grain ration, it is not classed as a
desirable grain for fowls.

Buckwheat Middlings.— The hulls of buckwheat have
no feeding value, but in some localities they are used
as litter in buildings and brooders. Buckwheat mid-
dlings are superior to wheat bran and wheat middlings
as a food for fowls, and this fact brings into the market
buckwheat bran, which is largely broken hulls mixed with
buckwheat middlings. Although the floury middlings of
buckwheat are fit for poultry food, the bran of this grain
contains no nutriment and is useless for food purposes.

Peas. — Although fowls relish pea vines, they must
acquire a liking for peas themselves, which are very
good food. The field pea, or Canada pea, as it is some-
times called, is largely used as food for pigeons, and on
the whole is probably the best pea for other kinds of
poultry. Low-priced, broken peas, if cooked, can at
times be used to advantage. When they have been
thoroughly softened by boiling, wheat bran is added to
them to make a crumbly mass; a little flour put with
the bran will help to make the mass stick together. A
mixture prepared in this way is greedily devoured by
hens, and is an excellent egg-producing ration. Pea
meal is a concentrated food that should be sparingly
used. Peas or pea meal added to a fattening ration
improve the quality of the lean meat.

Beans. — As a food for poultry, beans are more nutri-
tious than peas. Bean vines are not so well liked as the
pea vines, nor will the fowls eat beans as long as they
have other food before them. Soybeans contain much
protein and ash; because of this fact they are valuable
food for fowls. Beans should be boiled to a soft mush
and mixed with corn meal and bran; this preparation
makes an egg-producing ration. If sufficient corn meal
is added, a fat-forming ration that will produce a good
quality of table meat is made. Fowls are naturally
attracted to a mixture of this kind. Like other cooked
foods, boiled beans may be fed to fowls while warm,
but never while hot.

46 POULTRY FOODS

Rice.— Rice is a fat-forming food that is little used
for poultry. Small or broken rice, however, may be used
in chick feed to advantage. Boiled rice is a good food
for bantams because it produces so little bone and size;
it satisfies hunger but does not produce growth to any
extent. It is an expensive food for fowls.

Millet. — The seed of the foxtail millet is a rich grain
that should not be fed liberally to poultry. When
thrown into litter, the small* bright-colored seeds attract
the fowls. A ration made up entirely of millet will
destroy young chicks and injure old fowls. This seed
is used to a limited extent in chick feeds, and also in
scratching foods for hens. Millet is a fattening food and
when hard, dry millet seed is liberally fed, it may clog
the intestines or pass through them undigested.

Sorghum Seed.— The food value of the seed from sugar-
producing sorghum is about equal to that of the seed
of broom corn, but sorghum seed is more fattening than
the broom-corn seed, and contains a little less protein
than that seed. Sorghum plants that make good green
food for fowls are grown from sorghum seed sown broad-
cast or drilled into the ground.

Sunflower Seed.— Sunflower seed has a nutritive ratio
of 1 to 7, about the same as wheat; but the digestibility
of sunflower seed has not yet been accurately deter-
mined. It is likely that the larger part of sunflower
seeds are indigestible. The kernels have a pleasant
flavor and contain considerable fat, but when dry and
shriveled their food value is small. Fresh, plump sun-
flower seeds are used to advantage by sparingly feeding
them to fowls in molt; if these seeds are liberally fed,
the 'digestive organs of fowls soon become clogged with
indigestible fiber.

Flaxseed.— Of all the grains and seeds fed to poultry,
flaxseed is the richest in oil and protein. Its use is
seldom necessary, because equal benefit can be derived
by using by-products of seeds that are much less ex-
pensive. Flaxseed is a laxative, but contains so much
gluten that it may clog the digestive organs.

POULTRY FOODS

47

Linseed Meal.— There are two kinds of linseed meal
—old process and new process. The latter contains less
protein and is more fattening than the former. There
is very little old-process meal made at the present time.
Linseed meal contains the feather-forming elements to
a large extent and is valuable during molt; it can be
cautiously fed at all times. Fowls do not favor it as
a food; it is laxative, concentrated, and contains so
much gluten that it will clog the crop if used too
liberally. The quantity of linseed meal used should not
exceed 5% of the entire ration.

Cottonseed Meal.— Even when
fed sparingly, cottonseed meal
is not relished by fowls. Neither
cottonseed nor any of its prod-
ucts should ever be fed to fowls,
as these foods act as irritants to
the digestive organs, and if fed
liberally cause death.

Peanut Meal. — Meal made
from peanuts after the oil has
been extracted is a good food
for poultry. It is a palatable
food and can be used in small
quantities with other fattening
meals. An ounce and a half of
peanut meal has about the same
food value as 1 oz. of the best meat scrap. There is so
little of this meal that it cannot often be used as food
for poultry.

Hemp Seed.— Hemp seed contains more fat and less
fiber than sunflower seed; for this reason, it is more
easily digested and gives better results than sunflower
seed. Hemp seed is a stimulating, fat-forming food,
and is fed in small quantities and only to fowls that
are slow to molt. A small quantity of this seed is also
fed to exhibition fowls during cold weather to improve
the gloss on their plumage. Hemp seed is too expensive
for general use.

LIGHT BRAHMA MALE

48 POULTRY FOODS

Canary Seed.— The best known balanced ration for
cage birds is canary seed; young chicks also enjoy a
little of this seed, on which they will thrive when they
do not do well on other grains. All waste canary seed
should be fed to chicks, but this feed is too costly to
use except in an emergency or to save the waste from
cage birds.

Rape Seed. — German rape seed, or bird-seed rape, is
a better food than millet seed for young chicks. It is
a fattening food, rich in protein, and dark or chestnut
brown in color. Rape-seed grains are smaller than millet
seeds. For ailing or weakly chicks, rape seed is boiled
for 5 min., turned into a fine, funnel-shapel sieve, and
left to drain overnight. A small quantity of this food
is given in the morning and evening. Only the true
German rape seed is fit for this use.

VEGETABLES

Mangels.— Of all the vegetables and roots that are
fed to poultry as substitutes for green foods, mangels
are the best; they are fine-flavored, sweet, and nutri-
tious, and impart these qualities to the meat and eggs
of the fowls. No objectionable flavors are introduced
into either the flesh or the eggs as a result of feeding
mangels liberally. Mangels are rank growers, keep well
throughout the winter if protected from frost, are easily
fed, and are freely eaten by fowls.

Beets. — There are many kinds of beets, all of which
are eaten freely by poultry. If too many raw beets are
fed, however, the bowels of the fowls may become so
loose that diarrhea will result, especially if the use of
beets is long continued. Raw beets should be sparingly
fed, but if they are cooked they make a valuable addi-
tion to a ration.

Turnips.— As a poultry food, turnips are not so desir-
able as beets. If turnips are fed raw, they taint the
flavor of the eggs and do not improve the meat of market

POULTRY FOODS 49

poultry. The rutabaga is the best variety of turnip for
poultry, but even this turnip will taint the eggs if fed
freely. Turnips, parsnips, and carrots, when boiled to a
pulp and mixed with the mash feeds, make good rations
for all kinds of poultry. A very little salt should be
put in the water in which the vegetables are boiled.
Too much salt will kill poultry; fowls require much less
salt than men.

Potatoes. — When they are plentiful and cheap, potatoes
are used as poultry food; 5 Ib. of potatoes are about
equal in feeding value to 1 Ib. of corn meal. Potatoes fed
to laying hens are thoroughly boiled, drained, and mixed
with wheat bran, middlings, and ground oats; the same
mixture will do for growing chicks, but if it is to be
used for fattening purposes some corn meal is added to
this ration. Meal that is made from small potatoes is
used as a fattening food; this meal contains all the
solid food of the potato and only a small percentage
of the original moisture. The meal is an easly digested
food, and it is used where potatoes are more plentiful
than grain. Raw potatoes are not fit food for poultry.

Onions.— Although onions are wholesome food for all
kinds of fowls, their flavor is imparted to the eggs and
meat of the fowls that eat them; for this reason onions
should not be used when their flavor will prove objec-
tionable. Turnips, onions, and potatoes may be boiled
together and used in mash food for all kinds of poultry
without harm, provided none of the mixture is fed for
2 wk. before killing the fowls for market or selling their
eggs for food. All of these vegetables can be safely
used for hens when their eggs are to be used for hatch-
ing and not for food.

Cabbage. — Although not the best thing for them, cab-
bage is a favorite food of fowls, and is often quite
liberally fed. Cabbages are laxative, especially when
they have been frozen. They also impart an odor to
eggs that detracts from their quality. If cabbages are
permitted to freeze and are carelessly fed they may
reduce the egg yield materially, and may also cause

50 POULTRY FOODS

so much looseness of the bowels of the fowls that their
health will be injured. Kale and Swiss chard can be
used in the same way as cabbages.

Apples. — No other fruit is more plentiful nor so gener-
ally eaten as are apples. They are liked by poultry,
and little chicks may be taught to eat them raw. Wher-
ever sweet apples abound they can be cut up into small
pieces and fed raw to little chicks. They may be sliced
in root cutters and fed to fowls of all ages. When
cooked and mixed with meals they are eaten greedily
by livestock of all kinds. Apples and apple peelings
cut into small pieces, cooked into a thin sauce, and
mixed with meals are good feed for laying hens.

Carrots.— For feeding of poultry, there ' is no more
desirable root crop than carrots. The tops are relished
by the fowls; and they are a succulent green feed for
them. The roots may be fed raw to fowls of all kinds,
both young and old. Raw carrots fed freely to laying
hens are likely to impart color to the yolk and flavor to
the egg. When cooked before feeding they impart but
little color to the yolk and no flavor to the egg. Carrots
contain a large percentage of water. The solids con-
tained in them are mostly digestible. Boiled carrots
mixed with meals are an excellent mash feed for lay-
ing hens.

Pumpkins.— For some reason there is an impression
that pumpkins are not good feed for cows, hogs, or
poultry. There does not seem to be any good reason for
such a belief. Although pumpkins are not an excellent
ration alone either for milk or egg production, they can
be used for feeding to poultry of all kinds and to laying
hens to good advantage. Pumpkins that are frozen or
partly frozen are detrimental to the health of poultry if
eaten raw; if cooked and mixed with meal they may
be safely eaten but they are not so good for feed as
when they are in good condition. For feeding to poultry,
the pumpkins should be thoroughly cooked, stirred into
a mash, and dried off with meals, in which condition
they can be fed plentifully.

POULTRY FOODS 51

GREEN FOODS

Green, or growing, plants are valuable as food for
poultry on account of the natural juices they contain.
The tender blades of grass and other forage plants
impart new life to fowls that feed on them in the spring.
Chicks can be grown and fowls sustained without green
food, but the difference between those that have it in
abundance and those that do not is so marked that all
question of its value is removed.

Green food is at its best when gathered by the fowls
from the field where it grows, but good results may be
obtained by substituting clover hay or other dried forage
for the green portion of the ration. This practice is
necessary when the fowls cannot range extensively and
whenever there is no available green food owing to
climatic or other conditions.

The green food consumed by fowls or chicks should
not to be considered as a regular portion of the nutritive
ration, but rather as a supplement to the grain and
animal food. The composition and nutritive ratio of
different kinds of green foods, that under various cir-
cumstances and in different places have been found to be
of more or less value for poultry food, are given in the
table which appears on the following page.

Vegetable Tops.— Poultry relish the tops of vegetables
as green food. Trimmings from vegetables and the waste
from fruit, cabbage, and roots, cut into small pieces,
boiled to a pulp, and mixed into a mash of meal, make
an excellent food for all kinds of fowls, both old and
young.

Grass.— Nearly everywhere grass of many kinds
grows naturally or is cultivated for feeding, grazing,
and hay making; none of the green foods is better for
poultry. Where grass is naturally abundant, a supply
of green food is always at hand during the growing
season. But green food for winter use must be grown

52

POULTRY FOODS

COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE RATIO
OF GREEN FOODS

Food

Dry

Matter
Per
Cent.

Digestible Nutrients

Nutri-
tive
Ratio

Protein
Per

Cent.

Carbo-
hy-
drates
Per

Cent.

Fat
Per

Cent.

Alfalfa ..

20.0
20.0
21.0
29.2
19.3
20.7
16.4
34.9
28.9
27.0
37.8
23.4
14.3
34.7
28.5
38.4
27.0
4.1
20.0
15.7
11.3
15.3
11.4
9.1
11.7
21.1
9.1
13.0
19.7
9.5
15.9
12.4

3.7
2.1
1.9
2.9
2.2
1.0
1.7
2.7
1.9
1.9
2.4
2.5
2.2
2.6
2.8
2.1
.8
1.0
2.0
1.6
1.7
1.8
.8
1.1
1.6
.9
1.0
1.2
1.5
1.0
.4
1.4

7.3
8.5
10.2
14.8
9.3
11.6
8.8
17.8
15.6
15.9
17.9
14.1
8.6
21.2
11.8
21.2
13.8
2.7
16.8
11.9
4.6
8.2
7.8
5.4
11.2
16.3
5.8
7.5
24.7
7.2
14.2
9.4

.6
.7
.4
.7
.4
.4
.3
.7
.4
.6
.9
.4
.3
.6
.6
.6
.4
.8
.2
.1
.1
.4
.2
.1
.2
.1
.3
.2
.4
.2
.3
.5

1 2.4
1 4.8
1 5.8
5.7
4.6
12.5
5.6
7.2
8.7
9.1
8.3
6.0
4.2
8.7
4.7
10.8
18.4
4.5
8.7
7.6
2.8
5.1
10.4
5.1
7.3
18.3
6.5
6.7
17.1
7.7
37.3
7.5

Alfilerilla
Barley

Red clover

Crimson clover

Cowpeas

Blue grass

Hungarian grass . . .
Orchard grass
Oats

Rye

Red top

Soybeans

Timothy

Kafir corn

Lettuce

Beets

Beet leaves

Cabbage

Carrots

Parsnips

Potatoes

Pumpkins . .

Rutabagas

Sweet potatoes
Turnips

Apples

POULTRY FOODS 53

and stored, and in some places the supply for the entire
year must be grown.

Clippings of grass from the lawn are also good food
for poultry that is confined in yards; or, if dried and
stored, these clippings will be good for winter use.
Either fresh or dry, they are valuable as litter for the
floor of the brooder or brooder house.

Fodder Corn.— Corn that is sown broadcast or drilled
in rows produces tender, green stalks called fodder corn,
which is relished by fowls that are confined; it
is not preferred by fowls having their freedom, nor
should it be fed after it has passed beyond a succulent
or juicy condition.

Alfalfa and Clover.— The tender leaves of all the
clovers and of alfalfa are in much demand by fowls.
They probably prefer alfalfa, or lucerne, to clover.
After it has become well established, alfalfa will
continue to grow for many years and will produce
heavier yields of green forage and hay than any of the
clovers. To raise alfalfa successfully, the soil must
be adapted to the needs of the plant, and in many
localities clover can be raised more easily than alfalfa.

During winter months, clover hay can be used as a
substitute for green food. Hay made from Red clover
is most frequently used for this purpose, although hay
made from any of the clover plants is good winter food
for fowls. It may be used as litter on the floor, from
which the fowls will help themselves, or the hay may be
cut into small pieces and placed in a box for the fowls
to work over. They eat all the leaves of clover hay.
Bright, clean, early-cut hay is preferable to a dark
hay made from cured plants. Ground clover and clover
meal may also be used as food for poultry.

Hay made from alfalfa is extensively used for
poultry, and it may, like clover, be cut into pieces or
ground into a fine meal before feeding. All forms
of alfalfa are freely eaten both by old and young
fowls, and alfalfa is not equaled by any other hay as
a substitute for green food for fowls. Meadow hay may

54 POULTRY FOODS

be ground and mixed with alfalfa meal, but alfalfa is
best fed without mixture or adulteration.

Miscellaneous Green Crops for Winter Feeding.— In
addition to those already mentioned, many other green
crops are grown for winter feeding. A mixture of oats,
peas, rape, and clover planted on the same ground and
cut while green makes a good forage crop for fowls.
First, sow 3 bu. oats and 2 bu. peas per acre and harrow
into the ground; then, seed over the oats and peas
with a mixture of 6 qt. clover seed and 1 qt. German
rape seed.

ANIMAL FOODS

MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS

Marked success in producing eggs and in growing
poultry for the market cannot be obtained without the
use of some animal food.

Insects and worms form an important part of the
food of wild birds and of domestic fowls whenever they
are permitted to range.

Lean Meat.— Meat is an acceptable substitute for
insects and worms. Lean meat is especially useful
in the feeding of laying hens, for by using this food
much protein may be added to the ration without in-
creasing its bulk or using concentrated foods that
impair digestion. The carcasses of horses and cows
are composed mainly of lean meat and are used as
poultry food.

Meat Scrap.— There are two kinds of meat scrap,
fat and lean. The latter kind contains twice as much
protein as carbohydrates, while the former contains more
fat than protein and very little ash. The best lean-
meat scrap should be selected for laying hens; the more
protein and the less fat the scrap contains, the better
it is for the hens. Fat-meat scraps and fat or tallow
are used in fattening special grades of table poultry.

Animal Meal. — One of the numerous by-products of the
slaughter houses is animal meal. The feeding value

POULTRY FOODS 55

of animal meal is higher than that of cut green bone; but
better results are obtained from the use of cut green
bone than from animal meal, because the former contains
a larger percentage of ash than of protein — presum-
ably because the meal is made from both bone and meat.
Good meat meal is rich in protein but contains less ash
than animal meal, and can only be used sparingly in
making an egg-producing ration. Because of its cost
and richness in protein, meat meal is used only when
good meat scrap cannot be obtained.

Dried Blood.— Dried blood and blood meal are some-
times used to supply protein in foods for poultry.
These blood products are concentrated foods and a
small quantity of either mixed with other foods will
make a narrow ration. Dried blood and blood meal
are not generally economical or profitable foods for
poultry.

Cut Green Bone.— The food commonly called cut
green bone is made by cutting fresh bones into small
pieces by means of a bone mill. Being fresh meat,
bone, and fat, its composition closely resembles that of
bugs and worms, the natural food of fowls. About
Y^ oz. of cut green bone per day for each fowl, mixed
with wheat bran, will make a balanced ration well suited
to fowls.

Tainted Meat.— Tainted meat that is not fit for human
food should not be fed to fowls. The taint of such food
may sometimes be removed by boiling it in water
containing baking soda, in which case the meat can be
safely fed to fowls.

Bone Meal.— Bone meal consists of bones of animals
cleaned of all meat, fat, and marrow, and reduced to
meal. It is used to supply any deficiency of lime, ash,
or bone-forming material that exists in the ration. Bone
meal can be fed to young chicks to produce a strong
growth of bone. The particles in this meal vary in
size from those that are very small to those of the size
of whole wheat or even corn; the largest sizes are not
desirable for poultry food.

56 POULTRY FOODS

Fish. — Fish that are handled for their oil are reduced
in presses until little of their flesh remains. The bone
and other residue are then ground into a meal. This
fish meal and dried fish are sometimes fed to poultry.
Fish products are liable to transmit a disagreeable
flavor to the eggs or meat, and for this reason are not
desirable.

MILK

Milk is a valuable poultry food, more valuable than
its commercial analysis indicates. Nothing excels
warm rnilk direct from the cow as the first ration for
chicks. The use of whole milk as a chicken feed,
however, will rarely prove profitable, for even when
carefully handled it is not worth more than 2c. per qt.
for thir. purpose. The most profitable method of feeding
milk to fowls is to use it in moistening mash feeds.

Some persons prefer sweet milk for poultry, but
G. A. C. Wyllie, of the British Dairy Institute, Reading,
England, says that sour milk has been found to give
better results, as the acid produced by the bacteria
present causes more rapid action. He states: "Soured
milk also prevents scouring, and makes the food easier
digested. The acid formed from the milk sugar also
prevents sickness and stimulates the appetite. It keeps
the digestive organs in proper activity, which saves
feeding co much green food. When fed to all kinds
of poultry it produces a fine white flesh, due to the
amount of phosphates, with extra good flavor. It is with-
out doubt one of the best foods we have both for young
and old stock, and is becoming more popular every
day. I may say it also increases the egg supply and
hastens ihe molt."

Skim- milk, sour milk, and buttermilk, may be im-
proved for feeding purposes by scalding; but care should
be taken not to boil, as boiling destroys the value
and palatability. The whey of milk is of no value
as a poultry feed. In the accompanying table is shown
the composition and nutritive ratio of whole milk and
of various milk products.

POULTRY FOODS

57

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MINERAL MATTER

Grit.— The food eaten by
fowls goes first into the
crop, where it is softened
by water; it then passes
into the gizzard, and by
the action of small sharp
stones, or grit, is there
ground into a pasty mass.
The best grit is sharp, ir-
regular pieces of hard
limestone about the size
of corn kernels.

Mineral matter is neces-
sary for the good health
of the fowls and for egg-
shell-forming material. A
deficiency of this in the
regular ration may be sup-
plied by grit, limestone,
plaster, broken oyster
shells, or shells of any
kind. Granulated bone
and bone meal serve the
purpose fairly well, but
the lime in shells is more
quickly dissolved by the
action of grit and gizzard,
and hence is better than
the bone.

Charcoal. — Charcoal is
one of the necessities of
poultry feeding and should
be kept constantly before
poultry; it assists diges-
tion, sweetens the crop,
gizzard, and intestines, and
prevents ailments of the

58 POULTRY FOODS

digestive tract. The charcoal, which should be broken
into small pieces, should be supplied with the oyster
shells and grit.

Salt. — The use of salt in poultry food is not a
necessity; but when a forcing ration is fed to fowls
either to produce broilers, to fatten fowls, or to produce
eggs, some salt may be used to assist digestion; 8 oz
of salt to 100 Ib. of meal is enough to use; much more
than this will injure the digestion of grown fowls,
and it is positively unsafe to feed more to young chicks.

POISONOUS FOODS

Fowls sometimes die from ptomaine poisoning. For
this reason putrid meat, spoiled grain, and other fer-
mented or spoiled foods should not be fed. Foods that
are otherwise wholesome may be made unwholesome if
exposed to dampness, due to the development of molds.

Excessive quantities of salt, salt meat, or the brine
from which the meat has been removed, salt fish, salt
from ice-cream freezers, and in fact, salt of any kind
consumed in large quantities is very destructive to
poultry.

Solutions of sulphate of iron or of sulphuric acid,
carelessly used, are very destructive to poultry.

Decayed vegetables or fruits, fermenting waste, waste
from cider mills" or canning factories, and slops from
distilleries are not suitable for feeding to laying hens,
because they flavor the eggs. Tainted meat eaten by
a fowl will also influence the flavor of eggs.

Moldy bread is detrimental to poultry. It may be
freed from mold by toasting or baking it dry and hard,
but when so prepared it is not fit food for chicks under
6 wk. old.

INTERNAL ORGANS OF FOWLS

INTERNAL ORGANS OF FOWLS

The process of digestion in poultry differs materially
from that in animals that chew their food. Fowls have
no teeth, the functions of the teeth being performed
by the gizzard, in which, by the aid of grit, the food is

FIG. 1

ground into pulp. The greater part of the food eaten
by poultry is swallowed whole and passes in that
condition to the crop, where it absorbs considerable
moisture before it passes to the other digestive organs.
A general view of the internal organs of a hen is
shown in Fig. 1. After being picked up by the bill, the

60 INTERNAL ORGANS OF FOWLS

food passes through the upper part of the esophagus
a into the crop b; from the crop the food passes through
the lower part of the esophagus into the gizzard c;
and from there through the other organs of the digestive
system. •

Crop.— In fowls and other granivorous, or grain-eating,
birds, the crop is relatively larger than the crop of
birds that feed largely on grass. Within the crops are
juices that moisten the food and hasten its passage into
the gizzard.

Gizzard.— The gizzard c may be looked on as a power-
ful grinding machine in which the whole grain and
other foods of poultry are ground, oftentimes finer
than they would be ground by the teeth of chewing
animals. The grinding is accomplished by means of
the powerful muscles of the gizzard, which keep the
mixture of sand, grit, and food within it constantly in
motion. In the gizzard the food is also acted on by
digestive juices before being passed into the intestines.

Intestines.— The intestines as applied to fowls means
all of the alimentary canal beyond the gizzard. The
intestines of the fowls, although different in many
respects from those of other animals, present a somewhat
similar appearance and have functions nearly identical
with those of the other domestic animals. In fowls, the
intestines are made up of the duodenum, and the rest
of the small intestines d, the caeca e, and the large
intestines and the rectum g. Inside of the intestines the
food is acted on by various digestive fluids, and
digestible nutrients within the food are taken from it
and eventually converted into blood. The inner walls
of the intestines are covered with minute projections
known as rilH, which absorb the digested material
trom the contents of the intestines. The indigestible
part of the food passes into the rectum g and out of
the body through the vent h.

Liver.— The liver i is a large, two-lobed organ of
peculiar cellular structure. It has two offices, one of
them being to purify the digested material brought to

INTERNAL ORGANS OF FOWLS 61

it by the capillaries, and the other to secrete the bile,
an important digestive fluid. The liver must be kept
in a healthy condition or the blood, and consequently
the entire system, will speedily become poisoned.

Gall Bladder.— The gall bladder k serves as a reservoir
for the bile secreted by the liver, to which it is closely
attached. The bile is passed, as needed, from the gall
bladder to the intestines, where its special office is
to break up the vegetable fats and oils and convert them
into soluble animal fat, which is readily made a part of
the fowl's body.

Spleen.— The spleen s is located near the liver and is
an organ whose use is not definitely known. It is
thought, however, that it is useful in producing certain
modifications in the blood.

Pancreas.— Situated among the folds of the small
intestines is the pancreas /, a small organ of insig-
nificant appearance. This organ is of vital importance,
for in it is secreted the pancreatic juice, which flows
from the pancreas into the intestines, where it acts
directly on the starchy portions of food, and to a
limited extent on protein; it also aids in the absorption
of fat. The juice from the pancreas unites with the bile
and they together flow over the foods as they come from
the gizzard.

Heart and Lungs.— The heart m and the lungs n are
vital organs. The work done by the latter, like that
of the liver, consists in purifying the blood. The office
of the heart, as is well known, is to pump the blood
to all parts of the body. The heart, lungs, and liver may
be considered as the most important organs of the body,
and care should be taken to keep them in good working
order, for when the action of one of these organs is
faulty, the effect is soon apparent on the others. The air
is supplied to the lungs through the windpipe w.

Kidneys.— The kidneys o are located in cavities in
the pelvic bone. They act on the blood and separate
from it liquid waste material, which is eventually passed
from the body through the vent.

62

INTERNAL ORGANS OF FOWLS

a

Ovaries and Oviduct.— The ovaries p and the oviduct q
are shown enlarged in Fig. 2. The ovaries a (Fig. 2)
are attached to the under side of the backbone, usually
on the left. The ovaries
and the oviduct are the
female organs of repro-
duction. The yolk of the
egg attains its full size
within the casing of the
ovaries, which, in good
laying hens, contain
yolks varying in size
from that of a small pin
head to that of the full-
grown yolk. As soon as
the yolk has reached its
-full development, the
casing of the ovary, or
ovisac, as it is sometimes
called, opens and the
yolk passes into the ovi-
duct c. The yolk may or
L may not be fertilized by
' the male element before
or just after entering the
oviduct.

The oviduct varies in
length, and in some cases
it is nearly 2 ft. long. As
the yolk passes through
the oviduct it becomes
covered with albumen, of
which the white of the
egg is composed, and
with a double membrane,
or the lining to the egg-
shell. After the egg has reached its full size the shell is
formed about it in the oviduct. The passage of the egg
through the oviduct requires from 6 to 18 or 20 hr.

FIG. 2

FEEDING OF FOWLS 63

FEEDING OF FOWLS

In poultry feeding it is necessary not only to provide
fowls with a ration properly balanced in the food
elements, but the ration must also be of a character
most suitable to the digestive organs of the fowls.
In addition to this the fowls must be forced to take
sufficient exercise so that their bodily functions will
demand a plentiful supply of food, be in a condition
to secure the best results from the food that is eaten,
and be able to eliminate readily all waste materials.

When fowls take sufficient exercise, the only secret of
keeping their digestive organs in the best condition will
be found in feeding them a plentiful supply of coarse
feed like bran, or some of the succulent green foods,
such as cut clover, cut grasses, vegetables, or fruits.
These foods will distend the intestines and aid in dis-
tributing the concentrated foods that are necessary
for upbuilding the tissues of the body and for egg
production. To induce fowls to take considerable
exercise, a certain part of their grain food should be
scattered in the litter of the houses and on the ground
of the ranges so that they will be compelled to scratch
to get it.

When kept actively exercising, fowls will not eat more
than their digestive organs will be able to handle
easily, provided fattening foods are not fed in excess
and the ration is well balanced for egg production.

Despite the necessity of a certain quantity of coarse
food to regulate their digestive organs, fowls must be
fed as little indigestible matter as is consistent with the
maintenance of their health and of a well-balanced
ration. For instance, hens cannot thrive on a ration
made up entirely of even the best grade of oats, and
when oats are fed that are three-fourths husks, all the
hens can possibly stuff themselves with will do little
more than barely sustain life and will produce but
few eggs. Chick feed and feed for full-grown fowls

64

FEEDING OF FOWLS

that is largely indigestible will "seriously injure those
that eat it. It is possible for chicks and full-grown
fowls to dwindle away with their crops stuffed full of
indigestible material. The fact that a fowl's crop is
distended with food is no proof that it has been well
fed. Hence, the only actual proof of the value of any
particular feed for fowls lies
in the results that are ob-
tained from it.

As a part of the daily ra-
tion, water is equal in im-
portance to grain. Without
water, the food would not be
softened in the crop and di-
gestion would not go on.
Blood, eggs, and meat are all
largely water; even the bones
and muscles are dependent on
moisture for growth. Pure
ROCK water is an absolute necessity
for poultry; if the drinking
water is tainted, putrid, or

contaminated with germs, disease is sure to follow its
use. A gallon of fresh water each day is not too much
for 2 doz. hens. A plentiful supply of pure water from
which they can help themselves must be constantly kept
within reach of fowls.

The composition of fowls and fresh eggs is shown in
the accompanying table. The large percentage of water

COMPOSITION OF FOWL AND EGG

BARRED PLYMOUTH
FEMALE

Water
Per
Cent.

Ash

Per

Cent.

Protein
Per
Cent.

Fat
Per

Cent.

Hen...

55.8

3.8

21.6

17.0

Pullet

55.4

3.4

21.2

18.0

Capon

41.6

3.7

19.4

33.9

Fresh egg

65.7

12 2

11.4

8.9

FEEDING OF FOWLS

65

in them emphasizes the necessity for a plentiful supply
of water.

WEIGHT OF POULTRY FOODS PER QUART

Food

Alfalfa meal

Barley, whole

Barley meal

Beans

Beef

Buckwheat

Corn, whole

Corn meal

Corn bran

Corn and oat food

Cottonseed meal

Gluten feed

Gluten meal

Hemp seed

Hominy chop

Kafir corn

Linseed meal, new process. . .

Linseed meal, old process

Millet -.

Oats, whole

Oats, ground

Peas

Rice

Rye, whole

Rye, ground

Sunflower seed

Salt

Shorts

Wheat, whole

Wheat, ground

Wheat bran

Wheat middlings (standard) .
Wheat, middlings ( ilour)

Weight of Poultry Foods per Quart.— In the mixing
of rations for poultry the weights of poultry foods per
quart as given in the preceding table are useful.

66 FEEDING OF FOWLS

FEEDING OF YOUNG CHICKS

Xo food is given to young chicks for the first 48 hr.,
but grit of some kind is supplied to clean out their
digestive organs. Beginning with the third day, they
may have stale bread moistened with sweet milk and
pressed until nearly dry. For the next 2 or 3 da. a mix-
ture of stale bread crumbs and fine oatmeal makes a
good ration, and is better fed in small quantities at
frequent intervals.

For chicks that are a week or more old, a simple
ration can be made of 4 parts, by weight, of cracked
corn, 2 parts of broken wheat, 2 parts of oatmeal, and
2 parts of granulated meat scrap. The corn should be
broken into small pieces and the meat scrap must be
of good quality, rich in protein, and of small size; meat
s:rap that contains fat is not fit to use in this ration.
After the chicks are 6 wk. old, a ration made of cracked
corn, whole wheat, hulled oats, and meat scrap can be
used. In addition to the grain and meat ration, grit,
green food, broken sea shells, or bone meal are neces-
sary for young chicks. All food fed to chicks should
l)e in small particles to avoid disorders in the crop and
digestive organs.

Green stuff of some kind should be fed continually
after the chicks are 3 or 4 da. old. Sprouted oats, lawn
clippings, vegetable tops of any kind, and lettuce may
all be fed. It is best to cut them into very small pieces
before feeding. There is no danger of poultry of any
age having too much green feed. Partly-grown chicks
and older fowls will get a plentiful supply of this if
given free range where it is abundant. When kept in
confinement, they should have a plentiful supply of
green stuff fresh every day.

One of the most successful poultry growers and exhibi-
tors of New England feeds his little chicks for the first
day or two on a baked cake made of 2 parts of bran,
2 parts of corn meal, and 1 part of wheat middlings, with
just enough sweet milk or water to make a dry, crumbly

FEEDING OF FOWLS 67

mass. This is baked in the oven until thoroughly done.
When cool, this cake is rubbed into crumbs and fed to
the chicks, a little fine grit being sprinkled on the
board where the cake is spread. This is fed to the
chicks every 2 hr. ; they should have only as much as
they will eat up clean. After the second day, hoppers
containing a dry mash composed of 2 parts of wheat bran
and 1 part of corn meal should be placed where the chicks
can help themselves. A hopper filled with charcoal, grit,
and very fine oyster shell is also used.

After the first week the same feeding is continued,
with the addition of some grain, chick feed being scat-
tered in the litter for the chicks to scratch for. After
the second week but one feed a day of the baked cake
is given to them, the remainder of the ration being
composed of the grain chick feed. After the second week
some hard-boiled egg chopped up very fine and mixed
with the cake is given to the chicks. This is fed once
a day for 2 or 3 wk.

After the third week the chicks are fed very small
size cracked corn in place of the chick feed, and the
baked cake is omitted, the hoppers of dry mash being
kept before them all the time. In addition to this they
should have sprouted oats fresh each morning. Sprouted
oats is considered of equal importance with the other
feeds.

Until they are well grown the chicks are fed con-
tinually with some broken grain composed of wheat,
corn, and hulled oats, which is scattered in the litter
to furnish plenty of exercise. As soon as the chicks can
run out of doors there is less need of feeding the
sprouted oats, provided they can get growing greens on
the outside.

CORNELL FEEDING SCHEDULE

The Poultry Department of Cornell Agricultural
College recommends that chicks be fed from the first to
the fourth day with rolled oats, 8 parts; bread crumbs,
8 parts; sifted beef scrap, 2 parts; bone meal, 1 part.

68 FEEDING OF FOWLS

This is moistened with sour skim-milk, and fed five
times daily. Cracked grain mixture should be left before
the chicks in a shallow tray containing a little dry mash
like that given in later feeding. This grain mixture is
composed of finely cracked wheat, 3 parts; finely cracked
corn, 2 parts; pinhead oatmeal (steel-cut oatmeal), 1 part.
Fine grit and charcoal mixed with grain, and a little
finely shredded green food, should be scattered in the
trays. Plenty of clean water should be supplied at all
times.

For subsequent feeding, the following mash moistened
with skim-milk should be gradually substituted for the
first mixture: Wheat bran, 3 parts; corn meal, 3 parts;
wheat middlings, 3 parts; sifted beef scrap, 3 parts;
bone meal, 1 part. The moist mash should be fed two
or three times daily. Cracked grain should be given at
least twice daily, scattered in light litter as soon as the
chicks are able to find it. Mash in dry condition should
be kept in shallow trays before the chicks. Grit, char-
coal, and fine cracked bone shou!4 be fed in separate
trays or hoppers. When 4 wk. old, the chicks should
be receiving two meals of mash and three of grain.

After 4 wk. the number of meals should be reduced,
first to two of mash and two of grain, then to one of
mash and two of grain; the grain should be fed morning
and night and the dry mash should be constantly acces-
sible. As soon as the chicks will eat larger grains, the
wheat need not be cracked; hulled oats may be used in
place of pinhead oatmeal, and the corn may be coarsely
cracked. When the chicks are 8 wk. old, the grain
ration may be changed to the following: Large cracked
corn, 3 parts; wheat, 2 parts. If it is desired that the
chicks shall develop slowly, the moist food may be
gradually discontinued after 3 wk. Beef scrap may
be fed in the mash up to one-fourth by weight, in quan-
tity, or, after the chicks have become accustomed to it,
may be kept constantly before them in hoppers. This
method of feeding has been proved to be good where all
feeds are to be purchased. Farmers having certain prod-

FEEDING OF FOWLS 69

ucts of their own may modify it to advantage. Soured
skim-milk and table scraps will largely replace beef
scrap, particularly if chicks are on free range. Bread
moistened with milk is a good food for the first day or
two. Scalded clover leaves, either alone or mixed with
other feeds form a valuable addition to the rations, and
chicks a week old will eat wheat screenings. Buck-
wheat, barley, or rye should not be fed to young chicks.

FEEDING OF LAYING HENS

There has been so much written relative to feeding
laying hens that one is at a loss to know just where
to begin and what method to adopt. However, it may
be said that a ration for laying hens is not suitable
unless it contains enough of the food principles to main-
tain the bodily growth and to supply sufficient material
for the production of eggs; that is, protein, fats, carbo-
hydrates, ash, and water must be plentifully supplied
and in the proper proportions.

A few suggestions that might be followed as a guide
for selecting a ration to be fed to hens are given here.
Never feed a ration containing any considerable amount
of fattening feed during the summer months, nor in a
climate that is continually warm. An all-corn ration
will not produce many eggs in winter, neither will a
ration composed entirely of wheat and oats do much
better. It is not necessary nor advisable to feed many
different kinds of grain, and, above all, a grain mixture
should not be fed unless its grain content is such as will
produce eggs.

The most rapid assimilation and transformation of
feed into table products is accomplished by the hen and
the cow; the former is most active and when in good
producing condition transforms the food consumed into
eggs even more quickly than the cow transforms her
food into milk. Doctor Jordan, of the New York Agri-
cultural Experiment Station, says: "If you will con-

FEEDING OF FOWLS

sider the dry matter of the hen and compare it with the
dry matter of the eggs she lays in a year, there will be
figured 5l/2 times as much dry matter in the eggs as in
her whole body. The weight of the dry matter in a
cow's body will be to the weight of the dry matter in
the milk as 1 is to 2.9. In other words, based on the
dry matter, the hen does twice as well as the cow."
This indicates more activity and a greater amount of
assimilating power by the hen than by the cow.

The hen that lays 150 eggs per year will, if these eggs
weigh 2 oz. each, have laid 300 oz. of eggs. Of this,
approximately 10% is protein; that is, 30 oz. of protein
is extracted from her feed. The hen will need more
than three times as much protein as her egg yield con-
tains to sustain her body during the year, which would
be in all 120 oz. of protein, or 7*/2 lb. If the entire grain
ration of the hen were composed of wheat, and if she
should eat 100 lb., which is the average ration for a year,
there would be only a little more than 9 lb. of digestible
protein in her year's supply. If the hen should extract
7 lb. of protein from the 9 Jb. of protein contents in the
wheat, she would be doing remarkably well. To accom-
plish this she would need to gain 70% efficiency from the
food consumed.

Professor Patterson, of Missouri, has advanced the
theory that the best egg yield will be secured from hens
that are fed a ration that contains about equal propor-
tions of yolk-forming material and white-forming mate-
rial. He believes that if the hens are fed in this way
they will produce more eggs than if fed otherwise.
These suggestions might be called experimental. The
only way of knowing to a certainty whether or not this
is true will be through practical experience or from
giving the suggestion a fair trial and noting the results.
The grain ration suggested is a mixture of 150 lb. of
cracked corn and 150 lb. of wheat. For a dry mash, 20 lb.
each of wheat bran, wheat middlings, corn meal, ground
oats, and gluten meal, with 30 lb. of beef scrap, 5 lb. of
alfalfa meal, and 5 lb. of linseed meal, is recommended.

FEEDING OF FOWLS 71

For a ration for laying hens that have free range,
Professor Patterson suggests 150 Ib. of cracked corn, 150
Ib. of wheat, and 25 Ib. of beef scrap. The beef scrap,
of course, would need to be fed from the hopper.

Another suggestion for feeding laying hens that have
free range is a mixture of 100 Ib. of wheat, 100 Ib. of
corn, and 50 Ib. of oats or buckwheat. A dry mash to
be used with this is composed of 20 Ib. of bran, 10 Ib. of
corn meal, 10 Ib. of wheat middlings, 10 Ib. of beef scrap,
and 10 Ib. of gluten meal. The difference between these
two rations is that the grain ration contains 50 Ib. of
buckwheat and the beef scrap is fed in the mash. This
ration may be obtained in almost every locality, and
the hens that are fed with it may do fairly well at egg
production.

MODERN METHODS OF FEEDING

The most modern method of feeding laying hens has
been established as a result of the egg-laying contests
that have been held in several parts of the world. The
information gained from these experiments has estab-
lished the feeding of a double ration, of a ration com-
posed partly of whole or broken grains and partly of a
dry-mash mixture. In some cases, the grain mixture
is fed from self-feeding hoppers; in other cases, the grain
is hand fed into the litter. In all cases the dry mash
should be fed from hoppers.

An excellent ration for laying hens which can be fed
in all localities— north, south, east, and west— for 12
months of the year, and which will produce a satisfactory
egg yield, is as follows:

Dry Mash Scratch Grain

Wheat bran, 100 Ib. Cracked corn, 30 Ib.

Corn meal, 50 Ib. Whole wheat, 30 Ib.

Gluten feed, 50 Ib. Heavy white oats, 20 Ib.

Ground oats, 50 Ib. Barley, 10 Ib.

Wheat middlings, 35 Ib. Kafir corn, 10 Ib.

Beef scraps, 35 Ib. Buckwheat, 10 Ib.
Low-grade flour, 12 Ib.

72 FEEDING OF FOWLS

Mix the beef scraps with the flour. After this has been
thoroughly done mix them into the other meals. Put the
dry mash in a self-feeding hopper, and keep it before
the fowls constantly so that they can help themselves.
Feed the scratch grain in deep litter so that the hens
must scratch and dig for all they get; feed it twice a
day, morning and afternoon, giving for each hen about

1 oz. of grain in the morning and 2 oz. in the afternoon.
The hens must have a plentiful supply of green food, all
they will eat of it; also grit, oyster shell, and plenty of
water.

Another method of feeding is to give no grain at all
until after 2 o'clock in the afternoon, thus compelling
the hens to eat freely of the dry mash from daylight; at

2 o'clock scatter in the litter 3 oz. of the grain mixture
for each hen. Where self-feeding grain hoppers are used
they can be locked at night so that no grain can be
worked out, thus forcing the hens to eat dry mash all
day until 2 o'clock, at which time the self-feeding grain
hoppers can be released so that the hens can feed them-
selves on grain from 2 o'clock until dark. The dry-mash
mixture is a 1 to 3.1 nutritive ratio; the scratch-grain
mixture is a 1 to 7.7 nutritive ratio. If the hens eat
as much of one as they do of the other during the
day they will have a ration the nutritive ratio of which
is 1 to 5.4.

Other rations recommended by experiment stations
have been successfully used; the most prominent among
them being what is known as the Maine ration. In this
method, cracked corn is fed in the litter early in the
morning. About noon a grain ration composed of equal
parts of wheat and oats is fed at the rate of 2 qt. to each
50 hens. The dry mash, which is kept constantly before
the hens in hoppers, is composed of wheat bran, 50 lb.;
corn meal, 25 lb. ; gluten meal, 25 lb.; meat scraps, 25 lb.;
linseed meal, 12 lb. ; low-grade flour, 25 lb. The meat
scraps should always be mixed into the flour, when flour
is used; this is done to coat the meat scraps and to
separate them for feeding. A plentiful supply of green

FEEDING OF FOWLS 73

feed with grit, oyster shell, and water is a prominent
part of this ration.

The Missouri ration, as it is called, is highly recom-
mended by the Missouri poultry experimental farm. It
is composed of a grain mixture of 200 Ib. of coarse
cracked corn with 100 Ib. of wheat. For dry mash, ground
oats is continually before the hens in open hoppers.
When the ground oats cannot be obtained, a mixture
composed of 50 Ib. of wheat bran, 25 Ib. of corn meal, and
25 Ib. of shorts or middlings is used. It is recommended
that some of this dry-mash mixture be moistened with
water or with sour milk or with buttermilk and fed to
the hens during the afternoon of each day. A plentiful
supply of green feed, shell, and grit has a prominent
place in this ration.

A ration recommended by the Ontario (Canada) Experi-
ment Station is composed of whole wheat and whole
corn. A liberal feeding of wheat is thrown into the
litter morning and noon and a plentiful supply of whole
corn fed at night. A dry mash is used with this grain
mixture, the mash being composed of 100 Ib. each of
wheat bran, low-grade flour, and barley chop or meal.
Some of this dry-mash mixture is fed in the middle of
the afternoon as a wet mash. Boiled vegetables, waste
bread or kitchen scraps, and 10-per-cent. beef scrap are
included in the afternoon mash feed. A plentiful supply
of green feed of some kind with grit, oyster shell, and
charcoal are considered as a prominent part of this
ration.

Quantity of Food Required by One Hen in a Year.
The figures for the quantity of food required by one hen
in a year given in the accompanying table were derived
from careful records of the food eaten by several hun-
dred hens in a year. They show a total average of about
4.86 oz., or a little less than 4 oz. of grain and meal and
about %o oz. of other material per day for each hen.
Another test of 4,800 hens shows a food consumption of
3.96 oz. of grain per day for each, besides green food and
grit.

74

FEEDING OF FOWLS

QUANTITY OF FOOD REQUIRED BY ONE HEN
IN A YEAR

Food

Quantity
Pounds

Grain of all kinds and meal

900

Oyster shell and bone

64

Grit

2 0

Charcoal

2 4

Green food and clover hay

100

Total

1108

FEEDING OF FOWLS DURING MOLT

Fowls that are molting should have good nourishing
food in order properly to nourish their bodies while
they are under the unusual strain of replenishing the
plumage. Foods rich in fat and protein are best for the
the purpose; hence, during molting, a mash that contains
a large proportion of linseed-oil-cake meal and meat is
particularly desirable.

In the morning, molting fowls should have a moderate
meal, composed of equal parts, by weight, of cracked
corn and whole wheat.

At noon they should have all they will eat of mash
composed, by measure, of the following:

Food Parts

Wheat bran 4

Wheat middlings 3

Ground oats 3

Meat scrap 4

Corn meal 3

Linseed-oil-cake meal 4

Low-grade flour 1

Alfalfa meal 2

During the first week of the molting period this ration
should contain only 1 part each of meat scrap and lin-

FEEDING OF FOWLS 75

seed-oil-cake meal; after the first week the quantities
of these materials should be increased at the rate of
l/2 part per day every other day until the quantities given
in the table have been reached. In case such a ration
proves to be too laxative, the quantity of meat and lin-
seed meal is lessened and l/2 part of fine charcoal is
added to the mixture.

At night all the cracked corn and wheat they will eat
is fed to the fowls.

This method of feeding should be continued until the
molt is complete, after which a laying ration is fed to
the hens.

Attempts to force molting are occasionally successful,
but the advantages derived from the practice do not
usually pay for the trouble caused. To force molting,
fowls are confined in a small house for about 3 wk.,
are fed very sparingly, but all the fresh water they will
drink is given to them. The quantity of food given
should be gradually reduced until at the end of the first
week they are receiving only about Yz of the usual food
supply. During the second and third weeks not more
than 1 oz. of grain, or J4 of a ration, should be fed per
day to each fowl. This partial starvation will reduce
flesh and fat and dry the oil from the feathers, causing
them to drop very readily. At the end of the third week
the fowls should be liberated and the food supply gradu-
ally increased. By the end of the fourth week they
should receive full rations.

FEEDING OF CHICKS FOR BROILERS

One of the most difficult problems in the rearing of
poultry is the feeding of the cockerels for squab size
and larger broilers. A good plan is to feed a bread
made of meals, the meal mixture to contain 2 cups of
wheat middlings, 2 cups of corn meal, 2 tablespoonfuls
of meat meal, 1 raw egg, 1 tablespoonful of baking pow-
der, and sufficient water or milk to give a proper con-

76 FEEDING OF FOWLS

sistency to the baking. The mixture should be put into
a pan the same as is corn bread and be baked until
thoroughly done. This should be fed plentifully to the
chicks for one week; thereafter, feed them all the wet
mash they will eat. This mash should be composed of
equal parts of ground oats, corn meal, and wheat mid-
dlings, into which 1 pt. of beef scraps should be mixed
for each 3 qt. of the meal mixture. The mash should
be moistened with milk or water and the chicks should
have all they will eat of it morning and noon. For night
feeding they should have all the cracked corn they will
eat. The main feature of importance is that the chicks
shall have all they will eat three times a day without
any being left to sour. If either sour milk or buttermilk
can be used for moistening the mash, better results will
be obtained than will come from feeding the mash
moistened with water, yet water will do for the purpose
when, milk is lacking.

The English method of feeding broilers differs from
the methods used in this country. One broiler plant in
England feeds almost exclusively ground oats, boiled
rice, and boiled wheat. The broilers are very fond of
the boiled rice and wheat, and it is thought that such
feeding is most profitable. The ground oats are mois-
tened with milk and fed early in the morning. The
second feed is composed of either cooked rice or cooked
wheat; the third feeding is ground oats mixed with milk,
and the fourth, either the cooked rice or the wheat. If
the rice is fed in the morning, cooked wheat is used for
the fourth feeding. For the last feeding at night they
have all of the cooked rice and cooked wheat they will
eat. While this method of feeding is very exacting, it
is said that the best small size broilers sent to London
market are fed in this way.

-FEEDING OF FOWLS 77

SPECIAL FEEDING MIXTURES

It not unusual to have in every flock some chicks that
grow their feathers very slowly. This may come from
lack of mineral elements in the system. Mineral matters
compose about 5 per cent, of the body weight of birds,
and for the most part they enter into the formation of
bone and feathers. All feed rations should contain suffi-
cient of these substances, which are largely lime, potash,
and calcium phosphate. Calcium phosphate from bone
is most beneficial, although both bone and meat scraps
are necessary for a well-formed ration. A dry-mash
mixture containing these elements can be made of wheat
bran, 20 lb.; ground oats, 10 Ib. ; gluten meal, 5 lb.; corn
meal, 5 lb.; alfalfa meal, 5 lb.; meat scraps, 3 lb.; low-
grade flour, 1 lb. ; bone meal or granulated bone, 3 lb.

Mix the meat scraps into the flour. This is for the
purpose of coating them thoroughly so as to keep the
particles separated for better mixing into the meals.
The greater part of all the husks should be sifted out
of the ground oats and the larger particles should be
sifted out of the meat scraps. The alfalfa meal should
be pure and ground fine. Meat scraps should be of excel-
lent quality.

This dry mash mixture is fine for growing chicks, as
it hastens the growth of the feathers, bone, and muscle.
It contains the elements that satisfy the growing chicks
and to some extent prevents feather pulling and the
eating of their toes. This same dry mash can be used
for all fowls kept in confinement. It should be fed in
hoppers.

Bread-and-Milk Mixture.— Moisten stale bread with
milk, either sweet milk, sour milk, or buttermilk. The
milk may be warmed a little, but not enough to boil or
to set the curds. After the bread is thoroughly softened
with the milk and mixed almost to a liquid, add ground
oats and corn meal in equal parts, making the mixture
into a crumbly mass. Add salt, not more than a stroked
teaspoonful to 100 chickens. This mixture is excellent

78 FEEDING OF FOWLS

for feeding to growing cockerels or pullets that are not
doing well. It is equally fine for feeding to pullets
within a month of laying. When fed plentifully to
young stock it will fatten them quickly for market.
When feeding for quick growth for market, feed all they
will eat of it twice a day, with a heavy feeding of
cracked corn at night. When feeding for growth of pul-
lets, feed all they will eat of it at noon. This mash
should be fed as an extra meal; in all cases feed all
they will eat up clean. A plentiful supply of green feed
must be fed with bread-and-milk mixture.

Cleansing Mixture.— Laying hens that are plentifully
fed on concentrated feed should occasionally have a
cleansing mixture of some kind fed in their ration. A
mixture may be made of 8 oz. of Epsom salts and 8 oz.
of flowers of sulphur mixed thoroughly; this should be
added to 6 qt. of dry mash and all mixed thoroughly.
Sufficient of this for one feeding should be moistened
with milk or water and fed to the laying hens once
every two or three weeks or after a spell of very hot
or very wet weather. It will relieve the intestines and
expel intestinal worms, if any are present. The mixture
should not be fed oftener, nor should more be used, than
is here recommended.

FEEDING OF TURKEYS

Poults should have nourishing food in small particles
so that they will be able to digest it properly. No sour
3r fermented food, chopped green bone, raw meat, or
large quantities of millet seed, cottage cheese, or wet or
sloppy foods should ever be fed to poults. Poults require
plenty of grit and fresh water.

A ration of stale bread crumbs and a ration made up
of equal parts of stale bread crumbs, finely chopped
hard-boiled eggs, and dandelion leaves, fed alternately,
is a good method of feeding poults.

Turkeys on a range plentifully supplied with natural
foods that they like will need much less feeding than

FEEDING OF FOWLS 79

turkeys that are compelled to live on a range where the
natural food supply is scanty. Turkeys should have
plenty of corn, wheat, and some oats, the quantities and
proportions varying with the character of the food on
their range.

FEEDING OF GUINEA FOWLS

Like poults, young guinea fowls should be fed on
finely divided foods, and water should be given to them
in very shallow vessels to prevent the young birds from
drowning in them. Grit "and plenty of fresh water should
be supplied.

A ration suitable for young guinea fowls is composed,
by measure, as follows:

Food Parts

Very fine oatmeal 2

Finely cracked wheat 2

Rape seed 2

Canary seed 1

Ant's eggs, or very small particles of
cooked meat, or finely chopped hard-
boiled eggs 1

Guinea fowls for market can be fattened on milk
curds, steamed hulled oats, and warm mash. If these
feeds are not available, guinea fowls can be satisfac-
torily fattened on a ration composed of equal parts of
ground oats, barley meal, and table scraps.

FEEDING OF PHEASANTS

The first food of young pheasants should be composed,
by measure, as follows:

Food • Parts

Very small bread crumbs 1

Canary seed 1

Fine grit «... 1

Very fine corn grits 1

80 FEEDING OF FOWLS

If the pheasants are 2 da. old, about 10% of cooked
lean meat may be added. Stale bread softened in sweet
milk and a custard of eggs and milk put together with
enough stale bread crumbs to soak up the greater part
of the moisture, are good foods for young pheasants. A
certain quantity of meal worms may be fed to mature
pheasants, although a ration composed by measure, as
follows, is preferable:

Food Parts

Finely chopped hard-boiled eggs 1

Crushed hemp seed 1

Stale bread crumbs 1

Oatmeal 1

Finely chopped cooked lean meat l/i

Finely chopped green food should also
be fed.

FEEDING OF DUCKS

During the fall, in addition to green food, ducks should
have twice a day as much as they will eat of a mash
consisting, by measure, of the following:

Food Parts

Corn meal 4

Wheat bran 12

Low-grade wheat flour 1

Fine grit /4

A small quantity of meat scrap may be added to this
ration if desired.

During the winter, ducks should have a liberal supply
of chopped green feed. Twice a day they should have
all they will eat of a mash feed composed, by measure,
as follows:

Food Parts

Wheat bran 5

Corn mtfal 6

Low-grade wheat flour 1

FEEDING OF FOWLS 81

A small quantity of meat scrap may be added to this
ration if desired.

During the laying season ducks will eat about 1 pt.
of food each per day. Their food should always consist
of at least 2 or 3% of grit, ground oyster shells, or some
similar material.

A suitable feed for laying ducks, when they have an
ample supply of green food, is a mash food composed, by
measure, as follows:

Food Parts

Wheat bran • 3

Ground oats t — 3

Corn meal 3

Low-grade wheat flour 1

Meat scrap 1

Many rations are used for fattening broiler ducks for
market. A good one to use for the 10 da. or 2 wk. pre-
vious to killing is composed, by measure, as follows:
Food Parts

Corn meal 10

Wheat bran 4

Wheat middlings 4

Meat scrap 3

Low-grade wheat flour 1

Green feed 2

Coarse sand 1

No green stuff should be fed during the last week of
fattening, but a plentiful supply of water must always
be furnished.

Ducklings intended for breeders are fed on a ration
composed, by measure, as follows:

Food Parts

Wheat bran 10

Wheat middlings 6

Corn meal 3

Low-grade wheat flour 1

Meat scrap 1

Sand 1

82 FEEDING OF FOWLS

This is mixed into a crumbly state by the addition
of milk or water and fed three times daily. In some
cases, instead of wheat bran 6 parts of bran and 4 parts
of ground oats are substituted.

Another ration for ducklings intended for breeders is
composed, by measure, as follows:

Food Parts

Corn meal 6

Wheat bran 6

Wheat middlings 6

Meat scrap' 1

All meal fed to ducks as a mash feed must be mois-
tened with either water or milk, and must be mixed
dry enough so that the ducks can shovel it up with their
bills. They cannot do this well if the mash is sticky.

FEEDING OF YOUNG DUCKLINGS

There are several methods of feeding young ducklings;
one is to give either a mixture of rolled oats and bread
crumbs in equal parts with a little fine grit mixed into
it, all moistened either with water or milk, preferably
milk. The meals should be moistened slightly so that
they will scatter about and not stick together. The little
ducklings can shovel up this kind of a mixture from a
flat board. Beginning on the third day, add some bran
and corn meal in about equal parts by measure with
the bread crumbs and rolled oats. When the ducklings
are a week old, feed them with a mixture of equal parts
of wheat bran, wheat middlings, ground oats, and corn
meal, with some green stuff and some beef scraps mixed
into the meal. The green stuff should always be cut
into very small pieces and be mixed into the meal,
which should be moistened with water or milk. Never
moisten the feed for ducklings so that it will stick
together or be sloppy; have it only slightly moistened
so that it will be easily shoveled up by the ducks.

One rule that must be observed when feeding duck-
lings is to have drinking water continually before them

FEEDING OF FOWLS 83

and yet not where they can run through it. It is a
habit of ducklings to take a mouthful or two of feed,
then some water. They will run backwards and for-
wards from the feed trough to the water, eating and
drinking alternately until they have finished. If duck-
lings are fed on dry grain or dry food of any kind with-
out plenty of water they will frequently choke, stagger,
fall over, and in some cases die.

Another good plan for feeding ducklings is to teach
them to take from a trough cracked corn, whole wheat,
and any other kind of grain without husks, these grains
to be submerged in water. After being fed in this way
for several weeks, they can be gradually taught to eat
dry grain or even whole corn without injury, provided
they have water to go to at will; but they cannot stand
such feeding when very young.

Dr. Prince T. Woods, of Massachusetts, recommends
the following formula for feeding ducklings less than
4 da. old: Mix 4 qt. of wheat bran, 1 qt. of corn meal,
1 qt. of low-grade flour, 4 oz. of grit of small size;
moisten some of this mixture with cold water and feed
the ducklings four times a day all they will eat of it in
a short period of time. After the ducklings are 4 da.
old they may be fed from this same mixture of meals
with 12 oz. of beef scraps of small size added to the
mixture. When feeding beef scraps to young ducklings
it is always a good plan to scald the beef scraps sepa-
rately, stir them up, mix them into the meal; but when
feeding, add sufficient cold water to moisten the whole
of it slightly, so that it is of a proper consistency for the
ducks. After the ducklings are a week old, green stuff
of some kind should -be cut up very small and mixed in
with the feed. After the ducklings are 3 wk. old, con-
tinue to feed them from the same meal mixture, adding
double the quantity of beef scrap and giving them more
green feed.

84 FEEDING OF FOWLS

FEEDING OF GEESE

A simple ration for goslings is composed, by measure,
of the following:

Food Parts

Corn meal 1

Wheat bran 1

Ground oats 1

Table scraps 1

This should be slightly moistened with either water or
milk.

Geese are by nature grazing birds, and the greater
part of their living consists of green food. Because of
their lack of a crop, geese should be fed on ground corn
in the form of a slightly warmed mash. During the
winter, in addition to green food, the matured geese
should have once a day all they will eat of a ration
composed, by measure, as follows:

Food Parts

Corn meal .- 3

Wheat bran 3

Ground bats 3

This should be moistened into a crumbly mass.
During the winter this same ration with 4 parts of
steamed clover added is suitable.

The following rations are suitable for fattening geese
for market:

They should be fed liberally three times a day. The
morning and noon feeds should consist, by measure, of
the following:

Food Parts

Corn meal 6

Ground oats 6

Meat scrap 1

This mixture should be slightly moistened and mixed
until it assumes a crumbly state. During the last 10
da. of feeding the quantity of meat in the ration should
be doubled.

FEEDING OF FOWLS 85

In the evening the geese should be fed all they will
eat of a ration composed, by measure, as follows:
Food Parts

Cracked corn boiled until soft 1

Corn meal 1

Wheat middlings 1

FEEDING OF WILD WATER FOWLS

Where wild water fowls have the freedom of a large
enough pasture, they will graze the greater part of their
living, but it is always advisable to keep near at hand
covered hoppers where the fowls may help themselves at
will. For mature ducks and geese, the hopper should be
kept filled with a dry mixture composed, by measure, as
follows:

Food Parts

Ground oats 1

Cracked corn 1

Wheat bran .... 1

FEEDING OF PIGEONS

The grains most suitable for feeding to pigeons are
wheat, corn, buckwheat, barley, peas, vetch seed, hulled
oats, millet, rice, hemp seed, and canary seed. No large
quantity of buckwheat, barley, hulled oats, or Kafir corn,
should be fed to pigeons, because these grains contain
a large percentage of crude fiber.

Pigeons that are not feeding their young may con-
sume as little as 2 oz. of grain each, per day, but those
feeding their young will require perhaps as much as 4 oz.
per day.

A suitable ration for pigeons is composed, by measure,
as follows:

Food Parts

Corn 2

Wheat 1

Peas 1

C6 INCUBATION

During the fall and when the pigeons are molting,
a good ration for them is composed, by measure, as
follows:

Food Parts

Corn 4

Wheat 4

Peas 4

Millet 2

Vetch seed 1

Flaxseed 1

Hemp seed , ^

A ration for the hand feeding of pigeons, that is, for
scattering on the floor of the house, is composed, by
measure, as follows:

Food Parts

Canada peas , 3

Cracked corn 1

Wheat 1

Kafir corn 1

INCUBATION

In poultry, the reproductive process is accomplished
in two stages. The egg is first produced, developed,
fertilized within the body of the hen, and laid. Then
the egg is subjected to a certain temperature (100° F.
or a little higher) for about 21 da., during which time
the embryo develops and hatches out of the shell as a
chick. The process of developing the embryo within
the egg by means of heat is called incubation. When
this is carried on by a hen, it is known as natural
incubation; when incubation is accomplished by means
of a machine, oven, or other device, it is known as
artificial incubation. Man has little control over the
reproductive process in its first stage except so far as
the selection of the breeders is concerned; in the second
stage, however, if artificial incubation is practiced, he

INCUBATION 87

can, by his methods of conducting the process, greatly
influence the development and future well-being of the
chick.

Fertilization of the Egg.— In order that eggs shall
hatch, the hen that lays them must have been mated
with the male. The actual fertilization of the egg
probably takes place as the yolk enters the oviduct.
In the process of fertilization the germ from the male
comes in contact with the germ cell, or blastoderm, and
causes it to develop, provided that it is exposed to the
right temperature. Hatchable eggs are those that are
fertilized and have vitality enough to insure the produc-
tion of a living chick.

Eggs are usually fertile up to and including those laid
the ninth day after the hens are separated from the
males, and fertilization is impossible after the sexes
have been separated for 12 da. or more. Eggs may safely
be counted as fertile after the males have been with
the hens for 9 da. or more.

The eggs of all kinds of fowls are more apt to be
fertile during the spring and early summer than at any
other time. Fertility begins to decline with the com-
mencement of molting, and during the fall and winter
the production of fertile eggs is at the minimum. The
average production occurs in January or soon after.

NATURAL INCUBATION

The poultryman very naturally prefers the incubator
to the hen for hatching chicks. This preference has
brought incubators into general use and so few chicks
are hatched by hens as to have made this process nearly
a lost art. Yet those who give the most thought to
poultry culture know that the best chicks grown are
hatched and reared by the mother hen. Chicks hatched
and reared artificially do better during the cold weather
than chicks hatched and reared naturally. As soon as
spring arrives, a brood of chicks with the mother hen

SS INCUBATION

will do much better than chicks hovered tinder the
heated brooders. Although incubators are so generally
used, there are some farms where a large number of
chicks are hatched and brooded by hens.

Where but few chicks are reared, and where there is
no necessity for early hatching, it would be quite as
well and less troublesome to hatch and rear chicks with
broody hens. The chicks so hatched and reared will, if
properly cared for, be more vigorous than chicks hatched
artificially.

The question is frequently asked, "How do fanciers
hatch and rear their chicks?" One of the most ardent
fanciers says that fanciers unquestionably produce their
best specimens by natural incubation. He says also that
artificial incubation has absorbed the attention of our
investigators and others to such an extent that little is
written or taught of the old-fashioned but trustworthy,
natural method. In view of the fact that most flocks
raised by amateurs are hatched by hens, some instruc-
tion bearing upon this particular method is necessary.

To hatch eggs successfully it is well to follow the
following precepts: "Select a quiet hen; discard one
that uses her voice constantly. Have the nest ready
before removing her from the laying coop. Set the hen
in such a manner that she may walk on the nest and
not be obliged to jump up or down to reach the eggs, for
such a procedure means broken eggs or crushed chicks.
Before setting and between hatches, paint all the wood-
work with kerosene. This is particularly important in
warm weather. Dust the hen thoroughly with insect or
lice powder before placing her on the nest. Repeat this
4 da. before hatching time."

Such words of encouragement for natural brooding
might well be considered by all those who rear but a
few chicks, and even by those who rear several hundred
of them. Since it is always well to hatch part of the
chicks and rear them with mother hens, these directions
should be valuable to all persons engaged in raising
poultry.

INCUBATION

89

Box Nest. — Nests for sitting hens can be made from
boxes from 14 to 16 in. square. A box «from 9 to 12 in.
deep and from 15 to 18 in. wide and long has about the
correct dimensions. Deep nests protect the eggs from
the cold below. The entire box should be lined with
hay, as shown in Fig. 1. The nest, shown in Fig. 2,
should be sufficiently deep to incline the eggs slightly
toward the middle and flat enough to avoid crowding or
piling the eggs. Several nests like this can be placed
on the floor of a room with each nest occupied by a
sitting hen. When this is done, hens that are accus-
tomed to being together should occupy the nests, other-

FIG. 1 FIG. 2

wise, they will fight. If hens are strangers, their nests
must be enclosed to keep them from coming together
and the hens should be carefully watched when they
leave their nests.

Hens for Sitting.— Broody hens that are quiet and
tractable should be selected for hatching purposes.
Those that are wild and unmanageable are not suitable
for sitting or for mothers after the chicks are hatched.
The use of hens with scaly legs should be avoided, as
this ailment is liable to be transmitted to the chicks.
Hens that are to be set in the same room should all come
from the same flock. Before the hen is placed in posi-
tion, the nest should be thoroughly dusted with 'insect
powder and the body of the hen covered with it. The
powder should be well worked in down to the skin and

90 INCUBATION

the work should be done with especial care about the
vent, under the wings, and around the neck. This
operation should be repeated on the seventh and four-
teenth days of the incubation period. In this way only
are vermin kept from the hens and the chicks saved
from their ravages. Non-fertile, or clear, eggs should
be placed under the hen for 2 or 3 days to test her. If
she is faithful and attentive to these she may be trusted
with selected eggs. If she pushes them under her body
with her head, it is a sign that she will be a good sitter
and a good mother.

Care of Nest and Hen.— To dust the hen and nest with
insect powder is fatal to body lice, and red mites may
be kept away with kerosene oil or turpentine; 1 oz. of
naphthalene flakes dissolved in 3 gills of kerosene oil
makes an excellent application to keep the latter pest
away from the nest boxes. If this solution is liberally
used in cracks and crevices of nest boxes, there will be
very little trouble from mites; and where mites are
abundant this preparation should be freely used on all
the woodwork of the nest every time a hatch is taken
off. When the day of hatching arrives the nest is flat-
tened out in order to make more room, for if the eggs
are crowded too close together the chicks are liable to
be smothered as they emerge from the shell. The hens
and chicks should not be removed from the nest until
the beginning of the second day after hatching, nor
should the chicks be fed until the third day after the
hatch begins. If the nest is to be used again, all the
old nesting material should be removed and burned, and
the nest box itself should be well cleaned before making
another nest of new material.

Number and Arrangement of Eggs.— A setting of eggs
should consist of an odd number. Thirteen eggs are
generally considered as a setting, and they are arranged
in the nest as shown in Fig. 2. The eggs should be
uniform in size, for if some are small and others large
the body of the hen will not come close to the smaller
ones and the temperature of the eggs will not be uni-

INCUBATION 91

form. Eggs of irregular size are unfit for incubation.
Eggs of this kind seldom, if ever, produce perfect chicks.
Eggs set under hens gain a smooth gloss from contact
with the body of the hen. By this means, as the process of
incubation advances, the pores of the eggshell are closed.

Moving the Broody Hen.— Broody hens of quiet dis-
positions can be moved anywhere and may be actually
placed on the nests if they are properly handled. To
move a sitting hen, place the left hand gently under
her breast bone, and take the shanks in the right hand
with one finger between them. Clasp her firmly but
gently; raise her from the nest, holding her against the
body with the head toward you and the tail away from
you. Do not carry her by the shanks, head hanging
down. Place the hen gently on the nest, in which
should be a few test eggs; settle her quietly with one
hand on her back, the other smoothing her head — just
a little of this— then remove the hands and cover or
close the hen in the nest. If she settles down at once
on the nest and turns the eggs with the motion of her
body and wings, moving has been successful; if she is
restless, shut her in the nest and do not disturb her until
morning. It is always best to move broody hens at
night. If the hen takes quietly to the nest and eggs,
as she is apt to do during the night, let her remain
undisturbed until an hour before sundown, then permit
her to come from the nest for food and water. If she
refuses to sit during the night and day, she had best
be returned to the flock of hens.

Care of Sitting Hens.— If the hen is quiet and willing
to sit, dust her body with insect powder as already
described and let her stay the second day on the nest,
permitting her to feed before noon of the second day.
If she returns to the nest herself, all is well; if she
does not, place her on the nest again. After 2 da. of
proper behavior on the part of the hen, dust the nest
and the hen's body again with the insect powder, and
place an odd number of eggs in the nest. Some -hens
can cover 13 eggs, others only 9 or 11. Do not crowd

92 INCUBATION

too many eggs into the nest, for the best returns come
from too few rather than from too many eggs in the nest.

Broody or sitting hens must be kept quiet and undis-
turbed, except at feeding time, which should occur at
the same hour each day. This statement refers to hens
that are confined to their nests. Hens that come and
go at will should have food and water close at hand,
from which they may help themselves at any time.
Corn and wheat with grit and shell are perhaps the best
foods for sitting hens. Fresh water should also be
provided each day. A dust bath is a necessity for
health and cleanliness. If any eggs are broken in the
nest, they should be removed without delay, and the
nest should be cleaned. If the eggs in the nest become
soiled, they should, if possible, be cleaned without wash-
ing them. This cleaning may be done by scraping them
with a dull knife or with the thumb nail; if washing is
indispensable, the eggs must be immersed in water the
temperature of which is 90° F., or a little less— not more;
the dirty coating on the shell should be softened and
removed with as little rubbing as possible. When the
nest and eggs have been cleaned, the eggs should be
replaced under the hen. Eggs that have been washed
do not hatch as well as those that have not been so treated.

Feeding the Sitting Hen.— Hens that are sitting must
be regularly fed on good, solid grain. They should have
at each feeding grain enough to last 24 hr. Whole corn
that is dry and hard, wheat, and some shell and grit
must be supplied. Hens that cannot come from the nest
at will should be liberated or taken from the nest to
feed. Their crops should be felt each day. If they are
not sufficiently fed, they will lose fat and their temper-
ature will decrease, so that the eggs will not be properly
warmed. When the hens come and go from the nest at
will, food grit, and water must be placed where they
can help themselves and at the same time be out of the
reach of other hens. Looseness of bowels at this time
should be avoided, as such a condition weakens the hens
and lowers the temperature of the body. In returning

INCUBATION 93

the hen to the nest she should be placed on the edge of
the nest and be permitted to settle on the eggs as she
will; she should never be forced or hurried.

Period of Incubation. — Fresh-laid eggs hatch in fewer
hours than eggs that are kept 2 wk. or longer before
incubation begins. After eggs are 4 wk. old, their
vitality will probably be insufficient to produce chicks
that will grow to maturity. In some instances, eggs
more than 3 mo. old have produced chicks that grew to
maturity. These eggs, however, were unusually strong
in vitality and were cared for in the most careful man-
ner prior to being placed under hens for hatching.

Fresh-laid eggs, if placed for incubation within 24 or
48 hr. of laying, will hatch in from 8 to 12 hr. less time
than eggs that were older when placed for incubation.
Eggs for hatching may be safely kept for 2 wk., pro-
vided they are kept where the temperature is even and
about 55° F. Such eggs should be moved about a little
each day. The more vigorous the hens that lay the eggs,
the stronger will be the vitality of the eggs. Such eggs
will keep longer for hatching and will produce stronger
chicks than eggs laid by less vigorous hens. The aver-
age period of incubation of eggs of several kinds is as
follows:

Days
Fowls of medium and large-sized breeds.. 21

Bantams and other small breeds 19 to 20

Ducks 28

Muscovy duck 35

Muscovy duck crossed with Pekin or

other drake 32

Geese 28

Turkeys 27 to 29

Guinea fowls 28 to 30

Pheasants 24 to 25

Peafowls 27 to 29

Pigeons 17

Swans 35 to 40

Ostriches 40 to 42

94

INCUBATION

INCUBATION 95

The Best Sitter.— Cochin, Orpington, Plymouth Rock,
Rhode Island Red, and Wyandotte hens are the best
sitters. The quiet hen that will sit contented on the nest
until her work is finished and will then care for her
chicks properly is the kind to be depended on both for
raising utility fowls and fowls for exhibition.

The most unsatisfactory hen for hatching is the nervous
hen that fusses and fights all who move about her; that
will spring quickly from the nest when any one ap-
proaches her, thus breaking her eggs and disturbing
those left in the nest. A good motherly hen that will
rear two broods in one season is the kind to be de-
pended on.

Testing Fertility of Eggs.— After eggs have been incu-
bated for some time, it is usually desirable that they
be examined for fertility. This examination may be
best made during the seventh day of incubation. The
work of testing the eggs can be done in daylight. To
do the work well, however, requires that it be done
after dark or in a darkened room. An appliance called
an egg tester is used for this purpose.

Many kinds of egg testers are offered for sale. An
"excellent one is the kind that has a bull's-eye lens like
those used for bicycle lamps. A tester of this kind is
shown in operation in Fig. 3. The tester is placed over
the flame of any kerosene oil lamp, in a room that is
dark. The eggs should be placed against the opening
so that the light may shine through the egg; both live
and dead germs may then be clearly seen.

Development of the Embryo.— To one well trained in
the testing of eggs, the first material change will be
visible in about 48 hr. after incubation begins. The head
and the lines of the body can be seen by the trained
observer. The stages of development of the embryo are
shown in Fig. 4. To become expert in the testing of
eggs, one should compare the successive steps in the
development with the day on which it should occur as
recorded in this chart, which includes all the phenomena
from the first to the twenty-first day.

INCUBATION

FIG. 4

INCUBATION

97

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION

During recent years there has been a large increase
of market poultry, resulting from the practice of arti-
ficial incubation. The incubator operator can control
production by artificial means, but with hens a desire
to hatch cannot be hastened. The artificial methods of
hatching and rearing chicks bring alike to the farmer
and to the small grower the choice of the day of pro-
duction and of the number of chicks produced.

The results obtained from artificial incubation depend
primarily on the vitality of the eggs; but the handling
of the incubator, surrounding influences, and the gen-
eral efficiency of the incubator itself are other condi-
tions of fundamental importance. The vitality of eggs
depends on the constitutional
vigor of the fowls that pro-
duce them; superior vigor
must come through several
generations of strong and
healthy fowls. It follows
therefore that, in order to
have embryo chicks of
marked vitality, eggs must be
used that come from strong,
vigorous, well-bred fowls.

The per cent, fertility is
an expression that is fre-
quently misleading. More
than 90% of the eggs
may be fertile and yet no
living chicks may come from WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCK
them, because the germ is MALE

so lacking in vitality that

it dies before incubation is completed. The per cent,
fertility is increased by proper feeding and the vigor
of both male and female is also increased, but there is
a pronounced difference between fertility and vitality.
The former may exist to a marked degree even though

98 INCUBATION

the vitality of the germs or the egg be lacking, but the
latter obviously cannot be present without the former.
Chicks that are not strong and of abundant vitality
when hatched should never be raised for breeders, but
such fowls may be used for market poultry.

There is a marked difference between the production
of fowls for exhibition or for beauty and the production
of those fitted for egg yielding and for table meat.
Where exhibition fowls are desired, the producing stock
must be yarded to avoid the mixing of breeds or
varieties. This is necessary only during the breeding
season. At other times the old and young stock may
have free range. Where egg producers and market poul-
try are desired, it is best to give the breeding stock all
possible liberty. It is best to keep only one variety,
and the flock should have free range if possible.

The records of artificial incubation are derived from
experiments with different makes of incubators.

The hatch from hens ranged as high as 83.3% and as
low as 50%, and that of the incubator from 77.1% to
32.5%.

Selection of Eggs for Incubation.— Eggs for hatching
in an incubator should all be of one kind, size, and
color; for only when eggs of such character are incu-
bated together can uniform hatching be secured.

Eggs from Leghorns and Brahmas do not hatch -well
if both are together in the same incubator, for the eggs
of the Leghorns usually hatch during the twentieth day,
and the hatching of the Brahma eggs may be delayed
to the end of the twenty-first day. If eggs from Leg-
horns, Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, and Brahmas are
all together in the one incubator the hatch is irregular.
Eggs but 1 da. old hatch a day sooner than eggs that
are 2 wk. old. Leghorn eggs placed in an incubator on
the day they are laid may hatch in 480 hr. ; eggs of
Asiatic fowls placed in the same incubator when 2 wk.
old may hatch for 516 hr., a difference in time that makes
poor results inevitable if the eggs of both breeds are
incubated together. The eggs of ducks and of chickens

INCUBATION 99

cannot be successfully hatched together in the same
incubator, nor do the eggs of any two or more kinds
of fowls hatch well if placed together in the same incu-
bator or under the same hen.

If the eggs are of uniform size, the temperatures of
all are equal or nearly so; if large and small eggs are
in the same machine the temperature may not be the
same in all.

Eggs with white shells hatch in fewer hours than do
the dark-shelled eggs, for white shells are thinner and
transmit heat more freely to the germ within. Under
the same conditions, eggs with white shells will have
larger air cells than those with heavier shells.

Only smooth and well-formed eggs should be used;
eggs with uneven surfaces, bad form, rough shells, or
mixed colors should be discarded, as well as eggs that
are abnormally large or small.

Care of Eggs for Hatching.— The best hatch is obtained
from eggs placed in the incubator the same day on which
they are laid. Eggs keep in prime condition for hatch-
ing up to the tenth day; if 2 wk. old they are safe for
incubation; but if older than this they seldom hatch
well, although some eggs that have been kept a month
will hatch. Eggs keep the best in a uniform tempera-
ture of about 55° F. in an atmosphere free from oil and
other bad odors. The vitality of eggs that are exposed
for any length of time to a temperature below 40° F. is
impaired.

Eggs for hatching are shifted at least every other day
so that the yolks will not settle to one side, stick to the
shell, and thus destroy the germ. Preferably, the eggs
should be stored small end down, either in a regular
packing crate or any suitable receptacle.

Eggs for hatching are injured if they are washed;
washing removes the natural glaze from the shell, and
such eggs do not hatch well. Though it is not advisable
to hatch dirty eggs, such eggs hatch better in soiled con-
djtion than they would if. washed.

100

INCUBATION
INCUBATORS

An incubator is an apparatus by means of which eggs
may be artificially kept at the proper temperature for
hatching. Many different styles and sizes of incubators
are now in use, some of them being adapted for all sizes
of eggs from those of the bantam to those of an ostrich.
Incubators range in size from those the capacity of
which is limited to a few dozen eggs to those that are

FIG. 5

capable of incubating many thousand eggs. The ma-
chines most commonly used have capacities that range
from 5 to 30 doz. hen's eggs or a smaller number of any
eggs that are larger than hen's eggs.

Though many different types of incubators are made,
\vith but few exceptions in outward appearance they
resemble the one shown in Fig. 5.

The essential parts of an incubator consist of a heating
apparatus that is controlled by a regulator, and an egg

INCUBATTOX ;, 391

chamber that can be held' at tne* required ' temperature.
Incubators are also supplied with thermometers and
means of ventilation.

In the various incubators heat is brought into contact
with the eggs either by diffusion or radiation. In
diffusion incubators, hot air is evenly distributed through-
out the egg chamber. In radiation incubators, the heat is
radiated from pipes or radiators that are heated either
by hot air or by hot water. A large part of the incuba-
tors in use are of the diffusion type, in which the air is
heated by an oil lamp. In these machines the heated
air passes directly into the egg chamber and throughout
the interior of the machine. The eggs in the tray are
thus surrounded with air at the required temperature.
Incubators in which the heat is both radiated and
diffused are also used. The more evenly the egg chamber
is warmed the greater will be the success in hatching.

The most satisfactory source of heat for incubators of
all kinds is that obtained from oil lamps. Some incuba-
tors are heated by circulating hot water. Some incu-
bators require particular care and attention, and their
efficiency depends on the proper circulation of the water,
the distribution of the pipes, and the lasting qualities
of the entire heating system. Illuminating gas, elec-
tricity, and alcohol lamps are also used to some extent
as sources of heat for incubators.

Incubator manufacturers prefer thermometers specially
made to suit each kind of machine. There is usually
a reason for such preference, and the thermometer
recommended by the manufacturers should be favored.
If this instrument cannot be obtained, the best that is
made must be selected. Incubator thermometers are
scaled from 90° F. to 110° F., and are marked low at
100° F. and high at 105° F., and the scale is crossed at
103° F. by an arrow or a heavy line. It is thus easy to
make an accurate reading between the low and the high
marks, provided the thermometer is correctly graduated.

Before being used, incubator thermometers are tested
in the following manner: An instrument known to be

102 INCUBATION

correct ia stirred about in warm water until the degree
of heat is 105° F. or a little higher. Other thermometers
are then held in the same hand with the one known to
be correct and all are stirred about in the water so that
the reading of all may be taken under like conditions.
Any instruments that fail to mark the temperature cor-
rectly are rejected. It is best to test all thermometers
in use at least once a season.

The printed directions that come with each incubator,
giving instructions for its operation, also tell where
the thermometer is to be placed in the machine, and to
secure the best results such directions should be fol-
lowed to the letter. The thermometer is usually placed
in or near the center of the egg tray.

Temperature and Moisture.— An expert who has had
more practical experience with the use of incubators
than any other man has said: "Briefly stated, all that
is required to hatch eggs artificially is a temperature
of 100.5° F. at the center of the eggs, which is 101° F. to
103° F. by contact; at the same time, the eggs should
be immersed in still air containing moisture of a relative
humidity of from 45 to 70 per cent., this moisture to be
changed sufficiently often to carry off the waste gases
eliminated by the eggs. Any excess of ventilation be-
yond this is deleterious."

Professor Lamson, of the Connecticut State Agricul-
tural College, has said that the chief factors in the arti-
ficial incubation of good fertile eggs are "temperature,
turning the eggs, moisture, and ventilation." The mean-
ing of this would be that when eggs are hatched in the
incubator, the temperature as usually taken by a ther-
mometer should range from 101° F. to 103° F. and that
when a thermometer is used that would indicate the
temperature at the center of the egg the temperature of
that position should be 100.5° F. The thermometer used
for taking this particular test is known as the "In-Ova
Thermometer." This is a thermometer the bulb of which
is inside a celluloid egg, the bulb resting in the center
of the egg. When such a thermometer is used it indi-

INCUBATION 103

cates the temperature at the center of the egg, which
should be 100.5° F. When the ordinary or regular type
of thermometer is used, and when the bulb rests at or
near the upper outside of the egg, the temperature should
not go below 101° F. and not much above 103° F.

The statement made that the atmosphere should be
changed sufficiently often to carry off the waste gases
refers to proper ventilation. In writing of this, Pro-
fessor Lamson says that by the use of specially con-
structed apparatus it was shown that the ventilation
required in the incubator to secure the best results in
living chicks consisted in a change of 5 cu. ft. per hr.
for each 50 eggs. Where the change of air exceeded
10 cu. ft. per hr. for each 50 eggs, the hatch began to
run down, and when the air change was reduced to y\ cu.
ft. per hr., only a very small percentage of chicks were
hatched.

As a result of many experiments, it has been shown
that hen-hatched chicks weigh 1.258 oz. ; that incubator-
hatched chicks with maximum moisture weigh 1.184 oz. ;
that chicks hatched in incubators with a medium amount
of moisture weigh 1.159 oz.; and that chicks hatched in
non-moisture machines weigh 1.072 oz. It has also been
shown that the minimum moisture in the incubator might
be 45%, while the maximum might be 70%.

The weight of these chicks seems to indicate that to
have the greatest possible vigor in chicks a greater quan-
tity of moisture is required during incubation than is
present in the average incubator. For these reasons,
considerable effort has been made to find some means of
introducing moisture into machines during the period of
incubation. Among the devices used are pans of water
or pans of sand moistened with water and placed under
the egg tray. Another way is by sprinkling the eggs
with water morning and evening during incubation as
clothes are sprinkled with the hand or by means of
sprays such as are used by druggists or florists.

An excellent method of applying moisture is to have
pads made of burlap or felt, and cut to fit under the

104 INCUBATION

egg tray. These pads are saturated with hot water,
v, rung out almost dry, and then placed under the egg
tray. Pieces of outing cloth or cotton flannel of suffi-
cient size to cover the top of all eggs may be soaked
in hot water, wrung out until they are almost dry,
placed on top of the eggs, and left there. This is an
excellent method of providing moisture for the eggs
from the twelfth to the eighteenth day.

The rules sent out with each incubator should always
be strictly followed; yet it must be remembered that in
some latitudes the air is much drier than in others.
Sometimes, therefore, it is necessary to supply moisture,
a need indicated by the size of the air cell. If this cell
is larger than normal, moisture must be supplied and the
rate of air change must be reduced. The water pan, sand
tray, or the moistened felt, or the wet outing flannel
should be used when it is necessary to supply moisture.

Turning and Cooling.— It is necessary that the eggs in
the incubator tray should be turned and cooled at reg-
ular intervals. Turning every 12 hr. is practiced by
some; turning once in 24 hr. when the eggs are cooled
is practiced by others. Some experts insist that eggs
will hatch better if turned and cooled more frequently.
They advise that the trays of eggs be taken from the
machine and cooled for a short time, three or four times
a day, and each time the eggs are turned they will be
cooled slightly. This practice has not yet been tested
sufficiently to warrant its acceptance; however, it might
be experimented with to advantage.

Some operators of considerable experience insist that
the cooling of eggs is useless. The common practice is
to cool and turn the eggs twice a day, never turning
them over entirely, but just moving them slightly in
the egg tray so that each egg will be moved a little.
When the weather is cool, the eggs need not be kept
out of the egg chamber longer than 4 or 5 min.; when
the weather is warm and the incubator room is at a
temperature of 70° F. or more, the eggs should be cooled
fully 30 min.

INCUBATION 105

Chicks Dead in the Shell.— The prevailing question as
to artificial incubation is, "Why do chicks die in the
shell?" In answer to this, one of the most expert in
incubating says: "The best of incubators add nothing
to the vitality of the developed embryo. When the
vitality of the embryo is impaired or the eggs are old,
the hen will not hatch a higher percentage than any
incubator ever constructed, yet to find dead chicks in
the shell is a very common experience, even when the
most faithful hens are employed." This would indicate
that we must look beyond the hatching machine for the
cause of the dead chicks in the shell. The causes for
chicks dying in the shell are several. The most prev-
alent of all is inexperience in the handling of the
incubator; another is lack of vitality in the eggs. This,
being due to low vitality in the hen that laid the eggs,
can be remedied only through several years of careful
breeding of the parent stock for greater vigor.

Another writer has said that a successful hatch begins
with the fowls that lay the eggs. Immature pullets will
not furnish eggs desirable for incubation. The best eggs
for this purpose will be laid by hens in their second year
that have great vigor and have been fed and cared for
with the object of procuring eggs for hatching. There
will be no dead chicks in the shell when the hens laying
the eggs are full of vitality and when the person that
handles the incubator has had sufficient experience to
act quickly and properly as each emergency comes.

Rules for Hatching.— The manufacturers of incubators
assume that the treatment of eggs during incubation is
an exact science, and that the directions that they have
formulated are faultless. One of the largest manufac-
turers of incubators has printed a bulletin on the han-
dling of incubators to get the best results. In this
bulletin he says that the eggs should be turned every
12 hr. beginning on the third day and ending on the
night of the eighteenth day. It is better, however, to
keep on changing the position of the trays as usual until
the eggs begin to pip. Never turn the eggs with oily

106 INCUBATION

hands or with hands that have any substance on them
which might adhere to the shells.

Test the eggs on the sixth and the seventeenth days,
but do not turn or cool them while testing them. Cool-
ing and ventilating should be done according to the
instructions given in the book of directions that accom-
panies each machine. Cooling helps to soften eggs.

Be sure that the thermometer is accurate. If your
machine is supplied with a suspended thermometer, see
that the bulb is just 2 in. above the wire of the egg
tray. Do not allow the thermometer to go above 103° F.,
except when the chicks are coming out lively, at which
time it may go as high as 105° F. without injury.

Do not open the door of the incubator after the eggs
begin to pip. Close the ventilator when the chicks begin
to come out and keep it closed until the hatch is com-
pleted, unless the hatch is very large and the chicks
are crowded, in which case the ventilators may be
opened when the hatch is two-thirds off. Open the venti-
lator and wedge the door slightly ajar after the hatch
is over and the trays containing the shells have been
removed. Allow the chicks to remain in the incubator
for from 24 to 36 hr. Do not feed or water the chicks
while they are in the incubator.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SUCCESS IN
INCUBATION

The factor of prime importance in incubation is the
vitality of the eggs, and this depends on the vitality of
the fowls that produce them.

Eggs for hatching should all be of one kind, size, and*
color.

Only smooth and well-formed eggs should be used for
hatching. Eggs of bad form or with rough shells should
be discarded.

The best eggs for hatching are those that are placed
in an incubator on the day they are laid; eggs are in
good condition for hatching up to 10 da. after they are
laid; after they are 2 wk, old they are unreliable.

INCUBATION 107

Clean eggs are the best, but eggs should not be washed.
Washed eggs do not hatch well.

The incubator must be set up perfectly level and kept
so for the best results.

The directions given by the manufacturers for the
operation of their machines must be closely followed.

The thermometers recommended by the manufacturers
of the incubators should be used, and they should be
placed in the machine exactly where directed.

Incubator eggs should not be handled with hands soiled
by dirt or oil. Oil will kill the germ within the egg.

Avoid jars of the incubator while hatching. This
ruptures the egg and destroys the embryo.

The incubator room should be kept free of drafts and
bad odors of all kinds.

Keep the flues of the incubator clean and free from
soot. A coating of soot prevents the proper amount of
heat from reaching the egg chamber.

Keep the lamps clean and free from oil. Oil odors
affect the eggs, and may even destroy the embryos.

When the eggs are first placed in the incubator, they
should be warmed gradually. If they are heated too
fast the germs will be destroyed.

Do not neglect to turn and air the eggs in an in-
cubator.

When the eggs are taken out of an incubator to air,
the door should be closed so that the egg chamber will
not cool off. The eggs should not be kept out of the
chamber until they become chilled. This kills the
embryos.

Be sure to have the brooders prepared for the accom-
modation of the chicks when they are ready to be taken
from the incubator.

When the incubator is not in use, keep it in a place
where it will not become infested with vermin. When it
is again put in use, it should be examined, thoroughly
cleaned, and run for several days before the eggs are
placed in it.

108

BROODING OF CHICKS

BROODING OF CHICKS

NATURAL BROODING

The brood coop that will house three or four hens and
their broods is quite convenient for natural brooding.

FIG. 1

A coop for two hens and their chicks is shown in Fig. 1.
Another coop well suited for wet, cold, or stormy weather
is shown in Fig. 2. After the chicks are well dried off,

FIG. 2

BROODING OF CHICKS 109

and have been in the nest with the mother hen for at
least 12 hr., the hen and the brood, or two or more hens
and their broods can be removed to the brood coops.
Three or four hens that are remarkably quiet will brood
their chicks in one large open coop. If they are quarrel-
some, they should be placed with their broods in sepa-
rate coops.

The chief factors of caring for the mother hen and her
chicks are cleanliness inside of and about the coop.
The coops should be placed where the chicks can run
out on the ground, and where they can have a dry spot
under foot when the ground is damp. They should
always be sheltered from wet and rain until they are
2 or 3 wk. old.

ARTIFICIAL BROODING

Chicks that are .hatched from eggs put in the incubator
on Monday evening do not need to be removed until
Wednesday morning of the third week thereafter. This
leaves the chicks in the incubator two nights and one day
after they should be hatched. If from any cause the
hatch is completed 12 or more hours ahead of time, the
chicks may be removed an equal number of hours earlier.
Chicks that are hatched on Monday need not be fed
until Wednesday; they may, however, if removed from
the incubator, be fed 12 or 15 hr. earlier than this.
When the chicks are removed from the incubator to the
hover or brooder, they should be protected from the cool
or cold air by being covered with woolen cloths that
have been warmed for the purpose.

Chicks in the Brooder.— From 50 to 100 chicks may be
placed under each hover, according to the kind of hover
cr brooder used. The sizes of the brooders vary from
a 50-chick size to a hover that will care for 500 or more.
The most satisfactory results will be obtained through
the use of hovers that will care for from 50 to 100 chicks.
Considerable experience and natural ability are neces-
sary to succeed with brooders and hovers of larger size.

110 BROODING OF CHICKS

Management of Hover.— Each separate kind of brooding
appliance must be cared for according to its needs. The
average heat required beneath the hover is from 80° F.
to 95° F. These differences in temperature are necessary,
not because the floor of the nursery needs to be any
warmer or any cooler in one kind than in another, but
because the placing of the thermometer is not alike in
all of them. Each manufacturer recommends a heat
basis suited to the placing of the thermometer in that
brooding system. The chicks on the floor should be in a
temperature ranging from 85° F. to 92° F. When the
chicks are first placed in the hover, the temperature
should be about 92° F. ; the presence of the chicks
beneath the hover will raise the temperature to at least
95° F. After the chicks have been for 3 or 4 da. under
the hover, the temperature can be gradually reduced.
In winter it may be dropped to 90° F. and kept there
until the chicks are fully 2 wk. old or more, at which
time 1° or 2° less will answer.

Always have sufficient heat under the nursery to
satisfy the chicks and keep them contented. The one
sure evidence of contentment of the chicks under the
hover is the gentle peep of satisfaction which they give
when properly brooded. Whenever there is not sufficient
heat they will sound a cry of alarm or distress which
every poultryman should learn. This call should be
answered immediately and the cause of the cry dis-
covered and remedied at once.

Some authorities say that the temperature should regis-
ter 95° F., running up fully to 100° F. when the chicks
are placed in the brooder, and that this temperature
should be maintained for the first week, after which it
may be gradually reduced. This temperature may
answer very well when the weather is cold, but in warm
weather it is too high. The temperature should be kept
as low as practicable, depending on the time of year
and the age of the chicks. One safe rule is that the
chicks should always have heat enough to obviate the
danger of becoming chilled.

BROODING OF CHICKS

111

No matter where the hover may be placed, whether in
a coop made for the purpose, or in a box, a small house,
or an outbuilding, the floor should be covered with dry
sand over which should be scattered a coating of 2 or
3 in. of cut straw, hay, alfalfa, or chaff of some kind.
There should be sufficient of this on the floor to protect
the chicks from the cold during severe weather, and
enough of it so that the curtain of the hover will rest

FIG. 3

on it. Cleanliness, care, and proper, feeding are always
necessary for success in the growing of chicks.

A brooding coop well suited for one or two hovers is
shown in Fig. 3. This coop was made from two piano
boxes placed together, the roof being covered with ordi-
nary roofing paper. There are two doors in front; one
is a frame door covered with wire cloth, the other a
glass door, which is kept open when the weather is
warm and the sun shines bright; but on very cold days
and at night it should be closed. A brood coop of this
kind can be safely used during the winter months. It

112 BROODING OF CHICKS

is not unusual to have one or two hovers each for fifty
or a hundred chicks running inside of such a coop when
the thermometer is nearly zero.

POINTS IN SUCCESSFUL BROODING

Brood coops should be perfectly sanitary and free from
vermin, and should be painted with liquid insecticide
at least a week before they are occupied. They should
also be sprayed with insecticide every 2 wk. while in
use, and the floors must be cleaned frequently.

Brood coops should be ready a day in advance of the
time when the chicks are to be placed in them, and the
temperature should be about 90°. This temperature
should be maintained for 7 da., after which it should
be gradually reduced to 80°.

If newly hatched chicks become chilled they will be
seriously injured, and if they are overheated they will
lose vitality. The proper heat must be maintained with
regularity.

The directions given by the manufacturers for the
operation of brooders should be strictly followed, and
the particular kind of thermometer recommended should
be used. Temperature readings are taken at different
heights, according to the construction of the brooder,
and if the thermometers used are too long or too short
the temperature readings will be misleading.

Overcrowding in brooders should be avoided. When
a brooder is overcrowded the air becomes impure, and
this will result in a loss of vitality.

As soon as chicks are able they should be allowed to
run in the open, but they should be protected from
predatory animals by covered runways.

During inclement weather, chicks should be induced to
take exercise by scattering small grains in the litter.

After each meal, unconsumed food should be removed
from the floor of the brooder. If it is left to be trampled
over and becomes sour, it will cause bowel troubles.

BROODING OF CHICKS 113

Chicks that contract ailments of any kind should be
isolated immediately.

A critical stage in the life of chicks is when they are
feathering, and at this time they should be supplied
with an abundance of nitrogenous foods.

MAMMOTH INCUBATORS AND
BROODERS

The Mammoth system of incubating and brooding has
been so well developed that it can now be used with
perfect safety. Incubators are built in sections and have
a capacity of from three thousand to many thousand
eggs. It is not unusual to see one Mammoth machine
containing 15,000 eggs in operation. These incubators
are heated by self-regulating coal-burning furnaces, the
heat from which is distributed by means of hot water
that passes through a system of pipes so adjusted as to
keep a continuous flow, or circulation, from the furnace,
through the pipes, and back to the furnace again. The
heat in the egg chamber is regulated through the raising
and lowering of the egg trays and by an automatic or
thermostatic regulator. In writing of this system, one
familiar with it says that the simplicity, economy,
and safety of this type of heater is now universally
recognized.

A system of hot-water heating is used with the Mam-
moth brooder. This system can be used with either a
single- or a double-row brooding house. The system for
heating is much the same as has always been used in
hot-water brooding systems. The one great difference
is that by using the self-regulating coal-burning furnace
better service can be obtained at less cost than when
boilers are used. Complete information regarding this
system of incubating and brooding can best be obtained
from those who manufacture the apparatus.

114 EGGS

EGGS

Food Value of Eggs.— Eggs are a cheap food. They are
less costly than most meats. One dozen eggs will better
serve a family of six than \l/2 Ib. of meat. The average
value of these is about equal.

Composition of Eggs.— About 11% of hens' eggs consist
of shell, 32% of yolk, and 57% of white. The white and
yolk are made up of 72% of water. The table shown on
pages 116 and 117, adapted frcm a bulletin of the United
States Department of Agriculture, gives the composition
and fuel value of eggs of the common domestic poultry,
and, for purpose of comparison, the composition and fuel
value of some of the more common foods other than these.

Uses of Eggs. — In addition to their use as food, eggs
are used to a limited extent for other purposes. The
white of an egg is a remedy for burns, and if taken in
time it is an effective antidote for poisoning by corrosive
sublimate. Food or bones lodged in the throat can some-
times be dislodged by swallowing a raw egg. The oil
extracted from the yolk has healing properties, and the
inner lining or membrane of the shell can be used as an
adhesive plaster. Eggshells, on account of the purity
of the carbonate lime of which they are largely com-
posed, are used in compounding medicine and for several
other purposes.

There is a limited demand for rotten eggs for the
finishing of some kinds of leather. They may be used
as fertilizer, and in many instances they are used in
the manufacture of calico. The supply, however, is
much greater than the demand, and such eggs bring but
a few cents a dozen. Often the price paid for them
is not sufficient to cover the cost of transportation, which
in most cases is paid by the shipper.

Color of Eggshells. — Fowls of European origin lay
white-shelled eggs; those of Asiatic origin lay dark-
shelled eggs, as a rule. The eggs of different varieties

EGGS 115

of the same breed may differ slightly in color. For
example, the eggs of dark-plumaged fowls have darker-
colored shells than those of the lighter-plumaged fowls.

A cross between two breeds, one of which lays brown-
shelled eggs and the other white-shelled eggs, results in
fowls that lay eggs of a color intermediate between the
brown and the white. There is also considerable vari-
ation in the color of eggs from different hens of the
same variety. The color of the shell is more pronounced
in the eggs first laid than in those laid later in the
season. All fowls having the least amount of Asiatic •
blood show this influence in the tinted shells. The more
of Asiatic blood a fowl has in its veins the darker will
be the color of the eggshell. The eggs with the darkest
color of shell are laid by the Langshans.

The New York market pays the highest prices for
white-shelled eggs, and the Boston market pays the high-
est prices for brown-shelled eggs. In other markets the
matter of color of shell is one of small importance.

The color of shell produced by the most popular egg-
producing breeds is given in the following list:

Brown Shells White Shells

Brahmas Anconas

Cochins Adalusians

Dorkings Crevecoeurs

Dominiques Campines

Faverolles Games (some have a tint)

Indian Games Hamburgs

Javas Houdans

Langshans Leghorns

Orpingtons La Fleche

Plymouth Rocks Minorcas

Rhode Island Reds Polish

Wyandottes Redcaps
Spanish

Weight of Eggs.— Marketable eggs should weigh not
less than 2 oz. each. At this weight, a crate of 30 doz.
eggs will weigh 45 lb., exclusive of the crate, and
such eggs will bring much better prices in the market
than eggs of smaller size. Eggs much larger than 2 oz.

116

EGGS

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EGGS

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are not profitable to sell, because they bring very little,
if any, higher price in the general market, and hens do
not lay so many. For a special market, however, it is
sometimes possible to get a premium on eggs that
average about 2l/2 oz.

The weight of eggs depend to a large extent on the
breed of fowls that lay them and also on the peculi-
arities of individual fowls. The following, however,
gives the average weight of various eggs:

Eggs Ounces

8 hen's eggs, average 16

11 guinea eggs 16

1 duck egg 3

1 turkey egg 4

1 goose egg 6 to 7

Washing of Eggs.— Eggs that are so badly soiled as
to need washing to fit them for market may be cleaned
with a solution made up of 1 oz. of ammonia to 2 qt. of
water. Soiled eggs may also be washed in warm water
and rubbed dry with a piece of cotton cloth or flannel.
Deep stains may be removed by rubbing with dry, coarse
salt. When cleaned in this way they should be rinsed
in lukewarm water. Stained eggs are sometimes cleaned
in lukewarm water that contain .a small quantity of soap.

After soiled eggs have been cleaned their appearance
is improved by rubbing them with a cloth that has been
moistened with a solution made up of 4 oz. of salt to
1 pt. of vinegar; this treatment, however, is not neces-
sary for eggs that have been washed in a solution con-
taining ammonia.

Percentage of Loss of Total Egg Crop.— According to
the United States Department of Agriculture, about 17%
of the total egg crop of the country is lost, because of
improper handling, or because of unsanitary conditions
where the eggs are laid. The following table shows the
percentage of loss of the total egg crop due to various
causes:

EGGS 119

PERCENTAGE LOSS OF TOTAL EGG CROP

Class

Per Cent.

Dirtv eggs

2
2
5

5 .
2*

Broken eggs

Chick development.

Shrunken or held eg
Rotten eggs

Ejs

Moldy and bad-flavc

)red eggs

Total

17

i

Relation of Weight of Eggs to Egg Production.— As a

general rule, the larger the number of eggs laid by a

RELATION OF WEIGHT OF EGGS TO EGG
PRODUCTION

Variety

Number
of
Hens

Number
of. Eggs
Laid

Weight
per
Dozen
Ounces

Average
Number
of
Eggs

Andalusian

72

11 883

2685

162 26

Single-Comb Black Mi-
norca .

156

23 910

26 72

146 85

Langshan

108

17 766

26 03

164 50

White Leghorn

984

173,939

26 00

176 75

Ancona

42

5 883

25 94

14000

Black Orpington

954

162 623

25 61

170 45

Buff Orpington
Buff Wyandotte

234
66

35,199
10 479

25.25
24 71

150.42
157 85

Silver Wyandotte
Brown Leghorn
White Wyandotte
Golden Wyandotte
Rose-Comb White Leg-
horn

834
180
90
108

66

139,694
32,593
14,066
16,902

11 578

24.50
24.47
24.45
24.38

24 31

167.49
181.08
156.25
156.50

173 90

Black Hamburg
Rose-Comb Brown Leg-
horn

30

72

5,554
13 155

24.19

°2 74

185.00
182 70

Total, all varieties

4,362

732,082

25.28

167.50

120 EGGS

fowl, the lighter in weight the eggs will average. This
is shown in the table on page 119, which is a summary
of the egg record of 4,362 hens of fifteen different
varieties that laid a total of 732,082 eggs, the records of
the different lots of fowls being taken over a period of
5 yr. In the table, the fowls are arranged with those
laying the heaviest eggs per doz. at the top and those
laying the lighter eggs coming in their proper order.
The Black Hamburgs and the Rose-Comb Brown Leg-
horns that produced the two highest average egg records
produced the lightest-weight eggs, and though the results
obtained are not all exactly in accordance with this
statement, a careful inspection of the table will show
that on an average hens with high egg records produced
light-weight eggs, and that the hens with the lowest egg
records produced somewhat heavier eggs. Since little
attention is paid in the market to the weight of eggs, it
is obvious that the best egg producers are the most
profitable.

Relation of Egg Production to Season.— In spite of the
many assertions that hens lay more prolifically at one
time of the year than at another, an inspection of the
egg records of a large number of fowls fails to show
any uniformity in regard to this point, but rather tends
to indicate that egg production is more a matter of
individuality than of season. The egg records given in
the table on page 122 have been taken from laying
hens in America, England, and Australia. The records
of some exceptionally high egg producers have been
selected and also the average production of a large num-
ber of fowls where it was possible to obtain authentic
records of this character. It will be noted that the indi-
vidual fowls that make high egg records lay consistently
throughout almost every month in the year, and that
the only time when they fall off in egg production is
during the molting period or when they are broody.

The single hens that do not make such high egg
records usually lay very well for certain months in
the year, but are unable to stand the strain of heavy

EGGS

121

egg laying and fail, sometimes almost completely, in
other months.

When the average egg production of a large number
of fowls is taken, it will be seen that there is a certain
similarity between their rates of monthly production, but
if the record of the 80 White Leghorn hens in America
is compared with that of the 28 American Wyandottes
and the 6,771 hens of assorted varieties in America, it
will be seen that the egg production in the cold months
was fully as large as in the spring months, and that the
production declined only in the fall when the fowls were
molting. Some hens that are
prolific egg producers in
their first year prove very
unsatisfactory in their sub-
sequent years, as for in-
stance, the Australian Silver
Wyandotte shown in the
table. To be sure that no
such hens are selected for
breeders, it is necessary
that careful egg records be
kept.

In all localities the fewest
eggs are produced during
the season of molt and the
period immediately following
that season. In the United States, the molt occurs during
the months that intervene between July and Jan. Natur-
ally, eggs will sell for the highest prices at this time.
Hens should be encouraged to lay during these months.
The greater profit will be made when a prolific yield
of eggs during the winter months has been secured.

Pullets that are hatched in the early spring lay at an
earliei age than do late-hatched pullets. March-hatched
pullets frequently lay in July, while those hatched in
July seldom lay before the following March.

BLACK ORPINGTON

122

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EGGS 123

STANDARDS FOR EGGS

Eggs are graded in many ways. The number of grades
varies in different markets. In general, it may be said
that eggs are graded according to their size, shape, color
of shell, finish of shell, and general condition.

The rules for the classification, grading, and packing
of market eggs as adopted by the New York Mercantile
Exchange are as follows:

RULE 1 — CLASSIFICATION AND GRADING

1. Eggs shall be classified as "fresh gathered," "held,"
"refrigerator," and "limed."

2. There shall be grades of "extras," "extra firsts,"
"firsts," "seconds," "thirds," "No. 1 and 2 dirties," and
"checks."

RULE 2

1. All sales of all grades of eggs shall be at mark.

QUALITIES

2. Fresh gathered extras shall be free from dirty eggs,
of good uniform size, and shall contain reasonably fresh,
reasonably full, strong bodied, sweet eggs, at the discre-
tion of the Egg Committee, as follows:

A— 90%.

B— 80%.

C— 65%.

The balance — other than the loss — may be slightly
defective in strength or fulness, but must be sweet. The
maximum total average loss per case permitted in "extras"
shall vary with the requirement of reasonably full, strong
bodied eggs as follows:

A — 90% full, 1 doz. maximum loss.

B — 80% full, ll/2 doz. maximum loss.

C — 65% full, 2 doz. maximum loss.

When sold "storage packed," extras must not contain
an average of more than 12 cracked or checked eggs
per case.

3. Fresh gathered firsts (or extra firsts) shall be
reasonably clean and of good average size, and shall con-
tain reasonably fresh, reasonably full, strong bodied.

124 EGGS

sweet eggs, at the discretion of the Egg Committee, as
follows:

A— 75%.

B— 65%.

C— 50%.

D— 40%.

The balance — other than the loss — may be defective in
strength or fulness, but must be sweet. The maximum
total average loss per case permitted in "firsts" or "extra
firsts" shall vary with the requirements of reasonably full,
strong bodied eggs as follows:

A — 75% full, 1^2 doz. maximum loss.

B — 65% full, 2 doz. maximum loss.

C — 50% full, 3 doz. maximum loss.

D — 40% full, 4 doz. maximum loss.

When sold "storage packed," fresh gathered firsts (or
extra firsts) must not contain an average of more than
18 cracked or checked eggs per case.

4. Fresh gathered seconds shall be reasonably clean
and of fair average size, and shall contain reasonably fresh,
reasonably full eggs, at the discretion of the Egg Com-
mittee, as follows:

A— 65%.

B_50%.

C— 40%.

D— 30%.

The balance — other than the loss — may be defective in
strength or fulness, but must be merchantable stock. The
maximum total average loss per case permitted in "sec-
onds" shall vary with the proportion of reasonably full
eggs required, as follows:

A — 65% full, 2 doz. maximum loss.

B — 50% full, 3 doz. maximum loss.

C — 40% full, 4 doz. maximum loss.

D — 30% full, 5 doz. maximum loss.

5. Fresh gathered thirds shall be reasonably clean and
of fair average size, and shall contain reasonably fresh,
reasonably full, sweet eggs, at the discretion of the Egg
Committee, as follows:

EGGS 125

A— 50%.

B— 30%.

C— 20%.

The balance — other than the loss — may be defective in
strength or fulness, but must be merchantable stock. The
maximum total average loss per case permitted in ''thirds"
shall vary with the requirements of reasonably full, sweet
eggs, as follows:

A — 50% full, 4 doz. maximum loss.

B — 30% full, 5 doz. maximum loss.

C — 20% full, 6 doz. maximum loss.

6. Held firsts shall be reasonably clean, of good
average size, and sweet. At least 40% shall be reason-
ably full and strong. The balance may be defective in
strength and fulness, but not badly shrunken, excepting
the loss. There may be a total average loss of 2 doz.
per case, but if the loss exceeds that by not more than
50% the eggs shall be a good delivery upon allowance of
the excess.

7. Held seconds shall be reasonably clean and of fair
average size. May be defective in fulness, strength,
and flavor, but must be merchantable stock, not musty.
There may be a total average loss of 4 doz. per case.

8. Refrigerator extras shall be free from dirty or small
eggs, reasonably full, strong, sweet, and free from mildew
or foreign taste or odor.

The maximum loss shall be, at the discretion of the
Egg Committee, as follows:

A— iy2 doz.

B— 2 doz.

Cases, fillers, and packing shall be as required for
"storage packed."

9. Refrigerator firsts shall be reasonably clean and of
good average size; they must be reasonably full, strong,
and sweet, and free from mildew or foreign taste or odor.

The maximum loss shall be, at the discretion of the
Egg Committee, as follows:
A— 2 doz.
B— 3 doz.

126 EGGS

Cases, fillers, and packing shall be as required for
"storage packed."

10. Refrigerator seconds shall be reasonably clean and
of fair average size; they must be reasonably full, strong,
and sweet, and free from mildew or foreign taste or odor.

The maximum loss shall be, at the discretion of the
Egg Committee, as follows:

A — 3 doz.

B— 4 doz.

Cases shall be substantial, and fillers and packing
reasonably sweet.

11. Refrigerator thirds shall be of fair appearance and
may be off-flavored to some extent.

The maximum loss shall be, at the discretion of the
Egg Committee, as follows:
A— 5 doz.
B— 6 doz.
Cases shall be substantial.

12. Limed extras shall be of uniformly good size, well
cleaned, strong bodied, and reasonably full and sweet.

The maximum loss shall be, at the discretion of the
Egg Committee, as follows:

A— \y2 doz.

B— 2 doz.

Cases, fillers, and packing shall be as required for
*'storage packed."

13. Limed firsts shall be of good average size, well
cleaned, of good strength, reasonably full and sweet.

The maximum loss shall be, at the discretion of the
Egg Committee, as follows:

A— 2 doz.

B— 3 doz.

Cases, fillers, and packing shall be as required for
"storage packed."

14. Limed seconds shall be of fair average size, well
cleaned, of good strength, and reasonably full and sweet.

The maximum loss shall be, at the discretion of the
Egg Committee, as follows:

EGGS 127

A— 3 doz.
B— 4 doz.

Cases shall be substantial, and fillers and packing
reasonably sweet.

15. Limed thirds shall comprise stock which is rusty,
weak, or shows hot weather defects, but must contain at
least 50% of fairly useful quality.

The maximum loss shall be, at the discretion of the
Egg Committee, as follows:
A— 5 doz.
B — 6 doz.
Cases shall be substantial.

16. No. i dirties may be offered in the classes of Fresh
Gathered, Held, arid Refrigerator. They must be of
good, useful quality, sweet in flavor.

The maximum loss shall correspond with the require-
ments for "firsts" in the class, at the time when offered.

When sold "storage packed," No. 1 dirties must not
contain more than 18 cracked or checked eggs per case.

17. No. 2 dirties may be offered in the classes of Fresh
Gathered, Held, and Refrigerator.

The quality, if fresh gathered, shall be the same as
specified for No. 1 dirties.

If held, or refrigerator, may be off-flavored, but not
musty.

The maximum loss shall correspond with the require-
ments for "seconds" in the class, and at the time when
offered.

Checked eggs may consist of blind checks and cracked
eggs (not leaking). They must be sweet in flavor, and
the loss must not exceed 3 doz. per case.

18. Loss, as used in these rules, shall comprise all
rotten, spotted, broken (leaking), broken-yolked, hatched
(blood-veined), and sour eggs. Very small, very dirty,
cracked (not leaking), badly heated, badly shrunken, and
salt eggs shall be counted as half less in all grades ex-
cepting dirties and checks. * * *

128 EGGS

19. At the discretion of the Egg Committee it may put
in force two grades of firsts at the same time, one
requiring a higher proportion of reasonably full, strong-
bodied eggs than the other, and when this is done, the
higher of the two grades shall be designated as "extra
firsts."

All requirements for grades determined upon by the
Egg Committee must be chosen from those specified
under Rule 2.

20. The classification provided in this rule shall apply
equally to hen eggs, duck eggs and goose eggs, but in the
case of duck and goose eggs the maximum loss shall be
pro rata with the number of dozens contained in the
packages.

RULE 3. — PACKAGES AND PACKING

1. All grades of eggs not storage packed, shall be in
new or good second-hand substantial egg cases, of uni-
form size.

Fillers shall be of substantial quality, sweet and dry,
with flats or other suitable substitutes under bottom
•layers and over tops, and sweet, dry excelsior or other
suitable packing under bottom and over tops.

Any grade of eggs not storage packed, which shall
inspect in quality according to these rules, but be deficient,
not to exceed 10% in flats or other suitable substitutes
and tops and bottoms, shall be a good delivery.

2. Storage packed. When sold as "storage packed,"
all grades must be in new 30 doz. cases, well seasoned,
smooth, clean, and substantial, fillers dry, sweet, medium,
No. 1, or other good substantial straw board, flats under
bottom layers and over tops. The packing shall be dry,
sweet excelsior under bottoms and over tops, unless
otherwise specified.

3. To be a good delivery, all eggs must be packed in
30 doz. cases except goose eggs, which may be packed in
any style of packages containing not less than 10 doz.
each, and duck eggs, which may be packed in any style
of packages containing not less than 15 doz. each.

EGGS 129

CARE AND PRESERVATION OF EGGS
CARE OF EGGS

The Bureau of Chemistry of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture has given marked attention to in-
vestigations the results of which it is thought will add
considerably to the value of egg products by saving
many millions of dollars as the result of more care in
handling them.

Eggs contain a large percentage of moisture, which
will evaporate through the shell. The evaporation is
more rapid when the eggs are exposed to heat or vari-
ations in temperature. Mr. Greenlee, of the Food Re-
search Laboratory of the government, says that chemical
analyses of eggs by various investigators are fairly
numerous, But that little has been done to correlate the
change in moisture content with the age or condition
of the egg.

One investigator, who has made an extensive study
of eggs, has found that eggs kept for a year show a loss
of weight equivalent to 10% of the total weight, which
loss is largely water evaporated from the whites. He
found also that when fresh eggs are boiled a loss in
weight occurs, whereas storage eggs gain in boiling.
Apparently the whites lose more water than the yolks,
and consequently gain more in boiling. The boiled
yolks, when fresh, contain less than 50% of water; when
cold-stored, this percentage is increased, the figures
reaching 64% in the last examination. This would indi-
cate that the yolks of eggs in storage gather moisture
from the whites and that the whites evaporate moisture
through the shell.

Other experiments made by the government chemists
do not indicate definitely that water passes from the
white to the yolk. The same results, they say, would
be obtained if the white took up solids from the yolks.
They say further that the phenomena of a transfer of
water from the white to the yolk may easily be ex-

130 EGGS

plained by the simple process of osmosis. The yolk,
which contains a very high percentage of solids, is
surrounded by a membraneous tissue called the vitelline
membrane, which, in turn, is surrounded by the egg
white, a liquid much more dilute than the yolk. By
osmosis, the water passes through the membrane from
the more dilute to the more concentrated solution until
a constant equilibrium is obtained. This process con-
tinues until the vitelline membrane becomes so weak
that it breaks, when the white and the yolk begin to
lose their identity.

Professor Lamson writes that the egg is complex
chemically, and, like milk, it is one of the best places
for bacteria to multiply. The work of these organisms
is to simplify or decompose the white and the yolk until
the egg is seemingly worse than useless; though even
rotten eggs find a place in the market for polishing
leather, and are sold by the large packing houses for
that purpose.

Fresh-laid eggs will be contaminated if left even for
a short time under unfavorable conditions. A case of
eggs that are perfectly good may be taken from cold
storage on a hot day in summer, hauled from the storage
house in a wagon to the retail store, be opened imme-
diately and the eggs placed in baskets for sale. The
exposure of the eggs so quickly to a heated temperature
causes moisture to gather on the surface of the shell.
This is called sweating. The moisture that gathers on
the egg- dissolves the coating of albumen that partly
fills the pores of the egg; thus, the heated atmosphere
works through into the interior of the shell and in a
very few hours the eggs begin to change in quality. By
the time they are carried home and prepared for the
table, they are not nearly so good as they would have
been if they had been properly cared for.

When the eggs are taken from cold storage or from
a refrigerator car they should be kept in the store or
the storehouse away from the cold-storage room for from
12 to 24 hr. without opening the case. This will temper

EGGS 131

the eggs and bring them to or near to the temperature
of the room. When the case is opened after this wait,
the eggs will be dry and will be much better for selling
and for table use than they would be if treated in the
other manner. The greater part of all the deterioration
in eggs is directly blamable on careless handling.

Eggs that are perfectly fresh when put in cold storage
will, if packed in clean cases and properly stored, be
quite as good as when removed from cold storage as
they were when placed there. More cold-storage eggs
are injured between the time they are removed from
storage and are sold than are injured while in the cold-
storage room. If low-grade or inferior eggs are placed
in cold storage, they will be worse when taken out of
storage than they were when placed in storage.

Eggs that are fresh and good and poultry that is fresh,
good, and properly dressed will, if carefully packed,
keep in cold storage for many months, and be nearly
or quite as good for food as they were when placed in
storage. Eggs that have been heated in transit or that
have not been cared for properly prior to being placed
in storage, will have deteriorated when taken from
storage. Such eggs are the kind that call down con-
demnation on cold-storage eggs. The same is true of
dressed poultry. If it is good when placed in storage, it
will be good when it comes out; if it is inferior when
placed in storage it will be less fit for food when taken
out than it was when it was placed in storage.

Most fresh-laid eggs are a typically perfect food, but
they may be infected almost immediately after being
laid. For example, the filth of nesting material may
adhere to the moist surface of fresh-laid eggs and so
infect them as to render them unfit for food. Such con-
tamination will speedily spoil the eggs in spite of the
most careful later handling. Eggs left in the nest for
a few hours when the weather is very hot may be in-
jured. It is not unusual for the temperature at noon
to be 98° or 100° inside of some poultry houses. Eggs
that are laid in infected nesting material and left there

132 EGGS

a few hours in such a temperature will, within an hour
or two, show blood spots and decomposition.

Laying hens should be kept apart from the males
during the summer months, because infertile eggs will
keep good much longer at summer temperatures than
fertile eggs. There is no reason whatever for the males
to run with the hens at any other time than during the
breeding season.

Quality of Eggs.— Eggs that are old and undesirable may
be called stale, decomposed, or rotten, according to their
condition. Any deterioration in eggs brings them and
their vendor into disfavor. Consumers partial to eggs
that are perfectly fresh will turn in disgust from eggs
served in soiled shells. This is reason sufficient for the
greatest care in safeguarding egg production by means
of clean houses, clean nests, and clean and healthy hens.
Eggs should be gathered frequently, at least three or
four times daily, in both cold and warm weather. All
eggs the shells of which are the least bit soiled or off-
colored should be placed by themselves to be cleaned
and sorted or graded before they are sent to market.

No other food product will gain in price from proper
grading so greatly as eggs. They can be graded in size,
shape, color, and cleanliness, with the result of always
enhancing the price.

Freshness and internal conditions may be determined
by -candling. The process of candling is simple. A
lamp is placed inside a pasteboard box having a hole
in the top through which the heat of the lamp may
escape, and a hole two-thirds the diameter of the egg
in the side of the box just opposite or even with the
flame of the lamp. By placing the egg against the hole
in the side of the box the interior of the egg can be
plainly seen. If the contents are perfectly bright and
clear, the egg is fresh and fit for food. If spots, shades,
or lines are visible through the shell, 'the egg is more or
less deteriorated. Eggs must be tested in a dark room.
There are several kinds of egg testerg sold for very
moderate prices. Persons who sell eggs should have one

EGGS 133

of these testers and test all their eggs before sending
them to market.

Eggs differ considerably in size, shape, and color.
When eggs are packed for market, either in dozen car-
tons or in egg cases of large size, those of one size
and one color should be packed by themselves. The
standard size for market eggs is 24 oz. per doz., each
egg averaging 2 oz. Eggs smaller than this are under
size; those that are larger are over size. Over-sized
eggs all of one color packed in clear cases will bring
the highest prices in the markets. Eggs that vary in
size, shape, and color, even though perfectly fresh, sell
for lower prices. It is not unusual to see fresh-laid
eggs all of one size, shape, and color selling for 25 to 40
per cent, higher than eggs equally fresh, but of miscel-
laneous sizes, shapes, and colors.

Eggs selected for hatching should be the finest obtain-
able. Never hatch an egg that is small in size or
inferior in shape and color. If this rule is closely
adhered to for a few years, the egg product of a poultry
farm will almost double in value. The same rigid selec-
tion and grading should be followed and continued year
after year, for both hatching and selling, until no poor
eggs, or at least very few, are produced.

The shells of all eggs should be smooth and free from,
indentations and unevenness. The surface of the shell
should be finished and have a polished appearance. If
the shells are white, they should be perfectly white and
free from any tint or shade whatever; if brown or
tinted, they should have an even shade of color. When
the shells are irregular in form or color they are classed
as seconds, thirds, or miscellaneous in quality. No
eggs of this kind should ever be found in the first
selection, because they will lessen the value of the
entire lot.

Not all of the fowls of any one breed lay eggs of
proper size, shape, and color, but some hens of all breeds
and varieties lay such eggs. By p'roper selection of eggs
for hatching, all breeds and varieties might within 10 or

134 EGGS

12 yr. be so developed as to produce eggs of the size and
color proper for the various breeds. No one breed excels
all others as layers; there are good layers in all breeds
and varieties. The production of many eggs of proper
size,, shape, and color may be accomplished with any
breed by proper breeding, selection, and care.

The color of the yolk may be influenced largely by
feeding plenty of green stuff. Experiment has show
that the eating of dried alfalfa leaves by the hens wil
produce eggs of good yolk color. White beets or mangel
eaten plentifully will produce eggs having a very pale
yolk. Carrots, kale, spinach, green clover, and many
other kinds of green feed will influence the color of the
yolk. A plentiful supply of grass will always insure
eggs with yolks of good, rich color and fine flavor.

Green clover, alfalfa, rye, grass, or young corn are all
good for feeding to laying hens, because they impart fine
color and flavor to the eggs. The feeding of green rape,
millet, or mustard is apt to make both the color and
flavor undesirable. No kind of green stuff is better for
feeding to hens in confinement during the summer
months than short lawn clippings when perfectly fresh.
Carefully selected feed of all kinds is most desirable,
because of the tendency of the feed to flavor the eggs.

PRESERVING EGGS

It is quite as necessary to have eggs well selected as
it is to have them properly preserved for keeping. That
is, eggs that are to be kept should be fresh, infertile,
if it is possible to have them so, and all of them should
be laid in April, May, or the early part of June. No
eggs should ever be stored that are laid when the maxi-
mum temperature is above 60°. When eggs are gathered
they should be kept in a cool place where the temperature
averages between 40° F. and 55° F. They should never be
put in the preservative until they have been cooled thor-
oughly. The eggs that are used for pickling or preserv-
ing should have smooth, strong shells. Eggs with shells
that are rough or porous are not well suited for storage.

EGGS 135

The eggs should not be washed or exposed to the heat
of the stove or sun. Never keep eggs, either in or out
of storage, where they are in danger of contamination
from potatoes, onions, kerosene oil, or anything that will
impart an odor which may be absorbed by the eggs.

The best method of keeping the eggs good for food for
any length of time is that of cold storage. The ideal
cold storage for eggs is that which has a temperature
ranging between 32° F. and 36° F. The atmosphere
should be dry or nearly so, yet there should be sufficient
moisture in the air to prevent evaporation of the eggs.
The requirements for success in keeping eggs are that
they shall be protected from evaporation and that there
shall be no penetration which makes possible the de-
struction of the eggs through the presence of bacteria
and molds.

Eggs may be kept for a longer or shorter time, accord-
ing to their condition and the method used to preserve
them. Eggs packed in bran, oats, or perfectly dry sand
will keep longer than eggs exposed to the air. Eggs
packed in salt and kept in a temperature of 50° F. or
55° F. where it is perfectly dry will keep good for a
number of months. Eggs coated with shellac, varnish,
vaseline, or tallow, and stored in a dry cool place will
keep for a number of weeks.

The most successful method of storing eggs at home
is by the use of liquid preparations made for the pur-
pose. The use of lime water for this purpose has been
general throughout the world. In France a solution with
from 8 to 10% of unslaked lime or 20% of slaked lime in
pure water is used. In the United States a solution
containing both salt and lime is in common use.

Eggs laid during the month of April should, if possi-
ble, be selected for storing; they keep better than eggs
laid at other times. Eggs laid in May and June are
next best. The reason for this lies in the fact that
April eggs are usually very choice, because the fowls
can have a plentiful supply of fresh-grown green food,
which adds a rich color to the yolk and a delicate flavor

136 EGGS

to the egg. Some eggs do not keep well, however, no
matter when they may be laid. Hens that have the free
range of barnyards, cqw barns, and pig pens gather food
that is liable to spoil the flavor of the eggs. Besides,
such food may transmit properties to the eggs that will
prove detrimental to their keeping. When eggs are
perfectly fresh they will keep very well, provided they
are gathered, as has been stated, during weather that
is not warm and are put into the preservative as soon
as the animal heat has left them.

The success obtained from preserving eggs depends
largely on the care in selecting them, the preparation
of the preserving liquid, and the temperature of the
place of storage. Eggs of bad flavor will not improve
from this or any other method of preserving. Eggs with
a bad odor before being put into the preserving liquid
will deteriorate rather than improve. Eggs of poor
quality will not be made better, but good eggs will
remain good when they have been put away properly.

Eggs may be preserved in lime water provided they are
kept in tall vessels; either stone crocks or butter tubs
can be used. The liquid for covering the eggs is made
in the proportion of 3 gal. of water to 1 Ib. of salt and
1 qt. of finely slaked lime, the lime and salt to be mixed
in the water. This is to be stirred frequently for a
period of 1 to 2 (fa. Following this, the liquid should be
permitted to settle. The crock or tub is then almost
filled with eggs, placed, as far as possible, with the
small end down. The clear liquid solution of lime and
salt is poured over them until the surface of the water
is fully an inch above the top of the eggs. The vessel
should be kept in an out-of-the-way place, where the
temperature will not exceed 50° F. A thin covering of
lime will form on top of the liquid. If undisturbed, this
covering will protect the contents from outer influences.

A solution made of 1 gal. of sodium silicate, or water
glass, and 9 gal. of water is an efficient preservative for
eggs. The water glass must be diluted with warm water
and be stirred until thoroughly mixed with the water.

EGGS 137

When cool, this solution should be poured over eggs
placed in vessels as described in the foregoing para-
graph. Eggs will keep fairly fresh in this solution for
5 or 6 mo., and they have been kept in edible condition
for a year. This can be accomplished, however, only
when they are kept in cool places and in a temperature
not above 45° F. Experiments have shown that under
some conditions a solution of 5% of water glass and 95%
of water will answer for the keeping of eggs; and they
have kept fairly well in a 3% solution of the same
material. The quantity used depends on the strength
of the water glass, which is a chemical preparation that
may be of several strengths. When the water glass used
is of the highest grade, less is required than of the
lower grades.

It is of advantage to know the size of the receptacle
needed for the eggs and the quantity of liquid needed
to submerge them. A 5-gal. jar will hold about 16 doz.
eggs. The best results in keeping eggs in water glass
will be realized by placing them in a solution made of
1 part water glass and 9 parts water. This solution will
evaporate more or less. For this reason water should be
added to keep the solution properly balanced for pre-
serving the eggs. If waste by evaporation is permitted,
the solution will become thick and heavy. When this
occurs, the eggs in the solution will not continue to be
so good as they will be if the solution is kept of the
proper consistency.

Mr. Olsen, of the Washington Experiment Station, sug-
gests the following as sufficient solution to cover the
number of eggs indicated:

Capacity of Number of Water-Glass

Container Eggs Solution

1 gallon 40 &A pints

2 gallons 80 71A pints

3 gallons 120 1&A pints

4 gallons 160 14^ pints

5 gallons 200 18 pints
10 gallons 400 36 pints

138 EGGS

When the eggs are removed from the solution they
should be rinsed so as to be entirely free from the lime
water or the solution of water glass. To do this, the
eggs can be placed either in a sieve or a colander, and
a running stream of fresh water permitted to pass over
them, or buckets of fresh water may be poured over
them. After being thoroughly rinsed, and before they
are packed for shipment, they should be laid out on a
dry cloth or on boards until they have become thor-
oughly dry.

A sodium-silicate powder is now used to some extent
for preserving eggs in place of liquid water glass. It
has the same property and it is called water-glass powder.
One pound of this powder mixed with 9 pints of warm
water will make a solution that is fully equal to the
solution made of the liquid water glass and warm water.
Eggs will keep quite as well in this as in the liquid
water-glass mixture. The powder form is more cleanly
and less difficult to handle. It is used in the same way
as the liquid water glass. When purchasing the powder
be sure to get the true water-glass powder.

Another substitute which is called a lime-water prepa-
ration is known as Garantol.

JUDGING EGGS

The largest displays of dressed poultry and market
eggs have been made in Boston. Efforts have been made
with more or less success toward the holding of egg dis-
plays in other parts of the country. The colleges at
Lafayette, Ind., Mountain Grove, Mo., Ithaca, N. Y.,
and State College, Pa., have all held such displays. The
score-card method of judging such displays has been
used to a greater or less extent. The' first score card
of which we have any knowledge was compiled by
George Fletcher and used by him in judging egg dis-
plays in Boston.

EGGS

139

In the use of a score card an entry of eggs consists of one dozen, an exhibit
consists of three dozen, and a display of six doten.

Official Score Card for Eggs

(Copyright 191S By The American Poultry Association)

(Name of Show or Association)

(Date, Month, Days and Year of Show)

EXHIBITOR f • •• ,..-.-./-.

Address -

Class ' Entry No

Color./ .....n....r....... ...... Wright Oz.
SCORE CARD FOR EXHIBITION AND FOR
COMMERCIAL EGGS

When judging an exhibit of eggs, the scores of the eggs forming each indi-
vidual entry are to be added together; the total then being divided by the number of
eggs comprising the entry; and the average so obtained shall be the score of the

DISQUALIFICATIONS
Exhibition Egg: Cracked shell; extremely dirty or stained shell; foreign shell-
color; pronounced irregularity of shape; sign of incubation or germ-growth;
decay, rot, mould, or mustiness; blood rings; foreign odor; or any condition
that renders it unfit for food.
Commercial Egg: Sign of incubation or germ growth ; decay, rot, mould, or mus-
tiness ; blood ring ; or any condition that renders it unfit for food.

Divisions and Score of a Perfect Egg T^f

Enty «««to

Size or Weight (including uniformity) 15

Cleanliness .. ........ .' J5

Shape (including .uniformity) • '5

Shell Color (including Uniformity) .»«,.' 5

Fullness (as indicated by air cell) ...... 15

Quality tad F£rane« of Wbjte. ........ 20 .....

Total Value.... 100

JUDGE ...

SECRETARY ......k.. , , -

— ^— '

140 EGGS

Several of the poultry departments of colleges located
in the eastern part of the United States have compiled
score cards. One of the best of these was compiled by
the committee of the American Poultry Association for
use in the "American Poultry and Egg Standard," which
had not been published up to 1919. This score card
(shown on page 139) has been copyrighted by the Amer-
ican -Poultry Association and can be obtained from the
secretary of the association for general use.

The color of the shell of all the eggs in any entry
should be alike, that is, 1 doz. of white eggs should be
all pure white, 1 doz. of brown eggs should be, all of
them, one even shade of brown and all alike.

A perfect egg should be oval in shape, about one and
a half times as long as thick, and should taper evenly.
Uniformity of shape should be demanded and color
should have almost equal consideration with shape. All
eggs must be perfectly clean and free from stains, and
the surface of the shell must be firm, smooth, and free
from uneven places.

The size of the air cell is likely to be the best external
test of age. An egg that is perfectly fresh should not
show an air cell that is larger than a 10-cent piece. The
albumen, or white, of the egg should be firm, and the
shell should be almost entirely filled, leaving only the
very small air cell visible to a strong light. All eggs
should be candled, especially in keen competition.

EGG PRICES

The prices of eggs throughout the world are governed
largely by the prices paid in the densely populated cen-
ters. These prices for the United States are governed
by the prices paid in Boston, Chicago, and New York.
Toronto is the market center of Canada; London and
Manchester make the prices for Europe. Eggs are quoted
in the United States and Canada by the dozen, or by
the crate, which^contains 30 doz. In London the quota-

EGGS 141

tion is by the long hundred (120). Eggs are designated
in the London market according to the locality from
which they are sent, and as this is, to a certain extent,
an indication of their freshness and quality, it has an
influence on the quotations. The highest quotations are
for the best English eggs, and they are usually fully
equal to the prices asked in America for fancy hennery
eggs. French, Danish, and Italian eggs will grade with
what we call near-by eggs and eggs for storage in
America. The best of the eggs that are sent from Ire-
land over to London are sold for English eggs. Eggs
from more distant countries are graded about the same
as our second or third qualities in America.

Prior to 1914, eggs like those sold in the New York
market as fancy hennery for 25c. a dozen sold in London
at about 22c. a dozen. During 1917 and 1918, eggs that
sold in New York as fancy hennery at 70c. sold in
London for $1.20. During the winter of 1918-1919 the best
grade of fancy hennery eggs sold in New York for 90c.
to $1.00 a dozen, while the same grade of eggs sold in
England for $1.78 a dozen. Eggs have sold in New York
prior to 1914 from as low as 17c. a. dozen in April to as
high as 52c. in winter. The average price on the New
York market during 1917 was 52c.

Prior to 1912 there was published in this book a
comparison of egg prices in the New York and London
markets, a part of which we repeat. The following com-
parison is made from the quotations given in the New
York and London markets for the month of May, 1909.
As an English shilling was then equivalent to 24^c. in
American money, and an English penny was equivalent
to 2c., the London quotations of 8/4 to 9/2 for 120 eggs
is about equivalent to 20c. to 22c. a dozen. The quota-
tions given cannot be accepted as a guide for the selling
price of eggs, but they furnish an approximate indication
of the relative selling prices in New York and London.
Eggs sold in New York at that same date at from 23c.
to 25c*. a dozen. The prices fluctuate considerably in
both markets at different seasons of the year. During

142 SELECTING HENS FOR EGG PRODUCTION

the years 1917 and 1918 eggs sold in the London market
at about 20c. to 25c. a dozen more than they were sold
for in the New York market.

The indications are that eggs will continue to be very
high in price throughout the world for several years.

The prices paid for eggs in America during the winter
and spring of 1918 and 1919 are some indication of what
they are likely to sell for in the future. The grading
of eggs is likely to be changed throughout the world,
thus to standardize, if possible, all grades of eggs in all
countries. There will be an effort to do the same as to
price grading of market poultry.

SELECTING HENS FOR EGG PRO-
DUCTION

RULES FOR JUDGING

The poultry departments of agricultural colleges and
of experiment stations have worked continually for
several years to devise a plan or method which might
be followed in the selecting of the best laying hens in
flocks of poultry.

The pelvic-bone system which is a part of the Hogan
system has been used to a considerable extent. This
system describes the best layers as having pelvic bones
that are thin and so placed that four fingers may be held
between the point of the breast bone and the end of the
pelvic bone. This can be done only when the hen is a
prolific layer and in full lay. Another test is that the
points of the pelvic bone of a good layer stand wide
apart. The disadvantage of this system is that if the
best layers are examined when in full lay and examined
again when not laying at all there will be a marked
difference in the distances between both of these meas-
urements. This is caused by a shrinkage in the abdomen
when the hen is not laying.

SELECTING HENS FOR EGG PRODUCTION 143

Poultrymen of New York, New Jersey, and parts of
Connecticut and Pennsylvania are partial to White Leg-
horns. The experts at the head of the poultry depart-
ments of these states have devised a plan for judging
the past record of laying hens; in other words, they have
devised a set of rules which may best be applied to
laying hens during the fall to make certain which of
them have produced the most eggs during the past year.
The work done along this line in these several states
was presented to a large gathering of poultry experts,
poultry judges, and college professors at Cornell Uni-
versity early in July of 1918. All who had done work
along this line presented the results obtained by them,
and after considerable consultation a set of rules was
adopted for judging fowls for good production. These
rules are as follows:

A METHOD OF JUDGING FOWLS FOR EGG
PRODUCTION

(Formulated at the Judging School held at Cornell
University, Ithaca, N. Y., July 1-6, 1918, and approved
by the American Association of Instructors and Investi-
gators in Poultry Husbandry.)

In order to lay well a fowl must have a sound body.
As a first consideration it must be vigorous and healthy
if it is to be able to lay well. Vigor and health are
shown by a bright, clear eye, a well-set body, a com-
paratively active disposition, and a good circulation.
Further, the fowl must be free from physical defects
such as crooked beak, long toe nails, eyelids that over-
hang so that it cannot see well, scaly leg, or anything
that would keep it from seeing or getting an abundance
of food.

In the illustration on the following page the parts of a
fowl that receive particular attention in judging fowls
for egg production are numbered, and the names of the
numbered parts are given.

Loss of Fat Due to Laying.— A laying fowl uses up the
surplus fat in the body, especially that just under the
skin. In yellow-skinned breeds this loss of fat can

144 SELECTING HENS FOR EGG PRODUCTION

readily be seen by the loss of the yellow color. The
different parts of the body tend to become white, accord-
ing to the quantity of the fat stored in the body and
the amount of circulation of blood through that part.
The changes occur in the following order:

The vent changes very quickly with egg production so
that white or pink vent on a yellow-skinned fowl gener-

NAMES OF NUMBERED PARTS

Vent

Eye ring

Ear lobes

Beak

Shank

Heel of shank

7. Abdomen

8. Pelvic arches

9. Sternal processes

10. Comb

11. Wattles

ally indicates that it is laying; a yellow vent means
the opposite. It should be recognized that all yellow
color changes are dependent on the feed, coarseness of
skin, and size of the fowl. A heavy fowl fed on an
abundance of green feed or other material that will
color the fat deep yellow will not bleach out nearly so
quickly as one of a pale yellow color.

SELECTING HENS FOR EGG PRODUCTION 145

The eye ring, that is, the inner edges of the eyelids,
bleach out a trifle more slowly than the vent. The ear
lobes on Leghorns and Anconas bleach out a little more
slowly than the eye ring, so that a bleached ear lobe
means a little longer or greater production than a
bleached vent or eyelid.

The color goes out of the beak beginning at the base,
and gradually disappears until it finally leaves the front
part of the upper beak. The lower beak bleaches faster
than the upper but may be used where the upper is
obscured by horn or black. On the average-colored,
yellow-skinned bird, a bleached beak means heavy pro-
duction for at least 4 to 6 wk.

The shanks are the slowest to bleach out and hence
indicate a much longer period of production than the
other parts. The yellow goes out from the scales on the
front of the shanks first and finally from the scales on
the rear. The scales on the heel or rear of the hock
joint of the shank are the last to bleach out and may
generally be used as an index as to the natural depth
of yellow color of the fowl. A bleached-out shank
usually indicates fairly heavy production for at least
15 to 20 wk.

The yellow color comes back into the vent, eye ring,
ear lobes, beak, and shanks in the same order that it
went out, only the color returns much more quickly
than it goes out. A vacation or rest period can some-
times be determined by the end of the beak being
bleached and the base being yellow.

Body Changes Due to Laying.— A laying hen has a
large, moist vent showing a dilated condition and loose-
ness as compared with the hard, puckered vent of a non-
laying hen.

The whole abdomen is dilated as well as the vent, so
that the pelvic arches are widespread and the keel is
forced down, away from the pelvic arches so as to give
large capacity. The more eggs a fowl is going to lay the
following week the greater will be the size of the ab-
domen. The actual size of the abdomen is, of course,

146 SELECTING HENS FOR EGG PRODUCTION

influenced by the size of eggs laid and by the size of
the fowl.

Heavy production is shown by the quality of the skin
and the thickness and stiffness of the pelvic arches. Fat
goes out from the skin and body with production, so that
the heavy producers have a soft, velvety skin that is not
underlaid by layers of hard fat. The abdomen in par-
ticular is soft and pliable.

The sternal processes are very prominent and are gener-
ally bent outward. The thicker and blunter the pelvic
arches and the greater the amount of hard fat in the
abdomen the less the production or the longer time since
production.

One of the finer indications, but yet one of the most
valuable in picking a good layer is the fineness of the
head and the closeness and dryness of feathering. The
head of a high layer is fine. The wattles and ear lobes
fit close to the beak and are not loose and flabby. The
face is clean cut. The eye is full, round, and prominent,
especially when seen from the front. The high layer is
trimmer, that is, the feathers lie closer to the body, and
after heavy production the oil does not keep the plumage
relatively sleek and glossy but the plumage becomes worn
and threadbare.

Changes in Secondary Sexual Characters.— The comb,
wattles, and ear lobes enlarge or contract, depending on
the ovary. If the comb, wattles, and ear lobes are large,
full, and smooth, or hard and waxy, the bird is laying
heavily. If the comb is limp, the bird is only laying
slightly, and is not laying at all when the comb is dried
down, especially at molting time. If the comb is warm,
it is an indication that the fowl is coming back into pro-
duction.

Molting.— When a fowl stops laying in the summer she
usually begins to molt. The later a hen lays in the
summer or the longer the period during which she lays,
the greater will be her production, so that the high
producer is the late layer and hence the late molter.
The length of time that a hen has been molting or has

SELECTING HENS FOR EGG PRODUCTION 147

stopped laying can be determined by the molting of the
primary feathers. It takes about 6 wk. to renew com-
pletely the primary feathers next to the axial feathers
and an additional 2 wk. for each additional primary to
be renewed.

Temperament and Activity.— A good layer is more
active and nervous and yet more easily handled than a
poor layer. A high layer shows more friendliness and
yet elusiveness than a poor bird. A low producer is
shy and stays on the edge of the flock and will squawk
when caught.

While the characters discussed have dealt specifically
•with the one year's production, it should be borne in
mind that a high producer one year is, generally speak-
ing, a high producer in all other years.

.SCORE CARD

The table on page 148 is a sample score of 15 White
Leghorns that was made at Cornell University in July,
1918. The numbers 1, 2, 3, etc. refer to the grade in
which the fowl is classed, 1 being the highest. The
terms used are the same as those used in the preceding
rules, as, for instance, vent, eye ring, etc. Abdomen and
capacity are used quite like the ruling in the Hogan
system. By studying carefully the rules for judging and
this table you will have all the information relative to
this work that has been evolved up to the time of the
printing of this book. The number of eggs estimated and
the number of actual eggs are shown in comparison. The
estimate was made by the expert who examined the
15 White Leghorns and made this record card. The
actual number of eggs laid, as shown in the last column,
was obtained through the use of trap nests. In the
table, x indicates a blank and the term capacity relates
to capacity as an egg layer.

148 SELECTING HENS FOR EGG PRODUCTION

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SELECTING HENS FOR EGG PRODUCTION 149

BARRON METHOD OF SELECTING LAYERS

Thomas Barren, of England, was the first to make a
careful study of the breeding of hens for egg production.
He was very successful in this. His efforts aroused
poultrymen throughout the world, and today in every
land where poultry is kept there is an unusual effort
being made to breed for better egg production. The
results of these efforts have shown themselves very
plainly in the increased number of eggs per hen laid
throughout the civilized world.

Mr. Barron was the first to present a model in writing
describing the physical characteristics of layers. This
is his description:

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LAYERS

Size. — Medium for the breed, tending toward neither
extreme.

Plumage. — Rather tight in feather.

Head. — Skull rather narrow, with full, bright eye.
Rather short, stout bill. Comb fine in texture. Size not
as important as texture.

Neck. — Rather long, not too thick.

Body. — Breast prominent and rather long. Back long
and wide across the hips. Good cushion. In short, a
square-built bird with body held at such an angle as to
throw the stern much lower than the breast.

Legs. — Medium in length and set well apart.

Tail.— Carried rather high.

The whole appearance of the bird should be trim and
active.

I also pay some attention to the pelvic bones, the
pointed bones, which may be felt just above the vent.
These should be well separated.

The above, in brief, outlines my method of breeding
and selecting heavy layers. It is given to the poultrymen
of America in the hope that it may be of benefit to them.

THOMAS BARRON

150 ARTIFICIAL LIGHT TO INCREASE

ARTIFICIAL LIGHT TO INCREASE
EGG PRODUCTION

By the use of artificial light in the laying houses, it
has been found possible to make hens lay more ej;gs
during the months when the daylight is shortest and
the price of eggs is highest.

Writing in February, 1919, Professor James E. Rice, of
Cornell University, says: "One of the most sensational
developments of modern poultry husbandry is the dis-
covery that by the use of artificial light as an aid to
feeding and activity the distribution of egg production
throughout the year can be radically changed. So great
is the change and so certain the results when artificial
light is properly applied to the right kind of stock, in
conjunction with proper methods of feeding, that it is
destined to revolutionize egg production and the market
egg receipts.

"It will have the double effect of (1) materially in-
creasing the production and hence the market receipts
of the autumn and early winter eggs, and (2) propor-
tionately decreasing the production and receipts during
the spring and early summer months.

"The place where the most marked results from the use
of artificial light are seen is in the more rapid develop-
ment of late-maturing pullets and hens which under
normal conditions would not have laid until toward
spring. Here the difference due to the use of artificial
light is truly surprising. Here also is where the largest
profits are to be made by aiding the hens to lay the eggs
in the autumn and winter months when they are nor-
mally highest in price, instead of boarding the hens
until spring and then getting the same eggs when they
are cheap. Then, however, nearly as many eggs are
produced in the spring as if the hens had not laid during
the autumn and winter. Those which have ceased to
lay in the spring after a winter of heavy production can

EGG PRODUCTION 151

be sold on a higher priced market than was available
for the same fowls in the previous autumn."

Probably thirty to forty commercial egg farms in New
Jersey tested, in 1918-1919, the use of artificial illumina-
tion for increasing egg production during the short-day
period from September 1 to March 1. Fourteen of these
plants reported monthly to the Poultry Department of
the State Agricultural College, New Brunswick, N. J.,
where the records were inspected by Harry R. Lewis,
Professor of Poultry Husbandry, and placed in charge
of his assistant for compilation. It is expected that a
Bulletin telling of the results of these experiments will
be published by the State Agricultural College, New
Brunswick, N. J. A complete thesis on the subject can
be obtained from the Reliable Poultry Journal, Quincy,
111.

The theory advanced is that the use of artificial light
in the poultry houses allows the hens more hours for
eating, thus giving them as much time for feeding as
they would ordinarily have in the spring and the addi-
tional food eaten results in increased number of eggs.

Electric lights are used where they can be had at a
reasonable price. Lanterns are made especially for this
purpose and some use tubular lanterns. The houses are
lighted from 4:30 P. M. until 8 or 10 P. M., and from
5 A. M. till daylight.

152

MARKET POULTRY

MARKET POULTRY

Digestibility of Poultry and Other Foods.— In poultry
and other meats and fish, about 70% of the protein,
95% of the fat, and 98% of the carbohydrates are diges-
tible. The food principles in vegetable foods are not
as fully digestible, for in such foods only about 84%
of the protein, 90% of the fat, and 97% of the carbohy-
drates are digestible.

In the table giving the comparison of poultry and
certain other foods is shown the composition of some

foodstuffs, and it will
be seen from this
that poultry meat
compares very favor-
ably in food value
with beef, fish, eggs,
milk, and potatoes.
On an average, the
various kinds of
poultry furnish not
far from 5% more
protein and a little
more ash than do the
other kinds of meat
included in the table.
On the other hand,
the poultry meats

most used— chicken and fowl— contain relatively little
fat and have a relatively small fuel value. Pound for
pound, poultry contains a trifle more of the building
materials required by the body, but furnishes less of
the energy-giving materials than the fat meats. As a
general thing, young fowls contain less refuse than older
ones, which means that the proportion of total bone
weight is smaller; their flesh also contains more water,
which indicates that it is not so solid and compact as in
older fowls.

SILVER-GRAY DORKING

MARKET POULTRY

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154

MARKET POULTRY

Loss of Weight in Dressing Fowls.— On an average,
nearly one-third of the total weight of a fowl is lost
in dressing and in preparing it for cooking. In the
case of fowls thin in flesh, the loss is much greater than
this. The least waste occurs in fowls that have been
properly fattened. Excessively fat fowls and also
those that are poor in flesh show a large proportion of
waste on being dressed.

The table showing the loss in dressing fowls is a
summary of an investigation at the Storrs Experiment
Station, Connecticut. In this experiment fowls in all
conditions — well-fattened, thin, and excessively fat — were
used, and their weights at different stages in the process
of dressing were noted. Consequently the results given
in the table may be considered as applicable to average
conditions.

LOSS IN DRESSING FOWLS

Weight-

Intes-

Kind of
Fowls

Num-
ber of
Birds

Live

Weight
Pounds

Weight-
Bled and
Plucked
Pounds

Loss
Per
Cent.

tines,
Head,
and
Feet Re-

Loss
Per
Cent.

moved

Pounds

Cocks...

18

127.9

117.9

7.8

97.8

23.5

Cockerels .

278

1,773.0

1,577.5

11.0

1,312.0

26.0

Hens

201

1,195.0

1,103.4

7.7

906.3

24.2

Pullets....

47

261.1

240.0

8.1

193.7

25.8

Total...

544

3,357.0

3,038.8

9.5

2,509.8

25.2

The per cent, loss in dressing fowls of different
breeds is given in the following table.

Classes of Market Poultry.— There are two general
classes of market poultry, the heavy-weight and the me-
dium-weight. The heavy-weight class includes such
fowls as the Brahmas, Cochins, Dorkings, and Orpingtons.

MARKET POULTRY

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156

MARKET POULTRY

The medium-weight class includes such general-purpose
fowls as the Wyandottes and Barred Plymouth Rocks. In
addition to these fowls, broilers and other small market
fowls are often made from Leghorns and crosses of
Leghorns with some of the general-purpose fowls.

Classes of Broilers and Roasters.— Broilers are divided
into three classes: squab broilers, spring broilers, and
fryers or large broilers or small roasters. Squab broilers
range in size from $4 to 1 Ib. each in weight. They
are used by hotels and restaurants during the winter
and early spring. Spring broilers are used a little later
in the season. When plump they range in weight from
1 to V/2 Ib. The weight demanded increases as the
season advances, until the 2-lb. size is most popular.
Fryers, large broilers, or small roasters range in weight
from 2 to 3 Ib. Roasters are generally of two kinds:
plump, meaty roasters and soft roasters.

The time required to produce broilers and roasters
is shown in the accompanying table. The time required
for a chick to grow to marketable size depends largely
on the quality of the chick and its breed. Not all
breeds mature alike, and the individuals of any one
breed will not develop at a uniform rate, but when
bred and fed as they ought to be the average is about
as indicated in the table.

TIME REQUIRED TO RAISE BROILERS AND
ROASTERS

g

.2

.s

_c

.2

.2

Breeds of Fowls

Growth,
in Pounds
8 Wk.

Growth,
in Pounds
10 Wk.

Growth
in Pounds
12 Wk.

Growth
in Pounds
21 Wk.

Growth
in Pounds
26 Wk.

Growth,
in Pounds
30 Wk.

Leghorns

1

1M

American breeds
English and Belgian
breeds

1
1

1H

ilA

2

2

4

4

6
6

7
7

Brahmas

IK

2

2J4

5

7

9

_

1

MARKET POULTRY 157

KILLING AND PLUCKING OF POULTRY,

Killing.— The most satisfactory methods of killing
poultry are by dislocating the neck, and by sticking
in the roof of the mouth and piercing the brain with
a knife.

In killing by dislocating the neck, the fowl is held in
front of the operator with the head hanghig down;
both shanks are firmly grasped with the left hand;
the neck of the fowl at the base of the skull is taken
between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand,
with the back of the hand toward the tail of the fowl
and the head held firmly in the palm of the hand; the
head is then pulled downwards to extend the neck to
its full length; the final step in the operation is taken
by pulling with a jerk the already taut neck and at
the same time twisting the head upwards, This will
dislocate the head from the backbone, paralyzing the
fowl, snap the arteries in the neck, and pull the head
away from the neck, leaving a cavity in the neck large
enough to hold the blood of the fowl. In this operation
no blood will escape from the body, and it is preferred
by some as the best method of killing fowls intended for
immediate sale. When such fowls are prepared for
cooking, if the head is severed 1 or 2 in. back of where
the blood has settled, all of the blood clot will be
removed.

Killing by sticking in the roof of the mouth may be done
with a special killing knife or with a common pocket
knife that has a sharp point and blade. Both shanks of
the fowl are tied with a small piece of rope and the loose
end of the rope is tied to some support so that the fowl
will hang head downwards and at about the height
of the operator's shoulder. The head of the fowl is
grasped in the left hand, the mouth pressed open, and
the blade of the knife thrust through the roof of the
mouth and up into the brain almost in a line with
the eye; a cross-cut is made to sever the arteries. This
operation paralyzes the fowl instantly, and the cutting

158

MARKET POULTRY

of the arteries allows the fowl to bleed freely from the
mouth. To avoid being splashed with blood, the mouth
of the fowl should be held away from the operator.
This method of killing is commonly practiced in most
market poultry establishments.

Pluckmg.— To make the best appearance when offered
for sale in the market, a fowl must be plucked carefully
so that the skin will not be torn. An experienced plucker
will rub the feathers down the wrong way both on the
back and breast, using the flat of his hand to press
down and open up the plumage. When the feathers are
separated in this way they
may be quickly plucked
from the body by holding
the shanks and the tips of
the feathers in the hand.
The feathers should first be
pulled from the back, then
from the breast and body,
leaving only the long, stiff
feathers. These should be
plucked and placed by them-
selves. The best plan is to
put the long feathers or
those having heavy quills
into a box or barrel separate
from the smaller or lighter
feathers. With some prac-
tice the operator will soon learn to remove all of the
feathers quickly from the body of the fowl. The process
should begin immediately after the fowl has been killed.
By whatever method it is killed, the feathers will come
away easier immediately after killing than they will
after the body of the fowl has cooled and become set.

The practice of scalding before plucking is generally
followed. The chief difficulty in this is that the fowls
are dipped into water that is too hot and are frequently
kept immersed so long that the skin is scalded and
breaks and pulls from the body, leaving an ugly dark

HOUDAN

MARKET POULTRY

159

complexion. In scalding the fowls, the water should not
be boiling when they are immersed, nor should boil-
ing hot water be poured over them. They should be
immersed in water not quite boiling, and as quickly
as the feathers are thoroughly soaked they should be
plucked gently from the body. Great care should be
taken not to tear the flesh or skin.

POULTRY PRICES

A careful inspection of poultry prices over a period
of years shows plainly that market poultry of good
quality will sell at the highest prices from the middle
of Dec. to the end of June. This is due, to a large
extent, to the scarcity of farm-grown poultry in the
market during these months.

The condition in which poultry is offered for sale
has an important influence on the price it will sell for.
The relative selling price per pound live weight, plucked
weight, and drawn weight of the same fowl is shown
in the accompanying table. The plucked weight is the
weight of the fowl with the feathers removed but with
the head and feet left on. The drawn weight is the
weight with the head, feet, and entrails removed and
the fowl ready for cooking. It will be seen from this
table that the selling price per pound, plucked weight,
is about 33l/&% more than the live weight, and that the
price per pound, drawn weight, is about 100% greater

MARKET VALUE OF FOWLS AT DIFFERENT
STAGES

Live. Weight
Cents per Pound

Plucked Weight
Cents per Pound

Drawn Weight
Cents per Pound

9
10
11
12

12 }i
13^

146H

$*

22
23 M

160

BREEDING

than for the live weight, and about 50% greater than
for the plucked weight. This increase in the selling
price is due, of course, to the removal of the waste
parts and also to the labor entailed. The table furnishes
a guide to decide the price to be fixed on the plucked
or drawn weight of any grade of poultry.

BREEDING

The most important systems of breeding poultry for
exhibition are line breeding, inbreeding, strain breeding,
and cross-breeding. In any system of breeding, only
the best breeding fowls obtainable should ever be used
in the breeding pen. All fowls having defects should
be promptly discarded, even if this leaves only two or
three fowls in the breeding pen. Fully enough poor
specimens come from the best matings, and so few
good specimens come from matings in which either of
the fowls are defective that time and money is wasted
in such breeding. Only fowls having the proper size,
shape, and color required for the
variety can produce satisfactory
offspring. The plan of mating
fowls defective in one section
| with other fowls having excel-
lent quality in the correspond-
ing section usually results in
the production of offspring hav-
ing not more than medium
quality in that section.

Line Breeding. — Line breeding
is a system of breeding from a
limited number of original
fowls, in which the fowls mated
SILVER LACED WYANDOTTE are not so closely related as in
inbreeding; line breeding is really a modified form of in-
breeding. Line breeding is often continued for a number
of years without the introduction of new blood into the

BREEDING .161

flock, but in such cases great care is taken to breed
from only the healthiest and most vigorous members
of the flock. To maintain the vitality of the flock,
only mature hens in their second or third year of laying
are bred from. The success of any work in line breed-
ing depends on the quality of the original fowls that
are selected as breeders, and the judgment with which
the later breeders are selected, both for their quality
and for their vitality.

Inbreeding.— Inbreeding is a system of breeding in
which the fowls mated are very closely related, being
direct descendants of a very few original fowls. In-
breeding differs materially from line breeding on account
of the closeness of the relationship of the fowls. The
best fowls produced each year are mated with breeders
of the previous season and with each other, even to the
extent of pairing brother with sister. Inbreeding is
carried on chiefly with a view to improving color in a
flock. Shape may be improved by this system of breed-
ing, but this is not usually the case. Loss of size
and deterioration of shape are undesirable features
that usually attend inbreeding, and the maintenance
of vitality is also a serious problem. The undesirable
consequences of inbreeding can be avoided only by the
most careful attention to the details of breeding and
to the selection of the breeding fowls. In most cases,
the introduction of new blood into the breeding stock
will be necessary.

Strain Breeding.— Strain breeding is a system of breed-
ing consisting in breeding fowls of one variety in line
for a number of generations from a few original fowls;
this breeding must also be conducted by one breeder,
or his successors. A strain cannot be said to be estab-
lished, even after three or four generations of breeding,
unless the indications are plain that the original fowls
selected for the foundation of the strain have been able
to transmit their characters through the series of gen-
erations, and also to cause the production of offspring of
better quality than themselves.

162

BREEDING

From the preceding statements, it is evident that a
valuable strain can be produced only by the most careful
selection of the foundation stock, and the most skilful
breeding during the succeeding generations. Chance breed-
ing cannot be relied on to produce satisfactory results.
Cross-Breeding.— Cross-breeding is of two kinds:
breeding together of fowls of different breeds; and
breeding together of fowls of the same variety but
which come from different localities or from different
strains. Most commonly, cross-breeding is understood
to be the mating together of fowls of different breeds,
such, for instance, as a Plymouth Rock to a Wyandotte,
or a Rhode Island Red to an
Indian Game. This form of
cross-breeding is often utilized
in the • production of broilers
and roasters for market, the
offspring from such crosses be-
ing useless for breeding to-
gether. The other form of
cross-breeding, or of breeding
for an out-cross, is usually prac-
ticed in the breeding of poultry
for exhibition, and for the pur-
WHITE WYANDOTTE pose Of introducing new blood
into a strain to improve vitality.

Methods of Mating. — Mating is the act of pairing a
male and a female for the purpose of producing offspring.
The two general methods of mating are single mating
and double mating. Single mating consists in mating
together a male and a female.

When fowls are mated for the production, from the
same pair, of both male and female offspring fit for
exhibition, the process is called single mating. This is
the method of mating commonly practiced in the mating
of fowls of most varieties. This method of mating
does not, however, produce the best results when the
production of the most delicately marked fowls of the
varieties most difficult to produce is desired.

ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 163

The mating of one pair of fowls for the purpose of
producing male offspring fit for exhibition and another
pair for the production of female offspring fit for exhi-
bition is called double mating. This is practiced to a
great extent in the production of Barred Plymouth
Rocks, Brown Leghorns, partridge-colored fowls of all
breeds, and to some extent in producing fowls that have
penciling or lacing in their plumage. In double mating,
great care is taken to see that the male and the female
blood lines are kept separate, for if blood lines are
crossed, color will be injured.

ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF
POULTRY

ENEMIES

GENERAL REMARKS

A parasite is any creature that secures the whole or
part of its living from another. The parasites that
attack poultry are insects.

Methods of Infestation by Parasites.— Poultry become
infested with parasites in many ways, and it is advis-
able for the poultryman to keep a close watch to
prevent such infestation. Some of the most common
ways in which poultry becomes infested with parasites
are: (1) by the introduction of an infested fowl into a
flock; (2) by a hen infesting her chicks when they are
incubated or brooded in a natural way; (3) by allowing
infested fowls to roam at liberty; (4) by sparrows; (5)
by the parasites crawling up on roosts that are not
protected by safety appliances; (6) by the parasites
dropping on the fowls from the ceilings of houses; (7)
in nest boxes; (8) in dust baths.

Effects of Parasites on Poultry.— Parasites cause more
disease, ill health, and death among poultry than all

164 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY

other causes combined. The following are the principal
specific effects resulting from parasites: (1) They re-
duce the vitality of poultry; (2) they lessen egg pro-
duction; (3) they deduct from the table qualities of fowls
intended for market poultry; (4) they interfere with
the proper performance of the natural duties of incuba-
ting and brooding; (5) they cause the loss of parts
of a fowl's body; (6) they infest poultry with other and
additional varieties of parasites; (7) they infect poultry
with fungous and bacterial diseases,

Rapidity of Reproduction of Poultry Parasites.— The
exact time required for poultry parasites to produce
. new generations cannot be stated definitely. Under
favorable conditions, however, all kinds of poultry para-
sites are very prolific and will increase to an alarming
extent. Salmon states that the third generation from a
single louse may number more than 120,000, and all of
these may be produced within a period of 8 wk. Such
a rapid increase being possible, the result of intro-
ducing into a flock a fowl that is thoroughly infested
with parasites can readily be surmised. Such a fowl is
sure to do injury.

Poultry parasites multiply particularly fast in damp,
filthy, unsanitary places — surroundings that are unfavor-
able to poultry even when not infested with parasites.
Poultry parasites, however, will also develop rapidly
in clean places if the air is allowed to remain hot
and moist for any length of time.

PARASITES ATTACKING DOMESTIC FOWLS

The parasites that are found occasionally on domestic
poultry are: Large chicken louse (Goniocotes abdomi-
nalis) ; lesser chicken louse (Goniocotes hologaster). The
Goniodes dissimilis and the Goniocotes burnettii are rarely
found on fowls.

A louse that is sometimes found on fowls and which
does considerable damage to the feathers when present
in large numbers is the variable chicken louse, or
feather louse (Lipeurus variabilis) .

ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 165

The parasites that frequently infest domestic poultry
are: Common hen louse (Menopon pallidum); red mite,
chicken mite, or red spider louse (Dermanyssus gallinae) ;
itch, or scab, mite (Cnemidocoptes laevis, var. gallinae),
scaly leg mite (Cnemidocoptes mutans).

The parasites infesting turkeys, peafowls, and guinea
fowls, in addition to the common hen louse and the red
mite are Lipeurus polytrapezius, Goniodes stylifcr, Gonio-
cotes rectangulatus, Goniodes falcicornis, and similar ones.

The parasites most commonly infesting water fowls
are Trinoton luridum; Lipeurus squalidus, which is com-
monly found on ducks; Trinoton lituratum; Ornithobius
cygni, which is commonly found on geese; and Doco-
phorus cygni, which is commonly found on swans.

The parasites most commonly infesting pigeons are:
Common pigeon louse (Goniocotes compar), Lipeurus bacu-
lus, Goniodes danticornis, and two varieties of fleas.

INSECTICIDES

The substances that are used to kill insects are called
insecticides. The three general classes of insecticides
that are employed to kill the parasites that infest poul-
try are powders, liquids, and fumes. The powders have
to be dusted on the bodies of the parasites so that the
fine particles of the material will be drawn into the
breathing tubes of the insects. These tubes are thus
clogged, and the insect dies of suffocation. The liquids
kill because they are corrosive or because they get into
the breathing tubes of the insects and suffocate. The
fumes employed kill because they suffocate.

All poultry parasites except mites can be kept under
control, so far as their presence on the bodies of birds
is concerned, by the use of insect powders. Insect
powders, however, are not so efficient for destroying
parasites about poultry buildings as liquid and fume
insecticides. Insecticides containing arsenic, such as
Paris green, or other deadly poisons, should never be
used about poultry buildings, as they are likely to poison
both poultry and attendants.

166 ENEMIES AND D7SEASES OF POULTRY

Powder Insecticides.— To be suitable for killing the
parasites of poultry that can be destroyed by powders,
a powder must be very fine — at least as fine as ordinary
road dust— perfectly dry, and not possess any adhesive
qualities. Many kinds of powders are used for destroy-
ing the parasites of poultry. They consist of substances
that range from the most deadly poisons to the most
harmless materials, and from ill-smelling powders to
those that have no odor. No advantage is gained by
using either poisonous or offensive smelling powders
to kill the parasites of poultry, and they are dangerous
both to the poultry and the person applying them.

Some of the many kinds of insect powders are men-
tioned and briefly described here because one or more of
them can be found in any locality. The powders
described do not include those that are specially pre-
pared and sold in packages under a trade name. Any
of the following powders may safely be used for dusting
on poultry of all kinds.

Aniseed powder is made from the seed of the anise
plant, which grows in many parts of Europe. This
powder is suitable for use about young chicks, poults,
ducklings, and goslings.

Pyrethrum powder is also commonly known as Persian
or Dalmatian insect powder and as Buhach. It is usually
sold by the pound in drug stores. This powder is com-
monly made from the dry flowers of certain species of
chrysanthemums which are grown in Persia, Dalmatia,
and neighboring lands, and in California. When pure,
this powder is one of the very best powders that can be
used for dusting into the plumage of fowls, both old
and young.

Fine tobacco dust, which is a refuse from tobacco facto-
ries, is an effective insecticide. It is suitable for
dusting into nests, and will destroy body lice. Tobacco
dust has the disadvantage that it will stick to the skin
of the fowls. It also has a disagreeable odor, which
is intensified by the heat and moisture of the bodies
of the birds.

ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 167

Stavesacre seed powder is made from the seed of a
species of larkspur that grows in Southern Europe. It is
a poisonous substance, and delphinin, a poisonous drug, is
made from this seed. When fine, this powder is a good
insecticide.

Dry. air-slaked lime makes an effective insect powder
on account of its extreme fineness.

Road dust will answer as an insecticide when used
alone, provided it is very fine. It is also used as a
base to mix with finely ground powders to make insecti-
cides. To make sure that road dust is fine enough to
be valuable as an insecticide, it should be passed
through a very fine
sieve, similar to that
used by druggists for
separating the coarser
from the finer par-
ticles in a powder.

Compound insect pow-
ders composed as fol-
lows will be found
effective:

1. Fine road dust
that has been care-
fully sieved and mixed

with an equal quan- LEGHORNS

tity of Pyrethrum
powder. This will be very effective provided the Pyreth-
rum powder is pure and the road dust very fine.

2. Equal parts of air-slaked lime, tobacco dust, and
fine dust from coal ashes. If very fine and dry, this
mixture will be suitable for dusting into nest boxes
or on the bodies of fowls. It may, however, adhere to
the bodies of the fowls and cause irritation.

Liquid Insecticides.— Liquid insecticides are more ef-
fective for application to the interior of poultry buildings
than powder insecticides, for the reason that they can be
sprayed into all the cracks and crevices. When
thoroughly applied, a good liquid insecticide will rid

168 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY

a house of practically all the parasites that are in it.
Some insects such as red mites can conveniently be
exterminated only by the use of liquid insecticides.
When liquid insecticides of any kind are used as either
a spray or a- paint, on poultry buildings, they should be
allowed to soak into the wood and dry thoroughly be-
fore the fowls are permitted to go inside of the building.
Liquid insecticides of some kinds may also be applied
to the bodies of poultry.

Some liquid insecticides are applied by themselves
without dilution or combination with any other material;
in the form of an emulsion with other liquids; or with
other materials in solution in them. A description of
the principal liquid insecticides in use at the present
time follows:

Creosote is widely used as an insecticide. It is also
known in some localities as crude carbolic acid and as
creosote stain. Creosote is a coal-tar product. It is not
an expensive material and is usually sold in paint
stores. In large quantities it can be purchased at from
40c. to 50c. per gal., and in small quantities at from 80c.
to $1 per gal. Creosote is used for shingle stains and
as a wood preservative for many other kinds of wood-
work. If it is desired to color the inside or outside
of the houses to which creosote is to be applied, dry
paint can be added to it. Creosote is the best liquid
insecticide for spraying on the interior of poultry houses.
Two or three applications of this material will rid any
building or coop of insect vermin of all kinds.

Creosote bought at different times and in different
places will not always be of the same viscosity or
thickness. When very thick it may need to be diluted
in the proportion of 1 part of creosote to from 3 to 4
parts of kerosene oil, in order to get it in the proper
condition for spraying. Thinner samples of creosote may
need to be diluted with only 2 parts of kerosene oil to
make it suitable for spraying. For painting roost poles
and nest boxes, the thinner kind of creosote is commonly
used without any dilution; the thicker kind is usually

ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 169

diluted with 2 parts of kerosene oil when used for this
purpose. Roost poles may also be satisfactorily painted
with a wash made up of equal parts of creosote and
hot water. When roost poles and nest boxes are treated
with this mixture, they should be allowed to dry in
the sun before being put back in the house; when the
roost poles are put back in the house their ends should
be painted with a coat of the undiluted thick creosote. A
mixture of 2l/2 gal. of creosote, 2^ gal. of water, and 1 Ib.
of washing soda will also make an effective wash for
nests, roosts, and brood coops. If this is used hot and
applied in a spray, its effectiveness will be increased.

After a house has been thoroughly freed of parasites,
the roost poles and the interior of the nest boxes should
be coated with one of the above mixtures of creosote
once a week for a month, and occasionally thereafter.
This work should always be done before noon so that
the creosote will have time to dry before night.

Crude petroleum is an inflammable oily liquid from
which a number of other oils that are used for com-
mercial purposes are obtained by processes of refining.
It is also called coal oil, earth oil, mineral oil, natural
oil, rock oil, and Seneca oil. Crude petroleum is a dark
brown to greenish liquid.

Kerosene is an inflammable oil distilled from crude
petroleum or any mineral hydrocarbon. Kerosene is
suitable for spraying the interior of poultry houces, but
is not well suited for applying to the bodies of fowls.
Inflamed eyes, blisters, and sore spots on the skin
will result when kerosone is applied direct. It is abso-
lutely unfit to use on the bodies of young chicks.

Benzine is a colorless, inflammable, and volatile liquid
obtained from distillation of crude petroleum. While
it is often used as an insecticide, it is dangerous to
handle because of its inflammability.

Gasoline is also a colorless, volatile, and inflammable
liquid obtained from the distillation of crude petroleum.
It is dangerous to handle for the same reason that
benzine is dangerous.

170 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY

Turpentine is a product of such trees as the pine and
other similar trees. It is much used in the making of
paints and varnishes and also in medicine. It is in-
flammable and will irritate the skin.

Crcoline, a liquid manufactured especially for use as
an insecticide, is effective in killing the insect enemies
of poultry. Crecline may be used in the interior of
poultry houses diluted in the proportion of 3 fluid oz.
of creoline to 1 gal. of water.

Carbolic acid is largely used in the destruction of
poultry parasites. A solution made of V/z fluid oz. of
carbolic acid to 1 gal. of water is strong enough for
this purpose. Carbolic acid is sometimes added to white-
wash so that sanitary conditions can be improved at
the same time that an insecticide is applied. When
used in this way, however, carbolic acid does not have
as effective insecticidal properties as when it is used
without whitewash.

Milk emulsion is usually first made up in a concen-
trated or stock solution, or cream solution as it is
sometimes called, and then diluted just before it is
applied. To make the stock solution, add 2 gal. of
kerosene to 1 gal. of milk and churn or mix thoroughly
with a force pump or other agitator. This stock solution
should be diluted in the proportion of 1 gal. of the stock
solution to 4 gal. of warm water. Crude petroleum,
benzine, gasoline., or turpentine may be substituted for
kerosene in this formula. Kerosene, however, can usu-
ally be purchased cheaper than the other liquids except
crude petroleum.

Soap emulsion is also usually first made up in a stock
solution and then diluted just before it is to be applied.
To make a stock solution of soap emulsion, dissolve 1 Ib.
of hard soap in 1 gal. of hot water; when the soap has
all dissolved and while the solution is hot, add 2 gal.
of kerosene; mix thoroughly with a force pump or an
agitator of some kind. When to be used for spraying
the interior of poultry houses, this stock solution should
be diluted in the proportion of 1 gal. of the stock solution

ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 171

to 4 gal. of water. Crude petroleum, benzine, gasoline,
or turpentine may be substituted for kerosene in this
formula also.

Liquid lice killer is a name frequently applied to an
insecticide made from kerosene oil and powdered naph-
thalene flakes or balls, in the proportion of 2 Ib. of
naphthalene to 1 gal. of kerosene. The can containing
this solution should be covered so that the liquid will
not leak out of it, and the solution should be agitated
frequently by shaking. The solution should be allowed
to remain in this can about a week, when it should be
poured into another receptacle, so that another batch
can be mixed if necessary. If 2 fluid oz. of creoline or
of creosote are added to the clear solution, the effective-
ness of the solution will be improved. The cans con-
taining this solution should be kept in a temperature
that never goes below 40° F. or the naphthalene will
go out of solution and appear in flakes. The solution
should be kept for about 24 hr. in a warm place before
it is used, so that it will be at about 70° to 80° F.
when it is applied. This solution should never be kept
close to a fire, nor should any attempt be made to heat
it over or near a fire, as it is inflammable. This liquid
lice killer may be used for either painting or spraying
the interior of poultry houses and brood coops.

Compound liquid insecticides made up according to the
following formulas may be used with safety on the
bodies of young chicks: 1 oz. of oil of sassafras to 2 or
3 oz. of sweet oil; 1 oz. of oil of aniseed to 3 oz. of sweet
oil.

Lard can also be rubbed on the heads and throats of
young chicks for use as an insecticide.

Whitewash is not effective as an insecticide unless it
is mixed with carbolic acid in the proportion of V/t
fluid oz. of carbolic acid to 1 gal. of whitewash. Even
when containing carbolic acid, however, it cannot be
depended on to kill mites. If applied hot, the effective-
ness of this mixture will be increased. Whitewash
applied by itself will not kill insects unless it happens

172 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY

to so completely cover them that the creatures will
drown in it. Whitewash can be recommended to help
maintain sanitary conditions about a poultry house,
but unfortunately when it is used it often gives the
poultryman a false sense of security against parasites
and frequently causes him to neglect the proper measures
to exterminate the insect enemies of his poultry.

Fume Insecticides.— Fume insecticides are produced by
burning various substances. Fumes that are extremely
poisonous should not be used for killing poultry para-
sites, as there is no necessity for their use, and persons,
animals, and the poultry may be accidentally exposed
to them. The following can be recommended as effective
on parasites, and not necessarily fatal to other creatures
if inhaled in small quantities, though they will prove
fatal to any person, animal, or bird if inhaled in suf-
ficient quantities:

Sulphur fumes can be produced by burning sulphur.
Either lump sulphur, which is frequently called brim-
stone, sulphur candles, or powdered sulphur can be used
for this purpose. The powdered sulphur will produce
fumes more rapidly than the lump sulphur. The sulphur
should be placed in an iron pot or pan to avoid fire
and should be moistened with some inflammable liquid to
make it burn more freely.

Tobacco fumes may be produced by burning any kind
of tobacco. Such fumes are usually produced by burning
the waste leaves or stems of the tobacco plant, as these
can be purchased cheaply. The tobacco stems or leaves
should be placed in an iron receptacle of some kind
to avoid the danger from fire and should also be moist-
ened with some inflammable liquid to make them burn
quickly.

Creosote fumes or liquid lice-killer fumes are sometimes
used for killing the parasites on a few fowls confined in
a small space. This treatment is difficult to perform and
dangerous to use.

ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 173

INSTRUMENTS FOR APPLYING INSECTICIDES
Powder Guns.— Insect powders can be applied by hand,

but they are more effectively applied by the use of

powder guns. A small pow-
der gun is shown in Fig. 1.

This will answer when only

a few fowls are to be

dusted, but where there are

a large number of fowls to

dust, a larger powder gun

will be required. A bellows

powder gun is shown in Fig. 2.

FIG. 1
With this it will be

FIG. 2

possible to dust a large number of fowls in a short
time. This can be used at night by going about amorig the
fowls and quietly inserting the point of the gun among
the feathers of the fowls while on the roost, and in this
way dust them thoroughly.

Sprayers.— Liquid insecticides can be most effectively
and economically applied in spray form. Where there
is only a small surface to go over, a small hand-spraying
outfit similar to that shown in Fig. 3 will answer.

Where a large amount
of surface has to be
covered, a spraying
outfit like that shown
in Fig. 4 will be
found more conve-

pIG 3 nient. There are many

makes of these com-
pressed-air sprayers on the market. Those with gal-
vanized-iron receptacles for the liquid will answer for

174 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY

spraying insecticides but will not prove satisfactory for
spraying Bordeaux mixture on plants. By using spray
pumps to apply insecticides, a large quantity of liquid
is saved as compared with applying them by means
of a brush, and the insecticide is
ft!//////*. also applied more effectively.
When applied in a fine spray, it
penetrates into the cracks and
crevices in the building and
forms an even covering over the
flat surfaces.

KILLING OF PARASITES

A constant watch must be kept
for parasites, because from the
moment chicks come from the
shell they are menaced by insect
pIG 4 vermin. The most practical way

of meeting the problem is con-
tinually to practice preventive measures.

If poultry parasites are allowed to become numerous
they will sap the vitality of the fowls, and although the
parasites themselves may be gotten rid of, it will be
impossible to restore the physical condition of the fowls.
For application to poultry houses, liquid and fume in-
secticides are most effective, but usually liquid insecti-
cides are the more convenient to apply. Powder
insecticides are ordinarily effective on the bodies of
fowls, but it must be borne in mind that they will not
kill all classes of parasites.

Houses that are maintained in a cleanly condition,
well lighted with sunlight, and free from dampness will
never be badly infested with parasites, if they are given
regular sprayings with some good liquid insecticide.
Nothing can take the place of sanitary conditions as a
preventive measure, but sanitary conditions combined
with regular spraying is most effective.

Prevention of Infestation by Fowls From Other Flocks.
To avoid the chance of carrying parasites into a house

ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 175

or to a flock that is free from parasites, all fowls brought
in from other flocks should be kept in a sort of quaran-
tine by themselves and specially treated for a number
of days. The place of quarantine should be a small
coop or cage that is free from parasites. For a period
of about 10 da. some effective powder insecticide
should be frequently dusted into the feathers of such
fowls. To do this, the fowl should be held in one hand
by the shanks, with the head hanging down, and the
insect powder should be worked into the feathers of
every part of the body and down on to the skin with the
fingers of the other hand. In especially bad cases, a
thorough washing should follow this dusting.

Method of Ridding a Poultry House of Parasites.— The
thorough cleaning of a poultry house that has become
badly infested with parasites is a difficult problem and
drastic measures are required. If the building is a
cheap affair, like a small coop, it is often best to burn
it, but burning would be too expensive in the case of
a large poultry house. Before attempting to clean a
poultry house, all the fowls should be removed to other
quarters, dusted with insect powder and kept by them-
selves until the house cleaning is completed. To get a
badly infested poultry house in good sanitary condition
and free from parasites will require several days. The
following treatment will be found effective, but in
exceptionally bad cases a repetition of the treatment
may be necessary.

1. The house should be thoroughly fumigated. After
removing the poultry, stop up every crack and crevice,
so that the fumes will not escape. A number of sub-
stances can be used for fumigation, but sulphur and
tobacco are the ones that can be recommended. If
either of these are used they should be burned in some
metallic receptacle such as an iron pot or kettle, to
avoid fire. If these substances are moistened with
some inflammable material they will burn more freely.
Whatever material is burned to produce the fumes,
enough of it should be used so that the interior of the

176 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY

building will be filled with enough fumes to darken
it. The building should be kept tightly closed for 24 hr.

2. The interior of the house should be dusted with
dry air-slaked lime. To do this a person should take
a bucket, bag, or pailful of the fine lime and start at
the end of the house farthest from the door, and walk
slowly backwards toward the door, scattering the lime
with the right hand in the same way that seed is sown.
The lime should be thrown against the ceiling, side
walls, nest boxes, roosting places, etc. The air should
be filled with a cloud of lime dust. This dust will
settle gradually into every crack and crevice of the
house. While the lime dust is being scattered, the house
should be closed as tightly as possible. About a half
bushel of lime dust will answer for a poultry house 20
ft. wide and 40 to 50 ft. long. A thin cloth that the
operator can see through should be tied over the eyes,
nose, and mouth to prevent the lime dust from getting
into them. Any parasites that may have escaped the
fumes of the sulphur or tobacco will more than likely
be killed by the lime dust. The house should be
closed again for 24 hr. to allow the lime dust to settle
thoroughly.

3. The house should then be brushed or swept clean.
The ceiling, walls, floor, and every appliance and fixture
inside the house should be carefully brushed. No dust
or dirt should be left. The straw from the nest boxes,
and the straw and dirt from the floor should be taken
outside, saturated with kerosene, and burned. After
all that will burn has been burned, the rest should be
buried deep in the ground.

4. The house should be thoroughly sprayed both
inside and out with one of the liquid insecticides
described. Creosote and liquid lice killer are to be
preferred, in the order named. The liquid insecticide
applied at this time should be allowed to dry thoroughly.

5. A second application of the liquid insecticide
should be made to the interior of the house, the nest
boxes, and roosting poles before the fowls are allowed

ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 177

to return. This application should be made on the
morning of the day the fowls are to be returned to
the house; after the liquid has dried sufficiently, fresh
straw should be placed in the nest boxes.

6. The fowls should be thoroughly dusted with insect
powder immediately before they are allowed to return
to the house. They should be returned to the house at
dusk with the powder in their feathers so that they can
roost the first night without shaking out the powder.

7. Sanitary conditions must be maintained continually
in the house and a strict watch must be kept for the
appearance of parasites, both on the fowls and about
the house. If this is not done the house is likely to be
reinfested with parasites. If parasites appear the house
should be thoroughly cleaned and sprayed again. To
maintain cleanliness the interior of the buildings, the
side walls, ceilings, roosting places, nest boxes, etc.
should be brushed frequently with a stiff broom, and
all filth should be systematically removed from the floor
before it has a chance to accumulate in any quantity.

ANIMALS DESTRUCTIVE TO POULTRY

Nearly all flesh-eating animals attack poultry when the
occasion offers. The animals that do the most harm to
the average poultry flock are wildcats, raccoons, opos-
sums, skunks, weasels, minks, rats, dogs, and cats. It
is said that the tiger of India and the smaller mem-
bers of the feline family hunt the peafowl and the
pheasant. Where foxes are found in the neighborhood
they will also attack poultry. The great proportion of
animals destructive to poultry hunt by night, and hence
if all openings in the poultry houses are closed with
wire netting, practically all of the animals most likely
to attack would be excluded.

For the capture or destruction of animals destructive to
poultry the usual spring and box traps are used.

178 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY

BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO POULTRY

It is difficult to determine just which birds are de-
structive to poultry, because many birds that live on
rodents, such as field mice, rats, etc., will attack poultry
when short of other food. As a general rule, however,
birds are not very destructive to poultry, because even
the birds that attack domestic fowls the most frequently
come far from being the worst enemies of poultry. One
rat, for instance, will often destroy more chicks in
a single night than a pair of hawks will carry off in a
month, and the insect enemies of poultry do more dam-
age than all other agencies combined.

Falcons, hawks, and owls are the principal birds of
prey that attack poultry and may be separated into
four classes, grading from the least destructive to the
most destructive as follows:

The hawks and owls least destructive to poultry are:

1. The large rough-legged hawk, the squirrel hawk,
and the white-tailed, Mississippi, swallow-tailed, and
English kites. These birds will not disturb or hunt for
poultry so long as they can find a satisfactory supply
of other food to supply their wants. They are generally
considered as being entirely beneficial to mankind.

2. According to Dr. A. K. Fisher the majority of hawks
and owls are usually beneficial to mankind, but will often
kill poultry when the occasion offers. He names the fol-
lowing as belonging to this class: Marsh hawk, Harris's
hawk, red-tailed hawk, short-tailed hawk, white-tailed
hawk, red-shouldered hawk. Swainson's hawk, short-
winged hawk, broad-winged hawk, Mexican black hawk,
Mexican goshawk, sparrow hawk, barn owl, long-eared
and short-eared owls, great gray owl, western owl, Rich-
ardson's owl, screech owl, snowy owl, hawk owl, and
other smaller species.

3. Fisher also classes the following birds as doing
about as much good by destroying other creatures as they
do harm by destroying poultry: Golden eagle, bald
eagle, pigeon hawk, Richardson's hawk, falcons, and the
great horned owl.

ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 179

4. Birds that are very destructive to poultry and not
of much benefit through destroying other creatures are:
Gray falcon, duck hawk, sharp-shinned hawk, Cooper's
hawk, and goshawk.

The birds that are classed as least destructive to
poultry subsist almost entirely on rodents that destroy
field crops and trees, but notwithstanding the fact that
they prefer this kind of food they cannot be trusted
where young chicks are being raised. Under starv-
ing conditions all of
these birds will kill
the young of chick-
ens, turkeys, and wa-
ter fowls. The spar-
row hawk, the small-
est and most beauti-
ful of all the above
birds, lives almost
entirely on insects
and field mice, but
will, if tempted by
their presence, kill
young chicks.

In addition to the
above birds, ravens,
blackbirds, and
crows will destroy WHITE MINORCA

young poultry. It is not unusual for the raven and the
crow to fly away with chicks that, are 2 or 3 wk. old.
This, however, will occur only where the poultry have
the range of the farm near the nesting places of these
birds.

Well-built houses are a good protection against birds
of prey. Scarecrows and hawk traps are also sometimes
effective. The presence of a few guinea fowls and a
well-trained dog will often keep a fair-sized farm free
from birds of prey. Neither guinea fowls nor dogs will
do any harm to birds of prey, but the guinea fowls will
make a loud outcry whenever birds of prey appear, and

180 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY

the dog that is trained for the purpose will bark at the
noise and will chase the birds of prey away.

DISEASES

GENERAL REMARKS

A disease is any derangement of a living organism, but
the term ailment is usually applied to slight disorders.
Though there are many diseases of poultry, and some
serious ones, comparatively few fowls are diseased, when
the large numbers of fowls in the country are considered,
and poultry that is kept in sanitary quarters and has
proper food is the least likely to become diseased.
Hence, the importance of preventive measures.

Poultry in poor health will exhibit a dull, sluggish,
and listless appearance, which is the strongest evidence
of a lack of vitality, and will go to roost early and
remain there in the morning until long after the other
fowls are out looking for food. When they do leave
the roosts they will walk about as if they were not
strong enough to drag their legs and feet after them.
Fowls in poor health will have a bloodless appearance,
will have an absence of healthy brightness in their
eyes, faces, combs, and wattles, and will show a general
lack of condition, which is always accompanied by a
lack of appetite and a failure to assimilate properly the
food they eat. Hens in poor health will lay but few
eggs. Whenever fowls have had their vitality reduced
so that they exhibit the symptoms described they will be
susceptible to the attacks of all kinds of diseases.

There are few symptoms that are of practical value
in the diagnosis of the diseases of poultry, for the reason
that many symptoms are common to several different
diseases. A few general symptoms are, however, of
value. Fowls that are diseased become listless; they are
inclined to stay apart from other fowls, and will stand
in out-of-the-way places or beside a fence sunning
themselves, their heads hanging and their feathers

ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 181

ruffled. It is natural for fowls to sun themselves, but
there is a marked difference between the healthy fowl
basking in the sun for recreation and the sick fowl
standing there in the hope of warming its body. Dis-
ease in poultry is always accompanied by a loss of appe-
tite and generally by frequent voidance of the bowels.

The temperature of normal fowls ranges from 106° to
107.5° F., but the temperature of fowls is rarely taken,
chilliness being usually accepted as an indication of
fever. The heart beat of fowls is quite rapid, varying
from 110 to 140 per minute. The rapidity, however, is not
of so much importance as the regularity. The normal
breathing rate of fowls is from 50 to 60 respirations per
minute. When the respiratory organs are diseased, the
respirations are quickened. The regularity or irregular-
ity of the heart beat or of respiration will be plainly
heard if the ear is placed against the backbone or the
ribs.

Preventive measures are the best treatment for poultry
troubles. The fowls should be handled in such a way
that they will contract as few diseases as possible, and
the slightest ailment should be treated before it has a
chance to gain headway. This requires constant attention,
but this is the only way to success.

None but very simple treatment is ordinarily neces-
sary for poultry, and any ailment that will not yield
readily to simple treatment is usually so serious that
even if a fowl is enabled to recover from it, the results
will not be satisfactory, for the vitality of the fowl
will be seriously impaired. Hence, the practical poultry-
man, except in the case of particularly valuable fowls,
usually kills any ailing fowls that do not recover quickly
from simple treatment.

Medicine is most satisfactorily administered to a
flock of fowls by being fed mixed in a warm or slightly
warm mash. Pills are usually the most convenient
form in which to administer medicine to individual
fowls. When liquids are poured down a fowl's throat
care should be taken to avoid strangulation.

182 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF TREATMENT

There are a few fundamental principles of treatment
that it would be well for every poultryman to have
continually in his mind. Morse's maxims cover this
ground so well that they are given here:

"Clean out by means of Epsom salts, administered in
an evening mash, estimating one-third of a teaspoonful
to each adult bird. When disease is raging this may be
practiced with the sick two or three times a week until
there is an abatement of the outbreak. Even the well
birds should receive one such dose at the beginning
of an outbreak of disease. After disease has swept
through a flock, until one is certain that it has been
entirely eradicated, it is well to give the flock at
least one dose monthly during the cooler weather and
twice a month during the heated term.

"Clean up the poultry houses by sprinkling powdered,
air-slaked lime over the runs, dropping-boards, and
floors. This should be practiced at the time of giving
the salts, as the lime will destroy the parasites that
are deposited in the droppings.

"Clean the water supply by adding to the drinking
water enough permanganate of potash to turn the water
a claret red; that would ordinarily be as much as you
can spread on a silver lOc. piece to the gallon of
water. Instead of this, iron sulphate may be added in
the proportion of 10 gr. to 1 gal. of water. Or,
instead of either, 1 teaspoonful of strong carbolic acid
(not crude) may be added to 1 gal. of water. This should
be practiced constantly during the prevalence of disease.
Healthy fowls not threatened with disease do not need it.

"Clean eggs by dipping them in 90% alcohol, just
before placing them in the incubator. Instead of the
alcohol, a 3% solution of some good coal-tar disin-
fectant may be used, with this exception, that instead of
dipping, as in the use of alcohol, they should be wiped
with the coal-tar disinfectant. The purpose of this rule
is to remove from the shell of the egg the various

ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 183

contaminating microbes that are deposited on the shell
in its passage through the cloaca.

"By all means furnish your poultry with nothing but
clean food. Moldy food is certain to produce disease
and death. However, circumstances sometimes arise in
which it appears impossible to avoid the use of food
that has been exposed to the conditions favorable to the
production of mold. In such circumstances, destroy the
mold by the application of strong heat. Do not think
that this suggestion is a happy thought to permit you
to lessen your expenses by buying seconds, thirds, etc.
in the feed line. If you practice it, it will be to your
certain loss. An emergency suggestion is never a rule
to be regularly carried out.

"Clean incubators and brooders by thoroughly scrub-
bing them with hot water and common soap. This
practice, alone, has helped to cut down the cases of
white diarrhea and brooder pneumonia. Having once used
the incubators and brooders, remember that danger, dis-
ease, and death lurk in them until they are disinfected.

"Breed from the youngest females consistent with the
needs of good breeding. Investigators have recently
shown that there are fewer cases of egg infection by
bacteria in the eggs that come from virgin pullets. A
study of the anatomy of fowls and the physiology of
fertilization makes plain at once how all kinds of
bacteria may be introduced into the egg tube by the
male bird in the act of copulation. Once in the egg
tube it is not difficult for the bacteria to eventually
reach the ovary and thus we may have infection of eggs
in the ovary and in the upper part of the egg tube."

SIMPLE REMEDIES FOR POULTRY

Every poultryman should have at hand a few simple
remedies that may be safely used in the treatment of
poultry diseases and ailments. Many of the common
remedies kept in the home for use with children will
be valuable for poultry. The following materials are
all convenient for the poultryman to have on hand:

184 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY

Epsom salts, called also bitter salt, is a white, hydrated,
crystalline salt known chemically as magnesium sulphate.
It is used as a purgative in doses of Ys teaspoonful to
each fowl.

Castor oil is a thick yellowish-white oil expressed from
the castor bean. It is used as a purgative.

Olive oil, called also sweet oil, is an oil expressed from
the ripe fruit of the olive. It serves the purpose of butter
in some countries, but in most parts of the civilized
world is used chiefly in salad dressings. Olive oil is
the most nearly perfect laxative for use with poultry,
as it is both healing and nutritious, thus possessing an
advantage over castor oil. A tablespoonful of olive oil
can be safely administered.

Camphor is a gumlike, translucent, crystalline com-
pound with a penetrating, fragrant odor; it is distilled
from the wood and bark of the camphor tree. It may
be used as a medicine for poultry to allay irritation,
as in colds and in cases of slight diarrhea.

Copper sulphate, called also bluestone, is a blue crystal-
line substance that is used as an astringent and stimu-
lant, but not more than from % to % gr. should be
administered more than once a day to any fowl.

Iron sulphate, called also copperas, is a green, crystal-
line substance that is used for the same purpose as
copper sulphate and can be administered in doses of
*A to y2 gr.

Douglas mixture is used as a tonic for both poultry and
pigeons, and is made by mixing ^2 lb. of iron sulphate
with 1 oz. of sulphuric acid dissolved in 2 gal. of water.
This may be used in the drinking water— 2 tablespoon-
fuls of the mixture to each pint of water.

Table salt is sparingly used to season mash foods
for poultry. A large quantity of salt will kill poultry,
and it is better to give them none than too much. Less
salt should be used to season food for poultry than is
needed for human beings.

Rhinitis tablets, half strength, are an excellent remedy
for a cold in its early stages. They are given to

ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 185

poultry that have slight colds — two tablets two or three
times a day for from 1 to 3 da.

Homeopathic remedies are used by many poultrymen for
their poultry with satisfactory results. Such remedies
should be given to poultry in quantities about as
recommended for children.

Healing powders for applying to sores of any kind are
useful to have on a poultry establishment. Equal parts
of burnt alum and zinc oxide; or zinc oxide, powdered
magnesia, and Venetian red are effective for this pur-
pose. Burnt alum and the mixture of burnt alum and
zinc oxide are excellent for use on any kind of sores.
The zinc oxide and the powdered magnesia are very
healing and painless. The Venetian red is slightly
caustic and may be used where a light cauterization is
needed.

Hydrogen peroxide, a clear solution that looks like
water, is useful for cleansing and disinfecting ulcers
or other sores on poultry.

Paraffin oil is a mineral oil derived from petroleum.
It may be used for relief in cases of scaly leg and
bumblefoot and may be applied to injuries of the shank,
but should not be applied to the skin of the body or to
the feathers.

Ointments are sometimes needed for irritations of the
skin. Fresh zinc-oxide ointment is useful for this pur-
pose, but when it becomes rancid it is unfit for use. An
ointment made of equal parts of glycerine and rose
water mixed in a mortar with zinc oxide until the
whole assumes a thick mass, may also be used.

Iodine, turpentine, creollne, zenoleum, and tincture of
iron are effective for destroying warts on poultry.

Tonics for preventing illness should never be given to
poultry. Fowls in good health do much better without
them. A tonic for young or half-grown chicks that have
been weakened from any cause may be given in pill
form according to the following formula: 2 dr. of
iron citrate and 30 gr. of quinine sulphate, mixed
into a mass with sirup of gum arabic so as to make

186 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY

enough for 60 pills. One of these pills may be given
night and morning for 3 da.

AILMENTS AND TREATMENT
Colds, Canker, Catarrh, and Roup.— The most common
ailments of fowls are colds, canker, catarrh, and roup.
All of these troubles are likely to come from exposure
to damp or cold at seasons of the year when the tem-
perature rises and falls quickly. Fowls are just as
likely to take a cold in July and Aug. as in midwin-
ter; they are especially likely to take cold on rainy
days in the summer when they go to roost with wet
plumage.

As a matter of fact, colds, canker, catarrh, and roup
are often merely stages of the same disease. A cold
may begin by a slight discharge from the nostrils,
accompanied, perhaps, by watering of the eyes. Canker
and catarrh, which are inflammations of the mucous mem-
brane, are mild forms of diphtheria in which patches may
grow on the inside of the throat and on the tongue or at
the opening of the windpipe. These conditions follow
one another quickly, unless prompt attention is given
to the first symptoms of cold. The earlier forms of the
disease do not seem to be contagious, but roup is
contagious.

So many remedies are used in the treatment of these
diseases that it is difficult to choose between them. The
best remedy of all, perhaps, is permanganate of potash
administered in the drinking water. The bathing of
the head, face, throat, and nostrils with warm water
in which some antiseptic solution is mixed, and the
maintenance of perfect cleanliness in their surroundings
is also advisable. The giving of internal remedies is
very unsatisfactory, and any attempt to cure fowls
afflicted with roup by any such means is almost useless.
Fowls badly affected with roup should be promptly
killed, their bodies buried, and the premises cleaned
and disinfected with creosote or some other similar
material. Permanganate of potash should be given to

ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 187

the rest of the flock in their drinking water. A saturated
solution may be made by placing 1 oz. of the crystals
of permanganate of potash in a 2-oz. bottle of water.
One teaspoonful of this saturated solution will be
sufficient for 1 gal. of drinking water. A warm mash
with a little ginger and red pepper added as a tonic
may also be given with advantage.

Gapes.— Gapes is a disease caused by parasites or gape
worms growing and adhering to the inner lining of the
windpipe. This causes the chicks to gasp for breath;
they open their mouths wide and sneeze or cough in an
effort to throw the parasite out of the windpipe.

Among the remedies used for this is the feeding of
asafetida, garlic, or onion tops in soft food. A tea-
spoonful of powdered asafetida to a pint of food will be
plenty of this. Garlic and onion tops as much as they
will eat will not injure them. Another means of relief
is to introduce a feather down the throat and into the
windpipe, the point of the feather being dipped in sweet
oil before being introduced to the windpipe.

Bronchitis.— Bronchitis is a disease of the lining of
the air tubes. Fowls that take cold are apt to have
irritation of the bronchial tubes. When this becomes
aggravated a rattling in the throat is apparent. Treat-
ment is difficult. One drop of tincture of aconite may
be given every hour until four or five doses have been
administered. The fowl should be fed on warm bread
and milk or a warm mash. When the rattling in the
throat becomes aggravated there is but little chance for
relief. The use of pills made of iron> quinine, and
strychnine of the same strength that would be given to
a lO-yr.-old child may be administered one each
morning and evening.

Diseases of the Intestines.— Diseases of the intestines
are caused by improper feeding, poorly kept or un-
sanitary houses, yards, and buildings, or long-continued
exposure to damp and cold. These intestinal irritations
cause diarrhea, dysentery, and like ailments, which
may bring about what is known as going light. The

188 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY

only safety against such ailments is perfect cleanliness,
protection from cold and damp, and proper feeding.

Fowls that are attacked with looseness of the bowels
or diarrhea may be treated by separating them from
the rest of the flock, cutting off their supply of green
food, and giving them water to drink in which a tea-
spoonful of tincture of iron has been mixed in each
quart of water, feeding them warm mash composed of
either stale bread, ground oats, and wheat bran equal
parts, or of ground oats, wheat middlings, and wheat
bran equal parts, either to be moistened with hot milk
or hot water and seasoned with a teaspoonful of red
pepper to each quart of mash.

Of recent years the scourge of white diarrhea has
spread throughout the world. Some persons claim that
nearly one-half of all the little chicks hatched are lost
through this ailment. Whether or not so large a per-
centage of all chicks hatched die from this disease, it
is a fact that entirely too many die in this way and
that nearly all of the little chicks that die of looseness
of the bowels have white diarrhea. The symptoms of
white diarrhea are unmistakable. It usually attacks
little chicks within the first week after they come from
the shell. They shiver, hang down their wings, close
their eyes, and stand about and peep in a most painful
manner, and the discharges from their bowels is like
a mixture of milk and lime. Other kinds of diarrhea
and looseness of the bowels may be caused by cold,
exposure to damp, or eating food that ferments in the
bowels. Diarrhea from these causes does not make
little chicks nearly so sick as does white diarrhea.

The cure for all these troubles is care and manage-
ment. If little chicks are exposed to too much heat
under the brooder or are chilled at night under the
brooder, if they run out in the damp and wet and take
cold, or if any of them eat bad food they are almost
certain to be afflicted with looseness of the bowels. This
can be cured or prevented by avoiding the troubles that
cause the ailment and by a system of perfect sanitation

ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 189

and cleanliness and the feeding of proper kinds of food.
Looseness of the bowels of this kind can usually be
cured by feeding equal parts of bread crumbs and rice
boiled in milk. If there is sufficient moisture in the
rice to moisten the bread, no more moisture is needed.
If a little more moisture is needed use hot milk. This
treatment can be safely given to all little chicks troubled
with looseness of the bowels. It will not hurt the
chicks with white diarrhea. There is, however, no
known cure for little chicks that are afflicted with white
diarrhea.

Diseases of the Legs and Feet. — Leg weakness, rheuma-
tism, and gout are troubles that cause lameness in fowls.
Lameness may also come from corns or bumblefoot.
Rheumatism and gout are often called leg weakness,
although the leg weakness may be due to any one of a
number of causes, as for instance too high a temperature
in the brooder, to the chicks being kept too long on
board floors, to insufficient nutrition, or to a lack of
bone-forming material in the food. In most cases die-
tetic and hygienic treatment will prove sufficient.

Rheumatism and gout are kindred diseases caused by
the fowls being exposed to dampness and by being shut
up in badly ventilated houses. In fact, nine-tenths of
all poultry troubles come from damp and unsanitary
houses; if the houses were kept perfectly clean, dry,
and free from insects, fowls would have but few ail-
ments. There is no cure for rheumatism and gout, and
scarcely any relief.

Scaly leg is a disease of the shanks caused by little
mites that come from damp and filthy conditions. The
mites get under the scales on the shanks and toes and
cause swellings on these parts. Scaly leg may be
quickly cured if treated at the beginning, but it is hard
to eradicate at an advanced stage. It may be treated
by rubbing the shanks thoroughly each day with an
application of lard and kerosene until the growths are
cleaned off. The most effective way of dealing with the
trouble is to sell off the afflicted fowls for market

190 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY

poultry and put the houses and surroundings in a
sanitary condition.

Bumblefoot is an ulcer on the bottom of the foot of
a fowl and is usually caused by a bruise. It may be
treated by applying some kind of ointment or healing
salve or by cauterizing with strong iodine or a saturated
solution of permanganate of potash.

Chicken Pox. — Chicken pox is an ailment that comes
usually in the fall of the year. The first appearance is
noticed from the little black specks growing on the face
and eyes, usually of young fowls. These continue to
grow until they close the eyes completely and the fowls
die of starvation, because they cannot see to eat. This
ailment is the most prevalent in warm or tropical cli-
mates, where it is called sorehead. Frequently the
entire head becomes raw, and when in this condition
the fowl is so afflicted with flies, bugs, and mosquitoes
that it is almost eaten up. The only treatment to be
relied on is cleanliness and the bathing of the afflicted
parts with a 5% or a 10% solution of creoline in water.

Bad Habits. — Egg eating and picking of sore places on
the bodies of one another are bad habits acquired by
fowls kept in confinement with nothing to do. There
does not seem to be any remedy for these bad habits
when they are once acquired. In some instances they
may be checked by transferring the fowls from place
to place or by giving them perfect freedom.

POULTRY JUDGING 191

POULTRY JUDGING

METHODS OF JUDGING

In America there are three methods of judging:
(1) By the official score card of the American Poultry
Association; (2) by the decimal score card; and (3) by
comparison.

The practice of judging by score card was begun and
has continued in the United States and Canada ever
since the compilation of the first Standard by the Amer-
ican Poultry Association. A few shows that are held
during Nov. and a large number that are held between
Dec. and April are judged by the score-card method.
The shows that are held from April to Nov. are judge?
by comparison. The score-card method of judging has
been recognized by the American Poultry Association
since its origin.

The decimal score card was introduced by the late
I, K. Felch in 1890, and since that time both the official
and the decimal score cards have been used. Although
the decimal score card has never been recognized by
the American Poultry Association, its use continues to
some extent, although its advocates are decreasing in
number.

Although comparison judging has been used for so
long in the placing of awards, in fact, much longer than
the score-card method, it did not have the sanction of
the American Poultry Association until 1904. Judging by
comparison is practiced each year at all shows held prior
to Nov. 1 throughout the United States and Canada.
Nearly all the larger exhibitions are judged under the
comparison system.

The advantages of each method of judging depend on
the ability of the judges accurately to determine how
nearly the fowls under consideration approach the re-

OFFICIAL SCORE CARD OF THE

Fancier's Poultry Association

OWNER-

_BAND NO.
.WEIGHT

Shape Colo;

Symmetry

Weight or Size_

Condition

Head and Beak_
Eyes

Wattles & Ear Lobes

Neck

Wings

Back

Tail

Breast

Body and Fluff

Legs and Toes

*Hardness of Feather.
fCrest and Beard

'Applies to Games and Game Bai
tApplies to Crested Breeds

-Judge

_ Secretary

FlG.l

192

POULTRY JUDGING 193

quirements of the standard. The use of the score card
is considered of the greatest advantage to the amateur,
who gains knowledge by a careful study of his own
fowls in comparing them with the decisions of the
judge, which are shown in detail on the cards, which
go to the exhibitors. Comparison judging, however, is
equally beneficial, provided the exhibitor is present and
can understand the reasons for the various awards and
rejections. Comparison judging becomes of more gen-
eral use in neighborhoods where poultry shows have
been held annually for a considerable length of time.
Score-card judging is in more common use in localities
where the practice of holding poultry shows is in its
infancy. More shows are judged by score cards through-
out the United States and Canada than are judged by
comparison. Comparison judging is really an advanced
system of judging that can be employed by those who
are familiar with the distinctions considered of the
greatest importance.

SCORE CARDS

A copy of the official score card of the American
Poultry Association is shown in Fig. 1. The only change
needed to make this score card local is to print at the
top in place of "Fancier's Poultry Association," the
name of the local association using it. This card gives
a list of the parts of a fowl in respect to which it is
to be scored, and a space is provided for noting the
score for each part. A definite number of points is
assigned to each part, the total number of points indi-
cating perfection in all parts being 100. The figures
scored after each part indicate the degree to which it
approaches perfection according to standard require-
ments, and the total score shows how closely a fowl ap-
proaches perfection in all respects, which is 100 points.
This method is a mathematical analysis of the defects
found in a fowl, and enables a judge to make a discount
for each.

THE DECIMAL SCORE CARD

Bree
Sex
Coo

d

F

ntry N
Jo

o.

3 No Ring 1s

Weight

fe
|

LU

8

ft

0

.£

°

c
.2

1
•c

CONDITION
WEIGHT or SIZE

Pill

COMB, or CREST
AND COMB

HEAD AND |YEK
ADJUNCTS ^TLL°EBSE

NECK Shape

INC THIS CARD.— To cut for weight, comb, head,
tures, defective and cut In the column. For shape,
otted line. For color, below the line. Shape being
or. cut in space for shape, but low enough to include
r being the greater evil, commence the figure just
md carry deep down into color space. Thu secures
bitions.

BACK Shape

BREAST gg;

BODY and Shape
FLUFF Color

WINGS Shape

TAIL ggr

LEGS and Shape

TOES c±8

Total Defects Score

-,, Prf««jrJ<»ril

FIG. 2

POULTRY JUDGING 195

The score card was designed for judging poultry at
exhibitions. The object was not only to decide the
awards, giving the highest scores and the best prizes to
the fowls least defective, but to give every fowl exhib-
ited a rating in terms of the standard requirements and
in comparison with competing fowls of the same sex and
variety. This system can be used also by fanciers and
breeders as a guide in computing values in sale fowls,
and in selecting breeding and exhibition fowls.

A copy of the decimal score card is shown in Fig. 2.
This card provides ten divisions for the features in
respect to which a fowl is to be scored, and the perfect
score for each feature is 10 points. Provision is made
where necessary for scoring features separately in re-
spect to shape and color. The decimal score card differs
materially from the official score card, which provides
for scoring more features, and these are valued differ-
ently for different breeds.

The arguments for or the objections against the deci-
mal system that have arisen have been directed to the
fact that no two breeds can be valued the same. Those
who favor the decimal system claim that a perfect back
in a Plymouth Rock is of equal value to the back of a
Partridge Cochin or a Game Bantam, and that neither
should have the advantage over the other in the gen-
eral division of points; that backs for Plymouth Rocks,
Cochins, or Bantams can be valued at 10 points as well
as to have the back of each fowl estimated at a different
percentage. There is evidence of value in the decimal
method of calculation from the fact that the monetary
system of several countries and the metric system are
based on the decimal system. When matters of such
vast importance can be conducted best under a decimal
system, there should be no hesitation in conceding that
the same system will apply equally well in poultry
judging. The adoption of the official score card of the
American Poultry Association seems to have been based
more on the preference of the members of that organiza-
tion than on a consideration of its relative convenience.

0

g

z

0

0

0

Q

I

I
>-l

If

FIG. 3

POULTRY JUDGING 197

A convenient comparison-judging score card is shown
in Fig. 3. Any number of lines needed to complete
an entry may be added to this card. The comparison
method of judging consists in a careful examination of
every section of the fowl, and a determination of the
quality by this means, the final placing of awards being
decided without numerical estimates. In fact, to judge
by comparison is to select the best, by applying, by
means of sight estimates, the criteria of perfection es-
tablished by the Standard.

Comparison judging gives due credit to superior value
in individual fowls. No other system gives considera-
tion to unusual quality so equitably as does the com-
parison system.

When properly applied, comparison judging can be
made more equitable in placing awards than any other
system; for selecting the best fowls in the classes, no
system is superior to it. The main objection, and, in
fact, the only real objection that can be made against
it, is that no record is made, nor is there any reason
apparent to the absent exhibitor for the award of prizes.
A record by scores and the results published conveys a
numerical value for individual fowls to the mind of the
absentee. In the score card he has comparative nu-
merical values of the fowls that were outside the list of
awards.

JUDGING OF FARM FLOCKS AT FAIRS
AND SHOWS

When at Pennsylvania State College, Mr. Kilpatrick,
then of the Bureau of Animal Industry, displayed a
remarkable interest in having farmers show their poultry
at county fairs. He suggested that the flocks to be
exhibited should consist of 6 females and 1 male, that
each lot be placed in a coop or runway, where they could
be readily viewed, and he suggested that the accompany-
ing score cards should be used to judge them. One
score card is for judging the general -purpose type of
fowls, the other for judging the egg-laying type.

198 POULTRY JUDGING

Since then several systems for selecting poultry by
outward appearance have been evolved. One, and per-
haps the best of these, is the Cornell System, given under
Selecting Hens for Egg Production. Another system that
has attracted attention the world over is that of select-
ing the physical characteristics of layers, as suggested
by Mr. Barren.

SCORE CARD FOR FARM FLOCK

GENERAL-PURPOSE TYPE

PERFECT JUDGE'S
SCORE SCORE

Head: Small, with small combs and
wattles; beak, short, stiff, and strong;
bright, full eye; face, comb and
wattles bright in color and of fine
texture 5

Neck: Rather short, neat, tapering -to

head 2

Wings: Small and neat 2

Back: Of good length, rather broad 6

Breast: Large, full, rounding, well de-
veloped 6

Body: Very deep, broad, and compact,
well fleshed; keel straight and long,
well rounded out with flesh; should
resemble a parallelogram in shape 30

Skin: Smooth and of fine texture; yellow

skin preferred 4

Flesh: Firm, evenly distributed; deep,
especially in regions of desirable cuts;
should give indication of tendency to
fatten easily 10

Shanks: Short, stiff, and clean 3

Plumage: Abundant, bright, and well
kept; free from dark pin feathers

Disposition: Docile; quiet but active — 2

Vitality: Strong; fowls should give evi-
dence of perfect health, freedom from
vermin, etc., and must be neat and
clean in appearance 10

Size: Females shall weigh not less than

5 Ib. each, males not less than 7 Ib... 8

Uniformity: Flock to consist of 6 females
and 1 male; females as uniform as
possible in type, size, color of plum-
age, etc.; male, same color as females 10 •

POULTRY JUDGING 199

PERFECT JUDGE'S
SCORE SCORE

Disqualifications: Any evidence of dis-
ease, low vitality, scaly leg destroy-
ing the natural color of the shank,
roach back, crooked toe, or wry tail.
Fowls badly infested with lice shall
also be disqualified.

Head: Bright in color, of moderate size,
short, broad, and neat; beak, short,
stiff, and strong; eye, bright, fully
filling the socket, giving an impres-
sion of alertness and brightness;
comb well developed, medium to large
in size, full of blood, and of fine tex-
ture ...................................... 8

Neck: Of medium length, neat and trim 3

Back: Long and reasonably broad ........ 8

Body: Compact, broad, and deep, espe-
cially in abdomen and fluff, giving
plenty of room for vital organs; well
rounded out with flesh; plump, yet
not fat; good width between pelvic
bones, 1J^ in. or better, with good
distance between rear joint of keel
bone and pelvic arch; wings of me-
dium size ............................... 20

Breast: Shallower than rear, present-
ing a wedge shape when viewed from
above. Should be rounded, of medium
size, giving good lung capacity ........ 8

Shanks and toes: Shanks, stocky, not
rangy; of medium length. The fowl
should stand up stiff and straight,
with body well supported on the tops
of the legs, the fowl standing firmly
on the toes. Shanks to have full,
highly colored skin, loose around the
shanks; should carry some flesh. Toe-
nails, short and straight ................ 5

Tail: Full and flowing, not pinched or

stinted; a tendency to be carried high 2

Plumage: Glossy, flowing, abundant,

bright, and well kept ................... 2

Disposition: Always busy, singing con-
stantly, docile, elusive. The male
should be courteous to the hens and
exhibit great courage .................. 2

200 POULTRY JUDGING

PERFECT JUDGE'S
SCORE SCORE
Flesh: Hard, firm, muscular, showing

little tendency to lay on fat 5

Vitality: Strong, as evidenced by gen-
eral appearance and condition of the

fowl, giving evidence of perfect health,

freedom from lice, etc. ; must be neat

and clean in appearance 12 .

Size: Of medium size, female ranging

from 3^2 to 6 Ib. : male, from 454 to

7 Ib 5

Eggs: Eggs to be of good size, weighing

not less than 26 oz. per doz. ; must be

uniform in shape, size, and color;

white eggs to have the preference

over brown or tinted eggs, other things

being equal; eggs not to be considered

unless all flocks are laying during

the competition 10 •

Uniformity: Flock is to consist of 6

females and 1 male; females should be

as nearly alike as possible in type,

size, plumage, etc.; male should be

of same color as females 10 •

Disqualifications: Any evidence of dis-
ease or low vitality, scaly leg de- .

stroying the natural color of the

shank, roach back, or wry tail. Fowls

badly infested with lice shall also be

disqualified.

UTILITY SCORE CARD

Another score card for judging layers at utility poul-
try shows is shown in Fig. 4. It was compiled by Irving
C. Lewis, of Ulysses, Pa., and is copyrighted. The card
can be purchased from Mr. Lewis.

UTILITY SCORE CARD

All Varieties
For Use in Utility Poultry Shows

Type Date .

Coop No Band No. . . .

Breed

Sex

Weigh
Condi
Color
Capac
Prepo!

Pelv
EggT

Judge

t

CUTS

tion

Comb

ity

ency

Left

Right

Average

Shape

ype

Total Cuts

Score

Show

Secretary

Copyright, 1914, by Irving C. Lewis, Ulysses, Pa
201 FIG. 4

202 POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS

POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSO-
CIATIONS

BEGINNING OF POULTRY SHOWS

The first poultry exhibition is thought to have been the
one held in the Zoological Gardens of London, Eng-
land, in 1846; the first poultry show held in Birmingham,
England, was in 1849. The first poultry exhibition held
in America is credited to Boston in 1849. The first
American poultry show to attract world-wide attention
was held in the American Museum, New York City, in
February, 1854, under the management of P. T. Barnum.
The second show was held a year later at the same
place. This show was really the beginning of live
interest in the breeding of fowls for exhibition in
America.

From 1860 to 1865 but little interest was taken in poul-
try exhibitions in America. From then to the present
time they have increased so fast as to surprise the
world. During the show season of 1911 and 1912 more
than 700 poultry exhibitions were held in the United
States and Canada, and more than 200 in England. The
number of shows held in the United States and Canada
during the years 1917 and 1918 were considerably less
than prior to these dates. The same conditions prevailed
in England.

The great shows of England were the Dairy, the
Birmingham, and the Crystal Palace shows. These were
discontinued to some extent from 1914 to 1919. These
shows were formerly held between the fifteenth of
October and the first of December. The Crystal Palace
show of London, England, was for many years the larg-
est and most highly considered of all poultry shows, but
within the last few years the New York, Boston, and
Chicago shows have ranked very high. The New York
and Boston shows have come to be considered Qf equal
importance with the Crystal Palace exhibition.

POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS 203

AMERICAN POULTRY ASSOCIATION

The American Poultry Association, a national organi-
zation of breeders of standard-bred poultry is the
authoritative body of the United States and Canada.
This organization owns the copyrights of the Standard
of Perfection, issues show rules and regulates the han-
dling of shows, and lends its best efforts to the general
upbuilding of poultry culture.

AMERICAN POULTRY ASSOCIATION SHOW RULES

Poultry associations or societies, Associate Members
of the American Poultry Association, giving poultry
shows or exhibitions, governed by and subject to the
Association's Rules and Regulations, must print in the
premium lists or on their entry sheets in bold-faced type:

"The (full name of the association) being a member

of the American Poultry Association, their

Annual Show (dates here), will Jbe governed by and run
under the latest revised Official Poultry Show Rules of
the American Poultry Association. All prizes will be
awarded strictly in accordance with the American Stand-
ard of Perfection."

Section 1. Under normal conditions entries shall close
the day advertised (entries bearing postmark of that
date being eligible) and entry fees must be paid on or
before that time, except when telegraphed, and in such
cases remittance must follow by first mail.

Sec. 2. Any person under disqualification by the
American Poultry Association is ineligible to enter, to
compete, or to act as judge or in any capacity.

Sec. 3. All entries must be the bona-fide property of
the exhibitor. Otherwise he forfeits all entry fees, all
prize money, and all other premiums, as well as the
right to have his birds remain in the show room. In
cases of disqualifications under this rule other exhibits
shall, if qualified, be moved up in the list of winners,
subject to the disqualified exhibitor's right of appeal.

204 POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS

Sec. 4. In cases where it shall come to the knowledge
of the management that disqualified parties have, un-
known to them, succeeded in making an entry or
entries, the right is reserved to cancel such entries, and
such party shall forfeit his entry fee, prize money, and
other premiums.

The show management reserves the right to refuse
entries from exhibitors whose conduct, in their opinion,
makes it desirable for the welfare of the show that their
birds be debarred from competition.

Sec. 5. Each specimen regularly entered as provided
by the rules of the local association will be judged in
its order unless removed from its coop by written order
of the secretary or marked "Not for competition" when
the entry is made. Exhibitors will not be allowed to
handle or interfere with any of the exhibits in any class
after the judging of any variety has commenced.

In cases where entries are made at shows where cata-
logs are issued and exhibits are not sent, entry fees
will not be returned. 'Associations that do not issue
catalogs may use their discretion in this matter.

Sec. 6. Exhibitors attempting to interfere with or in-
fluence the judge or judges shall be dealt with as pro-
vided in Section 3.

Sec. 7. Judges shall be required to sign the judge's
book or card provided by the show association. An
official record of these awards shall be preserved by the
secretary for 3 yr. for reference.

Sec. 8. No specimen shall be removed from the show
until after its close except upon the written consent of
the show secretary or superintendent.

Sec. 9. All entries are entered and shown at the risk
of owners, and while associations are expected to exer-
cise all reasonable care in the handling and protection
of the exhibits, such associations will in no case be
liable except as provided in Rule 10.

Sec. 10. Birds must be returned promptly at the close
of the show, and any lost in the reshipping through
proved carelessness or negligence on the part of the

POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS 205

show association, are to be paid for by such association
at a value not to exceed $10 per bird, as agreed liqui-
dated damages, it being understood that in subscribing
to this rule the exhibitor does not waive any rights he
may have at law.

Sec. 11. Any exhibitor disqualified for fraudulent
practices shall have the right of appeal to the Executive
Board of the American Poultry Association within 1 yr.
from the date of his disqualification.

Sec. 12. Notices of a disqualification -with a detailed
statement shall be mailed, by the show association,
within 10 da., to the secretary of the American Poultry
Association and by registered mail to the disqualified
party.

Sec. 13. Protests are to be entertained by local asso-
ciations only in cases of apparent dishonesty, ignorance,
or carelessness on the part of the judge. In scoring the
specimens in dispute, the judge, together with the presi-
dent and secretary of the local association (or represen-
tatives appointed by the management of the local asso-
ciation), shall constitute a committee of three, and the
majority decision of this committee shall be final. Score
cards made out by the judge in deciding protested awards
are to be retained by the local association.

When protests are entertained, where judging has been
done by score card, the specimens under dispute shall
be rescored by the judge, he to act as a member of the
committee of three, as provided, the rescoring to be done
in the presence of the other two members of the com-
mittee on protests.

Protests a're not to be entertained except when made
in writing, and the person making same shall deposit
with the secretary of the local association the sum of
five dollars, this money to be returned to the person
making the protest if his protest be sustained; if protest
be not sustained, the deposit becomes the property of
the local association.

Sec. 14. Notice of protests that are sustained shall be
mailed within 10 da. to the Secretary of the American

206 POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS

Poultry Association, to be brought by him before the
Executive Board, before whom an appeal may be taken
by the judge within 1 yr.

Sec. 15. No judge shall exhibit in any class which he
is judging and he shall refuse to consider any bird that
he may recognize as having been owned by him 6 mo.
previous to the show, and no exhibitor or any one inter-
ested in any exhibit that may be in the class shall act
as assistant to the judge.

Sec. 16. Associations shall have the right to reassign
judges for cause or to add to the list of judges as occa-
sion may require.

Sec. 17. The placing of names, leg bands, or marks of
any sort, not provided by the show, on birds or on or
in the coops shall be left to the rules of the show
associations.

Sec. 18. Show managements shall have the right to
refuse entry to the show room, or to remove from the
same all diseased or unsightly birds, and are expected
to avail themselves of this right. Entry fees on such
birds shall be forfeited.

Sec. 19. All specimens must be exhibited in their
natural condition with the exception of Games and Game
Bantams. Any violation of this rule shall exclude such
specimens from competition and cause the withholding
of all premiums awarded.

Sec. 20. Any matter not provided for in the foregoing
rules and regulations will be referred to the executive
committee of the local show for decision.

Sec. 21. Where Standard varieties of poultry that re-
quire the double-mating system are exhibited, local asso-
ciations are permitted to offer special prizes only for both
single entries and pens containing specimens bred in
accordance with the system of double mating practiced
in such varieties. These specials must be plainly de-
signated "Special Prizes" so as to be distinguished from
the regular premiums offered for the Standard awards.

Sec. 22. Every exhibitor hereby agrees to submit to
the jurisdiction of the American Poultry Association and

•

POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS 207

to abide by these rules whether he is a member of the
Association or not.

Sec. 23. Any show association may make additional
rules or regulations provided they are not inconsistent
with or in conflict with these rules.

Sec. 24. All poultry associations that are members of
the American Poultry Association shall be permitted
to designate their exhibitions as official poultry shows,
and to use the official entry books, entry blanks, judges'
cards, ribbons, and other supplies furnished by the Amer-
ican Poultry Association.

Sec. 25. These Show Rules are official and are copy-
righted and can be used only by poultry associations or
societies that are associate members of the American
Poultry Association.

Sec, 26. Local associations must offer premiums on all
varieties of Standard-Bred fowls.

Sec. 27. Special for best display any one variety shall
be made on the points, first prize to count 6; second, 4;
third, 3; fourth, 2; fifth, 1; pens to count double.

If more than five awards are placed in any class, all
places below 5, shall receive one point for each such
award in the single classes and two points for pens.

Sec. 28. Premium ribbons shall be displayed only at
the show, time, and place where the ribbons were
awarded, and no other ribbons or special prizes shall
be placed on exhibition at any other than the show at
which they were awarded.

Sec. 29. Exhibitors making charges of dishonest prac-
tices or statements of a defamatory nature against any
exhibitor or exhibitors, judge or judges, at any show that
is an associate member of the American Poultry Asso-
ciation, shall be required to appear before the board of
directors or show committee of that show and prove that
the charges so made are true, and if the said charges
are not substantially true the exhibitor making the said
charge shall forfeit back to the association all ribbons,
medals, and awards of any and all kinds and nature,
and the exhibit of the said exhibitor shall either be

208 POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS

treated as a display exhibit or removed from the show,
at discretion of the management of the show.

A report of the committee, together with a charge of
conduct unbecoming a member of the American Poultry
Association, must be made in regular form by the presi-
dent or secretary of the associate member. In case such
charges are not made as above provided, the member or
members considering themselves defamed may make such
charges direct to the President or Secretary of the Amer-
ican Poultry Association.

MEMBERSHIP IN AMERICAN POULTRY
ASSOCIATION

The rules governing membership in the American
Poultry Association will be found in their publications.
Those desirous of becoming members should send to the
secretary of the association for the latest revised rules
of organization and application for membership.

The American Poultry Association has issued a book
of rules for the holding of shows, and non-members may
obtain a copy of the rules by application to the secre-
tary of the association.

THE AMERICAN STANDARD OF
PERFECTION

The American Standard of Perfection, the only guide
for judging poultry in America, is issued by the Amer-
ican Poultry Association. This book has been revised
about every 5 yr., and the next revision will occur in
1923. Changes are made in the Standard of Perfection
only after due consideration of written notices specify-
ing word for word the proposed change or changes, and
the written copy must be filed with the secretary of the
Association fully 3 mo. before the annual meeting.

Admission of New Breeds and Varieties to American
Standard of Perfection.— New breeds and varieties are

POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS 209

admitted to the American Standard of Perfection under
the regulations given in the constitution and by-laws of
the American Poultry Association, a copy of which can
always be procured from the secretary of that Associa-
tion. Any one who contemplates making application for
such admission should study these rules very carefully,
for there is no other way to obtain recognition except
through a full and complete compliance with these rules.

STANDARD AND NON-STANDARD VARI-
ETIES OF POULTRY

Show-room classifications are not the same in all
countries or even in all parts of the same country.
In America they are usually made to conform to the
breeds and their varieties as listed in the American
Standard of Perfection. But in addition to such varie-
ties, some show-room classifications will include a few
of the non-standard varieties, and the greater number
of them will permit classes for any of the non-standard
varieties, either of a particular breed or of many breeds.

The list of breeds and varieties of poultry in the tables
on pages 210 to 220 includes only those that are known
to reproduce their kind of a settled type of form and
color. In the column headed Standard Varieties are
listed the varieties of fowls included in the American
Standard of Perfection; in the column headed Non-
Standard Varieties are listed the varieties not included
in that publication, but which are bred in the United
States and other countries, many of them being standard
varieties in other countries. In this list, for convenience,
the Antwerp Brahma is classed as an Asiatic fowl. This
is not strictly correct, as it is not a true Brahma and
might be classed as a Belgian fowl.

210 POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS

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216 POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS

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POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS 219

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White
Buff (female is penciled)

Buff
Partridge colored

Buff colored

Gray
Pearl
Vulturine
White

1

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£ 6& £6«

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White
Colored
White
Gray
Gray, marked with black

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POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS 221
STANDARD WEIGHTS OF POULTRY

The table on pages 222 to 225 gives the standard
weights of all poultry having standard weights, the aver-
age weights of those standard fowls that do not have
standard weights, and the average weights of non-standard
poultry. The following list contains the notes corre-
sponding to the references in the table and includes the
disqualifying weights of bantam fowls:

NOTES ON STANDARD WEIGHTS OF POULTRY
*Non-standard breed.
iCock and cockerel.
2Hen and pullet.
3No standard weights.
«At 10 mo.
6Penciled Hamburgs. In other Hamburg varieties the fowls

are somewhat heavier.
6Colored Dorking cocks often weigh from 12 to 14 lb.; hens

and cockerels, from 9 to 10 lb.; and pullets, from 7 to 8 lb.
7It is not unusual for Houdans to exceed these weights.
«Standard height, cock, 26 in.; hen, 18 in.; cockerel, 18 in.;

pullet, 15 in.
Disqualifying weights for Booted Bantams: cocks, 28 oz.;

hens, 24 oz.; cockerels, 24 oz.; pullets, 22 oz.
"Disqualifying weights for Brahma Bantams: cocks, 34 oz.;

hens, 30 oz.; cockerels, 30 oz.; pullets, 28 oz.
"Disqualifying weights for Cochin Bantams: cocks, 34 oz.;

hens, 30 oz.; cockerels, 30 oz.; pullets, 28 oz.
^Disqualifying weights for Black-Tailed Japanese Bantams:

cocks, 30 oz.; hens, 26 oz.; cockerels, 26 oz.; pullets, 24 oz.

Disqualifying weights for White Japanese Bantams: cocks,

30 oz.; hens, 26 oz.; cockerels, 26 oz.; pullets, 24 oz. Dis-
qualifying weights for Black Japanese Bantams: cocks,

30 oz.; hens, 26 oz.; cockerels, 26 oz.; pullets, 24 oz.
13 Disqualify ing weights for Polish Bantams: cocks, 30 oz.;

hens, 26 oz.; cockerels, 26 oz.; pullets, 24 oz.
"Disqualifying weights for Rose-Comb Bantams: cocks, 28 oz.;

hens, 24 oz.; cockerels, 24 oz.; pullets, 22 oz.
^Disqualifying weights for Sebright Bantams: cocks, 30 oz.;

hens, 26 oz.; cockerels, 26 oz.; pullets, 24 oz.
"English standard weights for Malay Bantams: cocks, 3^ lb.;

cockerels and hens, 3 lb. ; pullets, 2 lb.
"Weight of adult Bronze turkey cock; yearling cock weighs

33 lb.
"Weight of adult Narragansett ^turkey cock; yearling cock

weighs 25 lb.

222 POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS
{STANDARD WEIGHTS OF POULTRY

FOWLS

Classes and Breeds

Cock
Pounds

Hen
Pounds

Cockerel
Pounds

Pullet
Pounds

A merican fowls:
Plymouth Rock .
Wyandotte
Rhode Island
Red

Q1A

sy2

814

Q1A
$1A

8

71A
71A

6

5H

5

Dominique
Java . . .

$1A

5

7K

6

8

4

6K

* Jersey Blue

10

8 ?

7

5

Buckeye

9

6

8

5

Asiatic fowls:
Light Brahma . .
Dark Brahma . .
Cochin

12
11
11

9H

8H

9H

10
9
9

8

7

7

Langshan

9*A

7M

8

Q1A

Belgian fowls:
*AntwerpBrahma
*Ardenne . .

12

15 to 6^2

9H

24 to 5

10

8

*Brabant

8

6

7

5

*Braekel
i*Bruges

16 to 8
18 to 10

24 to 6
27 to 9

*Campine

1±1A to 5

-31A to 4

*Flemish

1&A to 9

24H to 6

*Herve . .

X3 to4

22 to 3

*Huttegem

!9 to 11

27 to 9

*M alines

*9 to 11 Yz

28 to 10

no

48

Dutch fowls:
*Breda

iGtoO

25 to §1A

*Drente
'Hamburg
*Owl-B carded
Dutch

!5 to 5£

^A

24 to 4K
54

5K

QH

4^

Red Cap

6

6

5

English fowls:
6 Colored Dorking
S i 1 v e r-G ray
Dorking
White Dorking .
Orpington

9

8

VA

10

7

6H
6

8

8

7
6H
8^

6

5^
5

7

*Scotch Dumpy. .
*Scotch Gray

J8
19 to 11

25 to 6
27 to 9

POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS
TABLE — (Continued)

223

Classes and Breeds

Cock
Pounds

Hen
Pounds

Cockerel
Pounds

Pullet
Pounds

English fowls —
. (Continued):
Sussex.

lOHtoll^i

8 1A to 9 1A

9 to 10

7 to 8

French fowls:
Crevecceur

8

7

7

6

7Houdan ....

7M

61A

6H

5H

La Fleche
*La Bresse
*Bourbourg
*Faverolle

8^2
iStoGH
WA to 9
7 to SH

7M
24^to5H
26to7
6 to 7

7*A
6 to 7

6M
5 to 6

Game fowls:
3Exhibition Game
Cornish, or In-
dian, Game. . .
Whit e-Laced
Red Cornish. .
8 Malay

!7to9
9

8
9

25 to 7

7

6

7

8

7
7

6

5
5

3Sumatra

J5 to 6

24 to 5-

*Aseel

MJ

25

*Old-English
German fowls:
Lakenf elder
Mediterranean
fowls:
Ancona.
Andalusian

*4M to 7
!5to6

, ^

24 to 5
23 H to 4 H

4H
5

4tf

5

3^

Leghorn
Single-Comb Mi-
norca

5^
9

4

7H

4H
7^4

33^
6V^

S.-C. White, and
Buff, and Rose-
Comb Black

8

6H

6H

5 V^

Spanish ....

8

6H

6H

51^

^Polish fowls:
Miscellaneous fowls:
3Frizzle

^HtoGH
9K

21 to 5

7^

8

6

*Naked Neck. . . .
*Rumpless

9H
7

7H
5

8
5

6
4.

3Silky

6

4

5

3

3Sultan
* Yokohama ,Tosa ,
or Phoenix

16

^HtoG

24
22 H to 4

POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS

TABLE — (Continued)
BANTAM FOWLS

Classes and Breeds

Cock
Ounces

Hen
Ounces

Cockerel
Ounces

Pullet
Ounces

Standard bantam
fowls:
9Booted

26

22

22

20

10Brahma

30

26

26

24

"Cochin

30

26

26

24

Exhibition Game
Bantam.
12Japanese
13Polish

22
2G
26

20
22
22

20
22
22

18
20
20

14Rose-Comb
15Sebright
Miscellaneous
bantams:
*Andalusian

26
26

26

22

22

22

22

22

22

20

20

20

*Aseel

26

24

24

22

*Frizzle
*German
^Langshan .

30
30
30

26
26
26

26
26
26

24
24
24

^Leghorn

' 26

22 "

22

20

16 Malay . >

26

24

24

22

^Minorca

30

26

26

24

* Nankin

30

26

26

24

*Rumpless

30

26

26

24

*Scotch Gray
3Silky

30
30

26
26

26
26

24
24

*Spanish

26

22

22

20

*Sultan
* Yokohama

30
30

26
26

26
26

24
24

DUCKS

Classes and Breeds

. Adult
Drake
Pounds

Adult
Duck
Pounds

Young
Drake
Pounds

Young
Duck
Pounds

A ylesb ury

9

8

8

7

3Call

22 to 2 H

Cayuga

8

7

7

6

Crested

7

6

6

5

East India

7

6

6

5

*Huttegem
Indian Runner. . .

7

6
4

6
34

5

POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS 225
TABLE — (Continued)

Classes and Breeds

Adult
Drake
Pounds

Adult
Duck
Pounds

Young
Drake
Pounds

Young
Duck
Pounds

*Khaki

7

6

6

5

Muscovy

10

7

8

g

*Orpington

7

6

6

5

*Part ridge
Pekin

7
9

6

8

6

8

5

7

Rouen

9

8

8

7

Swedish ...

8

7

61A

&U

GEESE

Adult

Adult

Young

Young

Classes and Breeds

Gander

Goose

Gander

Goose

Pounds

Pounds

Pounds

Pounds

African

20

18

16

14

*Buff

Chinese

12

10

10

8

Egyptian

10

8

8

6

Ernbden

20

18

18

16

Toulouse

25

20

20

16

Wild, or Canadian

12

10

10

8

TURKEYS, GUINEA FOWLS, AND PEAFOWLS

Classes and Breeds

Cock
Pounds

Hen
Pounds

Cockerel
Pounds

Pullet
Pounds

Turkeys:
Black
Bourbon Red. . .
Bronze

27
30
1736

18
18
20

18
22
25

12
14
16

Buff

27

18

18

12

*Cambridge
Bronze

J18 to 24

212 to 16

*Fawn

U8 to 20

212 to 16

*Gray

28

16

18

10

Narragansett . . .
*Ronquieres
Slate

"30
30
27

18
18
18

20
20
18

12
12
12

White
Guinea fowls:
All varieties ....
Peafowls:
All varieties ....

28
14 to 6
U2 to 18

18
23 to 5

27 to 12

20

14

226 MARKING OF POULTRY

MARKING OF POULTRY FOR IDEN-
TIFICATION

MARKING OF FOWLS

To attain the greatest success in breeding poultry,
whether for egg production, market purposes, or fancy
stock, a poultryman must know the pedigree of the
fowls mated, and in order to be able to identify each
fowl, some system of marking chicks must be adopted.

A system of toe markings that can be used for a
limited number of fowls is shown in Fig. 1. As shown
in the illustration, fifteen different combi-
nations can be made by punching holes in
the toes of chicks. A number of forms of
punches are made for this purpose; several
of these are shown in Fig. 2 (a), (fc), (c),
"^r^^T (d), and (tf). Care must be exercised to
"y^^T entirely remove the severed portion of the
*^*^ web to prevent it from growing together
•^x^* again. The wound will heal in a few days.
O-^'*^O In building up a strain of good layers,
5'^v'^i? t*16 beginning is usually made by marking
iv-fi^^* chicks from the most prolific layers. The
^ J[s J?k same principle is applied in the establishment
{^"ysv^Hj Q£ a good strain of market poultry. These
/^^^* markings are used on the progeny of selected
"l^"^* stock only and serve as a guide for the
'^^^ selection of the pullets that should be saved
-^/4^ for winter layers. Those that have toe
jL«jL markings should be kept, no matter what
their appearance may be, for in this way
^p**^* only can a good start be made.
FIG. 1 Records can be kept quite as readily with

chicks artifically hatched as with hen-hatched chicks.
The partitioned incubator egg tray can be used for holding
the eggs from selected hens. The eggs are marked

FOR IDENTIFICATION

227

with numbers before they are placed in the incubator
for hatching. On the eighteenth day of incubation, the
numbered eggs are transferred from the regular egg tray
into the special tray. When hatched in this tray, the
chicks cannot get out of it. After they have been marked,
the chicks may be placed in a brooder with other chicks
with no danger of their identity becoming lost. Separated
trays can be used in any incubator. Partitions can be
made of tin or wood, and they can be placed in the egg
trays to separate the eggs as well as the chicks when
they are hatched. When they are used, the unmarked
chicks must not be allowed to drop into the nursery; if
this is permitted, their identity will be lost.

To keep a correct record of chicks hatched by hens,
each hen should have eggs from only one hen given her
for hatching.

(d)

FIG. 2

The toe-marking system is satisfactory for a small
number of selected fowls, but when the breeding opera-
tions are on an extensive scale some other system of
marking must be adopted. Bands of some kind for
attaching to the shanks, as shown in Fig. 3, are satis-
factory for marking fowls and permit of sufficient

228

MARKING OF POULTRY

variations. Several forms of aluminum bands are shown
in Fig. 4. The small band shown in (a) is suitable

FIG. 3

for placing around the shank of a chick, and later, when
the shank grows too large for this band, it may be
removed and fastened thorough the web of the wing.
The band shown in (b) is used for chicks also, but is

(a)

(b)

(c)

FIG. 4

rather too wide to insert in the web of the wing. After
a fowl reaches its full growth, a band like that shown in

FOR IDENTIFICATION

229

(<:), which may be sealed, may be fastened about the
shank. This band, fastened with a rivet, is shown in
(<f). The fastening is done very easily with a pair
of pincers, as shown in Fig. 5. After being well fastened

FIG. 5

or sealed, such a band will last the lifetime pf a fowl,
unless removed by cutting. All of these bands may be
stamped with any number or other characters desired.
A type of aluminum band known as an interlocking
band is shown in Fig. 4 (e).

Colored celluloid bands are used for marking fowls
kept in large flocks. They are most useful when used
in connection with the metal bands and serve as a
means of quick identification for various large groups

«*)

(C)

of fowls when they are kept in big flocks; that is, all
the chicks hatched in one year may have a blue band;
those hatched the next year, a red band; the next, a
yellow band; and so on. In this way the age of fowls

230 MARKING OF POULTRY

may be told at a glance. The bands may be used also to
identify strains or families of fowls. Though they have
their usefulness in this way, they are not an absolutely
accurate means of identifying fowls; in addition they
are liable to be lost from the shank; in such cases,
if no other band were used, the identity of a fowl
would be lost. Three celluloid markers are shown in
Fig. 6. The ring shown in (a) encircles the shank a
number of times. One end of this is hooked about the
shank and then the rest is wound around much in the
same manner that a key is worked on a key ring. The
ring shown in (&) is a small one of the same type as
that shown in (a). In (c) is shown a flat celluloid band.
Poultry supply houses sell celluloid rings and bands in
as many as eight different colors.

MARKING OF PIGEONS

To build up the productiveness of a flock of pigeons
and to maintain the quality of the squabs, it is necessary
to mark breeding pigeons in such a way that their
identity can be easily determined. This is usually done
by fastening a suitably marked band of some kind
about the shank of each bird. A careful record of each
breeding pigeon should be kept in a record book. This
record should include the ancestors of each bird, their
egg production, the time it takes for them to hatch
their squabs, the time it takes for them to rear their
squabs to a marketable size, and notes as to the quality
of their squabs. With this information systematically
arranged it will be possible to prevent harmful inbreed-
ing and to mate the offspring of different pigeons in
such a way as to improve the productiveness and quality
of the flock.

Bands suitable for marking breeding pigeons can be ob-
tained in several styles from dealers in poultry supplies.
Some of these bands are made so that they indicate only
the year in which the breeders were first mated. This
is usually done in one of two ways, either by having

FOR IDENTIFICATION

231

different-colored bands for each year, samples of which
are shown in Fig. 7, or by stamping the year on the band,

FIG. 7

as shown in Fig. 8. The colored bands are usually more
easily distinguished at a little distance than those
stamped with figures. Other shank bands, in addition to
indicating the year in which the breeders were first
mated, have a numeral or some other mark that indicates

FIG. 8

the ancestors of the birds. Such bands, however, are
used principally in the breeding of exhibition pigeons,
the system being too complicated for the producer of
commercial squabs.

In marking breeding pigeons, it is customary to place
Ihe band on the right shank of male birds and on the
left shank of female
birds. Squabs that are
to be kept for breeders
should have a band
placed on them as soon
as they are ready to
leave the nest. At this

time it is impossible to - - ^ -

determine the sex, but

the band can be placed on either shank to preserve the
identity of the squabs, and can be shifted, if necessary.

2Z: MARKING OF POULTRY

when the sex can be determined. Two shank bands at-
tached to birds are shown in Fig. 9; the one shown in
(a) is attached to the right shank of a male pigeon, and
that shown in (6) is attached to the left shank of a
female pigeon.

In Fig. 10 is shown a device for holding pigeons while
bands are being placed on their shanks. Such a device

FIG. 10

is particularly useful when the band must be placed
on the bird by one person. In using this device the
pigeon is pushed gently, head down, into the cone,
where it is held without injury. The band is then
fastened about the shank and the pigeon released from
the cone.

POULTRYMAN'S CALENDAR 233

CALENDAR FOR THE POULTRY-
MAN'S YEAR

OCTOBER

October is usually the beginning of the poultryman's
year. Ring out the old and ring in the new is usually
practiced at this time. All of the old fowls that are
useless should be marketed; the flock should be sepa-
rated and the old hens and young pullets placed in
different apartments.

As the weather grows colder, more precaution must be
taken to prevent ailment from creeping into the flock.
All specimens, old or young, which lack size, strength,
or vitality should be culled out from the flock; nothing
but strong, healthy specimens should remain.

The poultry buildings should be of such a character
that no drafts of air can blow through them. All air
and ventilation should come in from the front of the
building.

NOVEMBER

The spring-hatched pullets should be laying at this
time, and the best of egg-producing rations should be
fed to them and to the old hens as well.

The growing green food having disappeared, a plentiful
supply of sprouted oats, alfalfa hay, and other green
foods should be provided to take its place. The floor
of the poultry house should be well covered with dry
litter and the green food should be thrown on it. This
will encourage the fowls to work for all the food they
get, and in this way they will be made active and more
healthy. Fowls that are too weak to work for a living
are usually poor layers and might as well be sold to
market.

An additional culling of the flock should be made at
this "time. No male over 2 yr. old should be kept. The
earliest and best cockerels of the year are best for
breeding purposes,

234 POULTRYMAN'S CALENDAR

No hen or pullet that does not show the proper indi-
cation for egg production should be kept after this
period.

November and December are the early winter months
during which time all hens and pullets should begin
to lay. If they have been carefully fed they will do so.

Hens and pullets should have a good egg-producing
diet at this time. One of the necessities of poultry
during winter months is that they shall be protected
from the elements, have plenty of exercise of some kind,
and be fed on a liberal grain ration composed of the
grains best suited to egg production. A liberal supply
of green food, also, should be fed during the winter
months.

DECEMBER

This month is the most severe on poultry and the most
trying on poultrymen of all months of the year. The
houses should be kept warm and dry and free from
drafts; all cracks and openings . should be carefully
covered or stopped up to prevent drafts through the
houses.

Hens will lay but few eggs at this time, when the
price is high and the eggs most desirable. For this
reason every effort possible should be made to make the
hens lay. The only way to secure a good supply of eggs
for market at this time is to have a thorough knowledge
of the possibilities of egg production through scientific
management and feeding. No one not fully informed on
these matters c?.n hope to have a full egg supply from
hens or pullets during midwinter months.

Plenty of green food, well-selected grains, the proper
quantity of nourishing food, and fresh water are neces-
sities at this time.

JANUARY

Poultry work requires constant attention during this
month.

Cull out the less perfect fowls and sell all those not
intended for producing market eggs or for breeding.

POULTRYMAN'S CALENDAR 235

During the last part of January look over the fowls and
become acquainted with those suitable for breeding,
so that no time will be lost when the season for mating
arrives.

Fowls will need more fattening food, such as corn and
barley. A good plan to follow during the winter is to
feed a grain ration composed half of corn and the other
half of equal parts of wheat, oats, and barley.

Twice a week or every other day feed green cut bone.

Dry mash is one of the most popular kinds of food for
poultry during the winter months. One-third of a
winter dry-mash mixture should consist of corn meal and
the rest of wheat bran and wheat middlings and some
ground oats. The same ration should be fed during Jan.,
Feb., and March, especially in parts of the world where
these months are cold and stormy.

Supply fowls with plenty of green foods, such as
turnips, rutabagas, cabbage, lettuce, cut clover hay, cut
alfalfa, etc.

FEBRUARY

Winter is coming to a close, and spring-like diseases
will prevail in some localities. Farthest north, cold
weather will continue for some time.

Houses should be protected from spring rains, snow
and sleet; either glass windows or curtain fronts make'
good protection.

It is now time to mate fowls for the production of
eggs for hatching; select the best of all and keep them
separate for special breeding. No sick fowls nor fowls
that have deformities or that lack . superior quality
should ever be used in the breeding pen. The best of
all the fowls on any farm will produce many culls;
this is reason enough for using only the selected speci-
mens for breeding.

A liberal supply of green food is always beneficial
at this time, because such food increases the density
of the albumen of an egg, and the heavier or more
dense the albumen of the egg the greater strength it
will have for nourishing a chick in the embryo state.

236 POULTRY MAN'S CALENDAR

MARCH

March is the most uncertain month of the year.
Weather conditions cannot be depended on. March
winds are the most piercing of the year, and the fowls
must be protected from the elements.

Little chicks should be kept under hovers that are
inside of a building that is tight enough to protect them
from the elements. March chicks make Nov. layers.

Incubators should now be in action. Nests made for
sitting hens should be deep so as to provide a comfort-
able nest for the hen. Always dust the body of a sitting
hen with insect powder. Persian insect powder is the
best. Dust it down well into the feathers and close to
the skin of the fowl. This dusting should be renewed
every 3 or 4 da. for 1 wk. or 10 da.

A soap box 18 in. or 2 ft. square with some sand or
earth in the bottom and dry hay or straw packed well
down on top of this, provides an excellent nest for a
sitting hen.

The nest for a sitting hen should always be placed
where she will have plenty of room, light, and shelter
from the elements, yet be confined where she cannot
run away from the eggs. She should be watched and
put back on the eggs if she seems to neglect them.
APRIL

April is usually the most favorable month of the year
for hatching chicks; at this time the grass and all
vegetables are sending up new growth, and there is plenty
of natural food for the little chicks.

April is the month when all incubators should be
filled with eggs for hatching, and all broody hens should
have a clutch of eggs.

See to it that the brooding hens are well fed while
doing their family duty. Laying hens should have more
green food at this time than before. Corn bread is
good food for the mother hen and little chicks. To make
such corn bread mix 1 teaspoonful of baking powder
into a mixture composed of 1 pt. of corn meal, l/2 pt.
of wheat bran, 4 oz. of good meat scrap, and a little

POULTRYMAN'S CALENDAR

237

bone meal, and add a pinch of salt. Stir the mass up,
moistening it well with milk or water, milk preferred,
and bake in the oven. When well baked and cool, it
can be crumbled and fed to the little chicks.

April, May, and June are the spring months in
northern latitudes. Less fattening grain should be fed
during this period; some wheat and less corn should
be fed to the poultry, and they should have an increased
supply of green food; if bugs and worms are not plenti-
ful on the range, they
should have animal food of
some kind.

Young chicks and grow-
ing stock should be fed lib-
erally during this period;
they cannot have too, much
wholesome grain. Some
dry mash is helpful; if it
is desirable to grow them
quickly for market pur-
poses, wet mash may be
used.

MAY

Both old fowls and
young chicks should have
greater freedom during the
month of May than during
the preceding months.

All parts of the poultry
houses, the nest boxes, and
the runways should be thoroughly cleaned. Brush the
ground thoroughly with a stiff broom; after the top cover
has been swept away, dig up the soil and turn it under.

Chicks of the Asiatic, American, and English breeds
should be hatched prior to the middle of May; those
of the Mediterranean breeds should be hatched before
the end of May. Chicks of all kinds will do well if
hatched after June 1, but they are seldom of much
value to the poultryman except for table purposes.

INDIAN RUNNER DRAKE

238 POULTRYMAN'S CALENDAR

JUNE

In some localities the weather will be very warm
during the month of June. Shade is an important con-
sideration at this time, and where it does not exist
naturally it must be supplied artificially.

During this month less fattening foods than given in
preceding months will answer, and less corn and
more wheat and oats should be fed. Dry mash that
contains but little corn meal should be used.

The warmer the weather the more green food and pure
fresh water will be needed for the fowls. No fat meat,
but some lean meat should be fed to the laying hens
during this month.

June is apt to be the last month of the year in which
chicks are hatched and the eggs from which they are
hatched should be strong and full of vitality to infuse
abundant health and vigor into the chicks. If the fowls
can have free range through the fields and woods at
this time it will be of benefit to them.

JULY

Cool, shady places and freedom from the irritation of
overheated houses and insect vermin should be the order
of the day.

Poultry must have shade at this time to protect them
from the glaring rays of the sun, which will scorch
and blister their backs and make life a burden to them.

On the farms, all the male fowls should be taken
away at this time and sold. They are of no further use
after the hatching season is over.

Thousands of eggs shipped to market during the heated
term are destroyed because the eggs begin to hatch.
This will occur in the egg boxes traveling on trains
when the temperature is above 100° F. If no males are
kept with the hens, especially on farms in the southern
climates, there will be fewer spoiled eggs in transit
If all the hens can be turned into a wood or on land
from which grain has been harvested it will be beneficial
to them.

POULTRYMAN'S CALENDAR 239

Plenty of fresh, cool water for drinking and a clean
place for roosting must be provided during the heated
term.

Insect vermin, including lice and mites, will throng the
poultry in the poultry houses during the heated term,
unless prevented through cleanliness and care.

July and August are the hardest months of the year
in the latitude where heat is intense during that period.
During the hot period fowls should have principally
wheat and oats — ground oats, wheat bran, and wheat
middlings as a dry mash.

Fowls intended for market during fall months should
be fed liberally during this period with fattening food
and be sold to market as soon as they are well fattened.

Shade is an absolute necessity during the heated
period. If natural shade does not exist artificial shade
of some kind must be provided.

Fowls should be in full molt at this time. Hens that
are overly fat do not molt quickly; hens that are very
thin in flesh are slow to molt. Fowls in good con-
dition usually molt the best; those that are too fat
should have less to eat; those that are thin in flesh
should be fed liberally; those that molt well should be
protected from cold drafts and have a good, nourishing
ration. Fowls that have free range will need only
proper grain diet.

AUGUST

During the heated term of dog days, old and young
fowls of all kinds, including turkeys and water fowls,
suffer intensely from heat, and plenty of green food, grit,
and fresh water should be provided.

At this time all old fowls, male and female, past
2 yr. old should be sold. The hens would lay but few
eggs from now until winter, and as market poultry
they will probably bring more than at any other time
for the next 3 mo.

Continued cleanliness in and about the poultry houses,
freedom from insect vermin, and free range are the
necessities at this time.

240 POULTRYMAN'S CALENDAR

SEPTEMBER

September is the turning point in the life of both
young and old fowls. The old fowls are in molt and
the young fowls finish their coat of feathers at this
time, and they must be well cared for and fed. They
must be built up for the coming winter, and for this
reason should have more nourishing, more strengthening,
and more fattening foods than they have had during
the summer.

Cold rains, changeable weather, and cool winds may
be injurious to poultry at this time. Colds, catarrh, and

INDIAN RUNNER DUCK EGGS

roup may injure the fowls. A change from outdoor
life or from closed coops into unclean poultry buildings
may do great injury to them.

All of the buildings should be swept out perfectly
clean, and all cracks and crevices should be brushed
and freed absolutely from dust, dirt, and lurking
vermin. The floors, doors, and windows should be put
in good repair and the inside of the buildings sprayed
with some material that is both healthy and a perfect
insect destroyer and disinfector. Plenty of green food

MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 241

and an increased quantity of animal food should be fed
at this time.

September is the beginning of the fall, and at this
time hens lay but little. Early-hatched pullets should
begin to lay; these should have special care and feeding.
All poultry should be fed at this time with reference
to the winter egg production.

MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION

How to Ascertain the Age of Fowls.— It is difficult for
an amateur to decide the age of fowls. Experienced
poultrymen are at times unable to decide from outward
appearance. But few rules are safe to follow; some of
them, however, may be depended on.

The surface of the skin under the wing of a pullet
will be interspersed or marked with rose-colored veins;
these are totally absent in hens that are more than
12 mo. old. The skin of pullets will be fairly well
covered with long, silky hair; this disappears directly
after the first molt.

In an adult hen the skin will be white and free from
either veins or hairs. If these are absent it can be seen
at a glance that the fowl, if a hen, must be more than
1 yr. old.

The points of the pelvic bones grow much closer
together in a pullet than in a hen, yet this cannot
always be depended on, as the cause of the spreading
of the pelvic bone is prolific egg production. Hens that
never lay may have the points of the pelvic bones close
together, even though very old. Usually, however, this
test can be depended on.

The scales and skin on the shanks and feet of young
fowls are usually smooth and tender, and the toenails
are longer and more pointed than the toenails of older
fowls. The scales and skin on the shanks and feet of
older fowls become rough and turn a whitish gray with
age. Scaly legs and roughness of any kind on the

242

MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION

shanks and feet indicate an age of more than a year,
in all kinds of poultry, including turkeys, ducks, and
geese.

The faces of poultry more than 1 yr. old lose their
smooth finished appearance and become wrinkled and
drawn. The eyes and eyelids of fowls more than 1 yr.
old do not have the fresh appearance of young poultry.

One of the best indications of the age of fowls
is the appearance of the secondaries. At the conclusion
of the first complete molt, which occurs when the fowl
is about 12 mo. old, the secondaries alter in shape and

FIG. 1 »

show evidence of the dividing line between the young
and the old fowl. This change of the secondaries cannot
be readily described. The wings of pullets and of old
hens must be held alongside of one another and compared
and studied in order to appreciate the marked change
that occurs in the shape or form of these feathers.

Proper Way to Hold a Fowl.— When a fowl is carried
about or held in the hands it should be held in a position
that is comfortable for it and cleanly for the person
holding it. When a fowl is held by the shanks and feet
with the head hanging down, it suffers considerable
pain, and if the crop contains water, the water will

MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION

243

run out through the gullet and partly strangle .the bird.

One of the most cleanly ways 'to carry a fowl is shown
in Fig. 1. The thighs are held in the hand with one
finger in between them to avoid too much pressure on
the bones, and the breast of the fowl rests on the fore-
arm of the person holding it. The fowl suffers no
inconvenience, and there is little danger of the clothing
of the holder being soiled by voidings from the bird.

When the fowl is held as shown in Fig. 2, the feet
of the fowl are free to rub against the clothing of the
holder, and any filth from it will be liable to drop on

FIG. 2

and smear the clothing of the person holding the bird.

The rule to observe in carrying a fowl is to carry it
with the head toward and the tail away from the holder.

Proper Way to Hold a Squab.— Great care should be
exercised in picking up squabs, as it is very easy to
injure them. Squabs should be picked up by gently
passing the fingers of the right hand under the crop and
breast, placing the left hand on the back, and sliding
the bird into the palm of the right hand without grip-
ping it with the fingers. Care should be taken to see
that the crop of the bird is not injured. When the

244

MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION

FIG. 3

crop of a squab is full i$ is heavy and apt to be injured
if held tightly. It is not necessary to close the fingers
_ about the squab un-

Ull^ less it becomes rest-

less and tries to get
away. When a squab
tries to escape from
the hand, the fingers
should be closed
gently about the body
in such a way as to
prevent the wings
from being flapped
about. The proper way in which a squab should be held
is shown in Fig. 3. In Fig. 4 is shown a squab being
held by the fingers. This is the improper way to hold
squabs under ordinary circumstances, because there is a
tendency to squeeze them too tightly, but it is sometimes
necessary to hold very lively squabs in this manner.

Proper Way of Catching and Holding Pigeons.— Catch-
ing and holding pigeons should be done with care, or
the birds may be
injured. Pigeons
should never be —-r^~~^-

roughly handled or " "'«\\\im '

held by the feet or
by the wings alone.
The proper method
of holding a pigeon
is shown in Fig. 5.
As shown, the hand

is placed around the F .

rear portion of the

body, the wings and tail are held gently but firmly by the
hand, and the shanks are held between two fingers to
prevent them from moving. When pigeons are held in
this way they will be comfortable and will not struggle to
free themselves, hence the wing and tail feathers of the
birds will not become broken, and females will not be

MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION

245

injured during their egg-la3nng period. If female pigeons
are chased in a pigeon house and roughly grabbed with
the hands or caught in a dip net, they are very likely to
be injured, especially if this is done during their egg-
laying period. In pigeon houses that are so built that the
birds are able to roost high overhead, no attempt should
be made to catch them except at night, and then a box
or a step ladder should always be used to stand on.

FIG. 5

LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL

Following are the legal weights per bushel for various
commodities. Those listed in tabular form, shown on
pages 246 to 253, have been widely adopted, the others
have been adopted only in the states mentioned.

Alsike (or Swedish) seed, 60 Ib. (Md. and Okla.).

Beggar weed seed, 62 Ib. (Fla.).

Bermuda grass seed, 40 Ib. (Okla.).

Blackberries, 30 Ib. (la.); 48 Ib. (Tenn.) ; dried, 28 Ib.
(Tenn.).

Blueberries, 42 Ib. (Minn.).

Bromus inermus, 14 Ib. (N. Dak.).

Bur clover, in hulls, 8 Ib. (N. C).

Cabbage, 50 Ib. (Tenn.).

Canary seed, 60 Ib. (Tenn.); 50 Ib. (Iowa).

Cantaloup melon, 50 Ib. (Tenn.).

Castor seed, 50 Ib. (Md.).

{Continued on page ^55)

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254 MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION

NOTES RELATING TO PRECEDING TABLE

!Not defined.
2Small white beans, 60 Ib.
sGreen apples. [wurzels.

4Sugar beets and mangel
^Shelled beans, 60 Ib.; vel-
vet beans, 78 Ib.
eWhite beans.
7Wheat bran.

sQreen unshelled beans, 56 Ib.
^English blue-grass seed,

22 Ib.; native blue-grass

seed, 14 Ib.
10Also castor seed.
"Soybeans, 58 Ib. [30 Ib.

12Green unshelled beans,
"Soybeans.
"Free from hulls.
^Commercially dry, for all

hard woods.
"Fifteen Ib. commercially dry,

for all soft woods.
17Standard weight in borough

of Greensburg.
18Dried beans.
"Red and white.
^Corn in ear, 70 Ib. until

Dec. 1 next after grown;

68 Ib. thereafter.
21Sweet corn.
22On the cob.
^Indian corn in ear.
24Unwashed plastering hair,

8 Ib.; washed plastering

hair, 4 Ib.
^Corn in ear, from Nov. 1

to May 1 following, 70 Ib.;

68 Ib. from May 1 to Nov. 1.
^Indian-corn meal.
27Cracked corn.
23Shelled.
^Free from hulls.
^Standard weight bu. corn

meal, bolted or unbolted,

48 Ib.
31Except the seed of long

staple cotton, of which the

weight shall be 42 Ib.

32Green unshelled corn, 100 Ib.

33Green cucumbers.

34See also "Pop corn," "Indian

corn," and "Kafir corn."
35Green peaches.
36Green pears.
37 Malt rye.

asTop sets; bottom sets, 32.1b.
^Shelled, 56 Ib.
^Shelled, dry.
41 Strike measure.
42Bottom onion sets.
^German and American.
44Shelled.
^Peaches (peeled); unpeeled,

32 Ib.
46Cowpeas.

47Roasted; green, 22 Ib.
^Not stated whether peeled

or unpeeled.
^Top onion sets.
^Including split peas.
61 In the ear.
^Slaked lime, 40 Ib.
"German, Missouri, and Ten-
nessee millet seeds.
"Matured onions.
65Bottom onion sets, 32 Ib.
66Matured.
67Matured pears, 56 Ib.; dried

pears, 26 Ib.
^Black-eyed peas.
^Barley malt.
MIncludes Rice corn.
61 Rice corn.

62Sorghum saccharatum seed.
^Red top grass seed (chaff);

fancy, 32 Ib.
"Seed.

65Irish potatoes.
^Free from hulls.
•"Ground salt, 70 Ib.
^India wheat, 46 Ib.
69In some states herd's grass

is a synonym for timothy;

in other states for red

top.

The states of Idaho, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming have
no standard for_bushel weights.

.

MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 255

LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL

(Continued from page 245)

Cherries, 40 Ib. (Iowa); with stems, 56 Ib. (Tenn.) ;
without stems, 64 Ib. (Tenn.).

Chufa, 54 Ib. (Fla.).

Cotton seed, staple, 42 Ib. (S. C.).

Currants, 40 Ib. (Iowa and Minn.).

Feed, 50 Ib. (Mass.).

Fescue, seed of all the, except the Tall and Meadow
fescue, 14 Ib. (N. C).

Fescue seed, Tall and Meadow, 24 Ib. (N. C.).

Grapes, 40 Ib. (Iowa) ; with stems, 48 Ib. (Tenn.) ; with-
out stems, 60 Ib. (Tenn.).

Guavas, 54 Ib. (Fla.).

Hominy, 60 Ib. (Ohio); 62 Ib. (Tenn.).

Horseradish, 50 Ib. (Tenn.).

Italian rye-grass seed, 20 Ib. (Tenn.).

Japan clover in hulls, 25 Ib. (N. C.).

Johnson grass, 28 Ib. (Ark.); 25 Ib. (N. C.).

Kale, 30 Ib. (Tenn.).

Land plaster, 100 Ib. (Tenn.).

Lentils, 60 Ib. (N. C.).

Lucerne, 60 Ib. (N. C.).

Lupines, 60 Ib. (N. C.).

Meadow seed, tall, 14 Ib. (N. C.).

Meal (?), 46 Ib. (Ala.); unbolted, 48 Ib. (Ala.).

Middlings, fine, 40 Ib. (Ind.) ; coarse middlings, 30 Ib.
(Ind.).

Millet, Japanese barnyard, 35 Ib. (Mass, and N. H.).

Mustard, 30 Ib. (Tenn.).

Mustard seed, 58 Ib. (N. C.).

Oat grass seed, 14 Ib. (N. C.).

Plums, 40 Ib. (Fla.); 64 Ib. (Tenn.); dried, 28 Ib.
(Mich.).

Prunes, dried, 28 Ib. (Idaho) ; green, 45 Ib. (Idaho).

Radish seed, 50 Ib. (Iowa).

Raspberries, 32 Ib. (Iowa and Kan.); 48 Ib. (Tenn.).

Rhubarb, 50 Ib. (Tenn.).

256 GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

Sage, 4 Ib. (Term.).

Salads, 30 Ib. (Tenn.).

Sand, 130 Ib. (Iowa).

Seed of brome grasses, 14 Ib. (N. C.).

Spinach, 30 Ib. (Tenn.).

Strawberries, 32 Ib. (Iowa); 48 Ib. (Tenn.).

Sugar cane seed (amber), 57 Ib. (N. J.).

Sunflower seed, 24 Ib. (N. C.).

Teosinte, 59 Ib. (N. C.).

Velvet grass seed, 7 Ib. (Tenn.).

Vetches, 60 Ib. (N. C.).

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS
USED BY POULTRYMEN

A clear understanding of the meaning of the technical
terms used in the poultry world is necessary before
any person can judge fowls according to Standard re-
quirements or select them for breeding purposes or the
show pen or even converse intelligently on the subject
of poultry.

In order to impart a clear understanding of the terms
applied to the different parts of a fowl, a profile view
of one is shown in Fig. 1, with the different parts
numbered. Following this will be found a list of the
names of the numbered parts. Farther on is a list of
technical terms and expressions used by poultrymen.
Some of the terms are peculiar to England and some to
certain parts of the United States, but the meaning of
each is fully explained and many are made clear by
illustrations.

Abdomen. — The part of the body of a fowl that contains
the viscera. See 32, Fig. 1.

Albino. — A fowl that is pure white 'in all parts except
the eyes, due to the absence of coloring pigment; a sport
from black or colored fowls.

FIG. 1
NAMES OF NUMBERED PARTS

i, Crest

21, Fourth toe

2, Comb

22, Fifth toe

3, Eye

23, Spur

4, Feathers covering the

24, Foot

ear

25, Shank and toe feath-

5, Ear lobe

ering

6, Muff

26, Back

7, Wattles

27, Saddle

8, Beard

28, Sickles

9, Beak

20, Lesser sickles

10, Face

30, Tail coverts

ii, Hackle

31, Main tail

12, Neck

32, Abdomen

13, Breast
14, Breastbone, or keel

33, Wing bow
34, Shoulder

15, Thigh
16, Vulture nock
17, Hock joint

35, Wing bar
36, Wing bay, or second-
ary feathers

18, Shank
/9, Third toe

37, Primary, or flight,
feathers

20, Middle toe

38, Primary coverts

257

258

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

Amateur.— A person not well informed about the art of
poultry raising; a beginner; a novice.

Antler Comb. — A comb composed of two small prongs
somewhat resembling antlers; a V-shaped comb; com-
mon in Polish, La Fleche, and some
strains of Houdans. Fig. 2.
A. O. C. — Any other color.
A. O. V. — Any other variety.
Atavism. — Recurrence to an an-
cestral type or to a deformity or
disease after its disappearance for
several generations; reversion.

Band. — (1) A stripe or marking
of any kind at the end of or across
a feather. (2) A band of metal or
other material, usually stamped with numbers or letters, or
colored, for attaching to the shank of a fowl so that it
can be identified.

Bantam. — A dwarf, or pigmy, fowl, usually about one-
fifth the size of a large fowl of the variety to which it
corresponds in every particular except size.

Barb.— One of the side branches of a feather, which
collectively make up the web and fluff. See feather.

Barring. — Bands of alternate colors that
extend across a feather. Fig. 3.

Barred to the Skin. — An expression ap-
plied to fowls whose feathers are barred
from the tip to the end of the fluff, as in
Barred Plymouth Rocks.

Bay. — A reddish-brown color, approach-
ing chestnut; also used to designate eyes in
fowls that have an approach to blood-red
color.

Beak.— As used by poultrymen, the beak
is the bony formation extending from the
front of the head of chickens and turkeys;
it consists of the upper and lower mandibles. See p,
Fig. 1. The corresponding part of water fowls is called
the bill.

FIG. 3

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

259

FIG. 4

Bean. — A growth, resembling a thumbnail, on the point
of the upper mandible of the bill of a duck, as shown at
a, Fig. 4. A like growth of a
smaller size is found on the bill of
a goose.

Beard.— (1) A tuft of feathers
under the beak and about the throat
of such fowls as Polish, Houdans,
etc. See 8, Fig. 1. (2) A tuft of
hair growing on the breast of turkeys.

Beefy. — A term applied to coarse, overgrown combs;
such combs are more commonly found on Mediterranean
fowls than on those of other varieties.

Beetle Brows. — See brows.

Bib.— The English name for beard.

Bill.— The mandibles of water fowls, which correspond
to the beak in other domestic fowls.

Bird. — Fowl was the term formerly applied to all
winged creatures; modern usage restricts the name fowl
to the larger domesticated fowls and designates the
smaller wild fowls as birds. However, the term bird
is frequently indiscriminatingly used instead of the
term fowl.

Blade. — The rear part of a single comb, generally called
the heel. See b, Fig. 25.

Blocky.—A term applied to a fowl that is of heavy and
square build; said of a fowl that is broad, or wide,
between the thighs. Compare with cobby, an English
term that expresses the same meaning.

Bloom.— The gloss, sheen, or finish on the plumage of
fowls.

Body. — Fanciers usually apply the term body to the
trunk of a fowl only.

Booted. — Fowls that are feathered on the shanks and
toes are said to be booted.

Bouquet Crest.— A crest that stands up from the head
and to some extent resembles a bouquet of flowers ;
found on crested ducks. At one time, a bad defect in
Polish fowls.

260 GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

Brassiness. — A term applied to a yellow or yellowish
tint commonly found in the feathers of white fowls and
sometimes in the feathers of dark-plumaged fowls.

Breast.— (1) A term applied to that part of the front of
the body of live fowls that extends from the throat to
the point of the breastbone. See 13, Fig. 1. (2) The term
is applied also to the meat on both sides of the breast-
bone of fowls prepared for the table.

Breed.— A. family of fowls all of which are of the same
distinctive shape. A breed may include a number of
varieties, the fowls of all the varieties having the same
shape but being distinguished by different plumage
colors and markings.

Breeding Down. — A term applied to the process of
producing small, or bantam, fowls from larger fowls by
selecting and breeding the smallest fowls obtainable — a
process usually involving breeding through a number of
generations.

Brick Color.— A reddish-brown color occasionally found
on fowls of black-red varieties.
Broken Colored.— See mottled and spangled.
Brood.— A. number of chicks that are mothered by one
hen or kept in one brooder.

Broody.— When a hen shows a desire to sit, that is, to
hatch eggs, she is said to be broody.
Brows.— The projection of the skull over the eyes of a
fowl, as in Asiatic and Malay fowls;
termed beetle brows in England. Fig. 5.
Cap. — The upper part of a fowl's skull
or comb; a term used in England.

Cape. — The feathers between the
shoulders and about the neck under-
neath the hackle.
FIG. 5 Capon. — A castrated cock or cockerel;

that is, a male from which the reproductive organs have
been removed; a female from which the reproductive or-
gans have been removed is called a poulard.

Carriage. — The general appearance, pose, or bearing of a
fowl; the way in which a fowl carries itself when walking.

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

261

Caruncles.— Irregular growths of flesh such as occur on
the head and neck of turkeys and Muscovy ducks. Fig. 6.

Canmculated.— Covered with carun-
cles.

Castrate. — To remove the testicles, the
organs of reproduction, from a male
fowl.

Cavernous. — Said of nostrils that are
prominent and deeply hollowed. Such
nostrils are found on crested fowls.
Fig. 7.

Chain Armor. — Faulty lacing on the
claret-colored breast of a Rouen drake.

Chick. — One of the newly hatched young of fowls or
birds.

Chicken. — Specifically, a fowl less than 1 yr. old; com-
monly, a fowl of any age.

Cinnamon Color. — A dark reddish
buff, formerly admissible on one va-
^} riety of Cochins.

Claret Color.— Descriptive of the breast
color of a Rouen drake.

Clean Legged. — A term used in de-
scribing a fowl that has no feathers on
its shanks or toes.

Close Feathered. — See tight feathered.
Cloudy.— A. term applied to plumage that has irregular
markings. See mossiness.

Clutch.— The number of eggs a domestic fowl incubates,
or sits on, at one time, usually from 11 to 15. See
sitting.

Coat.— The plumage of a fowl taken as a whole.
Cob. — A male swan.

Cobby —A. term applied in England to a fowl that is
thick set, heavily built, and round in form. See blocky.
Cock. — A male fowl more than 1 yr. old; the term is
commonly applied to pit game cocks of any age.

Cockerel. — A male fowl less than 1 yr. old. The practice
in the show room is to allow males to be shown as

FIG. 7

262

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

cockerels during the entire show season that follows
their hatching. Compare with pullet.

Cockerel Bred. — Bred in line from a mating made ex-
pressly for producing cockerels for exhibition. Both
males and females from such matings are said to be
cockerel bred. Compare with pullet bred.

Collar.— A white ring around the neck, as in Rouen
ducks and in pheasants.

Color. — A term applied to any one of the many hues
that may be found on the feathers or on any other part
of the body of a fowl. This term is used also in
describing the coloring of the entire plumage. A fowl
is said to have good color when each of its colors is
of the proper tint and is found in its proper place, and
to have bad color when the reverse is true.

Comb. — The fleshy growth on the
top of the head of a fowl. See 2,
Fig. 1, and Figs. 2, 5, 16, 20, 22, 25,
and 30.

Comb Over. — An expression for
lopped comb; used in England.
Figs. 8 and 24.

Comparison Judging. — Judging
fowls by comparing them with one
another, and' without applying a
score card.

Concave Sweep. — The continuous
curve of the back from the shoulder to the tail; required
in some breeds.

Condition.— The state of the health and plumage of a
fowl; sometimes applied only to the finish, or appear-
ance, of the plumage.

Conditioning. — The process of preparing a fowl for the
show room.

Coverts. — Feathers that grow about the tail ; also the
secondary quill feathers. See 30 and 38, Fig. 1, and
wing and tail coverts and hangers.

Cradle Comb.— A term formerly applied to the Wyan-
dotte comb; at present little used. Same as rocker comb.

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

263

Creaminess. — A term descriptive of white feathers that
are tinged with a slight yellow or cream color.

Crest.— A tuft of feathers on top of the head. Figs.
9 and 16.

Crop. — An enlarged part of the gul-
let, or pouch, in which food is stored
and softened prior to passing into the
gizzard.

Crop Bound. — A term applied to an
unnatural condition of the crop, in
which that organ is stopped up and
food is prevented from passing
through it. FlG- 9

Cross. — A mating of fowls of different breeds.

Cross-Bred. — The offspring from two fowls of different
breeds; as from mating a Plymouth Rock and a Rhode
Island Red.

Curl Feather.— One of the set of curled feathers near
the base of the back of a male duck.

Curve. — Any arched or concave line on the body of a
fowl, such as the curve of the back, the curve formed by
the flowing tail feathers, or the arched shape of the
neck in water fowls.

Cushion.— A raised mass of plumage due to an excessive
development of soft feathers about the tail of Cochins
and some other fowls.

Cushion Comb. — The name applied in England to the
comb of the Silky; a circular cushion of flesh with a
number of small protuberances on it. Same as straw-
berry comb.

Cut.— A deduction made from the score of a fowl; as
a cut of 2 points.

Cygnet.— A young swan.

Daw Eyed. — A term used at one time to describe game
fowls that had peculiar eyes resembling those of a
jackdaw, which were of a pearl color; pigeons with eyes
of the same kind are said to be pearl eyed.

Deaf-Ear.— The ear lobe.

Debarred.— Barred from competition.

264 GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

Deep Bodied.— Said of fowls that have a good depth
of body from the top of the back to the lower side of
the breastbone.

Defect.— Any blemish, imperfection, fault, or lack of
some feature or quality.

Dewlap.— A growth of loose skin below the beak or
bill, as in Brahmas and water fowls. Fig. 5.

Diamond.— An expression formerly used in place of
wing bay.- See 36, Fig. 1.

Dished. — When hollows or depressions appear in the bill
of a water fowl, it is said to be dished. See b, Fig. 4.
Disqualification. — A defect that will debar a fowl from
competition.

Disqualified.— Condemned ; unfit for exhibition.
Double Comb.— A term formerly applied to all combs
except the single comb.

Double Lacing.— A double ring or penciling about the
outer edge of a feather. Fig. 10. See sup-
plementary lacing.

Double Mating. — A system of mating in
which males fit for exhibition are produced
from one pair of breeding fowls, and fe-
males fit for exhibition are produced from
another pair.

Down. — (1) The first downy covering of
young chicks. (2) The soft cottonlike part
of a feather below the web. See b, Fig. 12.
(3) A rnosslike growth between the toes.
FIG. 10 Drake.— A male duck.

Dubbing. — The cutting off of the comb, wattles, and
ear lobes of game fowls.

Duck. — A species of water fowl, including both sexes;
also, a female of the species, as distinguished from the
male.

Duckling.— A young duck.
Duck Foot. — See web foot.

Duck Footed.— A fowl is said to be duck footed when
the back toe is carried close to the other toes, instead
of being well spread out behind. Fig. 11.

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

265

FIG. 11

Ear Lobe. — The fleshy growth below the ear; this may
be red, white, or other color, according to the variety.
Same as deaf -ear. See 5, Fig. 1.

Eggs for Hatching. — Eggs that are
suitable for incubation.

Exhibition Fowls. — A fowl suitable
for exhibition in a show room.

Face. — On a fowl, the part of the
head about the eyes that is bare of
feathers.

Faking — A term equivalent in mean- <
ing to deceiving; it is in frequent use
by poultrymen. Faking consists in re-
moving or dyeing objectionable feathers, in coloring
shanks and feet, in removing side sprigs, or in the
use of other unfair means to win a prize in a show
room.

Fancier.— A breeder of poultry, pigeons, or pet stock.
Fancy.— A lax term for fanciers collectively.
Feather. — One of the appendages peculiar to and grow-
ing out of the skin of a fowl or a bird, collectively
forming the plumage. Fig. 12. A
feather is commonly composed of the
following principal parts: web a, in
which the barbs are stuck together,
forming a thin, smooth sheet; the
fluff, or down b, in which the barbs arc
not united; the shaft, quill, or barrel,
which is composed of a lower hollow
and tubular part c, and an upper part
d, which is filled with pith.

Feather Cell— The cell in the body
from which a feather grows.

Feather Legged. — Said of fowls that
have feathers growing on the sides of
the shanks and toes; booted. See 25, Fig. 1.

Fillers.— The small feathers that grow between the
main tail feathers.
Finish. — Gloss on plumage.

FIG. 12

2'S> GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

First-Cross Fowls.— Fowls resulting from the first cross-
ing of standard-bred males and females of different
breeds.

Flat Shin. — A flat part on the shank of a game fowl.

Flight Coverts. — Short feathers that grow at the base
of the flight feathers and partly cover them. See 38,
Fig. 1.

Flights, or Flight Feathers. — The primary feathers on
the wing of a fowl. See 37, Fig. 1.

Flow. — Said of feathers that hang loosely or sweep
ingly.

Fluff. — (1) The downy or lower part of a feather; see
b, Fig. 12. (2) The profuse soft feathering about the
thighs and abdomen. See 32, Fig. 1.

Fluffing.— The act of bending or breaking the shafts
and quills of the feathers in the fluff, cushion, and tail
feathering of Asiatic Bantam and other Asiatic fowls,
to build them out into unnatural size. This constitutes
faking.

Folded Comb. — A comb that falls over to one side and
folds back, forming a loop.

Foreign Color. — Any color found on a fowl that is not
characteristic of or standard for the variety to which
the fowl belongs.

Form. — As applied to fowls in the show room, form
refers to their condition and finish.

Foul Feathers. — Feathers that are marked with foreign
color.

Fowl. — A domestic cock, hen, cockerel, or pullet.

Foxy. — See rusty.

Frizzle Feathers.— Feathers that are crinkled or curled.

Frosting.— Irregular markings or lacing of a light
color. Similar markings of a dark color give the appear-
ance of mossiness.

Furnished. — A fowl is said to be furnished when it has
a complete growth of tail, hackle, and saddle plumage,
and a well-developed comb and other head points.

Furnishings. — Same as hangers.

Gaff. — A steel spur.

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 267

Gamy. — Like a game fowl; full of fight.

Gay. — A fowl is said to be gay when it has spangled,
splashed, or colored plumage with an excessive amount
of white on it.

Gills. — An improper name for the wattles.

Gloss.— The luster on the surface of feathers.

Gobbler. — A male turkey.

Gray. — A color produced by a mixture of black and
white; it is of different shades, according to the pro-
portions of black and white, as in the plumage of Dark
Brahmas and Silver-Gray Dorkings.

Ground Color. — In fowls, the main, or principal, color
in the plumage; for example, in a Buff Laced Polish
fowl, the buff is the ground color.

Gullet. — The opening through which food passes.

Gypsy Color.— Purple color, as found on the face of some
game fowls; also called mulberry color.

Hackle Feathers. — The long, flowing feathers that grow
on the neck of a fowl; more plentiful in males than in
females. See //, Fig. 1. See hackle.

Hangers. — An improper name for saddle feathers.

Hatch.— (1) To produce young from, that is, to cause
young to develop in and come forth from an egg by
either natural or artificial incubation. (2) A brood
hatched at one sitting or one incubation.

Hard Feathers.— Firm, close feathering, such as is found
on game fowls.

Hen. — A mature female domestic fowl.

Hen Feathered.— Said of a male fowl with a tail like
a hen, as in the males of Sebrights and some varieties
of game fowls.

Hen Tailed. — Same as hen feathered.

Henny.—A term applied to a male fowl, usually a game,
that has tail or other plumage resembling that of a
hen.

High-in-Back. — A term used in England to describe
hump or roach back.

Hock.— The joint between the thigh and the shank. See
J7, Fig. 1.

263

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

Hollowed Place in Comb. — A depression in the comb of
a fowl; same as a thumb mark. Fig. 24.
Hood.— Neck feathers that curve forwards over the head.
Horn Comb. — Same as antler comb and V-shaped comb.
Horseshoe Lacing. — Lacing forming a
orseshoe about the tip of a feather.
Fig. 13.

Hump Back. — A fowl with a hump back
is one that has a knob, lump, or prominence
on the back.

Hybrid. — The offspring from two birds of
different species; as from mating a gold-
finch with a canary, or a turkey with a
guinea.

Ideal. — Of a perfection that is seldom
FIG. 13 realized.

Inbred Fowl. — An offspring from closely related fowls.
Inbreeding. — Breeding, or following a course of breed-
ing, from nearly related fowls.
Incubate. — See hatch and sit.

Irregular Lacing. — Incomplete or imperfect lacing about
the edge of a feather.

Jaw. — In a fowl, the jaw is that part
of the head that supports the upper and
lower mandibles.

Keel.— (1) The lower edge of the
breastbone. (2) The loose flesh and
feathers hanging below the breast in
ducks and other poultry.

Knee Joint. — Same as hock joint. See
r/% Fig. 1.

Knob. — The protuberance on a goose
at the juncture of the head and the bill. FIG. 14

Knock Kneed. — A malformation of the legs of a fowl,
in which the hock joints come close together instead of
being well apart as they should be. Fig. 14.

Lacing. — The edging along the margin of a feather; it
is usually darker in color than the body of the feather.
Fig. 15.

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

269

FIG. 15

FIG. 16

Leader. — The spike, or heel, on a rose comb — the part
that extends to the rear. See a, Fig. 22.

Leaf Comb. — A comb consisting of two small sections,
each shaped like a leaf. Fig. 16.

Leggy. — A fowl is said to
be leggy when it has too
great length in legs.

Leg and Toe Feathering.
The feathering on both the
shanks and feet; booting.
See 25, Fig. 1.

Lesser Sickles. — The
smaller tail feathers next to
the full, flowing sickles. See
29, Fig. 1.

Line Breeding. — Breeding, or following a course of
breeding, from a limited number of original fowls. In
line breeding the fowls mated are not so closely related
as those mated in inbreeding. Line breeding is really
a modified form of inbreeding.

Loop.— A double fold in the comb, as in a Minorca
female.

Lopped Comb.— A comb that falls over on either side.
Same as comb over. Figs. 8 and 24.

Low Built.— Said of a fowl that is very short in the
legs and hence carries its. body close to the ground.
Lump Comb.— Same as strawberry comb.
Made Form.— The form that may be produced in a fowl
by training.

Main Tail Feathers.— The stiff feathers of the tail under
and between the sickles and coverts. See 31, Fig. 1.

Mandibles.— The horny upper and lower parts of the
beak or bill.

Marbled.— A term used to describe ticked or laced
feathers on the breast of Pyle Game cocks.

Markings.— Striping, lacing, barring, or marks of any
kind on the plumage.

Mazarine. — Deep-blue or purplish markings across a
black feather.

270

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

Mealy. — A term used to describe plumage that should
be one solid color but is covered with irregular dots of
mixed or faulty color.

Moon.— A rounded spot of color tipping the feathers
of fowls of some varieties.

Mossiness. — An effect produced by irregular dark mark-
ings. Fig. 17. See frosting.

Molt. — (1) To cast off or
shed the feathers of fowls.
(2) The act or process of
molting. (3) The season or
period of molting.

Mottled. — Marked with
spots or blotches of different
colors.

Mulberry Color.— See gypsy
color.

Muff, Muffle, Muffling. — A
growth of feathers on either
side of the head, usually seen on bearded fowls, and
very marked in Faverolles. See 6, Fig. 1.

Natural Form.— The natural appearance of a fowl with-
out training.
Non-Sitter.— A fowl that does not incubate eggs.

Novice. — A beginner; an inexperienced
person.

Open Barring. — Barring in which the bars
are wide apart. Fig. 18.

Open Lacing.— Narrow lacing about the
edge of a feather and forming a ring
around a spot of another color, giving the
feather the appearance of having a large
open center. Fig. 19.

Overhang.— A term used by poultrymen
to describe the overhanging skull as found
in Aseel Game, Malay Game, and Brahma

FIG. 17

FIG. 18

FIG. 19

fowls. Some pigeons, also, have the same kind of a
projection on the skull.

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 271

Overlap.— To lie partly over; said of the colors on
plumage when they meet on a ragged edge, giving the
appearance of one color overlapping another.

Parti-Colored.— Of several colors, like the Light Brahma
or Houdan.

Pea Comb.— A small, low comb divided lengthwise into
three parts, and having the appearance of three small
single combs placed side by side, as on
the Brahma and Aseel. Figs. 5 and 20.
Pearl Eyed. — See daw eyed.
Pen. — (1) An enclosure. (2) A fe-
male swan.

Penciling. — Narrow lines or markings.
The term penciling is applied to several
kinds of markings on poultry: (1) The
bars on the feathers of Penciled Ham-
burgs. (2) The concentric lines that follow the outline of
the feather in Dark Brahmas and Partridge Cochins. Fig.
21. (3) The fine gray markings on Rouen drakes. (4)
The stippling as found on Leghorns and Black-Breasted
Red Game females.

Pen Manners. — The behavior of fowls in
pens in the show room.

Pen of Fowls. — In the show room, a pen
of one male and four females.

Peppered. — Plumage is said to be pep-
pered when it is dotted with spots.

Pile. — The spelling used in England for
Pyle.

Pinion. — (1) The outermost section of
the wing of a bird, bearing the pinion
feathers. (2) To cut off the outer part of a bird's wing
that bears a considerable proportion of the feathers used
in flying, in order to prevent flying.

Pit. — An enclosed space in which fowls are pitted
against each other; hence, a fighting place for fowls.
Plumage. — The feathers and down.

Point. — One of the tapering, sharp-ended serrations of
the upper part of a single comb. See a, Fig. 25.

272 GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

Poulard.— A female fowl, usually a pullet, in which the
egg-producing organs have been destroyed.

Poult.— A young turkey.

Poultry. — All domestic fowls.

Prepotency. — The superiority of one parent over the
other in transmitting characters to the offspring; that
is, in stamping its individuality on the offspring.

Primaries.— The flight feathers. See 37, Fig. 1.

Producer.— A fowl that produces offspring better than
itself.

Pullet.— A female fowl less than a year old. Show-
room practice allows a fowl to be exhibited as a pullet
during the entire show season that follows the hatching.

Pullet Bred. — Bred in line from a mating made ex-
pressly for producing pullets for exhibition. Both males
and females from such matings are called pullet bred.
Compare with cockerel bred.

Pure Bred. — Fowls that have no alien blood in them
are said to be pure bred.

Purply.—The effect produced by purple bars across a
black feather.

Quill.— See feather, and c. Fig. 12.

Quill Bound.— A condition in which the feather is
retained in its sheath, instead of the sheath cracking
and falling off.

Racy. — A fowl that is slender, trim, active, alert, or
tight feathered is said to be racy.

Reachy.— Said of fowls that have an upright carriage
and are tall, such as game fowls.

Ribbon. — The bright-blue band across the wings of
Rouen and other ducks.

Roach Back.— A back with a hump; same as hump
back. .

Rocker Comb.— A term formerly applied to the Wyan-
dotte comb; same as cradle comb.

Rooster. — Common name for a cock or a cockerel.

Rose Comb. — A broad, level comb, wide in front, taper-
ing to a spike, or point, in the rear, and covered on

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

273

the top with small projections, or points, as in Hamburgs
and Rose-Comb Bantams. Fig. 22. At
a is shown the spike.

Rosy Wings. — Wings of Pyle females,
which are marked with salmon color;
wings of the same color were formerly
called foxy colored.

Ruff. — Same as muff.

Rusty Color. — The reddish-brown
shadings on the outside of the wings ^IG. 22

of Black-Breasted Red Game and Brown Leghorn fe-
males. In England, the same shading is called foxy.

Saddle.— That portion of the back of a male fowl
between the middle of the back and the base of the tail.

Saddle Feathers. — The flowing feathers growing from the
saddle of a fowl.

Saddle Hackles.— The long, flowing feathers that grow
from the saddle of a male and hang down on both sides
of the body; also called saddle hangers and saddle
feathers. See 27, Fig. 1.

Salmon.— A reddish or pinkish orange color, like that
found on the breast of Red Pyle Game females and
Brown Leghorn females.

Scales.— Thin, horny growths covering the shanks and
feet.

Scaly Leg.— A diseased condition of the shanks and
feet, caused by the scaly-leg mite.

Secondaries. — The long quill feathers of the wings that
grow on the second joint or next to and above the
primaries. See 36, Fig. 1.

Section.— A distinctly defined part of a standard-bred
fowl.

Self-Color. — A uniform color.

Serrated. — Notched along the edge like a saw.

Serration.— One of the points of a single comb. See
a, Fig. 25.

Shaft.— See feather, and d, Fig. 12.

Shafty. — A term describing a dark-colored feather with
a light shaft. Fig. 23.

274

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

Shank. — That part of the leg between the toes and the
hock joint. See 18, Fig. 1.

Shank Feathers. — Feathers growing on
the outside edge of the shank. See ^5,
Fig. 1.

Shank Line. — A line that would be
formed by drawing a straight line along the
rear edge of the shank upwards through the
body of a fowl.

Sheath. — The covering over a new
feather; it splits and falls off as the feather
develops.

Sheen. — The glistening brightness, or
gloss, on plumage.

Shoulder. — The front or upper part of the wing; it is
round or bow shaped and is hidden in fowls of some
breeds by the breast plumage and hackle; in game fowls
it stands out prominently. See 34, Fig. 1.
Shoulder Butt. — Same as shoulder.

Show-Room Form. — The form that a fowl has in the
show room.

Sickles. — The top pair of curved
feathers in the tail of male fowls. One
or two pairs similar to these, but below
them, are called the lesser sickles. See
28 and 29, Fig. 1.
Side Spike. — Same as side sprig.
Side Sprig. — An extra point, or
growth, at the side or near the end of
a single comb. Fig. 24. WHWf,

• Silvery. — A term applied to the ap-
pearance of the shoulders of barred
fowls that are deficient in barring
and that have light, or silvery mark-
ings on these parts instead of the customary barring.
Single Color. — Same as whole color.

Single Comb.— A. thin, serrated, fleshy growth on the
top of the head of a fowl, as in Plymouth Rocks and

FIG. 24

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

275

Leghorns. Fig. 25. At a is one of the serrations, or
points; at b, the blade.

Single Mating.— A mating from which both males and
females fit for exhibition are produced
from a single pair of breeding fowls.-
See double mating.

Sit. — To cover eggs for hatching; |
incubate.

Sitters. — Fowls that sit on and incu- 1
bate eggs. The sitting proclivities are
stronger in some breeds than in others.
Fowls in which the sitting proclivities
are weak are said to be non-sitters.

Sitting. — The act of sitting to incu- FlG- 25

bate eggs; also, the number of eggs for a sitting, usually
from 11 to 15. See clutch.

Slipped Wing. — A wing in which the
light, or secondary, wing feathers hang
loose or out of place. Fig. 26.

Smooth Legs. — Legs that have no
feathers, stubs, or down on the shanks.
Smut. — A term applied to dark color
overlying any section of a fowl.
FIG. 26 Solid Color. — Of one uniform color

throughout; self-color.

Spangle. — A dark marking at the point,
or tip, of a feather. Fig. 27.

Spike. — The rear point on a rose comb;
also sometimes called a leader. See a,
Fig. 22.

Splashed Feathers. — Feathers in which
there is an uneven mixture of color.

Split Crest. — A rounded crest that is
split and falls over on both sides.

Sport. — A fowl that varies from the
normal type; a white offspring from black
parents.

FIG. 27

Spur.— A horny growth on the inside of the shank of
a cock. See <?j, Fig. 1.

276

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

FIG. 28

Squirrel Tail. — A tail in which the feathers are car-
ried so far forward as almost to touch the head, like the
tail of a squirrel. Fig. 28.

Stag. — A young game cock; also,
a turkey cock.

Standard Mating. — A mating in
which the fowls conform to Stand-
ard description; sometimes called
single mating when the purpose is
the production of both males and
females.

Station. — Manner of standing; at-
titude, or pose of a fowl. A fowl
is said to have good station when
it has a form typical of the breed
to which it belongs, has good symmetry, and the proper
height and reach. Station is a term applied more
especially to game fowls. Compare with carriage.

Steppings. — A term used in England to describe the
effect produced by the ends of the secondary feathers,
each one of which is shorter than the one immediately
below it, giving the appearance of a flight of steps.

Stippling. — The effect produced on plumage by dots
of dark and of light shades of color, as in Brown Leg-
horn females. Fig. 29.

Strain.— Fowls of one variety that have been bred in
line for a number of generations from a
few original fowls.

Strawberry C o m'b. — A
lump comb, somewhat re-
sembling a strawberry in
shape, as in Malays and
Silkies. Fig. 30.

Striping. — Markings of
dark color that extend
down the middle of a
FIG. 29 feather and taper to a
point near the tip of the feather, as in Light Brahmas,
Brown Leghorns, and some other fowls. Fig. 31.

FIG. 30

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

277

Stub. — A short piece of the quill of a feather; especially,
a short piece of the quill of a feather occasionally
found on the shanks of smooth-legged
fowls.

Style. — A fowl is said to have style when
it presents a fine, spirited appearance, and
has good symmetry, station, and carriage.

Supplementary Lacing. — An outside edg-
ing or lacing of a different shade or tint
than the color next to it, that is found on
both laced and solid feathers. When it
occurs on laced feathers, as in edging of
white around the outside of black lacing,
it is the same as double lacing. Fig. 10.

Surface Color. — The color on the parts
ot the leathers exposed to view.

Sword Feather. — A main tail feather of 1
fe Japanese Bantam male.

Symmetry. — The blending of all sections
or parts of a fowl into a harmonious whole.

Tail Coverts. — The curved, soft leathers
about the sides of the lower part of the
tail feathers. See 30, Fig. 1.

Tail Feathers.— The stiff, or main, feathers of the tail.
See 31, Fig. 1.

Team. — Three or more fowls shown by one exhibitor.

Thigh.— The upper segment of the leg; it is included
between the body of the fowl and the upper extremity
of what is known as the drumstick.

Thoroughbred.— (1) Of the best 01 the purest breeding;
in this sense, now generally replaced by the term
standard bred. (2) A term descriptive of game cocks of
high courage and spirits.

Throat.— Same as gullet.

Fhumb Mark. — (1) A hollow place in the side of a
single comb. Fig. 24. (2) An opening or split in the
front or center of a rose comb.

Ticked.— Plumage is ticked when it has spots of color
different from the rest of the plumagt.

FIG. 31

278 GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

Tight Feathered. — Fowls are said to be tight feathered
when the feathers lie close to the body; close feathered.
Tom.— A male turkey; a gobbler.

Top Color.— The color of the plumage on the back.
Topknot. — A tufted growth of feathers on the top of
the head of a fowl; a crest. Figs. 9 and 16.

Training. — The teaching or drilling of a fowl to pose
in the show room.
Tricolored.—Ol three colors.

Trimming. — A fraudulent way of preparing a fowl for
the show room. See faking.

Trio. — Three; in poultry, a male and two females.
Trunk. — The body of a fowl, as distinguished from its
appendages, the legs, neck, head, etc.

Tucked Up. — A fowl is said to be tucked up when the
abdomen lacks fulness and makes a sharp upward turn
to the tail, as in game fowls.

Twisted Comb.— A comb twisted into curves or some
other faulty shape. Fig. 32.

Type.— The form peculiar to any
breed.

Under Plumage. — The fluff or under
part of the plumage, seen only when
the feathers are separated. See feather,
and b, Fig. 12.

Utility Fowl. — A fowl for egg pro-
duction and market purposes, as dis-
tinguished from an exhibition fowl.
FIG. 32 Variety. — A subdivision of a breed;

distinguished from other varieties of the same breed by
the plumage colors. See breed.

V -Shaped Comb. — A comb naving two points or prongs;
also called antler comb, and Horn comb. Fig. 2.

Vulture Hock. — A nock like that of a vulture, which has
stiff leathers growing from the hock joint. See 16, Fig. 1.
Washiness.— A state or quality of a feather that ap-
pears to have had the color washed out of it.

Waster.— A fowl unfit for breeding purposes, but fit
for food.

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 279

Wattles.— Pendant growths of flesh that hang on each
side of the beak; most prominently developed in male
fowls.

Web.— (1) The upper part of a feather where the barbs
are stuck together; the flat, thin feather structure beyond
the fluff part of the feather. See feather and a, Fig. 12.
(2) The skin growing between the toes. (3) The skin
between the joints of the wing.

Web Foot. — A foot with webs between the toes. When
a fowl other than a water fowl has a foot with webs
between the toes, it is said to have a web foot.

Wheaten.— An uneven brown like that on ripe standing
wheat; peculiar to some females of the Black-Breasted
Red Games and the Faverolles.

Whip Tail.— The fine, slim tail of the modern game or
game bantam fowl.

Whiskers.— Feathers growing from the side of the face;
same as muff. Sometimes applied to the muffling below
the beak. See d, Fig. 1.

Whole Color.— A fowl is said to be of a whole color
when all of its plumage is of one color, as buff or
black, but this does not mean that all the plumage must
be of one shade of the color.

Willow Color. — A greenish yellow color peculiar to
the shanks of some game fowls.

Wing Bar.— A bar of dark color across the middle of
a wing. See 55, Fig. 1.

Wing Bay. — A triangular surface
showing on the wing where it is folded;
located between the wing bar and the
point of the wing. See 36, Fig. 1.

Wing Bow. — The surface of the wing
between the wing bar and the shoulder.
See 33, Fig. 1.

Wing Butts.— The ends of the flight
feathers; a misnomer for wing points.

Wing Coverts.— The feathers that FlG- 33

cover the roots of the secondary flight feathers.

280 PIGEONS

Wing Fronts. — The fronts of the wings, properly called
shoulders; improperly called wing butts.

Wing Points. — The extreme outer ends of the flight
feathers.

Work, Full of Work. — A term used in England to de-
scribe a well-finished rose comb, the points of which are
perfect or nearly perfect.

Wry Tail. — A tail carried to one side. Fig. 33.

PIGEONS

VARIETIES

There are almost innumerable breeds and varieties ot
pigeons. The names of the most common are given in
the following list:

Archangels.

Barbs.— Black, White, Red, Yellow, Dun.

Berlin Tumblers. — Red, Yellow, Blue, Black.

Blondinettes. — Spangled or Laced, Brown or Laced,
Black or Laced, Blue or Laced, Sulphur or Laced.

Breasters. — Black, Yellow, Red, Blue.

Brunettes.

Brunswicks.

Burmese, or Leghorn Runts.

Capuchins.

Carneau. — Red, Yellow, Rose-Wing Red, miscellaneous
colors.

Carriers. — Black, Dun, Blue, White.

Cit mulets.

Damascenes.

Dragoons. — Blue, Silver (brown bars), Silver (black
bars), Red, Yellow, White.

Egyptian Swifts. — Blue, Black, White, Red, Yellow,
Speckled, Mottled.

PIGEONS 281

Exhibition Homers. — Black, Blue, Checkered, White,
Yellow, Red, Red or Red Checkered, Silver or Silver
Dun.

Fairies. — Red, Black, Yellow, Blue.

Fantails.— Blue, Silver, Black, White, Yellow, Red, Sad-
dle Backs, Silkies, Frizzled.

Fire Pigeons.

Flying Antwerp*. — Dun, Blue, Blue Checker, Red
Checker.

Flying Tumblers, or Rollers. — Black, Red, Blue, Silver,
Yellow, Black Rosewing, Red Rosewing, Yellow Rose-
wing, Black Mottle, Red Mottle, Yellow Mottle, Red
Breasted (white sides), Black ' Breasted (white sides),
Blue Breasted (white sides), Yellow Breasted (white
sides), Black Saddle, Red Saddle, Yellow Saddle, Blue
Saddle, Silver Saddle, Black Badge, Red Badge, Yellow
Badge, Blue Badge, Silver Badge, Checkered Badge,
Bronze, White.

Frillbacks.

Helmets. — Red, Yellow, Black.

Highflyer. — Plain Head or Crested, Dun, Red, Yellow,
miscellaneous colors.

Hollander.— Plain Head, Red, Yellow, Crested Head,
Yellow.

Hungarian. — Many colors.

Hyacinths.

Isabels.

Jacobins. — Red, Yellow, Black, Blue, White, Mottled.

Lahores.

Late.

Magpies. — Blue, Black, Red, Yellow.

Maltese.— Black, Blue, Silver, White, Red, Yellow,
mixed colors.

Moreheads.

Nuns.— Black, Red, Yellow.

Oriental Frills. — Same colors as Satinettes.

Owls. — African, Blue, Black-White, Silver, Checkered,
White (blue tail), White (black tail), English, Blue, Blue
Powdered, Silver, Black, White, Red, Yellow, Checkered.

282 PIGEONS

Pigmy Pouters. — Red, Yellow, Black, Blue, Lavender,
Silver, Mealy, Creamy, Checkered, White, Red (white
bars), Yellow (white bars), Black (pied), Black (white
bars), Blue (pied), Blue (black bars).

Plain Ice. — Blue, Silver, Powdered Silver.

Porcelains.

Pouters. — Black Pied, Blue Pied, Red Pied, Yellow
Pied, White.

Priests. — Red, Yellow, Black, Blue.

Quakers.

Ruified Neck Moreheads.

Runts.— Blue, Silver, Black, White, Pied.

Satinettes. — Peaked, Plain Head.

Scandaroons. — Red, Yellow, Black, Blue, White, Red
Saddled, Yellow Saddled, Black Saddled, Blue Saddled.

Shields.

Short-Faced Tumblers. — Almonds; Agates, Red Yellow;
Mottles, Black; Rosewings, Black, Red; Splashes; Whole-
feathers, Red, Yellow; Kites; Blues, Balds, Blue, Silver,
Red, Black, Yellow; Beards, Blue, Silver, Red, Black,
Yellow.

Show Antwerps. — Silver Dun, Blue, Blue Checker, Red
Checker.

Snells.

Spot Fairies.

Spots. — Black, Blue, Red, Yellow.

Starlings.

Suabians.

Swallows. — Red, Yellow, Blue, Black, Checkered.

Swiss, or Crescents. — Clear Legged, Booted, Long
Muffled.

Swiss Mandaine. — Many colors.

Tippler. — Solid and mixed colors.

Trumpeters. — Black, Black Rosewing, Black Mottle, Red
Mottle, White.

Turbiteens. — 'Plain Head, Point Crest or Shell Crown;
Red, Yellow, Black, Blue, Silver.

PIGEONS 283

Turbits. — Yellow, Red, Blue, Silver, Black, Checkered,
Creamy, White Bars.
Ural Ice. — Light, Dark.
Victorias.
Whiskered Owls.
White King.

TERMS USED BY PIGEON FANCIERS

The following is a glossary of the terms in common use
by pigeon fanciers:

Arrow Pointed. — In the form of an arrow. Example,
the penciling or lacing of a Blondinette.

Bald or Baldhead. — The white head of a colored pigeon.
Example, the Bald Tumbler.

Barrel-Headed. — An elongated skull, free from angles.
Example, the Show Homer.

Bar (tail). — The colored band at extremity o* tail.

Bars (wing). — The bands of black or other colors across
the lower part of the wing. Example, the Blue Dragoon.

Beard. — A clearly denned V-shaped patch of white
feathers on the throat,, directly under the lower mandible.
Example, the Long-Faced Beard Tumbler.

Beetle Brow. — Overhanging eye wattles, as seen in soft-
eyed Carriers.

Bib. — The colored feathering running in clearly denned
outline below the head, along the throat and upper part
of the breast. Example, the Nun.

Bishopped. — Having a patch of white feathers at the
butt end of the wing.

Blaze. — A white mark on a colored pigeon (generally
on the forehead). Example, the Blaze-Face.

Bolting Eye. — An eye that is prominent, wild looking,
and staring. Example, a young carrier.

Box Beak. — A beak both mandibles of which are uni-
form in strength and shape and close fitting. Example,
the Carrier.

284 PIGEONS

Broken (in feather). — An indiscriminate mixture of
variously colored feathers. Example, the Almond
Tumbler.

Broken (in eye). — An erratic coloring of the iris.

Bull Eye. — An eye, the iris of which, as well as the
pupil, is very dark in color. Example, the White
Dragoon.

Cap. — A colored covering at the top of the head above
the eye. Example, the Swallow.

Carriage. — The natural position of a pigeon.

Cere. — The skin-like substance around the eye. Exam-
ple, the Dragoon.

Chain. — An inverted growth of feathering on each side
of the neck. Example, the Jacobin.

Checker. — Two distinct shades of one color. Example,
the Checkered Dragoon.

Chuck. — The V-shaped patch of white under the lower
mandible. Example, the Beard Tumbler.

Clean-Leg. — Free from feathering below the hock.

Clean-Cut. — Evenly defined.

Condition. — Robust health and perfection of plumage.

Crescent. — A half-moon shaped mark on the breast.
Example, the Suabian.

Crest. — An inverted growth of feathers at the back of
the head. Example, the Turbit.

Crop. — The craw, or first stomach.

Down-Faced. — Downward contortion of the beak.

Dewlap.— (See Gullet.)

Eye Wattles. — The fleshy excrescence around the eye
(chiefly applied to Carriers and Barbs).

Feather-Legged. — Feathered below the hocks. Example,
the Blondinette.

Flights (outer or primary). — The first ten feathers of
each wing.

Flights (inner or secondary). — The remaining long
feathers of the wing.

Foul-Thighed. — Colored feathers on white thighs.

PIGEONS 285

Frill. — A fringe of feathers on the breast, growing in
inverted position from the throat downwards. Example,
the Turbit.

Frog-Shaped. — Depressed in crown, but free from angles
and not flat.

Gay. — Showing too much white (as applied to the crop
markings of a Pouter and the shoulder markings of a
Mottled Tumbler).

Girth. — The waist of the Pouter.

Gullet. — An abnormal development of loose skin ex-
tending from the lower mandible to the top of the neck.
Example, the Owl.

Hackle. — The lower feathers at the back of the neck.

Handkerchief Markings. — A triangular shaped patch of
white feathers on the back of a colored pigeon. Example,
the Mottled Tumbler.

Hood. — The upper covering of the head. Example, the
Jacobin.

Jew Wattle. — The wattle on the lower mandible.

Keel. — The lower part of the breast.

Lacing or Penciling. — Clearly defined markings, around
the outer edge of a feather. Example, the Blondinette.

Limb. — The leg and thigh (as applied to the Pouter).

Mandible. — A portion of the beak.

Mane. — The ridge of feathers at the back of the neck.
Example, the Jacobin.

Mealy. — Undecided color, generally applied to Silver-
Dun Antwerps and Homers.

Muffed. — Having a covering of feathers on the hocks,
legs, and feet. Example, the Trumpeter.

Peak. — Pointed feathers at the back of the head. Exam-
ple, the Turbit.

Pinch-Eyed. — Irregularity of outline as applied to the
eye cere or eye wattle. Example, the Dragoon.

Profile.— The side face.

Rose (breast). — The rose-like feathering on the breast
of the Owl.

286 PIGEONS

Rose (feather). — The shoulder markings of the Pouter.
Mottled Trumpeter, and Tumbler; the same term is also
applied to the radiating point of the hood, mane, and
chain of the Jacobin.

Rose (head). — The feathering on the frontal of the
Trumpeter.

Rosette. — Feathering on the breast, in the form of
rose. Example, the Owl.

Saddle. — The upper portion of the back.

Self-Colored. — One color only.

Shell. — The shell-shaped growth of feathers at the back
of the head. Example, the Swallow.

Shod (as applied to the Fantail). — Deflecture of the
lower feathers of the tail.

Skull. — The upper portion of the head.

Slobbered (as applied to the cut of a Baldhead Tumbler).
Indistinct and uneven.

Snakey. — Serpentine in shape. Example, the head and
neck of the Magpie.

Snip. — A clearly defined elongated spot of white, gener-
ally on the forehead. Example, the Snip (German Toy).

Solid Color.— (See Self-Colored).

Spangled. — A "broken" arrangement of feathering.

Spindle-Beaked. — Having a beak that is long and thin.

Splash. — An indiscriminate mixture of several colors.
Example, the Splash Short-Faced Tumbler.

Spot. — A colored mark on a white pigeon, generally on
the frontal or forehead.

Squab. — A very young pigeon, pinfeathered.

Squeaker. — A (feathered) young pigeon, just learning
to feed.

Stockings. — The feathering on the thighs and legs.
Example, the Pouter.

Stop. — An abrupt termination of the skull at the base
of the beak. Example, the Short-Faced Tumbler.

Tuft. — An inverted growth of feathers behind the wat-
tle. Example, the Priest.

ARITHMETIC 287

Toys. — Varieties of which color and markings are the
chief properties.

Vent. — The passage from the body.

Veil. — Applied to the head markings of the Nun.

Wattle (beak). — The fleshy excrescence on the beak.

Whiskers. — The feathers between the root of the beak
and the base of the eye.

Whole Feather. — A self-colored pigeon.

ARITHMETIC

MEASURES OF EXTENSION

Measures of extension are used in measuring lengths (dis-
tances), surfaces (areas), and solids (volumes), and are
divided, accordingly, into linear measure, square measure, and
cubic measure.

Linear measure has one dimension (length), square measure
has two dimensions (length and breadth), and cubic measure
has three dimensions (length, breadth, and thickness).

LINEAR MEASURE

12 inches (in.) =1 foot ft.

3 feet =1 yard yd.

5£ yards - 1 rod rd.

320 rods =1 mile ml.

in. ft. yd. rd. mi.

12 = 1

36= 3

1

198= 16^

\= 5|= i

63,360 = 5,280

= 1,760 =320=1

SQUARE

MEASURE

144 square inches (sq. in.)

, . . = 1 square foot. . . .

.. sq. ft.

9 square feet

. . . = 1 square yard . . .

. . sq. yd.

301 square yards

. . . = 1 square rod

. . sq. rd.

160 square rods.. .

. . . = 1 acre

.. A.

640 acres. . .

. . = 1 square mile. . .

. . so. mi.

288 ARITHMETIC

sq. in. sq. ft. sq. yd. sq. rd. A. JJJ"

TO*.

144= 1

1,296= 9 = 1

39,204= 272^= 30|= 1

6,272,640= 43,560 = 4,840 = 160= 1
4,014,489,600 = 27,878,400 =3,097,600 =102,400 = 640=1

SURVEYORS' SQUARE MEASURE

625 square links (sq. li.) =1 square rod . . sq. rd.

16 square rods = 1 square chain . sq. ch.

10 square chains. =1 acre A.

640 acres =1 square mile . . sq. mi.

36 square miles (6 miles square) . . . = 1 township Tp.

A square measuring 208.71 ft. on each side contains 1 A.
The following are the comparative sizes, in square yards,
of acres in different places:

sq. yd.
England and America 4,840

Scotland 6,150

Ireland 7,840

Hamburg 11,545

sq. yd.

Amsterdam 9,722

Dantzic 6,650

France 11,960

Prussia 3,053

CUBIC MEASURE

1,728 cubic inches (cu. in) =1 cubic foot cu. ft.

27 cubic feet =1 cubic yard cu. yd.

128 cubic feet =1 cord of wood.

cu. in. at. ft. cu. yd.

1,728 = 1
46,656 = 27 = 1

MEASURES OF WEIGHT

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT

16 ounces (oz.) =1 pound Ib.

100 pounds =1 hundredweight .... cwt.

20 hundredweight \ „,

2,000 pounds / =

021. Ib. cwt. T.
16= 1
1,600= 100= 1
32,000 = 2,000 = 20 = 1

ARITHMETIC 289

LONG-TON TABLE

16 ounces (oz.) = 1 pound. Ib.

28 pounds =1 quarter qr.

4 quarters =1 hundredweight .... cwt.

20 hundredweight! • n>

2,240 pounds / =lt°n T'

oz. Ib. qr. cwt. 3T.

16= 1
448= 28= 1
1,792= 112= 4= 1
35,840 = 2,240 = 80 = 20 = 1

TROY WEIGHT

24 grains (gr.) =1 pennyweight pwt.

20 pennyweights =1 ounce oz.

12 ounces = 1 pound Ib.

gr. pwt. oz. Ib.
24= 1
480= 20= 1
5,760 = 240=12 = 1

APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT

20 grains (gr.) =1 scruple sc. or 9

3 scruples =1 dram dr. or 5

8 drams =1 ounce oz. or %

12 ounces =1 pound Ib. or Ib.

gr. 9 5 S Ib
20= 1
60= 3= 1
480= 24= 8= 1
5,760 = 288 = 96 = 12 = 1

MEASURES OF CAPACITY

LIQUID MEASURE

4 gills (gi.) =1 pint pt.

2 pints =1 quart qt.

4 quarts =1 gallon gal.

3U gallons =1 barrel bbl.

2 barrels "I

63 gallons) -1 hogshead hhd.

290 ARITHMETIC

gi. pt. qt. gal. bbl. hhd.
4 = 1
8= 2 = 1
32= 8= 4 = 1
1,008 = 252 = 126 = 3H = 1
2,016 = 504 = 252 = 63 =2 = 1

APOTHECARIES' FLUID MEASURE

60 minims, or drops (Vl\) . . . . = 1 fluid dram ........... £5

8 fluid drams .............. =1 fluid ounce .......... fS

16 fluid ounces ............. =1 pint ................ O.

.8 pints ................... =1 gallon ............... Cong.

DRY MEASURE

2 pints (pt.) ................ =1 quart

8 quarts ................... =1 peck

4 pecks .................... =1 bushel

pt. qt. pk. bu.
2= 1
16= 8=1
64 = 32 = 4 = 1

AVOIRDUPOIS POUNDS IN A BUSHEL

Commodities

Lb.

Commodities

Lb.

Barley

48

Malt

34

Beans

60

Oats

32

Buckwheat

48

Potatoes

60

Clover seed

60

Rye

56

Corn (shelled)

56

Timothy seed

45

Corn (in the ear)

70

Wheat

60

The follov/ing units are also in commercial use:

1 quintal of fish =100 Ib.

1 barrel of flour =196 Ib.

1 barrel of pork or beef =200 Ib.

1 gallon of petroleum » 6f Ib.

1 keg of nails = 100 Ib.

ARITHMETIC

291

MEASURES OF TIME

60 seconds (sec.) = 1 minute min.

60 minutes =1 hour hr.

24 hours =1 day da.

7 days =1 week wk.

4 weeks =1 month mo.

12 months =1 year yr.

100 years =1 century

sec. min. hr. da wk. yr.

60= 1

3,600= 60= 1
86,400= 1,440= 24= 1
604,800= 10,080= 168= 7 =

C.

31,556,936 = 525,948 = 8,765 = 365 =

1
52 =

The following is a list of the months, in regular order,
with the number of days each contains:

Days

1. January (Jan.) 31

2. February (Feb) 28

3. March (Mar.) 31

4. April (Apr.) 30

5. May 31

6. June 30

Days

7. July 31

8. August (Aug.) 31

9. September (Sept.).. 30

10. October (Oct.) 31

11. November (Nov.) ..30

12. December (Dec.) ...31

In leap years, 1 da. is added to Feb., giving it
29 da. The following lines will assist in remembering
the number of days in each month:

"Thirty days have September,
April, June, and November;
All the rest have thirty-one,
Except the second month alone,
To which we twenty-eight assign,
'Till leap year gives it twenty-nine."
In many business transactions, the year is regarded as
360 da., or 12 mo. of 30 da. each.

292 ARITHMETIC

MEASURES OF ANGLES OR ARCS

CIRCULAR MEASURE

60 seconds (*) =1 minute '

60 minutes . = 1 degree °

360 degrees =1 circle O

60"= 1'

3, 600"= 60'= 1°
1,296,000" = 21 ,600' = 360° =1Q

A quadrant is one-fourth of a circle, or 90°; a sextant is
one-sixth of a circle, or 60°. A right angle (L) contains 90°.
The unit of measurement is the degree, or 3|5 of the circum-
ference of a circle.

Circular, or angular, measure is used principally by surveyors,
navigators, astronomers, and by technical men generally, for
measuring angles and arcs of circles.

METRIC SYSTEM OF MEASURES

The metric system is based on the meter, which, according
to the U, S. Coast and Goedetic Survey Report of 1884, is
equal to 39.370432 in. The value commonly used is 39.37 in.
and is authorized by the U. S. government.

There are three principal units — the meter, the liter (pro-
nounced 'lee-ter'), and the gram, the units of length, capacity,
and weight, respectively. Multiples of these units are obtained
by prefixing to the names of the principal units the Greek words
deca (10), hecto (100), and kilo (1,000); the submultiples, or
divisions, are obtained by prefixing the Latin words deci Cnj),
centi (T&IT), and milt ( TsVo). These prefixes form the key to the
entire system. The abbreviations of the principal units of
these submultiples begin with a small letter, while those of the
multiples begin with a capital letter.

ARITHMETIC 293

MEASURES OF LENGTH

10 millimeters (mm.) =1 centimeter cm.

10 centimeters =1 decimeter dm.

10 decimeters =1 meter m.

10 meters =1 decameter Dm.

10 decameters =1 hectometer Hm.

10 hectometers =1 kilometer Km.

MEASURES OF SURFACE (NOT LAND)

100 square millimeters

(sq. mm.) =1 square centimeter . . .sq. cm.

100 square centimeters =1 square decimeter sq. dm.

100 square decimeters =1 square meter sq. m.

MEASURES OF VOLUME

1,000 cubic millimeters

(cu. mm.) =1 cubic centimeter .... cu. cm.

1,000 cubic centimeters =1 cubic decimeter cu. dm.

1,000 cubic decimeters =1 cubic meter cu. m.

MEASURES OF CAPACITY

10 millimeters (ml.) =1 centileter cl.

10 centileters =1 decileter dl.

10 decileters =1 liter 1.

10 liters =1 decaliter DL

10 decaliters =1 hectoliter HI.

10 hectoliters =1 kiloliter Kl.

The liter is equal to the volume occupied by 1 cu. dm.

MEASURES OF WEIGHT

10 milligrams (mg.) =1 centigram eg.

10 centigrams =1 decigram dg.

10 decigrams =1 gram g.

10 grams =1 decagram Dg.

10 decagrams =1 hectogram Hg.

10 hectograms =1 kilogram Kg.

1,000 kilograms = 1 ton T.

The gram is the weight of 1 cu. cm. of pure distilled water
at a temperature of 39.2° P.; the kilogram is the weight of 1
liter of water; the ton is the weight of 1 cu. m. of water.

294 ARITHMETIC

MEASURES OF MONEY

UNITED STATES MONEY

10 mills (m.) =1 cent c.

10 cents =1 dime d.

10 dimes = 1 dollar $

10 dollars =1 eagle E.

m. ct. d. $ E.
10= 1
100= 10= 1
1,000= 100= 10= 1
10,000 = 1 ,000 = 100 = 10 = 1

The term legal tender is applied to money that may be
legally offered in payment of debts. All gold coins are
legal tender for their face value to any amount, pro-
vided their weight has not diminished more than ^^
Silver dollars are also legal tender to any amount; but
silver coins of lower denominations than $1 are legal
tender only for sums not exceeding $10. Nickel and
copper coins are legal tender for sums not exceeding
25c.
The legal coins of the United States are:

GOLD COINS Weight in Grains

1-dollar piece = 25.8

2|-dollar piece, or quarter eagle = 64.5

3-dollar piece = 77.4

5-dollar piece, or half eagle = 129.0

10-dollar piece, or eagle =258.0

20-dollar piece, or double eagle =516.0

SILVER COINS Weight

Standard dollar =412.5 grains

Half dollar, or 50-cent piece = 192.9 grains, or 12 £ grams

Quarter dollar, or 25-cent piece ..= 96.45 grains, or 6 i grams
Dime, or 10-cent piece = 38.58 grains, or 2| grams

COPPER AND NICKEL COINS

Weight

5-cent piece =77.16 grains, or 5 grams

3-cent piece = 30.00 grains

1-cent piece. =48.00 grains

ARITHMETIC 295

ENGLISH MONEY

4 farthings (far.) =1 penny d.

12 pence =1 shilling s.

20 shillings =1 pound, or sovereign £

far. d. s. £

4 = 1
48= 12= 1
960 = 240 = 20 = 1

The unit of English money is the pound sterling, the value
of which in United States money is $4.8665. The fineness of
English silver is .925; of the gold coins, .916|. What is called
sterling silver when applied to solid-silver articles has the
same fineness. Hence the name sterling silver.

The other coins of Great Britain are the florin ( = 2 shillings),
the crown ( = 5 shillings), the half crown ( = 2| shillings), and
the guinea ( = 21 shillings). The largest silver coin is the crown,
and the smallest the threepence (£ shilling). The shilling is
worth 25c. (24.3 +c.) in United States money. The guinea
is no longer coined. The abbreviation £ is written before
the number, while s. and d. follow. Thus, £25 4s. 6d.
= 25 pounds 4 shillings 6 pence.

Rule. — To reduce pounds, shillings, and pence to dollars and
cents, reduce the pounds to shillings, add the shillings, if any,
and multiply the sum by &4\; if any pence are given, increase
this product by twice as many cents as there are pence.

EXAMPLE. — Reduce £4 7s. lid. to dollars and cents.

SOLUTION.— (4X20+7)X.24i+2X 11 = $2 1.39.

Rule. — To reduce pounds to dollars, and vice versa, exchange
being at $4.8665: Multiply the number of pounds by 73, and
divide the quotient by 15; the result will be the equivalent in dollars
and cents. Or, multiplying the dollars by 15 and dividing the
product by 73 will give its equivalent in pounds and decimals
of a pound.

EXAMPLE 1.— Reduce £6 to dollars and cents.

SOLUTION.— 6 X 73 -M 5 = $29.20.

EXAMPLE 2. — Reduce $17 to pounds.

SOLUTION.— 17X15 -f- 73 = £3.493.

296

ARITHMETIC

The monetary units of leading foreign nations and their
equivalents in United States money are as follows. These
rates are proclaimed each year by the Secretary of the
Treasury.

Country

Monetary Unit

Value in"
U. S. Gold

Canada

Dollar — 100 cents

$1 00

Great Britain ....
France 1
Belgium. ... > ...
Switzerland I
Italy

Pound = 20 shillings
Franc =100 centimes
Lira = 100 centesimi ....

4.86|
.193
.193

Spain

Peseta = 100 centimes

.193

German Empire. .
Denmark 1
Norway >
Sweden J
Russia

Mark =100 pfennigs
Crown = 100 ore
Ruble = 100 copecks

.238
.268
.515

Yen = 100 sen

.498

HEAT
SPECIFIC HEATS OF METALS

The specific heat of a substance is the number of heat
units required to raise a unit mass of the substance one
degree in temperature. The specific heat of water is very
nearly constant for all temperatures, but that at its tempera-
ture of maximum density (4° C. or 39.1° F.) is considered
unity. The specific heats of most substances increase with
increasing temperatures.

HEAT UNITS

One British thermal unit (B. T. U.) is the quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 Ib. of pure water 1° F.
at or near its maximum density, 39.1° F.

One calorie is the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 Kg. of water 1° C. at or near 4° C.

ARITHMETIC

297

1 B. T. U. = .252 calorie and 1 calorie = 3. 968 B. T. tJ.

One small, or gram, calorie (a heat unit also in some use) is
the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of
1 gram of water 1° C. at or near 4° C.

CENTIGRADE AND FAHRENHEIT DEGREES

Deg.
C.

DFeg'

D^-

Deg.
F.

D<?8'

Deg.
F.

Dag-

3$

0

32.0

26

78.8

51

123.8

76

168.8

1

33.8

27

80.6

52

125.6

77

170.6

2

35.6

28

82.4

53

127.4

78

172.4

3

37.4

29

84.2

54

129.2

79

174.2

4

39.2

30

86.0

55

131.0

80

176.0

5

41.0

31

87.8

56

132.8

81

177.8

6

42.8

32

89.6

57

134.6

82

179.6

44.6

33

91.4

58

136.4

83

181.4

8

46.4

34

93.2

59

138.2

84

183.2

9

48.2

35

95.0

60

140.0

85

185.0

10

50.0

36

96.8

61

141.8

86

186.8

11

51.8

37

98.6

62

143.6

87

188.6

12

53.6

38

100.4

63

145.4

88

190.4

13

55.4

39

102.2

64

147.2

89

192.2

14

57.2

40

104.0

65

149.0

90

194.0

15

59.0

41

105.8

66

150.8

91

195.8

16

60.8

42

107.6

67

152.6

92

197.6

17

62.6

43

109.4

68

154.4

93

199.4

18

64.4

44

111.2

69

156.2

94

201.2

19

66.2

45

113.0

70

158.0

95

203.0

20

68.0

46

114.8

71

159.8

96

204.8

21

69.8

47

116.6

72

161.6

97

2Q6.6

22

71.6

48

118.4

73

163.4

98

208.4

23

73.4

49

120.2

74

165.2

99

210.2

24

75.2

50

122.0

75

167.0

100

212.0

25

77.0

298 ARITHMETIC

TEMPERATURE

The temperature of a body is its degree of sensible heat,
For the measurement of temperatures there are three kinds of
thermometers: the Fahrenheit, abbreviated F. or Fahr., com-
monly used in America; the Centigrade, abbreviated C. or
Cent., used in France and by scientists everywhere; and the
Reaumur, abbreviated R or Reau.. used in Germany.

Standard Points Degrees F. Degrees C. Degrees R.

Boiling point of water at "I

sea level; i. e., pressure > 212 100 80

= 1 atmosphere J

Melting point of ice 32 0 0

Absolute zero. i. e., the!

total absence of heat; > -460 -273 -219

theoretical only J

Between boiling point and freezing point = 180° F. = 100° C.
= 80°R.

9 9

Temp. F.=- Temp. C.-f32° =-Temp. R.+320.
5 4

5 5

Temp. C. = - (Temp. F. - 32°) = - Temp. R.
(-9 4

4 4

Temp. R. = -(Temp. F. - 32°) = -Temp. C.

, y &

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES

The following table is used in counting certain articles:

12 of anything =1 dozen doz.

12 dozen =1 gross gr.

12 gross =1 great gross g. gr.

20 of anything = 1 score

units doz. gr. g. gr.

12= 1
144= 12 = 1
1,728=144 = 12 = 1

ARITHMETIC 299

The following table is used in the paper trade:

24 sheets =1 quire qr.

20 quires =1 ream rm.

2 reams =1 bundle bdl.

5 bundles = 1 bale B.

sheets qr. rm. bdl. B.

24= 1
480= 20= 1
960= 40= 2=1
4,800 = 200=10 = 5=1

It is now becoming customary to consider 500 sheets
as a ream, and to discard the higher denominations.

BOOKS

The terms folio, quarto, octavo, etc., show the number
of leaves into which a sheet of paper is folded.

Folio = 2 leaves, or 4 pages

Quarto = 4 leaves, or 8 pages

Octavo = 8 leaves, or 16 pages

Duodecimo =12 leaves, or 24 pages

16mo = 16 leaves, or 32 pages

18mo =18 leaves, or 36 pages

24mo =24 leaves, or 48 pages

32mo =32 leaves, or 64 pages

METRIC EQUIVALENTS OF POUNDS, FEET, ETC.

The government publishes the equivalents in pounds,
etc., of the metric system, but the American shipper
wants to know what the pounds, inches, feet, and gal-
lons, to which he is accustomed, are in the metric
system. The following is a convenient table showing
the metric values of our measures. Some countries de-
mand that the metric system should be used in the
consular papers, and in most countries, especially in
Latin-America, the consignees ask for the weights, etc.,
in the metric system. This table will be found valuable
for reference by invoice clerks and shipping clerks in the
export departments of manufacturing establishments.

300

ARITHMETIC

Pounds
1

Kilos
. . . = .4536

Pounds
60

Kilos
. .=27.216

2

= .9072

70

. .=31.751

3

. . . = 1.3608

80

. . = 36.287

4

— 1 8144

90

= 40.823

5

= 2.2680

100

. . = 45.36
= 9072

6

— 2 7216

200

7

— 3.1751

300

. . = 136.08

8

= 3.6287

400

. . =181.44

9

- 4 0823

500

= 226.80

10

= 4.536

600

. . =272.16

20

. . . = 9.072

700

. . =317.51

30

— 13 608

800

. . =362.87

40

= 18.144

900

..=408.23
= 453.60

50

— 22 680

1 000

1,000 kilos =1
1 inch

metric ton (Tc
Centimeters
... = 2.54

melada metrico).
7 feet

Centimeters
= 213.36

1 foot

= 30.48

8 feet

. . =243.84

1 yard

= 91 44

9 feet

= 274 32

2 feet

. = 60.96

10 feet

. . = 304.80

3 feet

= 91.44

11 feet

. . =335.28

4 feet

— 121 92

12 feet

= 365 76

5 feet

= 152.40

13 feet

. . =396.24

6 feet

= 182.88

14 feet

. .=426.72

DIFFERENCE
YORK CITY .

When it is noc
Buffalo
Cincinnati
Chicago
St. Louis
San Francisco. .
New Orleans. . .
Washington. . . .
Charleston

OF SUN
AND OTHER

>n at New Yor
. .11:40 A.M.
. .11:18 A. M.
..11:07 A.M.
. . 10:55 A. M.
. . 8:45 A. M.
. .10:56 A.M.
..11:48 A.M.
. .11:36 A. M.

TIME BETWEEN NEW
PARTS OF THE WORLD

k, it is, at
Boston 12r12 P M

Quebec . . .

.12:12 p. M.

London

4*55 P M

Paris
Rome

Constantinople . .
Vienna
St. Petersburg . . .
Peking

. 5:05 P. M.
. 5:45 P. M.
. 6:41 P. M.
. 6:00 P. M.
. 6:57 P. M.
.12:40 A. M.

Havana

..11:25 A.M.

ARITHMETIC 301

TABLE OF DISTANCES

1 mile =5,280 ft.; 1,760 yd.;

320 rd.; 8 fur.

1 furlong =40 rd.

1 league =3 mi.

1 knot,* or nautical mile =6,080 ft., or 1| mi.

1 nautical league =3 naut. mi.

1 fathom =6 ft. .

1 meter = 3 ft. 3| in., nearly

1 hand = 4 in.

1 palm = 3 in.

1 span =9 in.

1 cable's length = 240 yd.

MEASURES OF VOLUME

1 cubic foot = 1,728 cu. in.

1 ale gallon = 282 cu. in.

1 standard, or wine, gallon =231 cu. in.

1 dry gallon =268.8 cu. in.

1 bushel =2,150.4 cu. in.

1 British bushel =2,218.19 cu. in.

1 cord of wood = 128 cu. ft.

1 perch =24.75 cu. ft.

1 ton of round timber =40 cu. ft.

1 ton of hewn timber =50 cu. ft.

A box 12yf in. long, wide, and deep contains 1 bu.

A box 19 f in. long, wide, and deep contains 1 bbl.

A box 8 1 in. long, wide, and deep contains 1 pk.

A box 63^ in. long, wide, and deep contains | pk.

A box 4jV in- long, wide, and deep contains 1 qt.
Cylinders having the following dimensions, in inches, con-
tain the measures stated, very closely; the diameters are
given first:

Gill =lfin.X3in. I Gallon = 7in.X 6 in.

Pint =3£in.X3in. 8 gallons = 14 in. X 12 in.

Quart =3£in.X6in. | 10 gallons =14in.X15in.

*A knot is really a measure of speed and not of distance;
when used in this sense, it is equivalent to 1 naut. mi. in 1 hr.
Thus, a vessel traveling 20 naut. mi. per hr. has a speed of
20 knots.

302 ARITHMETIC

PLASTERING, PAINTING, AND
CALCIMINING

Plastering, painting, and calcimining are usually estimated
by the square yard. Allowances for doors, windows, etc. are
not regulated by any established usage.

Rule. — Multiply the perimeter* of the room by the height of
the ceiling for the area of the walls. To this add the area of the
ceiling, and from the sum make such deductions as are specified.
Reduce the results to square yards, and multiply the price per
square yard by the number denoting the area in square yards.

EXAMPLE. — At 22c. per sq. yd., what will it cost to
plaster a room 65 ft. long, 22 ft. wide, and IS ft. high,
deducting in full for 8 doors 4 ft. 6 in. wide and 11 ft.
6 in. high, 10 windows 3 ft. 6 in. wide and 8 ft. high, and
a baseboard 6% in. high extending around the room?

SOLUTION. —

Perimeter of the room = 65X 2+22X2 = 174 ft.

Area of walls = 174X 15 = 2610 sq. ft.

Area of ceiling « 65X22 = 1430 sq. ft.

Total =4040 sq. ft.

Area of doors =>4£X1UX8= 414 sq. ft.

Area of windows =3£X 8X 10=» 280 sq. ft.

Area of baseboard = (perimeter less

width of 8 doors) XY| = (174 -4£XS)X^| = 74| sq.ft.

Total, after deduction = 327H sq. ft.

Area in square yards = 3271J-J-9 = 363Jg sq. yd.

Cost = $.22X363*1 = $79.96

PAPERING

Wallpaper as made in the United States, is 18 in.
(Y2 yd.) wide, and is sold in single rolls and double
rolls; a single roll is 8 yd. long, and a double roll is
16 yd. long. When cutting the paper, paper hangers
divide the rolls into strips of sufficient length to reach

*The perimeter is the sum of the lengths of the sides of the
room.

ARITHMETIC 303

from the baseboard to a short distance (say 6 in.) above
the lower edge of the border. There is always con-
siderable waste in cutting, owing to the matching of
the figures forming the design, and the fact that there
is a part of a strip left over after cutting up the roll.
The parts of strips thus left over are used for the
surface above doors and below windows, and other
irregular places. Although double rolls are usually
counted as 2 single rolls, there is a choice between them
in certain cases. Thus, suppose the strips were required
to be 9 ft. (3 yd.) long, only 2 strips could be cut from
a single roll, or 4 strips from. 2 single rolls, while 5
strips could be cut from a double roll. The length of a
Toll of border is the same as the length of a roll of
paper.

On account of the waste in cutting, the various sizes
and shapes of rooms, the number of windows, doors, etc.,
it is difficult to estimate exactly the number of rolls
required. Two rule's are given, both of which are used
in practice:

Rule. — I. From the perimeter of the room, subtract the widths
cf openings (windows and doors), and reduce the result to half
yards; the number of half yards so obtained will be the total
number of strips required. Find the number of strips that can
be cut from a roll, and divide the first result by the second; the
quotient will be the number of rolls required.

II. Divide the number of half yards of the perimeter of the
room by the number of strips that can be cut from a roll; the
quotient will be the number of rolls required.

If computed by the first rule, the number of rolls
obtained may be too small, and if computed by the
second rule, too large. But, since paper dealers will
usually take back all rolls that are intact, the second
rule will generally give the best results, as it will
prevent the loss of time required to send to the dealer
for extra rolls, in case they are needed.

EXAMPLE.— Find how much paper will be needed to
cover the walls and ceiling of a room 15 ft. x 20 ft., the
border for both walls and ceiling to be 18 in. wide. The

ARITHMETIC

baseboard is 8 in. high, and the height of walls from
floor to ceiling is 9 ft.

SOLUTION.— Since the widths of the openings are not
specified, it will be necessary to use rule II.

Perimeter of room = 2 x 15 + 2 x 20 = 70 f t. = 23^ yd. = 46%
half yards, or 47 strips. Assuming that the strips extend
the height of the baseboard above the bottom edge of
the border, the length of a strip is (since 18 in. = \l/2 ft.)
9-1^-7^ ft. = 2l/2 yd. Hence, the number of strips in
a single roll is 8 T 2]/2 - 3 strips, and the number of rolls
required is. 47 T 3 - lS2/s, or 16 rolls.

In papering the ceiling, the direction in which the
strips are to run must be considered. If the strips run
lengthwise of the room, the distance between the edges
of the border is 20 - 2 x \y2 = 17 ft., and the length of the
strips must be at least 18 ft., or 6 yd., long; hence, but
1 strip can be cut from a single roll, and but 2 strips
from a double roll. The width of the room in half yards
is (15 T 3) x2 = 10; hence, allowing for the border, 9 strips,
or 9 single rolls, will be required.

If the strips run crosswise of the room, the length
of a strip between the edges of the border will be
15-2x1^ = 12 ft., and the length of a strip must be at
least 13 ft., or 41/fj yd.; hence, 1 strip may be obtained
from a single roll, or 16-r4}£ = 3 strips from a double
roll. The length of the room in half yards is (20 v 3) x 2
= 13^j; hence, allowing the paper to extend 6 in. beyond
the inner edge of the border, at both ends of the room,
12 strips will be required. The number of double rolls
required will be 12^3 = 4 double rolls. Consequently, in
this case, there is less waste when the paper runs cross-
wise than when it runs lengthwise.

Since the perimeter of the room is 70 ft., or 23^ yd.,
23^f8 = 3 single rolls of border for the walls, and the
same amount for the ceiling will be required. Therefore,
16 single rolls of paper are required for the walls,
4 double rolls for the ceiling, 3 single rolls of border for
the walls, and 3 single rolls for the ceiling.

ARITHMETIC 305

CARPETING

Carpet is made in various widths. Ingrain carpet is usually
36 in., or 1 yd., wide; Brussels carpet is 27 in., or f yd., wide.
Carpet borders are 22 5 in., or f yd., wide. A linear yard of
ingrain carpet contains 1 sq. yd., and a linear yard of Brussels
carpet contains f sq. yd.

Rule. — To find the number of linear yards of carpet required
for a room, if no allowance is made for cutting and matching
the strips, divide the area of the room in square yards by the area
of a linear yard of the carpet.

EXAMPLE. — How many yards of Brussels carpet will be
required to cover a floor 36 ft. long and 21 ft. wide,
making no allowance for cutting and matching?

SOLUTION.— Area of floor = 36X21 = 756 sq. ft. = ^

= 84 sq. yd. A linear yard of Brussels carpet has an area of
| sq. yd. Hence, the number of linear yards required is
84 •*• f=112 yd.

In practice, there is usually considerable loss due to
cutting and matching. To find the number of yards re-
quired for a room, when allowance is made for loss, the
width of the room is divided by the width of a single
strip. The quotient is the number of strips required,
supposing them to run lengthwise of the room. The
number of strips multiplied by the length in yards of a
single strip, making allowance for the loss required for
matching, is the number of linear yards required.

EXAMPLE. — How many yards of Brussels carpet will be
required to cover a room 23 ft. long and 15 ft. wide,
making an allowance of 1 ft. on each strip for matching?
The carpet is supposed to run lengthwise.

SOLUTION. — Width of room =15 ft. = 180 in. Width of
carpet = 27 in. Number of strips = 180 ^-27 = 6§. Hence,
7 strips must be used, the excess, 9 in., being cut off or turned
under. Allowing 1 ft. for matching, length of strip = 23 + 1
= 24 ft. = 8 yd. Number of linear yards required = 7X8
= 56 yd.

306 ARITHMETIC

The number of linear yards of carpet border required
for a room is equal to the perimeter of the room in
yards.

EXAMPLE. — How many yards of border will be required
in carpeting a room 42 ft. long and 26^2 ft. wide?

SOLUTION. — Perimeter of room = 42X2+26£X2 = 137 ft.

137
•=-3- = 45| yd.

BOARD MEASURE

In measuring" lumber, the unit is the board foot, which is a
board 1 ft. long, 1 ft. wide, and 1 in. (or less) thick. One
board foot is equal to ^ cu. ft.

Rule. — To find the number of board feet in any piece of lumber,
multiply the length in feet by the breadth in feet, and this product
by the thickness in inches, if it be more than 1 inch; or, otherwise,
multiply the length in feet by the breadth in inches, and this
product by the thickness in inches, and then divide by 12.

EXAMPLE. — How many board feet are contained in a
joist 18 ft. long, 14 in. wide, and 12 in. thick?

SOLUTION.— 18*14X12 = ^ ^^ f ^

Lumber is sold by the thousand (M) feet, the term foot
being always used instead of the longer term, board foot.

Rule. — To find the cost of lumber, divide the number of feet by
1,000 and multiply by the cost per M.

EXAMPLE.— What will be the cost of 19 boards 14 ft.
long, 15 in. wide, and \y2 in. thick, at $23.50 per M?

SOLUTION.— Number of thousand feet =

«=.498f. Hence, .498f X $23.50 = $11.72.

Shingles are sold in bundles of 250 (J4 M). The lengths
of all shingles in bundle are the same (usually 12 in.,
14 in., or 16 in.), but their widths vary. The average
width, however, is generally 4 in., the width of all
bundles being alike. When laying shingles, 4 in. is
usually exposed to the weather, the remaining portions
being concealed by the other shingles.

ARITHMETIC 307

Rule. — To find the number of shingles required to cover a roof,
compute the total area of the roof in square inches, and divide
this area by the product of the average width of the shingles and
the length that is exposed to the weather.

EXAMPLE.— What will it cost to shingle a roof, each
side measuring 40 ft. x 16 ft., if the shingles cost $4.50
per M?

SOLUTION. — Since the size of the exposed portion is not
stated, it will be assumed as 4 in.X4 in. Then, for one side,

— = 5,760 shingles will be required, and for both

sides, 5,760X2 = 11,520 shingles. Therefore, the cost will be
1 1. 52 X $4.50 = $51. 84.

Multiply by 144 in order to reduce the square feet (40X16)
to square inches. Allowance should also be made for waste.

MASONRY

In estimating the cubical contents of stone walls, the perch
of 24 1 cu. ft. is used.

Rule. — To find the number of perches of masonry in a wall,
divide the volume of the wall in cubic feet by 24f .

In estimating the contents of stone foundations for build-
ings, the length of the wall is measured on the outside, thus
counting each corner twice. If a wall 2 ft. thick measures
12 ft.X20 ft. on the outside, and the corners are assumed to
be parts of the longer sides, there will be 2 walls each 20 ft.
long, and 2 walls each 8 ft. long. The actual length is there-
fore 2X20+2X8 = 56 ft. The length estimated on the out-
side is 2X20+2X12=64 ft. To find the actual length of
such a wall, subtract 4 times the thickness of the wall from
the length measured on the outside. Thus, in the above case,
actual length = 64 -4X2 = 56 ft.

Usually, masons make no allowance for windows or doors
in estimating their work. In estimating the quantity of stone
required for the wall, such allowances should be made.

EXAMPLE.— (a) How many perches of stone will be re-
quired to build the walls of a church 60 ft. long by

308 ARITHMETIC

32 ft. wide, the^ walls being 24 ft. high and 2l/4 ft. thick?
There are 8 windows, each 5 ft. wide and 11 ft. high,
and 2 doors, each 6 ft. wide and 9 ft. high. (&) What
will be the cost of laying the walls at $3.50 per perch?

SOLUTION. —

Length of wall (outside) =2X60+2X32=184 ft.

Actual length = 184-4X2*= 175 ft.

Actual cubical contents = 175X24X2^ = 9,450 cu. ft.

Allowance for windows = 5X 11X2^X8 = 990 cu. ft.

Allowance for doors = 6X9X2^X2 = 243 cu. ft.

Net contents = 9,450- (990+243) =8,217 cu. ft.

(a) Perches required for wall = 8,217 •*- 24 f = 332.

(6) Since, in estimating the cost of the work, no alkro
is made for corners, doors, and windows,

Cubical contents = 184 X 24 X2i = 9,936 cu. ft.

Perches of stonework = 9, 936 -i- 24 f = 401 &.

Cost of laying walls = 4011?TX $3.50 = $1,405.09.

•

BRICKWORK

Brickwork is generally estimated by the thousand
bricks laid in the wall, but measurements by the cubic
yard and by the perch are also used. To allow for
mortar, *4 in- is added to the length and to the thickness
in making calculations. The following data will be
found useful in calculating the number of bricks in a
wall. For each superficial foot of wall 4 in. in thickness
(the width of 1 brick), allow 7l/2 bricks; for a 9-in. wall
(the width of 2 bricks), allow 15 bricks; and so on,
estimating 7^2 bricks for each additional 4 in. in thick-
ness of wall. If brickwork is to be estimated by the
cubic yard, allow 500 bricks to 1 cu. yd. This figure is
based on the use of 8^4 in. x4 in. x2j4 in. bricks, with
mortar joints not over Y% in. thick. If the joints are
Y% in. thick, as in face brickwork, 1 cu. yd. will require
about 575 bricks. In making calculations of the number
cf bricks required, an allowance of, say, 5% should be
made for waste in breakage, etc.

ARITHMETIC 309

BINS, CISTERNS, ETC.

It is frequently necessary to estimate the capacity of a
bin, box, or vessel in bushels, barrels, or gallons. The
volume of the bin or vessel in cubic feet or cubic
inches is divided by the number of cubic feet or cubic
inches in a bushel, barrel, or gallon, as the case may be.
For convenience of reference, the following table of
capacities is given:

DRY MEASURE

1 heaped bushel =2,747.71 cu. in. = 1.59 cu. ft., nearly
1 stricken bushel ==2, 150.42 cu. in. = 1.25 cu. ft., nearly
1 peck = 537.6 cu. in.

1 quart = 67.2 cu. in.

1 pint = 33.6 cu. in.

LIQUID MEASURE
1 hogshead = 8.422 cu. ft.
1 barrel =4.211 cu. ft.
1 gallon =231 cu. in.
1 quart = 57.75 cu. in.
1 pint = 28.875 cu. in.

Rule. — To find the capacity of a bin or other vessel in dry
measure or in liquid measure, divide the volume of the bin or
vessel in cubic inches by the number of cubic inches in the unit
of measure.

The following table of approximate capacities is very
convenient in rough calculations:

1 cubic foot = .63 heaped bushel
1 cubic foot = .80 stricken bushel
1 cubic foot = 7.50 liquid gallons
1 cubic foot = i§ barrel

The following short rules are approximate, but the
results are sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes.
Rule. — To find the capacity of a bin in heaped bushels, multiply
the volume in cubic feet by .63.

Rule. — To find the capacity of a bin in stricken bushels, multiply
the volume in cubic feet by .8.

Rule. — To find the number of gallons in a cistern or other
vessel, multiply the volume in cubic feet by 7.5.

310 ARITHMETIC

Rule. — To find the number of barrels in a cistern, multiply
the volume in cubic feet by £$.

Rule. — To find the number of gallons in a cylindrical vessel,
multiply the square of the diameter in inches by the height in
inches, and that product by .0034,

GAUGING OF CASKS

A cask resembles two frustums of cones with their
larger bases placed together.

The bung diameter of a cask is the diameter measured
half way between the two ends; it is usually the greatest
diameter.

The mean diameter of a cask is the mean between the
bung diameter and the head diameter. The mean
diameter is found Dy adding together the head diameter
and bung diameter and dividing the sum by 2.

Rule. — To find the number of gallons in a cask, multiply the
square of the mean diameter in inches by the length in inchest
and that product by .0034.

EXAMPLE.— The diameter of a cask is 27 in. at the
head, 33 in. at the bung, and the cask is 3 ft. long;
how many gallons will it hold?

SOLUTION. — Mean diameter = — ^— = 30 in. Length = 3 ft.

= 36 in. Capacity = 3Q2 X 36 X .0034 = 110.16 gal.

To find the number of liters in the cask, multiply by
.0129 instead of .0034. If the cask is partly filled, stand
it on end, find the mean diameter of the part filled,
multiply its square by the height, and that product by
.0034.

COAL AND HAY

A ton (2,000 Ib.) of Lehigh coal, egg size, measures
34^s cu. ft. in the bin; Schuylkill coal, 35 cu. ft.; pink-
gray and red-ash coal, 36 cu. ft. ; Wyoming coal, 31 cu. ft.

The bulk of a ton of hay is dependent on the pressure
to which it is subjected. Roughly speaking, a ton of

POSTAL DISTANCES AND TIME 311

hay lying unpressed measures 500 cu. ft. ; when in
a small stack, 400 cu. ft.; and in mows compressed with
grain, or in well-settled stacks, 300 cu. ft.

Shipping Ton.— Freight on very light articles is usually
estimated by the space occupied.

f 1 United States shipping ton
40 cu. ft.= < 31.16 imperial bushels

132.143 United States bushels

{1 British shipping ton
32.719 imperial bushels
33.75 United States bushels

POSTAL DISTANCES AND TIME

In the following list are given the approximate dis-
tances by postal routes and the time by rail between New-
York City and the points indicated. The times men-
tioned are subject to changes due to varying conditions.

Cities in the United States Miles Hours

Albany, N. Y 142 V/2

Atlanta, Ga 882 2V/4

Baltimore, Md 188 6

Binghamton, N. Y 207 5^

Bismarck, N. Dak 1,738 60J4

Boise, Idaho 2,736 92*/2

Boston, Mass 217

Buffalo, N. Y 410 9^

Cape May, N. J 172

Carson City, Nev 3,036 109^

Charleston, S. C 804 21*4

Chattanooga, Tenn 853 32

Cheyenne, Wyo 1,899 54

Chicago, 111 900 23

Cincinnati, Ohio 744 23

312 POSTAL DISTANCES AND TIME

Cities in the United States Miles

Cleveland, Ohio 568

Columbus, Ohio 624

Concord, N. H 292

Deadwood, S. Dak 1,975

Denver, Colo 1,930

Des Moines, Iowa 1,257

Detroit, Mich 743

Galveston, Tex 1,789

Harrisburg, Pa 182

Hartford, Conn 112

Helena, Mont 2,423

Hot Springs, Ark 1,367 55

Indianapolis, Ind 808 23

Jacksonville^ Fla 1,077 32

Kansas City, Mo 1,302 38#

Louisville, Ky 854 30

Memphis, Tenn 1,163 40

Milwaukee, Wis 985 29^

Montgomery, Ala 1,057 30^

Montpelier, Vt 327 10^

New Orleans, La 1,344 40

Omaha, Neb 1,383 43

Philadelphia, Pa 90 3

Pittsburg, Pa 431 13

Portland, Me 325 12

Portland, Ore 3,181 \W/2

Prescott, Ariz 2,724 94

Providence, R. 1 189 6

Richmond, Va 344 11J4

St. Louis, Mo 1,048 29

St. Paul, Minn 1,300 37

Salt Lake City, Utah 2,452 7V/2

San Francisco, Cal 3,250 106

Santa Fe, N. Mex 2,173 82

Savannah, Ga 905 26

Scranton, Pa 146 4y2

Tacoma, Wash 3,209 102

Topeka, Kans 1,370 48

POSTAL DISTANCES AND TIME 313

Cities in the United States Miles Hours

Trenton, N. J 57 2

Vicksburg, Miss 1,288 50

Vinita, Okla 1,412 42

Washington, D. C 228 6^

Wheeling, W. Va 496 14&

Wilmington, Pel 117 5

Wilmington, N. C 593 20

The postal distances and time between New York and
foreign cities are as follows:

By Postal Route to Miles Days

Adelaide, via Vancouver 12,845 31

Alexandria, via London 6,150 12

Amsterdam, via London '..... 3,985 8

Antwerp, via London 4,000 8

Athens, via London 5,655 11

Bahia, Brazil 5,870 14

Bangkok, Siam, via San Francisco 12,900 43

Batavia, Java, via London 12,800 34

Berlin, via London 4,385

Bombay, via London 9,765 22

Bremen, via London 4,235 8

Buenos Ayres 8,045 24

Calcutta via London 11,120 24

Cape Town, via London 11,245 25.

Constantinople, via London 5,810 11

Florence, via London 4,800 9

Glasgow '.. 3,370 8

Greytown, via New Orleans 2,815 7

Halifax, N. S 645

Hamburg, via London 4,340 9

Hamburg, direct 4,820 9

Havana 1,366 3

Hong Kong, via San Francisco 10,590 27

Honolulu, via San Francisco 5,645 12

Liverpool 3,540

London, via Queenstown 3,740

London, via Southampton 3,760

Madrid, via London 4,925 9

314 INFORMATION OF INTEREST

By Postal Route to Miles Days

Melbourne, via Vancouver 12,265 30

Mexico City (railroad) 3,750 5

Panama 2,355 6

Paris 4,020 8

Rio de Janeiro 6,204 17

Rome, via London 5,030 9

Rotterdam, via London 3,935 8

St. Petersburg, via London 5,730 9

San Juan, Porto Rico 1,730 6

Shanghai, via San Francisco 9,920 25

Stockholm, via London 4,975 10

Sydney, via Vancouver 11,570 29

Valparaiso, via Panama 5,910 22

Vienna, -via London 4,740 9

Yokohama, via San Francisco 7,345 20

INFORMATION OF INTEREST

Birthday Stone for Each Month of the Year.— Stones
of different kinds are often considered proper for birth-
days coming in different months of the year. They are:
Garnet for January, amethyst for February, bloodstone
for March, diamond for April, emerald for May, pearl
for June, ruby for July, sardonyx for August, sapphire
for September, opal for October, topaz for November, and
turquoise for December.

Names of Wedding Anniversaries.— Wedding anniver-
saries are named according to the name of the article
considered appropriate for anniversary presents at dif-
ferent times. The names are:
1st year— Cotton 15th year— Crystal

2d year— Paper 20th year— China

3d year — Leather 25th year— Silver

5th year— Wooden 30th year— Pearl

7th year— Woolen 40th year— Ruby

10th year— Tin 50th year— Golden

12th year— Silk and fine 75th year— Diamond

linen

IXFORMATION OF INTEREST 315

Care of Birds and Fish.— Caged birds, especially the
canary, should always be kept in good cages that are
perfectly clean and free from vermin. The greater part
of all the cages now used have a hanger at the top of
the cage, which can be removed. This should be sepa-
rated from the cage at least once every month. Here is
where the red .mites hide. The best kind of roosts or
perches can be made from the smaller branches of the
elder. The outer covering should be scraped and the
pith removed from the center of the pieces of elder.
The red mites crawl into these perches, which can be
scalded once a week with hot water, thus destroying the
mites.

The best seed for canaries is Sicilian canary seed and
a little German rape seed. A small portion of hemp seed
may be added. Never mix the hemp seed with the other
seed; if you do, the birds will throw the other seed out
in their diligent search for the hemp seed. Hemp seed
is too fattening for them to have much of it. Feed the
hemp seed separate. Canaries must have some kind of
green feed, and nothing is better for them than a few
leaves of dandelion or lettuce. They should never be
fed cabbage or heavy greens.

It is a pleasure to have an aquarium in the house with
fish and growing plants. The plants contained in the
aquarium should be sufficiently numerous to throw off
enough oxygen to supply the fish. The function of plant
life in the water is to decompose the carbonic-acid gas
under the action of sunlight, using the carbon to build
up the structures and to liberate the oxygen which is
necessary to the fish. Fish in breathing absorb the free
oxygen in the water, and they also absorb it from the
air. The proportion of oxygen or of air that water will
contain varies with the temperature. Thus, for about
every 16° drop in temperature water will take up and
retain about double the volume of oxygen or of atmos-
pheric air. Boiling the water expels the oxygen. When
all of the oxygen is exhausted the water will no longer
support the life of the fish. The cooler the water, the

316 RULES OF BUSINESS

greater amount of oxygen will there be and the greater
number of fish can be kept in it. The fewer fish, and
the more space there is in the aquarium, the better will
the fish prosper. An aquarium should be kept clean
and free from slimy deposits. The water should be
changed frequently enough to keep it pure.

RULES OF BUSINESS

There are a few rules or guides for good business that
can be safely followed at all times. It is always best,
however, to ask advice of your banker or a lawyer of
experience relative to financial matters that may cause
a loss.

If a note is lost or stolen, it does not release the
maker; he must pay it if the consideration for which it
was given and the amount can be proved.

Notes bear interest only when so stated.

Principals are responsible for the acts of their agents.

Each individual in a partnership is responsible for the
whole amount of the debts of the firm, except in cases
of a special partnership. The word "limited" in con-
nection with a firm name indicates that a limitation of
responsibility for each member is fixed.

Ignorance of the law excuses no one.

An agreement without consideration of value is void.

A note made on a Sunday is void, also one dated ahead
of its issue. It may be dated back at pleasure.

Contracts made on Sunday cannot be enforced.

A note by a minor is void in some states, and in others
it is voidable on judicial decision.

A contract made with a minor or a lunatic is void.

A note obtained by fraud or from a person in a state
of intoxication cannot be collected.

It is a fraud to conceal a fraud.

Signatures made with a lead pencil are good in law.

The acts of one partner binds the rest.

RULES OF BUSINESS 317

"Value received" is usually written in a note, and
should be, but it is not necessary. If not written it is
presumed by the law or may be supplied by proof.

The maker of an "accommodation" bill or note (one
for which he has received no consideration) having lent
his name or credit for the benefit of the holder, is not
bound to the person accommodated, but is bound to all
other parties, precisely as if there were a good con-
sideration.

No consideration is sufficient in law if it be illegal in
its nature.

Checks or drafts must be presented for payment with-
out unreasonable delay.

An indorsee has a right of action against all whose
names were on the bill when he received it.

If the letter containing a protest of non-payment be
put into the post office, any miscarriage does uot affect
the party giving notice.

Notice of protest may be sent either to the place of
business or residence of the party notified.

CHECKS

How to Draw Checks.— A check is merely an order for
a bank to pay a stipulated sum of money to the person
whose name appears on the check, from the funds of the
drawer of the check.

Checks may be made payable either to order or bearer.
In the former case, the payee should be known to the
proper bank officials, and must indorse the check before
the money is paid. In case the check reads "pay to-
bearer," any one holding the check should indorse it,
and if he is known to the bank, he is entitled to present
it and receive the money stipulated.

Every person who writes a check should be very care-
ful to protect himself against dishonest intentions of the
person to whom the check is issued. A check should
always be written with pen and ink. Never use a lead

RULES OF BUSINESS

when drawing a check. The amount which is
stipulated on the check should be started as far to the left
as possible so that no writing or figures could be inserted
to increase the amount of the check. The space remain-
ing should be filled in by a very heavy line so that
nothing could be added after the amount inserted. The
figures of a check should be plainly written and care
should be taken that the figures correspond. Although a
bank cannot be held responsible for the payment of a
check made payable to bearer, or wrong person, if the
circumstances warrant such action, a bank may refuse to
cash it until they are satisfied that it is the right party.

Checks Should Be Presented for Payment as Soon as
Possible.— The receiver of a check may avoid consider-
able trouble or loss of money by presenting checks for
payment as soon as possible after they are received.
The drawer of a check usually prefers to have his checks
paid as soon as possible, to avoid 'keeping track of out-
standing checks. Should the holder of a check neglect
to present it for payment at once and the bank should
become insolvent, he cannot compel the bank to make
good the loss he has sustained if more than the ordinary
time has elapsed before he presents the check that is
given him.

Certified Checks.— A certified check is a common check
that has been certified by the cashier of the bank on
which it is drawn ; that is, he has written or stamped
across the face, usually with red ink, the word "certi-
fied," the date, and his signature.

The certifying of a check is the same as accepting a
draft, and makes the bank responsible for its payment,
and not the drawer. Remember, that when you have a
check certified it is at once deducted from your account;
therefore, if you do not use it, you must deposit it to
your credit before it can again be added to your account.

Certificate of Deposit.— A certificate of deposit is a
written acknowledgment of a bank that it has received
from the person named a sum of money as a deposit,
subject to withdrawal on demand and on surrender of

RULES OF BUSINESS 319

the certificate. Generally, persons holding certificates
of deposit are not allowed to draw a check for all or
part of it.

Receipt. — A receipt is a written acknowledgment of
having received a specified value, with the date, source
of receipt, signature of the party that received the value,
and such other particulars as may be necessary to make
it plain and unquestionable.

NOTES

Note. — A note is an absolute promise, in writing, to
pay on a certain date, or on demand, a specified sum of
money to a person named therein, or to his order, or
to the bearer, and is signed by the maker.

Joint Note.— A joint note is one signed by two or more
parties and reading, "We promise to pay." It is sup-
posed that each party to the note has been equally
benefited; therefore, only his proportionate share can be
collected from each.

A joint-and-several note reads, "We jointly and seve-
rally promise to pay." In this form of note, the makers
are united in the obligation, and the payee can collect
from all the makers together, or the entire face of the
note from any one of them, if he is worth that amount.

Protests.— Have all the notes in your favor made pay-
able at a bank; then, a few days before they become
due, if not previously discounted, deposit them for collec-
tion. The bank will then see that they are properly
presented when due, and will protest if not paid.

Protesting is a formal statement made by a notary
public that the paper was presented for payment and
payment refused. A notice of protest is sent to the
maker and to each indorser. If there are indorsers and
no protest is made, the indorsers in some states, are
released. When there are no indorsers, it is quite com-
mon to waive protest by writing on the back of such
paper "Protest Waived.**

320 RULES OF BUSINESS

Unless inscribed with the words "with interest," notes
do not draw interest until after maturity; but if not
paid at maturity, they draw interest at the legal rate
until paid.

Due Bill. — A due bill is a written acknowledgment of
something due from one party to another. They are
not usually made payable to order, are frequently with
out date, and seldom mention the name of the plac
or state.

DRAFTS

Sight Draft.— A sight draft is a draft drawn by one
person on another, and payable on presentation, or at
sight. They are treated as cash by those receiving them.

Time Draft.— Time drafts are drawn payable a certain
number of days after sight and to be of value must be
accepted by the party on whom the'y are drawn. Accept-
ance is shown by writing across the face, usually in red
ink because of its prominence, the word "accepted," the
date, and the signature of the acceptor. The due date is
figured so many days after the date of acceptance, and
not after the date on which it was drawn.

Often there is seen attached to the end of a draft a
slip reading, "No Protest." "Take this off before pre-
senting." This informs the banker that the drawer does
not wish the paper protested, and is done so that if the
paper is not accepted, the drawer will not have to pay
the protest fees.

Bank Draft.— For convenience and safety in making
remittance from one part of the country to another, in
funds that are at par, and yet without actually trans-
ferring the cash, bank drafts are bought from local banks
and forwarded, instead of using checks, etc.

RULES OF BUSINESS 321

SIMPLE-INTEREST RULES

4%. — Multiply the principal by the number of days to
run, separate the right-hand figure from the product and
divide by 9.

5%.— Multiply by the number of days and divide by 72.

6%.— Multiply by the number of days, separate the
right-hand figure and divide by 6.

8%. — Multiply by the number of days and divide by 45.

9%.— Multiply by the number of days, separate the
right-hand figure and divide by 4.

10%. — Multiply by the number of days and divide
by 36.

12%.— Multiply by the number of days, separate the
right-hand figure and divide by 3.

The following method of computing interest for short
terms is an accurate and speedy one: The interest on
any sum for 60 days at 6 per cent, can be found by draw-
ing a perpendicular line 2 places to the left of the deci-
mal point of the principal. The result will be the
interest in dollars and cents. Thus, the interest on
$2,035.45 for 60 days at 6% will be $20.35.

DISCOUNT RATES

The following table of equivalent discounts will be
found useful by those in whose business several dif-
ferent rates of discount are allowed from list prices:

10 and 5 off- 14^% off

IS and 5 off=19^% off

20 and 5 off=24% off

20 and 10 off=28% off

25 and 10 off=32H% off

30, 10, and 5 off =401/7% off

40, 10, and 5 off=48y10% off

50 and 10 off =55% off

60, 10, and 5 off=65%% off

70, 10, and 5 off=74%o% off

322 RULES OF BUSINESS

YEARS AT WHICH A GIVEN AMOUNT WILL
DOUBLE, AT SEVERAL RATES OF INTEREST

At Compound Interest

At

Rate

%

Single
Interest

Compounded
Yearly

Compounded
Semi-
Annually

Compounded
Quarterly

1

100

69.666

69.487

69.400

11

66.66

46.556

46.382

46.298

2

50.00

35.004

34.830

34.743

2t

40.00

28.071

27.899

27.812

3

33.33

23.450

23.278

23.191

3*

28.57

20.150

19.977

19.890

4

25.00

17.673

17.502

17.415

4|

22.22

15.748

15.576

15.490

5

20.00

14.207

14.036

13.946

51

18.18

12.946

12.775

12.686

6

16.67

11.896

11.725

11.639

*i

15.38

11.007

10.836

10.750

7

14.29

10.245

10.075

9.989

n

13.33

9.585

9.914

9.328

8

12.50

9.006

8.837

8.751

8|

11.76

8.497

8.346

8.241

9

11.11

8.043

7.874

7.788

9*

10.52

7.638

7.468

7.383

10

10.00

7.273

7.121

7.026

12

8.34

6.110

LEGAL HOLIDAYS 323

LEGAL HOLIDAYS

Legal holidays are days set apart by statute or by
executive authority for fasting and prayer, or those
given over to religious observance and amusements, or
for political, moral, or social duties or anniversaries, or
merely for popular recreation and amusement under such
penalties and provisions alone as are expressed in
positive legislative enactments.

In the United States there are no established holidays
of a religious character having a legal status without
legislation. The days established by statutory or by
executive authority, which are observed as legal holi-
days, are given in the list that follows:

January 1. New Year's Day: In all the states and
territories except Massachusetts and New Hampshire.

January 8. Anniversary of the Battle of New Orleans:
In Louisiana.

January 19. Lee's Birthday: In Alabama, Florida,
Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia.

February 12. Lincoln's Birthday: In Arizona, Connecti-
cut, Colorado, Illinois, Minnesota, New Jersey, New
York, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, Washington, and
Wyoming.

February 22. Washington's Birthday: In all the states
and territories except Mississippi and New Mexico.

March 2. Texas Independence Day: In Texas.

April 6. Confederate Memorial Day: In Louisiana.

April 19. Patriot's Day: In Massachusetts.

April 21. Anniversary of the Battle of San Jacinto: In
Texas.

April 26. Confederate Memorial Day. In Alabama,
Florida, and Georgia.

May 10. Confederate Memorial Day. In North Caro-
lina and South Carolina.

324 LEGAL HOLIDAYS

May, Second Friday. Confederate Memorial Day: In
Tennessee.

May 20. Anniversary of the Signing of the Mecklenburg
Declaration of Independence: In North Carolina.

May 30. Decoration Day: In all the states and terri-
tories except Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia,
Idaho, Louisiana, Mississippi, New Mexico, North Caro-
lina, South Carolina, Texas, and Virginia.

June 3. Jefferson Davis' s Birthday: In Alabama, Florida,
Georgia, and South Carolina.

July 4. Independence Day: In all states and territories.

July 24. Pioneer's Day: In Utah.

August 16. Bennington Battle Day: In Vermont.

September, First Monday. Labor Day: In all the
states and territories except Arkansas, Louisiana, Mis-
sissippi, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma,
and Vermont.

September 9. Admission Day: In California.

October 12. Columbus Day: In California, Colorado,
Connecticut, Maryland, Missouri, Montana, New Jersey,
New York, and Pennsylvania.

October 31. Admission Day: In Nevada.

November 1. All Saints' Day: In Louisiana.

November 25. Labor Day: In the parish of Orleans,
Louisiana.

November, Fourth Thursday. Thanksgiving Day: In
all the states and territories. The exact day is fixed
by the proclamation of the President of the United
States and the governors of the states.

December 25. Christmas Day: In all the states and
territories.

Shrove Tuesday. Mardi Gras: In Alabama and in the
parish of Orleans, Louisiana.

Good Friday: In Alabama, Louisiana, Maryland, Min-
nesota, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee.

Arbor Day: In Colorado, third Friday in April; Idaho,
last Monday in April; in Nebraska, April 22; Utah,
April 15. This day is observed in other states on dates
appointed by the governors.

'

LEGAL HOLIDAYS 325

General Election Day, being the Tuesday after the first
Monday of November in every year when such elections
are held is a holiday in Arizona, California, Florida,
Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Maryland,
Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire,
New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Ore-
gon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South
Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Washington, West Virginia,
Wisconsin, and Wyoming.

Sundays are holidays, and also any day appointed by
the governor in any of the several states as a fast day,
or a day for prayer. There are no statutory holidays in
Mississippi, but by common consent the Fourth of *July,
Thanksgiving Day, and Christmas are observed as such.
In Kansas the only legal holidays by legislative enact-
ment are February 22, May 30, first Monday of Septem-
ber, and Thanksgiving Day, but by common consent
New Year's Day, Fourth of July, and Christmas are also
observed.

Saturday, after 12 o'clock noon, is a legal holiday
throughout the year in Connecticut, District of Columbia,
Florida, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan,
Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode
Island, and Washington; in Louisiana- and Missouri, in
cities of 100,000 inhabitants and over; in Ohio and Vir-
ginia, in cities of 50,000 inhabitants and over; in Dela-
ware, in . the city of Wilmington and in Newcastle
county, except St. George's Hundred, where Saturdays
from June to September only are holidays; in South
Carolina, in Charleston county; and in Colorado, in
Denver during June, July, and August.

Holidays falling on Sunday are 'observed the day be-
fore in Kansas, Mississippi, Nevada, Vermont, and West
Virginia, and on the same day in Louisiana; but else-
where in the United States, on the following Monday.

In Canada the following are legal holidays in all the
provinces: New Year's Day, Good Friday, Easter Mon-
day, Christmas Day, the birthday of the reigning sov-
ereign, any day appointed by proclamation for a public

326 CORRESPONDENCE

holiday or a general fast or thanksgiving, and the day
next following New Year's, Christmas, and the sov-
ereign's birthday, when these days fall on Sunday. In
Quebec, in addition to the above, the following are ob-
served: The Epiphany, the Annunciation, the Ascension,
Corpus Christi, St. Peter and St. Paul's Day, All Saints'
Day, and Conception Day.

In England and Ireland the bank holidays are: Good
Friday, Easter Monday, the Monday in Whitsun week,
the first Monday in August, sovereign's birthday, Christ-
mas, and the 26th of December if a week day; in Scot-
land, New Year's Day, Christmas (if either day fall on
Sunday, then the following Monday), Good Friday, first
Monday in May, first Monday in August, and the sov-
ereign's birthday. In addition to the above, any day so
proclaimed by the reigning sovereign is to be observed
as a bank holiday throughout the United Kingdom, or
in any part thereof.

CORRESPONDENCE

LETTER WRITING

The importance of letter writing, both in business and
as an educational accomplishment, cannot be overesti-
mated. Business must, to a large extent, be transacted
by means of correspondence; and one of the leading
requisites of business success is the ability to dis-
charge the important duties pertaining to correspondence
in a manner satisfactory to all concerned.

The essential parts of a letter are:

1. Heading, including date.

2. Address.

3. Salutation.

4. Body.

5. Complimentary close.

6. Subscription, or signature.

7. Superscription, or outside address.

CORRESPONDENCE 327

The incidental parts are:

1. The postscript, with its continuations or iterations,
paulo-postscript, post-paulo-postscript, and so on.

2. Nota bene.

3. Enclosure.

4. Stamp.

5. Return directions.

The writing of the place and date at the lower left-
hand corner of the paper, at the end of a letter, though
quite admissible and somewhat customary in the matter
of social letters, is, in the case of business letters,
annoying to those that desire to note at once the date
of the letter. It is better not to indulge in any eccen-
tricities in such matters. For people that do not have
anything else to do it may be allowable; but busy
people do not have time to look in unusual places for
headings, addresses, signatures, etc.

The salutation is the greeting, as "Dear Sir," "Sir,"
"My dear George," and the like, tvith which it is usual
to begin a letter. What the salutation shall be must be
determined, of course, by the relation between the writer
and the party addressed. The most formal, private, or
unofficial salutations are "Sir" and "Madame." These are
almost impersonal and belong to such persons as we may
wish to accost with civility. "Sir" is the correct salu-
tation in addressing officers of the government who have
no special title inherent in the office they hold. When
it is used the complimentary close should be "Yours
respectfully," or something correspondingly distant.

General Form.— The following letter shows the usual
arrangement of the various parts of an ordinary business
letter. If the street address is given in the heading, the
heading and date should be written in two lines; if
the street address is not given, the heading and date
should be written in one line. The address, if of more
than two lines, should be neatly balanced. A colon
should follow the salutation; a dash is often used after
the colon, but this is unnecessary.

328

CORRESPONDENCE

(Heading and Date)
540 Sewell St., PORTLAND, ME.,
(Address) February 22, 1912.

MR. JOHN W. PLAYFAIR,

President First National Bank,
558 Jackson Boulevard,

Chicago, 111.
(Salutation)
DEAR SIR:

(Body)

Mr. George Williams of your city has called to interest
me in the purchase of a large tract of timber and mining
lands in Northern Wisconsin. Mr. Williams impresses
me favorably, and his propositions appear quite reason-
able on their face.

I have, however, deferred giving him a final answer
until I hear from you regarding his standing in business
circles in Chicago. He speaks of you as an acquaintance,
and since I claim you as a friend, your advice will be
as welcome as it must be valuable.

(Complimentary Close)
I am, dear sir,

Very sincerely yours,
(Signature)

WILLIAM HUTCHESON.

The superscription is the outside address — the one writ-
ten on the envelope, and the one for the postmaster and

Return in 5 days to
540 Sewell St.,
Portland, Me.

Stamp

MR. JOHN W. PLAYFAIR,
President First National Bank,
558 Jackson Boulevard,

Chicago, 111.

CORRESPONDENCE 329

the letter carrier to note. Like the address, the super-
scription consists of three parts: the name, the title, and
the business address or residence.

The accompanying illustration shows a specimen su-
perscription.

SUGGESTIONS

The first and most important rule to be observed by a
writer of a letter is to be courteous.

Neatness.— Always be careful, in the writing of a
letter, to avoid blots, corrections, or erasures. Make the
letter perfect as to neatness, even if it has to be re-
written. An essential as important as neatness is
correct spelling.

Brevity.— One of the essential qualities of business
correspondence that cannot be too strongly dwelt upon
is brevity, for business men have no time to waste, and
appreciate conciseness of expression. Brevity of ex-
pression, if combined with neatness, clearness, and
courtesy always makes a good impression upon the
true business man. One of the greatest helps to success
in any walk of life is the ability to express ideas ac-
curately and concisely.

Deliberation.— No one should write a letter when
angry, nor, as a rule, when inclined to say severe
things. If one receives a letter provoking him to anger,
it is better to wait a little before answering; then
probably the style of his reply will be entirely changed.
Words hastily spoken, and letters written in haste
or anger, one usually would like to recall. Hasty or
vindictive words make enemies and endanger business,
while kind words make and hold friends. Make it a
rule never to write a letter when strongly excited.

Many writers experience difficulty in the opening and
closing sentences of a letter. The opening should be
perfectly natural and should introduce the subject upper-
most in the mind. Avoid in the opening such set
phrases as "I now take my pen in hand to tell you that
I am well, etc.," "I thought I would drop you a line
to let you know, etc." A familiar letter usually ends

330 FIRST AID TO THE INJURED

with an expression of compliment or affection in addition
to the complimentary close.

Promptness of Answers.— From the standpoint of the
recipient of the letter, correspondence demands close and
courteous attention. Letters, especially business letters,
should be answered with reasonable promptness.

Date of Letter Answered.— The answer to a business
letter should contain a reference to the date of the letter
answered; thus, "In answer to your letter of the 10th
inst."

Enclosing Stamp.— A letter asking a favor or treating
of business in which only the writer and not the re-
cipient is interested, should have a stamp enclosed for
an answer.

Legibility.— Do not write so that your correspondent
will be unable to read your letter, or meet with great
difficulty in so doing. Sign your name to the letter,
so that there can be no possible doubt as to the spelling.
Some business men cultivate a characteristic signature,
which they use for checks and business papers. Such
a signature is often purposely almost illegible, and
obviously should not be used for a letter except to a
well-known correspondent.

~~

FIRST AID TO THE INJURED

PREPARATION

In every place where a large number of persons are
employed and where accidents are liable to occur, a
supply of articles needed to render first aid should be
available. These should include one or more stretchers,
bandages, absorbent cotton, carron oil (equal parts of
raw linseed oil and lime water), splints, soap, towels,
blankets, aromatic spirits of ammonia, etc. The neces-
sary quantity of any of these or other articles depends
on the nature and size of the works.

FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 331

Sterilizing.— Many disease germs may be killed by
heat; others by chemicals called disinfectants, such as
bichloride of mercury, carbolic acid, etc. The solutions
used in washing wounds should be made up of about
the following strengths: Bichloride of mercury, 15 gr.
to 1 qt. of water; or, liquid carbolic acid, 2 teaspoonfuls
to 1 qt. of water. The substances should be thoroughly
dissolved before the solution is used.

ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES

FAINTING

Fainting, or swooning, with loss of sensation, motion,
and consciousness, may result from a severe blow or
wound, from loss of blood, from great emotion (extreme
fear or joy), from electric shocks, etc. The patient be-
comes pale, inanimate, and is in a condition of apparent
death; if not soon relieved, death may result.

The patient should be laid with the head lower than
the feet, and ligatures or bands of some sort sho.uld be

FIG. 1

tied around the arms and legs close to the body, so as
to confine the circulation to the trunk and head. The
tongue should be kept out of the throat, in order to
allow free access of air, and the respiration may be

332

FIRST AID TO THE INJURED

helped by pressing in and down on the ribs and chest
and allowing the chest to expand by its own elasticity.
Artificial Respiration.— The process just described is
one form of artificial respiration, and may in some cases
be effective. If the desired results are not soon obtained,
place the patient on his back with a pad (a roll of cloth-
ing will do) under the back just below the shoulders,
so as to raise the pit of the stomach. The patient's
tongue should be drawn out and held by an assistant,
or, it should be fastened against the lower teeth by
a rubber band passing under the chin or clasped be-
tween the patient's teeth, the lower jaw being held up
by a bandage tied over the head. Grasp the forearms
half way between the elbows and wrists, and draw the
arms back rather quickly but steadily in vertical planes
until they meet above the patient's head, as in Fig. 1,
and hold them thus for 2 sec. This motion draws the
ribs up, expands the chest, and air- enters. Now bring
the arms back to the sides of the body, and press firmly

FIG. 2

on the sides and front of the chest over the lower ribs,
as in Fig. 2; the object of this movement is to contract
the chest and force the air out ot the lungs. If enough
assistants are present, one can stand astride the patient
and press firmly against the sides and top of the chest

FIRST AID TO THE INJURED

while the arms are held down along the sides. This
series of movements, constituting one inspiration and
one expiration, should be repeated about once every
4 sec., or fifteen times per min., for \l/2 or 2 hr. if
necessary, unless in the meantime a physician pro-
nounces life extinct. While working over the patient
prevent unnecessary crowding of persons, avoid rough
usage, and do not allow the patient to remain on his
back unless his tongue is secured. Under no circum-
stances should the patient be held up by his feet, nor
should he be placed in a warm bath unless under medical
direction.

TRAUMATIC SHOCK

Severe injuries may sometimes result in traumatic
shock (trauma meaning wound), in which the victim
appears confused and listless and perhaps stupefied, but
not unconscious. The pulses and respiration are per-
ceptible, though feeble and irregular. Sometimes the
bowels move involuntarily. Intelligence is not usually
wholly lost, and the patient can be made to respond to
questions if repeatedly urged. This condition may last
a few moments or several hours, and may terminate in
death.

Place the patient in a horizontal position with head
lowered, and warm him by rubbing and by using warm
linen or blankets. Let him inhale the odor from dilute
ammonia water. If he can swallow, give a little hot
brandy and water with a few drops of ammonia water
added; 1 teaspoonful of aromatic spirits of ammonia in
a wineglassful of water is also good. From 2 to 4 tea-
spoonfuls of turpentine in a quart of water, as hot as
may be used without discomfort, may be injected into
the bowels, often with good results.

Wounds consisting of severe bruises are sometimes
characterized by numbness, coldness, and absence of
bleeding until reaction begins. In such cases, use
stimulants and antiseptics and keep the injured part as
quiet as possible and protected by warm dressing.

334

FIRST AID TO THE INJURED

blood flows from the heart to
5 body, and the veins are the
the blood returns to the heart.

network of very minute tubes

HEMORRHAGE, OR BLEEDING

Hemorrhage, or bleeding, may come from the arteries,
the veins, or the capillaries. The arteries are the
channels through which blood flows from the heart to
the various parts of the
channels through which the
The capillaries form the

through which the blood passes from the arteries to the
veins and by which all the tissues of the body are
nourished.

Arterial hemorrhage is usually distinguished by the
bright red color of the blood and the regular pulsations
with which it issues from the blood vessels; venous
hemorrhage can be known by the dark-blue tint of the
blood and the steadiness of its flow; in capillary hemor-
rhage, the blood has a reddish tint and exudes from the
tissues or wells up from the surface of the wound.
Internal hemorrhage may exist without any external flow
of blood.

After excessive loss of blood, the patient's face and
lips turn pale; he experiences chills, cold sweats, nausea,
frequent vomiting, irregular respiration, feeble pulse,
dizziness, buzzing in the ears, and finally unconscious-
ness, terminating either in death or in cessation of the

bleeding. In the latter case, consciousness may soon

return, but very often the tendency to fainting fits
persists for a time.

Capillary hemorrhage is ar-
rested by bathing the
wounded part in cold steril-
ized water and bandaging it
with a pad, or compress of
sterilized gauze or lint.

Venous hemorrhage is
more serious and cannot always be stopped by binding
a pad over the wound; in this case, the limb must be
bandaged on the side of the wound away from the
heart. The limb should be raised and held above the

FIG. 3

FIRST AID TO THE INJURED

335

rest of the body and the patient should be made to lie
perfectly quiet.

Arterial hemorrhage is more serious than either of the
others. If a large artery or a number of small ones
are ruptured, the blood may escape so rapidly that death
occurs almost at once. Pressure enough to stop the flow
should be applied to the artery where it passes over a
bone between the wound and the heart. The location of
the artery is revealed by the distinct pulsations. Pres-

FIG. 4

sure applied with the fingers will answer temporarily,
and this method affords a way of finding the proper
spot on which to press. A knot or any hard substance,
in a handkerchief or a bandage may then be placed on
the spot, tied loosely around the limb, and twisted with
a stick, as in Fig. 3, until bleeding ceases. The stick
may be then be fastened with another bandage.

The course of the main (brachial) artery in the arm is
well indicated by the inner sleeve seam of a man's coat;
this artery can be compressed by grasping the arm by

336

FIRST AID TO THE INJURED

either method (a) or (6), Fig. 4. The pressure should
always be downwards against the bone and not against

FIG. 6

soft muscle. The subclavian artery supplying blood to
the arm may be closed by applying pressure in the hol-
low just above the collar bone, as shown in Fig. 5.
The temporal artery runs up the side of the forehead,
and may be closed by applying a pad, as in Fig. 6.
The femoral artery runs from the groin down a little
inside of the front of the leg about one-third the dis-
tance to 'the knee, then passes through the muscles
and approaches the surface again behind the knee.

FIG.

FIG. 8

Pressure applied as at P, Fig. 7, may stop bleeding
from a wound above the knee, and a pad applied as in
Fig. 8 is applicable for a wound below the knee.

FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 337

ELECTRIC SHOCK

Electric shock may produce severe burns, unconscious-
ness, or death, depending on the strength of the current
through the body as well as on its duration and flow.
If the skin is thin and moist and the contacts with the
conductors good, comparatively low voltage, 220 or pos-
sibly less, may be sufficient to send considerable current
through the body. On the other hand, a person with
thick, dry skin, as on the palms of the hands, may
sometimes make slight accidental contact with a circuit
of several thousand volts without serious results. A
very small current through the region of the heart may
paralyze its action and cause death; currents of greater
density stimulate the heart to increased action, but
paralyze the nerve centers controlling respiration and may
cause death by suffocation, the same as in drowning.

Accidental contact with an electric conductor should
be broken as quickly as possible; if maintained until
heart action ceases, as a result of suffocation, death
invariably results. In breaking the contact (provided,
of course, the power cannot be immediately turned off
the circuit), use the feet to push the victim and the
conductor apart — never the hands. Current passing
from one foot through the legs and the other foot to
ground does comparatively little injury, since the im-
portant nerve centers and the heart are not in its
path. As soon as the contact is broken, the victim, if
he has not lost consciousness, soon recovers. If the
victim is unconscious but has not ceased breathing, an
effort should be made to revive him, the same as in an
ordinary fainting fit. If respiration has ceased, artificial
respiration should be tried and continued for some time,
even though the heart action is so feeble as to be almost
imperceptible. The first and most important requirement
in producing respiration by artificial means is to hold
the tongue so that it cannot obstruct the throat.

Burns caused by contact with electric conductors
should be protected with sterilized gauze. Such burns

338 FIRST AW TO THE INJURED

are generally deep, sometimes even carbonizing the
bones, especially those of the fingers. They heal quickly,
however — ordinarily in from 3 to 6 weeks.

WOUNDS

Before being used on a wound, all instruments, band-
ages, etc., should be sterilized by heating in steam or
boiling water or by baking or by treating with a germ-
destroying solution. The water used in washing a
wound should first be boiled, in fact nothing unsterilized
should be permitted to come in contact with the wounded
surface. The germs entering a wound from the skin of the
patient or from the object that produced the wound may
be removed by thoroughly washing with sterilized water,
and the sterilized dressings will prevent further infection.

The first treatment of a wound includes checking the
bleeding; the removal of all foreign matter and a
thorough washing; drawing the lips of the wound to-
gether or gently straightening bruised or torn flesh;
applying several layers of sterilized gauze, with absorb-
ent cotton next the wound if it is likely to bleed or
discharge, and holding all in place with a suitable
bandage. Sterilized adhesive strips are sometimes nec-
essary to hold the v/ound together.

FRACTURES

The signs of fracture are: (.1) Loss of power in the
limb, or part, injured. (2) Pain and swelling at the
seat of the injury. (3) Distortion of the injured limb
—it will be longer or shorter than the other or will lie
in some unnatural position. By gentle pulling, the limb
may be brought back to its natural shape, but on being
released will immediately return to the distorted posi-
tion. (4) On gently moving the limb, a grating sensation
(crepitation) may be felt where the ends of the broken
bone rub against each other. (5) If near the surface,
the break may be felt from 'the outside. A fracture
should be handled with extreme gentleness; rough usage
may do much harm.

FIRST AID TO THE INJURED

339

Before attempting to move a patient suffering from
fracture, the injured part should be supported in a rigid

FIG. 9

position by tying on splints. Almost any substance stiff
enough to support the injured part will answer for a
temporary splint; for example, a stocking leg or a coat
sleeve filled with earth, sand, moss, hay, chaff, or paper
and securely tied at each end, a barrel stave, a piece
of board, a roll of paper, etc. If hard substances are
used for splints, the leg should be padded. If feasible,
the splints should extend past the nearest joints, and
should be securely bandaged so that both the fracture
and the joints are held
rigid, as in Fig. 9.

Until the physician comes,
a fractured jaw should be
held in place by a bandage
passed under the chin and
over the head. If the collar
bone is broken, the arm
should be raised gently, and
a pad made by tightly roll-
ing a handkerchief or a piece
of cloth should be placed
in the armpit; the forearm

FIG. 10

should be supported horizontally across the chest by a
large arm sling, and the arm and sling should be held
firmly in position by a broad bandage placed around the

340 [ FIRST AID TO THE INJURED

body and just above the elbow. Fractured ribs may be
temporarily treated by fastening broad bandages around
the body, tying the knot on the side opposite the frac-
ture, as in Fig. 10.

DISLOCATIONS AND SPRAINS

A dislocation is the displacement of the bones of a joint.
Ordinarily, a physician is needed, and little can be done
before his arrival except to make the patient as com-
fortable as possible.

A sprain should be kept very quiet. If possible, keep
the injured member in water as hot as can be borne
for ll/2 hr. or more; then bandage with moderate firmness
in such a manner as to prevent any movement of the
joint, using splints for this purpose if necessary.

EFFECTS OF HEAT

Burns.— -The general treatment of a burn consists in
relieving the pain, in combating the depression, and
increasing the warmth of the patient. The pain may
usually be relieved by excluding the air from the burned
portion; stimulants should be given, if necessary, to
relieve the depression. A covering of flour may be
spread over the burned surface; or bicarbonate of soda,
either in the form of paste or powder, can be used; any
oil, such as sweet oil, raw linseed oil, or carron oil, or
a dressing, such as vaseline, cold cream, etc., is
effective.

In removing the clothing from over a burn or in
dressing it, the blisters should not be broken. If any
clothing adheres, it should be saturated with oil and
allowed to remain. The patient should not be exposed
to cold.

Heat exhaustion is generally accompanied by weakness,
cool skin, pale face, weak voice, rapid and feeble pulse,
increased respiration, dim vision, and possibly by un-
consciousness. The patient should be placed in a
horizontal position with the head low, and stimulants
and hot applications should be administered. Occasional
doses of brandy should be given, also a teaspoonful of

FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 341

aromatic spirits of ammonia in a little hot milk or
water every half hour. If the patient cannot swallow,
these remedies may be injected into the rectum.

Sunstroke, which may occur in any hot, moist tern
perature, is accompanied by high fever. In a few cases,
unconsciousness and death come very quickly; but
usually the progressive symptoms are intense headache,
dizziness, oppression, nausea, vomiting, occasionally
diarrhea, and unconsciousness with delirium and rest-
lessness. The face is flushed, the eyes bloodshot, the
skin very hot and dry (temperature from 107° to 112° F.),
the breathing labored and sometimes noisy, and the
pulse frequent and full.

Both the symptoms and the treatment are directly
opposite those for heat exhaustion. In cases of sun-
stroke, every effort should be made to reduce the
excessive bodily temperature. Rubbing with ice, a
cold bath, a cold pack, and cold rectal injections are
all good.

RESTORING OF APPARENTLY
DROWNED PERSONS

TREATMENT WHEN SEVERAL ASSIST-
ANTS ARE AT HAND

As soon as the patient is taken from the water, expose
the face to the air, toward the wind if there is any, and
wipe dry the mouth and nostrils; rip the clothing so as
to expose the chest and waist, and give two or three
quick, smarting slaps on the chest with the open hand.
If the patient does not revive, proceed immediately
to expel water from the stomach and chest, as follows:
Separate the jaws and keep them apart by placing be-
tween the teeth a cork or small bit of wood; turn the
patient on his face, a large bundle of tightly rolled
clothing being placed beneath the stomach (see Fig. 1);

342

FIRST AID TO THE INJURED

press heavily on the back over the stomach for.J^ min.,
or as long as fluids flow freely from the mouth.

To Produce Breathing.— Clear the mouth and throat of
mucus by introducing into the throat the corner of a
handkerchief wrapped closely around the forefinger;
turn the patient on the back, the roll of clothing being
so placed as to raise the pit of the stomach above the
level of the . rest of the body (see Fig. 2). Let an
assistant, with a handkerchief or piece of dry cloth,
draw the tip of the tongue out of one corner of the mouth
(which prevents the tongue from falling back and

FiG. 1

choking the entrance to the windpipe), and keep it
projecting a little beyond the lips. Let another assistant
grasp the arms just below the elbows and draw them
steadily upwards by the side of the patient's head, and
to the ground, the hands nearly meeting (which enlarges
the capacity of the chest and induces inspiration).
While this is being done, let a third assistant take a
position astride the patient's hips, with his elbows rest-
ing on his own knees, his hands extended ready for
action. Next, let the assistant standing at the head turn
down the patient's arms to the side of the body

FIRST AID TO THE INJURED

343

(see Fig. 3), the assistant holding the tongue changing
hands, if necessary, to let the arm pass. Just before
the patient's hands reach the ground, the man astride
the body will grasp the body with his hands, the balls
of the thumbs resting on either side of the pit of the
stomach, the fingers falling into grooves between the
short ribs. Now, using his knees as a pivot, he will
at the moment the patient's hands touch the ground
throw (not. too suddenly) all his weight forwards on
his hands, and at the same time squeeze the waist
between them, as if he wished to force something in
the chest upwards out of the mouth; he will increase

FIG. 2

the pressure while he slowly counts one, two, three,
four (about 5 sec.), then suddenly let go with a final
push, which will spring him back to his first position.
This completes expiration.

344

FIRST AW TO THE INJURED

Repeat these movements, deliberately and persevef-
ingly, 12 to 15 times in every minute — thus imitating the
natural motions of breathing.

If natural breathing is not restored after a trial of
the bellows movement for the space of about 4
then turn the pati<
rolling the body
which it was fir;

the air passage from any remaining water. Continue
the artificial respiration from 1 to 4 hr., or until the
patient breathes, according to the preceding instructions;

^auiiiiig JLO inju itOUUlGU. dll-Cl a. Hldi Ul

ivement for the space of about 4 min.,
patient a second time on the stomach,
y in the opposite direction from that in
first turned, for the purpose of freeing

FIG. 3

and for a time, after the appearance of returning life,
carefully aid the short gasps until deepened into full
breaths. Continue the drying and rubbing, which should
have been unceasingly practiced from the beginning by
assistants, taking care not to interfere with the means
used to produce breathing. Thus, the limbs of the
patient should be rubbed, always in an upward direction
toward the body with firm, grasping pressure and energy,
using the bare hands, dry flannels, or handkerchiefs, and
continuing the friction under the blankets or over the
dry clothing. The warmth of the body can also be
promoted by the application of hot flannels to the

FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 345

stomach and armpits and bottles or bladders of hot wa-
ter, heated bricks, etc. to the limbs and soles of the feet.

After Treatment.— When breathing has been estab-
lished, let the patient be stripped of all wet clothing,
wrapped in blankets only, put to bed comfortably
warm, but with free circulation of fresh air, and left to
perfect rest. Give whisky, or brandy, and hot water
in doses of a teaspoonful, or a tablespoonful, according
to the weight of the patient, or any other stimulant at
hand, every 10 or 15 min. for the first hour, and as
often thereafter as may seem expedient. After reaction
is fully established, there is great danger of con-
gestion of the lungs, and if perfect rest is not maintained
for at least 48 hr. it sometimes occurs that the patient
is seized with great difficulty of breathing, and death
is liable to follow unless immediate relief is afforded.
In such cases, apply a large mustard plaster over the
breast. If the patient gasps for breath before the
mustard takes effect, assist the breathing by carefully
repeating the artificial respiration.

The foregoing treatment should be persevered in for
some hours, as it is an erroneous opinion that persons
are irrecoverable because life does not soon make its
appearance.

MODIFICATION OF TREATMENT

To Produce Respiration.— If no assistant is at hand
and one person must work alone, place the patient on
his back with the shoulders slightly raised on a folded
article of clothing; draw forward the tongue and keep
it projecting just beyond the lips; if the lower jaw
be lifted,, the teeth may be made to hold the tongue in
place; it may be necessary to retain the tongue by pass-
ing a handkerchief under the chin and tying it over
the head. Grasp the arms just below the elbows and
steadily draw them upwards by the sides of the patient's
head to the ground, the hands nearly meeting, as shown

346

FIRST AID TO THE INJURED

in Fig. 1. Next, lower the arms to the sides and
press firmly downwards and inwards on the sides and.

FIG. 1

front of the chest over the lower ribs, drawing toward
the patient's head, as shown in Fig. 2. Repeat these
movements 12 to 15 times every minute, etc.

FIG. 2

Remarks.— Prevent unnecessary crowding of persons
round the body, especially if in an apartment.

Under no circumstances hold the body up by the feet.

On no account place the body in a warm bath, unless
under medical direction, and even then it should be
employed only as a momentary excitant.

MEMORANDA

MEMORANDA

MEMORANDA

MEMORANDA

Secured
Through the

POULTRY FARMING

Poultry Breeding

General Farming

Soil Improvement

Farm Crops

LIVESTOCK AND DAIRYING

COURSES OF INSTRUCTION
OF THE

International
Correspondence Schools

International Textbook
Company, Proprietors

SCRANTON, PA., U. S. A.
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AN I.C.S. COURSE TURNS FAILURE INTO SUCCESS

S. R. EMERICK, 733 W. 2d St., Shelbyville, Ind.: "The
day that the I.C.S. knocked at my door, I was not in
any position to make money, in fact I was not fit for
anything. The day I enrolled for my Poultry Farming
Course was the best day of my life, for it has made a
man of me. I am now my own employer, being the
owner of "The Natural Poultry Yard," having taken up
the breeding of utility birds and breeding for egg pro-
duction. The Lesson Papers of my Course are my busi-
ness guides. Any one who will follow the instructions as
set forth in the Course cannot help but succeed, for the
Lesson Papers are easy to understand and to remember.
Any one who thinks of going into the poultry business
should first let the I.C.S. prepare him for success."

AN I.C.S. COURSE IS BEST

A. E. EASTMAN, 47-51 Birch St., Manchester, N. H.:
"Your Course in Poultry Farming treats the subject thor-
oughly in all its branches. Although I have read many
poultry books and am a subscriber to several poultry
papers, I received many valuable suggestions from the
Course that I have been unable to obtain from any other
source. I can cheerfully recommend your Course of in-
struction to any one desiring a full knowledge of poultry
raising."

GAINED $1.50 PER BIRD

JOHN CLARK, Box 8, Norman Place, Tenafly, N. J.:
"I have found your Poultry Farming Course very bene-
ficial to me. Before I took up the Course I was losing
money on my birds, but this past year I have gained an
average of $1.50 per bird. This I would not have been
able to do if I had not taken your Course."

A GRADUATE'S SUCCESS

W. A. SLATER, Box 115, Jamestown, N. Y.: "Your
I.C.S. Poultry Course I found very practical and a benefit
to me in many ways. When I started into the chicken
business, the second year I lost 50 per cent, of my stock.
After graduating from your Course, I have this year
raised 95 per cent, of the chicks hatched and have suc-
ceeded in getting more eggs from my flocks than ever
before. I am now manager of Slater's Poultry Farm."

Failed Repeatedly — Now
Successful

I cannot recommend your Course in Poultry
Husbandry too highly, as it has made me a suc-
cess after repeated failures. It is the most
complete Course in Poultry Husbandry that
has ever come to my notice. It covers every
branch and detail of poultry farming. I have
bought about every book advertised, the writers
of which gave an outline of how they ran their
farms but stopped at the gate, but your Course
taught me how to raise my own poultry and run
my little farm. Your Course taught me what
to do and why to do it. I am no longer in the
dark concerning poultry. My hens laid 70 per
cent, more eggs in the first half of this year
than they ever laid in a whole year before.
Your lessons on diseases of poultry have saved
many a growing chick for me this season. My
loss of young chicks this season through natural
causes has been less than 7 per cent, of all chicks
hatched. Last season my loss from natural
causes was about 60 per cent.

Every person that contemplates going into
the poultry business, or those who have failed,
should enroll in your Schools, for it will make
one a success from the start, and it will make a
success out of a failure.

WM. T. SCHEIDE,

R. F. D. 1, Lima, Ohio.

AN I.C.S. COURSE WOULD HAVE SAVED HIM $5,000

WALTER B. DAVIS, Davis Poultry Farm, Kings Highway
and E. 23d St., Brooklyn, N. Y. : "I have about com-
pleted your Course on Poultry Farming and I beg to state
that I consider it the greatest asset a poultry farmer can
have to begin with. It covers the details in every way.
From my own personal experience I can safely say that
had I been familiar with this Course a year ago I would
have saved $5,000 on my poultry farm. (This figure is a
conservative estimate.)"

DOUBLES HIS SALARY

PAUL GELUK, c/o Patterson Ranch, Oxnard, Calif.: "I
was a foreman in the Dundee Chemical Works when I
decided to enroll for the Complete Poultry Course. At
the present time I have charge of the Poultry Depart-
ment for the Patterson Ranch Company at Oxnard, Calif.
My salary since the time of enrolment has been doubled.
While I did not have much education before enrolling, I
experienced no difficulty, as your Lesson Papers are
easy to learn. All the advancement I have made is en-
tirely through my I.C.S. Course, as I never handled any
poultry before I took charge here."

A CITY MAN'S SUCCESS

J. K. SHAUGHNESSY, Federal St., Agawam, Mass.: "I
had always hankered for country life and chickens. If
any man will invest in the I.C.S. Poultry Farming Course
he will have no trouble to make a success of the busi-
ness. My present position, secured through your Stu-
dents' Aid Department, is that of manager and half
owner of the Sanitary Poultry Yards. We have a ca-
pacity of 1,600 layers and expect to increase each year.
I am dry picking all my market stock and am getting
ten cents more per pound than any man around this
section and also top prices for my eggs."

GAINED A POSITION AS MANAGER

C. W. LARSON, R. F. D. No. 3, Box 40- A, St. Paul,
Minn.: "I was working as a clerk when I enrolled with
the I.C.S. for the Poultry Farming Course. I would
strongly advise any one who contemplates going into the
poultry industry to take up this Course which will assure
him all success. It was because I was known to be a
student of your Course that I was aJble to secure a posi-
tion as manager of the Victoria Poultry Farm, an up-to-
date plant, at a good salary. You are at liberty to refer
prospective students to me."

5

The I. C. S. a Public
Benefactor

I have just received my Diploma in your
Agricultural Course, and am much pleased
with the painstaking manner in which my
Instruction Papers were handled by your people.
The proposition, in a nutshell, is that, if the
student does his (or her) part, the I. C. S. will
do theirs.

The benefits to be derived from a Course in
Agriculture in the I. C. S. are manifold; the
most important, perhaps, is that it teaches the
tiller of the soil to grow not only a better crop,
but realize a greater production, as well as to
do it with a great deal less of labor and expense,
thereby making the tilling of the soil more of
a pleasure than a drudge. Farmers, as well
as others, are waking up to the truth that
scientific farming is the otily proper method to
pursue, especially in these days of worn-out
land, problems of drainage, and other things
too numerous to mention. In this connection,
your instruction on manures is worth the price
of the whole Course. I might say the same of
your instruction on drainage, etc.

I have endeavored to make my letter brief,
but, on account of the great scope or mag-
nitude of your Agricultural Course, it would
be difficult to say it all upon a hundred sheets
of paper of this size.

Any one who can show how two plants can
be grown where but one could be made to grow
before, and with less labor, expense, etc., is no
less than a public benefactor, and this you do
in your Agricultural Course.

WAYNE CANFIELD
' City Hall, Wilkes-Barre, Pa.

PAID FOR HIS COURSE WITH 15 HENS

WILBUR H. DRESHER, Jeddo, Pa., writes that he has been
able, through the knowledge gained from our Poultry
Farming Course, to make 15 hens pay the price of his
Course in less than 1 year. He praises the Schools for
teaching him how to reduce his feed bills through scien-
tific feeding, and for showing him how to take care of
the health of his flock.

LABORER BECOMES SUPERINTENDENT
F. B. OLIVER, Smithville Flats, N. Y: "I have been
employed in the poultry business nearly the entire time
since I enrolled in the I.C.S. for the Poultry Farming
Course and my monthly salary has been substantially
increased. I have likewise advanced from a farm laborer
to superintendent of a poultry plant. My Course has
been so very beneficial to me that I intend to enroll for
the Agricultural Course."

PRAISES COURSE

H. S. FERGUSON, Manager, Deep Fork Dairy, Okmulgee,
Okla.: "I have taken a Course in Soil Improvement,
Farm Crops, Livestock and Dairying with the Interna-
tional Correspondence Schools and can truly recommend
same to any one who wishes to take up such a Course.
I owe what I am to the Course and am sure any one may
be benefited the same as myself. It does not require a
college education to take a Course with this School, as
they are willing to help you with anything you do not
fully understand. Give them a trial and be convinced."

NOW PROPRIETOR

RAY L. CHAMBERLIN, South Road, Orange, Mass., was
earning a small salary when he enrolled for the Com-
plete Poultry Course. Since receiving his Diploma he
has become manager and half owner of the Wyolette
Poultry Yards. He declares that the lessons on diseases
and enemies of poultry are worth the price of the whole
Course; also, that the lesson on poultry feeding has
made a big increase in his egg yields.

NOW MANAGER

WM. M. FRESHLEY, Madison, Ohio, declares that he has
gained considerable help from his I.C.S. Poultry Farming
Course. He is now proprietor of the Silver Campine
Farm. He recommends the Course to poultrymen as well
as to beginners.

Salary More Than
Doubled

. A. BAKER, Proprietor F.W. EASTMAN, Manager
P. O. Box, 2898 Greensboro

Boston, Mass. Vermont

BAKER FARM, GREENSBORO, VERMONT
Pure Bred Holstein Cattle

At the time I enrolled with the I.C.S.
I was working as a farm hand. In two
years' time my present position came to me
at a salary more than twice what I was
earning when I enrolled and a share in the
profits besides. I cannot recommend the
I.C.S. too highly. I have two students of
the School in my employ and both, I feel
sure, will succeed. F. W. EASTMAN

HIS COURSE BROUGHT SUCCESS
OBLETON R. REID, Lothair, Ky. : "I have been en-
gaged in the poultry business for some years, without
much success at first. Every year I would lose from 200
to 300 young chickens. I was just stumbling along in
the dark. Then I enrolled for yqiir Complete Poultry
Course. I consider this the best investment I ever made
and advise any person who enters the poultry business
to take a Course from the I.C.S. first. The knowledge
that I have gained from your instruction has put me on
the road to success. Instead of heavy losses I have this
year, up to this time, lost only eight or ten chicks, and
I have now (June 9th) about four Hundred broilers ready
for market."

FOUND COURSE A MONEY SAVER

ERNEST STARTUP, 840 Whitney Ave., New Haven, Conn.,
began his I.C.S. studies while employed as a butler. He
writes: "Having kept a small flock of fowls as a side
line with some degree of success, I became determined to
start a poultry farm of my own. In order to obtain more
knowledge on the subject I enrolled for the Special
Poultry Course. Now, although only half through the
Course, I am more than delighted that I had sense
enough to enroll. I find the Instruction Papers full of
the very things one wants to know and they clearly
show that the secret of success is nothing more than
common sense and right methods. I honestly believe
that had I started a poultry farm without taking this
Course, I would have lost more money in the first week
than I have paid for the Course."

ADDED $500 PROFIT

T. E. CASTLE, Virginia City, Mont.: "At the time I
enrolled with the International Correspondence Schools
for the Poultry Farming Course, I was conducting a
small poultry plant as a side issue to my business of
editing and managing a country newspaper. I had been
handling poultry for a number of years and thought I
was pretty well versed in the intricacies of the profes-
sion, until I took up the study of my Course. I have
learned more than I ever thought I knew before and
have added $500 to my profits as proprietor of the Castle
Hennery. It makes no difference how much one may
know of the poultry business, if he will study your
Course and apply its teachings he must necessarily make
his business a success."

9

Found His Course
Profitable

HARRY L. GOODWIN, Farmington, Me., was
a printer 43 years old when he enrolled with
the I. C. S. for the Poultry Farming Course.
At that time he was interested in poultry
and had been for years a writer for the press.
He says that his Course has enabled him to
secure much better results with Barred Rocks,
Rhode Island Reds, and Indian Runner Ducks
than he had formerly been able to attain.
During the past year he has written 61 articles
for publication in farming and poultry jour-
nals, for which he is receiving payment, thereby
considerably increasing his income. He feels
that his Course has already paid for itself in
more ways than one, and that it has been a
very profitable investment.

10

HIS MOST SATISFACTORY INVESTMENT

MARTIN J. ROONEY, 408 S. Ohio St., Butte, Mont.:
"The I.C.S. Course in Poultry Farming is thorough in
every particular. I can honestly say that I consider the
price I paid for the Course one of the most satisfactory
investments I ever made."

WORTH FIVE TIMES ITS COST

GEORGE A. VAN VLECK, Hollis, L. I., N. Y.: "If I had

faid five times the price of your Poultry Farming Course,
would consider it one of my best investments, since it
has enabled me to get such results from my flock. I am
now part owner of the Hillside Poultry Yards. No one
needs, to make mistakes for lack of knowledge who has
"mastered your Course."

NOW MANAGER

ALBERT E. EDWARDS, c/o The Davidson Farm, R. F. D.
No. 1, Jermyn, Pa.: "Although I left school at the age of
eleven to work in a grocery store, I had no difficulty in
mastering your Poultry Farming Course. Without the
knowledge I have obtained from it, I could not have taken
the responsibility of handling 6,000 chicks at one time,
ranging from two days to three months, in a colony system.

Any one who is in the business, or intends to go into it,
should take the Course, since he could save enough from
his feed bill in a year to pay for it, besides producing
better stock for better prices. I was employed as a carpet
weaver on piece work. I am now the baby-chick man-
ager on the C. P. Davidson farm."

THE BEST MONEY HE EVER SPENT

CHAS. H. CARROLL, 71 Clark St., Auburn, N. Y.: "Al-
though I was raised on a large farm where we kept fowls,
I felt the need of your Poultry Farming Course. Since
receiving my Diploma I can truly say that it was the best
money I ever spent, as I can now manage any poultry
farm with assurance of success."

WORTH MORE THAN SEVEN YEARS' EXPERIENCE

FRED. BUSSE, Carlstadt, N. J.: "I have had seven years'
experience in the raising of poultry and I find that I have
learned more in three months from your Poultry Farming
Course than I found out in the whole seven years pre-
vious. I recommend the Course as a great help to any one
raising poultry whether on a large or small scale."

11

The Man Who Raised the
$100,000 Hen

Greensboro, Caroline County, Maryland
EGLANTINE FARM PRODUCTS

(Trade Mark)

I am glad to say that it was my good
fortune to have enrolled three years ago as
a student in your Poultry Farming Course.
The education gained from this study
fitted me for the position of head poultry-
man at Eglantine Farm. Since coming
here I have had charge at all times of the
poultry department. I have looked after
the mating of the fowls, the incubating of
the eggs, and the rearing of the chicks.
It was my good fortune to select the pul-
lets of our own breeding that have done
so remarkably well in the North American
Egg-Laying Contest.

FRANK VADAKIN,

Head Poultryman, Eglantine Farms,
Greensboro, Md.

12

The Best Source

BROOKVALE FARM

The Home of Burr's
WHITE ORPINGTONS

G. M. BURR, Proprietor MESHOPPEN, PA.

It gives me pleasure to acknowledge the
great assistance your thorough Course of
Instruction in Poultry Farming has been
to me. I had made several attempts to
establish a poultry business, but met with
many discouragements, and it was not
until I had mastered the underlying prin-
ciples of poultry raising that I met with
any gratifying degree of success. I have
now a well-established and successful
poultry business, and was the winner of a
sixth prize in the Cyphers Company's first
annual contest of successful poultry grow-
ers. I am using on my plant the Inter-
national Sanitary Hover. I have had ex-
cellent success with it, and, in my opinion,
it is superior to any other brooder made.
As a breeder of single-comb White Orping-
tons, I find my I.C.S. Course full of valu-
able information and practical instruction
for all phases of the work. I know that
any one going into the poultry business
needs such instruction to make a success
of it, as in my own case.

G. M. BURR

13

Considers Course a Valu-
able Investment

I wish to express my appreciation not
only for the value of your Poultry Course
but also of the interest and personal at-
tention given the student. For several
years I have considered myself a compe-
tent poultryman, well grounded in the
business from incubation to the show-
room, the market, or the laying house.
After a year's study I find my knowledge
on every subject broader and more prac-
tical. From each lesson I have learned
something of value and consider that any
lesson, taken alone, would be well worth
the money price of the entire Course. As
a result of my year's application of the
Poultry Course to my business, I find in-
creased egg production, marked improve-
ment in my laying stock and breeders
from feeding correctly. I am breeding
higher-quality stock and on the whole my
plant is much improved. I know the
Course to be practical and workable. It's
scientific, yet easily understood by a plain
man like myself. By my own experience
I know it can be applied to any kind of
plant with benefit. I believe it to be
equally valuable to the beginner and the
experienced. It has made and saved me
many times its cost. I wish the I.C.S. all
prosperity. JACK GORDON,

571 Natoma St., San Francisco, Calif.

14

CANNOT FAIL TO SUCCEED

BERT WHITE, Box 477, Burlingame, Kans. : "Any one
interested in poultry should invest in the Poultry Farm-
ing Course with the I.C.S. From personal experience I
can say that any one that will study the Course cannot
fail to succeed. Each subject is well explained and
easily understood. Since I began to study my Course
the profits of my flock are rapidly increasing."

WORTH MANY TIMES ITS COST

WILLIAM F. HALLOWAY, River Side Farm, Newark,
Md. : "I wish to express my gratitude to the faculty of
the International Correspondence Schools for the assis-
tance they have rendered me and the interest they have
taken in my progress and success since I enlisted for a
Course in Soil Improvement and Farm Crops. The In-
struction Papers are very lucid and cover every point of
importance with the utmost care, thereby making it
easy for the person to grasp the meaning of what is
taught. I think any one who contemplates making farm-
ing his life vocation will find an International Corre-
spondence Schools' Course in Agriculture worth many
times the cost."

HIS COURSE PROFITABLE

J. C. THRENHAUSER, Fair Haven, Pa.: "I cannot ex-
press my appreciation of the value of your Poultry Farm-
ing Course, since the benefits derived are far beyond my
anticipation. Since taking your Course I have spent
some time at the government experiment station. Their
course in some respects is quite like yours, but it is not
so extensive or so complete. I have been offered two

Positions to take charge of poultry farms, both of which
declined, because I can do much better by caring for
my own poultry."

PUTS PRICELESS VALUE ON COURSE
RALPH W. WESTON, Box 26, Honolulu, Hawaii : "I
can say in all faith that the methods and instruction set
forth in the I.C.S. Poultry Farming Course are of price-
less value. I have applied these methods in a small way
and find the results as stated. The Course is worth
many times the expenditure of time and money."

EARNINGS INCREASED— HEALTH IMPROVED

ERNEST BROWETT, R. F. D. 4, Pitt Poultry Farm,
McDonald, Pa.: "When enrolling I was a coal miner.
Now I am managing the poultry farm of F. A. Thomassy.
The Course has brought me better health and earnings.
No one should try to raise a small or large flock of
poultry without an I.C.S. Course."

15

Dollars and Cents
Knowledge

Having been a subscriber to your Mechan-
ical Course in former years, I was pleased to
learn that you were issuing a Course in Poultry
Farming. Knowing the need of information
on this subject, I subscribed for the Course.

In reading and studying the first Instruction
Papers, I began to realize the greatness and
perfection of the Course. Step by step the
student is led to proficiency and also I find that
each step has been carefully examined before-
hand from one standpoint — the question of dol-
lars and cents. In this lies the crux of the mat-
ter, the secret of success.

THOMAS H. POLLARD
916 Eighth Ave., Brooklyn, N, Y,

16

I.C.S. Course a Necessity
Not a Luxury

Secretary, Twin Valley Poultry Association
and American Partridge Rock Club

Breeder of

IMPERIAL PARTRIDGE PLYMOUTH
ROCKS

In speaking of your Poultry Course, will
say that it has no equal. It is not "Can
you afford it?" but "Can you afford to do
without it?" No one will make a mistake
in taking an I.C.S. Poultry Course. I owe
my success to your Poultry Course.

ROBERT H. RAMSEY,

Lewisburg, Ohio

17

Praise From Farm Owner

Permit me to express my gratefulness to
you for the I.C.S. chemical analysis of my
soil. In keeping with the knowledge that
I gained from the studies of the I.C.S.
Agricultural Courses, the analysis of my
soil has made it more clear to me that my
soil is lacking in the plant foods nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magne-
sium, and organic matter, and also gave
me the quantity of these foods that should
be added to the acre for profitable results.
In addition to these, it proved that my
soil is not acid, and saved me of the ex-
penditure for 30 tons of lime, which I
thought my soil needed. I left the farm in
1900 after working 5 years as a farm hand,
but returned again 3 years ago, taking up
farming for myself. It was then, seeing
my deficiency, I immediately enrolled for
the Agricultural Course of the I.C.S. I
greatly appreciate the time spent in and
the understanding received by studying
these Courses. I am sure half of my suc-
cess would have been lost had I done
other than studying.

JAS. H. DOUGLAS,
1511 Laurel St., N. S., Pittsburgh, Pa.

18

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW

AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS

WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN
THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY
WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH
DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY
OVERDUE.

3 1934

469891

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY