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A PRACTICAL COURSE IN
BOTANY

WITH ESPECIAL REFERENCE TO ITS BEARINGS ON
AGRICULTURE, ECONOMICS, AND SANITATION

BY
E. F. ANDREWS

AUTHdK OF " BOTANV ALL THE VKAK ROUND"

WITH EDITORIAL REVISION BY

FRANCIS E. LLOYD

MACDONALI) PROFESSOR OF BOTANV, MCGILL UNIVERSITY,
FORMKRLV OF ALABAMA HOI.VTECllNIC INSTITUTE

NEW YORK •:■ CINCINNATI ■: CHICAGO

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY

Copyright, 1911, by
E. F. ANDREWS.

Entehed at Stationers' Hall, London,

andkews's i'r. botany.
w. p. 7

b^Vx

^^^

K^

PREFACE

In preparing the present volume, the aim of the writer has
been to meet all the college entrance requirements and at the
same time to bring the stud}' of botany into closer touch with
the practical business of life by stressing its relations with
agriculture, economics, and, in certain of its aspects, with sani-
tation. While technical language has been avoided so far
as the requirements of scientific accuracy will permit, the
student is not encouraged to shirk the use of necessary botani-
cal terms, out of a mere superstitious fear of words because
they happen to be a little new or unfamiliar. Such a practice
not only leads to careless and inaccurate modes of expression,
but tends to foster a slovenly habit of mind, and in the long run
causes the waste of more time and labor in the search after
roundabout, and often misleading, substitutes, than it would
require to master the proper use of a few new words and
phrases.

In the choice of materials for experiment and illustration,
the endeavor has been to call for such only as are familiar and
easily obtained. The specimens for flower dissection have been
selected mainly from common cultivated kinds, because their
wide distribution makes them easy to obtain everywhere, while
in cities and large towns they are practically the only specimens
available. Another important consideration has been the desire
to spare our native wild flowers, or at least not to hasten the
extinction with which they are threatened by the ravages of Sun-
day excursionists and summer tourists, to whose unthinking,
but none the less destructive, incursions, the automobile has laid
open the most secret haunts of nature. The influence of the
public school teacher, and more especially the teacher of botany,
is the most potent factor from which we can hope for aid in
putting a stop to the relentless persecution that has practically
exterminated many of our choicest wild plants and is fast

7/77

*^^ 9^' COLLEGE UBRm,

IV PREFACE

reducing the civilized world to a depressing monotony of
weediness and artificiality. Except for purely systematic and
anatomical work, flowers can be studied to better put pose in
their living, active state than as dead subjects for dissection ;
and the best way to show our interest in them, or to get the
most rational enjoyment out of them, is not, as a general thing,
to cut their heads off and throw them away to wither and die
by the roadside. The teacher, by instilling into the minds of
the rising generation a reverence for plant life, may do a great
deal to aid in the conservation of one of our chief national assets
for the gratification of the higher esthetic instincts. The fruits
and flowers of cultivation do not stand in the same need of pro-
tection, since they are produced solely with a view to the use
and pleasure of man, and their propagation is provided for to
meet all his demands.

To avoid too frequent interruptions of the subject matter,
the experiments are grouped together at the beginning or end
of the sections to which they belong, according as they are
intended to explain what is coming, or to illustrate what has
gone before. A few exceptions are made in cases where the
experiment is such an integral part of the subject that it would
be meaningless if separated from the context. Under no
circumstances should those capable of being performed in the
schoolroom be omitted, as much of the information which the
book is intended to give is conveyed by their means. For this
reason, and also because the aim of the book is to present the
science from a practical rather than from an academic point of
view, the experiments outlined are for the most part of a simple,
practical nature, such as can be performed by the pupils them-
selves with a moderate expenditure of ingenuity and money.
The experience of the writer has been that for the average boy
or girl who wishes to get a good general knowledge of the
subject, but does not i3ropose to become a specialist in botany,
the best results are often obtained by the use of the simplest
and most familiar appliances, as in this way attention is not
distracted from the experiment itself to the unfamiliar appa*
ratus for making it. In saying this, it is not meant to under-

PREFACE V

rate the value of a complete laboratory equipment, but merely
to emphasize the fact that the lack of it, while a disadvantage,
need Jiot be an insuperable bar to the successful teaching of
botany. It is, of course, taken for granted that in schools pro-
vided with a suitable laboratory outfit, teachers will be pre-
pared to supplement or to replace the exercises here outlined
with such others as in their judgment the subject may demand.
There are as many ideals in teaching as there are teachers, and
the most that a textbook can do is to present a working model
which every teacher is free to modify in accordance with his
or her own method.

The writer takes pleasure in acknowledging here the many
obligations due to Professor Francis E. Lloyd, of the Botanical
Department of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, at Auburn,
Ala., for his valuable aid in the revision of the manuscript, for
the highly interesting series of illustrations relating to photo-
tropic movements, and for advice and information on points
demanding expert knowledge which have contributed very ma-
terially to whatever merit this volume may possess.

Other members of the Auburn faculty to whom the author
feels especially indebted are Mr. C. S. Ridgeway, assistant in the
Botanical Department, Professor J. E. Duggar, of the Agricul-
tural Department, and Dr. B. B. Ross and Professor C. W.
Williamson of the Department of Chemistry. Acknowledg-
ments are due also to Professor George Wood of the Boys' High
School, Brooklyn, for suggestions which have been of great
assistance in the preparation of this work ; to Professor W. R.
Dodson, of the University of Louisiana, for illustrative material
furnished, and to Professor William Trelease for tlie loan of
original material used in reproducing the beautiful cuts from
the Reports of the Missouri Botanical Garden, credit for which
is given in the proper place.

For original photographs and drawings by the author, and
familiar selections from well-known works, which can be gen-
erally recognized, it has not been thought necessary to give

special credit.

E. F. ANDREWS.
Auburn, Alabama.

FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATE PAOiE

1. A GROVE OF LIVE OAKS NEAR SAVANNAH, GEORGIA . Frontispiece

2. Carrying water over the Mississippi levee by siphon to

irrigate rice fields 8

3. Aerial roots of a Mexican strangling fig ... 73

4. A forest of bamboo 99

5. A group of conifers 108

6. A WHITE OAK, showing THE GREAT SPREAD OF BRANCHES . 117

7. a timber tree spoiled by standing too much alone . 125

8. An American elm, illustrating deliquescent growth . 130

9. Vegetation of a moist, shady ravine 151

10. A MOSAIC OF moonseed leaves 179

11. Hybrid between a red and a white carnation . . . 227

12. Gooseberries, showing improvement by selection . . 251

13. The effects of irrigation 272

14. A xerophyte formation of yuccas and switch plants . 282

15. A giant tulip tree of the South Atlantic forest region 298

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I. THE SEED

I. The Storage of Food in Seeds
11. Some Physiological Properties ok Seeds

III. Types of Seeds

IV. Seed Dispersal

Field Work

PAGE
1

10
12
21

28

CHAPTER 11. GEKMIXATIOX AND GROWTH

I. Processes accompanying Germination
n. Conditions of Germination

III. Development of the Seedling

IV. Growth

Field AVork

CHAPTER ni. THE ROOT

I. Osmosis and the Action of the Cell .

11. jMineral Nutriments absorbed by Plants

III. Structure of the Root ....

IV. The AVork of Roots

V. Different Forms of Roots

Field AVork

•CHAPTER lA^ THE STEM

I. Forms and Growth of Stems .
II. Modifications of the Stem
in. Stem Structure

A. MoNoroTYLs

B. Herbaceous Dicotyls

C. A\''oODY Stemmed Dicotyls

vii

06
102
107

viii CONTENTS

PASS

IV. The Work of Stems 112

V. Wood Structure in its Relation to Industrial Uses . 118

VI. Forestry 124

Field Work 128

CHAPTER V. BUDS AND BRANCHES

I. Modes of Branching 131

IT. Buds 138

III. The Branching of Flower Stems 141

Field Work 145

CHAPTER VI. THE LEAF

I. The Typical Leaf and its Parts 147

II. The Veining and Lobing of Leaves 154

III. Transpiration 160

IV. Anatomy of the Leaf 164

V. Food Making 168

VI. The Leaf an Organ of Respiration 174

VII. The Adjustment of Leaves to External Relations . 177

VIII. Modified Leaves 18t>

Field Work 194

CHAPTER VTL THE FLOWER

I. Dissection of Types with Superior Ovary

U. Dissection of Types with Inferior Ovary

III. Study of a Composite Flower

IV. Specialized Flowei!s
V. Function and Work of the Flower

VI. Hybridization

VII. Plant Breeding ....
VIII. Ecology of the Flower

A. The Prevention of Self-pollination

B. Wind Pollixation

C. Insect Pollination ....

D. Protective Adaptation

flET.p Work ....-,,

204
210
214
210
22;?
230

285
239
241
245
249

CONTENTS IX
CHAPTER VIII. FRUITS

PAGE

I. Horticultural and Botanical Fruits . . , 250

II. Fleshy Fruits . 255

HI. DuY Fruits 260

IV. Accessory, Aggregate, and Multiple Fruits . . . 265

Field Work 269

CHAPTER IX. THE RESPONSE OF THE PLANT TO
ITS SURROUNDINGS

I. Ecological Factors 271

II. Plant Associations 277

III. Zones of Vegetation 288

Field Work 294

CHAPTER X. CRYPTOGAMS

I. TiiEiK Place in Nature = . 296

II. Alg^: 299

HI. Fungi 30=^

A. Bacteria 306

B. Yeasts 314

C. Rusts 317

D. Mushrooms ' 323

IV. Lichens . 329

V. Liverwortp 334

VI. INIossES 341

VH. Fern Plants 344

VIH. The Relation between Cryptogams and Seed Plants . 354

IX. The Course of Plant Evolution 359

Field Work 362

APPENDIX

1. Systematic Botany 364

2. Weights, Measures, and Temperatures 367

CHAPTER I. THE SEED
I. THE STORAGE OF FOOD IN SEEDS

Material. — In addition to the four food tests described in Exps.
1-6, there should be provided some raw starch, a solution of grape
sugar, the white of a hard-boiled egg, and any fatty substance, sucli
as lard or oil. For Exps. 8 and 9, a little diastase solution will be nec-
essary. "Taka" diastase, made from rice acted upon by a fungus, can
be obtained for a trifle at almost any drug store.

Living material. — Grains of corn and wheat, and seeds of some
kind of bean, the larger the better. The "horse bean" (Vicia faba), if
it can be obtained, makes an excellent object for study, as the cells are
so large that they can be seen with the naked eye. For showing the
presence of proteins (aleurone grains) and oily matter, use thin cross sec-
tions through the kernel of a castor bean or a Brazil nut. Specimens
for the study of the individual cell will be found in the hairs growing on
squash seedlings, in the epidermis of one of the inner coats of an onion, in
the roots of oat or radish seedlings, or in the section of a young corn root.

A compound microscope will be required for this study.

I. The economic importance of seeds. — As a source of
food to both man and the lower animals, the importance of
seeds can hardly be overrated. All the flour, meal, rice,
hominy, and other breadstuff s sold in the market come from
them, to say nothing of the fleece from the cotton seed that
clothes the greater part of the world, besides furnishing a
substitute for lard and an important food for cattle. The
oils and fats stored in nuts are also to be taken into account,
the peanut alone yielding the greater part of the so-called
olive oil of commerce. Since the value of our farm crops
depends largely upon the kind and quantity of these sub-
stances furnished by them, it is worth our while, as a matter
of economic as well as scientific interest, to learn something
about the nature of the different foods contained in plants.

nOfERU LIBRARY

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

r\

1 2

Figs. 1-3. — The world's three most important food grains (magnified) : 1, sec-
tion of a rice grain ; a, cuticle ; b, aleurone, or protein layer ; c, starch cells ; d, germ ;
2, section of a wheat grain ; k, germ ; s, starch ; a, gluten ; t, t, t, layers of the seed
coat ; 3, section of a grain of corn ; c, husk ; e, aleurone layer containing proteins ;
eg, yellowish, horny endosperm, containing proteins and starch ; ew, lighter starchy
endosperm : the darker part below is rich in oil and proteins, and contains the eni'
hryo, consisting of the absorbing organ, or cotyledon, sc; the rudimentary bud, s ; and
the root, w. (1, from Circular 77, La. Exp. Station ; 2, from France ; 3, from Sachs.)

2. Why food is stored in seeds. — The one purpose
for which plants produce their seed is to give rise to a new
generation and so carry on the life of the species. The
seed is the nursery, so to speak, in which the germ destined

to produce a new plant
is sheltered until it is
ready to begin an inde-
pendent existence. But
the young plant, like
the young animal, is
incapable of providing
for itself at first, and
would die unless it re-
ceived nourishment from
the mother plant until

Figs. 4-7. — Sections of corn grains showing -j. v r i j. j

different qualities of food contents : 4, 5, small ^^ '^^^ lOrmeQ rOOtS anQ

germ and large proportion of horny part, show- leaVCS SO that it CaH

ing high protein; 6, 7, large germ and smaller pro- c -l r J r

portion of horny part, showing high oil content, manuiacture lOOd lOr

THE SEED

itself. Plants in general require very much the same food
that animals do, and they have the power, which animals
have not, of manufacturing it out of the crude materials con-
tained in the soil water and in the air. Such of these foods
as are not needed for immediate consumption, they store up
to serve as a provision for the young shoot when the seed
begins to germinate.

3. Food substances contained in seeds. — There are four
principal classes of food stored in seeds: sugars, starches, oils,
and proteins. The first are held in solution and can be
detected, if in sufficient quantity, by the taste. The most
important varieties of this group are cane and grape sugar,
the latter occurring most abundantly in fruits, the former in
roots and stems. Oil usually occurs in the form of globules.
It is very abundant in some seeds, e.g. flax, castor bean, and
Brazil nut. In the corn grain it is found in the part constitut-
ing the germ, or embryo (Figs. 6, 7). Starches and proteins
occur in the form of small granules, which have specific
shapes in different plants (Figs. 8, 9). Those containing pro-
teins are called aleurone grains, and are, as a rule, smaller
than the starch grains with which they are intermixed in the
bean and some other seeds. In wheat, corn, rice, and most
grains they form a layer just inside the husk, as shown in
Fig. 10. This is the reason why polished rice and finely
bolted flour are less nu-
tritious than the darker
kinds, from which this
valuable food substance
has not been removed.
The two most familiar
kinds of proteins are the
albumins, of which the
white of an egg is
a well-known example,

and the glutins, which give to the dough of wheat flour and
oatmeal their peculiar gummy or " glutinous " structure.

Figs. 8-9. — Different forms of starch grains ;
rice ; 9, wheat.

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Fig. 10. — Transverse section near the
outside of a wheat grain : e, the husk ; a, cells
containing protein granules ; s, starch cells
{after Tschirch).

4. Organic foods. — These four substances, starch, sugar,
fats, and proteins, with some others of less frequent oc-
currence, are called organic
foods, because they are pro-
duced, in a state of nature,
only through the action of
organized living bodies, or,
more strictly speaking, of
living vegetable bodies.

5. Our dependence upon
plants. — ^ While the animal
organism can digest and
assimilate these substances
after they have been formed
by plants, it has no power
to manufacture them for
itself, and, so far as we know at present, is wholly depend-
ent upon the vegetable world for these necessaries of life.
In one sense the whole animal kingdom may be said to be
parasitic on plants. The wolf that eats a lamb is getting
his food indirectly from the grains and grasses consumed
by its victim, and the lion that devours the wolf that ate
the lamb is only one step further removed from a vegetable
diet.

6. The vegetable cell. — If you will break open a well-
soaked horse bean and examine the contents with a lens, you
will see that they are composed of small oval or roundish
granules packed together like stones in a piece of masonry.
These little bodies, called cells, are the ultimate units out
of which all animal and vegetable structures are built up, as
a wall is built of bricks and stones. They differ very much
from bricks and stones, however, in that they are, or have
been, living structures with their periods of growth, activity,
decline, and death, just like other living matter, as will be
seen by and by, when we come to look more particularly
into their life history. They consist usually of an inclos-

THE SEED 5

ing membrane which contains a living substance called
protoplasm. This is the essential part of the cell, and, so
far as we know at present, the physical basis of all Hfe.
Cells are commonly more or less rounded in shape, though
they take different forms according to the purpose they
serve. Sometimes, as in the fibers of cotton and the down
of young leaves, they are long and hairlike ; when closely
packed, they often become angular by pressure, like those
shown in Figs. 10, 11. The cells composing the thick body of
the bean are for the most part starch and other substances
stored up for food, which render observation difficult. It
will, therefore, be better to choose for a study of the indi-
vidual cell some kind that will show the essential parts more
distinctly.

7. Microscopic examination of a cell. — Place under a high
power of the microscope a portion of fresh skin from one of
the inside scales of an onion, or a piece
of the root tip of a very young corn or oat
seedling, and fix your attention on one of
the individual cells. Notice (1) the cell -w

wall or inclosing membrane, w (Fig. 11) ; ^

(2) the protoplasm, p, which may be
recognized by its granular appearance ;

(3) thenwdeiis, n; and (4) thecellsap, s. "^i , .

In very young cells the protoplasm will y^Sjl^ ^
be seen to fill most of the interior; but p^^ 11— Typical cells:
in mature ones, like the large one on the «. nucleus ; p, protoplasm ;
right of the figure, it forms a thin lining ^' ^^ ^^
around the wall, with the nucleus on one side, while the cell
sap, composed of various substances in solution, occupies the
central portion. Though there is generally an inclosing wall,
this is not essential, its office being to give strength and me-
chanical support by holding the contents together, as an
India-rubber bag holds water. It is the turgidity of the cell,
when distended with liquid, that gives firmness to herba-
ceous plants and the tender parts of woody ones. This

G PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

may be illustrated by observing the difference between a
rubber bag when quite full and when only half full of water,
or a football when partially and when fully inflated. In
its simplest form, however, the cell is a mere particle of
protoplasm, which has one paj't, constituting the nucleus,
a little more dense in appearance than the rest, but this
kind is not common in vegetable structures.

8. How food substances get into the cells. — As there
are no openings in the cell walls, the only way substances
can get into a cell or out of it is by soaking through the
inclosing membrane, as will be explained in a later chapter.
Since starch, oil, and proteins, the most important foods
stored in seeds, are none of them soluble in the cell sap, it is
clear that they could not have got into the cells in their
present state, but must have undergone some change by
which they were rendered capable of passing through the
cell wall.

9. Digestion. — The process by which this change is
brought about is known as digestion, from its similarity to
the same function in animals. Not only are foods, in the
state in which we find them stored in the seed, incapable
of passing through the cell wall, but the protoplasm, the
living part of the cell, has no power to assimilate and to
utilize these substances as food until they have been re-
duced to a soluble form in which they can be diffused freely
from cell to cell through any part of the plant. By diffusion
is meant the gradual spread of soluble substances through
the containing medium, as when a lump of sugar or salt,
dropped into a glass of water, dissolves and slowly diffuses
through the contents, imparting a sweet or salty taste to the
whole.

During the process of digestion the different kinds of
food are acted upon and made soluble by certain chemical
ferments, which are secreted in plants for the purpose. The
digestion of starch, the most abundant of plant foods, is
effected by diastase, a common ferment obtained from ger-

THE SEED

^#® J

minating grains of barley, wheat, corn, rice, etc. By the
presence of diastase starch is converted into grape sugar, a
substance which is readily soluble in water, and which can
be diffused easily through the tissues of the plant to any
part where it is needed. In this way food travels from the
leaf, where it is made, to
the seed, where the sugar is
generally reconverted into
starch and stored up for
future use, though some-
times, as in the sugar corn
and sugar pea, it remains
in part unchanged. The
kernels of this kind of corn
can be distinguished readily
from those of the ordinary
starch corn, after maturity,
by their wrinkled appear-
ance, owing to their greater
loss of water in drying.

ID. Food tests. — In or-
der to tell whether any of
the food substances named
occur in the seeds that we are going to examine, it will be
necessary to understand a few simple tests by which their
presence may be recognized. The chemicals required can
be ordered ready for use from a druggist or may be prepared
in the laboratory as needed, according to the directions
given. Write in your notebook a brief account of each ex-
periment made, with the conclusions drawn from it.

Experiment 1 . To detect the presence of fats. — Rub a small lump
of butter or a drop of oil on a piece of thin white paper. What is the effect ?

Experiment 2. Another test for fats. — Place some macerated
alcanna root in a vessel with alcohol enough to cover it, and leave for an
hour. Add an equal hulk of water and filter. The solution will stain
fats, oils, and resins deep red.

Fig. 12. — Starch grains of wheat in
different stages of disintegration under the
action of a ferment (diastase), accompany-
ing germination : a, slightly corroded ; h, c,
and d, more advanced stages of decomposi-
tion.

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

THE SEED 9

Experiment 3. To show the presence of starch. — Put a drop of
iodine solution on some starch. What change of color takes place ? To
make iodine solution, add to one part of iodine crystals 4 parts potas-
sium iodide and 95 parts water. It should be kept in the dark, as light
decomposes it. Iodine colors starch blue, protein substances light brown.
In testing for starch, the solution should be diluted till it is of a pale color,
otherwise the stain will be so deep as to appear black.

Experiment 4. A test for proteins. — Place a small quantity of
the white of an egg, diluted with water, in a clean glass and add a few
drops of nitric acid ; or drop some of the acid on the white of a hard-
boiled egg. What is the effect ?

Nitric acid turns proteins yellow ; if the color is indistinct, add a drop
of ammonia, when an orange color will ensue.

Experiment 5. Another test for proteins. — Place on the sub-
stance to be examined a drop of a saturated solution of cane sugar and
water ; add a drop of pure sulphuric acid ; if proteins are present, they
will be colored red. See also Exp. 3.

Experiment 6. A test for grape sugar. — Heat a teaspoonful of
Fehling's Solution to the boiling point in a test tube (a common glass vial
can be used by heating gradually in water) and pour in a few drops of
grape sugar solution. Heat again and observe the color of the precipitate
that forms.

Fehling's Solution may be obtained of the druggist, or, if preferred,
it may be prepared in the laboratory as follows : (a) Dissolve 173 grams
of crystallized Rochelle salts and 125 grams of caustic potash in 500 cc. of
water; (6) dissolve 34.64 grams crystallized copper sulphate in 500 cc.
of water, and mix equal parts as needed. (For English equivalents, see
Appendix, Weights and Measures.) The two mixtures must be kept sep-
arate till wanted for use, or prepared fresh as needed.

Grape Sugar causes Fehling's Solution to form a red precipitate.

Experiment 7. To show the difference between sugar and
STARCH IN regard TO SOLUBILITY. — Mix some sugar with water and
notice how readily it dissolves. Try the same experiment with starch
and observe its different behavior.

Experiment 8. To show how starch is disintegrated in the A'^t
OF DIGESTION. — Place a few grains of starch on a slide, add a drop or
two of diastase solution, and observe under the microscope ; the starch
granules will be seen to disintegrate and melt away. Even with a hand
lens it can be seen, from the greater clearness of the liquid in comparison
with a mixture of untreated starch and water, that the gi-ains have been
dissolved.

10 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Experiment 9. To show that diastase converts starch into
SUGAR. — Make a paste of boiled starch so thin that it looks like water.
Pour a small quantity of it into each of two tubes, adding a little diastase
to one and leaving the other untreated. Keep in a warm place for twenty-
four hours, then test both tubes for starch, as directed in Exp. 3, and note
the result. If the diastase has not acted, add a little more and watch.

Practical Questions

1. Name all the food and other economic products you can think of
that are derived from the seed of maize; from wheat; from flaxseed;
from cotton.

2. Mention some seeds from which medicines are procured.

3. Name all the seeds you can think of from which oil is obtained ;
starch; some that are rich in proteins. (Exps. 1-5.)

4. Describe some of the ways in which these products are frequently
adulterated.

5. If you were raising corn to sell to a starch factory, what part of
the seed would you seek to develop ? If to feed stock, what part ? Why,
in each case? (3; Figs. 4-7.)

6. What grain feeds more human beings than does any other ?

7. Name all the seeds you can think of that contain sugar in sufficient
quantity to be detected without chemical tests ; that is, by tasting alone.

8. Is "coal oil" a mineral or an organic substance? Explain, by
giving an account of its origin.

9. What is gluten ? (3.) Name some grains that are especially rich in it.
10. Which of our three chief food grains is a water plant ? (See Plate

2.) Which grows farthest south ? Which farthest north ? Which one is
of American origin ?

n. SOME PHYSIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SEEDS

Material. — Seeds of squash, pumpkin, or other melon; castor bean ;
any kind of common kidney bean ; grains of Indian corn.

Appliances. — In the absence of gas, an alcohol or kerosene lamp may
be used for heating. A double boiler can easily be made by using two tin
vessels of different sizes. Partly fill the larger one with water, set in it
the smaller one with the substance to be heated, and place over a burner.
A pair of scales, a strong six-ounce bottle, wire-netting, cord, and wax
or paraffin should be provided.

Experiment 10. Do seeds in their ordinary quiescent state
CONTAIN ANY WATER? — Placc a number of beans, or grains of corn or
wheat in a glass bottle, making a small perforation in the cork to allow
the air to escape, and heat gently. Does any moisture form on the glass ?

THE SEED

11

A better test is to weigh two or three ounces of seeds, and heat them
in a double boiler or in oil to prevent scorching. Weigh at intervals. If
ihcre is any loss of weight, to what is it due?

l']xPERiMENT 11. Do SEEDS ABSORB WATER? — Soak a number of
hr-ans or grains of coi-n in water for 12 to 24 hours and compare with
dry ones. What difference do you notice ? To what cause is it due ?

I'].\PERIMENT 12. lluVV UID WATER GET INTO THE SOAKED SEEDS? —

Dry gently with a soft cloth some of the seeds used in the last experiment
and press them lightly to see if water comes out, and where. Place a num-
ber of dry seeds of different kinds — squash, bean, castor bean, quince,
etc. — in warm water and notice whether any bubbles of air form on them
and at what point. Examine with a lens and see if this point differs in any
way from the rest of the seed cover. Does it correspond with the point
from which water exuded in the soaked seeds? Could hard seeds like
the squash, castor bean, buckeye, and Brazil nut get water readily without
an opening somewhere in the coat ?

EXPERIMBNT 13. To FIND OUT WHETHER WATER IS ABSORBED

THROUGH THE SEED COATS. — Placc in moist sand or sawdust two rows
of beans as nearly as possible of the same size and weight, with the eye
pressed down to the substratum in one row and turned up in the other, so
that no moisture can enter through it. In the same way arrange two
rows of castor beans with the little end down in one row and uppermost
in the other. In the last set carefully break away the spongy mass near
the tip, without injuring the parts about it. Watch and see in which
rows water is absorbed most readily. What change takes place in the
spongy masses at the tips of those castor beans on
which they were left ?

Experiment 14. Is

THE rate of germina-

tion AFFECTED BY THE PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF

openings ? — Seal up with wax or paraffin all the
openings of a number of air-dry peas or beans, and
leave an equal number of the same size and weight
untreated. Be careful that the sealing is absolutely
water-tight, since otherwise the experiment will
be worthless. Plant both sets and keep under like
conditions of soil, temperature, and moisture. Do
you see any difference in the rate of germination of
the two sets?

Experiment 15. Do seeds exert force in
/* BSORBiNG WATER ? — Fill a commou six-ounce bot-
tle as full as it will hold with dry peas, beans, or

Fig. 13. — Effect
of the expansion of
seeds due to absorp-
tion of water.

12 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

grains of com; then pour in water till the bottle is full. Tie a piece of
wire-netting or stout sackcloth over the top to keep the seeds from being
forced out. Bind both the neck and the body of the Ijottle tightly with
strong cords encircling it in both a horizontal and vertical direction, and
place under water in a moderately warm temperature. Watch for results.
Experiment 16. Is the force exerted in the last experiment
A merely mechanical one, like the bursting of a water pipe, or

IS IT PHYSIOLOGICAL AND THUS DEPENDENT ON THE FACT THAT THE

SEEDS ARE ALIVE ? — To auswcr this question try Exp. 15 with seeds
that have been killed by heat or by soaking in formalin.

Practical Questions

1. Will a pound of pop corn weigh as much after being popped as be-
fore? (Exp. 10.)

2. What causes the difference, if there is any? (Exp. 10.)

3. Does the tuft of downy hairs at the tip of wheat and oat grains
influence their water supply ? The spongy covering of black walnuts and
almonds? The pithy inside layers of pecans and English walnuts?
(Exps. 12, 13.)

4. Why will seeds, as a general thing, germinate more readily after
being soaked? (Exps. 11, 14, 16.)

III. TYPES OF SEEDS

Material. — Dry and soaked grains of corn, wheat, or oats ; bean,
squash, castor bean, and pine seed, or any equivalent specimens showing
the differences as to number of cotyledons and the presence or absence of
endosperm. Each student should be provided with several specimens,
both soaked and dry, of the kind under consideration. Corn, beans, and
wheat need to be soaked from 12 to 24 hours ; squash and pumpkin from
2 to 5 days, and very hard seeds, like the castor bean and morning-glory,
from 5 to 10. If such seeds are clipped, before soaking, that is, if a small
piece of the coat is chipped away from the end opposite the scar, or eye,
they will soften more quickly. Keep them in a warm place with an even
temperature till just before they begin to sprout, when the contents become
softened. Very brittle cotyledons may be softened quickly by boiling
for a few minutes.

No appliances are needed beyond the pupil's individual outfit and some
of the food tests given in Section I of this chapter.

II. Dissection of a grain of corn. — Examine a dry grain
of corn on both faces. Wliat differences do yon notice?
Sketch the grooved side, labeUng the hard, yellowish outer

THE SEED

13

portion, endosperm, the depression near the center, embryo, or
germ.

Next take a grain that has been soaked for twenty-four
hours. \Vhat changes do you see ? How do you account for
the swelling of the embryo? Remove the skin and observe
its texture. Make an enlarged sketch of a grain on the
grooved side with the coat removed, labeling the fiat oval body
embedded in the endosperm, cotyledon ; the upper end of the
little budlike body embedded in the cotyledon, plumule, the
lower part, hypocotyl— words
meaning, respectively, " seed
leaf," "little bud," and
" the part under the cotyle-
don." As this part has not
yet differentiated into root
and stem, we cannot call it
by either of these names.
The cotyledon, hypocotyl,
and plumule together com-
pose the embryo. Pick out
the embryo and sketch as
it appears under the lens.
Crush it on a piece of white paper; what does it contain?

Make a vertical section of another soaked grain at right
angles to its broader face, and sketch, labeling the parts as
they appear in profile. Make a cross section through the
middle of another grain and sketch, labeling the parts as be-
fore. What proportion of the grain is endosperm and what
embryo ? Put a drop of iodine and of nitric acid separately
on pieces of the endosperm, and note the effects. Test the
seed coats and the cotyledon to see if they contain any starch.

Notice that the corn grain has but one cotyledon, hence
such seeds are said to be monocotyledonous, or one-cotyledoned.
The grains are not typical seeds, but are selected for examina-
tion because they are large and easy to handle, can be ob-
tained everywhere, and germinate readily.

14 15 10

Figs. 14-16. — Dissection of a grain of
corn : 14, soaked grain, seen flatwise, cut
away a little and slightly enlarged, so as to
show the embryo lying in the endosperm ;
15, in profile section, dividing the grain
through the embryo and cotyledon ; 16, the
embryo taken out whole. The thick mass is
the cotyledon ; the narrow body projecting
upwards, the plumule ; the short proje? ion
at the base, the hypocotyl {after Gray).

14

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

17 18

Figs. 17, 18. — A kid-
ney bean : 17, side view :
18, front \new, showing /j,
liilum, m, micropyle.

12. Dissection of a bean. — Sketch a dry bean as it lies in
the pod, showing its point of attachment and any markings
that may appear on its surface. Then take it from the pod and
examine the narrow edge by which it was attached. Notice
the rather large scar (commonly called the eye of the bean)
where it broke away from the point of
attachment. This is the hilum. Near the
hilum, look for a minute round pore hke
a pinhole. This is called the micropyle,
from a Greek word meaning " a little
gate," because it is the entrance to the
interior of the seed coat. There was no
micropyle observed in the corn grain,
because it is not a true seed but a fruit
inclosing a single seed. The inclosing
membrane is the fruit skin, w^hich has become incorporated
wdth the seed coat and taken its place as a protective covering.
Compare a soaked bean with a dry one ; what difference do
you perceive ? How do you account for the change in size and
hardness? Find the hilum and the micropyle in the soaked
bean. Lay it on one side and sketch, with the micropyle on
top ; then turn toward you the narrow edge that
was attached to the pod and sketch, labeling all
the parts. ]\Iake a section through the long diam-
eter at right angles to the flat sides, press it
slightly open, and sketch it. Notice the line or
slit that seems to cut the section in half longitu-
dinally, and the small round object between the
halves at one end ; can you tell what it is ?

Slip off the coat from a whole bean and notice its
texture. Hold it up to the light and see if it shows
any signs of veining. See whether the scar at the hilum extends
through the kernel, or marks only the seed coat. Lay open the
two flat bodies into which the kernel divides when stripped of
its coats, keeping them side by side, with the part above the
micropyle toward the top. Sketch their inner face and label

THE SEED 15

them cotyledons. Be careful not to break or displace the tiny-
bud packed away between the cotyledons, just above the
hilum. Label the round portion of this bud, hypocotyl, and
the upper, more expanded part, plumule. Which way does the
base of the hypocotyl point ; toward the micropyle, or away
from it ? Pick out this budlike body entire and sketch as it ap-
pears under the lens. Open the plumule with a pin and exam-
ine it with a lens ; of what does it appear to consist ? Do you
find any endosperm around the cotyledons, as in the corn and
oats ? Break one of the soaked cotyledons, apply the proper
tests (Exps. 2, 3, 5), and report what substances it contains.
Wliere is the nourishment for the young plant stored ? What
part of the bean gives it its value as food ?

Notice that in the bean the embryo consists of three parts,
the hypocotyl, plumule, and the two cotyledons, which com-
pletely fill the seed coats, leaving no place for endosperm.
Seeds like the bean, squash, and castor bean, which have
two cotyledons, are said to be dicotyledonous.

13. The castor bean. — Lay a castor bean on a sheet
of paper before you with its fiat side down; what does it
look like? The resemblance may be increased by soaking
the seed a few minutes, in order to swell the two little pro-
tuberances at the small end. Can you think of any benefit
a plant might derive from this curious resemblance of its seed
to an insect?

Sketch the seed as it lies before you, labeling the pro-
tuberance at the apex, caruncle. The caruncle is an append-
age of the seed-covering developed by various plants; its use
is not always clear. What appears to be its object in the
castor bean? Refer to Exp. 13 and see if there is any other
purpose it might serve.

Turn the seed over and sketch the other side. Notice the
colored line or stripe that runs from the large end to the car-
uncle. This is the rhaphe, and shows the position that
would be occupied by the seed stalk if it were present. Its
starting point near the large end, which is marked in fresh

16

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

seeds by a slight roughness, is the chalaza, or organic base of
the seed, where the parts all come together like the parts of a
flower at their insertion on the stem. Where was it situated
in the common bean? How does this differ from its
position in the castor bean ? Where the rhaphe ends,
just at the beak of the caruncle, you will find the hilum.
The micropyle is covered by the caruncle, which is an
outgrowth around it.

Now cut a vertical section through a seed that has been
soaked for several days, at right angles to the broad sides,
and sketch it. Label the white, pasty mass within the
seed coats, endosperm. Can you make out what the narrow
white line running through the center of the endosperm, divid-
ing it into two halves, represents? Make a similar sketch

of a cross section.
Notice the same
white line running
horizontally across
the endosperm, di-
viding it into two
equal parts. To
find out what these
lines are, take an-
other seed (always
use soaked seeds for
dissection) and remove the coats without injuring the kernel.
Split the kernel carefully round the edges, remove half the
endosperm , and sketch the other half with the delicate em-
bryo lying on its inner face. You will have no difficulty
now in recognizing the linos in your drawings as sections of
the thin cotyledons. Where is the hypocotyl, and which way
does its base point ? Remove the embryo from the endosperm,
separate the cotyledons with a pin, hold them up to the light,
and observe their beautiful texture. Sketch them under the
lens, showing the delicate venation. Is there any plumule ?
Test the endosperm with a little iodine. Does it give a

Figs. 20-22.— Castor bean (slightly magnified) ; 20,
back \'iew ; 21, front view ; ch, chalaza ; r, rhaphe ; ca,
caruncle ; 22, vertical section ;en, endosperm ; cc, cotyle-
dons ; hy, hypocotyl ; hi, hilum ; m, micropyle.

THE SEED

17

blue or a brown reaction ? Crush another bit of it on a piece
of white paper and see if it leaves a grease spot. What does
this show that it contains ? Test the embryo in the same way,
and see whether it contains any oil.

Note. — It should be borne in mind that the castor bean bears no rela-
tion whatever to the true beans. It belongs to the sp\n-ge family, whi(^h
is botanically very remote from that of the peas and beans.

h.--

23 24 25

Figs. 23-25. — Seed of a squash; 23, seed from the outside; 24, vertical section
perpendicular to the broad side ; 25, section parallel to the broad side, showing inner
side of a cotyledon ; a, seed coat ; c, cotyledons ; /;, hypocotyl ; p, plumule.

14. Study of a squash or gourd seed. — How does the coat
of a squash seed differ from that of the bean ? At the small
end, look for two dots, or pinholes, close
together. Refer to your drawing of the
bean and see if you can make out, with
the help of a lens, what they are. The
bean is a curved seed, which is bent so as
to bring the hilum close to the micropyle
on one side. But by far the greater
number of seeds are inverted, or turned
over on their stalks, as you sometimes
see huckleberry blossoms and bell flowers
on their stems, so that when the stalk
breaks away from its attachment, the
scar and the micropyle come close to-
gether at one end, as in the squash seed.

Make a drawing of the outside of a
seed, labeling all the parts you have observed; then gently

Fig. 26. — Diagram of
an inverted or anatro-
pous seed, showing the
parts in section : o, outer
coat ; h, inner coat ; c,
kernel; d, rhaphe ; ch,
chalaza; ft. hilum; m,
micropyle (After Gray).

18 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

remove the hard coat, or testa, as it is called. The thin, green-
ish covering that lines it on the inside is the endosperm. How
does it compare in quantity with that in the corn anil castor
bean? How do the cotyledons compare in thickness with
those of the bean ? ( 'aref ully separate them and draw, label-
ing the parts as you make them out. The tiny pointed
object between the cotyledons at their point of union is the
plumule ; is it as well developed as in the bean ? Can you see
any reason why seeds like the pea and bean, which have coty-
ledons too thick and clumsy to do well the work of true leaves,
should have a well-developed plumule, while those with thin
cotyledons, like the squash and pumpkin, do not, as a general
thing, form a large plumule in the embryo ? The little pro-
jection in which the cotyledons end is the hypocotyl; which
way does it point ? Where did you find the micropyle to be ?
Test the cotyledons and some of the endosperm for food sub-
stances ; what do you find in them ?

15. Study of a pine seed. — Remove one of the scales from
a pine cone and sketch the seed as it lies in place on the cone
scale. Notice its point of attachment to
the scale, and look near this point for a
small opening, which you can easily recog-
nize as the micropyle. The seed with its
wing looks very much like a fruit of the
maple, but differs from it in being a naked
27 28. seed borne on the inner side of a cone scale.

Figs. 27, 28. — . , , 1 , • p

Pitch pine seeds: without a pod or husk or outer covermg of
27, scale, or open ^j^y ^i^d, such as bcans and nuts and grains

carpel, with one seed *^ • i i ■ i ^•^ 1 •

in place ; 28 winged are provided With. Plants like the pine,

seed, removed. Ufter ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^j^^-^. ^^^^ • ^^ ^j^-^ ^.^^^ ^^^ ^^ij^^

Gymnosperms, a word that means " naked
seeds," in contradistinction to the Angiosperms, which bear
their seeds in pods or other closed envelopes.

Remove the coat from a seed that has been soaked for
twenty-four hours, and examine it with a lens. Does it con-
sist of one or more layers? Is there any difference in color

THE SEED

19

between the inner and outer layers ? Look at the base of the
hypocotyl for some loose, cobwebby appendages. These are
the remains of other embryos with certain append-
ages belonging to them that were formed in the
endosperm, but failed to develop. Did you find
remains of this kind in any of the other seeds ex-
amined? Pick out the embryo from the endo-
sperm and test both for food substances. Which
of these do you find ? Which are absent ? How
does the embryo differ from those already exam-
ined ? How many cotyledons are there ? Make
an enlarged sketch of a seed in longitudinal
section, labeling correctly all the parts observed.

i6. Comparison as to food value of seeds. — Make in your
notebook a tabular statement after the model here given, of
the food contents found in the different seeds you have ex-
amined. Indicate the relative quantity of each by writing
under it, in the appropriate column, the words, " much,"
" little," or " none," as the case may be.

By far the greater number of seeds contain endosperm ;
that is, they consist of an embryo with more or less nourishing

Model for Record of Seeds Examined

Foods Tested

Starch

Sugar

Oil

Proteins

Com ....

Wheat ....

Bean ....

Squash. . . .

Castor bean . .

Pine ....

20 PRACTICAL COURSE m BOTANY

matter stored about it. Even in seeds which appear to
have none, the endosperm is present at some period during
development, but is absorbed by the cotyledons before ger-
mination,

17. Manner of storing nourishment. — In the various seeds
examined, we have seen that the nourishment for the young
plant is either stored in the embryo itself, as in the coty-
ledons of the bean, acorn, squash, etc., or packed about them
in the form of endosperm, as in the corn, wheat, and castor
bean.

18. The nimiber of cotyledons. — Seeds are also classed
according to the number of their cotyledons, as having one
two, or many cotyledons. The first two kinds make up the
great class of Angiosperms, which includes all the true flower-
ing plants and forms the most important part of the vegeta-
tion of the globe. The last is characteristic of the great
natural division of Gymnosperms, or naked-seeded plants,
of which we have had an example in the pine. They are the
most primitive type of living seed-bearing plants. Though
they are not so abundant now as in past ages, numbering
only about four hundred known species, they present many
diversities of form, which seem to ally them on the one hand
with the lower, or spore-bearing plants (ferns, mosses, etc.),
and on the other hand with the Angiosperms.

Practical Questions

1. Make a list of all the seeds you can find that have verj'^ thick coty-
ledons, and underline those that are used as food by man or beast.

2. Make a similar list of all the kinds with thin cotyledons and more or
less endosperm, that are used for food or other purposes.

3. Do you find a greater number of foodstuffs among the one kind
than the other ?

4. How do the two kinds compare, as a general thing, in size and
weight ?

5. From what part of the castor bean do we get oil ? of the peanut ?
of cotton seed? (Exps. 1-6.)

6. Is there any valid objection to the wholesomeness of peanut oil, and
of cottonseed lard as compared with hog's lard ? (1, 3.)

THE SEED 21

7. What is bran? Does it contain any nourishment? (11, 12; Exps. 1-0.)

8. What gives to Indian corn its value as food? to oats? wlieat ?
rice? (3; Exps. 1-6.)

9. Which of these grains has the larger proportion of endosperm to
embryo ? (Figs. 1-3.)

10. Which contains the lai'ger amount of starch in proportion to
its bulk, rice or Indian corn ?

11. If you wished to produce a variety of corn rich in oil, you would
select seed for planting with what part well developed? (3; Figs. 4-7.)

IV. SEED DISPERSAL

Material. — Fruits and seeds of any kind that show adaptations for
dispersal. Some common examples are: (1) Wind: ash, elm, maple,
ailanthus, milkweed, clematis, sycamore, linden, dandelion, thistle,
hawkweed. (2) Water: pecan, filbert, cranberry, lotus, hickory nut,
coconut — obtain one with the husk on, if possible. (3) Animal agency
(involuntary): cocklebur, tickseed, beggar-ticks, burdock; (voluntary)
almost all kinds of edible fruits, especially the bright-colored ones — wild
plums, cherries, haws, dogwood, persimmons, etc. (4) Explosive and
self-planting : witch-hazel, wood sorrel, violet, crane's-bill, wild vetch,
peanut, medick, stork's-bill (Erodium).

Experiment 17. To show how seeds are dispersed by wind. —
Take a number of winged and plumed fruits and seeds, such as those of the
maple, ash, ailanthus, dandelion, clematis, milkweed, and trumpet creeper;
stand on a chair or table in a place where there is a draft of air and let
them all go. Which travel the farther, the winged or the plumed kinds ?
Which sort is better fitted to aerial transportation ?

Experiment 18. Dispersal by water. — Place in a bucket of water
a hazelnut, an acorn, an orange, a cranberry, a pecan, a hickory nut, a fresh
apple, and a coconut with the husk on. Which are the best floaters ? Cut
open or break open the good swimmers, compare with the non-floaters, and
see to what peculiarity of structure their floating qualities are due. In
what situations do the cranberry and the coconut grow ? Can you see
any advantage to a plant so situated in producing fruits that float easily ?

Experiment 19. Dispersal by explosive capsules. — Moisten
slightly some mature but unopened capsules of witch hazel, wood sorrel,
rabbit pea, or violet, and leave in a warm, dry place for fifteen to forty-
five minutes. What happens when the pods begin to dry ? Measure the
distance to which the difl'erent kinds of seeds have been ejected. Which
were thrown farthest? What was the object of the movement? What
caused the explosion ?

22

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Experiment 20. The use of adhesive fruits. — Scatter broadcast
a handful of hooked or prickly seeds or fruits — cocklebur, tickseed, beggar-
ticks, bur grass, etc. Are they suited for wind transportation ? Drop one
of them on your sleeve, or on the coat of a fellow student ; will it stay
there? What would be the effect if it became attached to the fur of a
roaming animal ? Is this a successful mode of dissemination ?

30

Figs. 30-32. — 30, A pod of wild vetch, with mature valves twisting spirally to
discharge the seed ; 31, pod of crane's-bill discharging its seed ; 32, capsules of witch-
hazel exploding.

ig. Agencies of dispersal. — The means at nature's dis-
posal for this purpose, as show^n by the experiments just made,
are four ; namely, wind, water, the explosion of capsules due
to the withdrawal of water, and the agency of animals, in-
cluding man. The first three are purely mechanical. The

34 35

Figs. 33-3G. ^ — Fruits adapted to wind dispersal : 33, winged pod of pennycress ;
34, spikclet of broom sedge ; 35, akene of Canada thistle ; 36, head of rolling spin-
ifex grass.

last, animal agency, is either voluntary or involuntary, ac-
cording as it is conscious and intentional, or accidental merely.
Man, of course, is the only consciously voluntary agent. Of

THE SEED

23

the four agencies named, animals and wind are the most effec-
tive, and the greater number of adaptations observed will be
found to have reference to these.

Involuntary dispersal. — The lower animals may be

20.

voluntary agents in a way, though not designedly so, as when

Fig. 37.— Good quality of clo-
ver seed.

Fig. 38. — Inferior quality of
clover seed mixed with " screen-
ings."

a squhrel buries nuts for his own use and then forgets the lo-
cation of his hoard and leaves them to germinate ; or when
a jaybird flies off with a pecan in his bill, intending to crack
and eat it, but accidentally lets
it fall where it will sprout and
take root. Both man and the
lower animals are not only in-
voluntary, but often unwilling
agents of dispersal. Some of the
most troublesome weeds of civili-
zation have been unwittingly dis-
tributed by man as he journeyed
from place to place, carrying,
along with the seed for planting
his crops, the various weed seeds,
or "screenings," as these mixtures
are called by dealers, with which
they have been adulterated either through carelessness and
ignorance, or from unavoidable causes. The neglected
animals, also, that are allowed by short-sighted farmers to
wander about with their hair full of cockleburs and other

Fig. 39. — Dodder on red clover,
showing how the seeds get mixed.

24

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

adhesive weed pests, are no doubt very unwilling carriers of
those disagreeable burdens.

21. Tempting the appetite. — This is the most important
adaptation to dispersal by animals. Have you ever asked
yourself how it could profit a plant to tempt birds and beasts
to devour its fruit, as so many of the bright berries we find in
the autumn woods seem to do? To answer this question,
examine the edible fruits of your neighborhood and you will
find that almost without exception the seeds are hard and

bony, and either too
small to be destroyed
by chewing, and thus
capable of passing
uninjured through
the digestive system
of an animal ; or, if
too large to be swal-
lowed whole, com-
pelling the animal,
by their hardness or
disagreeable flavor,
to reject them. In
cases where the seeds
themselves are ed-
ible and attractive,
the fruits are usually
armed during the
growing season with
protective coverings,
like the bur of the chestnut and the astringent hulls of the hick-
ory nut and walnut. The acidity or other disagreeable quali-
ties of most unripe fruits serves a similar purpose, while their
green color, by making them inconspicuous among the foliage
leaves, tends still further to insure them against molestation.

22. Voluntary agency. — The cultivated fruits and grains
owe their distribution and survival almost entirely to the

Figs. 40-42. — Adhesive fruits : 40, fruit of hound's-
tongue ; 41, akene of bur marigold ; 42, fruit of bur
grass (cenchrus).

THE SEED

25

voluntary agency of man. Dispersal by this means, whether
intentional or accidental, is purely artificial, and except in the
case of a few annuals like horseweed, bitterweed, ragweed,
goosefoot, and other field pests that have adjusted their sea-
son of growth and flowering to the conditions of cultivation,
is not correlated with any special modification of the plants
for self-propagation. On the contrary, many of the most
widely distributed weeds of cultivation, such as the ox-eye
daisy, the rib grass, mayweed and bitterweed, possess very
imperfect natural means of dispersal, and are largely depend-
ent for their propagation on the involuntary agency of man.
23. Use of the fruit in dispersal. — It will be seen from the
foregoing observations that the fruit plays a very important
part in the work
of dispersal, most
of the adapta-
tions for this pur-
pose being con-
nected with it.
In cases where a
number of seeds
are contained
in a large pod
that could not
conveniently be
blown about by
the breeze,
adaptations for

wind dispersal are attached to the individual seeds, as in the
willow, milkweed, trumpet creeper, and paulonia ; but as a
general thing, adaptations of the seed are for protection, the
work of dispersal being provided for by the fruit. In the case
of the large class of plants known as " tumbleweeds, " the
whole plant body is fitted to assist in the work of transporta-
tion. Such plants generally grow in light soils and either
have very light root systems, or are easily broken from their

.\\ir.i'

'^

Fig. 43. — A fruiting plant of
winged pigweed {Cycloloma),
showing the bunchy top and Fig. 44. — Panicle ot
weak anchorage of a typical "old witch grass," a coni-
tumbleweed. mon tumbleweed.

26

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

anchorage and left to drift about on the ground. The spread-
ing, bushy tops become very light after fruiting, so as to be
easily blown about by the wind, dropping their seeds as they
go, until they finally get stranded in ditches and fence corners,
where they often accumulate in great numbers during the
autumn and winter.

24. The advantages of dispersal. — Seed cannot germinate
unless they are placed in a suitable location as to soil, moisture,
and temperature. In order to increase the chances of secur-
ing these conditions, it is clearly to the advantage of a species
that its seeds should be dispersed as widely as possible, both
that the seedlings may have plenty of room, and that they
may not have to draw their nourishment from soil already
exhausted by their parents. The farmer recognizes this

principle in the rotation of
crops, because he knows that
successive growths of the
same plant will soon exhaust
the soil of the substances i*e-
quired for its nutrition, while
they may leave it richer in
nourishment for a different
crop.

25. Self-planting seeds. —
Dispersal is not the only
problem the seed has to meet.
The majority of seeds cannot
germinate well on top of the
ground, and must depend on
various agencies for getting
under the soil. Some of them
do this for themselves. The
seeds of the stork's-bill, popularly known as ''filarees," have
a sharp-pointed base and an auger-shaped appendage at the
apex, ending in a projecting arm (the '' clock" of the filaree)
by which it is blown about by the wind with a whirling motion

Fig. 45. — Self-planting pod of peanut.

THE SKKD 27

till it strikes a soft spot, when it begins at once to bore its
way into the ground. The common peanut is another exam-
ple. The blossoms are borne under the leaves, near the base
of the stem, and as soon as the seeds begin to form, the
flower stalks lengthen several inches, carrying the young pods
down to the ground, where they bore into the soil and ripen
their seeds.

Practical Questions

1. Name the ten most troublesome weeds of your neighborhood.

2. What natural means of dispersal have they ?

3. Which of them owe their propagation to man ?

4. Are there any tumbleweeds in your neighborhood ?

5. Would you expect to find such weeds in a hilly or a well-wooded
region? (19, 23; Exp. 17.)

6. What situations are best fitted for their propagation? (19, 23;
Exp. 17.)

7. Make a list of all the fruits and seeds you can think of that are
adapted to dispersal by wind ; by water ; by animals.

8. By what means of dissemination, or protection, or both, is each of
the following distinguished : the squash; apple; fig; pecan; poppy;
bean ; beggar-tick ; linden ; grape ; rice ; pepper ; olive ; cranberry ;
jimsonweed; thistle; corn; wheat; oats?

9. What is the agent of dispersion, or what the danger to be provided
against, in each case ?

10. Could our cultivated fruits and grains survive in their present state
without the agency of man ? (22.)

11. Name all the plants you can think of that bear winged seeds and
fruits ; are they, as a general thing, tall trees and shrubs, or low herbs ?

12. Name all you can think of that bear adhesive seeds and fruits ; are
they tall trees or low herbs ?

13. Give a reason for the difference. (Exps. 17, 20.)

14. Why is the dandelion one of the most widely distributed weeds in
the world? (19; Exp. 17.)

15. Is the wool that covers cotton seed for dispersal or protection ?

16. What advantage to the Indian shot (canna) is the excessive hardness
of its seeds? (21.)

17. What is the use to the species, of the bitter taste of lemon and
orange seed? (21.)

18. Why are the seeds of dates and persimmons and haws so hard?
(21.)

28 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

1 9. Do you find any edible seeds without protection? If so, account
for the want of it. (21, 22.)

20. Name some of the agencies that may assist in covering seeds with
earth.

21. Do you know of any seeds that bury themselves?

22. The seeds of weeds and other refuse found mixed with grain sold
on the market are known, commercially, as " screenings." Wheat brought
to mills in Detroit showed screenings that contained, among other things,
seeds of black bindweed, green foxtail grass, yellow foxtail, chess, oats,
ragweed, wild mustard, corn cockle, and pigweed. Can you mention some
of the ways in which these foreign substances may have gotten into the
crop and suggest means for keeping them out ?

Field Work

The subjects treated in the foregoing chapter are, in general, better
suited to laboratory than to field work. There are some details, however,
which can be observed to advantage out of doors. Many of the seeds
found in your walks will show peculiarities of shape and external markings
and color that will invite observation. Examine also the contents of dif-
ferent kinds you may meet with, as to the presence or absence of endosperm
and the arrangement and development of the embryo. Note: (1) whether,
as a general thing, there is any difference in size and weight and amount of
nourishing matter in the two kinds ; (2) the greater variety in the shape
and arrangement of the cotyledons in the albuminous kind, and in the ar-
rangement of the embryo; (3) the differences in the development of
the plumule in the two kinds, — and give a reason for the facts observed.

Among the different seeds you may find, look for adaptations for dispersal,
and decide to what particular method each is suited. Study the agencies
by which various kinds may get covered with soil. If the common stork's-
bill (Erodiutn cicutarium) grows in your neighborhood, its seeds will well
repay a little study, and if there is a field of peanuts within reach, do not
fail to pay it a visit.

CHAPTER II. GERMINATION AND GROWTH
I. PROCESSES ACCOMPANYING GERMINATION

Material. — A pint or two of corn, peas, beans, or any quickly germi-
nating seed.

Appliances. — Matches ; wood splinters ; gas jet or alcohol lamp ;
test tubes ; a small quantity of mercuric oxide ; a thermometer ; a couple
of two-quart preserve jars, and a smaller wide-mouthed bottle that can
be put into one of them ; some limewater ; a glass tube (the straws used
by druggists for soft drinks will answer).

26. Preliminary exercises. — Before taking up the study
of germinating seeds, it is important to learn from what
sources the organic substances used by the growing plant
are derived, and some of the processes that accompany
growth and development.

Experiment 21. To show the changes that accompany oxida-
tion. — Strike a match and let it burn out. Examine the burnt portion
remaining in your hand ; what changes do you notice ? These changes
have been caused by the union of some substance in the match with
something outside of it, in the act of burning ; let us see if we can find
out what this outside substance is.

Experiment 22. To show the active agent in oxidation. —
Heat some mercuric oxide in a test tube over the flame of a burner.
The heat will cause the oxygen to separate from the mercury, and in a
short time the tube will be filled with the gas. Extinguish the flame
from a lighted splinter and thrust the glowing end into the tube ; what
happens ? The oxygen unites with something in the wood and causes it to
burn just as the match did. Compare your burnt splinter with the burnt
end of the match ; what resemblance do you notice between them ?

Experiment 23. To show that carbon dioxide is a product of
oxidation. — Your experiment with the match showed that ignition
is accompanied by heat, and if active enough, by light, and also that
it loft behind a solid substance in the form of charcoal. But how
about the part that united with the oxygen to produce these results?

29

30

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

hand:

Let us see what became of it. Hold a lighted candle under the open end
of a test tube, or under the mouth of a small glass jar. Does any vapor
collect on the inside ? After two or three minutes quickly invert the jar
or the tul)e, and thrust in a lighted match : what happens ? Can the
substance now in the jar be ordinary air? Why not? (Exps. 21, 22.)
Pour in a small quantity of limewater, holding your hand over the mouth
of the tul)e to prevent the air from getting in ; the gas inside, being heavier
than air, will not escape inmiediately unless agitated. What change do
you notice in the limewater ?

It has been proved by experiment that the kind of gas formed by the
burning candle has the property of turning limewater milky; hence,
whenever you see this effect produced in limewater, you may conclude
that this gas, known as carbon dioxide, is present; and conversely, the
presence of carbon dioxide, especially if accompanied by some of the other
effects observed, as the giving out of heat and moisture, may be taken as
evidence that some process similar to that going on in the burning candle
is, or has been, at work.

Experiment 24. Do these effects accompany any of the life
PROCESSES OF ANIMALS ? — Blow your breath against the palm of your
what sensation do you feel ? Blow it against a mirror, or a piece
of common glass ; what do you see ? Blow through a
tube into the bottom of a glass containing limewater ;
^\ how is the water affected ? How do these facts cor-
U respond with the results of Exp. 23 ?

Experiment 25. Is there any evidence that

A SIMILAR PROCESS GOES ON IN PLANTS ? — (1) Half fill

a small, wide-mouthed jar with limewater, place it in-

Syr^rvj, side a larger one (Fig. 46), and fill the space between
^^W them, up to the neck of the smaller vessel, with well-
^^S soaked peas, beans, or barleycorns, on a bed of moist
^^9 cotton or blotting paper. Cover with a piece of glass
.Kffisa ^^^ j^ggp .^^ .j^ moderately warm temperature. (2) As
a control experiment, place beside this another jar ar-
ranged in precisely the same way, except that seeds
must be used whose vitality has been destroyed by
heat. To prevent the entrance of germs among the
dead seeds, which might cause fermentation and thus
interfere with the experiment, set the jar containing them in a vessel of
water and boil an hour or two before the experiment begins. Otherwise,
treat precisely as in (1).

After germination has taken place in (1), what change do you notice in
the limewater ? If the effect is not apparent, gently stir with a straw or

r\

Fig. 46. — Dia-
grammatic section,
showing arrange-
ment of jars for
Exp. 25.

GERMINATION AND GROWTH 31

a glass rod to mix it with the gas in the larger jar. Has the limewater in
the control experiment undergone the same change? (It may show a
slight niilkiness due to the carbon dioxide in the air.) Insert a thermom-
eter among the seeds in both of the larger jars, and compare their tem-
perature with that of the outside air; which shows the greater rise?
From this experiment and the last one, what process, common to animals,
would you conclude has been going on in the germinating seeds ?

Note. — Heat in germinating seeds is not always due to this cause
alone, but is sometimes increased by the presence of miimte organisms
called bacteria. Germinating barley and rye in breweries sometimes
show an increase in temperature of 40 to 70 degrees, due to these organisms,
and spontaneous combustion in seed cotton has been reported from the
same cause.

27. Oxidation. — The process that brought about the
results observed in the foregoing experiments, and popularly
known as combustion, is more accurately defined by chemists
as oxidation. It takes place whenever substances enter into
new combinations with oxygen. The most familiar examples
of it are when oxygen enters into combination with substances
containing carbon. It was the union of a portion of the
oxygen of the air in Exp. 21, and of that in the tube in Exp.
22, with some of the carbon in the wood, that caused the
burning. The effect was more marked in the second case
because the oxygen in the tube was pure, while in the air it
is mixed with other substances.

28. Carbon. — The black substance left in your hand
after oxidation of the wood in Exps. 21 and 22 is carbon.
It composes the greater part of most plant bodies, and, in
fact, is the most important element in the realm of organic
nature. There is not a living thing known, from the smallest
microscopic germ to the most gigantic tree in existence, that
does not contain carbon as one of its essential constituents.

29. Carbon dioxide. — The gas produced by the burning
candle in Exp. 23, by the germinating seeds in Exp. 25, and
expelled from your own lungs in Exp. 24, is carbon dioxide.
Chemists designate it by the symbol CO2, which means that
it consists of one part carbon to two parts oxygen. It is ar

32 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

invariable product wherever the oxidation of substances
containing carbon goes on. Heat and moisture are evolved
at the same time, and if oxidation is very active, as in Exps.
21 and 22, light also. When the process takes place very
slowly, no light is evolved, and so little heat as to be imper-
ceptible without special observation. Hence, oxidation may
go on around us and even in our own bodies without our
being conscious of the fact.

Carbon dioxide is of prime importance to the well-being of
plants. It furnishes the material from which the greater
part of their organic food is derived, as will be seen when
we take up the study of the leaf and its work. To animals,
on the contrary, its presence is so injurious that if the pro-
portion of it in the air we breathe ever rises much above 1
part to 1000, the ill effects become painfully sensible. It
is not, however, as was formerly supposed, a poison, the
harm it does being to decrease the proportion of oxygen
in the atmosphere so that animals cannot get enough of it
to breathe, and die of suffocation.

30. Respiration in plants and in animals. — It was shown
in Exp. 24 that respiration in animals is accompanied by the
products of oxidation; hence we conclude that respiration
is a form of oxidation. And since these same products are
given off by plants (Exp. 25), the inference is clear that the
same process goes on in them. But in plants the life func-
tions are so much more sluggish than in animals that it is
only in their most active state, during germination and
flowering, that evidence of it is to be looked for.

31. Respiration and energy. — In plants, as in animals,
respiration is the expression or measure of energy. Sleeping
animals breathe more slowly than waking ones, snakes and
tortoises more slowly than hares and hawks. The more
we exert ourselves and the more vital force we expend, the
harder we breathe ; hence, respiration is more active in
children than in older persons and in working people than in
those at rest, It i§ the same with plants ; respiration is most

GERMINATION AND GROWTH 33

perceptible in germinating seeds and young leaves, in buds
and flowers, where active work is going on. Hence, in this
condition they consume proportionately larger quantities
of oxygen and liberate correspondingly larger quantities of
carbon dioxide, with a proportionate increase of heat. In
some of the arums, — calla lily, Jack-in-the-pulpit, colo-
casia, etc., — and in large heads of compositse, like the sun-
flower, where a great number of small flowers are brought
together within the same protecting envelope, the rise of
temperature is sometimes so marked that it may be per-
ceived by placing a flower cluster against the cheek.

Practical Questions

1. What is charcoal ? (28.)

2. Is any of this substance contained in the seed? in the flour and
meal made from seed? (28; Exp. 25.)

3. What combination takes place when the cook lets the stove get too
hot and burns the biscuits? (27, 28.)

4. Of what does the burned part consist? (28.) What was it before
it was burned? (27,28).

5. Which burns the more readily, an oily seed or a starchy one?
Which leaves the more solid matter behind ? (Suggestion : test by put-
ting a bean, or a large grain of corn, and an equal quantity of the kernel
of a Brazil nut on the end of apiece of wire and thrusting into a flame.)

6. Is there any rational ground for the statement that the wooden
buildings formerly used on Southern plantations as cotton ginneries were
sometimes destroyed through spontaneous combustion due to the heat
generated by piles of decaying cotton seed ? (Exp. 25, Note.)

n. CONDITIONS OF GERMINATION

Material. — Several ounces each of various kinds of seed. For the
softer kinds, pea, bean, corn, oats, wheat are recommended ; for those
with harder coverings, squash, castor bean, apple, pear, or, where ob-
tainable, cotton ; for still harder kinds, persimmon and date seeds, or the
stones of plum and cherry.

Appliances. — 1 dozen common earthenware plates for germinators ;
1 dozen two-ounce wide-mouthed bottles; 2 common glass tumblers;
clean sand, sawdust, or cotton batting, for bedding ; a double boiler ; a
gas burner, or a lamp stove.

34

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

32. Recording observations. — For this purpose a page
should be ruled off in the notebook of each student, after
the model here given, and the facts brought out by the differ-
ent experiments set down as observed.

Number of Seeds Germinated

No. of hoizrs . .

24

48

72

4d.

5d.

6d.

7d.

8d.

10 d.

No. of vessel . .

1

No. of vessel . .

2

No. of vessel . .

3

No. of vessel. .

4
5

No. of vessel . .

No. of vessel. .

6

Experiment 26. Can seeds have too much moisture ? — Drop a
number of dry beans or grains of corn, oats, or other convenient seed,
into a vessel with a bedding of cotton or paper that is barely moistened,
and an equal number of soaked seeds of the same kind into another vessel
with a saturated bedding of the same material. In a third vessel place
the same number of soaked seed, covering them partially with water, and
in a fourth cover the same number entirely. Label them 1, 2, 3, and 4;
keep all together in a warm, even temperature, and observe at intervals
of twenty-four hours for a week. What condition as to moisture do
you find most favorable to germination ? Would seeds germinate in the
entire absence of moisture ? How do you know ?

Experiment 27. Was it the presence of too much water, or
the lack of air caused by it, that interfered with germination
IN THE LAST EXPERIMENT? — To answer this question experimentally is
not easy, since it is difficult to obtain a complete vacuum without special
appliances. The simplest way is to fill with mercury a glass tube 30
inches long, closed at one end, and invert it over a small vessel — a tea-
cup, or an egg cup will answer — containing mercury enough to cover
the bottom to a depth of two or three centimeters (see Appendix, Weights
and Measures, for English equivalents.) The tube must be supported in
such a way that its lower end will dip into the mercury without touching
the bottom of the vessel. With a pair of forceps insert under the mouth of
the tube two or three seeds that have been well soaked in water deprived
of air by previous boiling. Being lighter than mercury, they will float to
the top, where there is a complete absence of air while other conditions

GERMINATION AND GROWTH

35

favorable to germination are present. Before releasing, they should be
well shaken under the mercury to free them from air bubbles, and if the
coats are loose fitting so that they can be removed without injury to the
parts inclosed in them, they should be slipped off in order to get rid of any
imprisoned air they may contain. Additional moisture may be supplied,
if necessary, by injecting, by means of a medicine dropper inserted under
the mouth of the tube, a drop or two of water that has been previously
boiled. Keep in a warm, even temperature, under conditions favorable
to germination, and compare the behavior of the seeds with those placed
in the different vessels in Exp. 26.

If appliances for this experiment are lacking, a rough approximation
can be made by using the seeds of aquatic plants, such as the lotus, water
lily, and the so-called Chinese sacred bean, sold in the variety stores,
which we know are capable of germinating in the limited amount of air
contained in ordinary soil water. Place an equal number of such seeds,
of about the same size and weight, on a bedding of common garden soil
in two glass tumblers. Fill one vessel a Uttle over half full of ordinary
soil water and the other to the same height with
water from which the air has been expelled by boil-
ing. Pour over the liquid a film of sweet oil or castor
oil, to prevent the access of air, leaving the surface of
the water in the other vessel exposed. In which do
the seeds come up most freely ?

Some seeds, especially those rich in proteins, as
peas and beans, will germinate in a vacuum, because
oxygen is supplied for a time by the chemical decom-
position of substances in their tissues which contain it,
but when these are exhausted, respiration ceases and
death ensues.

Experiment 28. Does the depth at which seeds

ARE PLANTED AFFECT THEIR GERMINATION ? — Plant a

number of peas or grains of corn at different depths
in a wide-mouthed glass jar filled with moist sand, as
shown in Fig. 47, the lowest ones at the bottom, the
top ones barely covered. Try different kinds of seed
and grain, — radish, squash, cotton, or wheat, — and
watch them make their way to the surface. Do you
notice any difference in this respect between large
seed and small ones ? Between those with thick coty-
ledons and thin ones ? At what depth do you find,
from your recorded observations, that seed germinate
best?"

Fig. 47. — To find
out the proper depth
at which to plant

36

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Experiment 29. What temperature is most favorable to germi«
NATION ? — Put half a dozen soaked beans on moist cotton or sawdust in
three wide-mouthed bottles of the same size or in germinators arranged as
in Figs. 48, 49, the seed also being selected
with a view to similarity of size and weight.
Keep one at a freezing temperature ; the
second in a temperature of 15° to 20° C.
(see Appendi.x for Fahrenheit equivalents) ;
and the third, at 30° C. If a place can
be found near a stove or a register, where
an even temperature of about 125° F.
is maintained, place a fourth receptacle
there. Observe at intervals of twenty-
four hours for a week or ten days, keeping
the temperature as even as possible, and
maintaining an equal quantity of moisture
in each vessel. Make a daily record of
your observations. What temperature do
you find most favorable to germination ?

Figs. 48,49.— Home-made ger-
minators : 48, closed ; 49, showing
interior arrangement.

Experiment 30. At what temperature do seeds lose their vital-
ity ? — Place about two dozen each of grains of corn, beans, squash
seed, and castor beans, with an equal number of plum or cherry stones,
in water, and heat to a temperature of 150° F. After an exposure of
ten minutes, take out -six of each kind and place in germinators made
of two plates with moist sand or damp cloth between them, as shown
in Figs. 48, 49. Raise the temperature to 175° F., and after ten minutes
take out six more of each kind of seed and j^lace in another germinator.
Raise the water in the vessel to 200°, take out another batch of seeds;
raise to the boiling point for ten minutes more, and plant the remain-
ing six of each lot. Number the four germinators, and observe at in-
tervals of twenty-four hours for two weeks. The harder kinds should be
kept under observation for three or four weeks, as they germinate slowly.

Try the same experiments with the same kinds of seeds at a dry heat,
using a double boiler to prevent scorching, and record observations as before.

Experiment 31. Time required for germination. — Arrange in
germinators seeds of various kinds, such as corn, wheat, peas, turnip, apple,
orange, grape, castor bean, etc. "Clip" some of the harder ones and keep
all the kinds experimented with under similar conditions as to moisture,
temperature, (^tc, and record the time required for each to sprout. What
is the effect of clijiping, and why ?

Experiment 32. Are very young or immature seeds capable of
GERMINATING ? — Plant some seeds from half-grown tomatoes, and grains

GERMINATION AND GROWTH

37

of wheat, oats, or barley before they are ready for harvesting. Try as
many kinds as you like, and see how many will come up. Notice whether
there is any difference in the health and vigor of plants raised from seeds
in different stages of maturity.

Experiment 33. The relative value of perfect and inferior
SEED. — From a number of seeds of the same species select half a dozen of
the largest, heaviest,
and most perfect, and
an equal number of
small, inferior ones. If
a pair of scales is at
hand, the different sets
should be weighed and
a record kept for com-
parison with the seed-
lings at the end of the
experiment. Plant the
two sets in pots con-
taining exactly the
same kind of soil, and
keep under identical
conditions as to light,
temperature, and
moisture. Keep the
seedlings under obser-
vation for two or three
weeks, making daily
notes and occasional
drawings of the height
and size of the stems,
and the number of
leaves produced by
each.

33. Resistance
to heat and cold. —
In making experi-
ments with regard to temperature, notice how the extremes
tolerated are influenced, first, by the length of time the
seeds are exposed ; second, by the amount of water contained
in them ; and third, by the nature of the seed coats. Every
fanner knows that the effect of freezing is much more in-

50

Figs. 50, 51. — Stem development of seedlings: 50,
raised from healthy grains of barley ; weight, 39.5
grams (about 500 grs.) ; 51, raised under exactly similar
conditions from the same number of inferior grains ;
weight, 23 grams (about 350 grs.).

52 53

Figs. 52, 53. — Improvement of corn by selection :
62, original type; 53, improved type developed from it.

38 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

jurious to plants or parts of plants when full of sap (water)
than when dry. This, in the opinion of the most recent
investigators, is because the water in the spaces outside the
cells freezes first and as moisture is gradually withdrawn
from the inside to take its place, the soluble salts which may
be present in the cell sap become more concentrated, and by
their chemical action on the contained proteins cause them
to be precipitated, or " salted out," as we see sugar or salt
precipitated from solutions of those substances when water
is withdrawn by evaporation. In this way, it is believed,
the fundamental protoplasm of the cell may be so disorganized
that death ensues if the freezing is continued long enough,
since the protein precipitates become " denatured " and cannot
be reabsorbed if kept in a solid state too long. The length of
time necessary to produce death from this cause is, of course,
different in different plants, according to the kind of salts
dissolved in the sap and the nature of the proteins acted on
by them. The proteins in the sap of Begonia, or Pelargo-
nium, plants which are very sensitive to cold, yield a dena-
tured precipitate at, or a little below the freezing point of
water, while those of winter rye withstand a temperature of
-15° C, and of pine needles, -40° C.

Mechanical injury through rupture of parts by freezing
is not apt to cause serious damage except in cases of sudden
and violent cold at a time when the tissues are gorged with
sap, as not infrequently happens during the abrupt changes
of temperature which sometimes occur in spring after the
trees have put forth their leaves. In an extreme case of
this kind, the writer has seen the trunk of an oak a foot
or more in diameter split in deep seams from the effects
of freezing.

34. The length of time during which seeds may retain
their vitality. — No direct experiment can be made to test
this point, since it would require months, or even years,
covering in some instances more than the lifetime of a genera-
tion. It has been stated on good authority that seeds of the

GERMINATION AND GROWTH 39

water chinquapin (Nelumbo) have germinated after more
than a hundred years, and moss spores preserved in her-
bariums, after fifty. But the records in such cases are not
always trustworthy, and there is absolutely no foundation
for the statements sometimes made about the germination
of wheat grains found preserved with mummies over two
thousand years old. If kept perfectly dry, however, seed
may sometimes be preserved for months, or even years.
Peas have been known to sprout after ten years, red clover
after twelve, and tobacco after twenty. Ordinarily, however,
the vitality of seeds diminishes with age, and in making ex-
periments it is best to select fresh ones. Those used for
comparison should also, as far as possible, be of the same size
and weight.

35. Effect of precocious germination. — It has been found
by experiment that plants raised from immature seed, when
they will germinate at all (Exp. 32), yield earlier and larger
crops than the same kinds from mature seed. Early toma-
toes and some other vegetables are produced in this way.
The majority of seeds, however, require a period of rest
before beginning their life work. Those that are forced to
take up the burden of " child labor " show the effect of
such abnormal condition by yielding fruits that are smaller
and less firm than those raised from mature seed, so that
they do not keep well and have to be marketed quickly.
Under what circimastances does it pay to cultivate such
fruits?

Practical Questions

1. What are the principal external conditions that affect germination?
(Exps. 26-29.)

2. What effect has cold ? want of air ? too much water ?

3. Is light necessary to germination ?

4. What is the use of clipping seeds? (Kxps. 12, 13, 14, and Material,
p. 12.)

5. In what cases should it be resorted to? (Exp. 31.)

6. Why will seed not germinate in hard, sun-baked land without

40 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

abundant tillage ? Why not on undrained or badly drained land ? (Exps.
26, 27.)

7. Will seeds that have lost their vitality swell when soaked? (Exp. 16. )

8. Are there any grounds for the statement that the seeds of plums
boiled into jam have sometimes been known to germinate ? ^ (."53; Kxp. 30.)

9. Could such a thing happen in the case of apple or sunflower seed,
and why or why not ? (33.)

10. Does it make any difference in the health and vigor of a plant
whether it is grown from a large and well-developed seed or from a weak
and puny one? (Exp. 33.)

11. Would a farmer be wise who should market all his best grain and
keep only the inferior for seed ?

12. What would be the result of repeated plantings from the worst
seed?

13. Of constantly replanting the best and most vigorous ?

14. Suppose seed would germinate without moisture; would this be
an advantage, or a disadvantage to agriculturists ?

15. Why is a cool, dry place best for keeping seeds ? (Exps. 26, 29.)

16. Why are the earliest tomatoes found in the market usually smaller
than those off ered later ? (35.)

17. Why is continued rain so Injurious to wheat, oats, and other grains
before they are mature enough to be harvested? (35; Exp. 32.)

18. Would the same effect be likely to occur in the case of very oily
seeds, such as flax and castor beans ? Why ? (Suggestion : try the effect
of putting water on a piece of oiled paper.)

19. Explain why many seeds cannot germinate successfully without
air. (30, 31; Exp. 25.)

20. Mention some of the practical advantages that a farmer, a gardener,
or a careful housewife might gain from experiments like those made in this
section.

21. Explain why seeds can endure so much greater extremes of tempera-
ture than growing plants. (23, 33.)

m. DEVELOPMENT OF THE SEEDLING

Material. — Seedlings of various kinds in different stages of growth.
It is recommended that the same species be used that were studied in
Section III, Chapter I, or such equivalents as may have been substituted
for them. Enough should be provided to give each pupil three or four
specimens in different stages of development. Seeds, even of the same kind,

1 Vines, " Lectures on the Physiology of Plant?," p. 282. See also Sachs,
*' Physiology of Plants."

GERMINATION AND GROWTH

41

develop at such different rates that it will probably not be necessary to
make more than two plantings of each sort, from 2 to 5 days apart.
Soaked seeds of corn and wheat will germinate in from 3 to 7 days,
according to the temperature; oats in 1 to 4; beans in 4 to 6;
squash and castor beans in from 8 to 10. Very obdurate ones may
be hastened by clipping. Keep the germinators in an even temperature,
at about 70° to 80° F.

Pine is a very difficult seed to germinate, requiring usually from 18 to 21
days. By soaking the mast for twenty-four hours and planting in damp
sand or sawdust kept at an even temperature of 23° C. or about 75° F.,
specimens may be obtained.

L

36. Seedlings of monocotyls. — Examine a seedling of
corn that has just begun to sprout ; from which side does the
seedhng spring, the plain or the grooved one ? Refer to your
sketch of the dry grain and see if this

agrees with the position of the embryo as
observed in the seed. Make sketches of
four or five seedlings in different stages of
advancement, until you reach one with a
well-developed blade. From what part of
the embryo has each part of the seedling
developed? Which part first appeared
above ground? Is it straight, or bent in
any way? In what direction does the
plumule grow ? The hypocotyl ? Does the
cotyledon appear above ground at all? Slip
off the husk and see if there is any differ-
ence in the size and appearance of the
contents as you proceed from the younger
to the older plants. How would you ac-
count for the difference?

37. The root. — Examine the lower end of the hypocotyl
and find where the roots originate ; would you say that they
are an outgrowth from the stem, or the stem from the root ?
Observe that the root of the corn does not continue to grow
in a single main axis like that of the castor bean, but that
numerous adventitious and secondary roots spring from

Figs. 54, 55.— Seed-
ling of corn {after
Gray) : 54, early stage
of germination ; 55,
later stage.

42

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

various ])oints near the base of the hypocotyl and spread out
in every direction, thus giving rise to the fibrous roots of
grains and grasses.

38. Root hairs. — Notice the grains of sand or sawdust
that cHng to the rootlets of plants grown in a bedding of that

kind. Examine with a lens and see if you
can account for their presence. Lay the root
in water on a bit of glass, hold up to the light
and look for root hairs ; on what part are they
most abundant?

The hairs are the chief agents in absorbing
moisture from the soil. They do not last
very long, but are constantly dying and being
renewed in the younger and tenderer parts of
Fig. 56. — Seed- the root. These are usually broken away in

ling of wheat, with tearing the roots from the soil, so that it is not
easy to detect the hairs except in seedlings,

even with a microscope. In oat, maple, and radish seedlings

they are very abundant and clearly visible to the naked eye.

The amount of absorbing surface on a

root is greatly increased by their presence.

39. The root cap. — Look at the tip of
the root through your lens and notice the
soft, transparent crescent or horseshoe-
shaped mass in which it terminates. This
is the root cap and serves to protect the
tender parts behind it as the roots burrow
their way through the soil. Being soft
and yielding, it is not so likely to be in-
jured by the hard substances with which
it comes in contact as would be the more
compact tissue of the roots. It is composed
of loose cells out of which the solid root
substance is being formed; the growing point of the root,
g, is at the extremity of the tip just behind the cap, c (Fig. 57).
The cap is very apparent in a seedling of corn, and can easily

Fig. 57. — Diagram-
matic section of a root
tip : a, cortex ; h, central
cylinder in which the
conducting vessels are
situated ; c, root cap ; g,
growing point.

GERMINATION AND GROWTH

43

be seen with the naked eye, especially if a thin longitudinal
section is made. It is also well seen in the water roots of the
common duckweed {Lemna), and on those developed by a
cutting of the wandering Jew, when placed in water. Are
there any hairs on the root cap ? Can you account for their
absence ?

Note. — For a minute study of the structure of roots, see 67.

40. Organs of vegetation. — The three parts, root, stem,
and leaf, are called organs of vegetation in contradistinction to
the flower and fruit, which constitute
the organs of reproduction. The for-
mer serve to maintain the plant's indi-
vidual existence, the latter to produce
seed for the propagation of the species,
so we find that the seed is both the be-
ginning and the end of vegetable life.

41 . Definitions. — Organ is a general
name for any part of a living thing,
whether animal or vegetable, set apart
to do a certain work, as the heart for
pumping blood, or the stem and leaves

Fig. 58. — Seedlings of bean
in different stages of growth :
cc, cotyledons, showing the
plumule and hypocotyl before

of a plant for conveying and digesting germination; a, b d, and e,

•^ . . successive stages of advance-

Sap. By " function " is meant the ment. At d the arch of the

particular work or office that an organ ^SS£ , j, .Stf Jy

has to perform. erected itself.

42. Seedlings of dicotyls. The bean. — Sketch, with-
out removing it, a bean seedling that has just begun to show
itself above ground ; what part is it that protrudes first ?
Sketch in succession four or five others in different stages of
advancement. Notice how the hypocotyl is arched where
it breaks through the soil. Does this occur in the monocotyl?
examined? Do the cotyledons of the bean appear above
ground? How do they get out? Can you perceive any
advantage in their being dragged out of the ground back-
wards in this way rather than pushed up tip foremost?

44

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

WTiat changes have the cotyledons undergone in the suc-
cessive seedUngs? Remove from the earth a seedling just
l)eginuing to sprout and sketch it. From what point does
the h ypocotyl protrude through the coats ? Does this agree
with its position as sketched in your study of the seed?
In which part of the embryo does the first growth take place?

Remove in succession the several seedlings you have
sketched and note their changes. How does the root differ
from that of the corn and oats ? The first root formed by the
extension of the hypocotyl is the primary root and should be
so labeled in your drawings ; the branches that spring from
it are secondary roots. Look for root hairs; if there are
any, where do they occur?

43. Germination of the squash. — How^ does the manner
of breaking through the soil compare with that of the bean ?

Co

e c b a

Fig. 59. — Stages in the germination of a typical seedling of the squash family :
z, a seed before germination ; b, c, e, the same in different stages of growth ; d, the
empty testa, with kernel removed ; hi, hilum ; m, micropjde ; p, p, the peg in the heel ;
h, h, h, the hypocotyl ; (ir, arch of the hypocotyl ; co, cotyledons ; pi, plumule ; ^jr,
primary root ; sc, secondary roots.

With the corn? From which end of the seed, the large or
the small one, does the hypocotyl spring ? Do the cotyledons
come above ground ? How do they get out of the seed coat ?
Notice the thick protuberance developed by the hypocotyl
and pressing against the lower half of the coat at the point
where the hypocotyl breaks through. This is called the

GERMINATION AND GROWTH

45

" peg " ; can you tell its use? Could the cotyledons get out
of their hard covering without it? Slip the peg below the
coat in one of your growing specimens, leave it in the soil,
and see what will happen. How do the cotyledons of the
squash differ from those of the bean as they come out of the
seed cover? Do they act as foliage leaves? Do you see
any difference in the development of the plumule in the two
seeds (Figs. 19, 25) to account for the different behavior of
the cotyledons? Sketch three seedlings in different stages,
labeling correctly the parts observed. Make a similar study
of the castor bean, or other seedling selected by your teacher,
and illustrate by drawings.

44. Arched and straight hypocotyls. — This difference in
the manner of getting above ground is an important one.
That by means of the arched hypocotyl is, in general, charac-
teristic of the process of germination in which the cotyledons
come above ground, while the straight kind, which was illus-
trated in the corn and wheat, is the prevail-
ing method when the cotyledons remain
below ground. Can you give a reason for
the difference ?

45. Polycotyledons ; germination of the
pine. — Examine a pine seedling just begin-
ning to sprout. What part emerges first
from the seed coat? Where does it break
through ? Where did 3^ou find the micropyle
in the pine seed? (15.) Can you give a
reason why the hypocotyl in seeds should
break through the coats at this point ? How
do the cotyledons get out of the testa? Is
the hypocotyl arched or straight in germination? How does
it compare with the bean and s(|uash in this respect? With
the corn ? Is any endosperm left in the testa after the cotyle-
dons have come out? What has become of it? Do the
cotyledons function as leaves ? How many of them has the
specimen you are studying ? Notice the little knob or button

60. — Pine
scodliim (Aftii- ( iRAY).

46 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

at the upper end of the hypocotyl, just above the point where
the cotyledons are attached; this is the epicotyl, or part
above the cotyledons, here identical with the plumule ; does
it develop as rapidly as in the other seedlings you have ex-
aniuiod ?

46. Relation of parts in the seedling. — Before leaving this
subject, it is imi)ortant to fix clearly in mind the different
parts of the germinating seedling and their relation to both
the embryo from which they originated and the plant into
which they are to develop. The part labeled '' hypocotyl "
in your sketches is all that portion of the embryo below the
point of attachment of the cotyledons. In germination its
upper part will become the stem, and in the embryo con-
stitutes the caulicle, or stemlet, while its lower part, from
which the root will develop, is the radicle, or rootlet; hence
the term " hypocotyl " includes both the future root and
stem. The plumule is that part of the embryo between the
cotyledons and above their point of attachment to the caulicle.
It is the upward growing point of the young plant, and hence
the place of attachment of the cotyledon is the first node, or
point of leaf origin, on the stem.

The epicotyl, in contradistinction to the hypocotyl, is all
that part of the plant above the insertion of the cotyledons.
Before germination it is identical with the plumule. As the
seedling grows, the epicotyl advances its growing point by
adding new nodes and internodes, as the spaces between the
successive points of leaf insertion are called.

47. Botanical terms. — As the prefixes hypo and e-pi are
of frequent occurrence in botanical works, it will aid in
understanding their various compounds if you will remem-
ber that hypo always refers to something below or beneath,
and epi, to something over or above. With this idea in mind
you will see that botanical terms are a labor-saving device,
since it is much easier, in making notes, to use a single de-
scriptive word than to write out the long English equivalent,
such as " the part under (or over) the cotyledons."

GERMINATION AND GROWTH

47

Practical Questions

1. Do the cotyledons, as a general thing, resemble the mature leaves of
the same plants ?

2. Name some plants in which you have observed differences, and ac-
count for them; could convenience of packing in the seed coats, for in-
stance, or of getting out of them, have any bearing on the matter ?

3. Does the position in which seeds are planted in the ground have
anything to do with the position of the seedlings as they appear above the
surface ?

4. Is this fact of any importance to the farmer ?

5. Will grain that has begun to germinate make good meal or flour?
Why? (27,36; Exp. 25.)

IV. GROWTH

some lily or hyacinth bulbs :
well-

Material. — Two young potted plants
seedlings of different kinds, — some with
developed taproots, — apple, cotton, and maple
are good examples.

Appliances. — A small flat dish, some mer-
cury, and a piece of cork.

Experiment 34. How does the root in-
crease IN LENGTH ? — Mark off the root of a very
young corn seedling into sections by moistening a
piece of sewing thread with indelible ink and
applying it to the surface of the root at intervals
of about two millimeters (xo of an inch), or by
tying a thread lightly around it at the same inter-
vals. Lay the seedling on a moist bedding be-
tween two panes of glass kept apart by a sliver of
wood to prevent their injuring the root by pressure.
Watch for a day or two, and .you will see that
growth takes place from a point just back of the
tip (Figs. 61, 62).

Mark off a seedling of the bean in the same
way and watch to see whether it increases in the same maimer as the corn.

Experiment 35. How does the stem l\ckease in length? — Mark
off a poi-tion of the stem of a bean seedling as cxplaincHl in the last experi-
ment, and find out how it grows. Allow a seedling to develop until it
has put forth several leaves and measure daily the spaces between them.
Label these spaces in your drawings, " internodes," and the points where the
leaves are attached, " nodes." Does an internode stop growing when the

Figs. 61, 62. — Seed-
ling of corn, marked to
show region of growth :
61, early stage of germi-
nation ; 62, later stage.

48

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

one next above it has formed ? When is growth most rapid ? Reverse the
position of a number of scedhngs that have just begun to sprout and watch
what will happen. After a few days reverse again and note the effect.

P

63 64

Figs. 63, 64. — Root of bean seed-
ling, measured to show region of
growth : 63, early stage of
tion ; 64, later stage.

Figs. 65, 66. — Stem of bean seedling,
measured to show region of growth : 65,
early stage of growth ; 66, later stage.

E5CPERIMENT 36.

67
Figs. 67, 68. — Experiment show-
ing the direction of growth in stems :
67, young potato planted in an in-
verted position ; 68, the same after
§n ipterval of eight days.

Can plants grow and lose weight at the same
TIME ? — Remove the scales from a white
lilj^ bulb, weigh them, and lay in a waiTn,
but not too damp place, away from the
light. After a time bulblets will form at
the bases of the scales. Weigh them again,
and if there has been any loss, account
for it. The experiment may be tried by
allowing a potato tuber or a hyacinth bulb
to germinate without absorbing moisture
enough to affect its weight.

Experiment 37. Is the direction of

GROWTH A MATTER OP ANY IMPORTANCE ?

— Plant in a pot suspended as shown in
Fig. 67, a healthy seedling of some kind,
two or three inches high, so that the
plumule shall point downward through
the drain hole and the root upward into
the spjl. Watch the action of the stem

GERMINATION AND GROWTH 49

for six or eight days, and sketch it at successive intervals. After the stem
has directed itself well upward, invert the pot again, and watch the growth.
After a week remove the plant and notice the direction of the root. Sketch
it entire, showing the changes in direction of growth.

At the same time that this experiment is arranged, lay another pot with a
rapidly growing plant on one side, and every forty-eight hours reverse the
position of the pot, laying it on the opposite side. At the end of ten or
twelve days remove the plant and examine. How has the growth of root
and stem been affected ?

What do we learn from these experiments and from Exp. 35 as to the
normal direction of growth in these two organs respectively? Can you
think of any natural force that might influence this direction ?

Experiment 38. To show that plants will exert force rather
THAN CHANGE THEIR DIRECTION OF GROWTH. — Pin a sproutcd bean to a
cork and fasten the cork to the side of a flat dish,
as shown in Fig. 69. Cover the bottom of the dish
with mercury at least half an inch deep, and over
the mercury pour a layer of water. Cover the
whole with a pane of glass to keep the moisture in, ^

,, » , , m, Ml f • Fi"^'- ^■^- — Lxpenment

and leave tor several days. Ihe root will force its showing the ruot of a seed-
way downward into the mercury, although the ling forcing its way down-
latter is fourteen times heavier than an equal ward through mercury,
bulk of the bean root substance, and the root must thus overcome a
resistance equal to at least fourteen times its own weight.

48. What growth is. — With the seedhng begins the
growth of the plant. Most people understand by this
word mere increase in size ; but growth is something more
than this. It involves a change of form, usually, but not
necessarily, accompanied by increase in bulk. Mere me-
chanical change is not growth, as when we bend or stretch
an organ by force, though if it can be kept in the altered
position till such position becomes permanent, or as we say
in common speech, " till it grows that way," the change
may become growth. To constitute true growth, the change
of form must be permanent, and brought about, or main-
tained, by forces within the plant itself.

49. Conditions of growth. — The internal conditions de-
pend upon the organization of the plant. The essential
external conditions are the same as those required for germi-

50 PRACTICAL COURSK IN BOTANY

nation : food material, water, oxygen, and a sufficient
degree of warmth. It may be greatly influenced by other
circumstances, such as light, gravitation, pressure, and
(probably) electricity ; but the four first named are the essen-
tial conditions without which no growth is possible.

50. Cycle of growth. — When an organ becomes rigid
and its form fixed, there is no further growth, but only nutri-
tion and repair, — processes which must not be confounded
with it. Every plant and part of a plant has its period of
beginning, maximum, decline, and cessation of growth. The
cycle may extend over a few hours, as in some of the fungi, or,
in the case of large trees, over thousands of years.

51. Geotropism. — The general tendency of the growing
axes of plants to take an upward and downward course as
shown in Exp. 37 — in other words, to point to and from the
center of the earth — is called geotropism. It is positive when
the growing organs point downward, as most primary roots
do ; negative when they point upward, as in most primary
stems ; and transverse, or lateral, when they extend horizon-
tally, as is the case with most secondary roots and branches.

52. Gravity and growth. — It cannot be proved directly
that geotropism is due to gravity, because it is not possible
to remove plants from its influence so as to see how they
would behave in its absence. The effect of gravity may be
neutralized, however, by arranging a number of sprouting
seeds on the vertical disk of a clinostat, an instrument
fitted with a clockwork movement by means of which they
may be kept revolving steadily for several days. By this
constant change of position gravity is made to act on them
in all directions alike, which is the same in some respects as
if it did not act at all. If the disk is made to revolve
rapidly, the growing root tips turn toward the axis of motion,
without showing a tendency to grow downward. We may
then conclude th;it geotropism is a reaction to gravity.

53. Geotropism an active force. — It must be noted,
however, that the force here alluded to is not the mere me-

GERMINATION AND GROWTH

51

chanical effect of gravity, due to weight of parts, as when the
bough of a fruit tree is bent under the load of its crop, but
a certain stimulus to which the plant reacts by a spontaneous
adjustment of its growing parts. In other words, geotro-
pism is an active, not a passive function, and the plant will
overcome considerable resistance in response to it. (Exp. 38).
54. Other factors. — The direction of growth is influ-
enced by many other factors, such as light, heat, moisture,

contact with other bodies,
electricity. The result of all
endless variety in the forms
organs that seems to defy
Heat, unless excessive, gen-
growth ; contact sometimes
causing the stem to curve
turbing object, and sometimes
the stem to curve toward the
by growing more rapidly on

and perhaps by
these forces is an
and growth of
all law.

erally stimulates
stimulates it,
away from the dis-
retards it, causing
object of contact
the opposite side,

Fig. 70. — A piece of a haulm of millet that has been laid horizontally, righting
itself tphrough the influence of negative geotropism.

as in the stems of twining vines. Light stimulates nutrition,
but generally retards growth. The movements of plants
toward the hght are effected in this way ; growth being
checked on that side, the plant bends toward the light.

Practical Questions

1. Why do stems of corn, wheat, rye, etc., straighten themselves after
being prostrated by the wind ? (51, 54.)

2. Do plants grow more rapidly in the daytime, or at night? (54.)

3. Reconcile this with the fact that green plants will die if deprived
of light.

52 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

4. Which grows more rapidly, a young shoot or an old one? (31, 50.)

5. Which, as a general thing, arc the more rapid growers, annuals or
perennials? Herbaceous or woody-stemmed plants?

6. Name some of the most rapid growers you know.

7. Of what advantage is this habit to them?

8. Why do roots form only on the under side of subterraneous stems ?
(ol.)

9. Why do new twigs develop most freely on the upper side of hori-
zontal branches ? (51.)

Field Work

(1) Notice the various seedlings met with in your walks and see how
many you can recognize by their resemblance to the mature plants. Ac-
count for any differences you may observe between seedlings and older
plants of the same species. Observe the cotyledons as they come up and
their manner of getting out of the ground, and notice the ways in which
this is influenced by moisture, light, and the nature of the soil. Where
the cotyledons do not appear, dig into the ground and find out the reason.
Notice which method of emergence occurs in each case, the arched, or
straight, and account for it. Observe particularly the behavior of seed-
lings in hard, sunbaked soil. If you see any of them lifting cakes of earth,
compare the size and weight of the cake with that of the seed ; if there is
any disparity, what does this imply ? What is the force called which the
plant exercises in hfting the weight? (51.)

(2) Notice if there are any seeds germinating successfully on top of
the ground, and find out by what means their roots get into the soil.
Observe what effect sun and shade, moisture and drought, and the nature
of the soil have on the process. Find out whether roots exercise force in
penetrating the soil ; what kinds they penetrate most readily, and what
kinds, if any, they fail to penetrate at all. Notice whether seedlings with
taproots, like the turnip and castor bean, or those with fibrous roots, like
corn and wheat, are more successful in working their way downward.

(3) Look for tree seedlings. Explain why seedlings of fruit trees are so
much more widely distributed in cultivated districts, and so much easier
to find than those of forest trees. Where do the latter occur, as a general
thing? Account for the fact that seedling trees are so much more rare
than germinating herbs, and why trees like the oak and chestnut and
black walnut propagate so much more slowly, in a state of nature, than
the pine, cedar, ash, and maple.

(4) Observe the direction of growth in plants on the sides of gullies and
ravines, and tell how it is influenced by geotropism. Notice whether there
are other influenc^es at work; for instance, light, or in the case of roots,
the attraction of moisture.

CHAPTER III. THE ROOT

I. OSMOSIS AND THE ACTION OF THE CELL

Material. — For experiments in osmosis provide fresh and boiled
slices of red beet, a fresh egg, a piece of ox bladder or some parchment
paper; glass tubing, thread, twine, elastic bands, salt and sugar solutions.
A common medicine dropper with the small end cut off will answer instead
of tubing for making an artificial cell ; or an eggshell maj^ be used, by
blowing out the contents through a puncture in the small end, and care-
fully chipping away a portion of the shell at the big end, leaving the lining
membrane intact. The different liquids can be put into the shell and the
exposed membrane placed in contact with the liquid
in the glass, by fitting over the latter a piece of card-
board with a hole in the center large enough for the
exposed surface to protrude sufficiently to touch the
water.

55. Object of the experiments. — In or-
der to understand clearly the action of roots
in absorbing nutrients from the soil, it will
be necessary to learn something about the
movement of liquids through the cells, upon
which the physiological processes of the
plant depend. For this purpose make an
artificial cell by tying a piece of ox bladder
or parchment paper tightly over one end of
a small glass tube, as shown in Fig. 71.

Experiment 39. How does absorption take
PLACE IN THE CELL ? — (a) Put some Salt water in
a wineglass, partly fill the tube of the artificial cell
with fresh water, and mark on the outside of both
vessels the height at which the contained liquid stands. Set the tube
in the glass of salt water and wait for results, having first tested care-
fully to make sure that there are no leaks in the membrane. After half
an hour, notice whether there is any increase of water in the glass, as
indicated by the mark. If so, where did it come from ? Is there any loss

53

Fig. 71.— Artificial
cell.

54 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

of water in the tube ? What has become of it ? How did it get out ?
Taste it to see if any of the salt water has got in. Which is the heavier,
salt water, or fresh? (If you do not know, weigh an equal quantity of
each.) In which direction did the principal flow take place; from the
heavier to the lighter, or from the lighter to the heavier liquid ?

(&) Put a sugar or salt solution in the tube, and clear, fresh water in
the glass, marking the height in each as before. Does the liquid rise or
fall in the tube ? Does any of it escape into the water of the glass, and if
so, is it more or less than before? Which now contains the denser fluid,
the tube or the glass ? What principle governs the course of the liquid ?
Try the same experiment with (c), the same liquid in both vessels, and
notice whether there is a greater flow in one direction than the other, as
Indicated by a comparison with the marks on the outside, (d) Put in
the tube some of the white of a raw egg, insert in a glass of pure water, and
note the effect, (e) Reverse, with water in the tube and white of egg
in the glass. Does the water rise in the tube as before ? Test the contents
for proteins ; has any of the albumin passed through the membrane into
the tube ?

Experiment 40. To test the behavior of living and dead cells. —
Slice a fresh piece of red beet into a vessel of water and of a boiled one into
another vessel of the same liquid at the same temperature. What differ-
ence do you notice ? Can you think of any reason why the boiled one gives
up its juices and the other one does not ?

56. Osmosis. — The passage of liquids or of solids in so-
lution through membranes is known as osmosis. Our experi-
ments have shown that the principles governing the osmotic
movement are: (1) the passage of water from the thinner
liquid toward the denser takes place more rapidly than in
the opposite direction; (2) the rapidity of the transfer de-
pends on the difference in density; (3) crystallizable sub-
stances in solution, like sugar and salt, osmose readily;
(4) albuminous or gelatinous substances, such as the white
of an egg, osmose so slowly that the cell wall may be regarded
as practically impermeable to them.

57. Osmosis a form of diffusion. — Osmosis is related to
diffusion as a part to the whole. In other words, it is a name
given to the process when it takes place through a mem-
brane, whether solid, as the outer wall of the cell, or semi-
fluid, as the inner wall of living protoplasm. Diffusion may

THE ROOT 55

therefore take place without osmosis, that is, in the absence
of a membrane, as, for example, when we sweeten our tea or
coffee by allowing sugar to diffuse through it. Many mem-
branes offer little resistance to the osmotic movement of
crystallizable substances. Such membranes are said to be
permeable. Membranes which are not permeable to the dis-
solved soUds, are called semi-permeable, since they allow the
diffusion of water but not of the substances in solution.
Living protoplasm is of this class. It is only very slightly
permeable to many substances toward which, when dead, it
acts as a permeable membrane.

58. Absorption in living and dead cells. — There is one
great difference between the action of the artificial cell used
in the foregoing experiments and that of the cells of which
a living body is built up. The living cell always has at least
two membranes. One of these, the cell wall, is readily per-
meable, while the other, the protoplasm, is semi-permeable
— that is, substances in solution usually diffuse more or less
slowly, while water diffuses rapidly. Hence in the living cell
the protoplasm exercises a power of absorption independent
of the cell wall, sometimes rejecting substances admitted by
the latter, sometimes retaining others to which it is perme-
able, as shown in Exp. 40. In the boiled beet the protoplasm
had been killed and the red coloring matter passed through
it unhindered, while in the living one it was held back
by the protoplasmic lining, which is thus seen to control the
absorptive properties of the cell.

59. Plasmolysis. — Cells can be killed or injured in other
ways than by heat; for example, by cold, by poisons, by
starvation, and by overfeeding through the use of too much
fertilizer or too rich a one. In this last case, the soil water
becomes impregnated with soluble matter from the manure,
which may render it denser than the sap in the roots. AVhen
this happens, it will cause the osmotic flow to set outward
and thus deplete the cell of its water; whence we have
the paradox that a cell, or even a whole plant, may be starved

56

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

by overfeeding. This action of osmosis in withdrawing
the contents from a cell is termed plasmolysis, and you can
easily understand how very important a knowledge of the
principles governing it is to the farmer in determining the
application of fertilizers to his crops.

Dead cells, although powerless to carry on the life processes
of a plant, have nevertheless important uses in serving the
purposes of mechanical support and also to some extent in
assisting in the work of absorption, though their function
here is a purely mechanical one.

60. Selective absorption. — Different plants through
their roots absorb different substances from the soil water, or

the same substance
in varying degrees.
Hence, one kind of
crop will exhaust
the soil of certain
minerals while leav-
ing other kinds in-
tact, or very little
diminished; and vice
versa, another kind
will take up abun-
dantly what its pred-
ecessor has rejected.
In this sense, plants
are said to exercise a
selective power in
the absorption of nu-
trients. The expres-
sion must not be understood, however, as implying any kind
of volitional discrimination. It is merely a short and con-
venient way of saying that the cells of different plants possess
different degrees of permeability to certain substances, some
being more permeable to one thing, some to another. But
beyond this rejection of untransmissible substances there is no

l;JI

9

ij

S

m

1|^

^

Fk;. 72. — -Root of a troc enveloping a rock.
The large syeamore, wluj.se ba.se i.s partly concealed
by the trumpet creeper on the left of the picture,
is growing in very hard, stony soil, and one of
its main roots has molded itself so completely to the
ledge of rock protruding on the right, that when a
portion of it was torn away, as shown where the light
streak ends at a, the impress of its fibers was so
strongly marked on the rock as to give the latter the
appearance of a petrified root.

THE ROOT

67

active power of discrimination, any substance that can pass
through the cell wall and its protoplasmic lining being taken
in, whether useful, unnecessary, or even harmful. These may,
however, be got rid of by excretion, as the superfluous water
taken in with dissolved minerals is exhaled from the leaves ;
or if incapable of passing out by osmosis, rendered harmless
and retained in the
form of the curious
"crystalloids" found
in various parts of
plants. But while
the kind of selection
exercised by vegeta-
ble cells implies no
power of choice, as a
matter of fact those
substances most
used by the plant in
carrying on its life
processes are ab-
sorbed in much
greater quantities
than others, being
transferred to parts
where growth or
other changes in the
plant tissues are go-
ing on, and there
used up in the work of nutrition, or excreted in part as waste
products. In either case their passage from cell to cell will
give rise to a continuous osmotic current in that direction,
and the absorption of new matter will go on in proportion to
the amounts used up.

6i. Definition. — Tissue is a word used to denote any
animal or vegetable substance having a uniform structure
organized to perform a particular office or function. Thus,

Fig. 73. — Roots of elm and sycamore contending for
isession of the soil on a rocky bluff on the Potomac.

58 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

for instance, we have bony tissue and muscular tissue in
animals ; that is, tissue made of bone substance and muscle
substance and doing the work of bone and muscle respec-
tively. Likewise in plants, we have strengthening tissue
made up of hard, thick-walled cells, serving mainly for pur-
poses of mechanical support, and vascular tissue, made up of
conducting vessels for conveying sap — and so on, for every
separate function.

Practical Questions

1. Wh}' do raspberries and strawberries have a flabby, wilted look if
sugar has been put on them too long before they are served ? (7, 56.)

2. Where has the juice gone ? What caused it to go out of the berries ?
(56, 59.)

3. Is a knowledge of the principles governing osmosis of any practical
use to the housekeeper ?

4. Why cannot roots absorb water as freely in winter as in summer?
(Suggestion : which is the heavier, cold or warm water ? )

5. Why does fertilizing too heavily sometimes injure a crop? (59.)

6. Do you see any apparent contradiction between the action of plas-
molysis and the selective power of protoplasm ? Can you reconcile it ?

7. If a piece of beet that has been frozen is placed in water it will be-
have just as the slice of boiled beet did in Exp. 40; explain. (58, 59.)

II. MINERAL NUTRIMENTS ABSORBED BY PLANTS

Material. — A dozen or two each of different kinds of seeds and grains.
A small portion from a growing shoot of a woody and a herbaceous land
plant, and of some kind of succulent water or marsh plant, such as arrow
grass iSagittaria), water plantain, etc.

Appliances. — A pair of scales ; a lamp, stove, or other means of burn-
ing away the perishable parts of the specimens to be studied.

Experiment 41. — Do the tissues of plants contain mineral
MATTER ? — Take about a dozen each of grains and seeds of different kinds,
weigh each kind separately, and then dry them at a high temperature, but
not high enough to scorch or burn them. After they have become perfectly
dry, Aveigh them again. What proportion of the different seeds was water,
as indicated by their loss of weight in drying?

Burn all the solid part that remains, and then weigh the ash. What
proportion of each kind of seed was of incombustible material? What
proportion of the solid material was destroyed by combustion ?

THE ROOT

59

Experiment 42. — Do they contain different kinds and quanti-
ties OF minerals ? — Test in the same way the fresh, active parts of any
kind of ordinary land plant (sunflower, hollyhock, pea vines, (itc), and
of some kind of succulent water or marsh plant (Sagittaria, water lily,
fern). Do you notice any difference in the amount of water given off and
of solid matter left behind ? In the character of the ashes left ? Have
you observed in general any difference between the ashes of different
woods ; as, for instance, hickory, pine, oak ? Compare with the residue
left in Exp. 21 ; would you judge that the residual substances are of the
same composition ?

62. Essential constituents. — The composition of the
ash of any particular plant will depend upon two things:
the absorbent capacity of the plant itself
and the nature of the substances con-
tained in the soil in which it grows. But
chemical analysis has shown that how-
ever the ashes may vary, they always
contain some proportion of the follow-
ing substances : potassium (potash),
calcium (lime), magnesium, phosphorus,
and (in green plants) iron. These ele-
ments occur in all plants, and if any one
of them is absent, growth becomes ab-
normal if not impossible.

The part of the dried substances that
was burned away after expelling the
water consists, in all plants, mainly of
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and
sulphur, in varying proportions. These
five rank first in importance among the
essential elements of vegetable life, and
without them the plant cell itself, the physiological unit of
vegetable structure, could not exist. They compose the
greater part of the substance of every plant, carbon alone
usually forming about one half the dry weight. Other sub-
stances may be present in varying proportions, but the two
groups named above are found in all plants without excep-

4 2 13 5

Fig. 74. — Water cul-
tures of buckwheat, show-
ing effect of the lack of the
different food elements :

1, with all the elements;

2, without potassium ; 3,
with soda instead of pot-
ash ; 4, without calcium ;
5, without nitrates or am-
monia salts.

CO

PRACTTOAL COURSE IN BOTANY

tion, and so we may conclude that (with the possible addition
of chlorine) they form the indispensable elements of plant
food. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and
phosphorus compose the structure of which the plant is built.
The other four ingredients do not enter into the substance as
component parts, but aid in the chemical processes by which
the life functions of the plant are carried on, and are none
the less essential elements of its food. Figure 74 shows the
difference between a plant grown in a solution where all
the food elements are present, and others in which some of
them are lacking.

63. How plants obtain their food material. — Plants
obtain their supply of the various mineral salts from solu-
tions in the soil water which
they absorb through their
roots. With a few doubtful
exceptions, they cannot as-
similate their food unless it
is in a liquid or gaseous form.
Of the gases, carbon dioxide,
oxygen, and hydrogen can
be freely absorbed from the
air, or from water with va-
rious substances in solution,
but most plants are so con-
stituted that they cannot absorb free nitrogen from the air ;
they can take it only in the form of compounds from nitrates
dissolved in the soil, and hence the importance of ammonia
and other nitrogenous compounds in artificial fertilizers.
Some of the pea family, however, bear on their roots little
tubers formed by minute organisms called bacteria, which
have the power of extracting nitrogen directly from the
free air mingled with the soil ; and hence the soil in which
these tuber-bearing legumes decay is enriched with niirogen
in a form ready for use.

i.

Fig. 75. — Roots of soy bean bearing
tubercle-forming bacteria.

THE ROOT

61

Practical Questions

1. Could any normal plant grow in a soil from which nitrogen was lack-
ing? Potash? Lime? Phosphorus? (62.)

2. Could it live in an atmosphere devoid of oxygen ? Nitrogen ? Car-
bon dioxide? (62.)

3. Why are cow peas or other legumes planted on worn-out soil to renew
it? (63.)

4. Is the same kind of fertilizer equally good for all kinds of soil ? For
all kinds of plants ? (60, 62.)

5. Why does too much watering interfere with the nourishment of
plants? (Exps. 26, 27.)

6. Are ashes fit for fertilizers after being leached for lye? (62.)

7. Why will plants die, or make very slow growth, in pots, unless the
soil is renewed occasionally? (60, 62.)

III. STRUCTURE OF THE ROOT

Material. — Taproot of a young woody plant not over one or two
years old ; apple and cherry shoots make good specimens. For showing
root hairs, seedUngs of radish, turnip, or oat are good, also roots of wan-
dering Jew grown in water ; for the rootcap, corn, sunflower, squash.

64. Gross anatomy of the root. — Cut a cross section of
any woody taproot, about halfway between the tip and the
ground level, examine it with a lens, and sketch. Label
the dark outer covering, epidermis, the soft layer just within
that, cortex, the hard, woody axis
that you find in the center, vas-
cular cylinder, and the fine sil-
very lines that radiate from the
center to the cortex, medullary
rays (in a very young root these
will not appear) . Cut a section
through a root that has stood in
coloring fluid for about three
hours and note the parts colored
by the fluid. What portion of
the root, would you judge from
this, acts as a conductor of the
water absorbed from the ground?

Fig. 76. — Cross section of a young
taproot ; a, a, root hairs ; h, epider-
mis ; c, cortical layer ; d, fibrovascular
cylinder. Note the absence of med-
ullary rays during the first year 0/
growth.

62

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Make a longitudinal section passing through the central
portion of the root and extending an inch or two into the
lower part of the stem. Do you find any sharp line of divi-
sion between them? Notice the hard, woody axis that runs
through the center. This is the vascular cylinder and con-
tains the conducting vessels, the cut ends of which were
shown in cross section in Fig. 76.

65. Distinctions between root and stem. — Pull off a
branch from the stem and one from the root ; which comes

off the more easily ? Examine the points of
I attachment of the two and see why this is so.

c^^l^^ This mode of branching from the central
axis instead of from the external layers, as
in the stem, is one marked distinction be-
tween the structure of the two organs. In
stems, moreover, branches occur normally
above the points of leaf insertion at the
nodes (46), while in the root they tend to
arrange themselves in straight vertical rows.
The shoots and cions that often originate
from them are not normal root branches,

but outgrowths from irregular or adventitious buds, that

may occur on any part of a plant. The root is not divided

into nodes like the stem,

and never bears leaves.

66. The active part of
the root. — It is only the
newest and most delicate
parts of the root that pro-
duce hairs and are engaged
in the active work of absorp-
tion, the older parts acting
mainly as carriers. Hence,
old roots lose much of their
characteristic structure and

. •■ 1 c i' i^^- ~^- — Root ol a tree on the side of

take on more and more of a guUey, acting as etem.

Fig. 77. — Verti-
section of branching
root, showing the
branches, n, n, origi-
nating in the central
axis, /, and passing
through the cortex,

k

THE ROOT

the office of the stem, until there is practically no difference
between them. On the sides of gullies, where the earth
has been washed from around the trees, we often see the
upper portion of the root covered with a thick bark and ful-
filling every office of a true stem.

67. Minute structure of the root. — (a) Mount in water
and place under the microscope a portion of the root of an
oat or radish seedling containing a number of hairs. In
studying the thin, transparent roots of very young seedlings
a section will not be necessary. Observe whether the hairs
originate from the epidermis or
from the interior. Are they true
roots, or mere outgrowths from
the cells of the epidermis? Do
they consist of a single cell or a
number of cells each? Notice
what very thin cell walls the
hairs have ; is there any advan-
tage in this ? The interior, trans-
parent portion of the hair con-
tains the sap, and the protoplasm
forms a thin lining on the inner
surface of the wall ; why not
the sap next the wall and the
protoplasm in the interior ? (58,
60.)

(6) Next examine a portion «°^^ ^^^"^ *^« extremity of the cap.
of the body of the root and try to make out the parts as
shown in Fig. 79, and compare them with your observa-
tions in 64. The light line running through the middle is
the central cylinder, up which the water passes, as was shown
by the colored liquid in 64. Outside this is a darker por-
tion (a. Fig. 79), corresponding to the cortex (rr, Fig. 77).
Besides other uses, the cortex serves to prevent the loss
of water as it passes up to the stem, and also, in fleshy
roots like the carrot and turnip, for the storage of nourish-

Fig. 79. — Longitudinal section
through the tip of a young root, some-
what diagrammatic : h, h, root hairs ;
ep, epidermis; a, cortex; b, central
cylinder; e, sheath of the eyhnder
(endodermis) ; g, growing point ; c,
root cap ; d, dead and dying cells loos-

64

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

inent. Its innermost row of cells is thickened into the
sheath, or endodermis (e), which serves as an additional
protection to the conducting tissues. The extreme outer
layer, from the cells of which the root hairs are developed,
is, as already stated, the epidermis, and in the older and
more exposed parts of perennial roots is displaced by the
bark, which becomes indistinguishable from that of the
stem. (66.)

(c) Look at the tip of the root for a loose structure (c)
fitting over it like a thimble. This is the rootcap. Do you
see any loose cells that seem to have broken away from it ?
These are old cells that have been pushed to the front by
the formation of new growth back of them, and, being of no
further use, are rubbed off by friction as the root bores its
way through the soil. Draw a longitudinal section of the
root as it appears under the microscope, labeling all the parts.
If they cannot be made out distinctly in the specimen exam-
ined, use sections of young corn or bean roots, which are
larger and show the parts more distinctly.

(d) Place under the microscope a thin cross section
through the hairy portion of a primary root of a bean or pea

seedling, and try to make
out the parts noted above
and shown in cross section in
Fig. 80. Make a sketch of
what you see, labeling all
the parts you can recognize.
Show in your drawing the
differences in the size and
shape of the cells composing
the different tissues. No-
tice in the central cylinder
(Fig. 80) several groups of
what look in the section like
little round pits, or holes, sp. These are the cut ends of
large-sized tubes or ducts that convey the water absorbed

Fig. 80. — Cross section of a young root,
magnified : h, hairs ; a, cortex ; 6, central
cylinder ; e, sheath or endodermis ; ep, epi-
dermis; sp, cut ends of the duets.

I

THE ROOT 65

by tlie roots to the stem. Each set of these tubes, together
with a number of smaller ones belonging to the same group,
constitutes a fibrovascular bundle — a very important ele-
ment in the structure of all roots and stems, as these bundles
make up the conducting system of the plant body.

IV. THE WORK OF ROOTS

Material. — Germinating seedlings of radish, bean, corn, etc.; a
potted plant of calla, fuchsia, tropseolum, touch-me-not (Impatiens), or
corn; a plant that has been growing for some time in a porous earthen
jar.

Appliances. — Glass tumblers ; coloring fluid ; wax ; some coarse net-
ting; dark wrapping paper, or a long cardboard box; a sheet of oiled
paper ; some half-inch glass tubing ; a few inches of rubber tubing ; an
ounce of mercury ; some blue litmus paper ; a flower pot full of earth ;
a few handfuls of sand, clay, and vegetable mold ; a pair of scales ; a
half dozen straight lamp chimneys, or long-necked bottles from which
the bottoms have been removed as directed in Exp. 53.

Experiment 43. Use of the epidermis. — Cut away the lower end
of a taproot; seal the cut surface with wax so as to make it perfectly
water-tight, and insert it in red ink for at least half the remaining length,
taking care that there is no break in the epidermis. Cut an inch or two
from the tip of the lower piece, or if material is abundant, from another
root of the same kind, and without sealing the cut surface, insert it in red
ink, beside the other. At the end of three or four hours, examine longitu-
dinal sections of both pieces. Has the liquid been absorbed equally by
both ? If not, in which has it been absorbed the more freely ? What con-
clusion would you draw from this, as to the passage of liquids through
the epidermis?

From this experiment we see that the epidermis, besides protecting the
more delicate parts within from mechanical injury by hard substances
contained in the soil, serves by its comparative imperviousness to prevent
evaporation, or the escape of the sap by osmosis as it flows from the root
hairs up to the stem and leaves.

Experiment 44. To show that roots absorb moisture. — Fill two
pots with damp earth, put a healthy plant in one, and set them side by
side in the shade. After a few days examine by digging into the soil with
a fork and see in whicli pot it is drier. Where has the moisture gone ?
How did it get out ?

on PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Experiment 45. To show that roots shun the light. — Cover the
top of a glass of water with thin netting, and lay on it sprouting mustard
or other convenient seed. Allow the roots to pass through the netting into
the water, noting the position of root and stem. Envelop the sides of
the glass in heavy wrapping paper, admitting a little ray of light through
a slit in one side, and after a few days again observe the relative position
of the two organs. How is each affected by the light?

Experiment 46. To find out whether roots need air. - Remove
a plant from a porous earthenware pot in which it has been growing for
some time ; the roots will be found spread out in contact with the walls
of the pot instead of embedded in the soil at the center. Why is this ?

Experiment 47. To show that roots seek water. — Stretch some
coarse netting covered with moist batting over the top of an empty tumbler.
Lay on it some seedlings, as in Exp. 45, allowing the roots to pass through the
meshes of the netting. Keep the batting moist, but take care not to let
any of the water run into the vessel. Observe the .position of the roots
at intervals, for twelve to twenty-four hours, then fill the glass with water
to within 10 millimeters (a half inch, nearly) or less of the netting, let
the batting dry, and after eight or ten hours again observe the position
of the roots. What would you infer from this experiment as to the affin-
ity of roots for water ?

Experiment 48. W^hat becomes of the water absorbed by roots
— Cover a calla lily, young cornstalk, sunflower, tropa^olum, or other
succulent herb with a cap of oiled paper to prevent evaporation from the
leaves, set the pot containing it in a pan of tepid water, and keep the tem-
perature unchanged. After a few hours look for water drops on the leaves.
Where did this water come from ? How did it get up into the leaves ?

Experiment 49. To show the force of root pressure. — Cut off
the stem of the plant 6 or 8 centimeters (3 or 4 inches) from th» base.
Slip over the part remaining in the soil a bit of rubber tubing of about;
the same diameter as the stem, and tie tightly just below the cut. Pour
in a little water to keep the stem moist, and slip in above, a short piece
of tightly fitting glass tubing. Watch the tube for several days and note
the rise of water in it. The same phenomenon may be observed in the
" bleeding " of rapidly growing, absorbent young shoots, such as grape,
sunflower, gourd, tobacco, etc., if cut off near the ground in spring when
the earth is warm and moist. By means of an arrangement like that shown
in Fig. 81, the force of the pressure exerted can be measured by the dis-
placement of the mercury. This flow cannot be due to the giving off of
moisture by the leaves, since they have been removed. Their action,
when present, by causing a deficiency of moisture in certain places may

THE ROOT

67

influence the direction and rapidity of the
current, but does not furnish the motive
power, which evidently comes, in part at
least, from the roots, and is the expression
of their absorbent activity.

Experiment 50. To show that roots

CAUSE THE OCCURRENCE OF ACIDS. — Lay

a piece of blue litmus paper on a board or
on a piece of glass slightly tilted at one end
to secure drainage. Cover the surface with
an inch of moist sand and plant in it a
number of healthy seedlings. Acids have
the property of changing blue litmus to
red; hence, if you find any red stains on
the paper where the roots have penetrated,
what are you to conclude ?

Carbon dioxide has a slight acid reac-
tion and is caused to form in varying
quantities by all roots. Probably other
substances, and these not a few, are actu-
ally excreted.

Experiment 51. Can the absorbent
power of roots be interfered with ? —
Place the roots of a number of seedlings
with well-developed hairs in a weak solution of saltpeter — 10 grams (about
I of an ounce) to a pint of water, and others in a stronger solution — say
30 grams, or 1 ounce, to a pint. Try the same -experiment with weak
and strong solutions of any conveniently obtainable liquid fertilizer.
After 45 minutes or an hour examine the roots under a lens and note the
change that has taken place. What has gone out of them ? What caused
the loss of the contained sap ?

Experiment 52. To tbst the weight of soils. — Thoroughly dry
and powder a pint each of sand and clay, measure accurately, and balance
against each other in a pair of scales. Which weighs more, bulk for bulk,
a "light" soil, or a "heavy" one? (77.)

Experiment 53. To test the capacity of soils for absorbing and
retaining moisture. — Arrange, as shown in Fig. 82, a number of long-
necked bottles from which the bottom has been removed. This can be
done by making a small indentation with a file at the point desired and
leading the break round the circumference with the end of a glowing wire
or a red-hot poker. The crack will follow the heated object with sufficient

Fig. 81. — Arrangement for
estimating the force of root pres-
sure : s, stub of the cut stem ; g,
glass tubing joined by means of
the rubber tuijing, t, to the stem ;
m, mercury forced up the glass
tube by water, w, pumped from
the soil by the roots.

68 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

regularity to answer the purpose. Tie a piece of thin cloth over the mouth
of each bottle and invert with the necks extending an inch or two into
empty tum!)lers placed beneath. Fill all to the same height with soils of
different kinds — sand, clay, gravel, loam, vegetable mold, etc. — and pour

Fig. 82. — Apparatus for testing the capacity of soils to take in and retain
moisture.

over each the same quantity of water from above. Watch the rate at
which the liquid filters through into the tumblers. Which loses its mois-
ture soonest ? Which retains it longest ?

Next leave the soils in the bottles dry, fill the tumblers up to the necks
of the bottles, and watch the rate at which the water rises in the different
ones. The power of soils to absorb moisture is called capillarity. Which
of your samples shows the highest capillarity ? Which the lowest ? Do
you observe any relation between the capillarity of a soil and its power of
retention ?

68. Roots as holdfasts. — One use of ordinary roots is
to serve as props and stays for anchoring plants to the soil.
Tall herbs and shrubs, and vegetation generally that is
exposed to much stress of weather, are apt to have large,
strong roots. Even plants of the same species will develop
systems of very different strength according as they grow
in sheltered or exposed places.

THE ROOT

69

Fig. 83. — Dandelion
region at low altitude ; b,

a, common form, grown in plains
alpine form.

69. Root pull. — Roots are not mere passive holdfasts,
but exert an active downward pull upon the stem. Notice
the rooting end
of a strawberry or ^ i v'

raspberry shoot
and observe how
the stem appears
to be drawn into
the ground at the
rooting point.
In the leaf ro-
settes of herbs
growing flat on
the ground or in
the crevices of walls and pavements, the strong depression
observable at the center is due to root pull. (Fig. 84.)

70. Storage of food. — Another of-
fice of roots is to store up food for the
use of the plant. This is done chiefly
in the tissues of fleshy roots and tu-
bers, and gives to them their great
economic value. Next to grains and
cereals, roots probably furnish a larger
portion of food to the human race
than any other crop. In addition to
this they are also the source of valu-
able drugs, condiments, and dyes.

71. Absorption and conveyance of
sap. — But the most important func-
tion of roots is that of absorption.
By their action the soil water and the
minerals contained in it are drawn up
into the plant body and made avail-
able for conversion by the leaves into

organic foods, as will he explained in another chapter. From
the nature of their function, most roots have naturally a

'ih'l

ivo

Fig. 84. — Raspberry sto-
lon showing root pull.

70

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

strong affinity for water, and its presence or absence has a
marked influence on their direction of growth, being often
sufficient to overcome that of geotropism (Exp. 47). There
are many trees and shrubs, notably willow, sweet bay, red
birch, and the like, that grow best on the banks of streams
and ponds, where their roots can have direct access to water.
Excess of moisture, however, is injurious to most land plants
by preventing the roots from getting sufficient air for res-
piration.

72. The conditions of absorption. — The sap in the root
cells is normally denser than the water in the soil, so there is
a continuous flow from the latter to the former. But if,
for any reason, the density of the liquids should be reversed,
the flow would set in the opposite direction, and if continued
long enough, the strength of the plant would be literally
" sapped " by the exhaustion of its tissues, so that it would
die. What is this process of cell exhaustion called ?

73. The use of acid secretions to the root. — It was
shown in Exp. 50 that carbon dioxide and probably other sub-
stances occur in the im-
mediate vicinity of roots.
Carbon dioxide is an ac-
tive agent in dissolving
the various mineral mat-
ters contained in the soil,
and as these last can be
absorbed only in a liquid
or a gaseous state (63),
the advantage to the
root as an absorbent or-
gan, of being able to se-
crete such active sol-
vents, is obvious.

74. Relation of roots
x^ OK A . 1 . . u- to the soil. — In order to

Fig. 85. — A natural root etching,

found on a piece of slate. perform their work of ab-

THE ROOT 71

sorption, roots must have access to a suitable soil. To pro-
duce the best results a soil must contain (1) all the essential
mineral constituents (62) ; (2) moisture for dissolving these
materials ; and (3) air enough to supply the oxygen which is
necessary to the life processes of all green plants.

75. Composition of soils. — Sand, clay, and humus, or
vegetable mold, with the various substances dissolved in
them, constitute the basis of cultivated soils. A mixture
of sand, clay, and humus is called loam. When the propor-
tion of humus is very large and well decomposed, the mixture
is called muck. Pure sand contains but little nourishing
matter and is too porous to retain water well. Pure clay
is too compact to be easily permeable to either air or water.
Most soils are composed of a mixture of the two with vege-
table mold in varying proportions, giving a sandy loam, or
a clay loam, as the case may be.

76. Tillage. — The advantages of tillage are: (a) that by
breaking up the hard lumps it renders the soil more per-
meable to air and water and more easily penetrable by the
roots in their search for food; (6) the covering of loose,
friable earth left by the plow and the harrow acts as a mulch,
and by shading the soil below, prevents too rapid a loss of
water by evaporation. Where the essential food ingredients
are present, good tillage counts for more in making a crop
than the original quality of the soil.

77. Light and heavy soils. — These terms are used by
farmers not in relation to the weight of soils, but in reference
to the ease or difficulty with which they are worked. Light
soils contain a preponderance of sand; heavy ones, of clay.

Practical Questions

1. Will plants grow better in an earthen pot or a wooden box than
in a vessel of glass or metal? Why? (Exp. 46.)

2. Which absorb more from the soil, plants with light roots and abun-
dant foliage, or those with heavy roots and scant foliage ? (Suggestion*
roots absorb fiom the soil ; leaves, mainly from the air.)

72 PRAC^TICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

3. Why arc willows so generally selected for planting along the
borders of streams in order to protect the banks from washing? (71.)

4. Why are the conducting tissues of roots at the center instead of
near the surface as in stems? (67, 6.)

5. Why does corn never grow well in swampy ground ? (74 ; Exp. 46. )

6. Why are fleshy roots so much larger in cultivated plants than in
wild ones of the same species ? (74, 76.)

7. When the use of a particular kind of fertilizer causes the leaves
of the plants to which it has been applied to turn brown, so that the
farmer says they have been " burned " by it, to what cause is the trouble
due? (59,72.)

8. Why do farmers speak of turnips and other root crops as "heavy
feeders"? (70,71.)

9. Which is more exhausting to the soil, a crop of beets, or one of oats ?
Onions, or green peas? (See 2, suggestion.)

10. Why will inserting the end of a wilted twig in warm water some-
times cause it to revive? (Exps. 48, 49.)

V. DIFFERENT FORMS OF ROOTS

Material. — Examples of taproots : bean, pea, cotton, maple seedlings,
or any kind of very young woody root. Fibrous : any kind of grass or
grain. Fleshy : parsnip, turnip, carrot, dahlia, sweet potato. Water :
duckweed, pondweed, or a cutting of wandering Jew grown in water.
Parasitic : mistletoe, dodder, beech drops. Aerial and adventitious : the
aerial roots of old scuppernong vines, climbing roots of ivy and trumpet
vine, prop roots from the lower nodes of cornstalks and sugar cane.

78. Basis of distinction. — Roots vary in form and ex-
ternal structure according to their origin, function, and
surroundings. In reference to the first, they are classed
as primary or secondary ; in regard to the second, as dry or
fleshy; while as to surroundings, they may be adapted to
either the soil, water, air, or the parasitic habit. Soil roots
are the normal form. According to their mode of growth
they are either fibrous or axial.

79. Taproots. — These are the common form of the axial
type. Compare the root of any young hardwood cion a
year or two old with one of a mature stalk of corn or
other grain, and with the roots of seedlings of the same
species. Notice the difference in their mode of growth. In

THE ROOT

73

Plate 3. — Aerial roots of a Mexican " strangling " fig, enveloping the trunk
of a palm {From " Rep't. Mo. Bot. Garden").

74

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Fig. 86. — Brauchuu tap
root of maple.

the first kind a single stout prolongation called a taproot
proceeds from the lower end of the hypocotyl and continues
the axis of growth straight downward, unless turned aside
by some external influence. A taproot may be either simple,
as in the turnip, radish, and dandelion,
or branched, as in most shrubs and
trees. In the latter case the main axis
is called the primary root, and the
branches are secondary ones.

80. Fibrous and fascicled roots. —
Where the main axis fails to develop,
as in the corn and grasses generally,
a number of independent branches take
its place, forming what are known as
fibrous roots. Both fibrous and tap-
roots may be either hard or fleshy.
The turnip and carrot are examples of
fleshy taproots, the dahha and rhubarb of fascicled roots.
The function of both is the storage of nourishment. The
sweet potato is an example of a tuberous root.

81. Practical importance of this distinction. — The dif-
ference between axial and fibrous roots has important bear-
ings in agriculture. The first kind,
which are characteristic of most dicot-
yls, strike deep and draw their nour-
ishment from the lower strata of the
soil, while the fibrous and fascicled, or
radial kinds, as we may call them for
want of a better name, spread out near
the surface and are more dependent on
external conditions.

82. Roots that grow above ground. — The kinds
roots that have just been considered are all subterranean,
and bring the plant into relation with the earth, whether for
the purpose of absorbing nourishment, or of mechanical sup-
port, or, as in the majority of cases, for both. Many plants,

Fig. 87. — Fibrous root.

of

THE ROOT 75

however, do not get their mineral nutrients directly from
the soil, and these give rise to various forms suited to other
conditions of alimentation.

83. Adventitious roots. — This name applies to any kinds
of roots that occur on stems, or in other unusual positions.
They may be considered as intermediate between the two
classes named in 81; for while their starting point is above
ground, they generally end by fixing themselves in the soil,
where they often function as normal roots. Familiar examples
are the roots that put out from the lower nodes of corn and
sugar cane stalks, and serve both to supply additional mois-
ture and to anchor the plant more firmly to the soil. Most
plants will develop adventitious roots if covered with earth,
or even if merely kept in contact with the ground. The
gardener takes advantage of this capacity when he propa-
gates by cuttings and layers.

84. Water roots. — ■ These are generally white and thread-
like and more tender and succulent than ordinary soil roots,
because they have less work to do. Floating and immersed
plants, such as bladderwort and hornwort {Cerato-phyllum)
have no need of absorbent roots, since the greater part of
their surface is in contact with water and can absorb directly
what is needed.

Land plants will often develop water roots and thrive
for a time if the liquid holds in solution a sufficient quantity
of air and mineral nutrients. Place a cutting of wandering
Jew in a glass of clear water, and in from four to six days it
will develop beautiful water roots in which both hairs and
cap are clearly visible to the naked eye.

85. Haustoria, from a Latin word meaning to drain,
or exhaust, is a name given to the roots of parasitic plants,
or such as live by attaching themselves to some other living
organism, from which they draw their nourishment ready
made. Their roots are adapted to penetrating the sub-
stance of the host, as their victim is called, and absorbing
the sap from it. Dodder and mistletoe are the best-known

76

PRArTTCAL rOT'RSE IN BOTANY

examples of plant parasites, though the latter is only partially
parasitic, as it merely takes up the sap from the host and

manufactures its own food

U

A B

Fig. 88. — Beech root: A, grown in
unsterilized wood humus : p, strands of
fungal hypha;, associated at a, with
humus ; B, grown in wood humus freed
from fungus by sterihzation — it is not
provided with fungal hyphse, and has
root hairs, li. (A and B both several
times magnified.)

by means of its green leaves.
86. Saprophytes. — Akin
to parasites are saprophytes,
which live on dead and decay-
ing vegetable matter. They
are only partially parasitic
and do not bear the haustoria
of true parasites. Many of
them, of which the Indian
pipe (Monotropa) and coral
root are familiar examples,
obtain their nourishment in
part, at least, by association with certain saprophytic fungi,
which enmesh their roots in a growth of threadlike fibers
that take the place of root hairs and absorb organic food
from the rich humus in
w^hich these plants grow.
Such growths are called
mycorrJiiza, meaning
" fungal roots." Similar
associations are formed
by some of the higher
plants also. The root-
lets of the common beech
and of certain of the
pine family, for instance,
are often enveloped in
a network of fungus fi-
bers, and in this case root Fi<- 89. —An air plant (Tillandsia), growing
1 • 111 on the underside of a bough.

hairs are developed very

poorly, or not at all. Besides greatly increasing the absorbent
surface by their ramification through the soil, the mycorrhizal
threads may possibly benefit the plant in other ways also, as.

i

^

^s"

m

\

THE ROOT

77

for instance, by bringing
about chemical changes
that might aid in the
work of nutrition.

87. Epiphytes, or air
plants. — In the proper
meaning of the word
these are not parasitic,
but use their host merely
as a mechanical support
to bring them into better
light relations. The
name, however, is loosely
applied to all plants that
find a lodgment on the
trunks and branches of
trees, whether parasites
or true epiphytes that
draw no nourishment
from the host. Not in-
frequently the latter is
killed by them through
suffocation, overweight-
ing, or the constriction
of the stems by close
clinging twiners.

88. Aerial roots are
such as have no connec-
tion at all with the soil or
with any host plant, ex-
cept as they may lodge
upon the trunks and
branches of trees for a
support. In other than
purely epiphytic plants,
which get all their nour-

Fk;. 90. — A single strand of TiUandsia
nxncoiden, a rootless epiphyte belonging to the
pineapple family ; better known as the " Span-
ish moss" that drapes the boughs of trees so
conspicuously in the warm parts of America.
Two-thirds natural size. (Photographed by C.
F. O'Keefe.)

78 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

ishment from the air, they are generally subsidiary to soil
roots, like the long dangling cords that hang from some
species of old grapevines ; or they subserve other purposes
altogether than absorbing nourishment, as the climbing
roots of the trumpet vine and poison ivy. A very remark-
able development of aerial roots takes place in the "stran-
gling fig " of Mexico and Florida, which begins life as a small
epiphyte, from seeds dropped by birds on the boughs or
trunks of trees. When it gets well started, the young plant
sends down enormous aerial roots, which find their way to
the ground, and in time so completely envelop the host that
it is literally strangled to death (Plate 3, p. 73). When this
support is removed, the sheathing roots take its place and

t become to all intents
and purposes the stem
^ of the fig tree, which

_^ . . '^-'^"^6^^ -^X.^-^ ^ now leads an independ-

Sf V^7h?C^"^^ ^9- The root system.

— The entire mass of
roots belonging to a
plant, with all its rami-
fications and subdivi-

FiG. 91. — Root system of a tobacco plant. gions, COmpOSCS a rOOt

system. The extent of root expansion is in general about
equal to that of the crown, thus bringing the new and
active parts under the drip of the boughs where the moisture
is most abundant. Some plants have root systems out of
all seeming proportion to their size. A catalpa seedling
six months old showed, by actual measurement, 250 feet
of root growth, and it is estimated that the roots of a thrifty
cornstalk, if laid end to end, would extend a mile. In the
development of the root system, a great deal depends upon
external conditions. In a poor, dry soil, the roots have to
travel farther in search of a livelihood, and so a larger system
has to be developed than in a more favorable location.

THE ROOT 79

Practical Questions

1. Which is better to succeed a crop of turnips on the same land, hay
or carrots? (81.)

2. Write out what you think would be a good rotation for four or
five successive crops based on the forms of the roots.

3. Study the following rotations and give your opinion about them,
on the same principle. Suggest any improvements that may occur to
you, and give a reason for the change. Beets, barley, clover, wheat;
cotton, oats, peas, corn; oats, melons, turnips; cotton, oats, corn and
])eas mixed, melons ; cotton, hay, corn, peas.

4. Give three good reasons in favor of a rotation over a single-crop
system. (24, 60, 62, 81.)

5. Which will require deeper tillage, a bed of carrots or one of straw-
berries? (81.)

6. Explain why some plants keep green and fresh when the surface
of the soil is dry, while others wilt or die. (81, 89.)

7. Which will better withstand drought, a crop of alfalfa or one of
Indian corn ? Why ? (81 . )

8. Which will interfere less with the trees if planted in an orchard,
beets or onions ? (81.)

9. Ought a crop of hemp and tobacco to succeed each other on the
same land? (81,89.)

10. Why does a gardener manure a grass plot by scattering the ferti-
lizer on the surface, while he digs around the roses and lilacs and deposits
it under ground ? (81.)

11. Do the adventitious roots of such climbers as ivy and trumpet vine
draw any nourishment from the objects to which they cling? (83-88.)

12. How can you tell ?

13. Do partial dependents of this kind injure trees by climbing upon
them; and if so, how? (87,88.)

14. What is the use of the aerial roots of the scuppernong grape ? (88.)

15. Is the resurrection fern {Poly-podium incanum), that grows on tree
trunks in our Southern States, a parasite or an air plant? (87.)

16. On what plants in your neighborhood does mistletoe grow most
abundantly ? Dodder ?

17. Is mistletoe injurious to the host? (85.)

18. Name some plants that are propagated mainly, or solely, by roots
and cuttings.

19. Where do aerial roots get their nourishment ? (88.)

20. Would they be of any use to a plant in a very cold or dry climate ?

21. Where should manure be placed to benefit a tree or shrub with
wide-spreading roots ? (66, 89.)

80 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

22. Is it a wise practice to mulch a tree by raking up dead leaves and
piling them around the base of the trunk, as is often done ? Why, or why
not? (66,89.)

Field Work

(1 ) Examine the underground parts of hardy winter herbs in your neigh-
borhood, also of any weeds or grasses that are particularly troublesome,
and see if there is an3'thing about the structure of these parts to account
for their persistence. Note the difference between roots of the same species
in low, moist places and in dry ones ; between those of the same kind of
plants in different soils; in sheltered and in exposed situations. Study
the direction and position of the roots of trees and shrubs with reference
to any stream or body of water in the neighborhood. (The elm, fig,
mulberry, and willow are good subjects for such observations.) Notice
also whether there is any relation between the underground parts and the
leaf systems of plants in reference to drainage and transpiration.

(2) Observe the effect of root pull upon low herbs. Look along washes
and gullies for roots doing the office of stems, and note any changes of
structure consequent thereon. Study the relative length and strength
of the root systems of different plants, with reference to their value as
soil binders, or their hurtfulness in damaging the walls of cellars, wells,
sewers, etc. Dig your trowel a few inches into the soil of any grove
or copse you happen to visit, note the inextricable tangle of roots, and
consider the fierce competition for living room in the vegetable world that
it implies.

(3) Tests might be made of the different soils in the neighborhood of
the schoolhouse by planting seeds of various kinds and noting the rate of
germination; first, without fertilizers, then by adding the different ele-
ments in succession to see what is lacking. The field for study suggested
by this subject is almost inexhaustible.

CHAPTER IV. THE STEM
I. FORMS AND GROWTH OF STEMS

Material. — Vigorous young hop or beau seedlings grown in pots ;
a fresh daudehon stalk ; a stem of pea, squash, cucumber, grape, or passion
flower vine, with tendrils.

Appliances. — A bowl of fresh water ; rods of different sizes and
smoothness for testing the hold of climbers.

Experiment 54. To show the movements of twining stems. —
Raise a young hop or bean seedling in the schoolroom and allow it to grow
about two decimeters — 8 to 10 inches — in length before providing it
with a support. Does the stem form any coils? Bring it in contact
with a suitable upright support and watch for a day or two. What
happens ? Notice whether it starts to coil from right to left or from left
to right and see if you can coax it to turn in the opposite direction. When
it has reached the end of its stake, allow it to grow about five centimeters
(two inches, approximately) beyond, and watch the revolution of the tip.
Cut a hole through the center of a piece of cardboard about 14 centi-
meters (five to six inches) in diameter, slip it over the loose end of the stem,
and fasten it to the stake in a horizontal position, with a pin. Note the
position of the stem tip at regular intervals and mark on the cardboard ;
how long does it take to complete a revolution ? Does it continue to coil,
or to coil as readily, after leaving its stake as before ? What would you
infer from this as to the effect of contact in stimulating it to coil ?

Find out by experiment if it can climb well by means of a glass or other
smooth rod ; by a fine wire ; a broomstick ; a large, smooth post. See
whether it does better on a horizontal or an upright support.

Experiment 55. To illustrate the coiling of stems. — Run a
gathering thread in one side of a narrow strip of muslin and notice how
the ruffle thus drawn will curl into a spiral when allowed to dangle from
the needle. Can you think of any cause that might act on a stem in the
same way ? Suppose, for instance, that one side should grow faster than
the other ; what would be the effect ? (54.)

Split the stem of a fresh dandelion, or other herbaceous scape, longi-
tudinally, and innnerse it in a pan of fresh water for a few minutes. Notice
how the two halves curve outward, or even coil up like the strip of muslin.
This is due to the tension caused by the more rapid absorption of the

81

82

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

thinner walled cells of the internal tissues. These, when relieved ot the
resistance of the thicker walled outer tissues, swell on their free side, but
are held back on the other by the non-absorbent outer parts, as one side
of the muslin ruffle was held by the gathering thread.

Experiment 56. To find out whether the direction of stem
GROWTH IS INFLUENCED BY LIGHT. — Placc two rapidly growing young
pea, bean, sunflower, or squash plants, each with several well-developed
leaves, in a room or box with a light exposure on one side only. After two
or three days, notice the position of the stems in regard to the light. Does
either one show a, more decided inclination toward it than the other ?

Experiment 57. Is the light relation of the stem influenced
BY the leaves? — Cut the leaves from one of the plants used in Exp. 56,
covering the cut surfaces with vaseline to prevent "bleeding"; reverse
the positions of both with regard to the light, and watch for two or three
days. In which is the response to light the more rapid ? What does this
indicate as one object of the stem in seeking light? What is the best
position of a stem, ordinarily, for getting its leaves into the light ?

go. Classification. — Stems are classed according to
(1) duration, as annuals, biennials, and perennials; (2) with

reference to hardness or

1

softness of structure, as
herbaceous and woody;
(3) in regard to position
and direction of growth,
as erect, prostrate, climb-
ing, inclined, dechned,
underground, etc.

Qi. Annuals complete
their life cycle in a
single season and then
die down as soon as they
have perfected their
seed. Many of our most
troublesome weeds be-
long to this class and

might be exterminated by the simple expedient of mowing

them down before their time of flowering.

Fig. 92. — Stems of red oak and '.
have grafted themselves.

THE STEM

83

92. Biennials, as the name implies, live for two years.
Their energy during the first season is spent chiefly in laying
by a store of nourishment,
usually in the tissues of
fleshy roots (70). By this
means they get a good start
in the second season and
mature their seeds early.
Many of our common gar-
den vegetables, such as tur-
nips, carrots, parsnips, and
cabbage, belong to this
class. Where is the nour-
ishment stored in the cab-
bage?

93. Perennials are plants
that live on indefinitely, like
most of our forest trees
and woody-stemmed shrubs.
Woody stems are usually perennial and may live for hun-
dreds and even thousands of years, as those of the giant
sequoias of California, and the famous chestnut of Mt.
Etna.

94. Herbaceous stems are more or less succulent and die
down after fruiting. They are usually annuals, though some
kinds, like the garden geraniums and the common St.-John's-
wort, show a tendency to become woody, especially at the
base, and live on from year to year. Others, such as the
hawkweed and dahlia, die down above ground in winter,
but are enabled to keep their underground parts alive indefi-
nitely, through the nourishment stored in them, and are
thus perennial below ground and annual above. Woody-
stemmed annuals, such as the cotton and castor oil plant,
are not, properly speaking, herbs. In the tropical countries
to which they belong they are perennial shrubs, or even
small trees, but on being transplanted to colder regions

Fig. 93. — A liicimial plant, mullein, in
winter conditii^n with stem reduced to
little more than a disk supporting a rosette
of leaves. Notice how close they cling to
the earth, and compare them with their
fruiting condition a few months later aa
shown in Fig. 237.

84

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

have been compelled to take on the annual habit as an
adaptation to climate.

95. Direction and habit of growth. — As to manner of
growth, there are many forms, from the upright boles of

Fig. 94. — Orange hawk-
weed with runners.

Fig. 95. — Prostrate stem of Lycopodium
with assurgent branches.

the beech and pine to the trailing, prostrate, and creeping
stems of which we have examples in the
running periwinkle, the prostrate spurge
and the creeping partridge berry {Mitchella
repens), respectively. Trailing and pros-
trate stems are very apt to become
creepers by the development of adventi-
tious roots at their nodes wherever they
come in contact with the soil. The root-
ing stems of dewberries, the runners and
stolons of strawberries and currants, are
familiar examples.

Between the extremes of prostrate and
upright, stems may be inclined or bent in
various degrees. As shown in Fig. 96,
there are two modes of inclination : assur-
gent, a, from the prostrate, p, toward the
upright, e ; and declined, d, from the upright

Fig. 9G. — Diagram
of stem growth : p.v,
surface of the ground ;
e, erect position ; d,
declined ; a, assurgent ;
V, prostrate ; w, ver-
tical direction under-
ground.

THE STEM

85

toward the prostrate. Below the surface, ps, occur only
underground stems. Is the prostrate habit an advantageous
one for Hght exposure ? Can you think of any compensat-
ing advantages a plant might derive from it ; for example,
in regard to warmth and moisture ?

96. Climbing stems. — ■ These are such as lift themselves
from the ground and attain the advantages of the upright
position by clinging to supports of
various kinds — usually, in a state
of nature, the stems and boughs of
other plants. The means of climb-
ing may be : (1) by merely leaning
upon or propping themselves up by
the aid of the supporting object — ex-
amples, the rose, wistaria, star jessa-
mine {Jasminum officinalis) ; (2) by
coiling their main axes spirally
around the support — hop, bean,
morning-glory ; (3) by means of ad-
ventitious roots — poison ivy, com-
mon English ivy, trumpet vine
( Tecoma radicans) ; (4) by organs specially developed for
the purpose, called tendrils — gourd, cucumber, grape, pas-
sion flower.

97. Tendrils. — The part assigned to do the work of climb-
ing may be a secondary branch, a flower stem, a leafstalk, a
leaf, a leaflet, or a group of leaflets (Fig. 98). Tendrils behave
in general very much like twining stems, except that they
are more sensitive and respond more quickly to any cause
that may influence their movement. While young, their
tips revolve just as do the tips of twining stems, until they
meet with an object round which they can coil. When this
happens, not only the part in contact with the object coils,
but the free part between it and the main axis will usually
respond by twisting itself into a helix (Fig. 99). As the
distance between the base and tip of the tendril is shortened

A
Fig. 97. — Twining stems :

A, hop twining with the sun ;

B, convolvulus twining against
the sun.

86

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Fig. 98. — Leaf of common pea,
showing upper leaflets reduced to
tendrils.

by coiling, the body of the plant
is drawn upward proportionally.
It will be observed that the helix
is interrupted at one or more
points, above and below which
the coils turn in opposite direc-
tions. This is because the ten-
dril is attached at both ends and
cannot adjust itself to the oppo-
site strains of torsion. Twist
with your fingers a piece of tape
so attached, and you will see
that on one side of your hand it
turns from right to left and on
the other from left to right.

98. The cause of twining. —
Botanists are not fully agreed
on this point. The explanation
most generally accepted at present is that the twining of
stems is due to the combined action of lateral and negative

geotropism(51). The first

^^^^^-^"^^^^ causes one side to grow

more rapidly than the other,
thus forming a succession of coils, while the
second, by stimulating the upward growth
of the axis, stretches it into a spiral, and in
this way draws it more tightly round the
support. For this reason twining stems do
best on an upright support.

In tendrils, the twining is thought to be
due not to gravity, but to contact with a
soHd body, which, by inducing unequal de-
velopment on opposite sides of the tendril,
of a passion flower causes it to tum about an available object,
transformed into ^he coiliug of the free part of the twining

tendrils. {After . " -^ "

Gray.) Organ IS in response to the stimulus trans-

FiG. 99.

THE STEM

87

mitted from the part in contact — stimulus, in this sense,
denoting the influence of any external agent that calls forth
a responsive adjustment on the part of the plant.

99. The object of the
various habits of stem
growth. — To bring the
growing parts of the plant
into the best possible rela-
tions with light and air is
one of the special func-
tions of the stem, and the
various habits of growth
described in this section
have been developed with
reference to this function.
In the case of prostrate
and underground stems
other factors may intervene ;
can you name some of the
causes that might influence
the position of the stem in
such cases ?

i'lG. lUU. — tjhowiiig the ecouoniy of
labor and building material effected by the
climbing habit. Notice how the g^ape^'ine
coils like an anaconda around the tree
boles, and overtops their tallest branches.
Compare the diameter of the vine with that
of the trees.

Practical Questions

1. Why is the normal direction of most stems upright? (Exp. 56.)

2. Name a dozen woody-stemmed plants; a dozen with herbaceous
stems.

3. Name all the plants you can think of that have prostrate st^ms, or
leaf rosettes that hug the earth, like mullein and dandelion. Which of
these are wintergreen plants ? Which are hot-weather growers ?

4. Can you explain in what ways both hot-weather and cold-weather
plants may be advantaged by the habit of clinging close to the earth ?
(94, 95.)

5. Is there any difference in the height of the stem of a dandelion flower
and a dandelion ball ?

6. Of what advantage is this to the plant? (Exp. 17.)

7. Name all the means you can think of by which a stem may climb,
and give an example of each.

88 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

8. Why do we support peas with brush, and hops or beans wnth poles?
(98 ; Exp. 54.)

9. Are the vines of gourds, watermelons, squashes, and pumpkins
normally climbing or prostrate ? How can you tell ? (96, 97.)

10. Why does not the gardener pro\^ide them with poles or treUises to
climb on ?

11. Do twining plants grow equally well on horizontal and upright
supports? (98; Exp. 54.)

12. If there is any difference, which do they seem to prefer?

13. Can you give any reasons for thinking that the clunbing habit
might lead to parasitism? (83, 85, 87.)

14. What method of climbing would be most favorable to the develop
ment of such a habit ? (Suggestion : What mode of climbing brings the
stem into closest contact with its support?)

15. Name some plants the stems of which are used as food.

16. Name some from which gums and medicines are obtained.

17. Explain how it can benefit a plant to have its leaves, or some of
them, modified into tendrils. (99.)

18. In what way is the loss of the normal function of the leaves so modi-
fied, compensated for? (Exp. 57.)

19. Suppose the vine shown in Fig. 100 had to lift itself without the aid
of a support ; could it reach the same height and carry the same weight
of foliage and flowers with the same expenditure of labor and building
material ?

n. MODIFICATIONS OF THE STEM

Material. — A shoot of asparagus ; thorny branches of locust, plum,
or haw ; a cactus plant ; bulbs of lily and hyacinth or onion ; tubers of
potato ; rootstocks of iris, fern, or violet. If fresh specimens are not acces-
sible, dried rootstocks of the sweet flag and Florentine iris may be obtained
at the drug stores under the names of calamus and "orris" root.

100. How to recognize modified parts. — Stems, like
roots, are often modified to serve other than their normal
purpose, and in adapting themselves to these new functions
they sometimes undergo such changes of form and structure
that it would be impossible to recognize their true nature
from appearances alone. The safest tests in such cases
are : (1) by a comparison of the parts of the modified struc-
ture with those of known organs of the same kind ; and (2) by
observing its position in reference to other parts. For

THE STEM

89

instance, we know that the stem is the part of the plant which
normally bears leaves and flowers, and if either of these,
or if the small scales which often take the place of leaves,
are found growing on any plant structure, we may usually
take for granted that it is a stem. Then, again, as will be
shown in the next chapter, buds and branches naturally
appear only at the nodes, in or near the axil, or inner angla
made by a leaf with the stem. Hence, if you see any growth
springing from such a position, you may generally conclude
it to be a stem.

loi. Stems as foliage. — The connection between stem
and leaf is so intimate that we need not be surprised to find
a frequent interchange of function
between them, the leaf, or some part
of it, doing the work of the stem
(Fig. 98), the stem more often taking
upon itself the office of the leaf. A
conmion example is the garden aspar-
agus. Examine one of the young
shoots sold in the market, and notice
that it bears a number of small scales
in place of leaves. On an older
shoot that has gone to seed, the
green, threadlike appendages, which

^ ' I i' G > Pjq 101. — Stem-leaves

are usually taken for foliage, will be (ciadophyiis) of a mscus, bear-
found to spring each from the axil '^^^°''''''-
of one of these scales. What, therefore, are we to conclude
that it is ?

In the butcher's-broom of Europe, the transformation has
gone so far that the branches of the stem have assumed the
flattened appearance of leaves (Fig. 101), but their real
nature is evident both from their position in the axils of
leaf scales, and from the fact that they bear flower clusters
in the axil of a scale on their upper face. Another example
of this sort of modification is seen in the pretty little myr-
siphyllum of the greenhouses (wrongly called smilax), which

90

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Fig. 102. — Thorn branches of
Holocanthn Emoryi, a plant growing
in arid regions.

is so much used for decoration.
The deUcate green blades are
merely altered stems, shortened
and flattened to simulate leaves.
102. Weapons of defense. —
Conspicuous examples of these
are the bristling thorns of the
honey locust. Is their frequent
branching any indication of their
real nature ? Does it prove any-
thing, or must you look for other
evidence? WTiat further indi-
cations might you expect to
find, if they are true branching
stems? (100.) On old haw,
plum, crab, and pear trees, stems can be found in all stages
of transition, from stubby, ill-developed branches, to well-
defined thorns.

103. Storage of nourishment. — This is
one of the most frequent causes of modifi-
cation in both roots and stems. Of stems
that grow above ground, the sugar cane
probably comes first in economic importance
on this account. In hot, arid regions, where
the moisture drawn from the earth would,
during prolonged drought, be too rapidly
dissipated by an expanded surface of leaves,
the whole plant, as in the case of the cactus,
is sometimes compacted into a greatly thick-
ened stem, which fills the triple office of leaf,
stalk, and water reservoir.

104. The uses of underground stems. —
It is in these that the storage of nourishment
most frequently takes place, and the modi-
fications that stems undergo for this purpose
are iji some cases so great that their real

Fig. 103. — Melon
cactus, showing
greatly condensed
stem for the storage
and preservation of
moisture.

THE STEM

91

Fig. 104. — Root-

nature becomes apparent only after a careful examination.
But while the chief function of underground stems is the
storage of nourishment, they serve other purposes also. In
plants requiring a great deal of moisture,
like the ferns, and in others growing in dry
places and needing to husband moisture
carefully, Uke the blackberry lily, under-
ground stems may be useful in preventing
the too rapid evaporation that would take-
place through aerial stems. Defense against
frost, cold, heat, and other dangers, as well-
as quickness of propagation, are also attained
or assisted by this means.

105. Rootstocks and rhizomes. — From a
prostrate stem like that shown in Fig. 95 to a
creeping rootstock like the one in Fig. 104, the stock of creeping
transition is so easy that we find no difficulty ^^'^'^ ^''^^^'

in accounting for it. From the prostrate rootstock to the
thickened storage rhizome (Fig. 105) of such plants as the iris,
puccoon, bulrush, and Solomon's-seal, is a longer step, but
the bud with its leaf scales at the growing tip, a, the remains
of the flower stem at the node, b, and the roots from the under
surface sufficiently indicate its na-
ture. The peculiar scars from which
CI the Solomon's-seal takes its name
-^^OWfl^L ^^^ caused by the falling away

Fig. 105^ Rhlme of Sol- ^^^^ ^e^^ ^^ t^^. Aowering Stem
omon's-seal : a, growing bud at of the SCaSOU after its WOrk is doue,

Lt™';;flower"im;°!:'':raS leaving behind the node of the un-
of old stems. (After Gray.) dcrgrouud stcui from which it Orig-
inated. In this way the rhizome lives on indefinitely,
growing and increasing at one end as fast as it dies at
the other. Test a little of the substance of the rhizome
with iodine. Of what does it consist? Of what use is it
to the plant?

106. The tuber. — A still further thickening and shorten-

92

PRArTTCAL COURSE IN BOTANY

ing of the rhizome gives rise to the tuber, of which the
potato and the Jerusalem artichoke are famiUar examples.
Can you give any evidence to show that the potato is a

modified stem? Find the
})oint of attachment of the
tuber to its stem and stantl
it on this end, which is its
natural base. Notice that
the eye sits in the axil of
the little scale that forms
the eyelid. What does the
scale represent? "WTiat is

Fig. U)(

)cr showing Iciiti-

cels, A, A, or pores for air ou the surface ;
<S, leaf scale, or scar.

the eye? (100.) Do the
scales occur in any regular

order — that is, opposite, or alternating with, each other, like

the leaves on a stem ? Look on the surface for a number of

small, lens-shaped dots (A, A, Fig. 106) scattered irregularly

over it. These are aerating pores called lenticels, and are

found in most dicotyl

stems. Does their

presence help to throw

light on the real nature

of the tuber? If any

sprouts occur on your

specimen, where do

they originate? Where

do buds and sprouts

originate on plants

above ground ? Make

a sketch of the outside

of a potato, showing

the lenticels, eyes, and

scales, or the scars left

by the scales in case they have fallen away, as has probably

happened, if your specimen is an old one.

Cut a small slice from the stem end of two potatoes, stand

Figs. 107, 108.—
Transverse and longi-
tudinal sections of the
potato: A, skin; B,
cortical layer ; C, outer
pith layer ; D, inner pith
layer.

THE STEM 93

them in coloring fluid for four or five hours, then divide into
cross and vertical sections, as shown in Figs. 107, 108, and
draw, labeling the parts that you can make out. Through
which has the liquid ascended most rapidly? Test with
iodine and find out in which part nourishment is most abun-
dant. It is this abundant store of food that makes the
potato such a valuable crop in cold countries like Norway
and Iceland, where the seasons are too short to admit of the
slow process of developing the plant from the seed.

Compare a common potato with a sweet potato. Are
there any eyes or buds on the latter ? Is there a scale below
them? Do they occur in any regular order? Do you see
any lenticels? The common potato and the sweet potato
are both tubers ; can you give some of the reasons why the
one is regarded as a modi-
fied branch, and the other
as a root? (100.) Com-
pare their food contents;
which contains most
starch? Which most
sugar? How can you
judge about the sugarwith- Fig. i09.-scaiy Fig no. - Scaiy

•■ * , . , , To bud of oak, enlarged. bulb of lily (Gray).

out a chemical test (

107. The bulb is a form of underground stem reduced to a
single bud. Get the scaly bulb of a lily, and sketch it from
the outside and in cross and vertical section. Compare it
with the scaly winter buds of the oak and hickory, or other
common deciduous tree. Make an enlarged sketch of the
latter on the same scale as the lily bulb, and the resemblance
will at once become ai:)parent. The scales of the bulb are, in
fact, only thick, fleshy leaves closely packed around a short
axis that has become dilated into a flat disk. From the center
of the disk, which is the terminal node of this transformed
stem, rises the flower stalk, or scape, as it is called, of the
season. After blossoming, the scape perishes with its bulb,
and their place is taken by new ones which are developed

94 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

from the axils of the scales, thus revealing their leaflike

nature.

That bulbs are only modified buds is further shown by

the bulblets that sometimes appear among the flowers of the
onion, and in the leaf axils of certain lilies.
They never develop into branches, but drop
off and grow into new plants just as the
subterranean bulbs do.

The bulbs of the onion and hyacinth are
still further modifications, in which the scales
consist of the thickened bases of leafstalks
that are dilated until each one completely

of rron^n'dhS envelops the growing parts within.

lengthwise, showing io8. Moiphology is the part of botany

the base enlarged ,i , , , c ir. • • r j

into the coat of a that treats 01 the origm, lorm, and uses
*'""'• of the different organs of plants, and of

the modifications they undergo in adapting themselves to
changes of condition or function. Organs or parts that
have the same origin but have become adapted to dif-
ferent functions, like the flattened stems of the butcher's-
broom or the bulb scales of the lily, are said to be
homologous; those that are different in origin but adapted
to the same function, as the sweet and common pota-
toes, are analogous. In other words, homologous organs
are morphologically alike, but may be physiologically dif-
ferent; analogous organs are alike physiologically, but
differ morphologically.

109. Economic value of stems. — We probably get a
greater variety of economic products from the stem than
from any other part of the plant. Consider the vast
amount of food stored in underground stems like the potato ;
the resins, gums, and sugar found in the sap of plants
like the sugar cane, the pine, and India-rubber trees; the
medicines, dyes, and extracts obtained from the tissues ; the
valuable fibers, such as flax, jute, and hemp, furnished by
the bast; the wood pulp for making paper; and the timber

THE STEM 95

for building and furnishing our houses that we get from the
woody trunks of trees. When we think of all these things,
it seems hardly possible to overestimate the importance of
this part of the vegetable kingdom to man, or to exert
ourselves too strenuously to regulate and prevent the de-
struction of these invaluable natural resources.

Practical Questions

1. Would you judge from the observations made in the foregoing sec-
tion, that the work of an organ determines its form, or that the form deter-
mines its work ? (99,100,108.)

2. Which is the more important, form or function ?

3. Name some plants that are propagated by rootstocks ; by runners
or stolons ; by rhizomes ; by tubers ; by bulbs.

4. What is the advantage of propagating in this way over planting the
seed? (104, 106.)

5. Mention any other advantages that the various plants named may
gain from the development of their underground parts. (104.)

6. What makes the nut grass so troublesome to farmers in some parts
of the country ?

7. Is its "nut" a root or a tuber? How can you tell? (106.)

8. Suggest some ways for destroying weeds that are propagated in this
way.

9. Could you get rid of wild onions in a pasture by mowing them down ?
By digging them up ? (107.)

10. Is it wise for farmers to neglect the appearance of such a weed
in their neighborhood, even though it does not infest their own land ?

11. Name any plants of your neighborhood, either wild or cultivated,
that are valued for their rhizomes ; for their tubers.

12. What part of the plants named below do we use for food or other
purposes? Ginger, angelica, ginseng, cassava, arrowroot, garlic, onion,
sweet flag, iris, sweet potato, Cuba yam, artichoke.

13. Wliy are the true roots of bulbous and rhizome-bearing plants
generally so much smaller in proportion to the other parts than those of
ordinary plants ? (89,104.)

14. If the Canada thistle grows in your vicinity, examine the roots and
see if there is anything about them that will help to account for its hardi-
hood and persistency.

15. If you live in the region of the horse nettle (Solamim Carolinense),
explain how it is helped by its root system. (89.)

96 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

m. STEM STRUCTURE

A. MONOCOTYLS

Material. — Fresh cornstalks with several well- developed nodes,
some of which should have stood in coloring fluid from 1 to 3 hours. If
fresh specimens cannot be obtained from the fields, a number of seedlings
maj^ be grown in boxes of rich earth and cared for by the pupils either at
home or in the schoolroom ; they should be planted 4 or 5 weeks before
needed. Asparagus and smilax sprouts may be used, or the stem of any
large grass, or of wheat and other grains, but stalks of corn or sugar cane
make the best subjects for study where they can be obtained.

Appliances. — A compound microscope will be needed for detailed
study. Prepared slides can be used, but it is better for students to make
their own sections where practicable.

1 10. Gross anatomy of a monocotyl stem. — Obtain a

fresh cornstalk, — preferably one that has begun to tassel, —

and observe its external characters. How are the inter-

p nodes divided from one another ? What

^ ..1/ is the use of the very firm, smooth epider-

>-'' mis ? Notice a hollow, grooved channel

running down one side between the joints,

or nodes ; does it occur in all of them ?

Fig. 112.— Cross Is it ou the samo side or on the opposite

TT,o if. I TZT't^ sides of alternate internodes ? Follow one

(reduced) : v, nbro-vas-

cuiar bundles ; c, cor- of theso groovcs to the nodo from which
^^ ' ^'^^ ' it originates ; what do you find there ?

After studying the internal structure of the stalk, you will
understand why this groove should occur on the side of an
internode bearing a bud or fruit.

Cut a cross section midway between two nodes, and ob-
serve the composition of the interior ; of what does the bulk
of it appear to consist? Notice the arrangement of the
little (lots, like the ends of cut-off threads, that are scattered
through the pith ; where are they most abundant, toward the
center or the circumference ?

Make a vertical section through one of the nodes. Cut a
thin slice of the pith, hold it up to the light, and examine

THE STEM

97

Fig. 113. — Ver-
tical section of corn-
stalk (reduced) : g,
groove ; c, cortex ; v,
fibrovascular bundles
mingled with paren-
chyma ; h, bud ; n,
node.

with a hand lens. Observe that it is composed of a number
of oblong cells packed together like bricks in a wall. These
are filled with protoplasm and cell sap, and constitute what is
known to botanists as the parenchyma or
fundamental tissue from which all the other
tissues are derived. Apply the iodine test ;
in what parts does starch occur most abun-
dantly ?

Draw out one of the woody threads run-
ning through the pith. Break away a bit of
the epidermis, and see how very closely they
are packed on its inner surface. Trace the
course of the veins in the bases of the leaves ;
find their point of union with the stem;
with what part of it do they appear to be
continuous ? Has this anything to do with
the greater abundance of fibers near the epi-
dermis ? Can you follow the fibers through
the nodes, or do they become confused and intermixed with
other threads there? (If a stalk of sugar cane can be
obtained, the ring of scars left by the vascular bundles as
they pass from the leaves into the stem will be seen beauti-
fully marked just above the nodes.)

If there is an eye or bud at the node, see if any of
the threads go into it. Can you account now for the de-
pression that occurs in the internode above the eye?

Make drawings of both cross and vertical sections, showing
the points brought out in your examination of the cornstalk.

III. The vascular system. — To find out the use of the
threads that you have been tracing, examine a piece of a
living stem that has stood in red ink for three to twenty-four
hours. Notice the course the coloring fluid has taken ; what
would you infer from this as to the use of the woody fibers ?

These threads constitute what is called the vascular system
of the stem, because they are made up of vessels or ducts,
along which the sap is conveyed from the roots to the leaves

98

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

and back from the leaves to the parts where it is needed after
it has contributed to the elaboration of food.

On account of this double line of communication which
they have to maintain, the vascular threads, or bundles, as
they are technically called, are double ; one part composed
of larger vessels, carrying water up, the other consisting of
smaller ones, bringing back the food. Can you give a reason
for their difference in size ?

112. Woody monocotyls. — Examine sections of yucca,
smilax, or of palmetto from the handle of a fan, and compare
them with your sketches of the cornstalk.
In which are the vascular fibers most abun-
dant? Which is the toughest and strongest?
Why? Trace the course of the leaf fibers
from the point of insertion to the interior.
How does it differ from that of the fibers
in a cornstalk ?

1 13 . Growth of monocotyl stems. — After
tracing the course of the leaf veins at the
nodes of the cornstalk, you will have no
difficulty in identifying these veins as part of
the vascular system. In jointed stems like
those of the corn and sugar cane and other
grasses, their intercalation between the vas-
cular bundles of the stem takes place, as we
have seen, at the nodes, forming the hard
rings known as joints; but in other mono-
cotyls the fibers entering the stem from the
leaves usually tend first downward, toward the interior
(Fig. 114), then bend outward, toward the surface, where they
become entwined with others and form the tough, inseparable
cortex that gives to palmetto and bamboo stems their great
strength. Generally, monocotyl stems do not increase in di-
ameter after a certain point, and as they can contain only a
limited number of vascular fibers, they are incapable of sup-
porting an extended system of leaves and branches. Hence

Fig. 114. — Lon-
gitudinal section
through the stem
of a palm, showing
the curved course of
the fibrovascular
bundles (Gray, after
Falkenberg).

THE STEM

Plate 4. — Forest of bamboo, showiii'j- i In i .11
iuonocot> 1 aicuib.

lu;,iirl,|,.-, Irililt ,,|

100

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

plants of this class, with a few exceptions, like smilax and
asparagus, are characterized by simple, columnar stems and
a limited spread of leaves. Such plant forms are admirably-
adapted by their structure to the purposes of mechanical
support. It is a well-known law of mechanics that a hollow
cylinder is a great deal stronger than the same mass would
be in solid form, as may easily be tested by the simple ex-
periment of breaking in your fingers a cedar pencil and a
joint of cane or a stem of smilax of the same weight. In
stems that may be technically classed as solid in structure,
like the corn and palmetto, the interior is so light compared
with the hard epidermis that the result is practically a hollow
cylinder.

114. Minute study of a monocotyl stem. — Place under
the microscope a very thin transverse section of a cornstalk.

The little dots that looked like
^ the cut ends of threads to the

^ naked eye will now appear as

5Px y ^^ ^p '3

Fig. 115.— Transverse section through
the fibrovascular bundle of a cornstalk :

Fig. 116. — Vertical section of the same ;

a, annular trachcid ; sp, spiral tracheid ; a and a', rings of a decomposed annular

ni and m', ducts ; /, air space ; v, sieve
tubes ; n, companion cells ; vg, strength-
ening fibers ; cp, bast ; /, /, parenchyma.

trachcid ; v, sieve tubes ; s, companion
cells ; cp, bast ; /, air space ; vg, strength-
ening tissue ; sp, spiral duct.

the complex group of cells shown in Fig. 115. The same parts
are shown longitudinally in Fig. 116. As seen in cross sec-

THE STEM 101

tion, their arrangement suggests a grotesque resemblance to
the face of an old woman wearing a pair of enormous specta-
cles and surrounded by a cap frill of netting with very wide
meshes. These are parenchyma cells, /, /, Fig. 115, and
constitute the greater portion of the living tissues.

The two large openings, m, m! , that represent the spectacles,
are ducts for carrying water up the stem. They are called
pitted ducts on account of the bordered pits which cover
their outer surface. The two smaller openings between and
slightly below the pitted ducts are also vessels for carrying
liquids up the stem. The lower one, a, is called the annular
tracheid because its tube is strengthened by rings on the
inside. The upper, smaller one, sp, is known as the spiral
tracheid, because its walls are reinforced by spiral thickenings.
Can you think what is the use of these strengthening contri-
vances in the walls of conducting cells? (Suggestion: What
is the use of the spiral wire on a garden hose?) The large,
irregular opening below the ducts is an air space. What is
its object? Why has it no surrounding wall?

Next look above the ducts for a group of rhomboidal or
hexagonal cells, v, v, with smaller ones, s, between them. The
larger of these are sieve tubes, the smaller
ones, co7npanion cells. The sieve tubes
carry sap down the stem after it has been
made into food by the leaves. They get
their name from the sievelike openings
between the connecting walls of the cells
which form them — as if a row of pepper
boxes with perforations at both top and ,^J".- ly — Honzon-

^ tal view of the sieve tube

bottom were placed end to end, so as to of a gourd stem, showing
form a long tube divided into compart- Perforations.
ments by perforated walls. Can you give a reason why the
cells of ducts that carry elaborated nutriment should have a
more open line of communication than those carrjdng crude
sap ? [56 (2) .] Which one of the organic food substances was
shown by Exp. 39 to be unable, or nearly so, to pass through

102

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

r u

Fig. 118.— Side
view of the sieve
tube of a gourd stem :
pr, protoplasm layer ;
u, albuminous con-
tents, forming muci-
laginous strand.

the cell wall by osmosis? [56 (4).] The
conducting cells are surrounded by a mass
of strengthening fibers separating them
from the parenchyma,/, and constituting
with them a fibrovascular bundle. The
larger vessels, m, m' , a, and sjj, compose
the xylem, the harder, more woody part
of the bundle, and the smaller ones, v, s,
the phloem, or softer part. Notice also
that there is no parenchyma in contact
with the xylem and phloem in the fibro-
vascular bundles of a monocotyl, to supply
material for new growth, but they are
entirely surrounded by a sheath of strength-
ening tissue, whence such bundles are said
to be closed, and are incapable of further
growth by the addition of new cells.

B. Herbaceous Dicotyls

Material. — Young stems of sunflower, hollyhock, burdock, ragweed,
cocklebur, castor bean, or any large herbaceous plant. In schools un-
provided with compound microscopes, the minute anatomy can be studied
with some degree of profit by the aid of pictures.

115. Gross anatomy. — Examine the outside of a young
stem of sunflower, burdock, or other herbaceous dicotyl.
Notice whether it is smooth, or roughened with hairs, scales,
ridges, or grooves. If hairy, observe the nature of the hairs,
whether bristly, downy, sticky, etc. Notice the color of the
epidermis, whether uniform, or splotched or striped with
other colors, as, for example, jimson weed, and pigweed
(amarantus). If there are any buds, branches, or flower
stems, notice where they originate ; what is the angle be-
tween the leaf and stem called? (100.)

Make a transverse cut through a portion of the stem that
has stood for a time in coloring fluid and examine with a lens.
Four regions can easily be distinguished : (1) the epidermis,

THE STEM

103

Fig. 119. — 'riaiisvcrso section of a
very young stem of burdock, showing fibro-
vascular bundles not completely united
into a ring : e, epidermis ; c, primary cor-
tex ; /, a ring of fibrovascular bundles ;
p, central cylinder of parenchyma.

e, Fig. 119; (2) the primary cortex, c; (3) a ring of fibro-
vascular bundles, /; and (4) a central cylinder of paren-
chyma, p. In some specimens there will be a fifth region, the
pith, which will appear in
the section as a white cir-
cular spot in the center of
the parenchyma.

In specimens a little older
than the one shown in Fig.
119, a narrow circular line
will be seen running through
the ring of bundles nearly
midway between their inner
and outer extremities, con-
necting them into an un-
broken circle around the
central cylinder. This is
the camhiu7n layer, which supplies the vascular region with
materials for new growth, and thus enables dicotyl stems to
increase in diameter by the successive addition of fresh
vascular rings from year to year.

Examine in the same way a vertical section, and find the
parts corresponding to those shown in Fig. 119. Make en-
larged sketches of both sections, labeling the various parts
observed.

ii6. Minute structure of a dicotyl stem. — Place suc-
cessively under a high power of the microscope thin trans-
verse and longitudinal sections of the stem just examined, or
such other specimen as the teacher may provide. Bring one
of the fibrovascular bundles into the field, and try to make
out the parts shown in Figs. 120 and 121. The corresponding
parts in the two sections are indicated by the same letters.
Notice the cortex, R, on the outside and the pith, M, on the
inside ; between these, the cambium, C, the xylem, or woody
tissue, included between the radiating lines X, and the newer
tissues composing the phloem between the lines P. The

104

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

C sb , h P

121

R

-A

Figs. 120-121. — Transverse and longitudinal sections of a fibrovasoular bundle
in the stem of a sunflower. The two sections are lettered to correspond : M, pith
(parenchyma) ; X, xylcm region ; P, phloem ; R, cortex ; s, spiral ducts ; s', annular
ducts: t,t, pitted ducts; C, cambium between the phloem and xylem regions; sb,
sieve tubes; 6, bast; e, bundle sheath; ic, cambium (parenchyma) cells; h, wood fioers.

THE STEM 105

cambium and pith, which includes the medullary rays so con-
spicuous in perennial stems, are composed of live paren-
chyma cells, from which alone growth can take place ; they
are the active part of the stem. The xylem contains the
large vessels, t and s, that convey water up the stem, together
with the wood fibers, h. These are the permanent tissues.
After completing their growth the cells of the xylem gradu-
ally lose their protoplasm, and all vitality ceases. Even the
cell sap disappears, and sometimes the walls of the ducts are
disintegrated, leaving a mere air space like that shown at I in
Figs. 115 and 116. The dead cells and tissues, however, are
by no means useless. They constitute the heartwood that
is so valuable for timber, and serve an important purpose as
a mechanical support for the stem. The phloem contains
on its outer face a mass of hard fibers, h, called bast, and
toward the interior, the sieve tubes, sb, with a number of
smaller vessels that convey down the stem the sap containing
the food made in the leaves. It is separated from the cortex
by the bundle sheath, e, and on its other side, from the ex-
terior face of the xylem by the cambium, C. In this position
the growing cambium adds new cells to the inner side of the
phloem, and to the outer side of the xylem, so that the former
grows on its inner face and the latter on its outer. In peren-
nial plants, as new rings are added to the xylem from season
to season, the older anes die and are changed into heartwood,
which thus gradually increases in thickness till in some of the
giant redwoods and eucalypti, it may attain a diameter of
thirty-five or forty feet. In the phloem, on the other hand,
as new cells are added from within, the older ones are
gradually changed into hard bast, h, then into bark, and
are finally sloughed off and fall to the ground. It is this
free line of communication with the active cambium that
enables dicotyl stems to grow on indefinitely, the sheath, e,
being formed on the exterior face of the bundles only, leav-
ing the other free, whence they are said to be open.
Make drawings of cross and vertical sections of a dicotyl

106

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Fig. 122. — Internal structure of a pine stem, showing longitudinal section of a
fibrovascular bundle through a medullary ray, sm, sm' : s, tracheids; t, bordered
pits, surface view; c, cambium; v, sieve tubes; vt, sieve pits, analogous to the
sieve plates in dicotyl stems.

stem as it appears under the microscope, labeling correctly
all the parts observed. Show the shape and relative size of

the different cells. Com-
pare your drawings with
those made in your study
of monocotyl stems, and
write in your notebook the
essential points of difference
between the two.

117. The stems of coni-
fers, the group of Gymno-
sperms to which the pine
belongs, do not differ greatly
from those of dicotyls, the
chief difference being that
the vascular bundles contain
tracheids only, correspond-
ing to the smaller vessels of

Fi(!. Ti.i. — Intcrnalstructureof a pine
stem, showing transverse section of a tra-
cheid : 7, cell walls; //), intermediate layer
between walls of adjoining cells ; m', inter-
cellular space here occupied by substance
of intermediate layer; b, bordered pit in
section at right angles to the surface ; t,
membrane for closing the pit canal.

THE STEM

107

the phloem, s and s', shown in Fig. 121. These tracheids
have large sunken places in their walls, called bordered pits
(Fig. 123), closed by a very thin membrane through which
water and dissolved food materials can mon^ I'eadily per-
colate. In all other essentials, the internal structure of pine
stems is like that of dicotyls. (See Plate 5.)

C. Woody Stemmed Dicotyl

Material. — Elm, basswood, mulberry, leatherwood, and pawpaw
show the bast well ; sassafras, slippery elm, and (in spring) hickory and
willow show the cambiimi; grape and trumpet vine, the ducts. Some
of the specimens used should be placed in coloring fluid from 3 to 8 hours
before the lesson begins. The rate at which the liquid is absorbed varies
with the kind of stem and the season. It is more rapid in spring and slower
in winter. If a cutting stands too long in the fluid, the dye will gradually
percolate through all parts of it ; care should be taken to guard against this,

ii8. The external layer. — While the primary structures,
as shown in the last section, are essentially the same in all
dicotyl stems, the continued yearly
growth of perennials causes them to de-
velop a number of secondary structures
and variations of detail that differentiate
them in a marked degree from soft-
stemmed annuals. Take a piece of a
three-year-old shoot of cherry, horse
chestnut, or any convenient hardwood
tree, and notice that the soft, green
epidermis has given place to a thicker,
harder, and usually darker colored bark.
Notice the presence of lenticels (106) and
their porous, corky texture for the ad-
mission of air to the interior. They
are slightly raised above the surface of
the bark, and are usually round, or
more or less elongated in different direc-
tions, according as they are stretched
zontally by the growth of the axis.

Fig. 124. — Part of a
young China tree shoot,
showing, A, lenticels; B,
leaf scar ; C, C, traces left
by the broken ends of
fibrovascular bundles that
passed from the stem in-
to the leaf. Natural size.

vertically or hori-
The characteristic mark-

108

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Plate 5. — Stem of a conifer, Sequoia gigantea, Mariposa Grove, California The
first branch, 6 feet in diameter, leaves the parent trunk 125 feet above the ground.
The photographer sitting on one of the exposed roots affords a good standard for
comparison. The tree is noted for its massive limbs. The smaller trees in the
background show the characteristic mode of branching in trees of this class.

THE STEM 109

ings of birch bark, which make it so ornamental, are due to the
lenticels. In most trees they disappear on the older parts,
where the bark is constantly breaking away and sloughing off.

up. Internal structures. — Cut a transverse section
through your specimen, and notice under the epidermis a
greenish layer of young bark ; beneath this a layer of rather
tough, stringy bast fibers, and beyond these a harder woody
substance that constitutes the bulk of the interior; within this,
at the very center of the axis, we find a cylinder of lighter
texture, the pith, or medulla, occupying the place of the soft
parenchyma which fills this space in very young stems.

Between the woody axis and the bark notice a more or
less soft and juicy ring.

120. The cambium layer. — This is not always easily
distinguishable with a hand lens, but is conspicuous in the
stems of sassafras, slippery elm, and aristolochia. If some
of these cannot be obtained, the presence of the cambium
can be recognized by observing the tendency of most stems
to " bleed," when cut, between the wood and bark. The
reason for this is because the cambium is the active part of
the stem, in which growth is taking place, and consequently
it is most abundantly supplied with sap. In spring, es-
pecially, it becomes so full of sap that if a rod of hickory
or elder is pounded, the pulpy cambium is broken up and the
bark may be slipped off whole from the wood.

121. Medullary rays. — Observe the whitish, silvery lines
that radiate in every direction from the center, like the
spokes of a wheel from the hub. These are the medullary
rays, and consist of threads of pith that serve as lines of com-
munication between the " central cylinder " and the grow-
ing cambium layer. In old stems the central pith frequently
disappears and its office is filled by the medullary rays, which
become quite conspicuous.

122. Structural regions of a woody stem. — Sketch cross
and vertical sections of your specimen, as seen under the lens,
labeling the different parts. Refer to Figs. 125, 126, if you

110

PRACTICAL COURSE EST BOTANY

have any difficulty in distinguishing the parts. In a year-old
shoot (Fig. 125), the structural regions correspond closely to
those shown in Fig. 119, except that the ring of fibrovascular
bundles is here compact and woody, and crossed by the
radiating lines of the medullary rays. In a three-year-old
shoot (Fig. 126), the main divisions are the same, but the
soft parenchyma of the central cylinder is replaced by the
pith, and the vascular ring is composed of three layers corre-
sponding to the three years of growth. In general, mature

125 126

Figs. 125, 126. — Cross sections of twigs : 125, section across a young twig of box
elder, showing the four stem regions : e, epidermis, represented by the heavy bounding
line ; c, cortex ; w, vascular cylinder ; p, pith ; 126, section across a twig of box elder
three years old, showing three annual growth rings, in the vascular cylinder. The
radiating lines (m), which cross the vascular region (w), represent the pith rays, the
principal ones extending from the pith to the cortex (c). (From Coulter's " Plant
Relations.")

dicotyl stems may be said to include four well-defined re-
gions: (1) the epidermis, or the bark; (2) the cortex, made
up of bast and certain other tis.sues; (3) the cambium;
(4) the woody vascular cylinder, made up of concentric
rings, each representing a year's growth. The pith, or me-
dulla, constitutes a fifth region, but is obvious only in young
stems. Notice the little pores or cavities that dot the woody
part in the cross section ; where are they largest and most
abundant ? How are the rings marked off from one another ?

THE STEM

111

These pores are the sections of ducts. They are very large
in the grapevine, and a cutting two or three years old will
show them distinctly. Examine sections of a twig that has
stood in red ink from three to twelve hours, and observe the
course the fluid has taken. How does this accord with the
facts observed in your study of the conducting tissues in
monocotyl and herbaceous stems? (Ill, 115, 116.)

123. The rings into which the woody cylinder is divided
mark the yearly additions to the growth of the stem, which
increases by the constant accession of new
material to the outside of the permanent
tissues (116). The cambium constantly
advances outward, beginning every spring
a new season's growth, and leaving behind
the ring of ducts and woody fibers made
the year before. As the work of the plant is
most active and its growth most vigorous
in spring, the largest ducts are formed then,
the tissue becoming closer and finer as the
season advances, thus causing the division
into annual rings that is so characteristic of
woody dicotyl stems. Each new stratum of
growth is made up of the fibrovascular
bundles that supply the leaves and buds and
branches of the season. In this way we see
that the increase of dicotyl trunks and
branches is approximately in an elongated
cone (Fig. 127), the number of rings gradually diminishing
toward the top till at the terminal bud of each bough it is
reduced to a single one, as in the stems of annuals.

Sometimes a late autumn, succeeding a very dry summer,
will cause trees to take on a second growth, and thus form two
layers of wood in a single season. On this account we can-
not always rely absolutely upon the number of rings in esti-
mating the age of a tree, though the method is sufficiently
exact for all practical purposes.

Fig. 127. — Dia-
gram illustrating the
annual growth of
dicotyledons.

112 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Practical Questions

1. Old Fort Moultrie near Charleston was built originally of palmetto
logs; was this good engineering or not ? Why? (113.)

2. Explain the advantages of structure in a culm of wheat ; a stalk of
corn; arced. (113.)

3. Would the same quality be of advantage to an oak ? Why, or why
not?

4. Is it of any advantage to the farmer that grain straw is so light ?

5. Explain why boys can slip the bark from certain kinds of wood in
spring to make whistles. (120.)

6. Why cannot they do this in autumn or winter? (123.)

7. Name some of the plants commonly used for this purpose.

8. Is the spring, after the buds begin to swell, a good time to prune
fruit trees and hedges ? (120.)

9. What is the best time, and why?

10. Why are grapevines liable to bleed to death if pruned too late in
spring? (120, 123.)

11. Wliy are nurserymen, in grafting, so careful to make the cambium
layer of the graft hit that of the stock? (120.)

12. In calculating the age of a tree or bough from the rings of annual
growth, should we take a section from near the tip, or from the base ?
Why? (123.)

IV. THE WORK OF STEMS

Material. — Leafy shoots of grape, balsam, peach, or other active
young stems ; a cutting of willow, currant, or any kind of easily rooting
stem. Two bottles of water and some linseed or cottonseed oil.

Experiment 58. Do the leaves have any active part in effecting
THE movement OF SAP IN THE STEM ? — Take two healthy young shoots of
the same kind — grape, peach, corn, tropaolum, calla lily absorb rapidly.
Trim the leaves from one shoot and close the cut surfaces with a little vase-
line or gardener's wax to prevent loss of water by evaporation. Place the
lower end of each in a glass jar or tumbler filled to the same height with
water. Cut off under loater a half inch from the bottom of each shoot,
to get a fresh absorbing surface. This is necessary because exposure to
air for even a second greatly hinders absorption by permitting the entrance
of air into the severed ends of the ducts. Pour a little oil on the water in
both jars to prevent evaporation. (Do not use kerosene ; it is injurious
to plants.) At the end of twenty-four hours, which vessel has lost the
more water ? How do you account for the difference ?

THE STEM

113

Experiment 59. What becomes of the water that goes into the
LEAVES ? — Cover the top of the vessel containing the leafy twig used in the
last experiment with a piece of card-
board, having first cut a slit in one side,
as shown in Fig. 128, so that it can be
slid into place without injuring the
stem. Invert over the twig a tumbler
that has first been thoroughly dried,
and leave in a warm, dry place. After
an hour or two, what do you see on the
inside of the tumbler ? Where did the
moisture come from ?

Experiment 60. Through what

PART of the stem DOES THE SAP FLOW

UPWARD ? — Remove a ring of the cor-
tical layer from a
twig of any readily
rooting dicoty],
such as willow,
being careful to
leave the woody

part, with the cambium, intact. Place the end beloio
the cut ring in water, as shown in Fig. 129. The leaves
above the girdle will remain fresh. How is the water
carried to them? How does this agree with the
movement of red ink observed in 115 and 122?

Experiment 61. Through what part does the
SAP COME DOWN ? — Ncxt pruue away the leaves and
protect the girdled surface with tin foil, or insert it
below the neck of a deep bottle to prevent evaporation,
and wait until roots develop. Do they come more
abundantly from above or below the decorticated
ring?

Fig. 128. — Experiment showing
that moisture is thrown off by the
leaves of plants.

Fig. 129. —a
twig which had been
kept standing in
water after the re-
moval of a ring of
cottical tissue : a,
level of the water ;
b, swelling formed at
the upper denuda-
tion ; c, roots.

124. The three principal functions of the
stem are : — (1) to serve as a mechanical sup-
port and framework for binding the other
organs together and bringing them into the best attainable
relations with light and air ; (2) as a water carrier, or pipe
line, for conveying the sap from the roots to the parts where
it is needed ; and (3) as a receptacle for the storage of foods.

114

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

125. Movement of water. — It has already been shown
(71, HI) that a constant interchange of Hquid is taking place
through the stem, between the roots, where it is absorbed from
the ground, and the leaves, where it is used partly in the man-
ufacture of food. Just what causes the rise of sap in the stem
is one of the problems of vegetable physiology that botanists

have not yet been able to
solve. There are, how-
ever, certain forces at
work in the plant, which,
though they may not ac-
count for all the phenom-
ena of the movement,
undoubtedly influence
them to a great extent.
From experiments 58-
61, we can obtain an
idea of what some of
these forces may be.

126. Direction of the
current. — These experi-
ments show that the up-
ward movement of crude
sap toward the leaves is
mainly through the ducts
in the woody portion of
the stem, while the down-
ward flow of elabonated
sap from the leaves takes
place chiefly through the
soft bast and certain other vessels of the cortical layer. The
action of the leaves in giving off part of the water absorbed, as
shown in Exp. 59, probably has also an important influence
on the course of sap movement. If loss of water takes place
in any organ through growth or other cause, the osmotic flow
of the thinner sap from the roots will set in that direction.

Fig. 130. — The .stump of a larj^e oak that
was injured by lightning many years ago. The
interior is completely decayed, leaving only
a hollow shell of living tissue, from which
branches continue to put forth leaves year
after year.

THE STEM

115

T27. Ringing fruit trees. — The course of the sap explains
why farmers sometimes hasten the ripening of fruit by the
practice of ringing. As the food material cannot pass below
the denuded ring, the parts above become gorged, and a pro-
cess of forcing takes place. The practice, however, is not to
be commended, except in rare cases, as it generally leads to
the death of the ringed stem. The portion below the ring
can receive no nourishment from above, and will gradually
be so starved that it cannot even act as a carrier of crude
sap to the leaves, and so the whole bough will perish.

128. Sap movement not circulation. — It must not be
supposed that this flow of sap in plants is analogous to the
circulation of the blood in animals, y^ |o /
though frequently spoken of in pop-
ular language as the " circulation of
the sap." There is no central organ
like the heart to regulate its flow, and
the water taken up by the roots does
not make a continual circuit of the
plant body as the blood does of ours,
but is dispersed by a process of general
diffusion, partly into the air through
the leaves and partly through the plant
body as food, wherever it is needed.
Figure 131 gives a good general idea
of the movement of sap in trees, the
arrows indicating the direction of the
movement of the different substances.

129. Unexplained phenomena. — Though the forces
named above undoubtedly exert a powerful influence over
sap movement, their combined action has not been proved
capable of lifting the current to a height of more than 200
feet, while in the giant redwoods of California and the tower-
ing blue gums of Australia, it is known to reach a height of
more than 400 feet. The active force exerted by the cell
protoplasm has been suggested as an efficient cause, but as

Fig. 131. — Diagram show-
ing general movement of sap.

116 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

the upward flow takes place through the cells of the xylem,
which contain no protoplasm (116), this explanation is in-
adequate, and we must be content, in the present state of our
knowledge, to accept the fact as one which science has yet to
account for.

Practical Questions

1. Wh.y will a leafy shoot heal more quickly than a bare one ? (125,
126; Exp. 58.)

2. Why does a transverse cut heal more slowly than a vertical one ?
(126, 127.)

3. Why docs a ragged cut heal lass rapidly than a smooth one ?

4. Why does the formation of wood proceed more rapidly as the amount
of water given off by the leaves is increased ? (126; Exp. 59.)

5. Why do nurserymen sometimes split the cortex of j'oung trees in
summer to promote the formation of wood ? (116, 118.)

6. What is the advantage of scraping the stems of trees ?

7. Explain the frothy exudation that often appears at the cut ends of
firewood, and the singing noise that accompanies it. [120, 124 (2).]

8. Of what advantage is it to high climbing plants, like grape and
trumpet vine {Tecoma), to have such large ducts ? (HI, 116, 122.)

9. Why is the process of layering more apt to be successful if the shoot
is bent or twisted at the point where it is desired to make it root ? (127;
Exps. 60, 61.)

10. Why do oranges become dry and spongy if allowed to hang on the
tree too long ? (72, 126; Exps. 60, 61.)

11. Why will corn and fodder be richer in nourishment if, at harvest,
the whole stalk is cut down and both fodder and grain are allowed to
mature upon it? (126, 127; Exps. 60, 61.)

12. Is the injury done to plants by freezing due, as a general thing,
to mechanical, or to chemical action ? (33.)

13. Why in pruning a branch is it best to make the cut just above a
bud? (Exps. 60, 61.)

14. Why is the rim of new bark, or callus, that forms on the upper side
of a horizontal wound, thicker than that on the lower side? (126, 127;
Exps. 60, 61.)

15. Why is it that the medicinal or other special properties of plants
are found mostly in the leaves and bark, or in the parts immediately
under the bark ? (120,126.)

16. \Vhy does testing the footstalk of a bunch of grapes, just before
ripening, make them sweeter ? (127.)

THE STEM

117

^

1

^

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J|^H^ApipHfi£y^n9x^r,

i

?;,■>.

-„^,.-.'.-^.J'. •. .>

m

^i'^^f^i^M

•Jii-- rik

"0^ A

'tti

H^

W9

wm

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- ^^

n

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I

^^^; '

■ 1

Plate 6. — A white oak, one of tlic moiiarchs of the dicotyl type. The owner of
the ground on which this noble tree stands left a clause in his will bequeathing it in
perpetuity a territory of 8 feet in every direction from its base. Refer to 89 and
decide whether such an amount of standing room ia sufficient to secure the preser-
vation of this beautiful object.

118 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

17. Is it a mere superstition to drive nails into the stems of plmn and
peach trees to make them bear larger or more abundant fruit ? (126, 127.)

18. Why is a living corn stalk heavier than a dry one ? (124.)

19. Why is a stalk of sugar cane heavier than one of corn ? Suggestion :
Which is the heavier, pure water, or water holding solids in solution?

V. WOOD STRUCTURE IN ITS RELATION TO INDUSTRIAL USES

Material. — Select from the billets of wood cut for the fire, sticks of
various kinds ; hickory, ash, oak, chestnut, maple, walnut, cherry, pine,
cedar, tulip tree, all make good specimens. Rod oak shows the medullary
rays well. Get sticks of green wood, if possible, and liave them planed
smooth at the ends. Collect also, where they can be obtained, waste bits
of dressed lumber from a carpenter or joiner. If nothing better is avail-
able, any pieces of unpainted woodwork about the schoolroom will furnish
subjects for study.

130. Detailed structure of a woody stem. ^ Select a
good-sized billet of hard wood, and count the rings of annual
growth. How old was the tree or the bough from which it
was taken ? Was its growth uniform from year to year ?
How do you know? Are the rings broader, as a general
thing, toward the center or the circumference? How do
you account for this ? Is each separate ring of uniform
thickness all the way round? Mention some of the cir-
cumstances that might cause a tree to grow less on one side
than on the other. Are the rings of the same thickness in
all kinds of wood ? WTiich are the more rapid growers, those
with broad or with narrow rings? Do you notice any dif-
ference in the texture of the wood in rapid and in slow grow-
ing trees? Which makes the better timber as a general
thing, and why ?

131. Heartwood and sapwood. — Notice that in some
of your older specimens (cedar, black walnut, barberry,
black locust, chestnut, oak, Osage orange, show the differ-
ence distinctly) the central part is different in color and text-
ure from the rest. This is because the sap gradually abandons
the center (116, 123) to feed the outer layers, where growth
in dicotyls takes place; hence, the outer part of the stem

THE STEM

119

Fig. 132. — Cross section through a black oak, showing heart-
wood and sapwood. {From Pinchot, U. S. Dept. of Agr.)

¥iQ. 133. — Vertical aectiou through a black oak. {From Pinchot,
U. S. Dept. of Agr.)

120

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

usually consists of sapwood, which is soft and worthless as
timber, while the dead interior forms the durable heart-
wood so prized by lumbermen. The heartwood is useful to
the plant principally in giving strength and firmness to the
axis. It will now be seen why girdling a stem, — that is, chip-
ping off a ring of the softer parts all round, will kill it, while
vigorous and healthy trees are often seen with the center of
the trunk entirely hollow.

132. Different ways of cutting. — In studying the vertical
arrangement of stems, two sections are necessary, a radial and
a tangential one. The former passes along the axis, splitting
the stem into halves (Fig. 135) ; the latter cuts between the

axis and the perimeter, split-
ting off a segment from one
side (Fig. 136). The appear-
ance of the wood used in car-
pentry and joiner's work is due
largely to the manner in which
the planks are cut.

133. The cross cut. — The
section seen at the end of a log
(Figs. 132, 134) is called by
carpenters a cross cut. It
passes at right angles to the
grain of the wood, and severs what important structures?
(116, 119, 122.) Examine a cross cut at the end of a rough
plank, or" the top of
a stump or an old
fence post, and tell
why this kind of cut
is seldom used in
carpentry.

134. The tangent
cut is so called be-
cause it is made at 'Z~~',o^ r^ - .^-r-^^^^.^^-^ .^ ,' ' "

Fig. 137.— Tangential section of mountam ash, show-
right angles to the ing ends of the meduUary rays.

134 135 136

Figs. 134-136. — Diagrams of sec-
tions of timber: 134, cross section ;
135, radial : 136, tangential. {Fro7n
PiNCHOT, U. S. Dept. of Agr.)

THE STEM

121

t rrr

Fig. 138. — Diagram to show
the common method of sawing a
log. The circles represent rings
of annual growth : R, R, diam-
eter of the log ; r, r, r and t, t, I,
boards cut perpendicular to it,
givdng for the two or three cen-
tral ones radial, for the others,
tangential, cuts. The waste por-
tions are the " slabs " and "edg-
ings," shown in the dark seg-
ments at R, R, and the small
triangular blocks, e, c, e.

radius of a log. Repeat the geo- ^ t rrr

metrical principle upon which such

a cut is described as " tangential."

It passes through the medullary

rays and the annual rings diagonally

(Fig. 136), and is the cheapest way

of cutting timber, "since the entire

log is made into planks and there

is no waste except the " slabs " and

'' edgings," as shown in Fig. 138.

The cut ends of the medullary rays

appear on the surface as small lines

or slits (Fig. 137), and give to this

kind of plank its peculiar grain-
ing. The wavy or " watered "

appearance of the annual rings

(Figs. 133, 136, 140, 141), so often

seen in cheap furniture and in the woodwork of cheaply

constructed houses, is caused by the tangential cut, which

strikes them at various angles.

135. The radial, or quartered cut,
familiar to most of us in the " quar-
tered oak " of commerce, passes
through the center of the log and
cuts the rings of annual growth per-
pendicularly, giving it the "striped"
appearance (Fig. 135) seen in the
best woodwork. It gets its name
from the practice of dealers in first
sawing a log into quarters and then
cutting parallel to the radius pass-
ing through the middle of each
quarter, as shown in Fig. 139. In
this way each cut strikes the rings
perpendicularly, but except in the
case of very large logs, only narrow

Fig. 139. — Diagram illustrat-
ing the "quartered " cut : d, d and
d' d', radial cuts (diameters) by
which the log is " quartered " ;
c, center of the log ; r, r, radii
passing through the middle of
each quarter, parallel to which
the planks f, t, t are cut. The
circles represent rings of annual
growth.

122

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

planks can be obtained in this manner. A better way of
treating small logs is shown in Fig. 138, where the three
central planks, r;r,r, on and near the diameter, will give the
" quartered " effect, while the rest can oe used for the cheaper
tangential cuttings. Examine a piece of quartered board, or
a log of wood that has been split down the center, and notice

Fig. 140. — Sections of sycamore wood : a, tangential; h, radial;
c, cross. {From Pinchot, U. S. Dept. of Agr.)

Fig. 141. — Section of
U. S. Dept. of Agr.)

{From Pinchot,

that the medullary rays appear as silvery bands or plates
(Figs. 140, 141). This is because the cut runs parallel to
them. It is the medullary rays chiefly that give to commer-
cial woods their characteristic graining. Knots, buds, and
other adventitious causes also influence it in various degrees.
136. The swelling and shrinking of timber. — The ca-
pacity possessed by certain substances of bringing about an

THE STEM

123

Fig. 142. — Section
of tree trunk showing
knot.

increase of volume by the absorption of liquids is termed
imbibition. Care must be taken not to confound imbibi-
tion with capillarity. (Exp. 53.) When liquids are carried
into a body by capillary attraction, they
merely fill up vacant spaces already exist-
ing between small particles of the substance,
and therefore do not cause any swelling or
increase in size. When imbibition takes
place, the molecules^ or chemical units of the
liquid, force their way between those of the
imbibing substance, and thus, in making
room for themselves, bring about an in-
crease in volume of the imbibing body.
To this cause is due the alternate swelling and shrinking of
timber in wet and dry weather.

137. Knots. — Look for a billet with a knot in it. Notice
143 144 ^^^ ^^^ rings of growth are disturbed

and displaced in its neighborhood. If
the knot is a large one, it will itself
have rings of growth. Count them, and
tell what its age was when it ceased to
grow. Notice where it originates.
Count the rings from its point of origin
to the center of the stem. How old was
the tree when the knot began to form?
Count the rings from the origin of the
knot to the circumference of the stem ;
how many years has the tree lived since
the knot was formed ? Does this agree
with the age of the knot as deduced
from its own rings? As the tree may
continue to live and grow indefinitely
after the bough which formed the knot
died or was cut away, there will probably be no corre-
spondence between the two sets of rings, especially in the
case of old knots that have been covered up and embedded in

Figs. 143-144. — Dia-
grams of tree trunks, show-
ing knots of different ages :
143, from tree grown in
the open; 144, from tree
grown in a dense forest.

124 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

the wood. The longer a dead branch remains on a tree the
more rings of growth will form around it before covering it up,
and the greater will be the disturbance caused l)y it. Hence,
timber trees should be i)runed while ver^^ 3^oung, and the
parts removed should be cut as close as possible to the main
branch or trunk. Sometimes knots injure lumber very much
by falling out and leaving the holes that are often seen in pine
boards. In other cases, however, when the knots are very
small, the irregular markings caused by them add greatly
to the beauty of the wood. The peculiar marking of bird's-
eye maple is caused by abortive buds buried in the wood.

Practical Questions

1. Is the swelling of wood a physical or a physiological process?

2. Does wood swell equally with the grain and across it ? (Suggestion :
test by keeping a block under water for 10 to 20 days, measuring its dimen-
sions be^'ore and after immersion.)

3. In building a fence, what is the use of "capping" the posts? (133.)

4. In laying shingles, why are they made to touch, if the work 1: done
in wet weather, and placed somewhat apart, if in dry weather? (136.)

5. What is the difference between timber and lumber? Between a
plank and a board ? Between a log, stick, block, and billet ?

6. Why does sap wood decay mjre quickly than heartwood? (131.)

7. Explain the difference between osmosis, diffusion, capillarity, and
imbibition. (9, 56, 57, 136; E.xp. 53.)

VI. FORESTRY

138. Practical bearings. — This part of our subject is
closely related to lumbering and forestry. The business of
the lumberman is to manufacture growing trees into mer-
chantable timber, and to do this successfully he must under-
stand enough about the structure of wood to cut his boards
to the best advantage, both for economy and for bringing out
the grain so as to produce the most desirable effects for
ornamental purposes.

139. Forestry has for its object: (1) the preservation
and cultivation of existing forests ; (2) the planting of new

THE STEM

125

Plate 7. — TirnlM-r iv,- sp.,il,.,l l,v -iAuMn,- l-- ■mirl, ;,l,,,„- i„ ,,,ilv youth.
Notice how the cruwdcd .\ .uin>^; l inilicr in the I .mcLlmmiumI i- n-litinti itcif, the lower
branches dying ofY early from ovcrshading, leaving tall, atraight, clean bules. (From
PiNCHOT, U. S. Dept. of Agr.)

126

TRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

ones, or the reforestation of tracts from which the timber has
been destroyed. Forests may be either pure, that is, com-
posed mainly of one
kind of tree, as a pine
or a fir wood ; or mixed,
being made up of a vari-
ety of different growths,
as are most of our com-
mon hardwood forests.
140. Enemies of the
forest. — -The first step
in the preservation of
our forests is to know
the dangers to be
j2;uarded against. The
chief of these are*
<\) fires; (2) the igno-
rance or recklessness of
man in cutting for
commercial purposes ;
(3) fungi; (4) injurious insects; (5) sheep, hogs, and other
animals that eat the seeds and the young, tender growth.

141. How to protect the
forests. — The annual de-
struction of forests by fires
probably exceeds that from
all other causes combined.
The only effectual safeguard
against this danger is watch-
fulness on the part of every-
hodif. We can each one of
us help in this work by at
least being careful ourselves
never to kindle a fire in the
woods without taking every
precaution against its

Fig. 145. — After the forest fire.

Oyater fuugus ou Uudeo,

THE STEM 127

spreading. A single match, or the glowing stump of a cigar,
carelessly thrown among dry leaves or grass, may start a
conflagration that will destroy millions of dollars' worth of
standing timber.

To prevent the spread of fungi, dead trees should be re-
moved, and broken or decayed branches trimmed off and the
cut surfaces painted. Birds which destroy insects should be
protected ; sheep and hogs should be kept out, and dead
leaves left on the ground to cover the roots and fertilize the
soil with the humus created by their decay. Finally, none
but mature trees should be cut for industrial purposes, and
the cutting ought to be done in such a way that the young
surrounding growth will not be injured by the falling
trunks.

142. The usefulness of forests. — Aside from the value
of their products, forests are useful in many other ways.
They influence climate beneficially by acting as windbreaks,
by giving off moisture (Exp. 58), by shading the soil, and
thus preventing too rapid evaporation. Their roots also
help to retain the water in the soil, and by this means tend
to prevent the washing of the land by heavy rains and to
restrain the violence of freshets.

143. Forests and water supply. — It is especially im-
portant that the watershed of any region should be well
protected by forests, to prevent contamination of the streams
and to insure an unfailing supply of water by checking the
escape of the rainfall from the soil.

Practical Questions

1. Explain the difference between a forest, grove, copse, wood, wood-
land.

2. In pruning a tree why ought the branch to be cut as close to the stock
as possible? (137.)

3. Name the principal timber trees of your neighborhood. What gives
to each its special value ?

4. Name six trees that produce timber valuable for ornament ; for
toughness and strength.

128 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

5. Which is the better for timber, a tree grown in the open, or one
grown in a forest, and why? (Plate 7.)

6. What are the objects to be attained in pruning timber trees? Or-
chard and ornamental trees ?

7. Is the outer bark of any use to a tree, and if so, what ?

8. Why should pruning not be done in wet weather? [140 (3), 141.]

9. Why should vertical shoots be cut off obliquely? [133, 140 (3),
141.]

Fisld Work

(1) Make a study of the various climbing plants of your neighborhood
with reference to their modes of ascent, and the effect, injurious, or other,
upon the plants to which they attach themselves. Note the origin and
position of tendrils, and try to make out what modification has taken
place in each case. Consider the twining habit in reference to parasitism,
especially in the case of soft-stemmed twiners when brought into contact
with soft-stemmed annuals. Observe the various habits of stem growth:
prostrate, declined, ascending, etc., and decide what adaptation to cir-
cumstances may have influenced each case.

(2) Notice the shape of the different stems met with, and learn to
recognize the forms peculiar to certain of the great families. Observe
the various appliances for defense and protection with which they are
provided, and try to find out the meaning of the numerous grooves, ridges,
hairs, prickles, and secretions that are found on stems. Alwaj^s be on the
alert for modifications, and learn to recognize a stem under any disguise,
whether thorn, tendril, foliage, water holder, rootstock, or tuber.

(3) Note the color and texture of the bark of the different trees you see
and learn to distinguish the most important kinds :

(a) scaly — peeling off annually in large plates, as sycamore, shagbark-

hickory ;
(6) fibrous — detached in stiff threads and fibers, as grape ;

(c) fissured — split into large, irregular cracks by the growth of the

stem in thickness, as oak, chestnut, and most of our large forest
trees ;

(d) membranous — separating in drj^ films and ribbons, as common

})irch (Betula alba).
Observe the difference in texture and appearance of the bark on old
and young boughs of the same species. Try to account for the varying
thickness of the bark on different trees and on different parts of the same
tree. Notice the difference in the timber of the same species when grown
in different soils, at different ages of the tree, and in healthy and weakly
specimens. Find examples of self-pruning trees (Plate 7), and explain
how the pruning was brought about.

THE STEM 129

(4) Select a small plot, about a fourth of an acre, of any wooded tract
in your neighborhood, and make a study of all the trees and shrubs it con-
tains. Make a list of the different kinds, with the number of each. Take
note of those that .show themselves, by vigor and abundance of growth,
best adapted to the situation. These are the "climax" or dominant
vegetation of the plot. Find out, if you can, to what cause their superi-
ority is due.

130

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

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wmm

CHAPTER V. BUDS AND BRANCHES

I. MODES OF BRANCHING

Material. — For determinate growth, have twigs of an alternate and
an opposite-leaved plant showing well-developed terminal buds: hickory,
sweet gum, cottonwood, poplar, chestnut, are good examples of the
first ; maple, ash, horse-chestnut, viburnum, of the second ; for the two-
forked kind, mistletoe, buckeye, horse-chestnut, jimson weed, lilac. For
showing indefinite growth : rose, willow, sumach, and ailanthus are good
examples. Gummy buds, like horse-chestnut and poplar, should be
soaked in warm water before dissecting, to soften the gum ; the
same treatment may be applied when the scales are too brittle to be
handled without breaking. Buds with heavy fur on the scales cannot
very well be studied in section; the parts must be taken out and
examined separately.

144. Modes of branching. — Compare the arrangement
of the boughs on a pine, cedar, magnolia, etc., with those

of the elm, maple, apple, or any of our

common deciduous trees. Draw a diagram

of each, showing the two modes of growth.

The first represents the

excurrent kind, from the

Latin excurrere, to run

out ; the second, in which

the trunk seems to di-
vide at a certain point

and flow away, losing

itself in the branches,

is called deliquescent,

from the Latin deliques-

cere, to melt or flow away.
The great majority of stems, as a little observation will
show, present a combination of the two modes.

131

Fig. 147. — Dia-
gram of excurrent
growth.

Fig. 148. — Diagram
of deliquescent growth.

132

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

145. Terminal and axillary buds. — Notice the large bud
at the end of a twig of hickory, sweet gum, beech, cotton-
wood, etc. This is called the terminal bud because it ter-
minates its branch.. Notice the scars left by the leaves of
the season as they fell away, and look for small buds just
above them. These are lateral, or axillary, buds, so called
because they spring from the axils of the leaves. How
many leaves did your twig bear? Wliat
difference in size do you notice between
the terminal and lateral buds?

146. The leaf scars. — Examine the leaf
scars with a hand lens, and observe the
number and position of the little dots in
them. Ailanthus, varnish tree, sumach,
r and China tree show these very distinctly.
r They are called leaf traces, and mark the
points where the fibrovascular bundles
from the leaf veins passed into the stem.
Fig. 149. — Winter Look on the bark, or epidermis, for lenticels.

twig of sugar maple: ^ -o j 1 j tvt i.- j.i

i, terminal bud; ax, 147- Bud scalcs and scars. — Notice the
axillary buds; Is, leaf ^^Q^t hard scales by which the winter buds

Bears ; tr, leaf traces ; .

/, lenticels ; rs, ring of are covered in most of our hardy trees and
orprecedin^ seasom '^^ shrubs. Removo thesc from the terminal
one of your specimen, and notice the ring
of scars left around the base. Look lower down on your
twig for a ring of similar scars left from last year's bud.
Is there any difTerence in the appearance of the bark above
and below this ring ? If so, what is it, and how do you ac-
count for it ? Is there more than one of these rings of scars
on your twig, and if so, how many ? How old is the twig
and how much did it grow each year ? Has its growth been
uniform, or did it grow more in some years than in others?
148. Arrangement and use of the scales. — Notice the
manner in which the scales overlap so as to " break joints,"
like shingles on the roof of a house, "Where the leaves are
opposite, the manner of superposition is very simple. Re-

BUDS AND BRANCHES

133

[H-H-<^ nip

Fig. 150. — Dia-
gram of opposite bud
scales.

move the scales one by one, representing the number and
position of the pairs by a diagram after the model given in
Fig. 150. In the bud of an alternately branched twig the
order will be different, and the diagram must be varied ac-
cordingly. Do you observe any difference _
as to size and texture between the outer
and inner scales ? Notice how the former
inclose the tenderer parts within like a
protecting wall. In cold climates the outer
scales are frequently
coated with gum, as in
the horse-chestnut, for
greater security against
the weather. The hickory and various
other trees have the inner scales covered
with fur or down that envelops the tender
bud like a warm blanket.

149. Nature of the scales. — The posi-
tion of the scales shows that they occupy
the place of leaves or of some part of a
leaf. In expanding buds of the lilac and
many other plants, they can be found in
all stages of transition, from scales to
true leaves. In the buckeye and horse-
chestnut, they will easily be recognized
as modified leaf stalks (Fig. 151). In the
tulip tree, magnolia, India rubber tree,
fig, elm, and many others, they represent
appendages called stipules, often found at
the bases of leaves. (See 165, 166.) In
this case a pair of scales is attached with
each separate leaflet, and as the growing axis lengthens in
spring, they are carried apart by the elongation of the inter-
nodes so that the scars are separated, a pair at each node,
making rings all along the stem, as shown in Fig. 152, in-
stead of having them compacted into bands at the base of

Fig. 151.— Devel-
opment of the parts of
the bud in the buckeye,
(After Gray.)

134

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

FiG.152.— Stem
of tulip tree : s, s,
scars left by stipular
scales ; /, I, leaf scars.

the bud. These scars are sometimes very persistent, and
in the common fig and magnolia may often be traced on
stems six to eight years old. Do they furnish
any indication as to the relative age of the
different parts of the stem, like the bands of
scars on twigs of horse-chestnut and hickory ?
Give a reason for your answer. (Fig. 152.)
150. Different rates of growth. — Notice
the ver}^ great difference between branches
in this respect. Sometimes the main stem
will have lengthened from twenty to fifty
centimeters or more in a single season, while
some of the lateral ones will have grown
but an inch or two in four or five seasons.
One reason for this is because the terminal
bud, being on the great trunk line of sap
movement, gets a larger share of nourish-
ment than the others, and being stronger
and better developed to begin with., starts out in life with
better chances of success.

Make a drawing of your specimen, showing all the points
brought out in the examination just made. Cut sections
above and below a set of bud scars and count the rings of
annual growth in each section. What is the age of each?
How does this agree with your calculation from the number
of scar clusters left by the bud scales ?

151. Irregularities. — Take a larger bough of the same
kind that you hav(? been studying, and observe whether the
arrangement of branches on it corresponds with the arrange-
ment of buds on the twig. Did all the buds develop into
branches? Do those that did develop all correspond in size
and vigor? If all the buds developed, how many branches
would a tree produce every year?

In the elm, linden, beech, hornbeam, hazelnut, willow, and
various other plants, the terminal bud always dies and the
one next in order takes its place, giving rise to the more or

BUDS AND BRANCHES

135

Fig. 153. — Bud development
of beech : a, as it is, many buds
failing to develop ; b, as it would
be if all the buds were to live.

less zigzag axis that generally characterizes trees of these
species. (Fig. 153.)

152. Forked stems. — Take a twig of buckeye, horse-
chestnut, or lilac, ;uul make a care-
ful sketch of it, showing all the
points that were brought out in the
examination of your previous speci-
men. Which is the larger, the lat-
eral or the terminal bud ? Is their
arrangement alternate or opposite ?
What was the leaf arrangement?
Count the leaf traces in the scars ;
are they the same in all ? If all the
buds had developed into branches,
how many would spring from a
node ? Look for the rings of scars
left by the last season's bud scales.
Do you find any twig of more
than one year's growth, as measured by the scar rings?
Look down between the forks of a branched stem for a
round scar. This is not a leaf scar, as we can see by its
shape, but one left by the last season's
flower cluster. The flower, as we know,
dies after perfecting its fruit, and so a
flower bud cannot continue the growth of
its axis as other buds do, but has just the op-
posite effect and stops all further growth in
that direction. Hence, stems and branches
that end in a flower bud cannot continue
to develop their main axis, but their growth
is usually carried on, in alternate-leaved
stems, by the nearest lateral bud, or in
opposite-leaved ones, by the nearest pair
of buds. In the first case there results the zigzag spray
characteristic of such trees as the beech and elm (Fig. 155,
B) ; in the second, the two-forked, or dichotomous branching,

Fig. 154. — Two-
forked twig of horse-
chestnut.

136

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

exemplified by the buckeye, horse-chestnut, jimson weed,
mistletoe, and dogwood (Fig. 155, A).

Draw a diagram of the buckeye, or
other dichotomous stem, as it would be if
all the buds developed into branches, and
compare it with your diagrams of excurrent
and deliquescent growth. Draw diagrams
to illustrate the branching of the elm,
beech, lilac, linden, rose, maple, or their
equivalents.

153. Definite and indefinite annual
growth. — The presence or absence of ter-
grams of two-forked minal buds givcs rise to another important
pointed bodies in the distinction in plant development — that
forks shows where tor- ^f definite and indefinite annual growth.

minat flower buds or *^ i> ^ •

flower clusters have Compare With any of the twigs just
of^eJowth.^''^''''^'"'' examined, a branch of rose, honey locust,
sumac, mulberry, etc., and note the differ-
ence in their modes of termination. The first kind, where
the bough completes its season's increase in a definite time
and then devotes its energies to developing a strong
terminal bud to begin the next year's work with, are said
to make a definite or determinate annual growth. Those
plants, on the other hand, which make no provision for
the future, but continue to grow till the cold comes
and literally nips them in the bud, are indefinite, or in-
determinate annual growers. Notice the effect of this habit
upon their mode of branching. The buds toward the end
of each shoot, being the youngest and tenderest, are most
readily killed off by frost or other accident, and hence new
branches spring mostly from the older and stronger buds
near the base of the stem. It is their mode of branching that
gives to plants of this class their peculiar bushy aspect.
Such shrubs generally make good hedges on account of their
thick undergrowth. The same effect can be produced arti-
ficially by pruning.

BUDS AND BRANCHES

137

Fig. 156.

lowing

the trend oi tl

154. Differences in the branching of trees. — We are now

prepared to understand something about the causes of that

endless variety in the

spread of bough and

sweep of woody spray

that makes the winter

woods so beautiful.

Where the terminal bud

is undisputed monarch

of the bough, as in the

pine and fir, or where it

is so strong and vigor-
ous as to overpower its

weaker brethren and

keep the lead, as in the

magnolia, tulip tree, and holly, we have excurrent growth.

In plants like the oak and apple, where all the buds have
a more nearly equal chance, the lateral
branches show more vigor, and the result
is either deliquescent growth, or a mixture
of the two kinds. In the elm and beech,
where the usurping pseudo-terminal bud
keeps the mastery, but does not completely
overpower its fellows, we find the long,
sweeping, delicate spray characteristic of
those species. Examine a sprig of elm,
and notice further that the flower buds are
all down near the bas6 of the stem, while
the leaf buds are near the tip. The chief
development of the season's growth is thus
thrown toward the end of the branch, giv-
ing rise to that fine, feathery spray which
makes the elm an even more l^eautiful
object in winter than in summer (Fig. 158).
An examination of the twigs of other trees will bring out the

various peculiarities that affect their mode of branching. The

FiQ. 157. — Winter
spray of ash, an op-
posite-leaved tree.

138 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

angle, for instance, which a twig makes with its bough has a
great effect in shaping the contour of the tree. Compare in
this respect the elm and hackberry;
the tulip tree and willow ; ash and hick-
ory. As a general thing, acute angles
produce slender, flowing effects; right
or obtuse angles, more bold and rugged
outlines.

Practical Questions

1. Has the arrangement of leaves on a twig
anything to do with the way a tree is branched?
(145, 151, 152.)

2. Why do most large trees tend to assume
Fig. 158. —Winter spray tlie excurrent, or axial, mode of growth if let

alone? (150,154.)

3. If you wished to alter the mode of growth, or to produce what nur-
serymen call a low-headed tree, how would you prune it? (152, 153.)

4. Would you top a timber tree? (152, 153.)

5. Are low-headed or tall trees best for an orchard ? Why ?

6. Why is the growth of annuals generally indefinite ?

7. Name soi-ie trees of your neighborhood that are conspicuous for
their graceful winter spraJ^

8. Name some that are characterized by sharpness and boldness of outline

9. Account for the peculiarities in each case.

n. BUDS

Material. — Expanding leaf and flower buds in different stages of
development ; large ones show the parts best and should be used where
attainable. Some good examples for the opposite arrangement are
horse-chestnut, maple, lilac, ash; for the alternate: hickory, sweet gum,
balsam poplar, beech, elm. Where material is scarce, the twigs used in the
last section may be placed in water and kept till the buds begin to expand.

155. Folding of the leaves. — Remove the scales from a
bud of horse-chestnut nearly ready to open, and notice the
manner in which the young leaves are folded. This is called
vernation, or prefoliation, words meaning respectively " spring
condition " and " condition preceding the leaf." Leaves
are packed in the bud so as to occupy the least space possible,
and in different plants they will be found folded in a great

BUDS AND BRANCHES

139

Fig. 159. — Expand-
ing bud of English wal-
nut, showing twice con-
duplicate vernation.

Fig. 160. — a
partly expanded
leaf of beech,
showing plicate-
conduplicate
vernation.

many different ways, according to the shape
and texture of the leaf and
the space available for it in
the bud. When doubled back
and forth like a fan, or crum-
pled and folded as in the
buckeye, horse-chestnut, and
maple, the vernation is plicate
(Figs. 160, 162).

156. Position of the flower
cluster. — What do you find
within the circle of leaves?
Examine one of the smaller
axillary buds, and see if you find the same object within it.
If you are in any doubt as to what this object is, examine
a bud that is more expanded, and you will have no difficulty
in recognizing it as a rudimentary flower
cluster. Notice its position with refer-
ence to the scales and leaves. If at the
center of the bud, it will, of course, termi-
nate its axis when the
bud expands, and the
growth of the branch
will culminate in the
flower. The branching
of any kind of stem
that bears a central
flower cluster must,
then, be of what order ?
Compare your draw-
ings with the section of
a hyacinth bulb, or
jonquil, and note the
similarity in position
of the flower clusters.
In a bud of the hick-

162

Figs. 161, 162. — Buds
of maple : 161, vertical
BBction of a twig ; 162,
cross section through
bud, showing folded
leaves in center and scales
surrounding them.

Fig. 163. -Ver-
tical section of hick-
ory bud: a, furry in-
ner scales ; /;, outer
scales ; I, folded leaf ;
r, receptacle.

140 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

ory, walnut, oak, etc., the position of the
flower clusters is different from that of
flowers in the buds of lilac and horse-chest-
nut. Look for a bud containing them, and
find out where they occur. Can the axis con-
tinue to grow after flowering, in this kind of
stem? Give a reason for your answer. Make
sketches in transverse and longitudinal sec-
tion (see Figs. 102, 163) of two different
kinds of buds, illustrating the terminal and
axillary position of the flower cluster.

157. Dormant buds. — A bud may often

lie dormant for months or even years, and

then, through the injury or destruction of its

stronger rivals, or some other favoring cause,

develop into a branch. Such buds are said

to be latent or dormant. The sprouts that

often put up from the stumps of felled trees

Fig. 1G4. — Twig originate from this sourcc.

tj'l^it^; 158. Supemumerarybuds.-Wheremore

bud. b; rs, ring of than ouc bud dcvclops at a node, as is so

scars left by last n, ,-, • ,^ ^ ^ ^

year's bud scales, otteu the casc m the oak, maple, honey
(After Gray.) locust, etc, all exccpt the uomial one in the

axil are supernumerary or accessory. These must not ])e con-
founded with adventitious buds — those that occur elsewhere
than at a node.

Practical Questions

1. Would protected buds be of any use to annuals ? Why, or why not ?

2. Of what use is the gummy coating found on the buds of the horse-
chestnut and bahn of Gilcad ? (148.)

3. Can you name any plants the buds of which serve as food for man ?

4. How do flower buds differ in shai)e from leaf buds ?

5. At what season can the leaf bud and the flower bud first be dis-
tinguished ? Is it the same for all flowering plants ?

6. Watch the different trees al^out your home, and see when the bud3
that are to develop into leaves and flowers the next season arc formed in
each species.

BUDS AND BRANCHES

141

III. THE BRANCHING OF FLOWER STEMS

Material. — Typical flower clusters illustrating the definite and
indefinite modes of inflorescence. Some of those mentioned in the text
are: —

Indefinite: hyacmth, shepherd's purse, wallflower, carrot, lilac, blue
grass, smartwecd (Polygonum), wheat, oak, willow, clover.

Definite: chickweed, spurge {Euphorbia), comfrey, dead nettle, etc.
Any examples illustrating the principal kinds of cluster will answer.

159. Inflorescence is a term
used to denote the position and
arrangement of flowers on the
stem. It is merely a mode of
branching, and follows the same
laws that govern the branching
of ordinary stems.

The stalk that bears a flower
is called the peduncle. In a
cluster the main axis is the com-
mon peduncle, and the separate
flower stalks are pedicels. A sim-
ple leafless flower stalk that rises
directly from the ground, like
those of the dandelion and daffo-
dil, is called a scape (Fig. 165).

160. Two kinds of inflores-
cence. — The growth of flower stems, like that of leaf stems,

is of two principal kinds, definite and
indefinite, or, as it is frequently ex-
pressed, determinate and indetermi-
nate. The simplest kind of each is
the solitary, a single flower either
terminating the main axis, as the
tulip, daffodil, trillium, magnolia,
etc., or springing singly from the axils, as the running peri-
winkle, moneywort, and cotton.

Fig. 165. -
flower of a lily.

Solitary terminal

Fig. 160. — Indeterminate
inflorescence of moneywort.
(After Gray.)

142

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

i6i. Indeterminate inflorescence is always axillary,
since the production of a terminal flower would stop further
growth in that direction and thus terminate the development
of the axis. The raceme is the typical
flower cluster of the indefinite sort. In
such an arrangement the oldest flowers
are at the lower nodes, new ones appear-
ing only as the axis lengthens and pro-
duces new internodes. The little scale or
hract usually found at the base of the pedi-
cel in flower clusters of this sort is a re-
duced leaf, and the fact that the flower
stalk springs from the axil shows it to be
of the essential nature of a branch.
When the flowers are sessile and crowded
on the axis in various degrees, the cluster
produced may be a spike, as seen in the
plantain, knotweed, etc., or a head, like
that of the clover, buttonwood, and syca-
more. The catkins that form the characteristic inflorescence
of most of our forest trees are merely pendant spikes. The
corymb is a modification
of the raceme in which
the lower pedicels are
elongated so as to place
their flowers on a level
with those of the upper
nodes, making a convex,
or more or less flat-
topped cluster, as in the
wall-flowor and haw-
thorn. The umbel dif-
fers from the corymb in
having the pedicels with
their bracts all gathered

at the top of the pe- Fig, leS. — Catkins of aspen.

Fi(i. 167. — Raceme
of milk vetch (Astraga-
lus).

BUDS AND BRANCHES

143

Fig. 169. — Corymb
of plum blossoms.

Umbel of milk-

duncle, from which they spread in every direction Uke the
rays of an umbrella, as the name imphes. This is the preva-
lent type of flower cluster in the parsley family, which takes
its botanical name, Umbelliferce, from
its characteristic
form of inflores-
cence. The pedi-
cels of an umbel
are called rays, and
the circle of bracts
at the base of the
cluster is an invo-
lucre.

162. Determi-
nate, or cymes e,
inflorescence. — In the cyme, the typical cluster of the de-
terminate kind, the older blossoms in the center, being ter-
minal, stop the axis of growth in that direction and force the
stem, in continuing its growth, to send out side branches
from the axils of the topmost leaves, in
a manner precisely
similar to the two-
forked branching of
stems like the horse-
chestnut and jimson
weed. "WTien the older
peduncles are length-
ened as described in
161 , a flat-topped cyme
is produced, which is
— Panicin <^i^^i"Siii>^hed from the
of grass, a rompouiid coryiiil) by its ordcr of

cluster of the racemose n

flowering

type.

center,
order.

while

the oldest
blossoms being at the
the corymb they appear

Fig. 172.— Flat-topped
cynu- of sncozcwecd.

the

A peculiar form of cyme is found in the scorpioid

144

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Fig. 173." — Scorpioid cyme.

or coiled inflorescence of the pink-root {Spigelia), heliotrope,
comfrey, etc. Its structure will be made clear by an inspec-
tion of Figs. 174-176.

Figs. 174-176. — Diagrams of cymosc inflorescence, with flowers numbered in the
order of their development : 174, cyme half developed (scorpioid) ; 175, a flat-topped
or corymbose cyme ; 176, development of a typical cyme.

163. The nature of flower stems. — A comparison of
the types of inflorescence with the modes of branching in
ordinary stems (144, 152, 153) will show a strict corre-
spondence between them. Both bear leaves and buds, and
the individual flowers of a cluster usually spring from the

BUDS AND BRANCHES 145

axils of leaves or from bracts, which are merely reduced
leaves. What, then, is the essential nature of flower stems ?
164. Significance of the clustered arrangement. — As a
general thing the clustered arrangement marks a higher stage
of development than the solitarj^, just as in human life the
rudest social state is a distinct advance upon the isolated
condition of the savage. In plant life it is the beginning of
a system of cooperation and division of labor among the as-
sociated members of the flower cluster, as will be seen later
when we take up the study of the flower.

Practical Questions

1. Name as many solitary flowers as you can think of.

2. Do you, as a rule, find very small flowers solitary, or in clusters ?

3. Would the separate flowers of the clover, parsley, or grape be readily
distinguished by the eye among a mass of foliage ?

4. Should you judge from these facts that it is, in general, advantageous
to plants for their flowers to be conspicuous ?

Field Work

(1) In connection with 144-154, the characteristic modes of branch-
ing among the common trees and shrubs of each neighborhood should be
observed and accounted for. The naked branches of the winter woods
afford exceptional opportunities for studies of this kind, which cannot
well be carried on except out of doors. Note the effect of the mode of
branching upon the general outline of the tree ; compare the direction and
mode of growth of the larger boughs with that of small twigs in the same
species, and see if there is any general correspondence between them ; note
the absence of fine spray on the l:)oughs of large-leaved trees, and account
for it. Account for the flat sprays of trees like the elm, beech, hackberry,
etc. ; the irregular stumpy branches of the oak and walnut ; the stiff
straight twigs of the ash ; the zigzag switches of the black locust, Osage
orange, elm, and linden. Measure the twigs on various species, and see
if there is any relation between the length and thickness of branches.
Notice the different trend of the upper, middle, and lower boughs in most
trees, and account for it. Observe the mode of branching of as many
different species as possible of some of the great botanical groups of trees ;
the oaks, hickories, hawthorns, and pines, for instance, and notice whether
it is, as a general thing, uniform among the species of the same group, and
how it differs from that of other groups.

146 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

(2) In connection with 155-158, buds of as many different kinds as
possible should be examined with reference to their means of protection,
their vernation and leaf arrangement, and the resulting modes of growth.
Compare the folding of the cotyledons in the seed with the veination of
the same plants, and observe whether the folding is the same throughout
a whole group of related plants, or only for the same species. Notice which
modes seem to b(^ most prevalent. Select a twig on some tree near your
home or your schoolhouse, and keep a record of its daily growth from the
first sign of the unfolding of its principal bud to the full development of
its leaves. Any study of buds should include an observation of them in
all stages of development.

(3) With 160-165, study the inflorescence of the common plants and
weeds that happen to be in season, until you have no difficulty in distin-
guishing between the definite and indefinite sorts, and can refer any
ordinary cluster to its proper form. Notice whether there is any tendency
to uniformity in the mode of inflorescence among flowers of the same fam-
ily. Consider how each kind is adapted to the shape and habit of the
flowers composing it, and what particular advantage each of the specimens
examined derives from the way its flowers are clustered. In cases of mixed
inflorescence, see if you can discover any reason for the change from one
form to the other.

CHAPTER VI. THE LEAF

I. THE TYPICAL LEAF AND ITS PARTS

Material. — Leaves of different kinds showing the various modes of
attachment, shapes, texture, etc. For stipules, leaves on very young
twigs should be selected, as these bodies often fall away soon after the
leaves expand. The rose, Japan quince, willow, strawberry, pea, pansy,
and young leaves of beech, apple, elm, tulip tree, India rubber tree,
magnolia, knotweed, furnish good examples of stipules. For the different
orders of leaf arrangement, lilac, maple, spurge, trillium, cleavers (Galium)
show the opposite and whorled kinds. Elm, basswood, grasses ; alder,
birch, sedges ; peach, apple, cherry, show respectively for each group the
three principal orders of alternate arrangement.

165. Parts of the leaf. — Examine a young, healthy leaf
of apple, quince, or elm, as it stands upon the stem, and
notice that it consists of three parts : a
broad expansion called the blade; a leaf
stalk or petiole that attaches it to the
stem ; and two little leaflike or bristle-like
bodies at the base, known
as stipules. Make a
sketch of any leaf pro-
vided with all these parts,
and label them, respec-
tively, blade, petiole, and
stipules. These three parts make up a per-
fect or typical leaf, but as a matter of fact,
one or more of them is usually wanting.

166. Stipules. — The office of stipules,
when present, is generally to subserve in
some way the purposes of protection. In many cases, as in
the fig, elm, beech, oak, magnoHa, etc., they appear only as
protective scales that cover the bud during winter, and fall

147

Fig. 177.— a typi-
cal leaf and its parts:
b, blade ; p, petiole ;
s, s, stipules.

Fui. 178. — Spiuy
stipules of clotbur.

148

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

away as soon as the leaf expands. When persistent, that is,
enduring, they take various forms according to the purposes
they serve. But under whatever guise they occur, their
true nature may be recognized by their position on each side
of the base of the petiole, and not in the axil, or angle formed
by the leaf with the stem. (149.)

167. Leaf attachment. — The normal use of the petiole is
to secure a better light exposure for the leaves, but, like other
parts, it is subject to modifications, and is often wanting

Fig. 179.— Adnate
stipules of clover.

Fig. 180. — Leaves of
smilax, showing stipular
tendrils.

Fig. 181. — Leafy
stipules of Japan
quince.

altogether. In this case the leaf is said to be sessile, that is,
seated, on the stem, and the leaf bases are designated by
various terms descriptive of their mode of attachment. The
meaning of these terms, when not self-explanatory, can best
be learned by a comparison of living specimens with Figs.
184-187.

168. Arrangement of leaves on the stem. — The mode
of attachment is something quite distinct from the mode of
leaf arrangement on the stem, or phyllotaxy, as it is termed
by botanists. It was seen in 148 that this takes place in two
different ways, the alternate and opposite. These two kinds
of arrangement represent the principal forms of leaf disposi-

THE LEAF

149

tion on the stem, the different varieties of each depending on
the manner in which the leaves are distributed.

Where three or more occur at a node, as in the trilUum
and cleavers {Galium), they constitute a whorl, which is only

Figs. 182-187. — Petioles, and leaf attachmeut : 182, petioles of jasmine night-
shade (Solanum jasminoides) acting as tendrils; 183, acacia, showing petiole
transforraed to leaf blade; 184, sessile leaves of epilobium ; 185, clasping leaf of
laetuca; 186, perfoliate leaves of luoilaria; 187, peltate leaf of tropueolum. (182 and
186 after Gray.)

a variant of the opposite arrangement. There is no limit to
the number of leaves that may be in a whorl except the space
around the stem to accommodate them.

The phyllotaxy of alternate leaves is more complicated.

150

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Fig. 188. — Whorlcd
leaves of Indian cucum-
ber.

The different forms are characterized by
the angular distance between the points
of leaf insertion around the stem. In the
olni, ))asswood, and most grasses, they are
distributed in two rows or ranks on op-
posite sides of the stem, each just half
way round the circumference from the
one next in succession (Fig. 189), the
third in vertical order standing directly
over the first. In most of our common
trees and shrubs five leaves are passed
in making two turns round the stem,
the sixth leaf in vertical order stand-
ing over the first. This is called the five-ranked arrange-
ment, and is the most
common order among
dicotyls.

169. Relation be-
tween the shape and
arrangement of leaves.
■ — Phyllotaxy is of im-
portance chiefly on ac-
count of its influence
on the light relation of
leaves. A compact,
close-ranked arrange-
ment tends to shut off
the light from the lower
nodes, and hence, in
plants where it pre-
vails, the leaves are apt
to be long and narrow
in proportion to the

frequency of the Ver- Fig. 189. — Twigof ahackben-y (Ce«iscmerea),

tical rows. The VUCCa showing the two-ranked arrangement. Notice how

in t^*^ position of the stems and branches of the main

oleander, C anada nea- axis corresponds to that of the leaves.

THE LEAF

161

Plate. 9.- — Vegetation of a moist, shady ravine. Notice the expanded surface of
the leaf blades and the long internodes that separate the individual leaves. (From
Rep't. Mo. Botanical Garden.)

152

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

^

K

bane and bitterweed {Helenium
ienuijolium) , illustrate this relation.

On the other hand, when the leaves
are large and rounded in outline, as
those of the sunflower, hollyhock, and
catalpa, they are usually separated
by longer internodes, or their blades
are cut and incised so that the sun-
light easily strikes through to the
low^er ones.

170. Other external characteristics
to be observed in leaves are : —

(1) General Outline : whether round, oval, heart-shaped,
etc. (Figs. 191-197).

(2) Margins: whether unbroken {entire), or variously
toothed and indented. (Figs. 198-202.)

Fig. 190. — Narrow leaves
in crowded vertical rows.

Figs. 191-197. — Shapes of leaves : 191, lanceolate ; 192, spatulate; 193, o-val;
194,obovate; 195, kidney-shaped ; 196, deltoid; 197,lyrate. (191-195 a/<erGiwY.)

(3) Texture: whether thick, thin, soft, hard, fleshy,
leathery, brittle.

(4) Surface: smooth, shining, dull, wrinkled, hairy, or
otherwise roughened.

THE LEAP

153

198 199 200 201 202
Figs. 198-202.— Margins of
leaves : 198, serrate ; 199, den-
tate ; 200, crenate ; 20 1 , undulate ;
202, sinuate. (After Gray.)

Not only do leaves of different

kinds exhibit these characteristics

in varying degrees, but young and

old leaves, or those on young and

old plants of the same kind, often

differ from each other in color, size,

shape, texture, mode of attachment,

and the like, to such a degree (Figs.

203, 204) that one not familiar

with them in both stages would

hardly recognize them as belonging to the same species.

The young leaves
of eucalyptus, mul-
berry, and some oaks
afford conspicuous
examples of such
differences, and they
exist between the
cotyledons and ma-
ture leaves of most
plants.

Can you see any
benefit, in the case
of the plant whose
leaves you are. study-
ing, that could be
derived from such of
the characteristics
above as
they may exhibit?

203

204

Figs. 203, 204. — Leaves of paper mulberry tree: i-ioTvipfl
203, leaf from an old tree ; 204, leaf from a two-year-
old sprout.

Practical Questions

I. Tell the nature and use of the stipules in such of the following plants
as you can find : tulip tree ; fig ; beech ; apple ; willow ; pansy ; garden
pea ; Japan quince {Pijrus Japonica) ; sycamore ; rose ; paper mulberry
(Broicssonetia) .

154 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

2. How would you distinguish between a chinquapin, a chestnut, a
chestnut oak, and a horse-chestnut tree by their leaves alone ? By their
bark and branches ? Between a hickory, ash, common elder, box elder,
ailanthus, sumach? Between beech, birch, elm, hackberry, alder?

(Any other sets of leaves may be substituted for those named, the object
being merely to form the habit of distinguishing readily the differences
and resemblances among those that bear some general likeness to one
another.)

3. From the study of these or similar specimens, would you conclude
that resemblances in leaves are confined to those of closely related kir.ds ?

4. Name some causes independent of botanical relationship that might
influence them. (169, 170; Exps. 48, 57.)

5. Do you find, as a general thing, more leaves with stipules or without ?

6. Is their absence from a mature leaf always a sign that it is really
exstipulate? (166.)

7. Can you trace any line of development through intervening forms
from a merely sessile leaf, like that of the pimpernel or specularia, to a
peltate one? (Figs. 184-187, and observation of living specimens.)

8. Does the leaf determine the position of the node, or the node the
position of the leaf ?

9. Strip the leaves from a twig of one order of arrangement and replace
them with foliage from a twig of a different order; for mstance, place
basswood upon white oak, birch upon lilac, elm upon pear, honeysuckle
upon barberry, etc. Is the same amount of surface exposed as in the
natural order?

10. What disadvantage would it be to a plant if the leaves were arranged
so that they stood directly over one another ? (169.)

11. Why are the internodes of vigorous young shoots, or scions, gen-
erally so long ? (150.)

12. If the upward growth of a stem or branch is stopped by pruning,
what effect is produced upon the parts below, and why ? (152, 153.)

13. Give some of the reasons why corn grows so small and stunted when
sown broadcast for forage? (60, 63, 169.)

14. What is the use of "chopping" {i.e. thinning out) cotton?

II. THE VEINING AND LOBING OF LEAVES

Material. — Leaves of any monocotyl and dicotyl will show the dif-
ference between parallel and net-veining. To illustrate the palmate and
pinnate kinds, the leaves of grasses and arums may be used for monocotyls,
and for dicotyls, those of ivy, maple, grape, elm, peach, cherry, etc. ; for
division, examine lobed and compound leaves of as many kinds as are
attainable. A specimen showing each kind of veining should be placed in

THE LEAF

155

coloring fluid a short time before the lesson begins. The leafstalks of
celery and plantain are excellent for showing the relation between the leaf
veins and vascular system of the plant.

171. Parallel and net veining. — Compare a leaf of the
wandering Jew, lily, or any kind of grass, with one of grape,
ivy, or willow. Hold each up to the light,
and note the veins or little threads of woody
substance that run through it. Make a draw-
ing of each so as to show plainly the direc-
tion and manner of veining. Write under the
first, parallel-veined, and under the second,
net-veined. This distinction of leaves into
parallel and net-veined cor-
responds with the two great
classes into which seed-bear-
ing plants are divided, mon-
ocotyls, as a general thing,
being characterized by the
first kind, and dicotyls by
the second.

172. Pinnate and pahnate veining. —
Next, compare a leaf of the canna, calla lily,
or any kind of arum, with one of the elm,
peach, cherry, etc. What resemblances do
you notice between the two ? What differ-
ences? Which is parallel-veined and which
is net-veined ? Make a drawing of each, and
compare with the first two. Notice that in
leaves of this kind, the petiole is continued
in a large central vein, called the midrib,
from which the secondary veins branch off
on either side like the pinnae of a feather;
whence such leaves are said to be pinnatehj,
or feather veined, as in Figs. 206, 207. In fig. 207. — Pin-
the cotton, maple, ivy, etc., on the other lately paraiici-

•11 ri- veined loaf of calla

hand, the petiole breaks up at the base 01 the my (After Gray).

Fio. 205. — Par-
allel-veined leaf of
lily of the valley
(Afte)- Gray).

Fig. 20G. — Net-
veined leaf of a wil-
low.

156

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Fig. 208. — Palmately net-
veined leaf of wild ginger.

leaf (Fig. 208) into a number of primary veins or ribs, which
radiate in all directions like the fingers from the palm of the
hand ; hence, such a leaf is said to be palmntely veined.
Net-veined leaves — the plantain
(Fig. 209), wild smilax, beech, dog-
wood — are sometimes ribbed in a
way that might lead an inexperi-
enced observer to confound them
with parallel-veined ones, but the
reticulations between the ribs show
that they belong to the net-veined
class.

173. Veins as a mechanical sup-
port. — Hold up a stiff, firm leaf of any kind, like the mag-
nolia, holly, or India rubber, to the light, having first scraped
away a little of the under surface, and examine it with a lens.
Compare it with one of softer texture, like
the peach, maple, or clover. In which are
the veins the closer and stronger? Which
is the more easily torn and wilted ? Tear a
blade of grass longitudinally and then cross-
wise ; in which direction does it give way
the more readily ? Tear apart gently a leaf
of maple, or ivy, and one of elm or other
pinnately veined plant; in which direction
does each give way with least resistance?
What would you judge from these facts as
to the mechanical use of the veins ?

174. Effect upon shape. — By comparing
a number of leaves of each kind it will l^e seen that the
feather-veined ones tend to assume elongated outlines (Figs.
197, 207) ; the palmate-veined ones, broad and rounded forms
(Figs. 195, 208). Notice also that the straight, unbroken
venation of parallel- veined leaves is generally accompanied by
smooth, unbroken margins, while the irregular, open meshes
of net-veined leaves are favorable to breaks and indentations.

Fig. 209. — Ribbed
leaf of plantain.

THE LEAF 157

175. Veins as water carriers. — Examine a leaf from a
stem that has stood in red ink for an hour or two. Do you
see evidence that it has absorbed any of the liquid? Cut
across the blade and examine with a lens. What course has
the absorbed liquid followed? What use does this indicate
for the veins, besides the one already noted? Observe the
point of insertion on the stem, and examine the scar with a
lens : do you see any evidence of a connection between the
leaf veins and the fibro vascular bundles of the stem? (Ill,
125, 126. Notice where and how the veins end. Are they
of the same size all the way, or do they grow smaller toward
the tip? Are they separate and distinct, or are they con-
nected throughout their ramifications, like the veins and
arteries of the human body ? How do you know ? Do you
see any of the coloring fluid in the small reticulations be-
tween the veins? How did it get there?

176. The nature and office of veins. — We learn from 173
and 175 that the veining serves two important purposes in the
economy of the leaf : first, as a skeleton or framework, to sup-
port the expanded blade ; and second, as a system of water
pipes, for conveying the sap out of which its food is manu-
factured. In other words the veins are a continuation of the
fibrovascular bundles into the leaves, by means of which the
latter are put in communication with the body of the plant.

177. The relation between veining and lobing. — Com-
pare the outline of a leaf of maple or ivy with one of oak or
chrysanthemum. Do you perceive any correspondence be-
tween the manner of lobing or indentation of their margins,
and the direction of the veins? (Figs. 210, 211.) To what
class would you refer each one ?

The lobes themselves may be variously cut, as in the
fennel and rose geranium, thus giving rise to twice-cleft,
thrice-cleft (Fig. 212), four-cleft, or even still more in-
tricately divided blades.

178. Compound leaves. — Compare with the specimens
just examined a leaf of horse-chestnut, clover, or Virginia

158

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

(^.

FiQ. 210. — Pinnately
lobed leaf of horse nettle.

Fig. 211. — Palmately
lobed leaf of grape.

Fig. 212.

- Palmately parted leaf of
a buttercup.

Fig. 213. — Pin-
nately compound leaf
of black locust.

Fig. 214. — Palmately com-
pound leaf of horse-chestnut.

Fig. 215. — Pin-
nately trifoliolate leaf
of a desmodium.

Fig. 216. — Pal-
mately trifoliolate
leaf of wood sorrel.

THE LEAF 159

creeper, and one of rose, black locust, or vetch. Notice that
each of these last is made up of entirely separate divisions or
leaflets, thus forming a compound leaf. Notice also that the
two kinds of compound leaves correspond to the two kinds of
veining and lobing, so that we have palmately and pinnately
compound ones. In pinnate leaves the continuation of the
common petiole along which the leaflets are ranged is called

the rhachis.

Practical Questions

1. In selecting leaves for decorations that are to remain several hours
without water, which of the following would you prefer, and why:
smilax or Madeira vine (BoussingauUia) ; ivy or Virginia creeper ;
magnoha or maple; maidenhair or shield fern (Aspidium)? (173.)

2. Would you select very young leaves, or more mature ones, and why?

3. Can you name any parallel- veined leaves that have their margins
lobed, or indented in any way ?

4. Which are the more common, parallel-veined or net-veined leaves ?

5. Why do the leaves of corn and other grains not shrivel lengthwise in
withering, but roll inward from side to side? (173.)

6. Can you name any palmately veined leaves in which the secondary
veins are pinnate ? Any pinnately veined ones in which the secondary
veins are palmate ?

7. Lay one of each kind before you ; try to draw a pinnate leaf with
palmate divisions. Do you see any reason now why these so seldom occur
in nature?

8. Name some advantages to a plant in having its leaves cut-lobed or
compound. (169.)

9. Mention some circumstances under which it might be advantageous
for a plant to have large, entire leaves. (169; Plate 9.)

10. How would the floating qualities of the leaves of the pond lily be
affected if their blades were cut-lobed or compound ?

11. Do the leaves of the red cedar and arbor vita3 contribute to their
value as shade trees ?

12. Name some of the favorite shade trees of your neighborhood ; do
they, as a general thing, have their leaves entire, or lobed and compound ?

13. Which of the following are the best shade trees, and why: pine,
white oak, mimosa (Albizzia), sycamore, locust, horse-chestnut, fir, maple,
linden, China tree, cedar, ash?

14. Which would shade your porch best, and why : cypress vine,
grape, gourd, morning-glory, wistaria, clematis, smilax, kidney bean,
Madeira vine, rose, yellow jasmine, passion flower ?

160 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

ni. TRANSPIRATION

Material. — Leafy twigs of actively growing young plants. Sun-
flower, corn, peach, grape, calla, and arums in general transpire rapidly;
thick-leaved evergreens and hairy or rough species, like mullein and hore-
hound more slowly. For Exp. 63, small-leaved, large-leaved, and thick-
leaved kinds will be needed.

Appliances. — Glass jars and bottles with air-tight stoppers ; a little
vaseline, oil, gardener's wax, thread, cardboard, and a pair of scales.

Experiment 62. To show why leaves wither. — Dry two self-
sealing jars thoroughly, by holding them over a stove or a lighted lamp
for a short time to prevent "sweating." Place in one a freshly cut leafy
sprig of any kind, leaving the other empty. Seal both jars and set them
in the shade. Place beside them, but without covering of any kind, a
twig similar to the one in the jar. Both twigs should have been cut at
the same time, and their cut ends covered with wax or vaseline, to prevent
access of air. Look at intervals to sec if there is any moisture deposited
on the inside of either jar. If there is none, set them both in a refrigerator
or cover with a wet cloth and allow to cool for half an hour, and then ex-
amine again. In which jar is there a greater deposit of dew ? How do you
account for it ? Take the twig out of the jar and compare its leaves with
those of the one left outside ; which have withered the more, and why ?

Experiment 63. To measure the rate at which water is

GIVEN OFF BY LEAVES OF DIFFERENT KINDS. — Fill three glaSS VCSSCls of

the same size with water and cover with oil to prevent evaporation.
Insert into one the end of a healthy twig of peach or cherry; into the
second a twig of catalpa, grape, or any large-leaved plant, and into
the third, one of magnolia, holly, or other thick-leaved evergreen, letting
the stems of all reach well down into the water. Care must be taken to
select twigs of approximately the same size and age, since the absorbent
properties of very young stems are more injured by cutting and exposure
than those of older ones. All specimens should be cut under water as
directed in Exp. 58. Weigh all three vessels, and at the end of twenty-
four hours, weigh again, taking note of the quantity of liquid that has dis-
appeared from each glass. This will represent approximately the amount
absorbed by the leaves from the twigs to replace that given off. Which
twig has lost most? Which least? Note the condition of the leaves
on the different twigs; have they all al)sorl)ed water about as rapidly
as they have lost it ? How do you know this ? Pluck the leaves from
each twig, one by one, lay them on a flat surface that has been previously
measured off, into square inches or centimeters, and thus form a rough
pstiiflate of the area covere4 by each specinjen. M^kc the best estimate

THE LEAP 161

you can of the number of leaves on each tree, and calculate the number
of kilograms of water it would give off at that rate in a day.

Experiment 04. Through what part of the leaf does the water
GET out? — Take some healthy leaves of tulip tree, grape, tro])u'olum,
or any large, soft kind attainable. Cover with vaseline the leafdalk and
2ipper surface of one ; the stalk and under surface of a second ; the stalk
and both surfaces of a third, and leave a fourth one untreated. Suspend
all four in a dry place by means of a thread attached to the petioles so
that both surfaces may be equally exposed. The leaves must be all of
the same species, and as nearly as possible of the same age, size, and vigor,
and care must be taken that none of the vaseline is rubbed off in handling.
Examine at intervals of a few hours. Which of the leaves withers soonest ?
Which keeps fresh longest? From what part would you conclude, judg-
ing by this experiment, that the water escapes most rapidly ?

179. Transpiration, nutrition, and growth. — We learn
from the foregoing, and from Exps. 58 and 59, that plants
give off moisture very much as animals do by perspiration.
The two processes must not be classed together, however,
for they are physiologically different. The action, in plants,
is called transpiration. It is usually assumed that a large
amount of water must pass through the plant in order to
bring to it the necessary supply of food material ; but since
the entrance of mineral salts is brought about by osmosis,
conditioned by the living cells of the root; and since osmosis
of salts may take place in a direction opposite to that of the
greater movement of water, it follows that the entrance of
salts is independent of transpiration.

Inasmuch, however, as a certain amount of water is
necessary to bring the hving cells into a condition of turgor
(7) so that they may grow, it follows that there is a relation
between transpiration and growth. If transpiration exceeds
absorption for any length of time, the tissues will be de-
pleted of their moisture, as is shown by the wilting of crops
in dry, hot weather ; and if the unequal movement continues
long enough, the plant will die. Hence, a knowledge of the
laws governing this important function is necessary to all
who are interested in cultivating agricultural products.

162

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

i8o. Magnitude of the work of transpiration. — Few

people have any idea of the enormous quantities of water
given off by leaves. It has been calculated that a healthy
oak may have as many as 700,000 leaves, and that 111,225
kilograms of water — equal to about 244,700 pounds — may
pass from its surface in the five active months from June

to October. At
this rate 226
times its own
weight may pass
through it in a
year, and it
would transpire
water enough
during that time
to cover the
ground shaded
by it to a depth
of 20 feetli
Lawn grass gives
off water at such
a rate that a va-
cant lot of 150 X
50 feet, if well
turfed, would be
capable of trans-
piring over a ton
of water a day. Compare these figures with the average yearly
rainfall in our Gulf States — 53 inches, approximately — and
you can form some estimate of the injury done to a growing
crop from this cause alone. The moisture is drawn from the
surface by shallow rooted weeds (81) and dissipated through
the leaves. In the case of forest trees the effect is different.
Their roots, striking deep into the soil, draw up water from
the lower strata and distribute it to the thirsty air in summer.

Fig. 217. — A "weeping tree," showing the effect where
absorption exceeds transpiration. Notice the position of
the tree near the water where the roots have unlimited
moisture. {After France.)

1 Marshall Ward, " The Oak.'

THE LEAF 163

As the water given off by transpiration is in the form of
vapor, it must draw from the plant the amount of heat
necessary for its vaporization, and thus has the effect of
making the leaves and the air in contact with them cooler
than the surrounding medium. At the same time the cool-
ness and moisture of the air tend to check the loss by
evaporation from the surface soil. It is partly to this cause,
and not alone to their shade, that the coolness of forests is
due. Measurements at various weather bureau stations in
the United States show that in summer the temperature of
oak woods is 4° C. lower during the day than in the open,
and as much higher at night. In a beech wood in Germany
the difference between the forest and the general tempera-
ture amounted to as much as 7° C.

Practical Questions

1. Is there any foundation in fact for the accounts of "weeping trees"
and "rain trees" that we sometimes read about in the papers? (180;
Exp. 48.)

2. Can you explain the fact, sometimes noticed by farmers, that in
wooded districts, springs which have failed or run low during a dry spell
sometimes begin to flow again in autumn when the trees drop their leaves,
even though there has been no rain? (180; Exp. 63.)

3. Other things being equal, which would have the cooler, pleasanter
atmosphere in summer, a well-wooded region or a treeless one? (180.)

4. Could you keep a bouquet fresh by giving it plenty of fresh air?
(Exp. 62.)

5. Why does a withered leaf become soft and flabby, and a dried one
hard and brittle? (7; Exp. 62.)

6. Why do large-leaved plants, as a general thing, wither more quickly
than those with small leaves? (Exp. 63.)

7. Is the amount of water absorbed always a correct indication of the
amount transpired ? Explain. (179.)

8. Explain the difference between the withering caused by excessive
transpiration and the shrinkage of cells due to plasmolysis. Are both of
these physiological processes ?

9. Why is it best to trim a tree close when it is transplanted ? (179,
180.)

10. Why should transplanting be done in winter or very early spring,
before the leaves appear ? (180.)

164 PRACTICAL COimSP: IN BOTANY

IV. ANATOMY OF THE LEAF

Material. — For study of the epidermis, leaves of the white garden
lily {Lilium album) are best, as the stomata can be seen on their lower
surface with the naked eye. Wandering Jew, Spanish bayonet {Yucca
aloifolia), anemone, narcissus, iris, canna, show them under a hand lens,
but less distinctly. For sections, beet, mustard, and beech leaves may
be used, or ready-mounted specimens obtained of a dealer.

A compound microscope is needed for a minute study of the loaf
structure.

i8i. Stomata. — It was shown in Exp. 64 that the water
of transpiration escapes most rapidly, as a general thing, from
the under surface of leaves. To find out why this is so, a
careful study of the epidermis will be necessary. For this
purpose procure, if possible, the leaf of a white garden lily
{Lilium album), wandering Jew, Spanish bayonet {Yucca
aloifolia), anemone, narcissus, iris, or canna. The first-
named is preferable, as the transpiration
pores can be seen on it with the naked eye.
Examine the under surface with a hand
lens, and you will see that it is covered with
small eye-shaped dots like those shown in
Figs. 218 and 219. Strip off a portion of

Figs. 218, 219. — , . , • , , , • ^ t ^

Stomata of white lUy the cpidei'mis, hold it up to the light on a
leaf: 218, closed; 219, pjepg Qf moisteued glass, and they can be

open. {After Gray.) ^ .

seen quite clearly with a lens. These dots
are the pores through which the water vapor escapes in
transpiration, and through which air finds its way into the
tissues of the leaf. They are called stomata (sing., stoma),
from a Greek word meaning " a mouth." Look for stomata
on the upper epidermis ; do you find any, and if so, are there
as many as on the under surface ? Do you see any relation
between this fact and the results obtained from Exp. 64?
Can you see any good reasons why the stomata should be
placed on the under side in preference to the upper ? Are they
as much exposed to excessive light and heat, or as liable to
be choked by dust, rain, and dew here as on the upper side ?

THE LEAF

165

Fig. 220. — a small
piece of the under epider-
mis of an oak leaf, highly-
magnified to show the
stomata, g, and minute
hairs, h.

182. Distribution of stomata. — While stomata are gen-
erally more abundant on the under side of leaves, this is not
always the case. In vertical leaves, like those of the iris,
which have both sides equally exposed to the sun, they are
distributed equally on both sides. In plants like the water
lily, where the under surface lies upon the

water, they occur only on the upper side.
Succulent leaves, as a general thing, have
very few, because they need to conserve
all their moisture. Submerged leaves
have none at all ; why ?

183. Minute study of a leaf epidermis.
— Place a bit of the lower epidermis of
a leaf under the microscope, and examine
with a high power. It will appear, if a
monocotyl, to be composed of long, flat,
rectangular spaces (Fig. 221) ; if the leaf
of a dicotyl is used, they will be more or less irregular (Fig.
220), with the outlines fitting into each other like the tiling

of a floor or the blocks of a Chinese puzzle.
These spaces are the cells of the epidermis,
and the lines are the cell walls. Can you
find any of the cell contents? The cell
sap is not often visible; do you see the
nuclei ? Can you give a reason why the
epidermal cells are so thin and flat ? Be-
tween some of the cells you will see two
kidney-shaped bodies placed with their
concave sides together so as to leave a
lenticular opening between them. This
is a stoma, and the kidney-shaped bodies
(Figs. 218, 219) are guard cells. They
are given this name because they open
or close the mouth of the stoma. If
you will imagine a toy balloon made in the form of a hol-
low ring, like the tire of a bicycle, you can easily see, from

Fig. 221. — Under
epidermis of an oat leaf,
showing stomata.

166 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Figs. 218, 219, that when the ring is strongly inflated, it
will expand, and in enlarging its own circumference, will at
the same time increase the diameter of the opening in the

center. When the ex-
pansive force is removed,
it collapses, thus closing,
or greatly reducing, the
aperture.

In the same way the
guard cells, when there

Fig. 222.-Outline of a stoma of hellebore '^ abundance of Water in

in vertical section. The darker lines show the them, expand, thuS OpCU-

shape assumed by the guard cells when the stoma • fV, f fVi f fV>

is open ; the lighter lines, when the stoma is l^^S ^'^^ StOma SO tnat me

closed. The cavities of the guard ceUs with the water vapor pasSCS OUt
stoma closed are shaded, and are distinctly

smaller than when the stoma is open. more readily. But when

there is a dearth of
moisture, or when, by reason of chemical action in the soil,
the roots fail to supply it, the leaves wilt, the guard cells,
losing their water, collapse, closing the pore, and transpira-
tion is thus prevented or greatly retarded. (Fig. 222.)

Sketch a portion of the epidermis as it appears under the mi-
croscope, labeling the parts. If stomata can be found in both
conditions, make sketches showing them both open and closed.

184. Internal structure of a leaf. — Roll a leaf blade, or
fold it tightly to facilitate cutting, and with a scalpel, or a very
sharp razor, cut the thinnest possible slice through the roll.
This will give a section at right angles to the epidermis.
It should be so thin as to appear almost transparent. Put a
small bit of a section in a drop of water on a slide, place under
the microscope, using a high power, and look for the parts
shown in Fig. 223. Notice the horizontally flattened cells of the
upper epidermis, e, and of the lower epidermis, e' ; also the ver-
tically elongated palisade cells, p, filled with particles of green
coloring matter. These particles are the chlorophyll bodies,
to which the green color of the leaf is due. They are the
active agents in the manufacture of plant food, and in a leaf

THE LEAF

167

removed from the plant during the day time and viewed
under a high power, the chlorophyll bodies, on treatment

Fhv

8Ch

Fhv

Fig. 223. — Transverse section through a leaf of beet: e, upper epidermis; e',
lower epidermis ; st, stoma ; a, air space ; p, palisade cells ; t, collecting cells ; sch,
spongy parenchyma ; i, i, intercellular air spaces; Fbv, section of a vein (fibrovascu-
lar bundle).

with iodine, will be seen to contain granules of starch which

they are in the act of elaborating. The collecting cells, t,

receive the assimilated product from the

palisade cells and pass it on through the

spongy parenchyma, sch, to the fibrovascular

bundles. Notice how much more abundant

the green matter is in the upper part of the

leaf than in the lower ; has this anything to

do with the deeper color of the upper surfaces

of leaves? Notice the opening, st,

lower epidermis; do you recognize it? (See 1^;;^ ^^^ji^TTor!

Fig. 222.) It is a stoma, seen in vertical

section. Notice the intercellular air spaces,

I, I, in the spongy parenchyma, and the much larger one, a,

just behind the stoma. Why is this last so much larger?

Fig. 224. — Chlo-
m the rophyll bodies con-

ination. Magnified
250 times.

168 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Sketch the section of your specimen as it appears under
the microscope. It will perhaps differ in some details from
the one shown in the figure, but you can recognize and label
the corresponding parts. Be sure that your drawing repre-
sents accurately the relative size and shapes of the different
kinds of cells.

It is in the upper surface, where the chlorophyll particles
abound, that the manufacture of food goes on most actively,
and from the under surface, where the stomata are situated,
that transpiration takes place and air and other gases pass
to and from the interior. These facts have important bear-
ings on the growth and external characters of leaves.

Practical Questions

1. Explain why a plant cannot thrive if its stomata are clogged with
foreign matter. (179; Exp. 64; 184.)

2. Mention some of the ways in which this might happen. (181.)

3. Why must the leaves of house plants be washed occasionally to keep
them healthy? (179,181.)

4. Why is it so hard for trees and hedges to remain healthy in a large
manufacturing town ?

V. FOOD MAKING

Material. — A sprig of pondweed, mare's-tail {Hippuris), hornwort
(Ceratophyllum), marsh St.-John's-wort (Elodea), or other green aquatic
plant ; bean or tropseolum, or other green leaves gathered from plants
growing in the sunshine ; a healthy potted plant ; a small, fresh cutting.
Appliances. — A shallow dish of water and two glass tumblers or wide-
mouthed jars ; a bent glass or rubber tube ; a piece of black cloth or paper ;
a half pint of alcohol ; iodine solution ; a glass funnel or a long-necked
bottle from which the bottom has been removed.

Experiment 65. Is there any relation between sunlight
AND THE green COLOR OF LEAVES ? — Placc a seedling of oats, or other
rapidly growing shoot, in the dark for a few days, and note its loss of
color. Leave it in the dark indefinitely, and it will lose all color and die.
Hence we may conclude that there is some intimate connection between
the action of light and the green coloring matter of leaves.

Experiment 66. Do leaves give off anything else besides
WATER ? — Submerge a green water plant, with the cut end uppermost, in

THE LEAF

169

a glass vessel full of water, and invert over it a glass funnel, or a long-
necked bottle from which the bottom has been removed as directed in Exp.
53. Expel the air from the neck of the funnel —
or bottle — by submerging and corking under water
so as to make it air-tight. Place in the sunlight and
notice the bubbles that begin to rise from the cut
end of the plant. When they have partly filled the
neck of the funnel, remove the stopper and thrust
in a glowing splinter. If it bursts into flame, or
glows more brightly, what is the gas that was given
off? (Exp. 22.)

As oxygen is not a product of respiration, some
other process must be at work here, during which
oxygen is set free, and some other substance used
up. (Exps. 24 and 25.)

Experiment 67. What is the substance taken

IN WHEN OXYGEN IS GIVEN OFF ? — Fill twO glaSS

jars, or two tumblers, with water, to expel the

air, and invert in a shallow dish of water, having

first introduced a freshly cut sprig of some healthy

green plant into one of them. Then, by means

of a bent tube, blow into the mouth of each tumbler

till all the water is expelled by the impure air

from the lungs. Set the dish in the sunshine and

leave it, taking care that the end of the cutting is in

the water of the dish. After forty-eight hours re- oxygen in sunlight

move the tumblers by running under the mouth of

each, before lifting from the dish, a piece of glass well coated with vaseline

(lard will answer), and pressing it down tight so that no air can enter.
Place the tumblers in an upright position,
keeping them securely covered. Fasten a
lighted taper or match to the end of a wire,
plunge it quickly first into one tumbler, then
into the other, and note the result. What
was the gas blown from your lungs into the
Fig. 226. — Experiment jars? (Exps. 23, 24.) Why did the taper not

for showing that leaves absorb go out in the second jar? What had become

carbon dioxide from the at- ^ ,, , j- • i o

mosphere. O^ <^he carbon dioxide ?

Experiment 68. To show that light

IS NECESSARY FOR A PLANT TO ABSORB CARBON DIOXIDE AND GIVE OFF

OXYGEN. — Repeat Exp. 66, keeping the plant in a dark or shady place;
do you see any bubbles? Test with a glowing match; is any oxygen

Fig. 225. — Experi-
ment showing that
green plants give off

170

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

formed in the tube of the funnel? Move back into the sunlight and
leave for a few hours ; what happens when you thrust a glowing splinter
into the tube ?

Experiment 69. Is any food product found in leaves ? — Crush

a few leaves of bean, sunflower, or tropa^olum, and soak in alcohol until all

the chlorophyll is dissolved out. Rinse them in water, and soak the

leaves thus treated in a weak solution of iodine for a few minutes, then

wash them and hold them up to the light. If

there are any blue spots on the leaves, what are

you to conclude ? If a test for sugar is to be

made, use sap pressed from fresh leaves; for

oils and fats, leaves should be dried without

being placed in alcohol.

Experiment 70. Has the presence or
absence op light anything to do with the
occurrence of starch in leaves ? — Exclude
the light from parts of healthy leaves on a grow-
ing plant of tropffiolum, bean, etc., by placing
patches of black cloth or paper over them.
FiG.227. — Leaf arranged Leave in a bright window, or preferably out of
with a piece of tin foil to ex- doors, for several hours, and then test for starch
elude light from a portion of ^s in the last experiment ; do you find any in
the surface. u i j ^ 9

the shaded spots :

Experiment 71. Is the presence of air necessary for the
production of starch ? — Cover the blades and the petioles of several
leaves with vaseline or other oily substance so as to exclude the air, and
after a day or two test as before.

185. Influence of plants on the atmosphere. — These
experiments show that leaves cannot do their work without
light and air. The particular element of the atmosphere
used by them in the process of food making is carbon dioxide.
Their action in absorbing this gas and giving off oxygen
tends to counterbalance the opposite action of respiration,
decomposition, and combustion of all kinds, by which the
proportion of it in the atmosphere tends to be constantly
increased. In this way they help to regulate the quantity
of it present and have a beneficial effect in ridding the air of
one soui'ce of mipurity.

THE LEAF 171

i86. Photosynthesis. — In our examination of the internal
structure of the leaf, the chlorophyll bodies (184) were found
to contain small granules of starch which the chlorophyll,
imder the stimulus of light, had elaborated as a nutriment for
the plant tissues. Hence, the leaf may be regarded as a
factory in which vegetable food, mainly starch, is manufac-
tured out of the water brought up from the soil, and the carbon
dioxide derived through the stomata from the atmosphere.
In this process carbon dioxide (COg) is combined with water
(HgO) in such proportions that part of the oxygen is returned
to the surrounding air. This is a fundamental food-forming
process characteristic of green plants, and can take place
only in the light. For this reason it has been named Photo-
synthesis, a word which means " building up by means of
light," just as photography means " drawing or engraving
by means of light."

In carrying on the operation of photosynthesis, sunshine
is the power, the chlorophyll bodies the working machinery,
carbon dioxide and water the raw materials, and starch or oil
the finished product, while oxygen and the water of trans-
piration represent the waste or by-products.

187. How the new combination is effected. — It may
seem strange that a gas and a liquid should combine to make
something so different from either as starch, but their chemi-
cal constituents are the same in different proportions. Water
is made up of 2 parts hydrogen and 1 part oxygen; carbon
dioxide, of 1 part carbon and 2 parts oxygen, while starch
contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, in the ratios of 6,
10, and 5, respectively. Hence, by taking sufficient quanti-
ties of water and carbon dioxide and combining them in the
proper proportions, the leaf factory can turn them into
starch. If we use the letters C, H, and 0, to represent Car-
bon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, respectively, the new combina-
tion of materials can be expressed by an equation; thus: —

water carbon dioxide starch by-products

5(H20) + 6(C02) = (CeHioOe) + 6(02) = 12(0).

172 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

The water not used up in the process is given off as a waste
product in transpiration, while the oxygen is retui'ned to the
air, as shown by Exp. 66. This equation is not to be under-
stood as representing the chemical changes that actually take
place in the leaf. These are too complicated, and at present
too imperfectly known, to be considered here. It will serve,
how^ever, to give a fair idea of the final result from the process
of photosynthesis, however brought about.

Simple as the operation appears, the chemist has not, as
yet, been able to imitate it. He can analyze starch into its
original constituents, but while he has the ingredients at
hand in abundance, and knows the exact proportions of their
combination, it is beyond his power, in the present state of
our knowledge, to put them together. Hence, both man
and the lower animals are dependent on plants for this most
important food element. The so-called factories that supply
the starch of commerce do not make starch any more than
the miller makes wheat, but merely separate and render
available for use that already elaborated by plants.

1 88. Proteins. — Foods of this class are mainly instru-
mental in furnishing material for the growth and repair of
the tissues out of which the bodies of both plants and animals
are built up. They embrace a great variety of substances,
but their chemical nature is very complex and very imper-
fectly understood. Nitrogen is an important element in
their composition, whence they are commonly distinguished
as " nitrogenous foods." Besides nitrogen, there are present
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and sulphur, and traces of the
mineral salts absorbed from the soil are found in varying
quantities in the ash of different proteins. The percentages
in which these ingredients are combined and the processes
concerned in their formation are at present a matter of pure
hypothesis. Botanists are not agreed even as to whether
they are made in the leaf or in some other part or parts of
the plant, though the weight of opinion inclines to the view
that their construction takes place in the leaf.

TJl£i LiI^JAF 173

189. The activities of leaves. — As there are only 4 parts
of CO2 to every 10,000 parts of ordinary free air, it has been
estimated that in order to supply the leaf factory with the
raw material it needs, an active leaf surface of one square
meter — a little over one square yard — uses up, during
every hour of sunshine, the COg contained in 1000 liters
(1000 quarts, approximately) of air. Suppose an oak tree
to bear 500,000 leaves, each having a surface of 16 sq. cm., or
4 sq. in., and working 12 hours a day for 6 months in the
year; you will then have some idea of the enormous quantity
of air that passes each season through its leaf system. Add
to this the almost incredible volume of water transpired in
the same time (180), and we may well stand amazed at the
tremendous activities of these silent workers that we are in
the habit of regarding as mere passive elements in the
general landscape.

190. The economic value of leaves. — Besides their im-
portance as sanitary and food-making agencies, leaves have
a direct commercial value as food products in the hay and
fodder they supply for our domestic animals, the tea and
salads with which they provide our tables, the aromatic
flavors and seasonings contained in them, and the drugs,
medicines, and dyes of various kinds for which they furnish
the ingredients.

Practical Questions

1. Why do gardeners "bank" celery? (Exp. 65.)

2. Why are the buds that si)rout on potatoes in the cellar, white ? (Exp.
65.)

3. Why does young cotton look pale and sickly in long-continued wet
or cloudy weather? (Exp. 65.)

4. Why do parasitic plants generally have either no leaves or very
small, scalelike ones? (85, 186, 187.)

5. The mistletoe is an exception to this; explain why, in the light of
your answer to question 4.

6. Could an ordinary nonparasitic plant live without green leaves?
(186, 187.)

7. Arc abundance and color of foliage any indication of the health of
a plant? (186, 187; Exp. 65.)

174 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

8. Is the practice of lopping and pruning very closely, as in the process
called "pollarding," beneficial to a tree under ordinary conditions ? (186,
189; Exp. 63.)

9. Name some plants of your neighborhood that grow well in the shade.

10. Compare in this respect Bermuda grass and Kentucky blue grass ;
cotton and maize; horse nettle {Solanwn Carolinense) and dandelion;
beech, oak, red maple, dogwood, pine, cedar, holly, magnolia, etc.

11. Name all the aromatic leaves you can think of ; all that are used as
food, beverages, drugs, and dyes.

12. What is the use of aromatic and medicinal leaves to the plant itself ?
(Suggestion: Why does the housewife put lavender or tobacco leaves in
her woolen chest ?)

13. Which would be richer in nourishment, hay cut in the evening or
in the morning, and why? (54, 186; Exp. 70.)

14. ]\Iention three important sanitary services that are rendered by a
tree like that shown in plate 6 or 8. (180, 185, 189.)

15. Name some of the plants employed in the manufacture of starch.

VI. THE LEAF AN ORGAN OF RESPIRATION

Material. — A number of vigorous, freshly cut green leaves ; a liter
or two (one or two quarts) of expanding flower or leaf buds.

Appliances. — Some wide-mouthed jars of one or two liters' capacity;
two small open vials of limewater.

Experiment 72. Do leaves give off carbon dioxide ? — Cover
the bottoms of two wide-mouthed jars with water about two centimeters
(1 inch) deep. Place in one a number of healthy green leaves with
their stalks in the water, and insert among them a small open vial con-
taining limewater. In the other jar place only a vial of limewater in the
clear water at the bottom, this last being merely to make the conditions
in both vessels the same. Seal both tight and keep together in the dark
for about 48 hours, and then examine. In which jar does the lime-
water indicate the greater accumulation of CO2 ? (It may show a sliglit
milkincss in the other vessel due to gas derived from the inclosed air and
water.) From this experiment, what process would you conclude has
been going on among the leaves in jar No. 1 ? (Exp. 25.)

Experiment 73. Is the exhalation of carbon dioxide accom-
panied BY ANY OTHER CONCOMITANT OF RESPIR.\TION ? In ExpS. 24,

25, it was shown that respiration is accompanied by heat ; hence, if the
production of carbon dioxide by the leaf is due to this cause, it should be
attended by the evolution of heat. To find out wlicther this is the case,
partly fill a glass jar of two liters' capacity with unfolding leaf buds ar-

THE LEAF

175

Fig. 22S. — Arrange-
ment of apparatus to
show that heat and car-
bon dioxide are given ofif
by leaf buds.

ranged in layers alternating with damp cotton bat-
ting or blotting paper (Fig. 228) ; close the jar
tightly and leave from 12 to 24 hours in the dark
to prevent the action of photosynthesis. Then
insert a thermometer and note the rise in tem-
perature. If a lighted taper is plunged in, it will
quickly be extinguished, showing that respiration
has been going on.

iQi. Respiration in leaves. — We see

from experiments like the foregoing that
the leaf, besides carrying on the functions
of digestion, photosynthesis, and trans-
piration, is also an active agent in the
work of respiration. In this function
oxygen is used up and carbon dioxide
given off, just as in the respiration of animals; but the
process is so slow in plants that it is much more difficult
to detect than the contrary action in photosynthesis, and is,
in fact, not perceptible at all while the latter is going on,
though it does not cease even then.

But while the leaf is the principal organ of respiration, the
process is carried on in other parts of the plant as well,
else it could not survive during the leafless months of
winter. It appears to be most active at night, but this is
only because it is not obscured then, as during the day, by
the more active function of photosynthesis. Indeed, it was
for a long time supposed that plants " breathed " only at
night, and it was thought to be unwholesome to keep them
in a bedroom. It is now known, however, that respiration
goes on at all times and in all living parts of the plant, but
the quantity of oxygen taken in is so small from a hygienic
point of view that it may be disregarded.

192. Distinctions between respiration and photosynthesis.
— While these two functions are contrasting and antipodal,
so to speak, in their action, they are mutually complemen-
tary and interdependent, the one manufacturing food and the
other using it up, or rather marking the activity of those

176 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

life processes by which it is used up. The difference between
them will be made clear by a comparison of the two pro-
cesses as summarized in the following statement :

Photosynthesis Respiration

Goes on only in sunlight and in Goes on at all times and in all
the green parts of plants, parts of the plant.

Produces starch and sugar. Releases energy (heat and wo.k-

ing power).
Gives off, as by-product, oxygen. Gives off, as by-products, CO3

and water.
A constructive process, in which A destructive, or consumptive
energy is used up to make food. process, in which food is used up in

expending energy.

193. Metabolism. — The total of all the life processes of
plants, including growth, waste, repair, etc., is summed up
under the general term metabolism. It is a constructive or
building-up process when it results in the making of new
tissues out of food material absorbed from the earth and air,
and the consequent increase of the plant in size or numbers.
But, as in the case of animals, so with plants, not all the
food provided is converted into new tissue, part being used
as a source of energy, and part decomposed and excreted
as waste. In this sense, metabolism is said to be destructive.
The waste in healthy growing plants is always, of course, less
than the gain, and a portion of the food material is laid by
as a reserve store. For this reason, photosynthesis, being a
constructive process, is usually more energetic than respira-
tion, which is the measure of the destructive change of
materials that attends all life processes.

It is evident also, from what has been said, that growth and
repair of tissues can take place only so long as the plant has
sufficient oxygen for respiration, since the energy liberated
by it is necessary for the assimilation of nourishment by
the tissues.

Thus we see that plants are dependent on air not only for
respiration, but for nutrition, and none of their life pro-
cesses can be carried on without it.

THE LEAF

177

Practical Questions

1. Can a plant be suffocated, and if so, in what ways? (87, 193;
Exps. 26, 27.)

2. The i-oots on the palm shown in plate 3 are not drawing any sap
from it as parasites; why does their continued growth bring about the
death of the tree ? (87,193.)

3. Is it unwholesome to keep flowering plants in a bedroom ? Leafy
ones? Why, in each case ? (191.)

4. Would there be any more reason for objecting to the presence of
flowers by night than by day ? Explain. (191.)

5. Why is respiration much less marked in plants than in anunals?
(30, 31.)

VII.

THE ADJUSTMENT OF LEAVES TO EXTERNAL
RELATIONS

Material. — A potted plant of oxalis, spotted medick, white clover,
or other sensitive species. The subject is better suited for outdoor ob-
servation than for laboratory work.

Experiment 74. To show that leaves adjust themselves to
CHANGES IN INTENSITY OF LIGHT. — Keep a healthy potted plant of oxalis,
white clover, or spotted medick in
your room for observation. Note
the daily changes of position the
leaves undergo. Sketch one as it
appears at night and in the morning.

In order to determine whether
these changes are due to want of light
or of warmth, put your plant in a dark
closet in the middle of the day, with-
out change of temperature. After
several hours note results. Transfer
to a refrigerator, or in winter place
outside a window where it will be ex-
posed to a temperature of about 5° C. (40° F.) for several hours, and see if
any change takes place. Next put it at night in a well-lighted room and
note the effect. If practicable, keep a specimen for several weeks in some
place where electric lights are burning continuously all night, and watch
the results.

Experiment 75. To show that the fall of the leaf may result
FROM OTHER CAUSES THAN COLD OR FROST. — Wrap some leavcs of ailan-
thus, Kentucky coffee tree, ash, walnut, or hickory in a damp towel and

Figs. 229, 230. — Leaves of a peanut
plant : 229, in day position ; 230, in
night position.

178 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

keep them in the dark for several days ; the leaflets will fall away, leaving
a clear scar like those on winter twigs.

Experiment 76. To show that adjustments to temperature may
BE made by chemical MEANS. — Placc a small twig of oleander, laures-
tinus, or other broad-leaved evergreen in a 5 to 10 per cent solution
of sugar, and transfer it at the end of a few days to a temperature of
6° to 8° below freezing. On comparison with a similar twig that has
stood for the same length of time in pure water, it will be found to possess
a greater power of resistance to cold.

194. The light relation. — The principal external con-
ditions to which leaves have to adjust themselves are light,
air, moisture, gravity, temperature, and the attacks of ani-
mals. From the knowledge of their work and function
gained in the preceding sections, it will be clear that the pri-
mary relation of the leaf is a light relation, and to this, first of
all, it must adjust itself.

It was shown in Exps. 56 and 57 how promptly leaves re-
spond to changes in the direction of light,
and a little observation (Exp. 74) will con-
vince us that they are equally sensitive to
changes in intensity and periodicity of illu-
mination.

195. Phototropism, — The movement of
plants in response to light is called photo-
tropism — a word that means " turning
Fig. 2 31. — a toward or away from light." It includes
plant that has been ^^ j^jj^^jg ^f jj j^^ adjustments, and examples

growing near an open ^ . . ,

window, showing the of it are to be met with everywhere m the
lowa'^rrthe^Hght"''"''^ disposition of Icavcs with reference to their
light exposure.
196. Horizontal and vertical adjustment. — Take two
sprigs, one upright, the other horizontal, from any convenient
shrub or tree — and notice the difference in the position of
the leaves. Examine their points of attachment and see how
this is brought about, whether by a twist of the petiole or of
the base of the leaf blades, or by a half twist of the stem
between two consecutive leaves, or by some other means.

THE LEAF

179

tl. — A mosaic of in()()n->cc(l l('a\(-~, ^li..\\i[iL' kI u-iui
(,Froin Mo. Botanical Liani;.u liep t.)

gilt I'xposuri.'.

180

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Observe both branches in their natural position ; what part
of the leaf is turned upward, the edge or the surface of the
blade? Change the position of the two sprigs, placing the
vertically growing one horizontal, and the horizontal one
vertical. "What part of the leaves is turned upward in each ?

232 233

Figs. 232, 233. — Adjustment of leaves to different positions :
232, upright ; 233, procumbent.

197. Leaf mosaics. — Trees with horizontal or drooping
branches, like the elm and beech, and vines growing along
walls or trailing on the ground, generally display their foliage
in flat, spreading layers, each leaf fit-
ting in between the interstices of the
others like the stones in a mosaic,
whence this has been called the mosaic
arrangement. (Plate 10.) In plants of
more upright or bunchy habit, the
leaves are placed at all angles, giving
the appearance of a rosette when viewed
from above, whence this is called the
rosette arrangement.

A variety of the same disposition is
seen in the pyramidal shape assumed
by plants with large, undivided leaves
like the mullein and burdock (Fig. 237), in which access of
light is secured by a mutual adjustment between the size
and position of leaves, the upper ones becoming successively
smaller.

Fig. 234. — Leaf mosaic
of olm.

THE LEAF

181

198. Heliotropism —

' ' turning with the sun' ' — is
the name given to the daily
movement of plants like the
cotton and sunflower in
turning their leaves or their

2:35 236

Figs. 235, 236. — Horse-chestnut leaves: 235, leaf rosette seen from above;
236, the same seen sidewise, showing the formation of rosettes by the lengthening
of the lower petioles.

blossoms to face the sun. If you live where cotton is grown,

notice the leaves in a field about ten o'clock on a bright

sunny morning, and again from the same

point of view at about four or five in the

afternoon. Do you perceive any differ-
ence in their general dis-
position? Watch on a
cloudy day and see if
any change takes place.
Find out by observation
whether the " heliotrope "
of the hothouses is really
heliotropic.

199. Adjustment
against too great intensity
of light. — Plants fre-
quently have to protect
themselves against excess
of light and heat. An

Fig. 237.— Leaf
oyramid of mullein.

compass plant, rosin-
weed (Silphium lacini-
atum) : 238, seen from
the east ; 239, soon
from the south.

182

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

interesting example of this kind of adjustment is furnished
by the rosinweed, or compass plant (Silphium lacinialum,
Figs. 238, 239), which grows in the prairies of Alabama and
westward, where it is exposed to intense sunlight. The
leaves not only stand vertical, but have a tendency to turn
their edges north and south so that the blades are exposed
only to the gentler morning and evening rays. The prickly
lettuce manifests the same habit in a less marked degree.

200. Night and day adjustments. — These are move-
ments in resj)onse to changes in the degree of illumination
and temperature, as evidenced by the fact that they become
feeble and soon cease altogether if the plant is kept a suffi-
cient time under uniform conditions as to these two factors.
(Exp. 74.) They are called '' nyctitropic " or sleep move-
ments, because they are most obvious in certain plants that
undergo periodic adjustments to the alternations of day and
night suggestive of an imaginary likeness to the sleep of ani-
mals. Examples are
most frequently met
with among members of
the pea family {Legumi-
noscB), the spurges
( Euphorbiacece) , and the
sorrel (Oxalis) family.
They are found among
other species also, and
indeed are much more
general than is usually
supposed, most plants
showing signs of them
if carefully tested. A
simple way of doing this
is by attaching bristles about two inches long to the tips of
two leaves on opposite sides of the stem, as in Figs. 240, 241,
and comparing the divergence of the bristles during the day
and at nightfall. In this way a change of position in the

Figs. 240, 241. — A plant of the guayule
(Parthenium nrgentntuni) , to the loaves of which
indexes have been affixed to show their day and
night position: 240, day position; 241, night
position. {From, photographs by Prof. F. E.
Lloyd.)

THE LEAF

183

leaves, too slight to attract attention otherwise, will be made
apparent. The positions assumed vary in different plants,

;^4..^-^

^

1

f.

n

c;

■'M

^-"*^

^■i

242

243

244

Figs. 242-244. — Showing the movements of Amaranthus Palmeri: 242, 243,
position at sunrise and sunset (heliotropic) ; 244, night position (nj'ctitropic) half an
iiour after sunset. (From photographs by Prof. F. E. Lloyd.)

and even in the parts of the same compound leaf ; in the
kidney bean, for instance, the common petiole turns up at
night, while the individual leaflets turn down. One of the
common pigweeds {Amaranthus Palmeri, Figs. 242-244) is
heliotropic in the day time and nyctitropic at night.

^Uii^

*">-*i^ -»»

-J*^

' r^ ^

?4S

24!

FiG,q. 245-250. — Wild senna (Cassia tora), showing the nyctitropic adjustments
of its leaves. The upper figures show their horizontal arrangement ; those below,
the vertical: 245, 248, position of the leaves at 9 a.m.; 246, 249, at 3 p.m.; 247,
250, at 6.30 p.m. (From photographs by Prof. F. E. Lloj'd.)

The very striking nyctitropic adjustments of the wild
senna {Cassia tora) photographed by Professor Francis

184 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

E. Lloyd of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute (Figs. 245-
250), though obviously influenced by the sun, are not
directed toward it as in those of truly heliotropic plants.

These movements are common also among flowers, many
of them having regular hours for opening and closing, as in-
dicated b}^ such names as "morning-glory" and "four-
o'clock." In these cases, however, other causes (277, 280)
than the light relation must be taken into account.

201. Irritability is a general term applied to the power in
plants of receiving and responding by spontaneous move-
ments to impressions from without. In its widest accepta-
tion, irritability includes, besides the various forms of
adjustment described in this section and the next, all move-
ments due to geotropism, those of roots seeking air and mois-
ture, the revolution of twining stems and tendrils, the circu-
lation of protoplasm in the cell — any movement, in short,
that is made in response to an impression from the environ-
ment is a manifestation of irritability. It may be of various
degrees, but is possessed to some extent by every living vege-
table organism.

The term is usually applied, however, more especially to
those obvious and pronounced responses made by plants to
their surroundings, as exemplified in the cases just given.
Still more marked instances are to be found in the movements
of the tentacles of insectivorous plants, and the sensitive
leaflets of the mimosa that close at the slightest touch. The
tendrils of the passion flower are said to appreciate and
respond to a pressure that cannot be distinguished even by
the human tongue, and many i)lants will detect and respond
to the ultra-violet rays of light, which are entirely invisible
to man.

This faculty of irritability among plants corresponds, in an
imperfect, rudimentary way, to what we recognize in animals
as nervous excitability. By this it is not meant to imply
that the two things are identical in their ultimate manifes-
tations, though we may regard them as fundamentally the

THE LEAF

185

same in that they are both to be referred to the property
inherent in protoplasm of responding to stimuH. There is
no indication, however, that hritability in the vegetable
kingdom is accompanied by anything like consciousness or
volition, or that plants possess any power of initiative.
While the movements in response to stimuli are in many
cases eminently adapted to a purpose, we have no evidence
of a controlling power behind them. The movement comes
automatically in response to the stimulus, whether the effect
at the moment be advantageous or the
reverse.

202. Adjustments in relation to
moisture. — - These adjustments may
be — (1) To guard against excess of
moisture ; e.g. glands for excreting water
and salts ; scales, wax, down, etc., on
the surface of leaves. These may serve
also for protection against cold, insects,
excess of light and heat. (2) For the
conservation of moisture ; e.g. the rev-
olute leaf margins of grasses and sand plants growing along
the seashore ; the fleshy leaves of stonecrops and purselanes;
the hard epidermis of yuccas and aloes ; the scales, scurf, and
down, by which the moisture absorbed from the soil by plants

growing in dry and bar-
ren places is prevented
from escaping too
rapidly through the
stomata ; the leaf cups
and holders sometimes
formed by winged
petioles and clasping
leaf bases for retaining
dew or rain water.
(3) For leaf drainage,
or the conduction of

Fig. 251. — Cross sec-
tions of the leaf of sand
grass : a, unrolled in its or-
dinary position ; b and c,
rolled up to prevent too
rapid transpiration.

Fig. 252.—
Winged petiole of
Polymnia.

Fig. 253. — Water
cups of Silphium per-
folialum.

186

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

moisture, by means of grooves, channels, and taper-pointed
leaves, which act as natural gutters and drain pipes.

203. The fall of the leaf. — This is, in effect, an adjust-
ment to change of temperature, but that it is not directly due
to cold is shown by Exp. 75, and also by the fact that leaves
in the tropics and those of evergreens, while they do not fall
at stated periods like the bulk of the foliage in the temperate
zones, are cut off just the same and replaced by new ones,

whenever, for any
reason, they are un-
able to perform their
function. In cold
climates they fall at
the approach of
winter, not because
the frost loosens
them, but because
the roots are not able
to absorb enough
moisture to supply
them with material
for making food.
The needles and the
scale-leaves charac-
teristic of evergreens
in cold regions are
enabled to persist indefinitely by reason of their contracted
surface. This prevents the dissipation of moisture and affords
no lodging for the accumulations of sleet and snow that
would otherwise cumber and perhaps break the boughs with
their weight. Trees and shrubs that shed their leaves in win-
ter are said to be deciduous, from a Latin word meaning " to
fall." Can you mention some advantages of the deciduous
habit to a plant with broad, expanded leaves, growing in
a cold climate?

The mechanical means by which the leaf fall is accom-

FiG. 254. — Fallen leaves. Notice how they cover
the ground with a warm mulch, protecting the soil
from denudation, and the roots and seeds from frost.

THE LEAF 187

plished is through the growth of a corky layer of loose
cells that forms at the base of the petiole and cuts it away
from the stem, leaving a smooth, clean scar. Tear some
fresh young leaves from a growing twig and compare the
scars with those on a winter bough. Do you see any
difference? This corky layer can be made to form in
some plants artificially, by depriving them of working ma-
terial. (Exp. 75.)

204. The protection of winter-green leaves. — A great
many, perhaps the majority of broad-leaved evergreens,
bear no obvious protection against cold, while a large pro-
portion, such as chickweed, violet, fumitory, groundsel
{Senecio), and dead nettle {Lamium), would seem peculiarly
unfitted, by their delicate structure, to withstand it. But
recent investigations by the Swedish botanist, Lidforss,
have shown that all winter-green leaves, with the exception
of those on submerged water plants, which are sufficiently
protected by the medium in which they live, lose their
starch in winter and contain instead an increased percentage
of sugar. The same is true of other vegetable structures
also, where starch is present, such as roots, stems, tubers,
and winter fruits — nuts, haws, persimmons, and the like,
which, as every schoolboy knows, become perceptibly sweeter
after frost.

The presence of certain substances, of which sugar is the
most frequent, enables plants to withstand a greater degree
of cold than they could otherwise endure (Exp. 76). This
effect, as shown by Lidforss's experiments, is due to the
action of sugar in counteracting, or retarding, the " salting
out " of proteins by cold, as explained in 33.

As sugar is readily reconverted into starch by exposure to
a moderately high temperature for even a few days, we may
find here an explanation of the fact that plants which have
survived the prolonged cold of winter are often killed by a
single sharp night frost following a few warm days in early
spring, before the tender new growth has appeared. The

188 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

plant suffers, not from the direct effects of cold, but from
the warmth preceding it, which stimulated the transforma-
tion into starch of the sugar that would have prevented the
loss of proteins. On the same principle we may account for
the puzzling fact that the sunny southern side of trees and
shrubs usually suffers more from the effects of sudden frost
than the shaded and colder northern face.

In apparent conflict with this reasoning is the fact that
sugar cane and the sugar beet are peculiarly susceptible to
cold. This, however, does not invalidate the premises es-
tablished by Lidforss's researches, but merely emphasizes
the need of further investigation, w^hich may either reconcile
all the facts, or modify their interpretation.

205. The colors of autumn leaves. — These are due to
the breaking up and disappearance of the chlorophyll when
the leaf factory has to " shut down " for want of raw ma-
terial to work with (203). It is closely connected with the
appearance of frost, since the same changes of temperature
which produce frost cause the cessation of sap flow that
brings about the disorganization of the chlorophyll and the
formation of various pigments derived from it. Besides
these, leaves may contain other coloring matters that are
perceptible only when the chlorophyll disappears ; and in
the sap there is a reddish pigment which becomes either a
very bright red, or a dark purplish maroon, from the effect
of chemicals that combine with it in the leaves. With these
coloring materials at command it is easy to see how the
autumn woods can assume such splendid hues.

Practical Questions

1. How would you explain the fact that the outer twigs of trees generally
are the most leafy? (99, 194; Exps. 57, 74.)

2. Is the common sunflower a compass plant ? Is cotton ?

3. Are there any such plants in your neighborhood ?

4. Compare the leaves of half a dozen shade-loving plants of your neigh-
borhood with those of as many sun-loving ones ; which, as a general thing,
are the larger and less incised ?

THE LEAF 189

5. Give a reason for the difference. (169.)

6. Why do most leaves — notably grasses — v5url their edges backward
in withering ? (182.)

7. What advantage is gained by doing this ? (202.)

8. Observe such of the following plants as are found in your neighbor-
hood, and report any changes of position that may take place in their
leaves and the causes to which such changes should be ascribed : wood
sorrel, mimosa, honey locust, wild senna, partridge pea, wild sensitive plant,
redbud, bush clover, Japan clover, Kentucky coffee tree, sensitive brier
(Schrankia), peanut, kidney bean.

9. Which of the trees named below shed their leaves from base to tip
of the bough (centripetally), and which in the reverse order: ash, beech,
hazel, hornbeam, lime, willow, poplar, pear, peach, sweet gum, elm, syca-
more, mulberry, China tree, sumac, chinquapin ?

10. Account for the fact that evergreen trees and shrubs have generally
thick, hard, and shiny leaves, like those of the holly and magnolia, or scales
and needles, as the cedar and pine. (203.)

11. Why do many plants which are deciduous at the North tend to be-
come evergreen at the South ? (203.)

12. Why are evergreens more abundant in cold than in warm climates ?
(203.)

13. There is an apparent inconsistency between questions 11 and 12;
can you reconcile it ? (203.)

14. Why is it more important to protect the south side of trees against
exposure to frost than the northern side? (33, 204.)

15. Explain why peach orchards on the tops and northern slopes of ele-
vated areas are less liable to have their fruit destroyed by late frost than
those in the valleys and on the southern slopes. (33, 204.)

VIII. MODIFIED LEAVES

Material. — Get from a florist a potted plant of sundew, Venus's-
flytrap, sarracenia, or, if possible, one of all tliree, and keep in the school-
room for observation. The subject can be studied best in a well-stocked
greenhouse, if one is accessible.

2o6. Modification and adaptation. — Modification is
structural adjustment, or adaptation, carried so far as to
obscure the original form of an organ. Its true nature,
however, can generally be determined by some of the tests
mentioned in 100.

Examples of the modification of leaves to do the work of

190

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

other organs have ah-eady been noticed, as also their entire
disappearance in certain cases (97, 101, 149) and replace-
ment by other parts; it is
unnecessary, therefore, to
revert to this branch of the
subject here.

207. Protective modifica-
tions. — The most general
protective modifications
that leaves undergo are
(1) for the conservation of
moisture, as explained in
202, and (2) for protection
against animals. Many of
the adaptations for the
former purpose serve inci-
dentally for defense against
animals also. Spines, hairs,
scales, sticky exudations,
water holders, clasping and
perfoliate leaves bar the way to crawling insects ; horny
cuticles, as well as offensive odors, bitter secretions, and

i'lG. 255. — Spearlike leaves of Spanish
bayonet.

^

F

i;5G
FiG3. 256-258.

257

■ Protective hairs magnified : 256, mullein ; 257, cinque-foil
258, Shepherdia.

poisonous juices warn leaf -eating cattle and bugs away.
These devices are merely protective, however, and adapted
to a passive attitude of self-defense.
2o8. Insectivorous leaves. — But sometimes a plant

THE LEAF

191

becomes the aggressor, and instead of standing on the defen-
sive or suffering itself to be quietly devoured, proceeds to
capture and devour small game on its own account, and in
this case, the leaf sometimes becomes a deadly weapon of
destruction.

209. Pitcher plants. — The sarracenia, or trumpet leaf,
is a familiar example of this class. The lower part of the
leaf blade is transformed
into a hollow vessel for
holding water, and the
top is rounded into a
broad flap called the
lamina. Sometimes the
lamina stands erect, as
in the common yellow
trumpets of our coast
regions, and when this is
the case, it is brilliantly
colored and attracts in-
sects (Fig. 259). Some-
times, as in the parrot-
beaked and the spotted
trumpet leaf, it is bent
over the top of the water
vessel like a lid, and the
back of the leaf, near the foot of the lamina, is dotted with
transparent specks that serve to decoy foolish flies away
from the true opening and tempt them to wear themselves
out in futile efforts to escape, as we often see them do against
a window pane.

If the contents of one of these leaves are examined with a
lens, there will generally be found mixed with the water at the
bottom the remains of the bodies of a large number of in-
sects. The hairs on the outside all point up, toward the
rim of the pitcher, while those on the inside turn down,
thus smoothing the way to destruction, but making return

Fig. 259. — Yellow trumpets (Sarniccnia flava).
{From the Mo. Botanical Garden Rcp't.)

192

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

impossible to a small insect when once it is ensnared.
When we remember that these plants are generally found
in poor, barren soil, we can appre-
ciate the value to them of the ani-
mal diet thus obtained.

210. Flytraps. — The most re-
markable examples of insect-catch
ing leaves are the Venus 's-fly trap,
found in the seacoast region of
North Carolina, and the sundew
{Drosera rotundifolia) , common on
the margins of sandy bogs and
ponds. The latter is a delicate,
innocent-looking little plant, and
owes its poetic name to the dewlike
appearance of a shining, sticky
fluid exuded from glands on its
leaves, which glitter in the sun like dewdrops. It is, however,
a most voracious carnivorous plant, the sticky leaves acting
as so many bits of fly paper by means of which it catches its

Fig. 260. — Plant of sundew.

263

Figs. 261-263. — Leaves of sundew magnified : 261, leaf expanded ; 262, leaf
closing over captured insect ; 263, leaf digesting a meal.

prey. When a fly has been trapped, the tentacles close
upon it, the edges of the leaf curve inward, making a sort of
stomach, from the glands of which an acid juice exudes and

THE LEAP

193

digests the meal. After a number of days, varying according
to the digestibihty of the diet, the blades slowly unfold again
and are ready for another capture.

The bladderwort, common in pools and still waters nearly
everywhere, has its petioles transformed into floats, while

^1-4^-

Fig. 264. — Bladderwort, showing finely dissected submerged leaves
bearing bladders for capturing animalculae.

the finely dissected, rootlike blades bear little bladders which,
when examined under the microscope, are found to contain
the decomposed remains of captured animalculaB.

I>ractical Questions

1. Can you find any kind of leaf that is not preyed upon l^y something?
If so, how do you account for its immunity ?

2. Make a list of some of the most striking of the protected leaves of
your neighborhood.

3. Wliat is the nature of the protective organ in each case ?

4. For protection against what does it seem to be sj^ecially adapted ?

5. Are the plants in your list for the most part useful ones, or trouble-
some weeds ?

194 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

6. Examine the leaves of the worst weeds that you know of and see
if these will help in any way to account for their persistency.

Field Work

(1) In connection with Sections I and II, observe the effect of the lob-
ing and branching of leaves in letting the sunlight through. Notice any
general differences that may appear as to shape, margin, and texture in the
leaves of sun plants, shade plants, and water plants, and account for them.
Study the arrangement of leaves on stems of various kinds, with reference
to the size and shapes of leaves and their light relations. Consider the
value of the various kinds of foliage for shade ; for ornament ; as producers
of moisture ; as food ; as insect destroyers, etc.

Make a special study of the twelve principal deciduous trees of j'our
neighborhood. Compare the leaves, bark, and branches of the same
trees so that you will be able to recognize them by any one of these means
alone.

(2) In connection with Sections III and V, consider the effects upon soil
moisture of transpiration from the leaves of forest trees and from those
of shallow-rooted herbs and weeds that draw their water supply from
the surface. Consider the value of forests in protecting crops from exces-
sive evaporation by acting as wind breaks. Study the effect of the fall of
leaves upon the formation of soil. In any undisturbed forest tract turn up
a few inches of soil with a garden trowel and see what it is composed of.
Notice what kind of plants grow in it. Note the absence of weeds and
account for it. Compare the appearance of trees scattered along windy
hillsides, where the fallen leaves are constantly blown away, or in any
position where the soil is unrenewed, with those in an undisturbed forest,
and then give an opinion as to the wisdom of hauling away the leaves every
year from a timber lot.

(3) In Section VII, observe, in different kinds of leaf mosaics, the means
by which the adjustment has been brought about and the purpose it sub-
serves. Make a list of plants illustrating the two habits. Notice the form
and position of petioles of different leaves, and their effect upon light ex-
posure, drainage, etc., and the behavior of the different kinds in the wind.
Look for compass plants in your neighborhood, and for other examples of
adjustment to heat and light. Study the position of leaves at different
times of day and in different kinds of weather and note what changes occur
and to what they are due.

Make a list of ten plants that seem to you to have best worked out the
problem of leaf adjustment, giving the reasons for your opinion.

Study the drainage system of different plants and olxscrve whether there
is any general correspondence between the leaf drainage and the root sys-

THE LEAF 195

terns. This will lead to intorosting questions in regard to irrigation and
manuring. Where plants are crowded, the growth of both roots and
leaves is complicated with so many other factors that it is best to select
for observations of this sort specimens growing in more or less isolated
situations.

Notice the time of the expansion and shedding of the leaves of different
plants, and whether the early leafers, as a general thing, shed early or late ;
in other words, whether there seems to be any general time relation be-
tween the two acts of leaf expansion and leaf fall.

(4) Under Section VIII, look for instances of modified leaves ; study
the nature of the different modifications you find, and try to understand
their meaning and object. Make a collection (a) of all the leaves you can
find modified to serve other than their normal purposes ; (6) of all the
organs of other kinds that have been modified to serve as leaves ; (c) of
all the modified parts of leaves — stipules and petioles — that you can
find. Keep the collections separate, labeling each specimen with the
name of the plant it belongs to, what part it is, what use it serves,
when and where found. These collections need not be made individu-
ally, but by the class as a whole and kept for the use of the school.

Observe also (d) the differences between young and old leaves of the
same kind, and the leaves of young and old plants or parts of plants of the
same kind ; (e) resemblances between young leaves belonging to plants of
different species ; (/ ) between young leaves of one species and mature ones
of one or more different species. Make a collection of all the specimens you
can find illustrating the three points mentioned, referring each to its proper
head, and giving the name and relative age — old or young — of all speci-
mens collected.

CHAPTER VII. THE FLOWER
I. DISSECTION OF TYPES WITH SUPERIOR OVARY

Material. — For monocotyls, any flower of the lily family, such as
tulip, dogtooth violet {Erythronium) , trillium, star-of-Bethlehem, yucca,
bear's grass, and the like. The large garden lilies make particularly good
examples, but they are for the most part spring bloomers. For autumn,
spiderwort (Tradescantia) , arrow grass (SagiUaria), or late specimens of
colchicimi and tiger lily may be used. Any of these will meet the essential
conditions of the analysis given in the text, but care should be taken not to
select for this exercise lily-like flowers of the iris and amaryllis families,
which have the ovary inferior.

For examples of hypogynous dicotyls, flax, linden, pinks, corn cockle,
wood sorrel, poppies, tomato blossoms, and other common flowers can
usually be obtained without difficulty. In autumn, the geraniums so
largely cultivated for ornament will meet all the conditions of the analysis.
Specimens of the cress family — wallflower, cabbage, mustard, turnip —
can generally be found every^vhere and at all seasons, and they possess
the advantage of having their flowers throughout the order put up on so
nearly the same pattern that a description of one species will answer, even
in details, for the rest.

For sympetalous specimens of the hypogynous type, hyacinth, lily of
the valley, bearberry, huckleberry, or other equivalent forms may be
used.

Appliances. — A compound microscope may be needed for examining
minute objects, such as pollen grains and ovules; but for all other pur-
poses, a good hand lens, with the pupil's ordinary laboratory equipment
of drawing-materials, notebook, and dissecting needles, will be sufficient
for the studies outlined in this and the four succeeding sections.

211. The floral envelopes. — Make a sketch of your
specimen flower from the outside. Is it solitary, or one of a
cluster? If the latter, refer to 160-162 and tell the nature
of the cluster. Notice the color ; is it conspicuous enough
to attract attention or not? Can this have anything to do
with its clustered or solitary position? Label the head of
the peduncle that supports the flower, receptacle; the outer

196

THE FLOWER

197

greenish leaves, sepals; the inner, Ughter-colored ones,
petals. The sepals taken together form the calyx, and the
petals, the corolla. Where the petals and sepals are all

-§stig

266

267

265

Figs. 265-267. — Flower of a monocotyl (star-of -Bethlehem), with superior
ovary dissected : 265, entire flower, showing the different sets of organs : pet,
petals ; sep, sepals ; sta, stamens ; pist, pistil ; pcd, peduncle ; 266, side view with
all the petals and sepals but two removed to show order of the parts : r, recepta-
cle ; o, ovary ; sty, style ; stig, stigma — parts composing the pistil ; /, filament ;
a, anther — parts composing the stamen ; 267, cross section of the ovary : c, c, car-
pels ; ov, ovules ; pi, placenta.

separate and distinct, as in the tulip and the star-of-Bethle-
hem, the corolla is said to be polypeialous and the calyx
polysepalous, words meaning, respectively, many-petaled
and many-sepaled. Monopetalous and monosepalous, or

268

269

Figs. 268-269. — Yucca blossom : 268, external view: 6r, bract ; p<f, peduncle ;
r, receptacle ; s, sepal ; pet, petal ; 269, vertical section : ped, peduncle ; br, bract ;
r, receptacle ; per, perianth ; sta, stamen ; o, ovary ; nty, style ; stg, stigma. The
last three parts named compose the pistil.

sympetalous and synsepalous, are terms used to describe a
condition in which the petals or sepals are all united into
one, as in the morning-glory and lily of the valley. In many

198

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

flowers, there is little or no difference between the two sets of
organs. In such cases the calyx and corolla together are
called the perianth, but the distinction of parts is always
observed, the outer divisions being regarded as sepals, the
inner ones as petals. These two sets of organs constitute
the floral envelopes, and are not essential parts of the flower,
as it can fulfill its office of producing fruit and seed without
them. Note their number, mode of attachment to the
receptacle, and how they alternate with each other. Re-
move one of the sepals and one of the petals, and notice any
differences between them as to size, shape, or color. Which is
most like a foliage leaf? Hold each up to the light and try
to make out the veining. Is it the same as that of the foliage
leaves ? If a light-colored flower is used, examine a specimen
that has stood in coloring fluid. How many of each set are
there ?

212. The essential organs. — Next sketch the flower on
its inner face, labeling the appendages just within the petals,

stamens, and the central organ
within the ring of stamens,
pistil. These are called essen-
tial organs because they are
necessary to the production of
fruit and seed. Note their
mode of insertion, three of the
stamens in a flower like the
star-of-Bethlehem alternating
with the petals, and the other
three with these and with the
lobes of the base of the pistil.
213. The stamens. — No-
tice whether the stamens are
all alike, or whether there are
differences as to size, height,
shape, color, etc. Do these
differences, if there are any,

270 271 272

273

274

Figs. 270-274. — Stamens: 270, a
typical stamen with the terminal an-
ther, b, surmounting the filament, a,
and opening in the normal manner
down the outer side of each cell ; 271,
stamen of tulip tree, with adnate ex-
trorse anther ; 272, stamen of an eve-
ning primrose ((Enothera) with versatile
anther ; 273, stamen of pyrola, the
anther cells opening by chinks or pores
at the top ; 274, stamen of a cranberry,
with the anther cells prolonged into a
tube and opening by a pore at the apex.
(After Gray.)

THE FLOWER 199

occur indiscriminately and without order, or in regular suc-
cession between the alternating stamens ? Examine one of
the little powdery yellow bodies at the tip of the stamens,
and see whether they face toward the pistil or away from it.

Remove one of the stamens and sketch as it api)ears under
the lens, labeling the powdery yellow body at the top,
anther, and the stalklike body supporting it, filament. Usu-
ally the filaments are threadlike, whence their name, but
sometimes, as in the star-of-Bethlehem, they are flattened
and look like altered petals. See if you can find such a one.
What would you infer from this fact as to the possible origin
of the stamens? (100.)

Notice the two little sacs or pouches that compose the
anther, as to their shape and manner of opening, or dehisc-
ing, to discharge the powder ^^ ^^,.^^
contained in them. This /J f\ ^^^ i I
powder is called pollen, and %„,4ii/ ^( W \kJy
will be seen under the lens 275 276 277 278

to consist of Httle yellow , Figs. 275-278 -Forms of poUen: 275.

from mimidus; 27b, star cucumber ; 277
grams. These are of differ- wUd balsam apple ; 278, hibiscus. (After

ent shapes, colors, and sizes, ^^"^•)

in different plants, and their surface often appears beautifully
grooved and striate when sufficiently magnified. Place some
of the pollen under the microscope and draw two of the
grains, with their markings. In the hibiscus and others of
the mallow family, they are large enough to be seen with a
hand lens.

214. The pistil. — Remove the stamens and sketch the
pistil as it stands on the receptacle. Label the round or
oval enlargement at the base, ovary, the threadlike appendage
rising from its center, style, and the tip end of the style,
stigma. In some specimens the style may be very short, or
wanting. In this case the stigma is sessile, and the pistil
consists of stigma and ovary alone. If the stigma is lobed
or parted, count the divisions and see if there is any corre-
spondencfc between them and the number of petals and sepals,

200

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

or of the lobes of the ovary. Examine the tip with a lens
and notice the sticky, mucilaginous exudation that moistens
it. Can you think of any use for this ? If not, tou(!h one of
the powdery anthers to it, and examine it again with a lens.
What do you see? Can you blow or dust the pollen from
the stigma?

215. Pollination, or the transfer of pollen from the anther
to the stigma, is a matter of great importance, as the pistil
cannot develop seed without it, except in the case of a few
plants like the Alpine everlasting, some species of meadow
rue {Thalidrum), and Alchemilla, which have the unusual
faculty of perfecting seeds in the absence of pollen. Note
the relative position of pistils and stamens and see if it is
such that the pollen can reach the stigma without external
agency.

216. The ovary. — Observe the shape of the ovary, and
the number of ridges, or grooves, that divide the surface.

Select a flower which has begun to
wither, so that the ovary is well
developed, cut a cross section near
the middle, and try to make out the
number of locules, or internal divi-
sions. Do you perceive any corre-
spondence in number between these
and the ridges or lobes outside (Fig.
280) ? Between them and the lobes
of the stigma? The walls that
inclose the cavities of the ovary
are called carpels, and the ridges or
depressions that mark their point
of union on the outside are the
sutures, or seams. The little round
bodies in the locules, as the compartments of the ovary are
called, are the ovules, which will later be developed into seeds.
Their place of attachment is the placenta. If they are
attached to the walls of the carpels (Fig. 281), the placenta

-^ r

279 280

Figs. 279, 280. — Ovarj- of
yucca, a hypogynous mono-
cotyl, dissected : 279, vertical
section ; oz;, ovules ; 280, diagram
of a horizontal section of the
same, enlarged, showing the
three carpels and six locules ;
ds, dorsal sutures ; vs, ventral
sutures ; ov, ovules ; pi, pla-
centa.

THE FLOWER

201

281 282 283

Figs. 281-283. — Different kinds of placenta :
281, parietal; 282, central and axial; 283, free
central. 281 and 282 are horizontal sections ; 283,
vertical.

is parietal; if to a central axis formed by the edges of the
carpels projecting inwards (Fig. 282), it is central and axial ;
if instead of being attached to the carpels, the ovules are
borne on a projection from the receptacle, the placenta is a
free central one (Fig. 283). If your cross section shows a
central placenta, make
a vertical cut down to
the receptacle and find
out whether it is free,
or axial. What ap-
pears to be the prmiary
office of the ovary?
Make an enlarged
sketch of your speci-
men in both vertical and horizontal section, labeling correctly
all the parts observed.

217. Numerical plan. — Make a horizontal diagram
of the plan of the whole flower, after the model given in
Fig. 284, showing the order of attachment of the different
cycles, — sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils, — the number
of organs in each set, and their mode of alternation with the
organs of the other cycles. Notice that the
parts of each set are in threes, or multiples
of three. This is called the numerical plan
of the flower, and is the prevailing number
among monocotyls. It is expressed in bo-
FiG 284 — Hori- ^auical language by saying that the flower is
zontai diagram of a tri7nerous, a word meaning measured, or

flower of the lily kind. t • i i <v • i j. e .1

The dot represents dividcd off, luto parts of three,
the growing axis of 218. Vertical order. — Next make a ver-
tical diagram of your specimen after the
manner shown in Fig. 269, and note carefully that the ovary
stands above the other organs (this is true of all the lily
family), and is entirely separate and distinct from them. In
such cases the ovary is said to be free, or superior, and the
other organs inferior, or hypogynous, a word meaning "in-

202 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

serted under the pistil. ' ' These terms should be remembered,
as the distinction is an important one in plant evolution.

219. Summary of observations. — In the flower just ex-
amined, we found that there were four sets of floral organs
present — sepals, petals, stamens, and pistil ; that the indi-
vidual organs in each set were alike in size and shape ; that
there were the same number, or multiples of the same
number of parts in each set, and that all the parts of each set
were entirely separate and disconnected, the one from the
other, and from those of the other cycles. Such a flower is
said to be : —

Perfect, that is, provided with both kinds of organs essen-
tial to the production of seed — stamens and pistil.

Com-plete, having all the kinds of organs that a flower can
have: viz. two sets of essential organs, and two sets of
floral envelopes.

Symmetrical, having the same number of organs, or mul-
tiples of the same number, in each set.

Regular, having all the parts of each set of the same size
and shape, as in the wild rose and bellflower, or if different,
arranged in regular order or pairs, so that there will be a
correspondence between the two sides of the flower, as in the
violet, sweet pea, sage, and larkspur. For convenience, the
two kinds may be distinguished as complete and bilateral
regularity, respectively.

The opposites of these terms are : imperfect, incomplete,
asymmetrical or unsymmetrical, and irregular.

Note that regularity refers to form, symmetry to number
of parts, and that a flower may be perfect without being
complete.

220. Dissection of a typical dicotyl flower. — (Poppy,
flax, pink, tomato, linden, etc., can be substituted for the
specimen used in the text.) Gently remove the sepals and
petals from a wallflower, stock, mustard, or other cress
flower, lay them on the table before you in exactly the order
in which they grew on the stem, and sketch them. How

THE FLOWER

203

many of each are there, and how do they alternate with one
another? Sketch the pistil and stamens as they stand on

a

287

Figs. 285-288. — A flower of the cress family : 285, side view ; 286, view from
above ; 287, diagram of parts : p, petals ; s, sepals ; st, stamens ; pi, pistil ; d, claw
of petal ; +, +, position of the missing stamens ; 288, pistil and stamens, enlarged.
(After Gray.)

the receptacle ; how many of the latter are there ? Notice
that two of the six are outside and a little below the others,
alternate with the petals, while the other four stand opposite
them, as is natural, if they were alternating with another
ring of stamens between themselves and the corolla. Put a
dot before two of the sepals in your first drawing to indicate
the position of the two outer stamens, and a cross before
the other two to show where stamens are wanting to com-
plete the symmetry of this set, as in Fig. 287. When parts
necessary to complete the plan of a flower are wanting, as
in this case, they are said to be obsolete, suppressed, or
aborted. Place dots before the petals to represent the other
four stamens. Sketch one of the anthers as it appears
under a lens, showing the arrow-shaped base, and the
mode of attachment to the filament. Is it such that the
pollen can reach the stigma without external agency ? In
what manner do the anthers open to discharge their pollen ?
Are the anthers and stigma mature at the same time?
Remove all the stamens from a flower and sketch the pistil,
showing the long, slender ovary, the very short style, and the

204

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

capitate (that is, round and knoblike) stigma. Make cross
and vertical sections of one of the older pistils lower down

on the stem. How many
ovules does it contain?
How are they attached ?
Represent the position
of the pistil by a small
circle in the center of
your sketch of the sep-
arate parts. You have
now a complete ground
plan of the flower. Dia-
gram a vertical section,
as in Fig. 289, showing
the position of the ovary
with reference to the
other parts, and report

Fig. 289. — Section of a tomato flower, show-
ing the hypogynous arrangement : ex, calyx ;
c, corolla ; s, stamens ; p, pistil ; o, ovary, st,
stigma. (Twice natural size.)

in your notebook as to the following points

Numerical plan

Symmetry

Regularity (complete or bilateral)

Presence or absence of parts
Union of parts
Position of ovary

II. DISSECTION OF TYPES WITH INFERIOR OVARY

Material. — For monocotyls : in spring and early summer, iris, snow-
flake, freesia, crocus, narcissus, daffodil, can be used ; in autumn, gladiolus,
blackberry lily, fall crocus, star grass (Hypoxys). For dicotyls : in spring,
flowers of apple, pear, quince, gooseberry, squash, gourd, melon (with both
male and female flowers) ; in late summer and autumn, fuchsia, evening
primrose {(Enolhera), willow-herb {Epilobium).

221. Study of a monocotyl flower. — Compare with the
specimens examined in the last section, a narcissus, snow-
flake, or iris flower. What difference do you notice in the
position of the ovary ? Would you call it inferior (below the
other parts) or superior (above them) ? How was it in the
lily and the hyacinth? If your specimen is an iris, notice
that it is sessile in the axil of a large bract called a spathe,

THE FLOWER

205

which conceals the lower part of the flower. Remove the

spathe and observe that the lower part of the perianth is
united into a long, narrow tube, from
the top of which the sepals and petals
extend as long, curving lobes.

222. Arrangement of parts. —
Sketch the out-
side of the flower,
labeling the ob-
long, three-lobed
enlargement at
the base, ovary;
the prolongation
above it, tube of
the perianth; the
three outer lobes
with the broad
sessile bases,
sepaZs; the others,
with their bases

narrowed and bent inward, petals. Now turn the flower over

and sketch the inside, labeling the three large, petal-like expan-
sions in the center,

stigmas. Do you

see any stamens ?

Remove one of

the sepals and

look under the

stigma; what do

you find there ?

Notice the little

honey pockets at

the foot of the

stamen. Run the

head of your pencil into them and see what would happen

to the head of an insect probing for honey.

Fig. 290. — Iris flower:
sp, spathes ; s, sepals + p,
petals = perianth.

- Vertical
section of iris flower:
ov, ovules ; pi, placenta ;
tu, tube of the perianth
inclosing the style ; sta,
stamen ; sti, stigma : o,
ovary. (After Gray.)

Fig. 2 9 2 . — Vertical
section of iris flower, with
perianth removed, showing
a stamen and three stig-
mas: «/, stigmatic surface.

Fig. 293. — Cross sec-
tion of ovary of iris flower :
c, c, carpels ; /, /, locules ;
Oil, ovules ; pi, placenta.

206 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Remove the perianth and sketch the remaining organs in
profile, showing the position of the stamens. Do you see
any advantage in their position? Can you determine the
use of the crest of hairUke filaments on the upper side of the
sepals ? Remove a stamen and sketch it.

223. The pistil. — Remove as much of the upper part of
the perianth tube as you can without injuring the pistil,
and with a sharp knife cut a vertical section down through
the ovary so as to show the long style and its connection with
the placenta. Make a sketch of this longitudinal section
(see Fig. 291), labeling the parts observed. Notice whether
the placenta is central or parietal. Draw a cross section of
the ovary ; how many locules has it ? How many ovules in
each? Where are they attached? Is the placenta free
central or axial (Fig. 293) ? Examine with a lens the little
flap at the base of the two-cleft apex of one of the stigmas, and
look for a moist spot to which the pollen will adhere. Label
this in your sketch, stigmatic surface. No seeds can be ma-
tured unless some of the pollen reaches this surface ; can you
think by what agency it is carried there? What insects
have you seen hovering about the iris? Notice that in
drawing his head out of the flower, an insect would not
touch the stigmatic surface, since it is on the upper side of
the flap and he would be probing under it. But in entering
the next flower that he visits, he is likely to
strike his head against the flap and turn it
under, thus dusting it with pollen brought
from another flower.

224. Diagrams. — Draw diagrams show-
ing the horizontal and vertical arrangement
Fir.. 294 — Tiori- of parts iu the iris or other specimen ex-
flower.'^'^^'''"""^^'' amined, and compare with those made of
the monocotyl studied in the preceding sec-
tion. In what respect does it differ from them? How do
you account for the difference in the number of stamens, if
there is any? (220.)

THE FLOWER

207

225. The vertical order, — The difference in vertical
arrangement is an important one. Bear in mind that flowers
of this type have the ovary inferior, that is, inserted under
the other organs (Figs. 296, 304), which are then said to be
superior, or epigynous, a word which, as you know from the
prefix epi (47), means over or above the pistil. To make the
matter clear, the two sets of terms employed for describing
the position of the ovary are given below in parallel columns:

Hypogynous

Ovary superior

Calyx or perianth inferior

Epigynous

Ovary inferior

Calyx or perianth superior

The epigynous arrangement is considered as marking a
higher stage of floral development than the hypogynous,
which is characteristic of a more
simple and primitive structure.

226. Dissection of a dicotyl
flower. — Sketch a blossom of
quince or apple, fuchsia, evening
primrose, etc., first from the out-
side, then from the inside, and
then in vertical section, labeling
the parts as in
your other
sketches. No-
tice in the pear
or apple how
the ovary is
sunk in the
hollowed-out
receptacle.
Where are the
other parts

attached ? Are they inferior or superior ? Hold up a petal
to the light and examine its venation through a lens. (Use
for this purpose a petal from a flower that has stood in red
ink for two or three hours.) Is it parallel-veined or net-

Fius. 295-296. — Evening primrose, dicotyl flower with in-
ferior ovary : 295, exterior view ; 296, longitudinal section,
showing vertical arrangement of parts.

208

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

veined? If the flowers are clustered, what is the order of
inflorescence? Does the position of the flowers on their

branch correspond to that of

297 298 1 1 c -1

the leaf axils on the same
kind of plant ?

227. The stamens, — Re-
move the petals from a flower
and examine the stamens
with a lens. Notice the at-
tachment and shape of the
anthers. Are they all of the
same color? How do you
account for the difference, if
there is any? Is the posi-
tion of the pistil and stamens
such that the pollen from
the anthers can readily reach
the stigmas without external
aid? Examine the pistil in
flowers of different ages, and
see if the stigma is mature (that is, moist and sticky) at the
same time that the anthers are discharging their pollen.
Make an enlarged sketch of a stamen showing the shape of
the anther and the method of opening to discharge pollen.
228. The pistils. — How many pistils do you find in the
apple blossom (or other flower under examination) ? Are they
distinct, or united ? Find where the styles originate ; what
do you see there ? Make a cross section of the ovary and
count the locules; how does their number compare with
that of the styles ? Can you make out the number of ovules
in each ? If not, use a young fruit ; as it is only an enlarged
ovary, it will show the parts correctly. Compare it with a
ripe fruit and see if all the ovules matured. Can you think
of any reasons why some of them might fail? Do you see
any signs of nourishment stored in the ovary? Name all
the ways you can think of in which the ovary can benefit the

299 300

Figs. 297-300. — Flower and sections
of pear : 297, cluster of blossoms, showing
inflorescence; 298, vertical section of a
flower ; 299, ground plan of a flower ; 300,
vertical section of fruit.

THE FLOWER

209

ovules and seeds. Draw the ovary in cross and vertical
sections, labeling correctly all the parts.

229. The numerical plan of dicotyls. — Diagram the plan
of the flower in cross and vertical section. How many parts
are there in each set ? Can you tell readily
the number of stamens ? When the indi-
viduals of any set or cycle of organs are too
numerous to be easily counted, like the
stamens of the apple, pear, and peach, or
the petals of the water lily, they are said
to be indefinite. It is very seldom that per-
fect symmetry is found in all parts of the
flower. The stamens and pistil, in partic-
ular, show a great tendency to variation, so
that the numerical plan is generally deter-
mined by the calyx and corolla. Where the
parts are in fives, as in the pear, quince, and wild rose, the
flower is said to be pentamerous, or in sets of five. This is the
prevailing number among dicotyls, though other orders are

Fig. 301. — VertP
cal section of an al*
mond blossom with
petals removed, show-
ing the perigynoua
arrangement.

302

W.i

304

Figs. 302-304. — Diagrams showing arrangement of parts with reference to the
ovary: bd, receptacle; A-, calyx ; A:/-, corolla; st, stamens; fr, ovary; g, style; n,
stigma ; 302, perigynous ; 303, hypogynous ; 304, epigynous.

not uncommon. In the mustard family (220) and other
well-known species, the fourfold order prevails, while some
of the saxifrages have their parts in twos, and the magnolia
and the pawpaw have a threefold arrangement.

210

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

230. Intermediate types. — Flowers like the peach and
rose represent an intermediate type in which the calyx,
petals, and stamens are attached to a prolongation of the
receptacle that extends above the ovary, but is not united
with it (Fig. 301 ). in general, a flower is not considered as
belonging to the epigynous kind unless the ovary is more or
less consolidated with the parts around it (Fig. 304).

III. STUDY OF A COMPOSITE FLOWER

Material. — The largest lieads attainable should be selected, as the
florets are small at best, and difficult to handle. The large cultivated sun-
flower {Helianthus annuus) makes an ideal specimen, if accessible. Oxeye
daisy and dandelion can be obtained throughout the season almost every-
where, but the former has no pappus, and the latter does not show the
tubular disk flowers. Other common sjiecimens an; : for spring, mayweed,
Jerusalem artichoke, coreopsis, arnica; for late summer and autumn,
China aster, golden aster (Chrysopsis), sneezeweed, elecampane — and,
in fact, the great majority of flowers to be found at this season are of the
composite family. Oxeye daisy is used as a model in the text on account
of its general accessibility, but almost any specimen of the radiate kind
will meet all essential conditions of the analysis.

231. The ray flowers.

eye daisy through a lens.

- Examine the upper side of an ox-
Of what is the yellow button in the

center composed? Count the narrow,

petal-like rays dis-
posed around
the center. To
decide what they
are, look for a
small two-cleft
body at the base
of the ray; this
is the pistil.
Do you see any
stamens in the

305

307

Figs. 305-308. — An oxeye daisy : 305, a flower head ;
306, vortical section of a head ; 307, disk flower ; 308, ray
flower, enlarged.

ray

An exam-

ination will show
that all the rays

THE FLOWER 211

contain pistils, but no stamens ; they are, therefore, not petals,
but the corollas of imperfect flowers. Look at the upper edge
of a ray of sneezeweed, coreopsis, arnica, chicory, etc., for
small teeth or notches ; these represent the lobes of a sympet-
alous corolla. Split one of the tubular corollas of the disk
down one side and open it out flat ; does it throw any light
on the morphology of the ray ? In many composite plants,
as the sunflower, coneflower, coreopsis, the rays are all neutral;
that is, they have neither pistil nor stamens. Are they of any
use in such cases ? If you are in doubt, remove all the rays
from a head ; would the disk be noticeable enough to attract
attention without them? What is the principal office of
the rays?

232. The involucre. — Look at the cluster of green, leafy
scales on the under side of the head. It is not a calyx, but
a collection of bracts, called an involucre. Have you ever
noticed the bracts under the separate flowers on a raceme?
(16L) What would be the position of the bracts if all the
flowers of the raceme were compacted into a head like the
daisy or sunflower? Is the involucre of any use? Cut it
away gently so as not to disturb the other organs and see
what happens to the rays.

233. The disk flowers. — Cut a vertical section through
the head of a flower and notice the broad, flat receptacle (in
some cases round or columnar) on which the tinj^ florets
are seated. Observe whether it is naked, or whether it
bears chaffy scales inclosing the florets. Make an enlarged
drawing of this section, showing the insertion of the dif-
ferent parts and labeling them all correctly. What differ-
ences do you observe between the disk and the ray flowers ?

234. The pappus. — ^ Open one of the disk flowers with a
dissecting needle and observe the small striate (in some
specimens, hairy) body to which the base of the style is at-
tached. This is the ovary, inclosed in the lower part of the
calyx, which has become incorporated with it. "When mature,
it will form a small, one-seeded fruit called an akene. Can

212

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

you see the ovule? Where is it attached? (Use a mature
akene for this purpose.) In most plants of this family, the
akene is surmounted by delicate hairy bristles, as in the
dandelion, wild lettuce, and groundsel ; or by small chaffy
scales, as in the sneezeweed and sunflower, and sometimes
by hooks and barbed hairs, like those of the tickseed, bur
marigold, and cocklebur. These appendages constitute the
pappus. They are modifications
of the sepals, and serve an impor-
tant purpose in aiding the dis-
tribution of the seed. Can you

312

313

314

Figs. 309-314. — Akenes of the composite family: 309, mayweed (no
pappus); 310, cliicory (pappus a shallow cup); 311, sunflower (pappus of two
deciduous scales) ; 312, sneezeweed (.Helenium, pappus of five scales) ; 313, sow
thistle (pappus of delicate downy hairs) ; 314, dandelion, tapering below the
pappus into a long beak. (After Gray.)

suggest some of the ways in which they may aid in accom-
plishing this object?

235. The stamens and pistil. — Remove the corolla of a
disk flower carefully so as not to disturb the inclosed organs,
and notice how the stamens are united into a tube by their
anthers. Flatten out the tube and make an enlarged sketch
of it, showing the long, narrow shape of the anthers and their
mode of attachment. Can you make out how they open to
discharge their pollen ? Examine one of the younger florets
near the center of the disk, and observe that the tip of the
style is inclosed in the anther tube with the lobes of the
stigma pressed tightly together by their inner faces (Fig. 315),
so that it is impossible for any of the pollen to reach the stig-

THE FLOWER

213

316

317

matic surface. It remains in this position till the anthers have
shed their pollen, then, as may be seen by examining an older
flower, the style begins to elongate, pushing up the pollen
that has fallen on the hairy outside of the closed stigma, and
forcing it out of the corolla tube, where it can be scattered
by insects among the other
flowers of the cluster. When
the pollen of its own floret
has been thus disposed of, the
stigma lobes open and curl
outward, ready to receive the
pollen from other flowers.
This arrangement is practi-
cally universal among plants
of the composite family ; can
you divine its object? It
will be shown later, that much
larger and stronger seeds are
produced when the pistil is
pollinated from a different
flower, or, better still, from a
different plant of the same
species ; hence, you see what
a useful adaptation this is.

236. Nature of a composite flower. — It will be evident,
from the examination just made, that the daisy, dandelion,
sunflower, etc., are not single flowers, but compact heads
of small blossoms so closely united as to appear like a single
individual ; hence they are said to be composite, or com-
pound. They are the most numerous and widely dissem-
inated of all plants, comprising one seventh of the entire
flowering vegetation of the globe, and are regarded by
botanists as representing the most advanced stage of floral
evolution. Can you point out some of the adaptations to
which their success in solving the problems of plant life is
due? (164.)

315

Figs. 315-317. — Flowers of Arnica
montajm, showing successive stages in pol-
lination : 315, pistil just extruding from
anther tube, covered with pollen, but with
stigmatic surfaces closed; 316, stigma
opened and mature ; 317, stigma recurved
to receive pollen from its own or neigh-
boring anthers if foreign pollen has not
reached it.

214 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

IV. SPECIALIZED FLOWERS

Material. — For spring and early summer: sweet pea, black locust,
wistaria, lui)ine, or any of the characteristic butterfiy-shaped Huwers of
the pea family. For autmnn or late smnmer : tropa?olmn, monkshood,
or a bilabiate flower — snapdragon, digitalis, dead nettle, salvia, catalpa,
etc. — of the mint or figwort family.

237. Irregularity and specialization. — Irregularity and

bilateral regularity are, as a rule, indicative of specialization,
or adaptation to a particular purpose, such as the ready
distribution of pollen, or its protection against injury. These
adaptations are more noticeable in the corolla than in other
parts, and hence flowers of this kind are usually classed
according to the shape of their corollas. The most highly
specialized flowers in this respect are the orchids, but they
are too rare and difficult of access to be available objects for
study. The most familiar and widely distributed kinds of
speciahzed corollas are the bilabiate, or two-lipped, and the
papilionaceous, or butterfly, forms. The first is characteris-
tic of the mint and figwort families, of which the toadflax,
sage, and catalpa are familiar examples. The second com-
prises the well-known papilionaceous flowers of the pea
family, named from the Latin word papilio, a butterfly, on
account of their general resemblance to that insect.

238. Dissection of a papilionaceous flower. — Sketch a
blossom of any kind of pea or vetch as it appears on the
outside. Are the sepals all of the same length and
shape? If not, which are the shorter, the upper or the
lower ones?

Turn the flower over and examine its inner face. Notice
the large, round, and usually upright petal at the back, the
two smaller ones on each side, and the boat-shaped body
between them, formed of two small petals more or less united
at the apex. Press the side petals gently down with the
thumb and forefinger and notice how the essential organs are
forced out from the little boat in which they are concealed.

THE FLOWER

215

Observe how the end of the style is bent over so as to bring
the stigma uppermost when the petals are depressed. Imag-
ine the legs of a bee or a butterfly resting there as he probed
for honey ; with what organ would his body first come in
contact when he alighted? If his thorax and abdomen had
previously become dusted with pollen when visiting another
flower, where would the pollen be deposited ? Do you notice
anything in the color, shape, or odor of this flower that would
be likely to attract insects ? Have you ever observed insects

Figs. 318-322. — Dissection of a papilionaceous flower: 318, front view of a
corolla; 319, the petals displayed: «, vexillum, or standard; w, wings; A;, keel ;
320, side view with all except one of the lower petals removed, showing the essential
organs protected in the keel : I, loose stamen ; st, stamen tube ; 321, side view,
showing how the anthers protrude when the keel is depressed ; 322, ground plan.
{After Gray.)

hovering around flowers of this kind ; for example, in clover
and pea fields, and about locust trees and wistaria vines?
What kind of insects, chiefly, have you seen about them ?

Remove the sepals and petals from one side, and sketch
the flower in longitudinal section, showing the position of the
pistil and stamens. Then remove all the petals, and spread
in their natural order on the table before you, and sketch as
they lie (Fig. 319). Label the large, round upper one,
standard or vexiUum; the smaller pair on each side, wings,
and the two more or less coherent ones in which the pistil
and stamens are contained, keel.

239. The stamens. — Count the stamens, and notice
how they are united into two sets of nine and one. Stamens

21G PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

united in this way, no matter what the number in each set,
are said to be diadelphous, that is, in two brotherhoods.
Notice the position of the lone brother, whether below the
pistil — next to the keel — or above, facing the vexillum.
Would the projection of the pistil, when the wings are de-
pressed, be facilitated to the same extent if the opening in the
stamen tube were on the other side, or if the filaments were
monadelphous — all united into one set ? Flatten out the
stamen tube, or sheath, formed by the united filaments, and
sketch it.

240. The pistil. — Remove all the parts from around the
pistil, and sketch it as it stands upon the receptacle. Look
through your lens for the stigmatic surface (223). See if
there are any hairs on the style, and if so, whether they
are on the front, the back, or all around. Can you think of a
use for these hairs? Notice how the long, narrow ovary is
attached to the receptacle ; is it sessile, or raised on a short
footstalk? If the latter, label the footstalk, stijje. Select a
well-developed pistil from one of the lower flowers, open the
ovary parallel with its flattened sides, and sketch the two
halves as they appear under the lens. Notice to which side
the ovules are attached, the upper (toward the vexillum) or
the lower, and label it, placenta. How many locules has the
ovary? How many carpels? How can you tell (216) ?

241. Plan of the flower. — Diagram the flower in hori-
zontal and vertical section, and decide upon the following
points : —

Numerical plan
Symmetry
Regularity
Union of i)arts
Position of tlio ovary

242. Significance of these distinctions. — These distinc-
tions are important to remember, not only because they are
very useful in grouping and classifying plants, but because
they mark successive stages in the evolution of the flower.
In general, flowers of a primitive type and less advanced

THE FLOWER

217

organization are characterized by having their organs free
and hypogynous, while the more highly developed forms show
a tendency to consolidation and union of parts, and the
epigynous mode of
insertion. Irregular-
ity also, since it in-
dicates specialization
and adaptation to a
particular purpose,
may be regarded as a
mark of advanced
evolution.

243. Dissection of
a bilabiate flower. —
Make a similar study
of the flower of a
salvia, dead nettle,
catalpa, or other spec-
imen of the bilabiate
kind. Make diagrams
and report as to (1) numerical plan ; (2) presence or absence
of parts ; (3) regularity ; (4) union of parts ; (5) position of
ovary. Observe especially the relative position of stigma

Figs. 323, 324. — Salvia: 323, a newly opened
flower, showing the pollen-covered anther striking
the back of a visiting bee ; 324, an older flower,
witli the protruding pistil rubbing against the back
of a bee covered with pollen from a younger flower.

325 'd

Figs. 325, 326. — Salvia : 325, longitudinal section through a flower, showing
the rocking connective which is struck at o by a visiting insect ; 326, section of the
same flower after being visited, showing the lower arm of the connective pushed
back and lowering the anther.

and anthers ; is it such that the pollen can reach the stigma
without external aid ? Does the peculiar shape of the corolla
serve any other purpose than to attract the attention of

218

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

insect visitors by its conspicuous appearance ? What is the
use of the projecting underlip? Is it any convenience to a
bee, for instance, to have a platform to rest on while gather-
ing pollen or honey? What is the use of the arched upper
hp ? Cut it away and notice the exposed condition of the
stamens and pistil. Turn a flower upside down; what
would be the effect on a visiting bee or butterfly? (Exps.
83, 84.)

244. Morphology of the flower. — We have seen that the
venation of petals and sepals corresponds in a general way
with that of foliage leaves of the class to
which they belong, and that their arrange-
ment around their axis is analogous to the
arrangement of foliage leaves on the branch.

In our study of

inflorescence, it

was observed that

flowers and flower

buds occur in the

same positions

where leaf buds

occur, and that

they are subject

to the same laws

of arrangement

and growth. We
learned, also, in our study of leaves, some-
thing about the wonderful modifications that
these organs are capable of undergoing ; and
finally, an examination of a number of different flowers has
shown them capable of undergoing modifications to an equal
or even greater extent, and examples of the transition of
almost any floral organ into another may be observed by one
who will take the trouble to look for it. Stamens and petals
are found in all stages of transformation, from the slightly
flattened filament of the star-of-Bethlehem, or the yellow

Fig. 327. — Staminodia, trans-
formed stamens of canna simu-
lating petals : pet, petals ; st
staminodia.

Fig. 328.—
Flower of a cactus
{cereus grcggiOi
showing transitior
from scales to
petals.

THE FLOWER 219

pollen speck on the petal of a rose, to the brilliant staminodia,
or transformed stamens of the canna (Fig. 327), which simu-
late petals so perfectly that their real nature is never sus-
pected by the ordinary observer. The transition from spines
and bracts to the brilliant corolla of the cactus (Fig. 328)
is so gradual that we are hardly aware of it till we examine a
specimen and see it actually going on before our eyes.

It must not be supposed, however, that an organ is ever
developed as one thing and then deliberately changed into
something else. When we speak loosely of one organ being
modified into another, the meaning is merely that it has de-
veloped into one thing instead of into something else that it
was equally capable of developing into.

245. The course of floral evolution. — For the reasons
mentioned, the flower is regarded as merely a branch with
modified leaves and the internodes indefinitely shortened so
as to bring the successive cycles into close contact, the whole
being greatly altered and specialized to serve a particular
purpose. With this conception of the nature of the flower,
we can readily see that the less specialized its organs are and
the more nearly they approach in structure and arrangement
to the condition of an undifferentiated branch, the more
primitive and undeveloped is the type to which it belongs.
On the other hand, if the parts are highly specialized and
widely differentiated from the crude branch, a proportion-
ately high stage of floral evolution is indicated.

V. FUNCTION AND WORK OF THE FLOWER

Material. — For this exercise, flowers of the mallow family — holly-
hock, abutilon, mallow, hibiscus, cotton, okra, etc. — are particularly
recommended because they have pollen grains so large that they can be
studied fairly well with a hand lens. Lily, tulip, iris, etc., will also meet all
essential conditions of the study outlined in the text. A strand of silk
from a pollinated ear of corn is an excellent example for showing the
growth of the pollen tube, under the microscope.

Appliances. — A compound microscope ; a watch crystal ; sugar solu-
tion of 5 to 15 per cent.

220 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Experiment 77. To show the germination of pollen grains. —
Put a drop of 5 per cent sugar solution into a watch crystal or a concave
slide, seal by smearing the edges witli vaseline, and cover with a glass
to keep out the dust. Examine at intervals of five minutes under the
microscope (a hand lens will sho\v the result with the specimens recom-
mended, though not so well), and ihe pollen grains will be observed to send
out long filaments or tubes into the sirup, as a germinating seedhng sends
its radicle into the soil.

246. Office of the flower. — The one object of the flower
is the production of fruit and seed, and all its wonderful
specializations and variations of form and color tend either
directly or indirectly to this end.

247. Pollination and fertilization. — It was stated in 215
that only in very exceptional cases can seed be developed
unless some of the pollen reaches the stigma. This act,
called polliriation, is an essential step in seed production, but
is not sufficient to secure that end unless it leads to the process
known as fertilization. Successful pollination is a necessary
preliminary to fertilization, and the one begins where the
other ends.

248. The next step toward fertilization. — Examine with a
lens the pollinated pistil of a mallow, lily, or other large
flower, and notice the flabby, withered appearance of grains
that have stood for some time on the stigma, as com-
pared with those of a newly opened anther. Can you ac-
count for the difference? Touch the tip of your tongue
to the stigma, or apply the proper chemical test, and it will
be seen that the sticky fluid which it exudes, contains sugar.
Refer to Exp. 77 and say what effect this substance has
on the pollen.

249. The pollen tube. — The same thing happens when a
pollen grain falls on the moist surface of the stigma. It
begins to germinate by sending a little tube down into the
substance of the pistil, and the withered appearance of the
grains on the stigma results from the nourishment in them
having been exhausted, just as the endosperm of the seed is
exhausted when the embryo begins to germinate. Here, how-

THE FLOWER 221

ever, the analogy ends, for the pollen tube is not adapted, like

the radicle of the seedling, to absorb and convey nourishment

up to the other parts, but to feed and carry down to the ovary

two small bodies called generative cells,

which it discharges there, and then its work

is done and it disappears. So it must be

borne in mind that when we speak of the

germination of the pollen grains, we mean

something really very different from the

germination of a seed.

250. The course of the pollen tube. —
Cut the thinnest possible section through
a freshly pollinated pistil and place under
the microscope. Watch the pollen tubes
from the grains on the stigma as they de-
scend through the style toward the ovary. poiferg;ain'emittint
A pollinated strand of corn silk — which is a tube (magnified).
only a very much elongated style — is excellent for this pur-
pose. It is so thin and transparent that no section need be
made, and the tube can be traced as it works its way down
through the entire length of the threadlike style to the young
grain, or ovary, on the cob. The time required for the tube
to penetrate to the ovary varies in different flowers according
to the distance traversed and the rate of growth. In the
crocus it takes from one to three days ; in the spotted calla,
about five days ; and in orchids, from ten to thirty days.
As a rule, it occupies only a few hours. Sometimes the pis-
til is hollow, affording a free passage to the pollen tube;
in other cases, it is solid, and the growing tube eats its way
down, as it were, feeding on the substance of the pistil
as it grows. How is it in the flower you are examining ? It
takes a grain of pollen to fertilize each ovule, and where more
than one seed is produced to a carpel, as is commonly the
case, at least as many pollen tubes must find their way to
each locule of the ovary as there are ovules — provided all
are fertilized.

222

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

251. Fertilization. — When a pollen tube has penetrated
to the ovary, it next enters one of the ovules, usually through

the micropyle (Fig. 330, m).
There it penetrates the wall of
a baglike inclosure called the
embryo sac (Fig. 330, u, t, z),
where one of the generative
cells emitted by the pollen tube
fuses with a large cell contained
in the embryo sac, known as
the germ cell, or egg cell (Fig.
330, z). The fusion of these
two bodies is what constitutes
fertilization. The cell formed
by their union finally develops
into the embryo, and the other
contents of the sac into the
endosperm, and the ripened
ovules become seeds.

252. Stability of the process
of fertilization. — The phe-
nomena that characterize the
functions of fertilization and
reproduction are the most uni-
form and stable of all the life
processes, varying little not

Fig. 330. — Diagram of a simple
flower, showing course of the pollen
tube : a, trans verse section of an
anther before its dehiscence; 6, an
anther dehiscing longitudinally, with
pollen ; c, filament ; d, base of floral
leaves ; e, nectaries ; /, wall of carpels ;
g, style ; h, stigma ; i, germinating
pollen grains ; w, a pollen tube which
has reached and entered the micropyle
of the ovule ; n, stalk of o\ailc ; o, base
of the inverted ovule; p, outer
integument or testa ; q, inner in-
tegument ; /, cavity of the em-
bryo sac ; u, its basal portion ;
2, oospherc.

only in different species and
orders, but throughout the whole vegetable kingdom. And
since these functions furnish a more reliable standard for
judging of the real affinities of the different groups than do
mere external resemblances, which are more liable to varia-
tion and may often be accidental, they have been chosen
by botanists as the ultimate basis for the classification of
plants.

253. Embryology. — The study of the developing plantlet,
known as eynbnjology, is a comparatively recent branch of

THE FLOWER 223

science, and has greatly enlarged our knowledge of the life
history of both plants and animals, by bringing to light re-
semblances that exist between the most widely divergent
species in their earlier stages of development and thus
showing traces of a common origin. It has shown further,
that every individual plant or animal, in its development
from the embryo to the mature state, passes briefly through
stages apparently similar to those which the species has trav-
ersed in the course of its evolution. This summary repe-
tition, by the individual, of the evolutionary progress of its
kind is known as the biogenetic law, and through its intelli-
gent application some of the most intricate problems in both
physiology and psychology have been solved.

Practical Questions

1. Does the biogenetic law throw any hght on the resemblances some-
times observed between leaves of different ages in unlike species; for
example, the fig and the mulberry? (170; Field Work, p. 195.)

2. Can you name any other examples of plants or parts of plants which
show mutual resemblances in their early stages that do not exist at
maturity ?

3. Are there other causes than those acting under the biogenetic law
to which some of these resemblances may be referred ; for instance, the
down and waxy coating on young leaves and bud scales? (148, 207.)

VI. HYBRIDIZATION

Material. — Several potted plants of tulip, lily, or any attainable
large flowered kind ; or preferably a small plot in a garden or nursery.

Appliances. — A pair of dissecting scissors, a camel's-hair brush, and
some paper bags.

Experiment 78. Does it make any difference whether a flower

HAS its ovules FERTILIZED WITH ITS OWN POLLEN OR WITH THAT OF AN-
OTHER FLOWER OF THE SAME KIND ? — Carefully remove the unopened
anthers from a bud of a tulip, or other large flower just ready to unfold
(Fig. 331), inclose the mutilated bud in a small paper bag until the stigma
is mature, as shown by stickiness, then transfer to it with a camers-hair
brush some pollen from another flower. On the stigma of a second flower
of the same kind place some of its own jwUen, and cover with a paper bag
until the stigma withers, to keep foreign pollen from reaching it by means

224

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

331

332

333

Figs. 331-333. — Flower of Lorillard tomato: 331, newly opened bud, showing
stage in which the stamens should he removed ; 332, mature flower : ex, ealyx ; c,
corolla ; s, stamens ; st, stigma ; 333, flower with stamens removed for pollination.
(Natural size.)

of wind or insects. Watch until seeds arc matured. Which flower pro-
duces the more seeds or the better ones ? Plant the seeds ; which produce
the more vigorous progeny?

Experiment 79. Can a flower be fertilized with pollen of a
DIFFERENT KIND ? — Dust the stigma of a tuHp or a Uly, from which the
stamens have been removed, with pollen from a narcissus, iris, or amaryl-
lis. Cover to protect from wind and insects. Are any seeds produced ?

Experiments of this kind, to be conclusive, ought to be performed on
a sufficient number of plants and through at least three generations. This
is hardly practicable for class work, but students who are specially inter-
ested in the subject may carry on experiments at home, or supply their
place, to some extent, by observations out of doors, if there are any farms
or gardens accessible.

254. Self-fertiliza- s^a^^
tion takes place

when a stigma is
pollinated from the
same flower. Hor-
ticulturists have
long known that
continued self-
fertilization, or "in-
breeding" as it is
called by nursery-
men, tends to dete-
riorate a stock ; but

^:>

Q^

(^^ C^

00

<^^

334

335

Figs. 334-335. — Seeds of Bartlett pear, showing
the advantage of cross-fertilization : 334, crow
fertilized ; 335, self-fertilized.

THE FLOWER

226

Fig. 336. — Showing the effect of in-breeding on corn in one generation. The
two left-hand rows are from self-fertilized seed.

Charles Darwin was the first to explain, by a series of pains-
taking experiments, the meaning of those careful adjustments
which the more highly organized plants, as a rule, have de-
veloped to guard against it.

255. Cross-fertilization is effected by the pollination of a
stigma from another flower of the same variety or species.
As used by practical horticulturists, the expression means
that the two factors, pollen and ovule, belong to different
plants. Since pollination is the necessary antecedent to
fertilization, and the only means by which we can control it,
the breeder's part in crossing is concerned with this act only
and nature does the rest. Darwin's experiments — and they
are confirmed by the experience of plant growers everywhere

226 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

— prove that the offspring from crossing different plants of
the same kind is usually stronger and more productive than
that from self-fertilized ones ; and if the parent stocks are
grown in different places and under different conditions, the
offspring is more vigorous than that from the same kind of
plants grown under like conditions. For instance, plants
from crossed seeds of morning-glory vines growing near each
other exceeded in height those from self-fertilized seeds as
100 : 76 ; while the offspring of plants growing under different
conditions exceeded those of the other cross, in height, as
100 : 78 ; in number of pods, as 100 : 57, and in weight of
pods, as 100 : 51. Knowledge of this kind, when applied to
the raising of fruits and grains for market, is of incalculable
value to gardeners and farmers, and also to the amateur who
raises fruits or flowers for pleasure.

256. Hybridization is the crossing of two plants of differ-
ent species or of widely separated varieties of the same species.
The resulting offspring is a hybrid. Hybridization can take
place only within certain limits. If the species are too unlike,
the pollen will either not take effect at all, or the resulting
offspring will be too weak and spindling to live ; or if they
survive, will not be able to set seed (Exp. 79).

257. Effects of hybridization. — The most important prac-
tical uses of hybridizing are: (1) it " breaks the type " by
causing plants to vary, and thus gives the breeder a fresh
starting point for a new strain; and (2) when the parent
species are not too unlike, it accentuates the good effects of
crossing, and sometimes gives rise to offspring greatly sur-
passing either parent in size and vigor. In regard to varia-
bility it may act in three ways: (1) the hybrid may wholly
resemble one parent or the other, in which case there is, of
course, no variation ; (2) it may resemble one parent more
than the other ; or (3) it may show a blending of the charac-
ters of the two, as when a cross between a red poppy and a
white gives rise to a light pink, or a mixed red and white
variety. In the first two cases, the characters of the parent

THE FLOWER

227

Plate 11. — Hybrid between a red and a white carnation, showing char-
acters intermediate between the two parents.

228

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

that manifest themselves are said to be dominant; those
which do not, recessive.

r-fiwr^. H

Fig. 337. — Effect of hybridization between related species in imparting superior
vigor to offspring : M, Californian black wsdnut (Juglans call for nica), male parent;
F, Eastern black walnut {J. riigra), female parent ; //, hybrid.

258. Mendel's Law. — So long ago as the middle of the last
century it was discovered by Gregor Mendel, an Austrian
investigator, that hybrids vary in certain cases according to
a fixed law, by means of which the proportionate share of the
characteristics of the two parent forms inherited by the off-
spring can be foretold with almost mathematical precision.
The controversy over Darwin's " Origin of Species," which
was raging at the time, caused Mendel's discoveries to be
overlooked for a generation, and it is only within the last

DX R

Diagram illustrating Mendel's Law.

few years that their importance has been realized. The
principle of variation demonstrated by him in a series of
experiments, and confirmed by later investigators is, briefly,

THE FLOWER 229

this : If two parents differing in some fixed characteristic
be crossed, the entire offspring, in the first generation, will be
like the parent possessing the dominant quality. If all the
seed of this generation is planted and carefully protected
from foreign pollen, its offspring composing the second
generation from the parents will vary in the proportion of
I dominants {D, D' , line 2 of the diagram) to \ recessives {R).
Planting all the seeds of the second generation and carefully
shielding their progeny from foreign pollen, we get from D,
line 2, all pure dominants {D, line 3) — that is, plants pro-
ducing only their own type, and from R, line 2, all pure
recessives {R, line 3). But from each of the two sets of dom-
inants, D'D', line 2, marked " impure " in the diagram, and
so called because their seeds may produce both dominants
and recessives, we get the same result as in the second gen-
eration, namely: pure dominants {D'D', line 3), pure reces-
sives {R'R', line 3), and impure dominants {D"D", D"D", line
3). If it were possible to distinguish the seeds of these im-
pure dominants before germination and plant them only, for
no matter how many generations, the result would always be
approximately the same, — J pure dominants, \ pure reces-
sives, and I impure dominants capable of producing both
dominants and recessives in the proportion of 3 : 1.

259. Practical applications. — Four principles of great
importance to plant breeders follow from this law in cases to
which it applies: (1) the absence of variation in the first
generation of hybrids is no sign that it may not occur later;
(2) pure recessives always breed true ; hence, if they show
the desired character, no further selection is necessary for
that character; (3) pure dominants always breed true, but
the distinction between pure and impure is usually not
apparent in one generation; (4) the descendants of " im-
pure " parents cannot be depended upon to come true to
either type, but impure dominants may breed recessives, and
vice versa, with the presumption, however, of 3:1 in favor
of dominants.

230 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Practical Questions

1. Would hybridization account for .some of the diversities mentioned
in 170? (See 257.)

2. To what cases would it not apply? (256; Exp. 79.)

3. Would it be worth while to try to hybridize the potato and squash ?
The squash and pumpkin? The lily and rose? Sweetbrier and wild
rose ? Apple and peach ? Wild crab and sweet apple ? Blackberry and
strawberry? Blackberry and raspberry? Lemon and watermelon?
Lemon and orange? Why, or why not, in each ease? (256; Exps.
78, 79.)

VIL PLANT BREEDING

Material. — If practicable, visit a market garden, a florist's establish-
ment, or, lacking these, the fruit and vegetable stalls of a city market.

260. Fixing the type. — It is the tendency of plants to
vary under the influence of cUmate, soil, food supply, cross-
ing, and other causes perhaps unknown to us, that makes
the plant breeder's art possible. When a horticulturist sets
out to produce a new fruit or vegetable, he first forms in his
mind a clear idea of what he wants — whether increase of yield
or size, resistance to cold, drought, or disease, improvement in
flavor, color, shape, etc., or change in the time of maturing or
flowering (early and late varieties). Suppose, for instance,
he wishes to produce an oxeye daisy with all the disk florets
changed to white ones like the rays. He will begin by selecting
plants with the greatest number of rays and the most conspic-
uous ones that he can find, and sowing the seeds of the flowers
which show the greatest tendency to the development of these
qualities. He will continue this process from generation to
generation, rigorously destroying all specimens that do not
approach nearer the ideal sought, until all disposition to
" rogue," as the tendency to revert is called, has been elimi-
nated. When variations cease to occur and the seed of the
new variety always " come true," the type is said to be fixed;
though some care will always be necessary to keep it so,
as the influence of changed surroundings and the danger of
mixture with foreign pollen must always be provided against.

THE FLOWER

231

261. Survival of the fittest. — In the fierce struggle
continually going on among both plants and animals for
food, shelter, and elbow room in the world, any indi-
vidual that happens to vary in a way which adapts it to

its surroundings a

little better than its
rivals, has an advan-
tage that will enable
it to survive when
less favored mem-
bers of the species
will perish. Its off-
spring, or some of
them, may inherit
this quality and
transmit it, with the
attendant advan-
tage, to their poster-
ity, and so on, till
that particular
breed outstrips all
competitors, and in
time, as the less fa-
vored intervening
forms die out, be-

' seea.

comes differentiated

as a new species. This is, in brief, the doctrine of natural

selection and the survival of the fittest.

262. Artificial selection. — Artificial selection enables the
breeder to accomplish more quickly what nature appears to
do by the slow process of natural selection. It is by this
means that our choicest fruits and vegetables have been de-
veloped from greatly inferior, and sometimes inedible, wild
forms. Plants respond so readily to the influence of selec-
tion, and the changes brought about by it are so rapid,
that new styles of fruits and flowers succeed each other in

F£G. 338. — A field of pumpkins grown from selected

232 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

the market with ahnost as great frequency and in as ready-
response to demand as the new styles of women's bonnets
and gowns in the shop windows.

263. Causes of variation. — While man cannot directly
force plants to vary in any given direction, he can hasten the
process of variation by crossing, or by changing the conditions
under which they are growing. This is called " breaking
the type." Hybridization furnishes the readiest means to
this end. Change of food supply, especially if accompanied
by excess of nourishment, is probably the expedient that
ranks next in effectiveness. Light, temperature, moisture,

Fig. 339. — Variation in blackberry leaves due to hybridization.

character of the soil, exposure to wind, and the like, also
have their influence; and in adapting themselves to changes
in these various conditions, plants are apt to exhibit an
unusual number of variations, when removed from one local-
ity to another, especially if the difference in soil and climate
is very marked. Now comes the breeder's opportunity. By
taking advantage of such variations as may occur either
spontaneously, or as the result of his efforts to break the type,
he will generally find some that will meet his requirements;
and knowing the effect produced by different conditions, he
can, to a certain extent, influence the course of variation in
the direction desired, by subjecting his specimens to the

THE FLOWER

233

conditions that tend to produce it. If he wishes to develop
a dwarf variety, for instance, he will take notice that over-
crowding, lack of nourishment, and cold tend to produce that
result in nature, and by acting on this hint he can direct his
efforts more intelligently. He will learn, too, not to waste
time in trying to breed a plant contrary to its nature. He
must not expect to gather figs from thistles by any art of
selection or skill in culture. By attention to Mendel's law,
a still further saving of time and labor may be effected.

It is obvious, from what has been said, that a breeder's
chance of finding what he wants will be greater in proportion
to the number of individual plants he has to choose from.
For this reason, a horticulturist sometimes uses thousands
and hundreds of thousands of specimens of a single kind in
conducting his experiments. In this way he compresses into
a short space of time the advantage that nature can gain only
by spreading her random experiments over a long series of
years, or even centuries.

264. Mutation and variation. — There are at least two
ways in which changes in vegetable and animal forms are
thought to occur: (1)
by the preservation and
fixation through selec-
tion and heredity, of
slight differences that
may appear from time to
time, such divergences
being called "fluctuat-
ing variations" ; (2) by
the appearance now and
then, due to causes as
yet unknown, of definite
and sudden changes
creating a new form at

a single, though perhaps small, leap. ^Yhen such a change
is temporary and passes away with the individual in which

Fig. 340. — Mutation in twin cars of corn,
showing the sudden variations that sometimes
occur, by wnich a new type may be provided
without the hibor of selection.

234 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

it first appeared, it is called a " sport," and leads to no
important results; but when it is inherited by the offspring,
so that it is capable of giving rise to a new species, it con-
stitutes a " mutation." The value of a mutation to breeders
in saving time and trouble is obvious. Professor Hugo de
Vries, a Dutch botanist, was the first to call attention to the
importance of mutation and its bearing upon the production
of new species.

265. Factors in the evolution of species. — Variation,
heredity, and selection are the three principal agents under-
lying all changes, whether for the improvement or deteriora-
tion of living organisms. The influence of external surround-
ings in keeping up a variation once begun, or in starting new
ones, is also a factor that cannot be disregarded. It is for
this reason that natural species are so much more stable than
those brought about by man. The former, being evolved in
response to natural conditions, are liable to change only as
alterations in their surroundings are brought about by the
slow operation of natural causes. But the types resulting
from the breeder's art, produced as they often are in response
to human demands and in direct opposition to the require-
ments of natural conditions, are in a sense purely artificial, and
can be preserved only by keeping up the artificial surround-
ings by which they were developed. Hence, the importance
of diligent cultivation and constant care and tillage, without
which the most carefully selected stocks may quickly " run
out " and degenerate into worthless forms.

Practical Questions

1. Which are the more pliable to the breeder's art, annuals or peren-
nials? Why? (91,93,262,263.)

2. What advantage is gained by using buds and grafts instead of
seedlings in making new varieties of fruit trees? (257, 259, 260.)

3. Would it be practicable to breed new varieties of slow-growing forest
trees, like oak, cypress, redwood, from seeds ? Why or why not ? (93,
262, 263.)

4. Can you account for the existence of the numerous intermediate
forms between the different species of oaks found in nature? (255, 257.)

THE FLOWER 235

5. If a breeder wished to produce a sweet-scented daisy or pansy, how
would he make his selections? (260.)

6. Which would he the more useful for his purpose, a plant that showed
a general tendency to variability, or one that remained steadily fixed to
its type? (260.)

7. What could he do to break the type ? (263.)

8. Would an intelligent breeder set out to produce edible roots and
tubers from wheat or barley? (263.)

9. Would he think it worth while to try to develop a fleshy fruit from
a filbert or a walnut tree ? From a haw ? From sheepberry and black
haw? From tupelo (ogeechee lime) ? (263.)

10. Suppose a florist should wish to change the color of a rose from pink
to deep red ; how could he hasten the process ? (257, 263.)

11. Explain why it is so much easier to produce new varieties of plants
when there are already many kinds in existence, as, for example, the rose,
peach, and chrysanthemum. (255, 256; Exps. 78, 79.)

VIII. ECOLOGY OF THE FLOWER

A. The Prevention of Self-pollination

Material. — Any kind of unisexual flowers obtainable. Some good
examples for illustrating points mentioned in the text are : for spring and
early summer, catkins of almost any of our common forest trees, — oak,
hickory, willow, poplar, etc.; tassels and young ears of early corn; for
summer and early fall, flowers of late corn, and of melon, squash, pump-
kin, or others of the gourd family. Examples of dichogamy are : evening
primrose, showy primrose {Oenothera speciosa), willow herb (Epilobium),
dandelion, artichoke, sunflower, or any of the composite family; of dimor-
phism: English primrose (Primula), loosestrife (Pulmonaria), bluets
(Houstonia), partridge berry; cleistogamic: fringed polygala, violets.
Peanuts, while not technically classed as cleistogamic, are strictly close-
fertilized, and approach the type so nearly that they may be used as an
illustration.

266. Ecology is the study of plants and animals in relation
to their surroundings. The principal modifications that
flowers undergo in this respect are in adapting themselves
for (1) pollination, and (2) protection.

267. Unisexual flowers. — The advantages of cross fer-
tilization were shown in the last two sections. It was also

236

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

341 342

Figs. 341,342.—
Unisexual flowers of wil-
low : 341, staminate;
342, pistillate.

shown that the first step taken by the breeder to secure this
result is to render the flower incapable of self-fertilization,
by removing the stamens. Nature ac-
complishes the same purpose ])y the more
effectual expedient of providing imper-
fect, or unisexual flowers, in which sta-
mens only, or pistils only, occur in the
same flower. When the stamens alone
are present, the flower is said to be stam-
inate, or sterile, because it is incapable
of producing seeds of its own, though its
pollen is a necessary factor in seed pro-
duction. If, on the other hand, the
ovary is present and the stamens absent,
the flower is pistillate and fertile ; that is, capable of produc-
ing fruit when impregnated with pollen. Sometimes both
stamens and pistils are wanting, as
in the showy corollas of the garden
"snowball," the hydrangea, and
the rays of the sunflower. Such
blossoms: are said to be neutral,
from the Latin word neuter, mean-
ing neither, because they have
neither pistils nor stamens. They
can, of course, have no direct part
in the production of fruit, but are
for show merely. (231.)

268. Moncecious and dicecious
plants. — When both kinds of
flowers, staminate and pistillate,
are borne on the same plant, as in
the oak, pine, hickory, and most of
our common forest trees, they are
said to be monoecious, a word which
means " belonging to one household"; when borne on sepa-
rate plants, as in the willow, sassafras, and black gum, tliey

Fig. 343. — Twig of oak with
both kinds of flowers : /, fertile
flowers ; s, s, staminate ; a, pis-
tillate flower, enlarged ; b, verti-
cal section of pistillate flower,
enlarged ; c, portion of one of the
sterile aments, enlarged, showing
the clusters of stamens.

THE FLOWER

237

344 345

Figs. 344, 345. — Flower of fireweed {Epilohium an-
gustifolium) : 344, with mature stamens and immature
pi3til ; 345, the same a few days older, with expanded
pistil after the anthers have shed their pollen. (After
Grav.)

are dioecious, or " of two households." Draw a flowering twig
of oak, pine, or willow. Where are the fertile flowers situated ?
Notice how very much more numerous the staminate flowers
are than the fertile ones. Why is this necessary ? (275.)

269. Dichogamy is the name applied to a condition where
the stamens and
pistils mature at
different times,
as in the evening
primrose, oxeye
daisy, and most
of the composite
family. It is a
very common
method in nature
for preventing
self-pollination, and quite as effective as the monoecious
arrangement, since it renders the flowers practically unisexual.

270. Dimorphism denotes a condition in which the sta-
mens and pistils are of different relative lengths in different
flowers of the same species, the stamens being long and the

pistils short in some, the pistils
long and the stamens short in
others. Flowers of this sort are
said to be dimorphous, or dimor-
phic, that is, of two forms ; and
some species are even trimor-
phic, having the two sets of
organs long, short, and medium,
respectively, in different indi-
viduals. Examples of dimorphic flowers are the pretty little
bluets {Houstonia ccprulea), the partridge berry, the swamp
loosestrife, and the English cowslip. Of trimorphic flowers
we have examples in the wood sorrel and the spiked loosestrife
(Lythrum salicaria) of the gardens. These flowers were a
great pu2zle to botanists until the celebrated naturalist,

346 347

Figs. 346-347. — Flower of pul-
monaria : 346, long styled ; 347, short
styled.

238

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

348 349 349

Figs. 348-350. — Three forms of loosestrife {Lyth-
rum salicaria).

Charles Darwin,
proved by experi-
ment that the seeds
produced by polH-
nating a dimorphous
flower with its own
pollen, or with pol-
len from a flower of
similar form, are of
very inferior quality
to those produced

by impregnating a long-styled flower with pollen from a

short-styled one, and vice versa.

271. "Nature abhors self-fertilization." — These are the
three principal methods by which nature provides against
self-fertilization. Other cases occur in which the relative
position of the two organs is such that self-pollination is
difficult, or impossible, as in the iris and bear's grass ; or the
pollen may be incapable of acting on the stigma of the flower
that produced it. This aversion to self-fertilization is so
great that many flowers, even when capable of it, will give
preference to the pollen of another plant of the same
kind, if dusted with both. From his observations on the
behavior of plants in reference to this function, Charles Dar-
win drew the conclusion that "Nature abhors perpetual
self-fertilization."

272. Cleistogamic flowers. — ^ Apparent exceptions to this
rule are the hidden flowers found on certain plants which
seem to have been constructed with a special view to self-
fertilization. They are called cleistogamic, or closed, because
they never open, but are fertilized in the bud; and those of
the fringed polygala do not even rise above ground at all.
Flowers of this kind can be found on several species of
violet, concealed under the leaves, close to the ground ; and
the flowers of the peanut, found in the same situation, while
they open slightly, are close-fertilized and practically cleisto-

THE FLOWER 239

gamic. They are much more prolific than ordinary flowers,
but are not common, and seem to be a provision against
accident, for the plants producing them are generally pro-
vided with other flowers of the usual kind, — some, as the
violet, having elaborate special adaptations for cross fertili-
zation.

Practical Questions

1. "Why does a strawberry bed sometimes fail to fruit well, although it
may flower abundantly? (267, 268.)

2. Are berries found on all sassafras trees? On all buckthorns?
HoUies ?

3. Would a solitary hop- vine produce fruit? A solitary ash tree?
(267.)

4. "Wliy is a mistletoe bough with berries on it so much harder to find
than one with foliage merely ? (267, 268.)

B. Wind Pollination

Material, — In spring, catkins of forest trees, staminate and pistillate
flowers of pine. At nearly all seasons, heads of grain and panicles of va-
rious kinds of grass can be obtained. For experiment, a potted plant of
any kind, just about to bloom, may be used.

Experiment 80. To test the effect of shutting out external
AGENCIES. — Tie paper bags over flower buds of different kinds when nearly
ready to open and leave until the flowers have withered. On removing
the bags, mark with colored threads the flowers that had been covered, and
watch until seed time. Do you notice any difference in the number, size,
or weight of the seed produced by them and by those of the same kind left
exposed ? How do you account for the diff"erence, if there is any ? By
what agencies could foreign j^oUen have been carried to the stigmas of
the exposed flowers? If any of the covered specimens wither and drop
their seed vessels without any attempt to fruit, examine a fresh flower, and
see if it is capable of self-pollination.

As already explained, experiments of this kind, to be conclusive, should
be tried on as many specimens as possible. The greater the number of
species and individuals included, the better. Where it is not practicable
to carry on experiments by the class, pupils who are interested can make
them at home.

273. The problem of pollination. — 'WHien a plant has pro-
vided against self-pollination, its problem is only half solved,

240

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

as it must now depend upon the conveyance of pollen to the
stigma by extraneous means.

274. Adaptations to wind pollination. — A very large
number of plants, among which are included nearly all our

principal forest trees, grains,
and grasses of every kind,
depend exclusively upon the
wind for the distribution of
their pollen. This being
the case, it is, of course, an
advantage to them to get
rid of all unnecessary ap-
pendages that might hinder
a free play of the wind
among their flowers, and so
they consist, as a rule, of
essential organs only (Figs.
34 1 , 342) . Such flowers are
often distinguished, how-
ever, especially among
grasses and low herbs, by
large, feathery stigmas that
are well adapted to catch and hold any stray pollen grains
which may be floating in the air. Place a stigma of oat or
other grass under the microscope and you will probably see
a number of pollen grains clinging to its branches.

275. The disadvantages of wind pollination. — This is a
very clumsy and wasteful method, however, for so much
]:>()llen is lost by the haphazard mode of distribution that the
plant is forced to spend its energies in producing a vast
amount more than is actually needed, and great masses of it
are frequently seen in spring floating like patches of suli)hur
on ponds and streams in the neighborhood of pine thickets.
Like those that are self-pollinated, wind-pollinated flowers
are generally very inconspicuous, devoid of odor, and of all
attractions of form or color^ because they have no need of

Fig. 351. — Feathery stigmas of a grass
adapted to wind pollination.

THE FLOWER 241

these allurements to attract the visits of insects. Besides
being wasteful, wind pollination is very uncertain. The
pollen cannot be blown about very well unless it is dry, and
in rainy weather it may all be rotted or washed away before
it can reach the stigmas that are ready to receive it.

Practical Questions

1. Why do the flowers of oak, willow, and other wind-fertilized plants
generally appear before the leaves? (274.)

2. Can you account for the showers of "sulphur" sometimes reported
in the newspapers ? (275.)

3. Do you see any connection between the feathery stigmas of most
grasses and their mode of pollination? (274.)

4. Why are house plants not apt to seed so well as those left in the
open? (Exp. 80.)

5. Why are the tassels of corn placed at the tip of the stalk? (274.)

6. Can you trace any connection between the winds and the corn crop ?
(274.)

7. If March winds should cease to l)low, would vegetation be affected
in any way? (274.)

8. Why are wind-fertilized plants generally trees or tall herbs ? (274.)

9. Is it good husbandry to plant different varieties of corn or other
grain in the same field, if :* is desired to keep the strain pure ? (255, 274.)

10. Is water a good pollen carrier ? (275.)

11. What is the only class of plants it is likely to reach?

12. What is the only other agency, besides wind and water, by which
this office can be performed ?

C. Insect Pollination

M.\TERiAL. — Half a dozen panes of glass, about 6X9; squares of
bright-colored cloth or paper; a few spoonfuls of honey or sirup; per-
fumes of various kinds, preferably flower extracts ; fetid and disagreeable
smelling substances, such as a bit of decaying animal or vegetable matter.
Observations on living plants can best be made out of doors or in a green-
house, as opportunity offers.

Experiment 81. Has the color of flowers any attraction for
INSECTS ? — Place half a dozen panes of ordinary window glass out of doors
or in an open window to which insects can have free access. Lay under
the first pane a piece of black paper or cloth, and under the otlu^vs bright-
colored pieces of red, blue, white, yellow, and purple. Drop on the center
of each pane a little honey or sirup, and watch. Do in.sects show any
color preferences? Which color attracts fewest visitors? Which most?

242 TRACTTCAL COURSE TN BOTANY

Experiment 82. Does odor influence insects ? — Try the same
experiment with different odors, removing the bright colors and sprink-
Ung some kind of perfume on each pane. Try also tlic effect of decay-
ing meat and other malodorous substances. Are any insects attractetl by
these ? What kinds ? Does this account for the noisome smells of the
" carrion-flower " and skunk cabbage ? What kinds of insects are attracted
by sweet-smelling substances ? Do the greater number appear to be at-
tracted by these, or by foul odors? Are flowers of the sweet-smelling
or the foul-smelling kind more common in nature ? Do insects seem to
be more strongly influenced by colors or by odors ?

276. The color of flowers, being an adaptation to changing
external conditions, is a very unstable quality, and varies
greatly within the limits of the same species. Even on the
same stem, flowers of different colors are often found, due,
probably, to hybridization. Yet, notwithstanding all this
apparently random intermingling of hues, the range of color
for each species is confined, approximately, within certain
limits. Nobody has ever seen a blue rose or a yellow aster;
and though the florist's art is constantly narrowing the ap-
plication of this law, it still remains true that in a state of
nature, certain colors seem to be associated together in the
floral art gamut. Yellow is considered the simplest and
most primitive color in flowers, and blue the latest and
most highly evolved. Yellow, white, and purple, in the
order named, are the commonest flower colors in nature ;
blue, the rarest. Do you see any relation between these facts
and the color preferences of insects ?

277. Advantages of insect pollination. — It is evident that
this is a much more certain as well as a more economical
method of securing polhnation than through the haphazard
agency of wind or water. In probing around for the nectar
or the pollen upon which they feed, these busy little creatures
get themselves dusted with the fertilizing powder, which they
unconsciously convey from the stamen of one flower to the
pistil of another. Insects usually confine themselves, as far
as possible, to the same species during their day's work, and
since less pollen is wasted in this way than would be done by

THE FLOWER

243

the wind, it is clearly to the advantage of a plant to attract
such visitors, even at the expense of a little honey, or of a
liberal toll out of the pollen they distribute.

278. Special partnerships. — Some plants have adapted
themselves to the visits of one particular kind of insect so
completely that they would die out if that
species were to become extinct. The well-
known alliance between red clover and the
bumblebee was brought to light when the
plant was first introduced into Australia.
It grew luxuriantly and blossomed pro-
fusely, but would never set seed till the
bumblebee was introduced to
keep it company.

A remarkable partnership of
this kind exists between the
pronuha, or yucca moth, and
the flowering yuccas, of which the bear's grass
and Spanish bayonet are familiar examples.
The pods of these plants are never perfect, but
all show a constriction at or near the middle,

such as is some-

FiG. 352. — Pod
of yucca pierced by
the Pronuba yuc-
casella.

seen m

sides of

plums

pears.

Fig. 353.—
Pronuba polli-
nating pistil of
yucca.

Fig.

354. — Moth resting on yucca
blossom.

This is caused by the larvae
of the moth, which feed upon
the unripe seeds. A glance
under the nodding perianth
of a yucca blossom (Fig. 354)
will show that the short stamens are curved back from the
pistil in such a manner that, under ordinary circumstances,
the pollen cannot reach the stigma except by the rarest
accident. But the yucca moth, as soon as she has deposited
her eggs in the seed vessel, takes care to provide a crop of

244

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Fig. 355. — Upper boughs of a capri-
fig tree, showing an abundant crop of
spring fruit.

food for her offspring by gathering a ball of pollen in her
antenna? and deliberately plastering it over the stigma (Fig.
353). In this way fertilization of the ovules and maturing
of the fruit is secured. The larva? feed on the unripe seeds

for a time, but so few are
destroyed in proportion to
the number matured that
the plant can well afford to
pay the small toll charged
in return for the service
rendered.

279. Caprification of the
fig. — A more complicated
case of specialization is that
of the Smyrna fig of com-
merce — the only one of the
species that is capable of
perfecting seeds. The
staminate flowers are borne on a separate tree, the caprifig,
which grows wild in the countries bordering on the Medi-
terranean. The caprifigs, as the fruit of this tree is called,
are worthless except as the breeding
and nesting places of a small insect,
the fig wasp. This insect is the
necessary agent in conveying pollen
from the stamens of the caprifig to
the pistils of the Smyrna fig, which it
penetrates at certain seasons of the
year in the effort to lay its eggs. In
order to insure caprification, as this process is called, the
caprifigs are strung by hand on fillets of cord or raffia and
hung about on the trees which are to be fertilized. In this
case we have an example of a threefold partnership between
man, the fig tree, and the wasp, which is necessary to the
existence of two of the parties.

Fig. 356. — Female wasps
issuing from the galls of capri-
figs, in which the eggs are
laid.

THE FLOWER

24^

D. Protective Adaptation

Experiment 83. Are the floral envelopes op any use ? — Care-
fully remove the calyx and corolla from a young flower bud on a growing
plant and see what will happen. Remove them from a flower just unfold-
ing. Mark each by tying a colored thread lightly around the petiole and
see if it sets as many seeds, or as good ones, as the unmutilated flowers on
the same plant.

Experiment 84. Is the position of a flower on the stem of any
importance ? — Invert a blossom of pea or sage, and see what parts would
come in contact with the body of a visiting insect. How would its chances
for pollination be affected? Try to make a flower grow in an inverted
position by tying or weighting it down, and watch the effect on seed pro-
duction.

Experiment 85.
BY light ? — Place
window so that the
position of the buds.
to light, and watch

Experiment 86.
BY GEOTROPiSM ? — Lay a potted plant of lily of the valley, larkspur.

Is THE position OF FLOWERS ON THE STEM INFLUENCED

a potted plant with expanding flower buds near a
light will reach it from one side only, and notice the
After a day or two reverse the position with regard
whether any change of position takes place.

Is THE POSITION OF FLOWERS ON THE STEM INFLUENCED

357

358

Figs. 357-359. — Flower of monkshood, showing the changes hy which it returns
to its original position under the influence of geotropism after the axis of inflorescence,
s, has been inverted: 357, inverted position; 358, change due to negative geotro-
pism ; 359, change due to lateral geotropism.

gladiolus, or digitalis in a horizontal position, tie the main stem to keep
it from changing its direction of growth, and leave for two or three days
iin a place where it is lighted equally on all sides. How do the individual
flowers behave ? What part bends to turn them up ? Vary the experi-

246

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

360

Figs. 360, 361. — Protection of pollen in the
thistle: 360, position at night, or during wet
weather ; 361, position in sunshine.

ment by turning the pot bottom upwards so that the flowering axis will
point downwards. This can be done by inclosing the pot in a bag of strong
cheesecloth, with the string tied loosely but firmly around the foot of the
stem to prevent the contents from falling out, and suspending the whole
bottom upwards. In making these experiments, use flowers that grow
in a long cluster, or raceme, and hold the main axis in a vertical position
by tying or weighting it down. Watch the behavior of the individual
flowers. Arrange another pot containing the same kind of plant, in the

same way, and suspend one
361 in a dark place, keeping the

other in the light. Does the
same movement take place in
both? Is it in response to
light, or to gravity ?

280. Means of pro-
tection. — Where plants
have adapted them-
selves to insect polli-
nation, it is, of course, important to shut out intruders that
would not make good carriers. In general, small, creeping
things, like ants and ^r^ -^

plant lice, are not such A' '/ '

efficient pollen bearers
as winged insects, and
hence the various de-
vices, such as hairs,
scales, and constric-
tions, at the throat of
the corolla, by means
of which their access to
the pollen is prohibited.
To this class of adapta-
tions belong the hairy
filaments of the spider-
wort, the sticky ring
about the peduncles of weather.

the catchfly, the swollen lips of the snapdragon, the scales or
hairs in the throat of the hound's-tongue, the velvet petals

363

Figs. 362, 363. — A bell flower : 362, position
in daylight ; 363, position at night, or during wet

THE FLOWER

247

of the partridge berry, and the recurved edges of corollas
like those of the morning-glory and tobacco, over which small
crawhng insects cannot easily climb.

Of flowers that are pollinated by night moths, some close
during the day, as the four-o'clock and the evening primrose ;
and vice versa, the morning-glory, dandelion, and dayflower
(Commelyna) unfold their beauties only in the sunlight.
For similar reasons, night-blooming flowers are generally
white or very light-colored, and shed their fragrance only after
sunset. A nodding position is assumed by many flowers at
night, or during a
shower, to keep the
pollen from being in-
jured by dew or rain-
281. Insect depre-
dators. — The secre-
tion of honey is a
common means of
attracting insects,
and various adapta-
tions, such as spurs, sacs, and pockets, are provided for pro-
tecting it against unwelcome intruders. In general, plants

that have long, tubular
'J \ flowers, like the trumpet

honeysuckle {Lonicera sem-
FiG. 365.-Headoftheswordbiii,abird pervirens) and the trumpet

vine, are reserving their

sweets for humming birds,
or long-tongued moths and butterflies. This protective
device is not always successful, however, against insect dep-
redators, for it is not uncommon to find such corollas with
a puncture near the base, made by wasps or bees, and some-
times by humming birds themselves, in their impatience to
get at the feast before the flower is open. Through the breach
thus made, a rabble of petty thieves can then find entrance.

Fig. 364. — A flower of the trumpet vine (Tecoma
radicajis) adapted to pollination by humnung birds
and humming bird moths, which has been pierced by
a bee or bird for honey.

Head of the swordbill, a l)ird
adapted to feeding on nectar from long,
tubular corollas.

248 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTAxNTY

Practical Questions

1. Of what use is the brilliant coloring of the camellia? The large
flowers of the magnolia ? The perfume of the rose and the violet ? The
fetid odor of the ailanthus? (277 ; Kxps. 81, 82.)

2. Are the tastes of insects in regard to odors always the same as ours ?
(Exp. 82.)

3. Have flowers any economic value except for decorative purposes?

4. Can you name any that are used as food or beverages ? Any that
furnish spices and flavorings? Drugs, medicines, or dyes?

5. What commercial food product is obtained almost entirely from
flowers ?

6. Name some of the flowers that are most valued by the beekeeper.

7. Mention another important industry that is entirely dependent on
flowers.

8. Name some of the flowers that are most important to the per-
fumer.

9. Why do the seeds of fruit trees so seldom produce offspring true
to the stock? (256,257,271,277.)

10. Would you place a beehive near a field of buckwheat ? Of clover ?
Near a strawberry bed ? In a peach orchard ? Near a fig tree ? Under
a grape arbor?

11. Why are very conspicuous flowers, like the camelUa, hollyhock, and
pelargoniums, so frequently without odor ?

12. Why is the wallflower "sweetest by night"? (280.)

13. What advantage can flowers like the morning-glory gain by their
early closing? (280.)

14. Of what use to the cotton plant, Japan honeysuckle, and hibiscus
is the change of color their blossoms undergo a few hours after opening?
(277, 278, 280.)

15. Why does the Japan honeysuckle, which has run wild so abundantly
in many parts of our country, produce so few berries ? (278, 280.)

16. If the trumpet vine grows in your neighborhood, examine a number
of corollas and account for the dead ants found in them. Account also
for the large hole (sometimes three quarters of an inch in diameter) often
found near the base of the tube. (281.)

17. Do you see any connection between the greater freshness and beauty
of flowers early in the morning, and the activity of bees, birds, and butter-
flies at that time ?

18. The flowers most frequented by humming birds are the trumpet
honeysuckle, cardinal flower, trumpet vine, horsemint (Monarda), wild
columbine, canna, fuchsia, etc. ; what inference would you draw from
this as to their color preferences?

THE FLOWER 249

Field Work

1. The ecology of the flower is so suggestive a subject and so peculiarly
appropriate to outdoor work that it seems hardly necessary to point out the
many attractive fields of inquiry it opens to the student of nature. In this
way alone can experiments in insect pollination be carried on to the best
advantage Try the effect of enveloping buds of various kinds in gauze so
as to exclude the visits of insects, and note the result as to the production
of fruit and seed. Envelop a cluster of milkweed blossoms in this way and
notice how much longer the flowers so protected continue in bloom than do
the others ; why is this ? Try the same experiment upon the blooms of
cotton and hibiscus, if you live where they grow, and see whether the char-
acteristic change in color occurs in flowers from which insects have been
excluded, and whether good seed pods are produced by them. Try the
effect upon fruit production of excluding insects from clusters of apple,
pear, and peach blossoms.

2. Make a list of all the outdoor plants, both wild and cultivated, that
are found blooming in your neighborhood, keeping a record of the earliest
specimens of each as you find them. The best way is to keep a sort of
daily calendar, and at the end of each month give a summary of the species
found in bloom during that period. In this way a fairly complete annual
record of the flowering time of the different plants for that vicinity will be
obtained. The record should be kept up the whole year round. Don't
stop in winter, but go straight on through the coldest as well as the hottest
season, and you will make some surprising discoveries, especially if the
record is continued year after year. Give the common name of each plant,
adding the botanical one if you know it. Any facts that you may know
or may discover in regard to particular plants, such as their medicinal or
other uses, their poisonous or edible properties, the insects that visit them,
and in the case of weeds, their origin and introduction, will greatly enhance
the interest and value of the record.

CHAPTER VIII. FRUITS
I. HORTICULTURAL AND BOTANICAL FRUITS

Material. — Green ears of corn or wheat, fresh pods of beans, young
fruits of apple, grape, tomato, melon, buckeye, chestnut, or pecan. A
young fruiting stem of squash, gourd, or tomato.

Appliances. — Coloring fluid, glasses of water, a piece of cardboard,
tin-foil, vaseline.

Experiment 87. Where do the food substances contained in
FRUITS COME FROM ? — Apply your food tests to the pulp of a young apple,
squash, bean pod, chestnut, buckeye, or a "green" ear of corn or wheat,
and see what it contains. Te.st the stem and roots of a plant of the same
kind in the same way. Do you find the same foods in them? Where
is the food stored?

Experiment 88. Through what parts of the stem and fruit do

WATER AND NOURISHMENT TRAVEL TO THE SEED ? — Cut a yOUUg Squash

or cucumber from the vine, leaving stem enough to insert by its cut end
in a glass of eosin solution. Leave for two or three days, then make a
vertical section through the stem and fruit. What course has the liquid
followed ? Can you trace some of it into each seed ? Do you see now a
use for the seed stalk and the rhaphe ?

Experiment 89. Does the surface of fruits give off water by
TRANSPIRATION ? — Try Exp. 39, using in place of leaves a young squash,
eggplant, or a bunch of grapes, and after a day or two notice whether
any moisture has been given off. If the fruit skin gives off moisture,
it is natural to expect that it would be provided with stomata, like other
transpiring organs. To find out whether this is so, place a thin piece of
the outer epidermis of a grape, tomato, plum, or apple under the micro-
scope. Do you find stomata on any of them ? Do you see anything else ?
Try the skin of an apple, and compare the corky dots you find there with
those on the bark of a young dicotyl stem (118) and decide what they are.

Experiment 90. Will fruits ripen well in the absence of light
AND AIR ? — Envelop a number of immature fruits in bags of dark cloth
or paper so that no light can reach them. Keep a number of others well
coated with oil or vaseline, and watch. Do the fruits so treated mature
as quickly or develop as fully as those of the same kind left untreated ?

250

FRUITS

251

Plate 12. — The inii)r<)Vfiiu'iit of fruits by cultivution ami scliM'tinn : 1, the
common wild gooseberry ; 2, Houghton gooseberry, seedling of the wild form ;
3, Downing gooseberry, seedling of the Houghton. (All natural size, adapted from
BaUey.)

252 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Experiment 91. What is the use of the rind to the fruit? —
Select two apples of equal size, peel one, and weigh both. After 12 to 24
hours, weigh them again. Which shows the greater loss in weight?
Leave peeled and unpeeled fruits in an exposed place and see which is
the more readily attacked by insects. Which decays the sooner ? What
are some of the uses of the rind ?

282. What is a fruit ? — Horticulturally and commercially
the distinction between a fruit and a vegetable depends very
much upon the use we make of it — whether as food, or as a
mere gratification of the palate. Broadly speaking, those
fruits that are lacking in sugar, as the tomato and cucum-
ber, are classed as vegetables. Botanically, a fruit is any
ripened seed vessel, or ovary, with such connected parts as
may have become incorporated with it ; and hence, to the
botanist, a boll of cotton, a tickseed, or a cocklebur is just
as much a fruit as a peach or a watermelon,

283. Classification of fruits. — For convenience of de-
scription, fruits are classed as :

(a) Dry or fleshy, according as they have a more or less
hard and bony, or soft and fleshy, texture.

(b) Dehiscent, or indehiscent, according as they open at
maturity in a regular way to discharge their seed, or remain
closed until the covering wears away or is burst by the germi-
nating embryo.

Fleshy fruits are very seldom dehiscent, though some few,
as the balsam apple and the chayote, or one-seeded squash,
discharge their seed when mature. The banana and some
other fleshy fruits, when peeled, separate along regular lines,
and in this respect behave very much as if they were fleshy
pods.

284. When is a fruit ripe ? — A fruit is ripe horticulturally,
when it is good to eat ; it is ripe botanically, when it has set
its seed. Many of our choicest table fruits, such as the pine-
apple, banana, and most varieties of fig, seldom are botani-
cally ripe, since they rarely produce perfect seeds.

It is the constant effort of the horticulturist to develop

FRUITS

253

those parts of a plant that are useful to man, while in a state
of nature the plant seeks to develop such parts as best serve
its own purpose in the struggle for existence. The plants
most useful to man have, as a general thing, been subjected
to a long course of artificial breeding and selection. They
are forced developments, often monstrosities, from the plant's
point of view, if we could conceive of it as capable of having
an opinion. Nature is continually striving to reclaim them;
and if left to themselves, they must
either obey " the call of the wild,"
or die out.

285. Seedless fruits and vegeta-
bles. — As the seed is the most
important thing to the plant, the
edible parts in wild fruits are, as a
rule, subsidiary to its development.
In a state of nature, fruits will gen-
erally wither and drop from the
stem, if for any reason they have
become incapable of perfecting their
seed. It is only in a few kinds, limited to those which can
successfully propagate themselves by other means, that the
production of seed does not take place. Among cultivated
species, however, where propagation is carefully provided
for by man, the seed is of less importance, and sterile vari-
eties that might soon die out under natural conditions, con-
tinue their existence indefinitely under his fostering hand.
The seeds of edible fruits are, as a general thing, both indi-
gestible and unpalatable (21), and hence the efforts of the
horticulturist are directed largely to getting rid of them, or
to very greatly reducing their size and number in proportion
to the edible parts.

286. How seedless fruits arise. — The perfecting of seed
requires a great consumption of food and energy on the part
of the plant, and when it is led, for any reason, to expend
an unusual amount of force in some other function, — as

Fig. 366. — a seedless cit-
range, hybrid between the or-
ange and the lemon.

254 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

for instance, in producing tubers or in growing bulbs, —
it is apt to bear few seeds and to depend more or less com-
pletel}' upon other methods of reproduction.

Among cultivated plants, selection on the part of man,
whether conscious or unconscious, has perhaps contributed
more than any other cause to bring about the same result.
To this agency is probably due the development of our com-
mon domestic fig, of which over four hundred varieties that
mature fruits without fertilization are cultivated in the United
States alone. The fig was one of the earliest fruits known to
cultivation; and the early navigators, ignorant of the processes
of fertilization, would naturally, in choosing specimens to
carry home with them, select only fruit-bearing trees. Such
of these as matured fruits would be preserved and propagated,
until, by repeated selection, hundreds of edible varieties have
been developed that ripen fruits without caprification (279) .

287. The use of the fruit to the plant. — The object of
the fruit is to furnish protection to the seeds during their
period of development and inactivity, and to aid in various
ways the work of dispersal. It probably takes part also in
digesting and diffusing nourishment for the use of the develop-
ing seeds. It has been shown in previous chapters that plants,
almost without exception, are in the habit of storing up
food in various ways as a provision for fruiting. That a
large portion of the stored nourishment is used up in the per-
formance of this function is proved by its disappearance from
those parts — for example, from fleshy roots, such as beets
and turnips, after they have " gone to seed."

Practical Questions

1 . What is the use of the down on the peach ? The bloom of the plum
and grape? [202, (1); Exp. 91.]

2. Why are apples, pears, plums, and other fleshy fruits nearly always
rosier on one side than on the other? (Exp. 90.)

3. Can annuals be improved in any other waj^ than by seed selec-
tion?

4. Would a seedless annual be perpetuated under natural conditions ?

FRUITS

255

5. Why is decrease of moisture and increase of light desirable as the
fruiting season approaches? (126, 127; Exp. 90.)

6. Why are turnips, carrots, and other fleshy roots unfit to eat if left
over till the plants have seeded ? (92, 287.)

II. FLESHY FRUITS

Material. — A specimen of each of the four principal kinds of fleshy
fruits. Examples of the pome are : apple, pear, quince, rose hip, haw ; of
the berry : grape, tomato, cranberry, currant, gooseberry, lemon ; of the
pepo : melon, squash, pumpkin ; of the drupe : peach, plum, cherry, dog-
wood. Specimens of the commoner kinds can nearly always be found in
the market ; if nothing better is available, pickled and dried ones may be
used — figs, prunes, dates, raisins, etc.

— Examine with a lens
Can you make out the

288. Dissection of a pome fruit.

the outside of an apple or a pear,
lenticels ? What difference
in color do you notice be-
tween the ripe and unripe
fruit? What difference in
taste? What substance
would you judge from this,
do ripe fruits contain
which green ones do not?
Test both kinds for sugar
and starch ; which contains
the more of each? Strictly
speaking, sugar and starch
are merely different forms
of the same chemical compound. In ripe fruits the starch
has been cooked by the sun and converted into sugar.

With the point of a pencil separate the little dry scales that
cover the depression in the center of the fruit at the end oppo-
site the stem. How many of them arc there ? How does this
accord with the plan of the flower as outlined in 229 ? They
are the remains of the sepals, as will be more apparent on
comparing them with the larger and more leaf like ones on
a hip, which is clearly only the end of the footstalk enlarged

tj( . — Outside of an apple, show-
ing lenticels on the skin.

256

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Fig. 308. — Cross section
of a pome : ;)/, placenta ; c,
carpels ; /, fibrovascular bun-
dles.

and hollowed out with the caljrx sepals at the top. Cut a
cross section midway between the stem and the blossom end,
and make an enlarged sketch of it. Label the thin, papery
walls that inclose the seed, carpels.
How many of them are there, and how
many seeds does each contain ? The
carpels, together with all that portion
of the fruit which surrounds and ad-
heres to the ovary, constitute the peri-
carp, or wall of the seed vessel. The
fleshy part of the apple is no part of
the ovary proper, but consists merely
of the receptacle, or end of the foot-
stalk, which becomes greatly enlarged
and thickened in fruit. Look for a
ring of dots outside the carpels, connected (usually) by a
faint scalloped line. How many of these dots are there ? How
do they compare in number with the carpels ? With the rem-
nants of the sepals adhering to the blossom end of the fruit ?

Next make a vertical section
through a fruit, and sketch, enlarg-
ing it sufficiently to show all the
parts distinctly. Observe the line of
woody fibers outside the carpels, in-
closing the core of the apple. Com-
pare this with your cross section ; to
what does it correspond ? Where do
these threads originate? Where do
they end ? Can you make out what
they are? (176.) Notice how and
where the stem is attached to the
fruit. Label the external portion of

the stem, peduncle ; the upper part, from which the fibrovas-
cular bundles branch, the receptacle. It is the enlargement
of this which forms the fleshy part of the fruit. Try to find
out, with the aid of your lens and dissecting pins, the exact

Fig. 369. — Vertical section
of a pome : p, peduncle ; /,
fibrovascular bundles ; s, seeds ;
pi, placenta ; c, carpel.

FRUITS

257

spot at which the seeds are attached to the carpels, and
label this point, placenta. Notice whether it is in the axis
where the carpels all meet at their inner edges, or on the
outer side. Observe, also, whether the seed is attached to
the placenta by its big or its little end. If you can find a
tiny thread that attaches the seed to the carpel; label it, seed
stalk. Fruits of this kind are classed, botanically, as pomes.
Write, from your analysis, a definition of the pome.

289, Modifications of the receptacle. — Compare with the
drawings you have made, a haw and a hip. What points of
agreement do you see ? What dif-
ferences ? Which of the two more
closely resembles the typical pome ?
The receptacle is subject to a va-
riety of modifications, and forms a
part of many fruits, for example,
the fig, lotus, and calycanthus
(Figs. 370, 371) ; but a fruit is not
a pome unless the containing re-
ceptacle becomes more or less soft
and edible.

290. The pepo, or melon. — Next
examine a gourd, cucumber, squash,
or any kind of melon, and compare its blossom end with that
of the apple or pear. Do you find any remains of a calyx,
or other part of the flower ? Examine the peduncle and ob-
serve how the fruit is attached to it. Can you tell what
made the outer epidermis of the rind? Put a small piece
under the microscope ; do you see any stomata, or lenticels ?
Cut cross and vertical sections, and sketch them, labeling
each part. There may be some difficulty in making out the
carpels, for they are not separate and distinct as in the pome,
but confluent with the enlarged receptacle, which in these
fruits forms the outer portion of the rind, and also with each
other at their edges, so as to form one unbroken circle, as if
they had all grown together. And this is precisely what

370

Fk

371
370, 371. — Enlarged

receptacle of Carolina allspice
{Calycanthus), containing fruits
attached to its inner surface :
370, exterior ; 371, vertical sec-
tion.

258

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Fi<i. ;i 7 2. — Cross
section of gourd : c, one
of the carpels in dia-
gram. {After Gray.)

has happened. The placentas are greatly enlarged and
modified, and it may be necessary to refer to the diagram,
Fig. 372, c, in order to make them out. How many locules,
or chambers, are there in your specimen? How many
placentas? Notice that these are central
and double, but extend to the pericarp be-
fore dividing so that they appear to be pa-
rietal, and twice their real number, which
is only three. Are the seeds vertical, as in
the apple, or horizontal? Look for the
little stalk, or thread, that attaches them
to the placenta.

Pepo is the name given by botanists to
this kind of fruit. Write in your notebook
a proper definition of it, from the specimens examined.

291. The berry. — Examine a tomato, an eggplant, a
grape, cranberry, lemon, or orange, in both cross and ver-
tical section, and compare it with the melon and the apple.
What differences and resemblances do you find? Cut a
cross section, and draw, showing the attachment of the seeds.
How many locules are there? Normally the tomato is a
two-celled fruit, like the potato berry (Fig. 374), but it has
been so modified by cultivation that
the original plan is not always easy
to distinguish. See if you can make
it out. Do the seeds in your speci-
men appear to be healthy and well
developed, or are some of them small
and aborted ? How do you account
for this? (285,286.) What differ-
ence do you notice in color between
the ripe and unripe fruit? Write a
definition of the berry from the study you have made of it.

Berries are the commonest of all fleshy fruits, and the most
variable and difficult to define. In general, any soft, pulpy,
or juicy mass, like the grape and tomato, whether one or

Figs. 373, 374. — A potato
berry : 373, exterior ; 374, cross
section.

FRUITS 259

many seeded, inclosed in a containing envelope, whether
skin or rind, is a berry. Its typical forms are such fruits as
the grape, mistletoe, pokeberry, etc., though such diverse
forms as the eggplant, persimmon, red pepper, orange, ba-
nana, and pomegranate have been classed as berries; and,
in fact, the melon and the pumpkin are only greatly modified
kinds of the same fruit. In popular language, any small,
round, edible fruit is called a berry. This is a good commer-
cial classification, though not botanically correct.

292. The drupe, or stone fruit. — ■ Examine a section of a
green plum, peach, or cherry, before the stone has hardened,
and tell from what part it is formed. This stony covering,
composed of the inner layer of the pericarp, and enveloping
the seed like an outer coat, is the main dis-
tinction between the drupe and the berry,
but it is not always possible to make out its
real nature except by an examination of the
young ovary. In a green drupe, before the
stone has hardened, its connection with the ^. ^'^" '^.'^^'""y'""

' ^ ^ _ tical section of a

fleshy part is very evident, and the ripe fruit drupe. {After
will answer inquiries if w^e know how to put
them. Open the stone, and the seed will be exposed with its
own coverings inside. When a stone has more than one
kernel, — for instance, an almond or peach stone, ■ — the
stone is not a seed coat, but the hardened inner wall of a
seed vessel or ovary ; for a seed coat can never contain more
than one seed, any more than the same skin can contain
more than one animal.

All the fruits considered in this section belong to the fleshy
class. These form the bulk of the fruits sold in the market,
and are of special importance to the horticultmist.

Practical Questions

1. Is the tomato liorfunilturally a fruit or a vegetable? the squash?
eggplant? craiiherry ? olive? elderberry? pepper? date? maypop? crab
apple? black haw? To what glass does e;^ch belong? (283, 2S8-292.)

260 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

2. Of what use to the plant is the hard stone of the drupe? (21.)

3. Is the pulp of fleshy fruits agreeable to the taste before they are
ripe? After? What advantage is this to the plant ? (21.)

4. Are the seeds of edible fruits, as a general thing, digestible or agree-
able to the palate ?

5. Is this an advantage to man? To the plant? (21, 284, 285.)

6. What are the most common fleshy fruits in autumn ?

7. With what vegetative parts of the plant does the skin of many
fruits present correspondences ? Are these such as to indicate homology,
or analogy only, between them? (100, 118, 288, 289; Exp. 89.)

8. Name six of the most watery fruits that grow in your neighborhood.

9. Under what conditions as to soil, heat, moisture, etc., does each
thrive best ?

10. Would a gardener act wisely to infer that because a fruit contains
a great deal of water it should be planted in a very wet place ?

11. Which contains more water, the fruit or the leaves of the apple ?

12. Why does not the fruit, when separated from the tree, wither as
quickly as do the leaves? (Exp. 91.)

III. DRY FRUITS

Material. — Some easily attainable specimens of dry fruits are (1) nuts:
acorn, hickory nut, walnut, chestnut, pecan, filbert ; (2) pods : pea and bean
pods, capsules of larkspur, milkweed, jimson weed, cotton ; (3) grains : corn,
wheat, oats, rice; (4) akene: sunflower, thistle, dandelion, buckwheat,
clematis.

293. Importance of dry fruits. — Dry fruits are not in
general so conspicuous or so attractive as fleshy ones, but on
account of their great number and variety they offer a
wide field for study. They are also of great interest from an
economic point of view: (1) because they include the cereal
grains that furnish so large a portion of our food, and (2)
because the greater part of the troublesome weeds that infest
our crops are scattered by fruits of this class.

294. Indehiscent fruits. — These kinds are so simple that
it will not be necessary to give much time to them. Compare
an acorn, a chestnut, or a filbert with a ripe bean pod or with
a capsule of morning-glory. Try to open each with your
fingers ; which dehisces, or opens, the more readily ? Which is
indehiscent, having no regular way of opening ? How many

FRUITS

261

seeds or kernels do you find in the dehiscent pod? How
many in the indehiscent one? Would it be of any advan-
tage for a one-seeded pod to open? Remove the kernel
from the indehiscent fruit ; has it any covering besides the
shell ? Which is the pericarp, and which the seed coat ?

295. The nut is easily recognized by its hard, bony cover-
ing, containing usually, when mature, a single large seed that
fills the interior. Care should be taken not to confound with
true nuts, large bony seeds, like those of the buckeye, horse-

376 377

Figs. 376, 377. — Nut of the pecan
tree : 376, exterior ; 377, cross section.

Figs. 378, 379. — Nutlike seeds:
378, horse-chestnut ; 379, seed of the
fetid sterculia.

chestnut, date, and the Brazil nut sold in the markets. In
the true nut, the hard covering is the seed vessel, or pericarp,
and not a part of the seed itself, though it often adheres to it
so closely as to seem so. In bony seeds, like those of the horse-
chestnut and persimmon, the hard covering is the outer seed
coat. The distinction is not always easy to make out unless
the seed can be examined while still attached to the placenta
of the fruit.

296. The akene, of which we have
examples in the tailed fruit of the
clematis, the tiny pits on the straw-
berry, and the so-called seeds of the
thistle, dandelion, and sunflower, is a
small, dry, one-seeded, indehiscent
fruit, so like a naked seed that it is
generally taken for one by persons not
acquainted with botany. It is the

380

3S1

Figs. 380, 381. — Akcnes
(magnified) : 3S0, of buck-
wheat ; 381, of cinquefoil.

262

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

.383

384

Figs. 382-384. — Cremocarps, fruits of
the parsley family.

commonest of all fruits, and there are so many kinds that
special names have been applied to some of the most marked

varieties. The akene of the
composite family may gen-
erally be known by the
various appendages in the
form of scales, hooks, hairs,
or chaff, that crown it (Figs.
309-314). The fruits of the
parsley family are merely a
sort of double akene at-
tached by the inner face
to a slender stalk from which it separates at maturity.
The samara, or key fruit, is an akene provided with a
wing to aid in its disper-
sion by the wind. The l^^
maple, ash, and elm fur-
nish familiar examples.

297. The grain, so fa-
miliar to us in all kinds of
grasses, is economically
the most important of all
fruits. It is popularly
classed as a seed, and for practical purposes may be treated
as such, but it is really a modification of the akene in which
the seed coats have so completely fused with the pericarp
that they can no longer be distinguished
as separate organs. Peel the husk from
a grain of corn that has been soaked for
twenty-four hours, and you will find the
contents exposed without any covering ;
remove the shell of an acorn or a hickory
nut, and the seed will still be enveloped
by its own coats. Would it be of any
advantage for the seed of an indehiscent fruit, like a grain of
corn or oats, to have a separate special covering of its own ?

385
Figs. 385, 38G.

386

— Samaras : 385, ailanthus ;
38G, maple.

387

Figs. 387, 388. — Grain
of wheat with husks on :
387, front view ; 388, back
view.

FRUITS

263

Fig. 389. — Follicle
of milkweed.

Fig. 390. — Leaf-
like follicle of Japan
varnish tree : S,
outer(dorsal) suture ;
S', inner (ventral)
suture.

298. Dehiscent fruits. — Pod, or capsule, is the general
name applied to all dehiscent fruits. The simplest possible
kind of pod is the follicle, composed of a

single carpel, like those of
the larkspur, milkweed, and
marsh marigold, and may be
regarded as a modified leaf.
Examine one of these pods
and you will find that it
splits down one side, which
corresponds to the edges of
the leaf brought together
and turned inward to form
a placenta for the attach-
ment of the seed. This line
of union is called a "su-
ture," from a Latin word
meaning a "seam."

299. The legume. — Get a pod of any kind of bean or
pea, and observe that it differs
from the follicle in having two
sutures or lines of dehiscence.
One of these runs along the back
of the carpel and corresponds
to the midrib of the leaf; the
other, corresponding to the
united edges of the carpellary
leaf, always turns inward,
toward the axis of the flower,
and forms the placenta.

The beggar-ticks, so unpleas-
antly familiar to most of us,
are merely a kind of legume con-
stricted between the seeds and

breaking up into separate joints ff^^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^ ^ith partially con-
at maturity. What kind of

391

Figs. 391-393.
legume of bean :
d, dorsal suture ;

392 393

— Legumes: 391,
, ventral suture ;
392, constricted

legume of senna (CassiaNelsonia); 393,
legume of a
Btricted pod.

264

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

indehiscent fruits do the joints become
when separated ? (296.)
300. Compound or syncarpous pods.

Fig. 394. — Loment of
beggar-ticks.

— The carpellary leaves may
unite either by their open
edges, as if a whorl like that
represented in Fig. 188 were
to grow together by the capsule of frost-

/■n- orvr\ 1 weed, with parie-

margms {r ig. 395) ; or each

Fio. 395. — Cross
section of one-
celled syncarpous

Fig. 396. — Folli-
cles of larkspur
borne on the same
torus, but dis-
tinct.

tal place ntae.

may first roll itself into a (^/'«'' ^"^^-^
shnple follicle like the lark-
spur and columbine (Fig. 396), and then a number of
these may unite by their ventral sutures into a single syn-
carpous capsule, with as many locules as there are carpels

397

Fig. 397. — Pods of
Echeveria, contig-
uous, but distinct.

398

Fig. 398. — Capsule of
Colchicum, with carpels
united into a syncarpous
pod.

399

Fig. 399. — Capsule
of corn cockle, with
free central placenta.

(Fig. 398). The seed-bearing sutures being all brought to-
gether in the center, the placenta becomes central and axial.
In the first case (Fig. 395) the open carpels form a one-
chambered capsule, though the placentas sometimes project,
as in the cotton, so far as to produce the effect of true
partitions with a central axial placenta. In capsules with

FRUITS 265

only one compartment, the number of carpels can generally
be determined by the number of sutures or of placentas.

Practical Questions

1. To what class of fruits does each of the following belong — rice;
beggar-ticks; poppy; peanut; jimsonweed; chinquapin; caraway?

2. Is the coconut, as usually sold in the market, a fruit or a
seed?

Suggestion : carefully examine the " eyes," from without and from
within; if you can get a specimen with the husk on, it will help to a
decision.

3. Can you name any syncarpous, or compound capsule, that is single-
seeded ?

4. Can you name any indehiscent fruit that has normally more than
one seed ?

5. Give a reason for the difference. (23.)

6. Name the weeds of your neighborhood that are most troublesome
on account of their adhesive fruits.

7. Do these fruits belong, as a rule, to the dehiscent or to the indehis-
cent class ?

8. Give a reason for the difference, if any is noted. (23.)

IV. ACCESSORY, AGGREGATE, AND MULTIPLE FRUITS

Material. — For autumn and winter, examples of accessory fruits
are : pineapple, common apple, pear, rose hip ; aggregate : magnolia,
tulip tree, wild cucumber, sweet flag (Calamus) ; multiple : osage orange,
sweet gum balls, pine cones, figs, fresh or dried.

For spring and summer, examples of accessory fruits are : raspberry,
strawberry, squash, cucumber ; aggregate : strawberry, blackberry, Jack-
in-the-pulpit ; multiple : fig, mulberry. Most of those named ^^^ll be
found to belong to more than one class ; the strawberry, for instance, is
both accessory and aggregate; the fig and pineapple, accessory and
multiple.

301. Besides the varieties already named, all fruits,
whether fleshy or dry, may be simple, accessory, aggre-
gate, or collective. Fruits of the first kind need no ex-
planation; they consist merely of a single ripened ovary,

266 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

whether of one or more carpels, as the peach, cherry, bean,
and lemon.

302. Accessory fruits are so called, because some other
part than the seed vessel, or ovary proper, is coherent with,
or accessory to it, in forming the fruit, as in the apple and
the hip. The accessory part may consist of any organ, but
is more frequently the calyx or the receptacle. In the straw-
berry, the little hard bodies, usually called seeds, that dot
the surface are the true fruits (akenes). A vertical section
through the center will show the edible part to consist

400 401

FiQS. 400, 401. — Vertical sections showing the relation between a strawberry
flower and fruit: 400, the flower; 401, the fruit developed from it. The corre-
sponding parts are indicated by connecting lines ; r, receptacle ; a, sepal ; b, petal ;
8, stamens ; c, carpel (akene in fruit) ; p, style of the pistil ; pi, pulp of the fruit.

wholly of the enlarged receptacle. In the pineapple, the
edibla stalk may be traced through a mass of flowers
whose seed vessels have become enlarged and ripened into
fruits.

303. Aggregate fruits. — Some accessory fruits, the straw-
berry and blackberry for example, are, at the same time,
aggregate ; that is, they are composed of a number of sepa-
rate individual fruits produced from a single flower. The
cone of the magnolia and of the tulip tree are aggregate
fruits; can you name any others?

FRUITS

267

304. Collective, or multiple, fruits. — The pineapple is an
example of both an accessory and a multiple fruit, being
composed of the
ripened ovaries of . v N. A-
a number of sep-
arate flowers that
have become
more or less co-
herent. Theosage
orange, sweet
gum balls, fig, and
mulberry are
other examples
of this class.

305. Dissection
of a multiple fruit.
— Get one of the
dried figs sold by
the grocers. Look
at the small end ^ ._„ ._. ,. „• , r . r .u

Figs. 402-404. — Multiple fruit of the pineapple :
where the skin 402, external vaew of a ripe fruit, showing the prolonged
nricririQfps- nf wViQf receptacle growing into a new plant above, and the scaly
UligiXld;ieb, Ul Wllctt bracted covering below ; 40.3, vertical section through the
part is it a modi- ^xls of a fruit, showing a, the receptacle, with 6, b, the
fi ,• f) r OQCi \ ^*'*'^y ovaries cohering around it and forming the edible
ncailOn . (^ Z O v.) p^rt of the fruit ; 404, a single " eye " or scale, somewhat
Can VOU think of reduced, showing the scaly bract from the axil of which
the (generally) abortive flower originates.

a reason for this

curious, urnlike enlargement of the receptacle ? Is there any-
thing about the fig, for instance, that renders it peculiarly
liable to be preyed upon by birds and insects ? Could any
but a very small insect get through the eye without in-
juring the fruit? Could it free itself from the sticky mass
inside and get out again without difficulty? Would you
judge from this that the caprification of the fig is easily
effected (279), even when the fig wasp is present? Can you
now account for the fact that over four hundred varieties of
cultivated figs ripen their fruit without fertilization ?

402

40.3

2G8

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Open your specimen and examine the contents ; what do
you find ? From a dried specimen it will hardly be practicable
to make out clearly that the pulp of the fig consists of hun-
dreds of tiny pistillate blossoms that line the inner face of the
receptacle. The little grains usually
taken for seeds are really small akenes
— the ripened ovaries of flowers that
have been pollinated from the caprifig
(279, 286). Crush one gently and exam-
ine with a lens, or under a low power of
the microscope. It is these " botanically "
Fig. 405.— Vertical sec- ripe fruits (284) that givc to the dried
mhmte flo^w^rf L^ide Jhe Ags of commcrce their plumpness and
closed receptacle. their pleasaut, uutty flavor. Why are

our native American figs lacking in these qualities (279)?
Could this defect be remedied? Do you know of any
efforts being made in that direction by American cultivators ?

406

407

408

409

Figs. 406-409. — Non caprificated and caprificated figs : 406, outside appearance
of non caprificated fig ; 407, outside appearance of caprificated fig ; 408, interior of
caprificated fig ; 409, interior of non caprificated fig.

306. Fruit clusters. — Be careful not to confound aggre-
gate and collective fruits with mere clusters, like a bunch
of grapes or of sumac berries. The distinction is not always
easy to make out. The clump of akenes that make up a dan-
delion ball, for instance, though held on a common recep-
tacle, like the mulberry and other collective fruits, have
so little connection with each other, and separate so com-
pletely at maturity, as to partake more of the nature of a

FRUITS 269

cluster than of a collective fruit. The same is true of the
clump of tailed akenes that make up the fruit of the clematis.
Though the product of a single flower and thus technically
an aggregate fruit, they are really only a compact head or
cluster. Some degree of cohesion is necessary to constitute
£, cluster of matured ovaries into an aggregate or a multiple
fruit.

307. The individual fruits that make up the various kinds
just described may belong to any of the classes mentioned
in the two preceding sections : those of the blackberry, for
instance, are drupes ; of the strawberry, akenes ; of the
sweet gum, capsules.

Practical Questions

1. To what class of fruits would you refer the following: a banana;
a tickseed; a dewberry; a cocklebur; a string bean; a watermelon; a
cantaloupe; a pomegranate; a black haw; a dogwood berry; a red
pepper ?

2. Tell which of the following are aggregate or multiple fruits, and
which are fruit clusters : an ear of corn ; of wheat ; a buttonwood or a
sycamore ball ; a hop ; a dewberry ; a pine cone ; a prickly pear. (303,
304, 306.)

3. Tell the nature of the individual fruits composing the different com-
binations mentioned in the last question.

4. Can you suggest any advantage that might accrue to a species from
having its fruits clustered or compound? (21, 23, 24, 287.)

Field Work

1. Study the various edible fruits of your neighborhood with regard to
their means of dissemination and protection. Consider the object of the
protective adaptations in each case, whether against heat, cold, moisture,
animals, etc. Notice the color of the different kinds, and trace its sig-
nificance ; for example, the bright red of the holly, the dull color of mus-
cadine, black haw, and wild smilax. Account for the prevalence of red
among autumn fruits. Notice the position of the fruit on the bough and
explain its object ; as, for instance, the clustering of dogwood at the end
of the twig, the pendent position of grapes and honey locusts. Observe

270 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

the relation between the color and size of fruits and their grouping. What
advantage is it for sumac and bird haws to be gathered in large clusters ?

2. Compare wild with cultivated fruits and notice in what respects man
has altered the latter for his own benefit. Note, for instance,, the differ-
ence between cultivated apples and the wild crab, between the cultivated
grains and wild grasses. Observe the great number of varieties of each
kind in cultivation and try to account for it.

3. Notice the situations in which different kinds of fruits grow, whether
hot, dry, moist, windy, or sheltered, and how they are affected by their
surroundings. For example, account for the difference between black-
berries growing on a dry hillside, and those in moist land along the borders
of a stream. Give the conclusions drawn from your observations in each
case.

4. Notice what animals feed upon the different kinds, and whether their
visits are harmful or beneficial. Consider in what respects the interests
of the plant itself, the interests of man, and the interests of other animals
may clash or coincide. Examine the vegetation along the hedgerows and
borders of fields and old fences. Notice the kind of plants that compose
it — sumac, sassafras, cedars, cat brier, etc. The list will be slightly
different for different localities, but this will not alter the general conclu-
sion. What kinds of fruits and seeds do these shrubs produce? What
kinds of living creatures frequent hedgerows and feed upon the seeds of
such plants ? Do you see any relation between these facts and one of the
modes of seed dispersal ?

5. Classify all the fruits you have collected during your walk, under their
proper heads, as fleshj^ or dry, dehiscent or indehiscent, simple, accessory,
aggregate, collective. Be careful to distinguish between compact clusters,
like the heads of clematis or buttonwood, and truly compound fruits.

CHAPTER IX. THE RESPONSE OF THE PLANT
TO ITS SURROUNDINGS

I. ECOLOGICAL FACTORS

Material. — A number of small flowerpots filled with soils of as many
different kinds as can be found in the neighborhood.

308. Definition. — By ecology is meant the relation of
plants to their surroundings, which may be considered under
three general heads : their relations to inanimate nature,
to other plants, and to animals. The subject has been
touched upon repeatedly in the foregoing pages, and, in
fact, it is impossible to treat of any branch of botany with-
out some reference to it. All that was said about the ad-
justment of leaves for light and moisture, and their adap-
tations for protection and food storage, about the devices
for pollination, and for fruit and seed dispersal, really
belong to ecology.

309. Symbiosis. — The relations of plants to animate
nature are biological factors, and may act in two ways:
(1) through the destruction of vegetation by hungry ani-
mals and by parasitic and disease-producing organisms;
and (2) by associations for mutual benefit, such as are
described in section viii of chapter VII. Associations of
this kind are included under the general term symbiosis,
a word which means " living together," In its broadest
sense symbiosis refers to any sort of dependence or intimate
organic relation between different kinds of individuals, and
so may include the climbing and parasitic habits; but it
is usually restricted to cases where the relation is one of
mutual benefit. It may exist either between plants of one

271

272

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

■1

^^^!!^SP^'' '^ ;^^

S'Sfe^Jj

M^^0W^^^^

Plate 13. — Showing tin; quick response of vegetation to surroundings. The
upper cut shows the appearance of an irrigation canal in the arid plains region,
when first completed ; the lower cut, ten yeara after completion.

^•OPEHTYOF

RESPONSE OF THE PLANT TO ITS SURROUNDINGS 273

kind with those of another, between animals with animals,
or between plants and animals, as in the case of the clover
and bumblebee, and the yucca and pronuba.

The occurrence of root tubercles on certain of the legu-
minosse (63) is a clear case of symbiosis, the microscopic
organisms in the tubercles getting their food from the plant
and at the same time enabling it to get food for itself from
the air in a way that it could not otherwise do.

310. Relations with inanimate nature. — But it is to the
relations of plants with inanimate nature, and their group-
ing into societies under the influence of such conditions,
that the term " ecology " is more strictly applied. The
external conditions that lead to the grouping are called
ecological factors. The most important of these are tem-
perature, moisture, soil, light, and air, including the du-ec-
tion and character of the prevailing winds. Each of these
factors is complicated with the others and with conditions
of its own in a way that often makes it difficult to determine
just what effect any one of them may have in the formation
of a given plant society.

311. Temperature may be even and steady, like that of
most oceanic regions, or it may be subject to sudden ca-
prices and variations, like the " heated terms " and " cold
snaps " that afflict our Eastern coast region every few years.
It is not the average temperature of a climate, but its
extremes, especially of cold, that limit the character of
vegetation.

Temperature probably has more influence than any other
factor upon the distribution of plants over the globe; but it
can have little or no effect in evolving local difi'erences in
vegetation, because the temperature of any given locality,
except on the sides of high mountains, will ordinarily be the
same within a circuit of many miles.

312. Moisture, again, may be of all degrees, from the
superabundance of lakes and rivers and standing swamps,
to the arid dryness of the desert, and the water may be

274

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

still and sluggish, or in rapid motion. It may exist more
or less permanently in the atmosphere, as in moist climates
like those of England and Ireland, where vegetation is
characterizcKl by great verdure; or it may come irregularly
in the form of sudden floods, or at fixed intervals, causing
an alternation of wet and dry seasons. Moreover, the
moisture of the soil or the atmosphere may be impregnated

liotaiiK al

with minerals or gases, which may affect the vegetation
independently of the actual amount of water absorbed.

Snow is a form of water which may act in two entirely
opposite ways: (1) by keeping the atmospheric precipita-
tion locked up in a solid state and thus bringing about a
condition analogous to drought — for example, in arctic des-
erts and Alpine snow fields; (2) by causing annual floods
and overflows when it melts in the spring, as in the Nile
and Mississippi valleys.

In cold temperate regions it also influences vegetation

RESPONSE OF THE PLANT TO ITS SURROUNDINGS 275

Fig. 411. — Dogwood, a tree tolerant
of shade, growing and blooming in a deeply
wooded glen.

to a considerable extent by covering the warm earth like
a blanket during winter, and thus protecting tender seeds
and shoots that otherwise would not be able to survive.

313. Light may be of all
degrees of intensity, from the
blazing sun of the treeless
plain to the darkness of caves
and cellars where no green
thing can exist. Between
these extremes are number-
less intermediate stages : the
dark ravines on the northern
side of mountains, the dense
shade of beech and hemlock
forests, and the light, lacy
shadows of the pines, — each
characterized by its peculiar
form of vegetation. Absence
of light, too, is usually accompanied by a lowering of tempera-
ture and a reduction of transpiration, factors which tend to
accentuate the difference between sun plants and shade
plants, giving to the latter some of the characteristics of
aquatic vegetation. Generally, the
tissues of these are thin and deli-
cate, and having no need to guard
against excessive transpiration, they
wither rapidly when cut or exposed
to too great intensity of heat and
light.

314. Winds affect vegetation, not
only as to the manner of seed dis-
tribution and the conveyance of pol-
len, but directly by increasing transpiration, and necessitat-
ing the development of strong holdfasts in plants growing
upon mountain sides and in other exposed situations. The
nature of the region from which they blow — whether moist,

Fig. 412. — A red cedar grown
in a barren, wind-beaten situa-
tion.

276

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

dry, hot, cold, etc. — is also an important
factor. In a district open to sea breezes,
live oaks, which require a salt atmosphere,
maj^ sometimes be found as far as a hun-
dred miles from the coast.

315. Soil. — While water is the most im-
portant, soil is perhaps the most interesting
of these factors to the farmer, because it is
the one that he has it most largely in his
power to modify. It is to be viewed under
two aspects : first, as to its mechanical prop-
erties, whether soft, hard, compact, porous,
light, heavy, etc. ; secondly, as to its chemical
composition and the amount of plant food-
materials contained in it. The first can be

regulated by tillage and drainage, the second by a proper

use of fertilizers.

Fig. 413. — A red
cedar grown under
normal conditions.

Experiment 92. To show the influence of soil as an ecological
FACTOR. — Fill a number of small earthen pots with all the different kinds
of soil that are to be found in your neighl^orhood. Keep well moistened
and make a list of the plants that appear spontaneously in each. Is
there any difference in the kinds produced by different soils ? In vigor
or abundance of the same or different kinds ? Do more seedlings appear
in any of the pots than could live if left alone ? What becomes of a ma-
jority of the seedlings that come up in a state of nature ?

After a time, stop watering until all the plants are dead and new ones
cease to appear. Notice the rate at which vegetation dies out in each
and the kind of plants that can live longest without water. Which of the
different soils is capable of sustaining vegetation longest without a fresh
supply of moisture ? To what quality of the soil is this due ? (Exp. 53.)

Practical Questions

1. Is the relation between man and the plants cultivated by him a
symbiosis? (309.)

2. Why is it that plants of the same, or closely related species are found
in such different localities as the shores of Lake Superior, the top of Mt.
Washington, and the Black Mountains in North Carolina? (311, 330.)

RESPONSE OF THE PLANT TO ITS SURROUNDINGS 277

3. Which of the five ecological factors mentioned in paragraphs 311-
315 has prolmbly most largely influenced their distribution?

4. What is the prevailing character of the soil in your neighborhood ?

5. Is your climate moist or dry ? Warm or cold ?

6. Can you trace any connection between these factors and the pre-
vailing types of vegetation?

II. PLANT ASSOCD^TIONS

Material. — The subject is not well suited to laboratory work, though,
if time permits, it is recommended that a detailed study be made of at
least one typical hydrophyte, halophyte, and xerophyte plant. Some
good examples are : (1) Hydrophyte : pond weed, waterlily, pipewort (Erio-
caulon), bladderwort, arrowhead {Sagittaria) ; (2) Halophyte : sea lavender,
sea rocket, sea lettuce, water hyacinth ; (3) Xerophyte : cactus, century
plant, pineapple, stonecrop, purslane, lichen.

316. Modes of grouping. — Plants group themselves in
their favorite habitats, not according to their botanical rela-
tionships, but with regard to the predominance of one or
more of the ecological factors that influence their growth.
Sometimes one or two species will take practical possession
of large areas, like the coarse grasses that spread over certain
salt marshes, or the pines that formerly constituted the sole
forest growth over extensive regions in North Carolina and
Maine. Exclusive growths of this kind over limited areas
are sometimes called plant colonies, and the individuals com-
posing them belong, as a general thing, to the hardy, pushing
sort known as " pioneers," which are among the first to take
possession of new soil and force their way into unoccupied
territory. But more usually we find a great diversity of
forms brought together by their common requirements as
to shade, soil, moisture, and other external conditions.

Any well-defined assemblage of plants, whether of one kind
or many, originating in such a common response to the same
influences, is called a formation. These associations are va-
riously classed, according to the nature of their habitat,
as salt water, fresh water, sand hill, swamp, bog, river bot-
tom, or such other kinds as theii' ecological character may

278

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

indicate. Local conditions in limited areas may lead to the
segregation of smaller and more compact groups called socie-
ties. This term, however, is used rather loorsely, being treated
in some works as synonymous with formations, in others as
analogous with what have here been defined as colonies.

317. Principles of subdivision. — The mixed associations
described in the last paragraph are quite independent of

Fig. 414. — A colony of Alabama primroses {(Enolhcra specioaa).

botanical relationships, and any of the factors named in
310, or others of a different kind, could be made the basis of
their classification. They might be grouped, for instance,
according to their economic uses, or according to origin,
whether native or introduced, as best suited the purpose of
the classification in each case. The moisture factor, however,
has been generally agreed upon as the one most convenient
for ordinary purposes. Upon this principle plants are divided
into three great groups : —

RESPONSE OF THE PLANT TO ITS SURROUNDINGS 279

Hydrophytes, or water plants, those that requke abundant
moisture.

Xerophytes, or drought plants, those that have adapted
themselves to desert or arid conditions.

Mesophytes, plants that live in conditions intermediate
between excessive drought and excessive
moisture. To this class belong most of
our ordinary cultivated plants and the
greater part of the vegetation of the globe.

Halophytes, " salt plants," is a term
used to designate a fourth class, based not
directly upon the water factor, but upon
the presence of a particular mineral in the
water or the soil which they can tolerate.
They seem to bear a sort of double rela-
tion to hydrophytes on the one hand and
to zerophytes on the other.

318. Hydrophyte societies. — These em-
brace a number of forms, from those in-
habiting swamps and wet moors, to the
submerged vegetation of lakes and rivers.
An examination of almost any kind of
water plant will show some of the physio-
logical effects of unlimited moisture. Take
a piece of pondweed, or other immersed
plant, out of the water and notice how com-
pletely it collapses. This is because, being
buoyed up by the water, it has no need to
spend its energies in developing woody
tissue. Floating and swimming plants will
generally be found to have no root system
or very small ones, because they
their nourishment through all parts of the
epidermis directly from the medium in which they live.
That they may absorb readily, the tissues are apt to be soft
and succulent and the walls of the cells composing them

Fig. 415. — A water
plant {L im nophila) ,
with water leaves and

absorb f?"" 'fr' """"^ ^'"'''^''

tional forms.

280

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Fig. 4 1G. — Seaweed
(sargassum) with blad-
derlike floats.

very thin. In some of the pipeworts (Eriocaulon) , the ells
are so large as to be easily seen with the unaided eye. If
you can obtain one of these, examine it
with a lens and notice how very thin the
walls are. Water plants also contain nu-
merous air cavities, and often develop
bladders and floats, as in the common blad-
derwort and many
seaweeds. The leaves
of submerged plants
are usually either
greatly reduced in size
or very much cut and
divided, while the ones
that rise above water,
like those of the water
lily, are apt to be large
and entire, to facilitate floating, and have
stomata on their upper surface. Float-
ing plants sometimes form such large
colonies as to be a serious menace to
navigation. Well-known instances of
this are the water hyacinths in the St.
John's River, Florida, and the vast
formations of swimming gulfweed from
which the Sargasso Sea takes its name.
319. Swamp societies. — These in-
clude what may be regarded as the am-
phibious portion of the hydrophyte
group. They compose the sedge and
cattail bogs, reed jungles, moss and fern
thickets, forests of cypress, magnolia,
black gum, pine, tamarack, balsam, and
the like. The sedges and cattails are the pioneers of these
societies, which tend constantly to encroach upon the water
and so prepare the way for the advance of other colonists.

Fig. 417. — A pioneer
swamp colony of cattails.
(From a photograph by
Harry B. Shaw, U.S. Dcpt.
Agr.)

RESPONSE OF THE PLANT TO ITS SURROUNDINGS 281

Drawing their nourishment from the loose soil in which they
are anchored, and lacking the support of a liquid medium,
they develop roots and vascular stems. The roots of plants
growing in swamps have difficulty in obtaining proper aer-
ation on account of the water, which shuts off the air from
them ; hence they are furnished with large air cavities, and
the bases of the stems are often greatly enlarged, as in the
Ogeechee lime {Nyssa capitata) and cypress, to give room
for the formation of air passages. The peculiar hollow pro-

FiG. 418. — A Southern cypress swami-, sliowiiiK on the left the peculiar eiilarge-
mentsfor aeration, known as " cypress knees." {From Mo. Botanical Garden Rep't.)

jections known as " cypress knees " are arrangements for
aerating the roots of these trees.

320. Xerophyte societies are adpated to conditions the
reverse of those affected by hydrophytes. The extreme of
these conditions is presented by regions of perennial drought,
like our Western arid plains and the great deserts of the in-
terior of Asia and Africa. Under these conditions plants
have two problems to solve, — to collect all the moisture they
can and to keep it as long as they can. Hence, plants of
such regions have a diminished evaporating surface, owing
to the absence of foliage and the compacting of their tissues

282

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

RESPONSE OF THE PLANT TO ITS STIRROUNDINOS 283

into the stem, after the manner of the cactus and prickly
euphorbia ; or their leaves may become thick and fleshy so
as to resist evaporation and retain large amounts of mois-
ture, as in the case of the yucca and century plant. They
also frequently develop a thick, hard epidermis, or cover
themselves with protective hairs and scales.

The principal types of xerophyte plants are : (1) the li-
chens, mosses, and saxifrages found on bald rocks and moun-
tain cliffs ; (2) sand plants, such as cockspur grass, sand spurry,
wiregrass, and the like, inhabiting sea beaches and pine
barrens ; (3) the sage brush, greasewood, and switch plants
of our Western alkali plains ; (4) the cactus and yuccas of
southern California, Arizona, and Mexico ; (5) the acacias,
agaves, and hardy " chapparal " thickets of southern Texas
and Mexico. The first class are of importance as the pio-
neers and pathfinders of the xerophyte community. In
tropical and polar deserts alike they are the first settlers,
and by aiding in the disintegration of rocks and their gradual
conversion into soil, they pave the way for the coming of
the higher plants, and it may be of man himself.

321. Partial xerophytes. — Plants exposed to periodic
and occasional droughts frequently provide against hard
times by laying up stores of nourishment in bulbs and root-
stocks and retiring underground until the stress is over.
This is known as the geophilous, or earth-loving, habit.
Others, as some of the lichens, and the little resurrection
fern (Polypodium incanum, Figs. 419, 420), so common on the
trunks of oaks and elms in the Southern States, make no
resistance, but wither away completely during dry weather,
only to waken again to vigorous life with the first shower.

322. Physiological xerophytes. ^ Plants growing in thin
or poor soil, such as that on denuded hillsides, fresh railroad
cuts, and newly graded streets, are apt to take on a more or
less xerophytic character, even though there may be no lack
of moisture. Such soils are called " now " because the
mineral elements in them have not been exposed long enough

284

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

/^n

Figs. 419, 420. — A resurrection fern : 419, in dry weather ; 420, after a shower.

to have become decomposed and mixed with humus, and the
vegetation that first populates them has to do the pioneer
work of disintegrating and impregnating the substratum with

RESPONSE OF THE PLANT TO ITS SURROUNDINGS 285

humus. For similar reasons the vegetation of sandy bogs
and sea beaches, owing to the poverty of the soil in nitrog-
enous matter, usually develops xerophyte adaptations,
even though there may be a superabundance of moisture.
Plants growing on high mountain tops and in cold arctic
bogs take on the same characteristics (Fig. 410). Such situa-
tions are said to be " physiologically dry," because the
moisture they have is not in a condition to be readily ab-

Notico the tangle of advcii-
1 from the brackish marsh soil.

Fig. 421. — a hih.plivti -u imi' -f i
titious prop roots M-^i-tiim m tin woik ■ i i'
(From Mo. Botanical Garden Rep't.)

sorbed. The vegetation of arctic regions suffers more from
physiological drought than from cold.

323. Halophytes include plants growing by the seashore
and the vegetation around salt springs and lakes and that of
alkali deserts. Seaweeds are in a sense halophytes, since
they live in salt water, but as they are true aquatic plants
and exhibit many of the peculiarities of hydrophytes in their
mechanical structure, they are classed with them. The
name halophyte applies more particularly to lar,d plants

286 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

that have adapted themselves to the presence in the soil
or in the atmospheric vapor, of certain minerals, popularly
known as salts, which cause them to take on many xero-
phyte characteristics. The reason for this, as was shown in
Exp. 39, is because the mixture of salt in the water of the
soil increases its density so that it is difficult for the plant to
absorb as much as it needs, and thus halophytes are living
under " physiologically " xerophyte conditions. If you have
ever spent any time at the seashore, you cannot fail to have
observed the thick and fleshy habit exhibited by many of
the plants growing there, such as the samphire, sea purslane
(Sesuvium), and sea rocket (Cakile). A form of goldenrod
found by the seashore has thick, fleshy leaves, and is as hard
to dry as some of the fleshy xerophytes.

Another characteristic of desert plants that is common
also to seaside vegetation is the frequent occurrence of a
thick, hard epidermis, as in the sea lavender and saw grass.
The live oaks, trees that love the salt air and never flourish
well beyond reach of the sea breezes, have small, thick,
hard leaves, very like those of the stunted oaks that grow on
the dry hills of California. The presence of spines and
hairs, it will be observed, is also very common ; e.g. the sal-
sola, the sea oxeye, and the low primrose {(Enothera huvii-
Jusa). In other cases the leaf blades are so strongly involute
or revolute (202) as to make them appear cylindrical. All
these, it will be observed, are xerophyte adaptations, and the
object in both cases is the same — the conservation of mois-
ture.

324. Mesophytes. — These embrace the great body of
plants growing under the ordinary conditions of temperate
regions, which may vary from the liberal water supply of
low meadows and shady forests to the almost desert barren-
ness of dusty lanes and gullied, treeless hillsides. The
forms and conditions they present are so varied that it vvould
be impracticable to consider them all in a w^ork like this, but
they may be summed up under the two general heads of

RESPONSE OF THE PLANT TO ITS SURROUNDINGS 287

(1) open ground and (2) woodland. Under the first are in-
cluded : (a) all cultivated grounds — fields, meadows, lawns,
pastures, and roadsides, with their characteristic shrubs,
flowers, and grasses; (6) heaths and plains of northern or
alpine regions, with their low, stunted perennials and bright,
but fugacious, flowers. Under the second are classed all
woods, thickets, and copses, with the shrubs and herbs that
form their undergrowth. These may be grouped in three
main divisions : (c) mixed forests of maple, ash, oak, hickory,
birch, sweet gum, etc. ; (d) pure forests of pine, balsam, fir,
cypress, and the like ; and finally (e), the perennial splendors
of the tropical forest, where the vegetation of the globe
reaches its climax in luxuriance and variety of growth.

Practical Questions

1. Why do florists cultivate cactus plants in poor soil? (320.)

2. What would be the effect on such a plant of copious watering and
fertilizing ?

3. Why must an asparagus bed be sprinkled occasionally with salt?
(323.)

4. If a gardener wished to develop or increase a fleshy habit in a plant,
to what conditions of soil and moisture would he subject it? (320, 323.)

5. What difference do you notice between blackberries and dewberries
grown by the water and on a dry hillside ?

6. Are there corresponding differences in the root, stem, and leaves of
plants growing in the two situations, and if so account for them ?

7 When a tract of dry land is permanently^ overflowed by the building
of a dam or levee, why does all the original vegetation die, or take on a
sickly appearance? (319.)

8. Should plants with densely hairy leaves be given much water, as
a general thing? (202, 320.)

9. A farmer planted a grove of pecan trees on a high, dry hilltop;
had he paid much attention to (H!ology ? Give a reason for your answer.

10. Why do the branches of trees often die, or fail to develop, on the
windward side? (314.)

11. Why do trees grown in dry soil have harder wood than the same
kind grown in wet soil ? (123, 318.)

288

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

m. ZONES OF VEGETATION

325. The origin of vegetable zones. — The terms " zone "
and " zonation " are used to express a general tendency of
plant societies and formations to distribute themselves in
more or less regular belts or strata, relatively to the varying
intensity of the prevalent ecological factor of their habitat.
In almost every locality there exists some special feature —
a pond, a brook, a small ravine, an isolated hilltop, a deserted
quarry, a gravel pit, or a railroad cut, — sufficiently distinct
from the general surroundings to exercise a perceptible

control over the
vegetation in its
immediate vicinity,
and thus to become
the starting point
of a series of plant
zones that mark the
decreasing influence
of the factor con-
cerned, by their
change of character
as they recede from
its point of greatest
intensity. Starting
from a barren, exposed hilltop, for example, with a covering
of dry broom sedge (Andropogon) and fleabane, we encounter
next an almost desert zone of washed and gullied slopes in
whose hard, sun-baked soil nothing but a few scrub pines and
brambles can gain a foothold. This will, perhaps, be succeeded,
by a straggling belt of sassafras, sumac, and buckthorn, mixed
with cat brier and blackberry canes, beyond which, at the foot
of the hill, begins a stretch of meadow, or a bit of woodland
crossed by a brook, or hollowed into a boggy depression.
From this new factor originates a second series of zonations,
passing through all the stages of bog, swamp, shade, and sun

Fig. 422. — A pioneer colony of sumac growing on
a railroad cutting. {From a photograph by J. M.
Coulter.)

RESPONSE OF THE PLANT TO ITS SURROUNDINGS 289

plants, back to the prevailing type of the region. Moisture
is really the controlling factor in both cases, its influence
in the first being negative, — that is, inversely, — and in the
other, positive, or directly proportioned to the quantity
present.

326. Direction of zonation. — When the direction in which
the controlling factor changes is horizontal, as with soil and
water, the zonation will be horizontal; when, as in the case
of light, it is vertical, the zonation or stratification will be
vertical. Examples of this can be observed in the growth of
almost any forest area, the natural order of succession being :
(1) a ground layer of mosses and fungi ; (2) low, creeping
vines, — partridge berry, trailing arbutus, twinflower (Linncea) ;
(3) small ferns and low flowering herbs — pyrola, clintonia,
trillium ; (4) a zone of tall herbs and low bushes — royal
fern, cohosh {Actoea), blueberries; (5) tall herbs and shrubs,
small trees, and climbing vines — kalmia, dogwood, farkle-
berry, smilax, Virginia creeper ; (6) tall treetops towering up
into full sunlight.

When the physical cause of intensity is a central area, such
as a pond or a hilltop, the zonation will be concentric ; that is,
the different belts will succeed each other in widening circles
more or less complete. ^Vhere the controlling cause extends
in a line, as a river, or a chain of mountains, the zones run in
parallel belts on each side of it, and the zonation is bilateral.
In any case, however, it is seldom regular, being frequently
broken and interrupted through the intervention of other
factors. Nor must precisely the same kind of plants be
always looked for in similar situations, though their place is
usually occupied by kindred species and genera. The com-
mon pitch pine, for instance, of the Northern sand barrens
is represented in sandy districts farther south by the tall,
long-leaved pine, a kindred species.

327. Succession. — Zonation is a regular succession of
different kinds of plants in space ; there is also an analogous
succession in time, as, when the vegetation of a locality is

290

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Fig. 423. — A thicket of i.iii.

a mixed growth of hard wood trees.

killed off by fire or other cause, plants of an entirely different
cliaracter will nearly always spring up to occupy its place. A

forest of pine, for in-
stance, is rarely fol-
lowed by conifers,
but by a growth of
hardwood trees, and
vice versa — nature
thus giving an im-
pressive example as
to the effectiveness
of a rotation of crops.
Succession may be
influenced by a va-
riety of causes. Two
of the most efficient are : (1) the exhaustion of the soil by the
long-continued growth of one formation (CO), thus causing
a deficiency of mineral material suited for the support of
plants of that kind ; (2) the migration of new species into
the denuded territory where those which have different re-
quirements as to min-
eral nutrients from the
former inhabitants will,
other things being equal,
have the best chance to
succeed.

328. Invasion. — A
rapid and widespread
occupation of any terri-
tory by a new species is
called an invasion. No-
table examples of inva-
ders are those of the
Russian thistle in the
northwestern states of

\

it.

r / 1

■ s

^^M

M

^f>i^^

w^

Ti^r / ■

jH

^^^p?^*^'"

m^m>

^Ir^

H|

^^H^^mi

p^^';-::^iag%|?B

nil

Fig. 424. — A successful invasion — Japanese
honeysuckle covering the banks of a ravine and
climbing over shrubs and tree tops.

the Union, and the '' bitterweed "
( Helenium tenuifolium) that has almost driven out the hardy

RESPONSE OF THE PLANT TO ITS SURROUNDINGS 291

dog fennel (Antheinis cotula) which formerly held undisputed
possession of arid places throughout the South Atlantic states.
A still more remarkable instance is the invasion of the Japa-
nese honeysuckle {Lonicera Japonica), originally introduced
for ornament, but which has naturalized itself within the last
thirty years and overrun waste places everywhere, from the
Gulf to the Potomac, with a vigor and luxuriance equaled
by few of our native species. As its beauty and fragrance
are even more conspicuous in a state of nature than under
cultivation, and as it can, moveover, be made very useful in
stopping gullies and washes, its phenomenally rapid occu-
pation of so large a territory has caused no alarm and
consequently attracted little attention.

329. Climatic zones. — These are more general group-
ings than those we have been considering. They follow
in a rough way thb parallels of latitude, and are classed
accordingly as : (1) tropical ; (2) subtropical ; (3) temperate ;
(4) boreal or (on mountains) subalpine ; (5) arctic or (on
high mountains) alpine. Taking the cultivated plants of
our own country by way of illustration, we have the sub-
tropical zone, embracing Florida and the southern portion
of the Gulf states, where sugar cane, rice, and tropical
fruits are the staple crops. Then comes the temperate
zone, with three agricultural subdivisions: (a) the great
cotton belt, with Indian corn, sweet potatoes, and the
peach, melon, and fig as secondary products. Farther
north, in the Central and Middle Atlantic states, we find
(6) the region of maize, hemp, and tobacco, with grapes,
apples, pears, cherries, and a great variety of garden vege-
tables as side crops. Finally comes (c) the great wheat-
growing region of the North, with buckwheat, hay, and Irish
potatoes as subsidiary crops.

Technically, the distribution of the natural zones of vege-
tation from south to north is classed under the three general
heads of Forest, Grass Land, and Arctic Desert, with numer-
ous subdivisions ill each.

292 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

330. Boundaries of the zones. — While the broad conti-
nental zones of vegetation follow, in a general way, the
climatic zones outlined above, they are not sharply defined,
but run into each other and overlap in various degrees, so
that a map depicting the range of vegetation in any wide
area would show a marked deviation from those of latitude.
Various other geographical factors, such as mountain ranges
and bodies of water, influence the direction and character of
the prevailing winds and rains, and through them the mois-
ture and temperature, to so great an extent that they become
the controlling factors over wide areas. In countries border-
ing on the sea, the coast line always marks a belt of its own,
and on the sides of a mountain range, all the climatic zones
from the equator to the pole may be repeated during an
ascent of a few miles.

In our own country, where the mountain chains and coast
lines run approximately north and south, the great conti-
nental zones have been superseded, for all practical purposes,
by four regional divisions running almost at right angles to
them. These are, disregarding minor subdivisions : —

(1) The Forest region, occupying the eastern and south
central portion of the Union. In classifying this territory
as forest, it is not meant to imply that it is now, or ever
was, one unbroken jungle, like parts of central Africa, but
that it combines the conditions most favorable to a vigorous
and varied forest growth.

(2) The Plains region, extending from the very irregular
western boundary of the forest region to the Rocky Moun-
tains.

(3) The Rocky Mountain region, including the Rockies
and the Sierra Nevadas with the desert area between them.

(4) The Pacific Slope, a narrow strip between the Sierras
and the Pacific Ocean.

The boundaries of these regions, like those of the great
continental zones, overlap in various ways, the plants of one
region often appearing in another, like an arm of the sea

RESPONSE OF THE PLANT TO ITS SURROUNDINGS 293

m

WK^M

^^^^

^^«pi;,.-.^^vf^ ; : ■

^^••'^^^, ''^"-'' *''

l^jp^-v. .^*| -''" ■''%

Plate 15. — This siant tuli|) tree is a relic of the primitive fonst. It is twenty-
seven feet in circumference, at a distance of four feet from the ground. Notice the
sharp elbows of the large boughs, a mode of branching characteristic of thJ" kind of
tree.

294 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

projecting into the land. But the district where any class of
plants reaches its highest development is its proper habitat,
and as a general thing the one where its cultivation pays
best. It would be a waste of time and money to try to raise
cotton in Maine, or cranberries in Georgia.

Practical Questions

1. Does the native wild growth of a region furnish any indication of
the kind of crops which could be successfully grown there? (325, 326.)

2. Can you give a reason why the zones of cultivation may, in some
cases, be more extensive than the natural range of wild plants in the same
region? (262, 265.)

3. Can you give reasons why the reverse may sometimes be true ? (261,
284.)

4. What crops are raised in different parts of your own state ?

5. Name some of the native plants characteristic of different parts of
your state. What are its principal plant formations?

Field Work

1. Ecology offers the most attractive subject for field work of all the
departments of botany. It can be studied anywhere that a blade of vege-
tation is to be found. In riding along the railroad, there is an endless
fascination in watching the different plant societies succeed one another
and noting the variations they undergo with every change of soil or climate.

2. Students in cities can find interesting subjects for study in the vege-
tation that springs up on vacant lots, around doorsteps and area railings,
and even between the paving stones of the more retired streets. On a
vacant lot near the public library in Boston, over thirty different kinds
of weeds and herbs were found, and in the heart of Washington, D.C., on
a vacant space of about twelve by twenty feet, nineteen different species
were counted. Just where such things come from, how they get mto
such positions, and why they stay there, will be interesting questions for
city students to solve.

3. But the country always has been and always will be the happy hunt-
ing ground of the botanist. All the factors considered in the two pre-
ceding sections can hardly be found in any one locality, but by selecting
areas traversed by brooks, or by gullies and ravines, very marked changes
in the character of vegetation may often be observed. Barren, sandy,
or rocky soils, the sun-baked clay of naked hillsides, and the borders of
treeless, dusty roads will offer close approxunations to xerophyte con-
ditions.

i

RESPONSE OP THE PLANT TO ITS SURROUNDINGS 295

4. If there are any bodies of water in your neighborhood, examine their
vegetation and see of what it consists. Notice the difference in the shape
and size of floating and innnersed leaves and acciount for it. Note the gen-
eral absence of free-swimming plants in running water, and account for it.
Note the difference between the swani]) and border plants and those grow-
ing in the water, and what trees or shrubs grow in or near it. Compare
the vegetation of different bogs and pools in your neighborhood, and
account for any differences you may observe. Compare the water plants
with those growing in the dryest and barrenest places in your vicinity,
note their differences of structure, and try to find out what special adapta-
tions have taken place in each case. Make a list of those in each location
examined that you would class as pioneers.

5. Draw a map of the vegetation of some locality in your neighborhood
that presents a variety of conditions, such as a steep hillside, a field or
meadow traversed by a brook, the slopes and borders of a ravine, or the
change from cultivated ground to uncultivated moor or woodland. Repre-
sent the different zones and formations by different colored inks or crayons,
or by different degrees of shading with the pencil.

6. Draw a map of your state showing the different agricultural re-
gions, as indicated by the character of the cultivated plants in each;
use different colors, or light and dark shading, to define the boundaries.
Notice any irregularities of outline and account for them — whether due
to soil, moisture, geological formation, winds, or temperature. What is
the controlling factor of each region ?

I

CHAPTER X. CRYPTOGAMS

I. THEIR PLACE IN NATURE

331. Order of development. — All the forms that have
hitherto claimed our attention belong to the great division
of Spermatophytes, or seed-bearing plants, designated also as
Phanerogams, or flowering plants. They comprise the higher
forms of vegetable life, and because they are more conspicu-
ous and better known than the other groups, they have been
taken up first, since it is more convenient, for ordinary pur-
poses, to work our way backward from the familiar to the less
known, rather than in the reverse order.

But it must be understood that this is not the order of
nature. The geological record shows that the simplest
forms of life were the first to appear, and from these all the
higher forms were gradually evolved. There is no sharp
line of division between any of the orders and groups of
plants, but the line of development can be traced through a
succession of almost imperceptible changes from the lowest
forms to the highest, and it is only by a study of the former
that botanists have come to understand the true nature and
structure of the latter.

332. Basis of distinction. — Cryptogams, or seedless
plants as a whole, are distinguished from the phanerogams
by their simpler structure and by their mode of propagation,
which in the former is by means of spores, while in the
phanerogams it is by seeds. A spore is a simple organic
body, consisting usually of a single cell which separates from
the parent plant at maturity and gives rise to a new individual.
A seed is a complicated, many-celled structure, containing
within itself the rudimentary structure of a new plant already
organized.

296

CRYPTOGAMS

297

Fig. 425. — A sea-
weed with broad, ex-
panded thallus.

Beginning with the simplest forms, cryptogams are grouped
in three great orders : —

333. I. Thallophytes, or thallus plants. — This group takes
its name from the thallus structure that characterizes its
vegetation. In its typical form, a thallus is
a more or less fiat, expanded body, of which
the lichens and liverworts offer familiar ex-
amples among land plants, and the kelps and
laminarias among seaweeds. It may be of
any size and shape, however, and sometimes ^
consists of a mere filament, as in the com-
mon brook silk, or even of a single cell (Fig.
429) . The term is applied in general to the
simplest kinds of vegetable structure, in
which there is no differentiation of tissues,
and no true distinction of root, stem, and
leaves. While it is not peculiar to the thal-
lophytes, it has attained its most typical development among
them, and the name is therefore retained as distinctive of
that group. It embraces two great divi-
sions, the Algae and Fungi. The first
includes seaweeds and the common fresh-
water brook silks and pond scums, be-
sides numerous microscopic forms whose
presence escapes the eye altogether, or is
made known only by the discolorations
( ^ and other changes caused by them in the

KjL^^-^^ water. To the fungi belong the mush-

FiG. 426.— AnthocG- Tooms and puffballs, the molds, rusts,

ros, a liverwort with flat, niildcWS, and the vast tribe of micro-
spreading thallus. . . 11 1 7 • 1-1

scopic organisms called haderia, which
are so active in the production of fermentation, putrefac-
tion, and disease.

334. n. Bryophytes, or moss plants. — This group likewise
contains two main divisions, Mosses and liverworts. Famil-
iar examples of the latter are the flat, spreading green plants,

298

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

bearing somewhat the aspect of Hchens, met with everywhere

on wet rocks and banks around shady watercourses. The
name is a reminiscence of their former use
in medicine as a specific for diseases of the
liver, and not, as in the case of the hver leaf,
of a fancied resemblan3e to that organ.

Mosses are one of the best defined of
botanical orders, and ire easily recognized
by their slender, leafy iruiting stalks, grow-
ing usually in dense, spreading mats, and
presenting every appearance of a highly
organized structure, well differentiated into
root, stem, and leaves.

The liverworts represent
the more primitive division
of the group, and in some
of their forms approach so
near the thallophytes that
it is not difficult to recog-
nize them as connecting
links in the same chain oi

life. Their relationship to the next higher

group is not clear, but while they represent

a more primitive stage of evolution than

the mosses, the development of the latter

has followed a course divergent from the

main line of evolutionary progress.

335. III. Pteridophytes, or fern plants, are

classed roughly in the three divisions of

ferns, horsetails, and club mosses. They

differ greatly in structure, but all possess a

vascular system, and a well-organized struc-
ture of root, stem, and leaves. They rank

next to the spermatophytes in the order of

development, and the group is of especial interest on account

of its relationship to the higher plants. One of its divisions,

Fig. 427.—.
shoot of peat mos
with ripe s p o r
fniits, /, /.

Fig. 428. — A com-
mon fern {Poly po-
dium vulgare).

CRYPTOCxAMS 299

the club mosses, has probably given rise to at least one sec-
tion of the gymnospernis, while the ferns are regarded as the
ancestors of the true flowering plants, which make up the
great class of angiosperms, and represent the highest type of
evolution yet attained in the vegetable kingdom.

II. THE ALGiE

Material. — Simple forms of green algse can be found on the shady
side of tree trunks, damp walls, old fence palings, and the outside of flower-
pots. Pleurococcus, one of the commonest kinds, occurs as a green,
powdery mat or felt in damp places, and is often accompanied by proto-
coccus, another good specimen for study. Spirogyra and other filamentous
algae can be found in stagnant pools and ditches and in old rain barrels.

Appliances. — Eosin solution, nitric acid, alcohol, iodine solution ;
a white china plate ; a hand lens ; a compound microscope, and slides.

336. Variety of forms. — This group embraces plants of
the greatest diversity of form and structure, from the minute
volvox and desmids that hover near the uncertain boundaries
dividing the vegetable from the animal world, to the giant
kelps of the ocean, which sometimes attain a length of from
six hundred to one thousand feet. They are usually classed
according to their color, as green, brown, and red algse,
including various subdivisions of each group. They all con-
tain chlorophyll, by means of which they manufacture their
own food, though in the red and brown divisions it is masked
by the presence of other pigments — an adaptation to the
modified light that reaches them at various depths under
water. With few exceptions they can live only in the water,
and unlike any other form of plant life, attain their highest
development in the salty depths of the ocean. The fresh-
water forms are small and inconspicuous, and generally of a
more simple type than the seaweeds. The great majority of
them belong to the two classes of green and blue-green algse.
The former is believed to have furnished the type from
which the higher plants have been evolved.

337. Study of a one-celled alga. — Put a little of the green
algae in water on a glass slide. Hold up to the light, or

300

PRACTICAL COURSE TN BOTANY

over a sheet of white paper, and examine with a hand lens;
then place under the microscope. It will probably be found
to contain a number of minute organisms, but ihe ])leuroc{)Cci
can be recoj^nized as small round bodies of a briji;ht ^reen
color, some of them separate, others adherinji; togetlier in
groups of two, four, or more, with the sides that are in contact
slightly flattened. Each of these bodies is an individual
plant consisting of a single cell, whence they are said to be
Draw one of the single cells and one of the
groups, or colonies, as they appear
under the microscope. Try to make
out the cell wall and the nucleus, and
label all the parts (see 7). If you
have any difficulty in distinguishing
the cell wall, drop a little glycerine
or salt water on the slide. This will
cause the cell contents to shrink by
osmosis (56, 59). Can you make
out the structure of the cell colonies ?

Fig. 429. — Three stages in i- j <• xi_ t

the division of a one-celled alga They havc resulted from the peculiar

(Glceocapsa polydermatica) : A, ^^^^ ^f multiplication that prevails

dmsion of a cell just beginning ;

B, division further advanced; amOUg this claSS of plants. A Cell

ILTil^cont:.."''''""' '" elongates, contracts in the middle,
and divides into two parts, each of
which becomes an independent plant like the mother cell.
See if you can find one in the process of division. The
daughter cells repeat the process, each one giving rise to two
new individuals, and so on indefinitely. The new cells do
not always separate immediately on their formation, but fre-
quently adhere together for a time, in colonies, before falling
away and beginning an independent existence.

338. Reproduction by fission. — This kind of reproduction
is called fission, or cell division, and marks a very primitive
stage of development. Under stress of adverse conditions
the cells formed by division may remain inactive for a time.
They are then called re,sting spores, and when more favorable

CRYPTOGAMS 301

circumstances arise, they begin again their work of repro-
duction and growth as actively as ever.

339. Meaning of the name. — The suffix coccus is a Latin
noun (plural cocci) meaning a grain or berry, and is a general
term applied to any small, round organism consisting of a
single cell ; hence, micrococcus, a minute round body ; proto-
coccus, a primitive form, or prototype of one-celled bodies ;
and pleurococcus, which may be freely translated " a one-
sided little round body," from the flattening of the adjacent
sides during fission — pleuro meaning lateral, or pertaining
to the side.

It is important to remember this definition, as the term
coccus is of very frequent occurrence in works of biology, as a
suffix for designating small round bodies of various kinds.

340. Examination of a filamentous alga. — Place on a
white dish a few drops of water containing some of the green
pond scum comrrion in stagnant pools and ditches. Exam-
ine with a hand lens ; of what does it appear to consist ?
Are the filaments all alike, or are they of different lengths
and thickness ? Soak a number of them in alcohol for half
an hour and examine again ; where has the green matter
gone ? Do these algae contain chlorophyll ? (336 ; Exp. 65.)
This class are called filamentous algae on account of their
slender, threadlike thalli, which look like bits of fine floss
floating about in the water. The bubbles of oxygen which
they sometimes give off in great abundance cause the
frothy appearance that has given rise to their popular
name, " frog spit."

341. Spirogyra. — ^ The filamentous algse are very numer-
ous, and a drop of pond scum will probably contain several
kinds. At least one of these, it is likely, will be a Spi-
rogyra, as this is one of the commonest and most widely
distributed of them all. Place a filament under the micro-
scope and notice the spiral bands in which the chlorophyll
is disposed within the cells. It is from this spiral arrange-
ment that the species takes its name. Do you notice any

302

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

430

431

roundish particles inclosed in the chlorophyll bands? Test
with a little iodine solution and see what they contain.
Each filament will be seen, when sufficiently magnified,
to consist of a number of more or less cylindrical cells joined
together in a vertical row, and thus forming the simple
threadlike thallus which characterizes this
class of algse. Physiologically, each cell
is an independent individual, and often
exists as such. Can you see the cell
nucleus? If not, place a few filaments
in a solution of eosin and add a drop of
acetic acid to give the solution a pale
rose color. After twenty to thirty min-
utes, examine again ; the nucleus will be
Figs. 430, 431.— <Spi- stained a deep red. If you can find an

rogyra (magnified) : 430, • i xi j -

two filaments beginning uubrokeu filament, examine both ends to
to conjugate; 431, for- gge whether there is any differentiation of

mation of spores. ''

base and apex.
342. Conjugation. — See if you can find two filaments
sending out lateral protuberances toward each other.
Watch and notice that after a time these projections come
together and unite by breaking down the cell walls divid-
ing them, the protoplasm in each contracts, the contents of
one pass over into the other, and the two coalesce, forming
a new cell but little, if any, larger than the original con-
jugating bodies. This cell germinates under favorable
conditions and produces a new individual. This method
of reproduction is known as conjugation. The cells thus pro-
duced by the union of the contents of two separate cells
may either germinate at once, and give rise to new individ-
uals, or remain quiescent for a time, as resting spores.

Practical Questions

1. Are any of the green algtc parasitic? How do you know? (186,
336.)

2. Why is their pre.sence in water regarded as denoting unhygienic
conditions ?

CRYPTOGAMS

303

3. Mention some of the ways in whicli their presence may contribute
to the contamination of drinking water.

4. Refer to Exp. 66, and account for the bubbles and froth tliat usually
accompany these plants in the water.

5. Can you suggest any other causes than the evolution of oxygen that
might produce the same effect ?

6. Is the presence of these gas bubbles of any use to floating plants ?

III. FUNGI
343. Classification. — In the fungi the thallus structure
is greatly modified, appearing usually as a network of fine
threads called the mycelium
(pL, mycelia), from a Greek
word meaning "fungus"
(369). These plants are
all, with a few doubtful
exceptions, parasites or
saprophytes which contain
no chlorophyll and are
incapable of supporting an
independent existence.
Biologists are divided as to
their position in the genea-
logical tree of life. The
weight of authority
at present inclines to
the view that they are
degenerate forms de-
rived from the algsc,
but they have been

so modified by their ^^^ 432. -a common form of moid, magnified.

parasitic habits as to showing thallus modified into a fibrous mycelium:

1 , 1 . • , • a, a, spore cases; h, mycelium. {After Kopf, in part.)

render then- position

in the general scheme of life a doubtful one. They repre-
sent an offshoot, or side branch, as it were, of the great
evolutionary line, and so may be considered for the present
as standing apart in a class by themselves.

304 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

344. Numbers and variety. — Fungi exceed every other
class of living organisms both in the number of species and
of individuals composing them. They include such diverse
forms as bacteria, molds, rusts, mildews, mushrooms, and
the like, ranging in size all the way from the giant puffball,
a foot or more in diameter, to the almost inconceivably
minute influenza bacillus, of which nearly two thousand

if

W0^

#■..

N

^ — '**^''"'' . . ,1^1

i

ii

^1^ '<^^-t-4-^='*^^H

Fig. 433. — Cephalothecium, a fungus parasitic on rosehips — greatly magnified.
{From Mo. Botanical Garden Rep't. Photographed by Hedgcock.)

million can inhabit a single drop of water without incon-
venient crowding !

345. The parasitic habit. — But while their life history
is obscure and hard to trace, the fungi are, as a class, well
differentiated by their parasitic habit. They contain no
chlorophyll, can manufacture no food, and consequently
have to obtain it ready-made from the tissues of living or
dead animals and plants. On this account thej^ are active
agents in the production of disease and decay, especially
certain of those manifold forms that have been grouped

CRYPTOGAMS

305

together under the general head of bacteria. While not re-
sponsible for all the disease known to be caused by living
organisms, — some very serious ones, such as malaria and
cattle fever, being due to animal parasites, — the majority of
those that have been most carefully investigated are traced
to the bacteria, or other fungi. After any of these parasites
have found a lodgment in the body of an organism whose
tissues furnish them a congenial habitat, they multiply with
enormous rapidity, and through the action of certain poisons
called toxins, which they excrete, give rise to the most de-
structive diseases in both animals and plants; and no rational

Figs. 434-437. — Disease-producing bacteria : 434, bacteria of consumption
(Bacillus tuberculosis) ; 435, cholera bacillus ; 436, bacilli of anthrax, showing spores ;
437, typhoid bacillus.

sanitary science is possible without a knowledge of their
habits and life history. Add to the vast amount of human
suffering that is to be laid at their door the economic damage
done by rust and smut fungi, by molds and blights and mil-
dews, and we shall be tempted to conclude that the " battle
of life" is largely a struggle against these invisible foes.

346. Useful fungi. — Not all fungi, however, are injurious.
On the contrary, the great majority of them are harmless,
and very many kinds are positively beneficial to man.
Without the yeasts and bacteria of fermentation we could
not have our bread and cheese. Other forms are active
agents in the fertilization of soils, it having been estimated
that there are 100,000 or more of these infinitesimal la-
borers at work in every cubic centimeter (about ^^ of a
cubic inch) of virgin soil ! Even the bacteria of putrefac-
tion, which we are accustomed to regard as the embodiment

306 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

of all that is foul and loathesome, are engaged in an unceas-
ing work as scavengers, without which life would no longer
be possible on our globe, as will be shown ui the following
section.

A. Bacteria

Material. — A vessel of water in which hay has been left to soak for
several hours ; a freshly boiled iDotato.

Appliances. — A double boiler for sterilizing ; a number of clean glass
jars and bottles ; cotton wool for stoppers; a compound microscope.

Culture Mediums. — A freshly boiled ijotato answers very well for
ordinary purposes. "Bread mash" can be made by drying some bread
crumbs in an oven, then mashing and mixing them to a paste with boiling
water ; sterilize by three successive heatings in a double boiler. A sterilized
preparation of gelatine solution is the medium most coimnonly used.

347. How to obtain specimens for observation. — While
bacteria are plentiful almost everywhere, it is not always
easy to capture them just when and where you want them.
For this purpose, put some hay in water and leave in a
warm place away from the light until the liquid becomes
cloudy or a film forms on the surface. This will show that
bacteria are present. If it is desired to study any particu-
lar kind of bacterium, inoculate one of the culture mediums
described under " material," or a few drops of sterilized
extract of beef, with a small quantity of the substance to be
examined, or with dust or scrapings from the locality under
consideration.

Experiment 93. By what means are bacteria commonly distrib-
uted ? — Put a slice of freshly boiled potato into each of three glass tum-
blers and cover with a filter of cotton wool held in place by tying tightly
with a cord, or by an elastic band. Set them all in a vessel of water, bring
it to a boil, and keep at that temperature for half an hour, to sterilize the
air in the tumblers. When they have cooled, lift the cotton from (1) for
a minute or two and then replace. Carefully pass the tip of a medicine
dropper through the filter of (2) so as to prevent the entrance of unster-
ilized air, and put on the slice of potato a small quantity of the bacterial
liquid prepared as directed in the last paragraph. Leave (3) unopened.
Keep all together in a warm, dark place and observe at intervals of from
12 to 24 hours. Do any bacteria appear in (3) ? Do any appear on the

CRYPTOGAMS 307

potato in (2), where the liquid was dropped? Are they more, or less
abundant than in (1)? Since cotton wool is entirely impervious to the
smallest microorganisms known, would yen judge from this experiment
that bacteria can get into any place unless carried there by the air, or by
some other means ?

Experiment 94. Can bacteria be carried by pure air ? — On a
warm (and preferably cloudy) day, put a slice of potato on a plate, and
leave uncovered in an unused room or closet, free from dust, and kept
carefully closed. Put another slice arranged in exactly the same way
in an open window on a dusty street, or in a room that is used and daily
swept and dusted. Do bacteria appear in the first plate ? In the second ?
Is air free from dust a good conveyor of bacteria ?

Experiment 95. What conditions are favorable to bacterial
GROWTH ? — Strain some of your culture liquid into half a dozen small
bottles of the same size, filling each about half full. Put (1) in a dark,
cool place — on ice, if the weather is warm ; (2) in a dark, warm place ;
(3) in a warm, well-lighted place ; into (4) put a drop of carbolic acid, form-
ahn, corrosive sublimate, or boracic acid, and keep in a dark, warm place.
Keep (5) in boiling water for half an hour or more, and then place beside
(2). Keep (6) in a freezing mixture of salt and ice for several hours, then
place with (2) and (5). Examine all at intervals of from 12 to 24 hours.
In which bottles is tha presence of bacteria indicated by cloudiness of the
contained liquid, or the formation of a surface film? In which do they
appear first ? In which most abundantly ? In which last, or not at all ?
What is the effect of light and darkness on their growth? Of heat and
cold? Of disinfectants? Name the circumstances that tend to hinder
their growti}, in the order of their efficacy.

348. Microscopic study of bacteria. — Put a drop of
hay infusion on a slide and examine with the highest power
of the microscope. You will see a multitude of very small
glistening bodies including different kinds of bacteria, a
majority of which are probably the hay bacillus, B. sub-
tilis, shown in Figs. 443, 444. Notice that some forms
move about freely, while others are non-motile. Which
kind are the more numerous ? The motion may he either me-
chanical, resembling that of the small dust particles we see
dancing about in the sunshine, or apparently voluntary,
and caused by the vibration of Uttle whiplike cilia. Can
you distinguish the two kinds? Try to make out clearly

308

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

the different shapes you see. Some appear as slender
chains or filaments, but this is due to the individual cells'
adhering together for a time before breaking up and begin-
ning an independent existence. The small, rounded bodies,
like a period (Fig. 438), are cocci; the slender, rod-shaped
ones — sometimes slightly curved (Fig. 440) — are bacilli
(sing., bacillus) ; the comma-shaped ones, and those gener-
ally showing a slight spiral curvature, are vibrios (Fig.

441 442

Figs. 438-442. — Typical forms of bacteria: 438, coccus type; 439, the same,
hanging together in chains ; 440, rod-shaped bacteria (bacillus type), the clear areaa
in some of these are spores ; 441, forms of vibrio ; 442, forms of spirillum.

441); the spirally twisted ones, like a corkscrew (Fig. 442),
are spirilli (sing., spirillum). These are the principal forms
which it is important to distinguish and remember. The
names are applied very loosely, however, in practice, bacillus
being often used as a general term applicable to almost any
kind, — the spirillum of cholera, for instance, being com-
monly known as the cholera bacillus, while by some authors
vibrios are ranked as a variety of spirillum.

349. Life history of a* typical bacterium. — A pure culture
of the Bacillus subtilis can easily be obtained by boiling
some of the hay infusion for half an hour and then leaving

CRYPTOGAMS

309

in a warm place till the usual indications of the presence
of bacteria appear (347). The spores of this micro-
organism are so resistant that they can withstantl the tem-
perature of boiling water for several hours, while those of
most other forms of bacteria are killed by a few minutes'
exposure to it; hence, the crop that develops after boiling
will consist of a pure culture of the
..- '.„','- 'V' hay bacillus.
.- ;'V/ ''"',,■ - ' - ' In their active state these organ-
'■' - --' ,,. ' ^. ' isms will be seen to consist of single-

''"•':^A-'^^^^ celled, rod-shaped bodies, about
three or four times as long as broad,
and generally cohering in

443

ci'mr^^

bands or filaments, as shown
in Fig. 444, c. The black dots
within the cells are the
spores. Each individual
bacterium produces but a
single spore, or rather be-
comes a spore itself, by the
contraction of its contents
and the formation around
them of a strong inclosing
membrane. On germinat-
ing, the spores give rise to
little ciliated, one-celled or-
ganisms called ■' swarm
spores," that swim about
freely in the containing medium and multiply rapidly for a
time by cell division. After this they pass again into the
quiescent state, ready, whenever favorable conditions arise,
to begin anew the repetition of their life cycle, which is an
irregular alternation of cell division and spore formation.

350. Resistance of spores. — Bacteriologists are not fully
agreed as to the cause of spore formation, some holding
that it takes place only when conditions are most favorable

444

Figs. 443, 444. — Hay bacillus (/?. sub-
tilis) : 443, a portion of the film from the cul-
ture liquid, the black lines, c, being bacteria
in the vegetative state ; 444, spore forma-
tion ; a, d, motile cells and chain of cells : h,
non-motile cells ; c, spores and chain of
spores from the film e.

310 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

for bacterial growth, others claiming the reverse. The
consensus of opinion at present is toward the view that the
spores are a provision for tiding over periods of stress and
difficulty. They are capable of retaining their vitality
for a long time, and are much harder to kill than the bac-
terial cells in their ordinary vegetative state, as was seen
in the case of the hay bacillus. The spores of one species
of potato bacillus have retained their vitality after four
hours of boiling, and those of the typhoid bacillus after
continuous exposure to a freezing temperature for more
than three months. The majority of bacteria, in their
vegetative state, are, however, either killed or rendered
inert by temperatures ranging below 10° or above 50° cen-
tigrade— equivalent to about 50° and 122° Fahrenheit,
respectively. It is easy to see what important bearing
these facts have on the process of disinfection.

351. Reproduction and multiplication. — The ordinary
mode of reproduction in bacteria, as in other unicellular
organisms, is by fission (337, 338). As each individual
forms but a single spore, no increase in numbers could take
place by this means alone. Hence, while the spores are
an important factor in the preservation of the species by
continuing its existence under conditions which the active
organisms could not survive, their successful propagation
depends on their power of rapid multiplication by division.
If this process were to go on unchecked, every hour, in an
unbroken geometrical progression, the progeny of a single
bacterium would, in 24 hours, number nearly 17 million;
in 25 hours, 34 million ; in 26 hours, G8 million, and in five
days they would cover the entire surface of the globe, land
and sea, to a depth of 3 feet ! In ordinary standard milk
sold by dairymen, and containing, when examined, less
than 10,000 microbes to the cubic centimeter, — about
20 drops, — the number was found to have increased after
24 hours to 600 million. It is comforting to know, how-
ever, that the majority of these are of the harmless kinds

CRYPTOGAMS 311

which are the active agents in the making of buttermilk
and cheese.

The effects of their rapid multipHcation will be better
appreciated when we consider that bacteria are the smallest
of known living creatures. If lOOO of the influenza bacilli
were spread out in a single layer with their sides touching,
but not overlapping, they would not take up more room
than one of the periods used in punctuating this book;
and a coccus concerned in a tubercular disease prevalent

445 446

Figs. 445, 446. — Milk (highly magnified) : 445, pure, fresh milk, showing fat
globules ; 446, milk that has stood for hours in a warm room in a dirty dish, show-
ing fat globules and many forms of bacteria.

among cattle in South America has recently been discovered,
of which double that number could be accommodated in the
same space.

352. Distribution of bacteria. — Ordinary air, when free
from dust, contains, on the average, not more than five
germs to the liter — equal to about 1 for every 12 cubic
inches. Pathogenic, or disease-producing, germs seldom
occur in ordinary fresh air, and even when present are, under
ordinary circumstances, harmful only to people whose
bodies, by reason of physical weakness or unhygienic habits,
offer a congenial soil for their multiplication. Numerous in-
stances are known in which perfectly healthy persons have
carried about infectious disease germs in their bodies and
even transmitted them to others without experiencing
any inconvenience, or even being aware of their presence.

312 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Among others, the germs of pneumonia, diphtheria, and
tuberculosis are often found in the mouth, nose, and sputum
of perfectly healthy persons. There are also a number
of bacteria that are regular inhabitants of the mouth, some
of which are the cause of decayed teeth and foul breath.
One form of bacterium, concerned in the production of in-
flammation and abscesses (Staphylococcus) is so constantly
present on the human epidermis that one authority has
declared it impossible to sterilize the skin so thoroughly
as to free it entirely of this microbe. It is ordinarily not
harmful unless it comes in contact with open wounds and
abrasions.

353. The economic importance of bacteria. — It is hard
to say whether these organisms concern us most on account
of the damages attributable to them on the one hand, or
the benefits we owe them on the other. If they were all
as harmful as the pathogenic kinds, life would hardly be
possible on the globe, while without their presence life
as we know it would have ceased to be possible long ago.
They are nature's great army of scavengers, the sole agents
of decomposition, without which dead organic matter would
be subject only to the slow changes by which the rocks
and mineral matter of the earth's crust are disintegrated,
and the undecomposed bodies of the vast procession of
plants and animals that have existed since life first began
on our globe would long ago have cumbered its surface to such
an extent as to render impossible the continued develop-
ment of life such as we know.

354. Sterilization is the process of ridding a substance
of living microorganisms. To do this effectively, the pro-
cess must be repeated several times at intervals, so as
to give any spores that may have survived previous applica-
tions time to pass into the vegetative state, when their
power of resistance is diminished and they are more easily
destroyed. The incubation period, as the time required
for the germination of the spores is called, is different for

CRYPTOGAMS 313

different kinds of bacteria ; hence the importance, from a
sanitary point of view, of a thorough knowledge of their Ufc
history.

355. Disinfection is sterilization on a large scale, and
the same principles apply to both. Heat is the safest
disinfectant for objects that will bear it, if continued long
enough and repeated often enough at a sufficiently high
temperature. Freezing will destroy some kinds of germs
and check or retard the development of nearly all, but
is not to be relied on as a permanent germicide, since
even among flowering plants there are many kinds, not
only of seeds, but of perennial vegetative forms that are
capable of enduring an arctic temperature of many degrees
below freezing for long continued periods.

Chemical disinfectants act usually as microbe poisons,
and are unsuitable as sterilizers for food, though valuable
in the purification of houses, clothing, and utensils — es-
pecially the instruments employed in surgical operations.

The prevention of the growth of bacteria, especially in
wounds and surgical incisions, whether by means of chem-
ical or physical agencies, is known as antisepsis.

Practical Questions

1. Wliy should a person recovering from an ague continue for some
time after to take quinine every third or every seventh day? (350, 354.)

2. Name some of the principal diseases produced by bacteria.

3. What is the principle to be acted on in the avoidance of such dis-
eases? (Exps. 94, 95.)

4. Are the same means equally effective for prevention and for cure ?
(354, 355; Exps. 93-95.)

5. Why is "fresh air" beneficial in a sick room? (352; Exp. 94.)

G. Does it act as a disinfectant, or as a mere diluent of the infected
air of the room ? (352.)

7. Why ought preserved fruits and vegetables to be scalding hot when
put into the can ? (355.)

8. Why is it necessary to exclude the air from them? (Exps. 93,
94.)

9. Reconcile question 8 with ciuestion 5.

314 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

10. Why does the use, for drinking purposes, of water that has been
boiled render a person less liable to infectious diseases? (355.)

11. Was the old-fashioned practice of handing the baby round to be
promiscuously kissed by friends and neighbors a good one for the baby ?
(352.)

12. Why is the spitting habit to be condemned? The use of common
drinking cups in schoolrooms and other public places? (352.)

13. Is it proper from a sanitary point of view that roommates at a board-
ing school, or even members of the same family, should use soap, towels,
and other articles of the toilet in common ? (352.)

B. Yeasts

Material. — A piece of fresh baker's yeast, some warm water, and a
little honey or sugar solution ; a pipette, or a medicine dropper; three or
four clean pint bottles or preserve jars.

To raise a crop of yeast fungi for observation, rub one fourth of a fresh
yeast cake in water enough to make a paste ; add one pint of water, with
a tablespoonful of honey or sugar, and stir well.

Experiment 96. What conditions favor the growth of yeast ? —
Pour equal parts of the liquid made as directed (see Material) into each
of three pint bottles, stopper lightly, and label. Put (1) in a warm, dark
place ; (2) in a cool, dark place ; and (3) in a bright light in a warm place.
Observe at intervals of a few hours the changes that occur in each. Notice
the bubbles that rise from the liquid. In which bottle do they form most
rapidly ? Lower a lighted match into it, or transfer some of the gas with
a pipette into a vessel containing limewater, and tell what it is. Taste
some of the fermenting liquid. Is it sweet? What has become of the
sugar that was put into it?

356. Yeasts and ferments. — Yeasts belong to a very dif-
ferent order of fungi from the bacteria, but on account of
their simpHcity of structure 8.nd the similarity of their action
to that of some of the latter, it is usual to consider them to-
gether. They are the active agents of fermentation, and
include a large number of species. The kind used for house-
hold purposes is the same as that employed in making beer.
Of this species there are many varieties, each one of which
gives a characteristic taste to the beer made from it; and
brewers, by paying attention to the cultivation of yeasts,
give their product the special flavors peculiar to the different

CRYPTOGAMS

315

brands. This kind of yeast is not known to exist except in
a state of cultivation, and probably owes its survival and
present condition of development to a symbiosis with man,
on account of its usefulness in bread making, and still more,
perhaps, to its part in the gratification of his bibulous pro-
pensities, for among savage tribes the manufacture of fer-
mented liquors is practiced long before the wholesome art of
bread making.

There are other yeasts existing in a state of nature, such as
those on the surface of fruits, which cause the latter, under

448

449

Figs. 447-449. — • Forms of common yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisice) : 447,
brewers' yeast ; 448, household yeast (the large grains are starch) ; 449, yeast from
beer sedunent, showing budding. (Figs. 447, 448 X 250 ; Fig. 449 X 1270.)

certain chcumstances, to ferment and decay. For this reason
artificial ferments are not needed in making wine and
other alcoholic liquors from fruits. Fermentation is also
caused by certain forms of bacteria, as in the formation of
vinegar and the souring of milk. Such bacteria often con-
taminate the yeast ferments,

357. Microscopic examination. — Place a drop of the
cultural liquid on a slide and examine under the highest
power of the microscope. ^Yh.SLt do you see? These egg-
shaped bodies are yeast plants, unicellular organisms like
the pleurococcus. Do you see any chlorophyll? Are the
yeasts parasitic? How do you know? What do they live
on ? (Suggestion : What food substance that has disappeared
was put into the culture liquid?) In getting their nourish-
ment from the sugar, these fungi disintegrate it into alcohol
and carbon dioxide, which is a process of fermentation. It

31 G PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

is the bubbles of gas that were seen rising in the liquid which
cause beer to effervesce and bread to rise. They permeate
the dough and by their expansion produce the sponginess
peculiar to leavened bread. Look for a cell with a bud form-
ing on it ; from what part does it appear to grow ? Where a
number of buds remain for some time attached to the mother
cell (Fig. 449), they form a colony. Make a sketch of a
single cell and of a colony of two or more adherent ones,
labeling all the parts. If the cell wall cannot be made out
clearly, run a little glycerine, or salt water, under the cover
glass with a medicine dropper. What causes the contents of
the cell to contract and leave the wall? (56, 59.)

358. Reproduction. — From time to time buds break away
from the mother cell and form new individuals or colonies
of their own. This process is called multiplication by bud-
ding, and is only another form of cell division.

Whenever reproduction takes place by other means than
seeds or spores, it is said to be vegetative. This sort of repro-
duction is not confined to unicellular plants, but exists also
among the phanerogams, the propagation of species by means
of buds, tubers, rootstocks, runners, grafting, and the like
being variations of the same process. On the other hand,
yeasts and bacteria and the unicellular algae have the power,
under extreme conditions, to form resting spores, which
sometimes lie dormant for years and resume their activity
when favorable conditions return.

Practical Questions

1. Wlicn is fermentation useful to man?

2. What is the effect on canned fruits and vegetables if yeast cells get
into them?

3. Whj^ does milk turn sour in warm weather ? (350, 351; Exp. 96.)

4. Whj^ do buttermilk and clabber spoil if left standing too long?
(345, 356.)

5. What causes bread to be "heavy"? (356, 357.)

6. Why will dough not rise unless kept in a warm place ? (Exp. 96.)

7. Why is beer kept cold during fermentation ? (350, 356.)

CRYPTOGAMS

317

C. Rusts

Material. — A leaf of wheat affected with red rust ; a leaf or a stalk
with black rust. Some barberry leaves with yellowish pustules on the
under side, which under the lens look like clusters of minute white corollas.
These are popularly known as " cluster cups." As the spots on barberry
occur in spring, the red rust in summer, and the black rust in autumn,
gather the specimens as they can be found, and preserve for use.

The orange leaf, or brown, rust {Puccinia rubigo-vera) is more common
in some parts of the country than the ordinary wheat rust {Puccinia
graminis), but the two are so much alike that the directions given will
do for either. If the orange leaf-rust (so named from its color, and not
from any connection with orange leaves, the logical relation of the words
being orange leaf-rust, and not orange-leaf rust) is used, the cups and
pustules should be looked for on plants of the borage family — comfrey,
hound's-tongue, etc. The orange leaf-rust of apple is caused by a fungus
which will serve to illustrate the same class of parasites.
The "teleuto" stage of tliis will be found on cedar
trees, in the excrescences commonly known as "cedar
apples"; the "cluster cups" on the leaves of apple
and haw trees affected with the disease.

359. Red rust. — Uredo stage. Examine
a leaf of " red rusted " wheat under the lens,
and notice the little oblong brown dots that
cover it. These are clusters of spore cases,
and are the only part that appears above the
surface. Viewed under the microscope, the
red rust will be seen to consist of a mycelium
(see Fig. 452), which ramifies through the
tissues of the leaf and bears clusters of single-
celled reddish spores that break through the
epidermis and form the reddish brown spots
and streaks from which the disease takes its
name. These spores, falling upon other
leaves, germinate in a few hours and form
new mycelia, from which, in six to ten days,
fresh spores arise. Formerly this was thought to complete the
life history of the fungus, to which the name of Urcdo was
given. It is now known, however, that the red rust is merely a

450

Figs. 450, 451.—
Leaf of wheat af-
fected with orange
leaf-rust (Puccinia
rubigo-vera), uredo
stage : 450, upper
side of leaf ; 451,
under side.

318

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Pig. 452. — Uredo spores of wheat rust (Puccinia graminis),
magnified. {From Coulter's " Plant Structures.")

stage in the life cycle of the plant, and to this stage the old
name urcdo is applied, the spores being called uredo-spores.

360. Black rust. — Teleuto stage. Next examine with a
lens a part of the plant attacked by black rust. Do you

observe any
difference ex-
cept in the
color? Do the
two kinds of
rust attack all
parts of the
plant equally?
If not, what
part does each

seem to affect more particularly ? At what season does the
black rust appear most abundantly ? Place a section of the
diseased part under the microscope and notice that the dif-
ference in color is due to a preponderance of long, two-
celled bodies with very thick, black walls (Fig. 453). These
are called teleu-
tospores, a word
meaning " final
spores," be-
cause they are
formed only
toward the end
of the season.
They are de-
veloped from
the same my-
celium with the
uredospores,
and are not a

product of the latter, but collateral with them and belong to
the same stage in the life history of the fungus. After they
appear, the uredospores cease to be developed at all, and

Fig. 453. — Tcleutosporcs of wheat rust, magnified.
(From Coulter's "Plant Structures.")

CRYPTOGAMS

319

only the dark teleutospores are produced. These remain on
the culms in the stubble fields over winter, ready to begin
the work of reproduction in spring. For this reason the
teleutos are popularly known as " winter spores " in contra-
distinction to the uredos, or " summer spores," whose activity
is confined to the warm months.

It was formerly supposed that black rust was caused by a
different fungus from that producing red rust, and to it the
name Puccinia was given. This has been
rotained as a general designation for all fungi
undergoing these two phases, and the par-
ticular form of fungus that we are now con-
sidering is known in all its stages as Puccinia
graminis.

361. The nonparasitic stage. — The for-
mation of teleutospores completes that por-
tion of the life history of the fungus during
which it is parasitic on wheat and grasses of
different kinds. In spring they begin to
germinate on the ground, each cell producing
a small filament, from which arise in turn
several small branches. Upon the tip of
each of these branches is developed a tiny
sporelike body called a sporidium (Fig. 454),
which continues the generation of the rust ter's "Plant stmc-
fungus through the next stage of its exist-
ence. The filament which bears these sporidia is not para-
sitic, but when the sporidia ripen and the spores contained
in them are scattered by the wind, there begins a second
parasitic phase, which forms the most curious part of this
strange life history.

362. The aecidium. — Examine next the under side of
some barberry leaves (or comfrey, etc., if orange leaf -rust
is used) for clusters of small whitish bodies that appear
under the lens like little white corollas with yellow anthers
in the center, Examine a section of one of these under the

Fig. 454. — Tclcu-
tosporo germinating
and forming sporidia,
s, s. {From Coul-

320

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

microscope and notice that the yellow substance is com-
posed of regular layers of colored spores. The corolla-like
receptacles containing them, popularly known as '' clus-
ter cups," are borne on a mycelium produced from the
spores described in the last paragraph. This mycelium is
parasitic on barberry or other leaves, according to the kind
of fungus, and was long believed to be a distinct plant, to

which the name ^cid-
ium (pi., uEcidia) was
given. This term is
now applied to the
cluster cups, and those
fungi which at any
period of their life his-
tory produce them are
called secidium fungi.

363. Spermogonia.
— On the upper sur-
face of the leaves that
bear the secidia, notice
some small black dots
hardly larger than pin
points, but which,
when sufficiently mag-
nified, appear as little
flask-shaped bodies (Fig. 455) under the epidermis. These are
known as spermogonia, or pycnidia. When mature, they
break through the epidermis so that the necks protrude, and
discharge a quantity of minute cells or spores, very like some
that, later on, we shall find playing an important part in the
reproductive processes of certain other fungi, and of mosses
and liverworts. In the rust fungi, however, their function is
not understood. They may possibly be survivals of organs
which were once active in the life processes of the plant, but
have become useless under changed conditions. Do such
organs throw any light on the evolutionary history of plants ?

Fig. 455. — Section through a barberry leaf,
showing on the upper side two spermogonia, s,s ;
and on the under side, an secidium, a.

CRYPTOGAMS

321

364. Connection between barberry and wheat rust. —
With the discharge of the aecidium spores, the part of the
Hfe cycle of the fungus spent on the barberry conies to an
end, and it is ready to begin the uredo-teleuto stage over
again as soon as it finds a suitable host. Where there are no
barberries, it is capable of propagating without them, either
by adapting itself to some other host plant, or by omitting
the 2ecidium stage al-
together. The para-
sitic habit being an
acquired one, the
fungus, like some ani-
mal organisms that
we know of, can often
be "educated " by
force of circum-
stances into tolerat-
ing, and even thriv-
ing upon, foods which
under other circum-
stances it would re-
ject. The wheat rust
is known to be ca-
pable of propagating
year after year in the F'«- ^^g- - a spedes of " cedar apple '• {a,m-

•^ '' nosporangiim) , showing the uredo-teleuto stage of

Uredo stage, the the apple rust fungus. (From a photograph by

spores surviving I'-f- 1"^ J^- Lioyd.)

through the winter on volunteer grains and grasses ; and in
no other country in the world does rust do greater damage
to the wheat crop than in Australia, where the barberry
is practically unknown. This power of accommodation
possessed by many parasites is one of the difficulties the
agriculturist has to contend with in the development of rust-
proof varieties.

365. Pol3miorphism. ^ Plants that pass through different
stages in their life history are said to be pulyniorphic, that

322 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

is, of many forms. The habit is very common among the
lower forms of vegetation. The fact that one or more of
the phases are sometimes omitted, as the secidium phase
of wheat rust in warm cHmates, suggests the idea that it
may be of use in helping the plant to tide over difficult
conditions. Besides giving better chances of obtaining
nourishment, it probably has the same effect as cross fer-
tilization among flowering plants, in imparting increased
strength and vitality to the succeeding generation. Wheat
rust produced from barberry secidia is said to be much more
vigorous — and consequently more destructive — than when
derived from a uredo that has reproduced itself for several
generations.

366. The damage done by rust to the host is through the
destruction of its tissues by the mycelium. The chlorophyll
is destroyed so that the plant can no longer manufacture
food, and is too starved to produce good grain. There are
many varieties of wheat rust, which have been found on
twenty-seven different kinds of grain. Most of them are
specialized to a particular host plant and will not, ordinarily
(364) , infest any other. Has this fact any bearing upon the
production of rustproof varieties ?

Practical Questions

1. Is a farmer wise to leave scabby and mildewed weeds and bushes
in the neighborhood of his grain fields? (364, 365.)

2. Are there any objections to the presence of volunteer grain stalks
along roadsides and in fence corners during winter? (364.)

3. Should cedar trees be allowed to grow near an apple orchard ? Give
a reason for your answer, (p. 317, Material.)

4. Should diseased plants be plowed under ? (361.)

5. What disposition should be made of them?

6. Ought diseased fruits to be left hanging on the tree?

7. Why is it necessary to pick over and discard from a crate or bm all
decaying fruits and vegetables?

8. Does a rotation of crops tend to prevent the spread of disease in
plants ? Give reasons for your answer.

9. Are rustproof varieties to be relied on indefinitely ? (364.)

CRYPTOGAMS 323

D. Mushrooms

Material. — Any kind of gilled mushroom in different stages of de-
velopment, with a portion of the substratum on which it grows, contain-
ing some of the so-called spawn. The common mushroom sold in the
markets {Agaricus campestris) can usually be obtained without difficulty.
Full directions for cultivating this fungus are given in Bulletin 53 of the
U. S. Department of Agriculture. From 6 to 12 hours before the lesson
is to begin, cut the stem from the cap of a mature specimen, close up to
the gills, lay it, gills doAvnward, on a piece of clean paper, cover with a bowl
or pan to keep the spores from being blown about by the wind, and leave
until a print (Fig. 466) has been formed.

367. Mushrooms and toadstools. — The popular distinc-
tion which limits the term " mushroom " to a single species,
the Agaricus campestris, and classes all others as toadstools,
has no sanction in botany. All mushrooms are toadstools
and all toadstools are mushrooms, whether poisonous or
edible. The real distinction is between mushrooms and
puffballs, the former term being more properly applied to
fungi which have the spore-bearing surface exposed.

368. Examination of a typical specimen. — The most
highly specialized of the fungi, and the easiest to observe on
account of their size and abundance, are the mushrooms
that are such familiar objects after every summer shower.
The gilled kind — those with the rayed laminae under the
cap — are usually the most easily obtained. Specimens
should be examined as soon after gathering as possible, since
they decay very quickly.

369. The mycelium. — Examine some of the white fibrous
substance usually called spawn through a lens. Notice
that it is made up of fine white threads interlacing with each
other, and often forming webby mats that ramify to a con-
siderable distance through the substratum of rotten wood
or other material upon which the fungus grows. This webby
structure, often mistaken for root fibers, is the thallus or
true vegetative body of the plant, the part rising above
ground, and usually regarded as the mushroom, being only
the fruit, or reproductive organ. Place some of the mycelium

324

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Fig. 457. — Mycelium
of a mushroom (Agaricus
campestris), with young
buttons (fruiting organs)
in different stages : 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, sections of fructi-
fication at successive pe-
riods of development; m,
mycelium ; st, stipe ; p,
pileus ; I, gill, or lamina ;
V, veil.

under the microscope and notice that it is
composed of deHcate filaments made up of
single cells placed end to end, as in Spi-
rogyra (341), These filaments are called
hyphoe.

370. The button. — Look on the my-
celium for one of the small round bodies
called buttons (Fig. 457). These are the
beginning of the fruiting body popularly
known as the mushroom, and are of va-
rious sizes, some of the youngest being
barely visible to the naked eye. After a
time they begin to elongate and make
their way out of the substratum.

371. The veil and the volva. — Make a
vertical section through the center of one
of the larger buttons after it is well above
ground, and sketch. Notice whether it is

entirely enveloped from root to cap in a covering membrane
— the volva (Fig. 458, a) — or
whether the enveloping mem-
brane extends only from the
upper part of the stem to the b-,
margin of the cap — the veil (Fig.
458, d) ; whether it has both veil
and volva, or finally, whether it
is naked, that is, devoid of both.
372. The stipe, or stalk. —
Notice this as to length, thick-
ness, color, and position; that is,
whether it is inserted in the
center of the cap or to one side
(excentric), or on one edge (lat-
eral). Observe the base, whether yi^i. 458. — Diagram of umx-

bulboUS, tapering, or straight, panded ^mamVa. sho^dng parts: a,
111 volva; b, pilcus; c, gills ; d, veil ; e,

and whether surrounded by a stipe ; m, myceUum.

CRYPTOGAMS

325

Fig. 459. — Parasol

cup, or merely by concentric rings or rag-
ged bits of membrane (the remains of the
volva). Look for the aniiulus or ring (re-
mains of the veil) near the insertion of the
stipe into the cap, and if tliere is one, notice
whether it adheres to the stipe, or moves
freely up and down (Fig. 459, a) ; whether
it is thick and firm, or broad and membra-
nous so that it hangs like a sort of curtain
round the upper part of the stipe (Fig.
467, a) . Break the stem and notice whether
it is hollow or solid; observe also the texture,
whether brittle, cartilaginous, fibrous, or mushroom (Lepiota

f. . procera), showing

Ilesny. movableannulus: *7,

373. The pilaus, or cap. — Observe this as ^^ipe ; «, annuius. or

*"*' * ' * ring; u, umbo; p, p,

to color and surface, whether dry, or moist floccose patches left
and sticky ; smooth, or covered with scurf ^^ ^° ^^'
or scales left by the remains of the volva, as it was stretched
and broken up by the expanding cap (Fig. 459, p, p). Note
also the size and shape, whether coni-
cal, expanded, funnel-shaped (Fig. 460),
or umhonate — hsiving a protuberance
at the apex (Fig. 459) — or whether the
margin is turned up at the edge (revo-
lute, Fig. 467), or under (involute, Fig.
459).

374. The gills, or lairjjnae. — Look at
the under surface and notice whether
the gills are broad or narrow, whether
they extend straight from stem to mar-
gin, or are rounded at the ends, or
infundibuiiform piieus and curvcd, toothcd, or lobcd iu any way.
Notice their attachment to the stipe,
whether /ree, not touching it at all ; adnate, attached squarely
to the stem at their anterior ends; or decurrent, running
down on the stem for a greater or less distance (Fig. 460).

Fig. 400. — Chanterelle
{Cantkarellus cibarius), with

326

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

375. The hymenium. — Cut a tangential section through
one side of the pileus and sketch the section of the gills as
4^5.5 they appear under a lens, or a low

power of the microscope. Notice
that the blade consists of a central
portion called the trama {Ir, Fig. 462)
and a somewhat thickened portion,
h, constituting the hymenium, or
spore-bearing surface. Now exam-
ine, under a high power, a small sec-
tion from the edge of a gill, including
a bit of the trama. Notice that this
last consists of a tissue of mycelial
cells (Fig. 463) covered by the hy-
menium, or spore-bearing membrane,
which is thickly clothed with a layer
of elongated, club-shaped cells (6, h
and p, p, Fig. 463) set upon it at right
angles to the surface. Some of these
put out from two to four, or in some
species as many as eight, little
prongs, each bearing a spore (s, s, Fig.

Figs. 461-463. — Section of a
gilled mushroom : 461, through
one side, showing sections of the
pendent gills, g, g (slightly mag-
nified) ; 462, one of the gills
more enlarged, showing the cen-
tral tissue of the trama, tr, and
the broad border formed by the
hymenium, h 463, a small sec-
tion of one side of a gill very
much enlarged, showing the
club-shaped basidia, b, b, stand-
ing at right angles to the surface,
bearing each two small branches
with a spore, s, s, at the end.
The sterile paraphyses, p, are
seen mixed with the basidia.

463), while others re-
main sterile. The spore-
bearing cells are called
basidia; the steri e
ones, paraphyses; and
the whole spore-bearing surface together, the hymenium, from
a Greek word meaning a membrane. It is from the presence

Figs. 464, 465. — A tube fungus (Boletus edidis) :
464, entire ; 465, section, showing position of the
tubes.

CRYPTOGAMS

327

Fig. 466. — Spore print of a
gilled mushroom.

of this expanded fruiting membrane that the class of mush-
rooms we are considering gets its botanical name, Hymeno-
mycetes, membrane fungi. The hymenium is not always
borne on gills, but is arranged in various ways which serve
as a convenient basis for distinguishing the different orders.
In the tube fungi, to which the edible
boletus belongs (Figs. 464, 465), the
basidia are placed along the inside of
little tubes that line the under side
of the pileus, giving it the appear-
ance of a honeycomb. In another
order, the porcupine fungi, they are
arranged on the outside of project-
ing spines or teeth, while in the
morelles they are held in little cups
or basins.

376. Spore prints. — When the
gills are ripe, they shed their spores in great abundance.
Take up the pileus that was laid on paper, as directed under
Material, on page 323, and examine
the print made by the discharged
spores; it will be found to give an
exact representation of the under side
of the pileus.

377. The spores. — Notice the color
of the spores as shown in the print.
This is a matter of importance in dis-
tinguishing gill-bearing fungi, which are
divided into five sections according to
the color of the spores. One source of
danger, at least, to mushroom eaters
(/™°«„SV«Srsrow! would be avoided if this difference was
ing the broad pendent annu- always attended to, for the deadly

lus, a, formed by the rup- -j. / a -j i n ■ i \ i ii

tured veU; the cup at the amauita {Amanita p/iaUoides) and the
base c, and fioccose patches almost CQually daugcrous fly mushroom

on the pileus, left by the i ^ o j

breaking up of the volva.

{A. muscaria) both have white spores,

328

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

while the favorite edible kind (Agaricus campestris), though
white-gilled when young, produces dark, purple-brown spores
that cannot fail to distinguish it clearly for any one who will
take the trouble to make a print.

378. Economic properties. — Most of the wood-destroy-
ing fungi belong to this and allied orders. They are among
the worst enemies the forester has to deal with (140), and

millions of feet of
lumber are destroyed
every year by them.

Over seven hun-
dred kinds of fungi
growing in the United
States have been de-
scribed as edible, but
the evil repute into
which the whole class
has been brought by
the poisonous quali-
ties of a few species,
and the difficulty, to
any but an expert, of
distinguishing be-
tween these and the harmless kinds, has caused them to be
generally neglected as articles of diet. While they are
pleasant relishes and furnish an agreeable variety to our daily
fare, their food value has been greatly exaggerated. They
contain a large proportion of water, often over 90 per cent,
and the most valued of them, the Agaricus campestris, is
about equivalent to cabbage in nutrient properties.

Fig. 468. — Portion of the root of a maple afifected
with rot caused by the mycelium of a fungus that
has penetrated to its interior.

Practical Questions

1. Why are mushrooms generally grown in cellars? (186, 343.)

2. Name any fungi you know of that are good for food or medicine or
any other purpose.

3. Name the most dangerous ones you know of.

CRYPTOGAMS

329

4. Do you find fungi most abundant on young and healthy trees, or
on old, decrepit ones ? Account for the difference. (141,343,378.)

5. Do you ever find them growing on perfectly sound wood anywhere ?

6. Are they ever beneficial to a tree ? (86.)

7. Is it wise to leave old, unhealthy trees and decaying trunks in a
timber lot?

rV. LICHENS

Material. — Specimens can be found almost everywhere, growing
on rocks, walls, logs, stumps, and trees. Some of the more common kind
are : Parmelia, recognizable by the shallow spore cups borne on the upper
surface of the thallus; Cladonia, by the little stalked receptacles, like
goblets, in which its spores are held ; Physcia, by its bright orange color.
Where practicable, it is well to have several different kinds for comparison.
Iceland moss {Cetraria islandica) can generally be obtained from the
grocers, and is a good example of an intermediate form between foliaceous
and fruticose lichens.

If the specimens are very dry, they will be too brittle to handle conven-
iently, and should be moistened by soaking a short time in water. This
will render them quite flexible and also bring out the green color more
clearly.

379. Examination of a typical specimen. — The com-
monest kind of lichens, and generally the most easily ob-

FiG. 469. — Foliaceous lichens: A, Xanthoria (Physcia) parietina; B, Parmelia
conspersa; a, spore cups.

tained, are those that grow on rocks and tree trimks in flat,
spreading patches. Their margins are much dented and

330

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

curled, giving them a somewhat leaflike appearance, whence
they are called " foliaceous " lichens. This broad, expanded
body is the thallus, or vegetative part, as distinguished from
its reproductive part. Examine carefully the thallus of
your specimen. Note the size and shape of the indentations.
Is there any order or regularity about them, such as was
observed in the lobing of leaves? Is there any difference
in color between the upper and under sides? What other
differences do you notice? Do you see anything like hairs,
or rootlets, on the under side ? Mount one of them in water
and place under the microscope. WTiat does it look like?
Compare with one of the hairs from a leaf of mullein, grom-
well, blueweed, or other hairy plant, with the hypha of a
fungus mycelium, and with your study of the root hair in
67 (a). Is it a hair or a root? These rootlike hairs are
called rhizoids, and serve to anchor the lichen to its substra-
tum. Look on the upper side for little cup-shaped or
saucer-shaped receptacles. On what part of the thallus

are they situated? Ex-
amine with a lens and see
if you can make out what
they contain. These cups
are the spore cases. The
lichen fungus belongs to
the division of sac fungi,
which produce their
spores in closed sacs, or
cups.

380. Structure of the
thallus. — Make a thin
section through a thallus and place under the microscope.
Notice the small green bodies enveloped in the hypha? of the
fungus. Are they most abundant near the upper or the lower
epidermis? Has their green color anything to do with this,
and with the difference in color between the two surfaces of
the thallus ? (184.) Do they look like chlorophyll granules ?

Fig. 470. — Portion of the thallus of a lichen,
magnified, showing imprisoned algai.

CRYPTOCIAMS 331

Can you tell what they are ? Compare with your study of
the unicellular algae (337) and with Fig. 429. Does this
throw any light on their real nature?

381. The lichen thallus a composite body. — You will
probably have no difficulty in making out that these small
round bodies are green alga^ of some kind, but of what species
will depend upon the kind of lichen with which it is associated.
In Cladonia and the bearded lichen (Fig. 473), it is a proto-
coccus ; in other forms, a pleurococcus or a nostoc — and so
on, each species of lichen fungus being specialized to a cer-
tain form of alga. The great botanist, De Bary, showed

Fig. 471. — Artificial lichen mycelium, m, made by sowing spores of a fungus,
sp, among alga cells, a.

that it is even possible to produce a lichen thallus artificially
by sowing the spores of a fungus among the cells of the par-
ticular alga with which it is able to unite. The spores will
germinate without the alga, but soon perish unless they come
in contact with the right one. It is thus made clear that the
lichen plant as a whole is a combination of elements belong-
ing to two distinct orders, the alga? and fungi, but so closely
associated as to constitute practically a single individual.

332 PRACTICAL COURSE IK BOTANY

382. Slavery, or partnership? — Now, what can be the
object of this pecuUar association? Is it a symbiosis, or
a case of enslavement? The fungi, as we know, are all
parasites, unable to manufacture their own food or to exist
at all except at the expense of other organisms, living or dead.
But the lichens have refined upon the gross rapacity of their
order, and instead of indiscriminately destroying the hosts
that furnish their nourishment, have used their victims to
better purpose by converting them into contented, well-fed
slaves! The imprisoned algse perform for them the same
service that the chlorophyll bodies do for the higher plants,
and so the lichen fungi have the advantage of other parasites
in getting their food manufactured at home, so to speak.
And while the algae have to do double work in order to feed
both themselves and their masters, the fungus, in return,
shelters them against cold and drought, and prolongs their
growing period by giving them a more continuous supply

of moisture and food materi-
als, which it draws from the
substratum by means of its
rhizoids. In this way both
plants are enabled to live in
situations that neither could
occupy without the other.

383. Reproduction. — The
multiplication of the lichen
algae is exclusively vegetative.
The fungus, on the other
hand, reproduces normally
by spores, and the fruiting
bodies found on the thallus
originate from the fungus
mycelium.

384. Classification. —
Fig. 472.— a crustaccous lichen To be strictly accuratc, the

(Graphis elegans) growing on holly: A, I'l r iiii t

natural size ; B, slightly magnified. tWO KlUdS 01 Vegetable DOdieS

CRYPTOGAMS

333

that make up the lichen thallus would probably have to be
classified separately, as alga) or fungi, respectively, but as
fructification is the generally accepted basis of classification,
and the plant body is too intimately permeated with both
kinds of tissue to be divided, each lichen body as a whole is
classed with its particular kind of fungus. The entire group,
on account of the distinctive characters that mark it, is

473

Figs. 473, 474. — Fruticose lichens: 473,
Cladonia rangiferina, reindeer moss

Usnea harhala, bearded lichen ; 474,
A, sterile ; B, fruiting portion.

placed in a separate order of its own. This includes three
principal divisions, distributed according to the shape of the
thallus, and its habit of growth : (1) Crustaceous, those that
adhere closely to the substratum, as if glued or inscribed on
it ; (2) FoUaceous, with a broad, more or less lobed and leaf-
like thallus that adheres loosely to the substratum by means
of rhizoids springing from its under surface ; (3) Fruticose,
with branching, stonilikc thallus attached at the base like a
regularly rooting plant (Figs. 473, 474). Among these are
the Iceland moss, used as an article of food by man, and the
reindeer moss (Cladonia rangiferina), which is the chief sus-
tenance of the reindeer.

334 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Practical Questions

1. Have lichens any economic value ? (384.)

2. In what way are they most useful? (320.)

3. Do you find them, as a general thing, on healthy young trees and
boughs, or on old ones, and those showing signs of decay ?

4. Do you ever find them growing on trees or other objects in densely
inhabited areas, — cities, large towns, and manufacturing centers ?

5. Do they grow more thickly on the shady (northern) side of rocks,
walls, and trees growing in the open, than on the sunny and (presumably)
warmer sides ?

6. Mention some ways in which a growth of lichens might be beneficial
to a tree.

7. In what ways could it be harmful ?

V. LIVERWORTS

Material. — Liverworts can generally oe found growing with mosses
in damp, shady places, and are easily recognized by their flat, spreading
habit, which gives them the appearance of green lichens. Marchantia
polymorpha (Fig. 475), one of the largest and best specimens for study,
is common in shady, damp ground throughout the states. It is dioecious,
and specimens bearing both male and female organs should be provided.
Lunidaria, a smaller species that can be recognized by the little crescent-
shaped receptacles on some of the divisions of the thallus, is abundant
in greenhouses on the floor, or on the sides of pots and boxes kept in damp
places ; but the spore-bearing receptacles are seldom or never present,
the species being an introduced one and possibly rendered sterile by
changed conditions. Anthoceros (Fig. 426) and leafy liverworts, such
as that shown in Fig. 484, also make good examples for study.

Experiment 97. Why are the upper and under sides of a liver-
wort DIFFERENT ? — Plant a growing branch of marchantia, or of any
flat, spreading liverwort, in moist earth so that the upper side will lie next
the soil, and watch for a week or two, noting the changes that take place.
What would you infer from these as to the cause of any differences that
may have been observed between the two surfaces?

385. Examination of a typical liverwort — The thallus. —
The broad, flat, branching organ that forms the body of the
plant is the thallus. Examine the end of each branch ;
what do you find there? Are the two forks into which the
apex of the branches divides equal or unequal ? Compare
the growing end with the distal one ; does it proceed from

CRYPTOGAMS

335

a true root ? Notice that as the lower end dies, the growing
branches go on increasing and reproducing the thallus.

Do you find anything Uke a midrib ? If so, trace it through
the branches and body of the thallus ; where does it end ?
Does it seem to be formed like the midrib of a leaf ? Hold

>'■'

475

476

Figs. 475, 476. — UmbrolUi liverwort (Mnrchnnlia polymorphn) : 475, portion of a
female thallus about natural size, showing dichotomous branching ; /, /, archegonial
or female receptacles ; r, rhizoids ; 476, portion of a male thallus bearing an anther-
idial disk or receptacle, d, and gemmaj, g, g.

a piece of the thallus up to the light and see if you can detect
any veins. Is it of the same color in all parts, and if there is
a difference, can you give a reason for it? Examine the
upper surface with a lens. Peel off a piece of the epidermis,
place it under a low power of the microscope, or between
two moistened bits of glass, and hold up to the light, keeping
the upper surface toward you; what is its appearance?

336 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

Observe a tiny dot near the center of the rhomboidal areas
into which the epidermis is divided and compare it with
your drawings of stomata (181, 183).
What would you judge that these dots
are for? While differing in structure
from the stomata of leaves, they serve

Fig. 477. — ^ A portion ,, , , , ,

of the upper epidermis the Same purposes and may be regarded
of marchantia, magni- ^s a morc rudimentary form of the same

fied, showing rhomboidal

plates with a stoma in Organ.

^^*'^- 386. Rhizoids. — Wash the du-t from

the under side of a thallus and examine with a lens ; how
does it differ from the upper surface ? Do you see anything
like roots ? Place one in a drop of water under the micro-
scope. Compare with similar organs found on the lichen
(379). What are they? Would rhizoids be of any use on
the upper side ? stomata on the under side ?

387. Gemmae. — Look along the upper surface for little
saucer-shaped (in lunularia, crescent-shaped) cupules {g, g,
Fig. 476). Notice their shape and position, whether on a
midrib or near the margin. Examine the contents with
a lens and see if you can tell what they are. These little
bodies, called gemmce, are of the nature of buds, by which
the plant propagates itself vegetatively somewhat as the
onion and the tiger lily do by means of bulblets. Sow some
of the gemma) on moist sand, cover them with a tumbler
to prevent evaporation, and watch them develop the thalloid
structure.

388. The fruiting receptacles. — Procure, if possible,
thalli with upright pedicels bearing flattened enlargements
at the top (Figs. 475, 476). These are thallus branches
modified into receptacles containing the reproductive organs,
which, in marchantia, are dioecious, the two kinds growing
on separate thalli. Notice their difference in shape, one
kind being slightly lobed or scalloped, the other rayed like
the spokes of a wheel. The first kind are known as antherid-
ial, or male, receptacles; the second as aichegonial, or female.

CRYPTOGAMS

337

389. The antheridia. — Examine one of the male recep-
tacles on both surfaces and in vertical section. Notice the
tiny egg-shaped bodies sunk in little
cavities between the lobes just under
the upper epidermis (Fig. 478). These
are antheridia. When mature, they
rupture at the apex, and multitudes of
extremely small bodies, called anthero-
zoids, or spermatozoids, are discharged
from them,

390. Archegonia. — Next examine one
of the female receptacles. Look on the
under surface, between the narrow divi-
sions of the receptacle, for radiating rows ^^^ 473 _ Longitudinal

of flask-shaped bodies with their necks section of a male receptacle

, , - in J J of marchantia polymorpha,

turned downward, and all surrounded magnified: a, antheridia;

by a toothed sheath or involucre (Fig. <-thaiius; ..ventral scales;

•^ ^ r, rhizoids.

479). These bodies are the archegonia,
or female organs, and correspond, loosely speaking, to the
ovaries of flowering plants. If the receptacle is a mature
one, the archegonia will be replaced
by the ripe spore cases (sporangia),
as at /, Fig. 479.

Make enlarged drawings of the
upper surface of a male and a female
receptacle, and of a vertical section
of each, passing through an anther-
idium in the male, and an arche-
gonial row in the female receptacle.
Label the parts observed in each.

391, Minute study of an arche-
gonium. — Place under the micro-
scope a very thin, longitudinal section
through a ray of a receptacle con-
taining a young archegonium, and observe that the latter
consists of a lower portion, the venter, v, Fig. 480, and an

Fig. 479. — Under side of an
archegonial receptacle enlarged.
The archegonia are borne
among the hairs on the under
surface, which is presented to
view in the figure ; /, a spore
case.

338

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

upper part, the neck, which is perforated by the neck canal,
ca. The venter contains the egg cell, o, and the ventral canal
cell, vc. The neck canal is filled with small cells which,
at maturity, dissolve into a mucilaginous substance that
swells on being wet and discharges itself through the top
of the neck, leaving an open passage to the venter, where
the egg cell is ready to be ferti-
lized.

Make a drawing of the section as
seen under the microscope, labeling
all the parts.

392. Fertilization. — In the liver-
worts, and in cryptogams generally,
this process has to take place under
water, as the antherozoids are motile
only in a liquid, but the amount re-
quired is so small that a few drops
of rain or dew will enable them to
make their journey to the archego-
nium. The mucilaginous substances
discharged from the neck canal at-
tract them to the mouth of the open-
FiGs. 480, 481.— 480, young iug, ouc or more of them penetrates

archegonium of M polymor- ^ ^j^ ^ j^ ^^^ fertilization is aC-

pha ; V, ventral portion ; o, egg _ °=' '

cell ; vc, ventral canal and cells ; COmplished. Do yOU SCe any aual-

ca, neck canal with cells; 481, • 1 1 it • 1 ±1

the same ready for fertilization Ogl^S bctween thlS and the Same

after discharge of the mucilagi- function amOUg floWCring plauts?

nous fluid. /^_^ ^^^ s

(250, 251.)
393 . The spore case. — After fertilization the egg becomes
an oospore, capable of producing a new plant. Instead,
however, of separating from the mother plant and giving
rise to an independent growth, it germinates within the ar-
chegonium and produces there a small, stalked body, called
a sporogonium, or sporophyte, which at length ripens into
a spore case, as shown at /, Fig. 479. At maturity this
capsule-like sporophyte ruptures at the apex, and discharges

CRYPTOGAMS 339

a mass of spores, mingled with elongated filaments called
elators, which, by their elastic movements, assist in dissem-
inating the spores. These latter, on germinating, produce,
not a simple sporophyte like that which bore them, but
the thallus of the liverwort with all its complicated arrange-
ment of antheridia and archegonia and vegetative organs
that seem to foreshadow, by the analogies they suggest,
the coming of the higher plants.

394. Sexual and asexual reproduction. — We find here
a very marked change from the simple reproductive processes
observed in the algae and fungi. In the forms thus far con-
sidered, this function was carried on mainly by simple vege-
tative fission or budding, with a more or less irregular in-
tervention of resting spores. If only one kind of spore is
concerned, reproduction is said to be asexual. When two
different kinds of cells, the egg and sperm cell, unite to form
an oospore, as in the liverworts, reproduction is said to be
sexual. Wliile sexual reproduction takes place to some
extent among both algae and fungi, the prevailing method
among thallophytes is asexual, and may be carried on in
three different ways : by fission (and budding), by resting
spores, and by conjugation.

Representing the plant body by A and the resting spores
by a, the primitive asexual processes may be expressed to
the eye by the accompanying formulas : —

(1) Fission and budding : A->A-^A-^A->-

(2) Resting spores : Aa—>Aa-^Aa—>

(3) Conjugation: A 4- A->a— >A + A->a->

In (3), as was seen in the conjugating cells of the spirogyra
(342), the method is a little more complicated, showing an
approach toward the sexual process. In each of these cases,
however, there is only one kind of cell concerned, while in
the liverworts there are not only different kinds, techni-
cally known as gametes, but specialized organs, archegonia
and antheridia, for producing them. The thallus body
bearing these organs is termed the gatnetophyie, because ifc

340 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

bears the gametes, or sexual organs, — the suffix phyte mean-
ing a plant ; for example, epiphyte, on or upon plants ; spermo-
phyte, or spermatophyte, seed plant ; sporophyte, spore plant.
The sporophyte, produced within the archegonium, bears
simple nonsexual spores that are capable of germinating
independently. Structurally it is a separate, individual
organism, though it does not appear as such in this class,
but lives inclosed in the archegonium, as a parasite on the
mother plant.

395. Alternation of generations. — If we represent the
sporophyte by >S^, the thallus, or gametophyte, by G, the
female gamete, or egg cell, by fg, the antherozoids (male
gametes) by 7ng, the fertilized egg cell, or oospore, result-
ing from their union by oos, and the asexual spores dis-
charged from the sporophyte by 0, this complicated mode
of reproduction may be expressed diagrammatically as
follows : —

'^<C ^>ods-* S ». 0 ^(^^<r "> oos -^S — > 0 vG^etc.

A glance at the diagram will show a continual inter-
change of the sexual and asexual modes of reproduction, in
which each generation gives rise to its opposite, the asexual
sporophyte producing the sexual gametophyte, and this in
turn, through its gametes, giving rise to the asexual sporo-
phyte. This regular recurrence in genealogical succession of
two differing forms is what is meant by the expression " alter-
nation of generations." Analogous processes occur also
among some of the thallophytes, but as there is no well-
defined differentiation of sporophyte and gametophyte,
alternation proper may be regarded as beginning with the
bryophytes. The subject is a complicated one and some-
what difficult to grasp, but it is important to form a correct
idea of it and to fix clearly in mind the different modes of
reproduction as we proceed from the lower to the higher forms
of vegetation, since in this way alone can their biological

CRYPTOGAMS 341

relationships and their order of succession in the evolutionary
scale be made intelligil)le.

VI. MOSSES

Material. — One of the most widely distributed of mosses is the
Sphagnum, or peat moss, so generally used by florists in packing plants for
shipment, and it can be obtained from them at almost all times. It is
rather difficult, however, to find spechnens with the fruiting organs, since
they are rarely to be met with except in late autumn or early spring.
Other common forms are Polytrichum, Funarin, and Mmutn, any of which
will meet all essential conditions of the study outlined in the text.

396. The protonema or thallus stage. — In mosses the
sexual, or gametophyte generation differs from that of
liverworts in undergoing two phases. The germinating
cells of the sporophyte do not develop immediately into
the leafy stem, which is the typical gametophyte of true
mosses, but produce first a filamentous, creeping structure

Figs. 482, 483. — Protonoma of a moss: 482, germinating spore; 483, protonema;

kn, buds ; r, rhizoids ; s, spore.

called the protonema (Fig. 483), that spreads over the
ground and forms the tangled green felt usually observed
where mosses are growing. Place a few of these filaments on
a slide in water, and examine under the microscope. Do
they remind you of any of the forms of alga3? Look near

342

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

the base of the branches for knots or enlargements, like
those seen at kn, Fig. 483. These are buds from which the
leafy moss stems will develop. Do they correspond to any-
thing observed among the thallophytes ? Notice the rootlike
filaments that extend under ground ; how do they differ from
the ones above ground? Why are they colorless? How
do you know that they are not true roots? [67 (a), 379.]
Sketch one of each kind of filament sufficiently enlarged to
show the cells composing it.

A protonema that arises directly from the spore is said
to be frimary, while those which sometimes spring from
rhizoids above ground, or from stems or leaves, are
secondary. The fact that a protonema can bud from parts
of the fruiting stems shows that the two do not belong to
different generations, but are merely successive stages of
a single generation, and both together compose the game-
tophyte.

397. The leafy stage. — In their fully developed state
the true mosses show a marked advance in organization over

the liverworts. There is a distinct
differentiation of the growing axis into
stem and leaves, though no true roots
are formed. The leaves are arranged
spirally, on upright stems, while in the
liverworts the vegetative body is
either a flat, spreading thallus, or the
leaves are arranged horizontally on
opposite sides of a prostrate, or more
or less inclined, axis. Sometimes a
second set occurs, on the upper side
of the axis, but in this case the leaves
are usually much smaller and inclined
to the horizontal arrangement, as
shown in Fig. 484.

398. The reproductive organs. — The antheridia and
archegonia are borne in groups at the end either of the main

Fig. 484. — Scapania, a
liverwort with leafy thallus, ap-
proaching the form of mosses
and lycopodiums. (From Coul-
ter's "Plant Structures.")

CRYPTOGAMS

343

Fig. 485. — Fruiting recep-
tacle of a moss {Phascum cus-
pidatum), bearing botii anther-
idia, an, and archegonia, ar, at
the bifurcated apex ; b, leaves ;
p, paraphyses.

axes, or of lateral branches (Figs. 485, 486), but as a rule
only one arch(^goniuin is fertilized, so the mature sporo-

gonia are solitary. The plants may

be either dioecious or monoecious, as

in Fig. 485 ; and in )^ ,/

the latter case, the

reproductive organs

may be borne on the

same, or on different,

receptacles. The

antheridia and the

archegonia are both

mixed with club-
shaped hairs called

paraphyses (Fig.

485).
399. The sporophyte. — An examination
of the fruiting capsule of any of the true
mosses will show that it consists of a long
footstalk, the seta, s, Fig. 486, bearing a
capsule, or ripened sporogonium, /, which
is at first surmounted by a cap or hood,
known as the calyptra, c. The hood repre-
sents the excessively developed and often
highly specialized wall of the archegonium.
It falls away at maturity, and the spores are
discharged through an opening made by the
removal of the operculum, or lid, d. The
spores and the capsule are both developed
from the fertilized egg (oospore) , within the suics : «, seta, or foot-

1 • • 1 1 1 • stalk ; c, capsule with

archegonmm, m much the same manner as m ^..^lypir^ . f, capsule
the liverworts, and together constitute the -if*'''' t'^'^ calyptra has

, , , i- Ti fallen awav ; d, opor-

sporophyte, or asexual generation. It never cuium, or lid.
leads a completely independent existence, but remains a
partial parasite on the mother plant, though the lower part
of the young sporogonium is usually provided with stomata

FKi.4SG. — Fruit-
ing stem of a mos3
(Fvlytrichum com-
mune) with ripe cap-

344 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

and chlorophyll so that it is capable of manufacturing food.
In this respect it shows a distinct advance on the correspond-
ing phase of the liverworts — if we except the single genus
Anthoceros, which alone among the liverworts has the cells
of the sporogonium i)r()vided with chlorophyll.

400. Alternation of generations. — The process of repro-
duction in mosses is so closely similar to that of liverworts
that it is unnecessary to repeat the details. There are
some minor variations, but in all essentials the processes
are the same and may be represented to the eye by the
same formula.

401. Relative position of mosses and liverworts in the
line of evolution. — Though mosses, as a rule, show a higher
degree of organization than liverworts, in both generations,
their development has been away from the general course
of evolution followed by the higher plants. This, as will
be seen later, tends towards a decreasing complexity of
the gametophyte with increasing complexity of the sporo-
phyte, while the mosses show increasing complexity of both.
Like the order of birds in the animal kingdom, they form
a highly specialized and somewhat isolated group. AMiile
they may be regarded as descendants from a common an-
cestral stock with the ferns and club mosses, they have
been switched off, so to speak, on a side track of the great
evolutionary trunk line, and their advance on this side
track has carried them to a point more remote from the
course along which the higher forms of plant life have
traveled than the distant junction at which they branched
off from their less progressive kindred, the humble liver-
worts.

VII. FERN PLANTS

Material. — Any kind of fern in the fruiting stage. Several different
varieties should be cultivated in the schoolroom for observation. While
gathering specimens, look along the ground under the fronds, or in green-
houses where ferns are cultivated, among the pots and on the floor, for
a small, heart-shaped body like that represented in Figs. 501, 502, called
a prothallium. It is found only in moist and shady places, and care should

CRYPTOGAMS

345

be taken in collecting specimens, as in their early stages the prothallia
bear a strong resemblance to certain liverworts found in the same situa-
tions. The best way is for each class to raise its own specimens by scat-
tering the spores of a fern in a glass jar, on the bottom of which is a bed
of moist sand or blotting paper. Cover the jar loosely with a sheet of
glass and keep it moist and warm, and not in too bright a light. Spores
of the sensitive ferns {Onoclea) will germinate in from two to ten days,
according to the temperature. Those of the royal fern {Osmunda) ger-
minate promptly if sown as soon as ripe, but if kept even for a few weeks
are apt to lose their vitality. The spores of sensitive fern can be kept
for six months or longer, while those of the bracken (Pteris) and various
other species require a rest before germinating, so that in these cases it
is better to use spores of the previous season.

402. Study of a typical fern. — Observe the size and
general outline of the fronds, and note whether those of
the same plant are all alike, or if they differ in any way,
and how. Observe the

shape and texture of the "^ "'"^^ - -^ ^ ^ ^.u -,

divisions or pinnae com-
posing the frond, their,
mode of attachment to
the rachis, and whether
they are simple, or
notched, or branched in
any way. Hold a pinna
up to the light and notice
the veining. Is it like any
of the kinds described in
171, 172? In what re-
spect is it different?
This forked venation is
a very general character-
istic of ferns. When the
forks do not reticulate or
intercross, the veins are Figs. 487-491.— a fom plant: 487, fronds

*rl + K -f • fVi ^"*^ rootstock; 488, fertile pinna: s, s, sori ;

Saia to De tree ; are iney 4^9 pr^sg section of a stipe, showing ends of the

free in VOUr specimen or fil5rovaseularhundles;490,aelusterofsporanKia,

, - T\/r 1 ' maKnifi(Hl ; 491, a single sporangium still more

reticulated: Make a maguified, shedding its spores.

346 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

sketch, labeling the primary branches of the frond, pinnce
(sing., pinna), the secondary ones, if any, pinnules, and the
common stalk that supports them, stipe. Note the color,
texture, and surface of the stipe. If any appendages are
present, such as hairs, chaff, or scales (in Pteris, nectar
glands), notice whether they are equally distributed. If not,
where are they most abundant ?

Examine the mode of attachment of the stipes to their
underground axis. Break one away and examine the scar.
Compare with your drawings of leaf scars and with Fig.
105. Do the stipes grow from a root or a rhizome? How
do you know? Do you find any remains of leafstalks of
previous years? How does the rootstock increase in
length? Measure some of the internodes; how much did
it increase each year? Cut a cross section and look for
the ends of the fibrovascular bundles. Trace their course
through several internodes. Do they run straight, or do
they turn or bend in any way at the nodes? If so, where
do they go? Do you see anything like roots? Where do
they originate ? Put one of them under the microscope and
find out whether they are roots or hairs.

True roots are first developed in the pteridophytes. Since
those of the fern spring from an underground stem, to what
class of roots do they belong ? (83.)

403. Minute study of a fern stem. — Place a very thin
section of a fern rhizoma, or of the stipe of a frond, under
the microscope. Except in very young stems the vascular
bundles are arranged in a ring, or sometimes in two or
more rings (Fig. 492), with plates of strengthening tissue,
I, I, between the inner and outer rings. Notice the inner
epidermal layer of hard brown tissue, and within that, the
soft parenchyma, which fills the rest of the interior. Test
it with iodine and observe how rich in starch it is. If the
section of a petiole is under observation, the details will
be somewhat different ; would you expect to find as much
starch in the stipe as in the rootstock ? Why, or why not ?

CRYPTOGAMS

347

Make a longitudinal
section of a rhizome
through the point
where a leafstalk is
attached and trace the
course of the bundles.
This will be facilitated
if the specimen has
stood in eosin solution
a few hours. Make
enlarged drawings of

both sections, labeling Fig. 492. — Diagram of a cross section through

oil +V>o r»Qr-i-G *^*^ ^*^™ °^ ^ ^®''" (P^f^i^)' «. «. «• "ngs of fibro-

au lae pans. ^ vascvdar bundles ; Z,Z, plates of strengthening tissue,

Clearly differentiated with a ring of flbrovascular bundles between them ;

, , . , n Ip, zone of strengthening fibers ; r, cortex ; e,

conducting bundles epidermis.
occur in the mosses,

but they are of much simpler structure than in the pterido-
phytes, consisting usually of a single central strand, and are
found more frequently in the leaves
than in the stems. A true vascular
structure appears first in the pteri-
dophytes, whence these plants are
distinguished as vascular cryptogams.
404. Fructification. — Examine
the back of a fruiting frond; what
do you find there ? These dots are
the sori (sing., sorus), or spore clus-
ters, and the fronds or pinnae bear-
ing them are said to be fertile. Are
there any differences of size, shape,
etc., between the fertile and the
sterile fronds of your specimen?
between the fertile and the sterile pinnsB? On what part
of the frond are the fertile pinnae borne ? Notice the shape
and position of the sori, and their relation to the veins,
whether borne at the tips, in the forks, on the upper side t

493

494

Figs. 493-494. — P a r t s of
fertile pi^inae : 493, of polypo-
dium, ei^larged, showing the sori
without indusium ; 494, of pellea,
showing indusium formed by tho
revolute margin.

348

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

495 490

Figs. 495-496. — Christmas fern (As-
pidium) : 495, part of a fertile frond, natural
size ; 496, a pinna enlarged, showing the
sori confluent under the peltate indusia.

(toward the margin), or the lower (toward the midrib).
Look for a delicate membrane iindusium) covering the sori,
and observe its shape and mode of attachment. If the

specimen under examination
is a polypodium, there will be
no indusium; if a maiden-
hair, or a bracken, it will be
formed of the re volute mar-
gin of the pinna. In lady
fern and Christmas fern {As-
indium), the sori frequently
become confluent, that is, so
close together as to appear
like a solid mass. Sketch a
fertile pinna as it appears under the lens, bringing out all
the points noted.

405. The spore cases. — Look under the indusium at
the cluster of little stalked circular appendages (Fig. 490).
These are the sporangia, or spore cases, in which the re-
productive bodies are borne. Place one of them under the
microscope, and it will be found to consist of a little stalked
circular body like a tennis racket (Fig. 491), surrounded
by a jointed ring
called the an-
nulus. Watch a
few moments and
see if you can
find out the use
of the annulus.
If not, warm the
slide and you will probably see the ring straighten itself
with a sudden jerk, rupturing the wall of the sporangium
and discharging the spores with considerable force. If this
does not happen, add a drop of strong glycerine to a speci-
men mounted in water ; the rupture will be apt to follow
quickly. What causes it, in either case? [56, (1); Exp. 19.]

497

498

499

500

Figs. 497-500. — Spores of pteridophytes, magnified :
497, a fern spore ; 498, 499, two %aews of a spore of a club
moss ; 500, spore of a common horsetail (Equisetum arveuse) .

CRYPTOGAMS

349

406. The sporophyte. — The spores found in such abun-
dance on the fertile pinna; are all alike, and each one is
capable of germinating and continuing the work of reproduc-
tion as effectually as the sexual spores of the bryophytes.
The fertile frond, or part of a frond, on which they are borne
is called a sporophyll (spore-bearing leaf), and the entire
plant is the sporophyte, which, with its crop of spores, makes
up one generation.

It is important to observe that in the ferns and in all pteri-
dophytes the sporophyte is the conspicuous and highly
organized body that is commonly recognized as the normal
growing plant; while with the bryophytes just the reverse
holds true, — the sexual generation, or gametophyte, repre-
sents the normal plant structure, while the sporophyte is
an insignificant appendage
which never attains an
independent existence.
Broadly speaking, in bryo-
phytes, it is a spore fruit ;
in the pteridophytes and
spermatophytes a highly
developed plant.

407. The gametophyte.
— When one of these asex-
ual spores germinates, it
produces, not a fern plant
like the one that bore it,
but a small, heart-shaped
body like that shown in Fig. 501. Examine one of these bod-
ies carefully with a lens. Observe that there are no veins nor
fibrovascular bundles, and the whole body of the plant seems
to consist of one uniform tissue. Compare it with the forked
apex of a branching thallus of a liverwort. Do j^ou perceive
any points of similarity ? The two are, in fact, morphologi-
cally the same. This heart-shaped body is called a prothal-
lium, and is the gametophyte of the fern. It may be of

501

502

Figs. 501, 502. — Prothallium of a common
fern (Aspidium): 501, under surface, showing
rhizoids, rh, antheridia, an, and archegonia,
ar ; 502, under surface of an older gameto-
phyte, showing rhizoids, rh, young sporo-
phyte, with root, w, and leaf, b.

350 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

different shapes, and in some species is branching and filamen-
tous, like the protonema of a moss. Generally, however, it
is flat and more or less two-lobed, as shown in Fig. 501. It
is small and inconspicuous and very short-lived, being of
importance only in connection with the work of reproduction.
Look with your lens for a cluster of small, bottle-shaped
bodies just below the deep cleft in the heart. If you can-
not make out what they are, put a thin section through
a part of the prothallium containing one under the micro-
scope, and you will see that they are the archegonia. Lower
down among the rhizoids, near the pointed base, will be
found the antheridia. In some species the prothalli are
dioecious, one kind bearing antheridia, the other archegonia,
but this is rare among the true ferns.

408. Fertilization. — This process is the same in all essen-
tials as in the bryophytes. As in other cryptogams, it can

take place only under
K water, — a circumstance
which points to an aquatic
origin for this subkingdom,
.-^' and through them to the
entire flora of the globe.
The archegonia differ
somewhat in shape from
those of the liverworts and
mosses, but a section under
the microscope will show
that they consist of essen-

FiG.503.-Youngarchegoniumofafern. tially the SamC parts.^ On
magnified: K, neck canal cell ; K', ventral aCCOUUt of the similarity of
canal cell : O, egg cell. . , . , , - ^

these organs, the pterido-
phytes and bryophytes are often classed together as Arche-
goniates.

409. Alternation of generations. — Among the section of
ferns that we have been considering, the order of alternation
corresponds in all essentials to that prevailing among the

CRYPTOGAMS

351

bryophytes, and may be represented by the same formula.
The chief difference is in the relatively much greater im-
portance of the sporophyte, which may be expressed by
putting it first : —

S—^o—^G<^ J>o6a—>S-^o^G<^ N oos—>S-^o—>G etc.
^mg mg

But some of the pteridophytes — of which the Selaginella
offers a conspicuous example — have differentiated their

34 507 508

;. — A kind of pteridophyte (Selaginella martensii) with its organs of

(4, a fruiting branoh ; 505, a microsporophyll with a microsporan-

icTospores through a rupture in tho wall ; 500, a mogasporophyll

"anirium : 507. megasDores : 508, microspores. (From Coulter's

Figs. 504-508.

fructification: 504, ._

gium, showing microspores through a rupture in the wall; 50f
with a megasporangium ; 507, megaspores ; 508, microspores.
" Plant structures.")

352 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

asexual spores (o of the formula) into two kinds, large and
small, known respectively as megaspores and microspores.
The prothallia developed by the former bear archegonia
containing female gametes only; those by the latter, antheri-
dia containing male gametes — while in the dioecious bryo-
phytes, the archegonial and antheridial thalli are produced
by spores of the same kind.

The differentiation of the asexual spores in the higher
pteridophytes gives rise to corresponding changes in the
sporangia that bear them, and even in the sporophylls them-
selves, one kind bearing microsporangia only, the other
megasporangia. In this way the differentiation of sex is
pushed back, step by step, until it virtually begins with the
sporophyte, or asexual generation.

Using the same terms as before, and representing the mi-
crospores by the abbreviation mo, the megaspores by Mo,
the archegonial gametophyte by arG, the antheridial by
anG, the formula may be modified to express this more com-
plicated process of alternation, as follows : —

jlo — > arG — > fg^ y Mo —^.arG—^ fg^

N oo.s->5<^ y ods->Seisc.

t — >anG — > mg'^ ^ mo — i-anG — >mg'^

Comparing this formula v ith the preceding, it will be seen
that the increased complexity affects the sporophyte at the
expense of the gametophy t< ;, which has now become a mere
dependent on the former.

410. Advantages of alternation. — This roundabout mode
of reproduction would hardly have been developed unless it
had been of some benefit to the plants in which it occurs.
Thc" chief advantage seems to be in more rapid multiplication
and consequently better chance to propagate the species, as
compared with the slow process of sexual reproduction were
the plant confined to that method alone. Only one plant is
produced by each oospore, and if this were a gametophyte
with its limited number of archegonia, multiplication would

CRYPTOGAMS

353

be slow ; but the sporophyte with its millions of spores, each
capable of producing a new individual, enables the species to
multiply indefinitely. At the same time the interposition of
a gametophyte, or sexual generation, secures the introduc-
tion of a new strain with effects analogous to those of cross
fertilization.

411. Classification of pteridophytes. — In our study of
this group, the ferns have been taken as the type because
they are the most familiar and most widely
distributed of all the vascular cryptogams.
But while they exceed in numbers, both of
individuals and species, all the other orders
combined, they form only one division of three
great groups that make up the class Pterido-
phyta. These groups are : (1) ferns, under
which are included, besides the true ferns, two
widely differing orders, with the grape ferns
and adder's-tongue in one, and the water ferns
in the other ; (2) the club mosses, embracing
the two subdivisions of Lycopodium and Sel-
aginella; (3) the horsetail family, including
horsetails c^nd scouring rushes. Orders (2)
and (3) are grouped together as cone-bearing
(strobilaceous) pteridophytes, because their
sporangia are clustered in oblong heads, or
strobiles (Fig. 509), somewhat like the cones of
the pine. The orders of pteridophytes differ
greatly among themselves, but agree in pos-
sessing certain characteristics that point to
their derivation from a common ancestry.

412. Distinction between pteridophytes and
bryophytes. — In passing from the Thallo-
phytes and Bryophytes to the vascular cryptogams, we cross
the widest chasm in the vegetable kingdom — a gap relatively
as great as that between vertebrates and invertebrates among
animals. The most important modifications that discrimi-

Fio. 509. —
Part of the fruit-
iug stem of a
scouring rush,
Equisctuin limo-
sum, showing the
cone-like spore
cluster. (After
Gray.)

354 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

nate the two groups are : (1) the presence in Pteridophytes
of a highly organized vascular system accompanied by a
well-marked differentiation of the plant body into root and
stem ; (2) increased importance and complexity of the sporo-
phyte with proportionate diminution of the gametophyte.

While vessels for conducting water occur in some of the
bryophytes (403), a well-defined vascular system and true
roots are met with first in the Pteridophytes. The change
in the relative importance of sporophyte and gametophyte
is so marked that in Selaginella, the genus which approaches
nearest in structure to the seed-bearing plants, the suppres-
sion of the gametophyte has proceeded so far that it never
leads an independent existence at all and is difficult even to
recognize as a distinct individual.

Practical Questions

1.' Have ferns any economic use — that is, are they good for food,
medicines, etc. ?

2. What is their chief value ?

3. Under what ecological conditions do they grow ?

4. Are they often attacked by insects, or by blights and disease of
any kind ?

5. Of what advantage is it to ferns to have tlieir stems underground,
in the form of rootstocks? (321.)

6. What causes the young frond of ferns to unroll ? (54, 98.)

7. Name the ferns indigenous to your neighl^orhood.

8. Which of these are most ornamental, and to what peculiarities of
structure do they owe that quahty?

9. Are cultivated ferns usually raised from tha spores or in some
other way? Why?

10. After the great eruption of Krakatao in 1883, by which the vege-
tation of the island was completely destroyed, ferns were the first plants
to reappear. Explain why. (19 ; Exp. 17.)

VIII. THE RELATION BETWEEN CRYPTOGAMS AND
SEED PLANTS

413. No break in the chain of life. — The great gap that
was once supposed to exist between the cryptogams and
phanerogams has been bridged over by the discovery of

J

CRYPTOGAMS 355

analogies in the reproductive processes of the two groups
that connect them together as successive links in one continu-
ous chain of vegetable life. It is therefore very important
to have a clear understanding of the nature and meaning of
these processes, for the chief turning points in the life his-
tory of the different groups of plants are connected with
them, their natural relationships to each other, and their
distribution according to their respective places in the evolu-
tionary scale, being determined largely by a comparison of
their modes of continuing the life of the group.

414. Alternation of generations in seed plants. — This
process, so conspicuous among Bryophytes and Pterido-
phytes, and not unknown among ThaDophytes, is universal
among seed plants (Spermatophytes) also, though in so
masked a form that it is not easy to recognize without a
more detailed study than would be practicable within the
limits of a book like this. Briefly, we may say that the
stamens of spermatophytes, and the pistils, or rather the
carpels, which we have seen to be transformed leaves (298),
represent the sporophylls (406) of the higher pteridophytes.
The pollen sacs and ovules are sporangia, bearing micro-
spores and megaspores (409), represented respectively by
the pollen grains in the anther and the embryo sac in the
ovule. These go through a series of microscopic changes in
the body of the ovule analogous to the production of the
oospore in the archegonia of ferns and liverworts, but the
process is so obscure that to an ordinary observer the pollen
grains and the ovule ippear to be the real gametes, and were
long supposed to be such. The fertilized germ cell in the
embryo sac (251) corresponds to an oospore ; the embryo sac
with the endosperm found in all seeds (previous to its absorp-
tion by the cotyledons) is a rudimentary gametophyte; and
the embryo in the matured seed is the undeveloped sporo-
phyte, destined, after germination and further growth, to
produce a new generation with its recurrent cycle of alternat-
ing phases.

356

PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

In the gymnosperms, — pines, yews, cycads, etc., — which
represent the most ancient and primitive type of existing

seed-bearing plants,
the similarity of these
processes to those of
certain of the pterido-
phytes is very striking,
and it was through
the study of these that
the sequences of the
process were traced in
the much more obscure
form in which they
occur among the angi-
osperms. From the
endosperm in the seeds
of gymnosperms arche-
gonia were found to be
developed (Fig. 510) in
much the same way as

Fig. 510. -Diagrammatic section through the J^ Sclaginella, from the
ovule of a gymnospenn belonging to the spruce " , '

iamily: z, integument covering the ovule ; e, endo- prothallium, thuS

sperm (corresponding to female gametophyte), (jVinwino- fViP Ptirln

which fiUs the embryo sac, containing two arche- SnOWlUg tne enOO-

gonia, a ; o, egg cell ; p, pollen grains ; t, pollen sperm tO be a modified
tubes entering the neck, c, of the archegonia. i , , , ,

and greatly reduced
gametophyte. In some cases, it has even been found to
protrude a little way out of the embryo sac and to take on
a slightly greenish tinge — another remmiscence of its origin.
Fertilization, too, takes place in ]:)recisely the same manner
as in the pteridophytes, except that in all but the ginkgo
and the cycads, the fertilizing cells in the pollen grains are
non-moi ilo, and find their way to the ovule by growing down
into the embryo sac with the pollen tube, instead of swimming
to it — an adaptation probably brought about in response
to changed conditions during the course of evolution from
aquatic to terrestrial life.

CRYPTOGAMS 357

The analogies between the sequence of alternations in the
two classes will be made clearer by a comparison of the
accompanying diagrams. The corresponding terms applietl
to the various organs stand in the same vertical row. Dia-
gram (1) shows the process as it takes place in the more
highly developed Pteridophytes ; diagram (2) the corre-
sponding phases in angiosperms.

PTERIDOPHYTES

<m.ospl >mic >mo > anG * ant >mg vv
ybos >S
Mospl >Mgc >Mo >arG y arc > fg f^

mospl, micTOsporophyll ; mic, microsporangium ; mo, microspores ; anG, male
gamctophyte ; ant, antheridia ; 7ng, antherozoids. The letters in the lower line
stand for the corresponding female organs.

SPERMATOPHYTES

■2Ml ^/c — -> »io'— -

de veloped

, de veloped
.em ^end 37,;^,—

gymno
sperms

st, stamen ; an, anther ; pol, pollen ; fc, food cells in pollen grain ; gc, generative
cell ; p, pistil ; ov, ovules ; cm, embryo sac ; end, endosperm ; ec, egg cell.

415. Disappearance of the gametophyte. — The seed is a
comparatively recent development in plant evolution. It
has no counterpart anywhere among the cryptogams, but is
strictly characteristic of the three great orders of Spermo-
phytes: Monocotyl, Dicotyl, and Gymnosperms, which
compose the greater part of the vegetation of the globe.
Structurally, it is a matured sporangium containing a rudi-
mentary sporophyte (the embryo), and a reduced gameto-
phyte (the embrj^o sac), which, under the form of endosperm,
has dwindled to an insignificance that makes it difficult to
recognize it as a phase in an alternation of generations.

416. Significance of the sporophyte. — The gametophyte
is obviously a more ancient and primitive structure than the
sporophyte, which first becomes prominent in the ferns and

358 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

their allies. The sudden and violent break in the succession
of vegetable life that accompanies the appearance of the
pteridophytes (412) is probably to be explained by the
development of a land flora and the necessity of adaptation to
life in a new medium. The fact that no living cell, whether
vegetable or animal, can absorb nourishment except in a
liquid form, seems to point to an aquatic origin more or less
remote for all life. This inference is further strengthened,
in the case of plants, by the fact that even in so highly or-
ganized a group as the pteridophytes, fertilization cannot
take place except in water. Such a requirement would
manifestly be a great disadvantage to land plants, and one
of the first steps in response to the demands of a new habitat
would be to get rid, as far as possible, of the primitive game-
tophyte with its outgrown adaptations to a liquid medium,
and to transfer the greater part of the work of reproduction
to the asexual generation, in which the problem of fertiliza-
tion did not have to be directly met, the asexual spores ger-
minating without it. The greater the number of these
produced, the better the chance that at least some of the
gametes developed from them would meet the difficult con-
ditions of fertilization, and the survival of the species be
assured. At the same time, in order to meet the requirements
of terrestrial life successfully, and to provide for continuing
the sexual generation, correlative changes would have to
take place in the gametophyte by which the increasing
uncertainty of fertilization due to structural changes in the
sporophyte, and the absence of a liquid medium for the con-
veyance of free swimming antherozoids would be avoided.
This necessity has been met by the development of the pollen
tube, which bores its way to the egg cell, carrying with it the
generative cells, which in seed plants have taken the place
of the more primitive antherozoids. With the concomitant
reduction of the gametophyte and development of the seed
habit, the adaptation to land conditions has been made
complete.

CRYPTOGAMS 359

Roughly speaking, it may be said : (1) that Thallophytes
are predominantly aquatic ; (2) Archegoniates (Bryophytes
and Pteridophytes), amphibious; (3) Spermophytes, terres-
trial; (4) that the seed habit is a response to terrestrial
conditions; and (5) that the increased development of the
sporophyte was a necessary adaptation to meet those condi-
tions.

IX. THE COURSE OF PLANT EVOLUTION

417. Plant genealogy. — It has been shown by a study of
existing forms of plant life that there is no hard and fast
line of division anywhere between the different groups, but
that they are all connected by ties of kinship more or less
defined, according to their distance from a common ancestral
stock. The geological record points to the same conclusion,
and our classification of them into families, orders, and spe-
cies is merely a very imperfect genealogical table of their
supposed pedigrees. This does not mean, however, that we
can assert positively that such and such a species is derived
from such or such another, but that both are descended from
some common intermediate form more or less remote. While
we have reason to believe that the flowering plants are de-
rived through pteridophyte and bryophyte types from some
of the green algae, no direct connection has ever been traced
between any particular kind of flowering plant and any par-
ticular kind of alga, — or between a liverwort and an alga,
for that matter, — and probably never will be, because the in-
termediate forms die out, or pass on by variation into other
lines of development. But while this is true, all the evidence
we possess does go to show that, since the beginning of life
on the globe, there has been a general progressive evolution
from lower and simpler to higher and more complex forms.

418. Retrogressive evolution. — AVhile the general course
of evolution has been upward and onward, the movement has
not always followed a straight line, but, like a mountain road,

3G0 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

shows many windings and deviations from the direct route.
The monocotyls furnish a conspicuous example of this de-
parture from the general law of progression. It was formerly
supposed, on account of their greater simplicity of structure,
that they were a more ancient type than dicotyls, but recent
investigations point to the conclusion that they are a later
offshoot, derived from some primitive form of aquatic dicotyl,
and represent, not an ancient aT5d primitive stock, but a case
of retrogressive evolution from a higher type. Strong pre-
sumptions in favor of this view are : (1) that various species
of dicotyls show an unequal development of the seed leaves,
amounting, in the bryony, to complete abortion of one of
them, while some monocotyl seeds show morphological
characters that can best be explained as survivals, or inherit-
ances, from a dicotyl ancestor; (2) the structural resem-
blances between gymnosperms and dicotyls are closer than
between gymnosperms and monocotyls, which could hardly
be the case if the latter were the more ancient ; (3) the geo-
logical record does not show them to have appeared before
dicotyls ; (4) the number of cotyledons furnishes no criterion
as to the relative age of any plant group, since all three types
are represented among the pteridophytes, where plants are
found bearing one, two, or more cotyledons.

The theory of their comparatively recent origin from an
aquatic ancestor is further borne out by the many points of
similarity between their internal structure and that of hy-
drophytes (318), and also by the great proportion of aquatio
plants among them, amounting to thirty- three per cent, while
in dicotyls the proportion is only four per cent. Can you
give any reasons, from your examination of their internal
structure (113, 114), for believing that the line of develop-
ment which they have followed is a less effective one for
meeting conditions now existing on the globe than that at-
tained by dicotyls ?

We should remember, too, that while progressive evolution
implies successful adjustment to surroundings, it is possible

CRYPTOGAMS

361

to conceive of a state, as our planet approaches the period
of cosmic debility and decay, when the conditions of existence
may become progressively more and more unfavorable. In
this case the course of evolution would be reversed, the higher
types gradually dying out as the struggle for life became
more severe, and the tendency would be constantly toward
lower and simpler forms, until finally all life would become
extinct on our planet.
We have no right, how-
ever, to assume that
during such a course of
retrogressive evolution
the same forms would
be repeated in reverse
order as have already
appeared, because
there is no reason to
believe that the condi-
tions brought about by
planetary decline and
"old age" would be
the same as those at-
tending planetary
birth and adolescence.
419. Explanation of
the diagram. — An at-
tempt to show the
general course of plant
evolution up to the present time is made in the accompany-
ing diagram. The four great divisions, Thallophytes, Brj'o-
phytes, Pteridophytes, and Spermatophytes, are represented
by spaces between four horizontal lines arranged one above
the other in the order of their succession in time and com-
plexity of organization. It should be borne in mind that
these dividing lines are not sharply defined in nature, but
overlap or indent the territory between them with vary-

Thallophytes

Fig.

511. — Diagram showing the supposed
course of plant evolution.

362 PRACTICAL COURSE IN BOTANY

ing degrees of irregularity, like the coast line on a map.
The relative positions of the different orders we have
been considering are represented by upright and diagonal
lines, the general course of which, as indicated by the
arrows, is intended to give an idea of the trend of evolu-
tionary progress in the particular group represented by each
line. No one of these lines is made to originate directly in
any other, because, with the possible exception of the mono-
cotyls, we have no authority for asserting that any such direct
connection exists between plants as we know them, but only
that certain types give evidence of descent from a common
ancestry. This lack of certainty is expressed by placing the
point of origin for any given line in more or less close proxim-
ity to the one which is supposed to be the nearest living
representative of the common ancestor. The line of ferns,
for instance, is depicted as originating in the region of the
bryophytes, somewhere in the neighborhood of the liverworts,
but the two lines nowhere come in contact, because there is
no evidence that any fern, living or fossil, is directly de-
scended from any particular kind of liverwort known to us.
With these explanations, the diagram shows, in a rough way,
the generally accepted view of plant relationships as based on
the evidence at present before us. But in questions of this
sort it is wise to keep in mind the blunt remark of a famous
old American statesman, that ''only fools and dead people
never change their opinions."

Field Work

1. If you live in the country, study the appearance of plants affected
with bhghts, smuts, rusts, and mildews, and learn to recognize the different
kinds of disease by their signs. Notice which kinds are most prevalent in
your neighborhood, and what plants are most affected by them.

2. Notice the different kinds of mushrooms you find growing wild.
Observe the difference between those that grow on the ground and those
that grow on logs, stumps, and trees ; between those found in the woods
and those in open ground. Find out how those on the ground get their
nourishment. Uncover the mycelium, and notice the extent of its surface.

CRYPTOGAMS 353

Examine the soil and find out if it contains anything upon which they
could feed. Note the prevalence of shelf fungi on trees. Examine the
condition of the wood where they grow, and decide in what ways they
injure their hosts. Notice whether they abound most on healthy or on
decaying trunks and boughs, and decide whether this is because the
fungus i)refers that kind of host, or whether the injury it does causes
the decay, or whether both causes operate together. Notice what fungi
grow on different trees, and study their preferences in this respect.

3. Observe the different kinds of lichens found in your walks and try
to distinguish the three classes. Which kind are most abundant in your
neighborhood ? Which least so ? Note the situations in which you find
each kind growing, whether on stumps, trees, rocks, or the ground. Con-
sider how the algae and fungi aid each other in the different positions:
could either, for instance, exist independently on bald rocks ? Notice on
what kind of trees the different lichens seem to thrive best and on which
poorly or not at all, and whether the character of the bark — rough,
smooth, scaly — has anything to do with their choice of a habitat.

APPENDIX
SYSTEMATIC BOTANY

Taxonomy, or systematic botany, deals with the family
relationships of plants in the order of their nearness or re-
moteness with regard to a common line of descent. Its chief
value is the insight it gives into the course of plant evolution
and into the nature of the modifications that differentiate
each group from the ancestral type. While it is not ad-
visable to spend too much time in the mere identification of
species, a sufficient number should be examined and de-
scribed to familiarize the student with the distinctive
characteristics of the principal botanical orders.

Principles of classification. — All the known plants in the
world, numbering not less than one hundred and twenty
thousand species of the seed-bearing kind alone, are ranged
according to certain resemblances of structure, into a number
of great groups known as families or orders. The names
of these families are distinguished by the ending acece; the
rose family, for instance, are the Rosacece; the pink family,
Canjophyllacece; the walnut family, Juglandacece, etc. Each
of these families is divided into lesser groups called genera
(singular, genus), characterized by similarities showing a
still greater degree of affinity than that which marks the
larger groups or orders; and finally, when the differences
between the individual plants of a kind are so small as to be
disregarded, they are considered to form one species; all the
common morning-glories, for instance, of whatever shade or
color, belong to the species Ipomea purpurea. The small
differences that arise within a species as to the color and
364

APPENDIX 365

size of flowers, and other minor points, constitute mere
varieties, and have no special names appUed to them. The
Une between varieties and species is not clearly defined, and
in the nature of things can never be, since progressive de-
velopment, through unceasing change, is the law of all
life.

In botanical descriptions, the name both of the species
and the genus is given, just as in designating a person, like
Mary Jones or John Robinson, we give both the surname
and the Christian name. The genus, or generic name,
answers to the surname, and that of the species to the
Christian name — except that in botanical nomenclature
the order is reversed, the generic, or surname, coming first,
and the specific or individual name last; for example,
Ipomea is the generic, or surname, of the morning-glories, and
purpurea the specific one.

How to use the key. — Any good manual will answer the
purpose. Gray's " School and Field Book " is, perhaps, the
best available at present for the states east of the Missis-
sippi. Reference to the floral analyses in sections I-IV of
Chapter VII will make its use clear. Suppose, for instance,
we want to find out to what botanical species the morning-
glory or the sweet potato belongs. Turning to the key,
we find the sub-kingdom of Phaenerogams — flowering or
seed-bearing plants — divided into two great classes, Angio-
sperms and Gymnosperms, as explained in 18. A glance will
show that our specimen belongs to the former class. Angio-
sperms, again, are divided into the two subclasses of Dicotyle-
dons and Monocotyledons (18, 171). We at once recognize
our plant, by its net-veined leaves and pentamerous flowers,
as a dicotyledon (171, 229), and turning again to the key,
we find this subclass divided into three great groups : Sym-
petalous (211), called also Monopetalous and Gamopetalous ;
Apopetalous, or Polypetalous (211), and Apetalous — having
no petals or corolla. A glance will refer our blossom to the
sympetalous or monopetalous group, which we find divided

366 APPENDIX

into two sections, characterized by the superior or inferior
ovary (218, 225). Further examination will show that the
morning-glory belongs to the former class, which is in turn
divided into two sections, according as the corolla is regular,
or more or less irregular. We see at once that we must look
for our specimen in the group having regular corollas. This
we find again subdivided into four sections, according to the
number and position of the stamens, and we find that the
morning-glory falls under the last of these, — " Stamens as
many as the lobes or parts of the corolla and alternate
with them." A very little further search brings us to the
family Convolvulacece, and turning to that title in the de-
scriptive analysis, we find under the genus, Ipomea, a full
description of the common morning-glory, in the species
Ipomea purpurea, and of the sweet potato in the species
Ipomea batatas.

Making collections. — Mere labeled aggregations of species
are not recommended, but the collection of examples illus-
trating special points in morphology and plant variation
may be made with profit; such, for instance, as the adapta-
tions Observed in tendrils and stipular appendages, the
various modifications of leaves and stems to serve other
than their normal purposes, or the different forms of leaves
and flowers on the same stem, or on different plants of the
same species. A collection made with some specific object
in view would also be instructive, and might prove of great
value ; for instance, to get together examples of all the
troublesome weeds of a locality for the purpose of studying
their habits and devising means for their eradication ; or of
all the native useful plants, with detailed analyses of their
economic properties, and observations on their habits and the
practicability of further developing them. In short, wherever
collecting is carried on, it should be done with some object
other than the mere identification of species, which often
results in greater detriment to the wild plants of a neighbor-
hood than profit to the collector.

APPENDIX

367

WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND TEMPERATURES

As the metric system of weights and measures and the
Centigrade appraisement of temperatures are universally-
employed in scientific works, the following tables showing
the equivalents in our common English standards of those
in most frequent use, are given for the convenience of
students who have not already familiarized themselves with
the subject. The values given are approximate only, but will
answer for all practical purposes, except in cases where very
great exactitude is required. The micron, or micrometer,
is used principally by scientific investigators for measuring
extremely minute objects seen under the microscope.

Measures op Length

Metric

English Equivalents

Kilometer .

.

km.

1 of a mile.

Meter . .

m.

39 inches.

Decimeter .

•

dm.

4 inches.

Centimeter

cm.

1 of an inch.

Millimeter .

mm.

5^ of an inch.

Micron. . .

/*

^zh^ of an inch.

Capacity

Liter

1.

61 cubic inches, or 1 quart, U.S. measure

Cubic centimeter

cc.

xV of a cubic inch.

Weight

Kilogram . . . kg., or kilo

Gram

gm.

2i pounds.

15^- grains avoirdupois.
^j of an oxmce avoirdupois.

368

APPENDIX

Metric and English Scai

10 CENTIMETER5 = I DECIMETER

11 2 3 41 51 61 7

l06:;Kl'lLUMeTER5|

iiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiii

IT I

rnr

TTJ

TTT

m

I 2

4 INCHES

TTT

Temperature Equivalents

The next table gives the Fahrenheit equivalent, in round
numbers, for every tenth degree Centigrade from absolute
zero to the boiling point of water. To find the correspond-
ing F. for any degree C, multiply the given C. temperature
by nine, divide by five, and add thirty- two. Conversely,
to change F. to C. equivalent, subtract thirty-two, multiply
by five, and divide by nine.

Cent.

Fahr.

Cent.

Fahr.

100 .. .

... 212

0

. 32

90 . . .

... 194

- 10

. 14

80 . . .

... 176

- 20

- 4

70 . . .

. . . 1.58

- 30

- 22

60 . . .

... 140

- 40

- 40

50 . . .

... 122

- 50

- 58

40 . . .

... 104

-100

-148

30 . . .

... 86
... 68

20 . . .

Absolute zero.

10 . . .

... 50

-273

-459

INDEX

(The numbers, unloss otherwises desigtiated, refer to paragraphs.)

Aborted, 220, 291.

Absorption, 58, 71, 72 ; Exp. 39.
selective, 60.

Accessory buds, 158.

Accessory fruits, 302.

Adaptation, 206, 237.

Adhesive fruits, 20; Exp. 20.

Adjustment of leaves, 196-202.

Adnate, 374.

Adventitious buds, 65, 158.

Adventitious roots, 37, 83.

^cidium, 362.

Aeration, 319.

Aerial roots, 88.

Aggregate fruits, 301, 303,

Air space, 114, 116, 184.

Akene, 234, 296, 302, 305.

Albumin, 3.

Albuminous, 56.

Albuminous seed, i.e., containing endo-
sperm; Field work, p. 28,

Aleurone, 3.

Algffi, 333, 336-342.

Alternate leaves, 168.

Alternation of generations, 395, 400, 409,
414.

Analogous, 108.

Anatropous, Fig. 20.

Angiosperms, 15, 18 ; Fig. 51 1.

Annuals, 91.

Annulus, 372, 405.

Anther, 213, 235; Figs. 270-274.

Antheridia, 389, 394, 398, 407,

Antheridial, 388.

Antherozoids, 389, 392, 395, 416.

Antisepsis, 355.

Arch of the hypocotyl, 42, 44.

Archegonia, 390, 394, 407, 408.

Archegonial, 388.

Archegoniates, 408, 416.

Archegonium, 391, 394, 398.

Asexual generation, 395. 399, 409, 416.

Asexual reproduction, 394, 395.

Asexual apore, 395, 407, 409, 410, 416.

Assurgent, 95.

Axial placenta, 216, 300,

Axil, 100, 166.

Axillary buds, 145.

Axis, 64, 65, 79, 152, 156, 159, 161,

Bacillus, 348, 349.

Bacteria, 333, 345, 347-353.

Bark, 118, 119, 122, p. 128, (3).

Basidia, 375.

Bast, 116, 119, 122.

Berry, 291.

Biennial, 92.

BUabiate, 237, 243.

Bilateral regularity, 219.

Bilateral zonation, 326.

Black rust, 360.

Blade of leaf, 165.

Biogenetic law, 253.

Biological factors, 309.

Bordered pits, 114, 117 ; Fig. 123.

Boreal, 329.

Bract, 161.

Bryophytes, 334, 385-401.

Bud scales, 147-149.

Buds, 145, 155-158.

Bulb, 107.

Button (of mushroom), 370.

Calyptra, 399.

Calyx, 211.

Cambium, 115, 110, 120, 123.

Cap, 372, 373.

Capillarity, 136; Exp. 53.

Capitate, 220.

Caprification, 279. 305.

Caprifig, 279.

Capsule, 298.

Carbon, 27, 28, 62.

Carbon dioxide, 29, 63, 185, 186, 187, 189,

Exps. 23, 25.
Carpels, 216, 288.
Caruncle, 13.
Catkin, 161.
Caulicle, 46.
Cedar apples. Fig. 456.
Cell, 6, 7.

collecting, 184.

companion, 114.
Cell sap, 7. 110.
Cell wall. 7, 183.
Central cylinder, 67.
Central placenta, 216, .300.
Chalaza, 13.
Chlorophyll, 186, 341, 366.

369

370

INDEX

ChlorophyU bodies, 184. 186, 382.

Cion, 65,

Classification, 90, 252, 283, 343, 384, 411

417.
Cleistogamic flowers, 272.
Climatic zones, 329.
Climbing stems, 96-98.
Clipped seed, p. 12 (material).
Closed bundle, 114.
Close-fertilized, 272.
Cluster cups, 362.
Coccus (pi. cocci), 339, 348.
Coiled inflorescence, 162.
Collective fruits, 304.
Colony, 316, 337, 357.
Color of flowers, 276.
Compass plants, 199.
Complete flower, 219.
Composite, 235, 381.
Composite flower, 236.
Compound leaf, 178.
Conduplicate, Figs. 159, 160.
Confluent, 404.
Conifers, 117,327.
Conjugation, 342, 394.
Corolla, 211.
Cortex, 64, 115, 122.
Corymb, 161.
Cotyledon, 11, 12, 18.
Cross cut, 133.
Cross fertilization, 255.
Cross pollination, 255.
Crustaceous lichen, 384.
Cryptogam, 332.
Crystalloids, 60.

Culture medium, 347; p. 306 (material).
Cycle, 217, 219, 229.
Cycle of growth, 50.
Cyme, 162.

Cymose inflorescence, 162.
Cypress knees, 319.

Deciduous, 203.
Declined, 95.
Decurrent, 374.
Definite annual growth, 153.
Definite inflorescence, 160, 162.
Dehiscent fruits, 283, 298.
Deliquescent, 144.
Determinate growth, 153.
Determinate inflorescence, 160, 162.
Diadelphous, 239.
Diastase, 9.
Dichogamy, 269.
Dichotomous, 152; Fig. 155.
Dicotyl, 42, 115, 116, 171; 220.
Dicotyledonous, 12.
Differentiate, 245, 345, 409.
DifTusion, 9, 57.

Digestion, 9.
Dimorphic, 270.
Dimorphism, 270.
Dimorphous, 270.
Dioecious, 268.
Disinfection, 355.
Disk flower, 233.
Dispersal of seed, 19-25.
Dominant, 257, 258.
Dormant buds, 157.
Dorsal ; Figs. 390, 391.
Drupe, 292.

Dry fruits, 283, 293-300.
Duct, 67, 111, 114.

Ecological factors, 310.

Ecology, 266, 308, 310.

Edgings, 134.

Egg cefl, 251, 391.

Elators, 393.

Embryo, 11.

Embryology, 253.

Embryo sac, 251.

Endodermis, 67 (b).

Endosperm, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 414.

Epicotyl, 45, 46, 47.

Epidermis, 64, 115, 122, 183.

Epigynous, 225, 230.

Epiphyte, 87, 394.

Essential constituents, 62.

Essential organs, 212.

Evolution, 242, 245, 265, 334, 335, 401,

414, 415, 417, 418, 419.
Evolutionary, 253, 413.
Excentric attachment, 372.
Excurrent, 144, 154.

Factors, 54, 265, 310.

Fall of the leaf, 203.

Fascicled roots, 80, 81.

Fats, 1, 3, 4.

Feather-veined, 172.

Ferments, 9, 356.

Fertile, 404.

Fertile flower, 267.

Fertilization, 247, 251, 252. 392, 408,

416.
Fibrous roots, 37, 78, 80, 81.
Fibrovascular bundle, 67, 114, 116, 176,

288.
Fig wasp, 279.
Filament of the stamen, 213; a hairlike

appendage, 341, 361, 369, 393, 396.
Filamentous algae, 340, 341.
Fission, 338, 394.
Fleshy fruits, 283, 288-292.
Floral envelopes, 211.
Foliacoous lichen, 379, 384.
FoUicle, 298.

INDEX

371

Forestry, 139-142.

Forked stems, 152.

Formation, 316.

Free, 218, 374.

Free central placenta, 216.

Free gills, 374.

Free ovary, 218.

Free veining, 402.

Freezing, 33.

Frog's spit, 340.

Frond, 402.

Fruit, 282.

Fruticose lichen, 384.

Function, 41.

Fungi, 333, 343, 344, 345, 346, 378.

Fungus, 86, 364.

Gametes, 394.

Gametophyte, 394, 395, 396, 406, 407,

410, 412, 414, 415, 416.
Gemmae, 387.
Generative cell, 249, 416.
Geophilous, 321.
Geotropism, 51, 52, 53.
Germ, 2, 11.
Germ cell, 251, 414.

Germination, 32, 35; E.xps. 25, 26-29.
Germs, 352, 355.
Gills (of mushroom), 374.
Girdling, 131.
Glutin, 3.
Gourd, 14, 290.
Grain, 11, 297.

Grain of timber, 133, 134, 135.
Gravity, 52.
Growth, 48-52, 179.
Guard cell, 183.

Gymnosperms, 15, 18, 117, 414.
Gymnosporangium, Fig. 456.

Halophyte, 317, 323.

Haustoria, 85.

Hay bacillus, 348, 349.

Head, 161.

Heartwood, 131.

Hcliotropic, 200.

Heliotropism, 198.

Herbaceous, 90, 94, 115, 116.

Heredity, 264, 265.

Hilum, 12, 13, 14.

Homologous, 108.

Host plant, 85.

Humus, 75, 86.

Hybrid, 256.

Hybridization, 256, 257, 263.

Hydrophytes, 317, 318, 319.

Hymenium, 375.

Hymenomycetes, 375.

Hyphae (slug, hypha), 369, 380.

Hypoootyl, 11, 12, 14, 46.

arched, 42, 44.

straight, 44.
Hypogynous, 218, 225.

Imbibition, 136.

Imperfect flower, 219, 231, 267.

Impure hybrid, 258, 259.

In-breeding, 254.

Incomplete flower, 219.

Incubation, 354.

Indefinite annual growth, 153.

Indefinite inflorescence, 160, 161.

Indefinite number of parts, 229.

Indehiscent fruit, 283, 294.

Indeterminate growth, 153.

Indeterminate inflorescence, 160, 161.

Indusium, 404.

Inferior ovary, 221, 225.

Inflorescence, 159.

Insectivorous plants, 208-210.

Internode, 46, 110; Exp. 35.

Invasion, 328.

Inverted seed, 14.

Involucre, 161, 232.

Involute, 373; Fig. 251.

Iodine solution, Exp. 3.

Irregular flower, 219, 237.

Irritability, 201.

Joint, 110, 113.

Keel, 238.
Knots, 137.

Lamina, 209.

Laminae, 368, 374.

Lateral, 372, 398.

Lateral buds, 145.

Leaf attachment, 167.

Leaf cups, 202.

Loaf scars, 146.

Leaf traces, 146.

Legume, 299.

Lenticels. 106, 118, 288.

Lichen, 379.

Life cycle, 359, 364.

Loam, 75.

Lobing, 177; Figs. 210-212.

Locule, 216.

Loment, Fig. 394.

Lyrate, Fig. 197.

Medulla, 119, 122.

Medullary rays, 64, 116, 121, 122, 134, 135.

Megasporangia, 409.

Mcgaspore, 409, 414.

Mendel's law, 258.

Mesophyte, 317, 324.

372

INDEX

Metabolism, 193.

Microbe, 351,355.

Micrococcus, 339.

Micropyle, 12, 13, 14. 15, 45.

Microsporangia, 409.

Microspore, 409, 414.

Midrib, 172.

Mixed forest, 139, 324.

Modification, 100-108, 206, 207, 289.

Molecule, 136.

Monadelphous, 239.

Monocotyl, 110, 112, 171, 217, 221,418.

Monocotyledonous. 11.

MoncBcious, 268.

Monopetalous, 211.

Monosepalous, 211.

Morphology, 108.

of the flower, 244.
Mosaic (leaf), 197.
Mosses, 334, 396-401.
Muck, 75.

Multiple fruit, 304, 305.
Mushroom, 333, 367.
Mutation, 264.
Mycelium, 343, 359, 369.
Mychorrhiza, 86.

Neck canal, 391.
Net-veined, 171.
Neuter, 267.

Neutral flower, 231, 267.
Nitrogen, 62, 63, 188.
Nitrogenous food, 188.
Node, 46, 65, 110, 113.
Nucleus, 7, 341.
Numerical plan, 217, 229.
Nut, 295.
Nutriment, 3, 186.
Nutrition, 50, 54, 179, 193.
Nyctitropic, 200.

Obsolete, 220.

Oil, 1, 3, 8.

Oospore, 393, 394, 395.

Open bundle, 116.

Operculum, 399.

Opposite leaves, 168.

Organ, 41.

Organic foods, 4.

Organs of reproduction, 40.

of vegetation, 40.
Osmosis, 56, 57.
Ovary, 214, 216, 223.
Ovule, 216.

Oxidation, 27 ; Exps. 21, 22.
Oxygen, 62, 63, 186, 187 ; Exps. 22, 66.

Palisade cells, 184.
Palmate veining, 172.

Panicle, Fig. 171.

Papilionaceous, 237, 238.

Pappus, 234.

Parallel veining, 171.

Paraphyses, 375, 398.

Parasitic, 5, 345, 364.

Parasitic plants, 85, 343, 382.

Parenchyma, 110, 114, 115.

Parietal, 216.

Pathogenic, 352, 353.

Pedicel, 159.

Peduncle, 159, 288.

Pentamerous, 229.

Pepo, 290.

Perennial, 93.

Perfect flower, 219.

Perianth, 211.

Pericarp, 288.

Perigynous, Figs. 301, 302.

Persistent, 166.

Petals, 211.

Petiole, 165.

Phanerogams, 331, 332.

Phloem, 114, 116.

Photosynthesis, 186, 192, 193.

Phototropism, 195.

Phyllotaxy, 168, 169.

Pileus, 373.

Pinna, 402.

Pinnate veining, 172.

Pinnule, 402.

Pioneer plant, 316, 319, 320.

Pistil, 212, 214, 223, 228, 240.

Pistillate, 267.

Pitcher plant, 209.

Pith, 110, 115, 116, 119, 121, 122.

Pitted ducts, 114.

Placenta, 216, 288, 298, 300.

Plant society, 316.

Plasmolysis, 59.

Pleurococcus, 337.

Plicate, 155.

Plumule, 11, 12, 14, 45,46.

Pod, 298.

Pollen, 213.

Pollen grains, 213.

Pollen sac, 213.

Pollen tubes, 249, 250.

Pollination, 215, 247.

Polycotyledons, 15, 45.

Polymorphic, 365.

Polymorphism, 365.

Polypstalous, 211.

Polyscpalous, 211.

Pome, 2S8.

Prefoliation, 1.55.

Primary, 396.

Primary root, 42, 79.

Pronuba, 278.

INDEX

373

Protection, 199, 204, 207, 280, 287.

Proteins, 3, 8, 33, 188, 204.

Prothallium, 407.

Protonema, 396.

Protoplasm, 6, 7, 57, 58, 67. 110, 116.

Pteridophytes, 335, 411, 412.

Puccinia, 360.

Pure donjinant, 258, 259.

Pure forest, 139, 324.

Pure recessive, 258, 259.

Pycnidia, 363.

Quartered cut, 135.

Raceme, 161.

Rhachis, 178.

Radial section, 132, 135.

Radicle, 46.

Rhaphe, 13.

Ray, 161, 391.

Ray flowers, 231.

Receptacle, 211, 288, 289, 388, 390, 398.

Recessive, 257, 258.

Red rust, 359.

Regular flower, 219.

Reproduction, 338, 351, 358, 383.

Respiration, 30, 31, 191, 19 J.

Resting spore, 338, 342, 358, 394.

Reticulation, 172, 402.

Retrogressive evolution, 418.

Revolute, 373, 404.

Rhizoids, 379, 386.

Rhizome, 105.

Ringing, 127.

Rings of growth, 122, 123, 134, 135.

Rogue, 260.

Root cap, 39.

Root hairs, 38, 67.

Root pressure, Exp. 49.

Root pull, 69.

Rootstock, 105.

Root system, 89.

Root tubercles, 63, 309.

Rosette, 197.

Rotation of crops, 24, 327.

Runner, 95.

Samara, 296.

Sap movement, 125, 120, 128, 129.

Saprophyte, 86.

Sap wood, 131.

Scale leaves, 101, 106, 107, 147-149, 207.

Scape, 107, 159.

Scorpioid inflorescence, 162 ; Figs. 173-

176.
Screenings, 20 ; p. 28, Qn. 22.
Secondary roots, 37, 42, 79.
Seed, 11-18, 332, 415.

Seed coat, 12, 14, 15, 43.
Seedless fruits, 285, 286.
Seedlings, 36, 42, 43, 45.
Seed plants, 331, 414.
Seed vessel, 282.
Selection, 260, 265, 2Sr).

artificial, 262.

natural, 261.
Self-fertilization, 254, 271.
Sepals, 211.
Sessile, 167, 214.
Seta, 399.

Sexual generation, 395, 396, 406, 410, 416.
Sexual reproduction, 394, 395, 410.
Sheath, 67, 116.
Shrinking of timber. 136.
Sieve tube, 114.
Slabs, 134.

Sleep movements, 200.
Soils, 75, 77.
Sori, 404.
Spathe, 221.
Specialization, 237.
Spermatophytes, 331, 335, 394, 414.
Spermatozoid, 389.
Spermogonia, 363.
Spike, 161.
Spirillum, 348.
Spirogyra, 341.
Sporangia, 390, 405.
Spore, 332, 349, .350. 377, 406, 410.
Spore case, 390, 393, 405.
Spore print, 376.
Sporidium, 361.
Sporogonium, 393, 399.
Sporophyll, 406, 414.
Sporophyte, 393-395, 399, 406, 410, 412,

414,416.
Sport, 264.
Stamen, 212, 213.
Staminate, 267, 268.
Staminodia, 244.
Standard, 238.

Starch, 3, 4, 187, 204, 288; Exps. 69, 70
Stems, 90-99.
Sterile flower, 267.
Sterilization, 354.
Stigma, 214.
Stigmatic surface, 223,
Stimulus, 98, 186, 201.
Stipe, 240, 372, 402.
Stipule, 149, 165, 166. .
Stolon, 95.

Stoma, 181, 182, 183.
Stomata, 181, 182.
Stone fruit, 292.
Storage of food, 2, 3, 4, 17, 70, 103, 104-

107, 287.
Strangling fig, 88.

374

INDEX

Strobile, 411.

Umbel, 161.

Strobiliaceous, 411.

Umbonate, 373.

Style, 214.

Underground stems, 104-107

Succession, 327.

Unicellular, 337.

Sugars, 3, 4, 204, 288.

Unisexual, 267.

Summer spores, 360.

Uredo, 359.

Sundew, 210.

Uredospore, 359, 360.

Superior ovary, 218. 221, 225.

Supernumerary buds, 158.

Variation, 263, 264, 265.

Suppressed, 220.

Vascular bundles. 111.

Survival of the fittest, 261.

Vascular cryptogams, 403, 411, 412

Suture, 216, 298, 299.

Vascular cylinder, 64.

Swarm spore, 349.

Vascular system, HI, 113,335.

Swelling of timber, 136.

Vegetative reproduction, 358.

Symbiosis, 309, 382.

Veil, 371.

Symmetrical flower, 219.

Veins, 173-176.

Sympetalous, 211.

Venter, 391.

Syncarpous, 300.

Ventral, Figs. 390. 391.

Synsepalous, 211.

Vernation, 155.

Systematic botany, see Appendix.

Vessels, 111.

Vexillum, 238, 239.

Tangential cut, 132, 134.

Vibrio, 348.

Tap root, 79.

Vitality of seeds, 34; Exp. 80.

Teleutospore, 360.

Volva, 371.

Tendril, 96, 97.

Terminal bud, 145, 154.

Water roots, 39, 84.

Testa, 14.

Whorled leaves, 168.

Thallophytes, 333.

Wind pollination, 274, 275.

Thallus, 333, 341, 343, 379. 380, 381, 385.

Wings, 238,

Tillage. 76.

Winter spores. 360.

Tissue, 60, 61.

Toadstools, 367.

Xerophyte. 317.

Toxins, 345.

Xerophyte societies, 317, 320-322.

Tracheids. 114, 117.

Xylem. 114, 116.

Trailing, 95.

Trama, 375.

Yeast. 356.

Transpiration, 179, 180.

Yeast colony. 357.

Trifoliolate. Figs., 215'. 216.

Yellow trumpets, 209.

Trimerous, 217.

Yucca, 278.

Trimorphic. 270.

Yucca moth, 278.

Tuber, 106.

Tumbleweeds. 23.

Zonation, 325, 327.

Turgidity, 7.

bilateral, 326.

Tiu-gor, 179.

concentric, 326.

Twining, cause of, 98; Exp. 55.

horizontal, 326.

Twining stems, 96 ; Exp. 54.

vertical, 326.

Type, 18, 260, 263, 265, 336, 411.

Zones of vegetation, 325

■0 .

PHOPEHTY OF