PRACTICAL

FRUIT-GROWING,

I

SB 3D? MM3

J. CHEAL, F.R.H.S.

Illustrated

LONDON :

GEORGE BELL & SONS,

YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN,
AND NEW YORK.

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with the utmost despatch.

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stanc

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Nurseries : Long Ditton, Surrey, s.W.B. to Surbiton Station.

HARDILY-GROWN

FOREST, FRUIT, I OTHER TREES

& PLANTS, EVERGREENS, SEEDS, BULBS, Ac.

Stocks quite unequalled for

" Superior Quality,"

"Immense Variety,"

and " Great Extent."

GUARANTEED GRASS SEEDS,
ROOT-CROP SEEDS FROM PEDIGREE STOCKS.

All other Farm Seeds of best possible qualities.

Priced Catalogues and all particulars post free on application.

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Illustrated. Price Is.

THE FAEM AND THE DAIEY,

BY PEOF. J. P. SHELDON,

Formerly of the Eoyal Agricultural College,
and of the Doicnton College of Agriculture.

LONDON: GEORGE BELL & SONS.

BR1NJES & GOODWIN,

(ESTABLISHED 1829)

WMtechapel Engine Works,

STEAM TILTING PAN.

STEAJI P.* if.

FKUIT PULPING MACHINE
For Extracting Pips, Stalks, Stones, etc.,
from Plums, Oranges, Currants, Straw-
berries, Raspberries, Apples, Dates,
Peaches, Tomatoes, etc.

FIELDGATE STREET,
LONDON, E.,

Makers of all Requisites
for

JAM FACTORIES,

INCLUDING

MARMALADE, JELLIES, ETC,

Complete Works fitted up from
1 to 150 tons per day.

Steam Boilers,
Engines and Pumps,
Steam Pans,
Pulping Machines,
Scalding Vats or Pan?,
Orange Peel Cutters,
Bottle Fruit Tanks,
; Hydraulic Fruit Presses,
Steam Pipes & Fittings,
etc,, etc,, etc,

WIRE ARCPWAY COVERED WITH

PEACTICAL

FBTJIT- GROWING

BT

J. CHEAL, F.E.H.S.,

Member of Fruit Committee Boy. Hort. Society; Member of Executive Committee

British Fruit Growers' Association; Member Committee of Experts

of the Fruiterers' Company, etc.

ILLUSTRATED

LONDON: GEORGE BELL & SONS,

YOKK STEEET, CO VENT GARDEN.

AND NEW YORK.

1893

BUTLER & TANNER,

THE SELWOOD PRINTING WOBKS,

FBOME, AND LONDON.

PREFACE.

THIS volume, which is a reprint of the first part of
the author's larger work on " Fruit Culture," has
been issued mainly with a view to meeting the
requirements of the numerous agricultural classes
which the County Councils are organizing through-
out the country. The author's aim has been to give
such clear and practical instruction as may help to
popularize the subject of which it treats, which has
been too long neglected in this country.

M30612

CONTENTS.

PA or
CIIAP. L— GENERAL PROSPECTS OF CULTURE FOR PROFIT . 1

„ II. — SELECTION OF SOIL AND SITUATION 10

J? III. — PREPARATION OF GROUND 23

(> IV.— WHAT TO PLANT 23

„ V. — PLANTING. ....... 40

„ VI.— PRUNING . ...... 55

n VII.— COST AND RETURNS PER ACRE . . .62

„ VIIL— RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS ..... 65

„ IX.— GATHERING, PACKING, AND DISTRIBUTING . . 73

„ X.— STORING, PRESERVING, ETC. . . 82

., XL— GRAFTING, BUDDING, AND STOCKS . . . . 9i

FEUIT CULTUEE.

CHAPTER'!.
GENERAL PROSPECTS OF CULTURE FOR PROFIT.

As we have been passing through a time of agricultural
depression, when wheat-growing has ceased to be the
profitable occupation that it once was, and as there is no
prospect of a return to the old prices, it behoves all
cultivators of land to consider what other means may be
adopted in the way of producing other crops that will be
likely to yield a more satisfactory return.

One of the directions in which cultivators may turn to
realize this is that of fruit culture.

We are at the present time, as a nation, consuming
enormous quantities of fruit, the supply of which comes
very largely from abroad, and of kinds that could be
grown at home. Here, then, is a large standing order for
a commodity that might be produced by our own culti-
vators, our own land, and our own labour, but which we
arc quietly allowing the foreigner to supply.

Farmers, as a rule, are not in a hurry to turn from the
beaten track and to try experiments in new directions ;
and frequently the chances and opportunities in this
respect are against them.

Want of full knowledge of the subject, the need of

FRUIT CULTURE.

altered conditions of tenancy, and matters of this kind
have caused the farmer to stand still in this matter of
fruit culture; and while he has been hesitating, a few
of the more adventurous ones, with better opportunities,
have been going ahead.

With the large^ increase of population and the pros-
^pertly of 'thejpe^plejjthe demand for fruit has enormously
increased, *ancl*h.ow*has, it been met? A comparatively
j*ety £§&v*Hi*- sighed, cwiltivators have certainly risen to
the occasion, "and have been providing for this demand by
planting and cultivating quantities of high- class fruit ;
but the supply has been altogether inadequate to the
demand. This has opened the way to our cousins across
the water ; and the American growers, and our own
colonists in Canada, have not been slow to seize the
opportunity of supplying our wants.

Our own cultivators, or rather possessors of orchards
which have to a great extent been uncultivated, are in
the meantime crying out that they cannot sell the apples
that they already grow ; but the reason of this is not far
to seek. The apples sent to market from these orchards
will be found in most cases to be such a mixture that the
housewife can find among'st them any sort except the
ones she needs, and they appear to have had in gather-
ing the treatment by the farmer that Talpa recommended
him to give to his clods, in the old book " The Chronicles
of a Clay Farm " : —

" Mingle, mingle, mingle, all ye who mingle may,
Blue spirits and white, black spirits and grey."

This treatment is all right for the clods, but all wrong
for the apples.

The American orcliardists have seen their opportunity,
and taken it. They have noted the requirements of our

CULTURE FOR PROFIT.

markets and have set themselves to work to meet those
requirements, and they have by careful study and scien-
tific practice been able to produce and place upon our
markets, thousands and tens of thousands of bushels of
apples of good quality, especially handsome in appearance,
regular in size, and uniform in quality. These find ready
sale, not only in large cities, but also in our provincial
towns, and even in onr country villages, at the very doors
of those who could grow just as good themselves, and
who are perhaps complaining of bad times, and the hope-
lessness of making corn growing pay.

But the responsibility for this state of things is by no
means confined to the farmer, the lethargy of the land-
owners with respect to this matter is unaccountable.
They have been standing still with their tenants, and
supplying themselves with fruit from across the water,
instead of from their own lands.

Apples that can be produced of such handsome appear-
ance and placed on our markets in such fine condition arc
sure to sell, and people will continue to buy until we can
supply them with a sufficient quantity of better fruit at
home. And that the quality of our fruit, of the best varie-
ties, when grown with care and scientific skill, is superior
to that from over the water is abundantly proved by the
much higher price invariably realized for such fruit.
Highly coloured skins do not always indicate the highest
quality inside, and most of the American fruits are dry
and woolly compared with the juicy lusciousness of our
own prime English fruit. The moral obviously is, that
those who grow tlie fruit must produce the highest
quality. The fruit must be cultivated, and not allowed
simply to grow.

That a movement has set in in this direction is very

fRUIT CULTURE.

evident, as shown by the agricultural returns of fruit
planted in this country, which exhibit an increase during
the last two years to the extent of 12,000 acres, as against
a decrease in the year previous of 500 acres; so that pes-
simists are beginning to say, " Ah, yes ! now it will be
overdone" ; but there is no prospect or possibility of this
for many years to come. With the increase of supplies of
good fruit, the consumption will extend enormously, and
the supply will create further demand. - As a proof of
this, take the case of tomatoes. The consumption of these
twenty years ago was confined to a very limited number,
but now that people have become educated to their use,
and have discovered their wholesome qualities, they are
in daily demand by the million, and their growth has
probably increased a hundred-fold during that period.
An interesting calculation in the Country Gentleman, an
American organ, as to the quantity of fruit that might
and ought to be consumed by the people is given as fol-
lows : —

" Each member of every family should have, on an
average, one pound of fruit daily — some will eat more,
some less — cither fresh or cooked. How many pounds
will that be in each day ? There are 40,000,000 persons
in the whole country old enough or well enough to eat
fruit, which would be 40,000,000 Ibs. or nearly 20,000 tons
daily consumption. Taking the year through, it would
amount to 7,000,000 tons. The daily consumption of fruit
would prevent many persons from eating or imbibing what
is much worse, and at the same time it would contribute
greatly to health, and prevent disease. We want more
enterprise, skill, calculation, and management to raise and
properly distribute these 7,000,000 tons."

What we should require at the same rate of consump-

CULTURE FOE PROFIT.

1 ion on this side the water may be ascertained when the
census returns are issued.

Those who enter upon fruit culture must not, how-
ever, expect to make fortunes in a year. Much has been
said and written which is wide of the truth as to profits
— so wide, indeed, that it does much harm instead of
good. Exaggeration and over-statement only weaken the
argument and raise suspicion, and ultimately lead to dis-
appointment, in those who listen to and act upon it. But
there is abundant proof that those who plant carefully,
and cultivate with common sense, to say nothing of scien-
tific skill, reap a fair return for their outlay and labour.
This is proved, not merely by large growers for market,
but by a considerable number of small cultivators.

Many persons seeing this, and desiring to enter upon
fruit culture upon a larger or smaller scale, are seeking
reliable information and guidance as to the best methods
of proceeding, and this requires much thought and careful
consideration. Do not hastily rush into it, but consider
well the general prospects, and especially whether there
is any particular advantage or inducement in your own
case. For instance, whether you have in your possession
or occupation land that is suitable to the purpose, whether
you have any special means of disposing of the fruit, and
all considerations of a like kind. Then, according to
your circumstances and surroundings, determine upon
your course of action. Many points will have to be
thought out and determined before even commencing.
There will be the question of whether you have a retail
outlet for your fruit, or whether it must be sent to a
wholesale market, whether you would be likely to get a
better return for early or late varieties, and whether you
have a jam factory or other means of disposing of the fruit.

0 FRUIT CULTURE.

All these considerations would have a bearing upon the
varieties to plant, and upon the general arrangement.

These points being determined by the intending grower,
he should then select his position accordingly, or if this
is already fixed, he will determine his action from his
surroundings. Then let him steadily pursue his purpose,
and not be daunted or turned from it by the first or
second failure ; but having made sure that he is on the
right course, go steadily ahead.

To those who may be contemplating fruit growing, who
may not have much practical acquaintance with the sub-
ject, I would remind them of the words " in the multitude
of counsellors is safety," but on the other hand the more
homely saying equally applies, that " too many cooks
spoil the broth." In other words, hear all sides, get all
the advice that you can, weigh the evidence, arrange your
plans, and then proceed according to your own judgment
and common sense.

Do not imagine that success is gained by merely care-
ful preparation and planting, but ever bear in mind that
fruit trees require vigilant watching, as to their varied
needs, according to seasons and soils, and the ravages of
insect pests. But where this vigilance, common sense,
and persevering labour are bestowed upon fruit culture,
it will be found a safe and profitable industry.

One great drawback to fruit culture in the past has
been the time that must necessarily elapse after planting
before realizing a return. According to the old methods,
it was useless to expect anything like a profitable return
from fruit trees for at least ten to twelve years after
planting. Modern science and practice have, however,
done much to alter this. Necessity in this case, as in
many others, has stimulated invention, and by the use of

CULTURE MR PMOFIT.

dwarfing stocks and other similar means almost a revela-
tion in fruit culture has been accomplished. Many of
our apples for which we had to wait years for a crop, by

FIG. 1.— APPLES ON TREE, THBEE YEARS OLD, ON PARADISE STOCK.

working on the paradise stock will now yield frnit the
second season after grafting ; and what the paradise has
done for the apple, the quince has done for the pear.

FRUIT CULTURE.

What was said of the pear, according to the old lines,
is now changed into the following: —

" That ' Those who plant pears

Grow fruit for their heirs,'
Is a maxim our grandfathers know.

But folks have learned since,

If you graft on the quince,
The fruit will develop for you."

Another great drawback has undoubtedly been onr
system of land tennre. This has by no means favoured,
and in numberless instances has precl uded, tenants from
entering upon fruit culture to any extent. Without
special arrangements with his landlord, the ordinary
tenant indeed cannot do so. If he were to, he would
have to expend a considerable sum upon what he could
not remove on leaving, and his landlord might object to
pay for it. There have been in recent years Acts of
Parliament passed to protect the tenant farmer, and to
give compensation for unexhausted improvements ; but
this does not seem to apply with sufficient force in the
case of the planting of fruit trees to adequately protect the
tenant, and where there is no special arrangement it may
lead to as unpleasant and disastrous a result as that re-
corded some time since in the Sussex Advertiser, as follows :

"LAND TENURE IN KENT. — One of the results of the
unsatisfactory system of land tenure now prevailing in
this country is to be seen at Knockholt, Kent. The lease
held by Mr. Edwin Bath, of Curry Farm, in that parish,
expires at Michaelmas, and he is not allowed to renew his
tenancy, nor can he recover compensation from his land-
lord for a valuable plantation of raspberries on the farm.
Consequently, the extraordinary spectacle may now be
seen of a reaping machine cutting down, and a steam

CULTURE FOR PROFIT.

plough following it rooting up this plantation, which has
cost a very large expenditure of time and money to pro-
duce. When it is considered that the produce of the
plantation in question realized in the present year up-
wards of £1,690, and that the plantation was vigorous
and in full bearing, some idea may be formed of the
sacrifice of property involved."

In some cases the landlord will agree to pay the value
of a plantation at the expiration of the tenancy ; but if
fruit be planted to any large extent, compensation at the
termination of a long lease might mean such a serious
matter, that a landlord may well hesitate before com-
mitting himself or his heirs to such a heavy and uncertain
charge.

The most satisfactory arrangement seems to be for the
landlord to find the trees, and the tenant to find the
labour, and prepare the ground for planting. It is, of
course, to their mutual interest to select good trees of the
right varieties, and to plant and cultivate them properly.
It is also especially to the interest of the tenant to main-
tain and cultivate them well, in order to realize the best
return from them in the shortest possible time, and he
will be naturally anxious to continue his tenancy as long
as possible in order to reap the full benefit of his first
outlay ; and the landlord is thus likely to secure a good
thriving tenant, and to see his property considerably
increasing in value. There is then at the expiration of
the tenancy no vexed question respecting valuation and
compensation.

An instance came under my notice a short time since
of a landlord who some years ago expended about £20
an acre in planting apples for a tenant, upon land which
previously let for £1 per acre. The land has now for

10 FRUIT CULTURE.

many years been let at £4 per acre, whilst the land
adjoining is still let for £1 per acre. Therefore the £20
outlay in planting fruit has yielded to the landlord £3 per
annum, which is not a bad interest on the outlay, to say
nothing of the largely increased capital value. I think,
if carefully looked at from a landlord's point of view, it
will be seen that it is not only the duty, but the interest
of landlords to give every facility that they legitimately
canto good tenants as regards this matter of fruit culture

CHAPTER II.

SELECTION OF SOIL AND SITUATION.

To those about to embark in fruit culture, the first step,
and one of great importance, is the selection of soil and
a suitable situation. The soil upon which fruit may be
profitably grown is more varied than is often supposed.
This is pretty clearly shown by the way that fruit trees
thrive in kitchen gardens and cottage gardens in almost
all parts of the country. The soil, even where originally
considered uncongenial, has been made suitable by good
and constant cultivation, and the application of manure.

Generally speaking, the land selected, if choice be
open, should be naturally rich, a good strong loam, with
a fairly porous subsoil. Kent undoubtedly has the pre-
eminence as affording the best fruit-growing land in the
country, but many other counties possess soil and positions
little inferior to it in quality. The deep rich red land
of Herefordshire, Devon, and Somerset ; the lias arid the
limestone of Worcestershire and Gloucestershire, and tho
lighter clays and the Hastings sands of Sussex ; the rich

SOIL AND SITUATION.

11

alluvial soils of Middlesex, Cambridge, and Lincolnshire,
are ail adapted to the cultivation of fruit, and large
breadths of fruit plantations and orchards are found in
each.

Acreage of Oi

•chards and Small Fruits in England, 1890.

COUNTY.

ORCHARDS.

SMALL FRUITS.

Apples, Pears,

Gooseberries, Cur-

Plums, Cher-

rants, Kaspberries,

TOTALS

ries, etc.

and Strawberries.

COMBINED.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Bedford ....

719

166 ...

885

Berks ...

... 2,367

188 ...

2,555

Buckingham

... 2,447

268 ...

2,715

Cambridge

... 2,370

... 1,727 ...

4,097

Chester ...

... 1,918

... 1,185 ...

3,103

Cornwall

5,045

957 ...

6,002

Cumberland

306

179 ...

485

Derby ...

... 1,018

403 ...

1,421

Devon ...

... 26,587

... 1,005 ...

27,592

Dorset . . .

... 4,319

10 ...

4,420

Durham...

282

263 ...

545

Essex . . .

... 1,578

725 ...

2,303

Gloucester

... 16,619

926 ...

17,545

Hants ...

... 1,702

... 1,130 ...

2,832

Hereford

... 25,991

184 ...

26,175

Hertford

... 1,306

300 ...

1,606

Huntingdon

554

303 ...

857

Kent ...

... 18,168

... 15,329 ...

33,497

Lancaster

... 2,461

... 1,794 ...

4,255

Leicester

972

351 ...

1,323

1,942

1,013 ...

2,955

Middlesex

... 3,944

... 2,831 ...

6,775

Monmouth

... 3,888

74 ...

3,962

12

FRUIT CULTURE.

COUNTY. ORCHARDS.

SMALL FRUITS.

Apples, Pears,

Gooseberries, Cur-

Plums, Cher-
ries, etc.

rants, Kaspberries
and Strawberries.

, TOTALS
COMBINED.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Norfolk 2,252

... 1,173 ...

3,425

Northampton ... 722

235 ...

957

Northumberland 114

401 ...

515

Notts 1,872

585 ...

2,457

Oxford 1,737

109 ...

1,846

Rutland ... 72

53 ...

125

Salop 4,026

146 ...

4,172

Somerset . . . 24048

362 ...

24,410

Stafford 1,249

150 ...

1,399

Suffolk 1,708

449 ...

2,157

Surrey 2,252

868 ...

3,120

Sussex ... ... 2,525

795 ...

3,320

Warwick ... 1,839

321 ...

2,160

Westmoreland ... 351

39 ...

390

Wilts 3,383

116 ...

3,499

Worcester ... 19,252

... 1,639 ...

20,891

York, East Riding 730

669 ...

1,399

„ North Riding 917

374 ...

1,291

„ West Riding 1,524

... 1,195 ...

2,719

Totals ... 197,076

41,081

238,157

In selecting the most suitable position, it is necessary
to bear in mind what line of culture is desired, and what
particular fruit or fruits are intended to be grown, and
this will greatly help to determine the soil and locality.
Some of the considerations that would help to settle this
are, for instance, whether fruits are to be grown prin-
cipally for dessert purposes, and to be gathered and sent

SOIL AND SITUATION. 13

to market from the orchard, or whether apples and pears
are td be stored for winter use, or whether the fruit is to
be grown for a factory. In each case different soils and
situations might be selected. All these matters should re-
ceive careful consideration, and the ultimate object should
be kept steadily in view in order to start right. Upon
this point science is of the utmost value to cultivators.
A correct analysis of the character and constituent par^s
of each particular variety of fruit indicates the nature of
the soil required to sustain it ; and, on the other hand, an
analysis of the soil shows what kind of tree will thrive
best upon it in its natural condition, and will also be found
of the greatest assistance in applying manures, enabling
the cultivator to supply the ingredients that may be de-
ficient in the soil.

We will now glance at the particular soils that seem
best suited to each kind of fruit, in order that the planter
may be able to judge as to what soil would best answer
his purpose, or if he already possesses soil, as to what
fruits would be most suitable for him to grow.

APPLES. — A light or heavy loam, subsoil clay ; or chalk
if there is 3 or 4 ft. of soil overlying it. They should
not be planted upon low or wet situations or too near to
rivers or large bodies of water, neither on high and ex-
posed situations.

PEAKS. — On pear stock, light loam, subsoil gravel ; on
quince stock, light to heavy loam, subsoil clay.

PLUMS.— Light sandy loam, subsoil light clay or gravel ;
or they will do well upon a chalk subsoil if there is a
good depth of strong loamy soil upon the surface.

CHERRIES. — Good loam, overlying chalk.

FILBERTS and COBS. — A good porous loam; and they will

14 FRUIT CULTURE.

often do well upon banks where the ground is somewhat
rocky, also in shady situations and northern slopes.

CURRANTS. — A wide range of soils from light to heavy
loam, subsoil clay or gravel ; and black currants may be
planted on heavy land, which is somewhat low and wet.

GOOSEBERRIES. — Rich sandy loam, subsoil gravel.

RASPBERRIES. — A light sandy loam, subsoil gravel ; or
heavier loam if the subsoil be open.

STRAWBERRIES. — A wide range of soils. A good rich
loam is the best, either upon gravel, or clay if not too
cold ; and they also do well upon chalk if there is a
moderate layer of surface mould.

SOILS AND THEIR COMPOSITION.

Soils perform at least three functions in reference to
the growth and culture of fruit trees. In the first place,
they serve as a basis in which the trees may fix their
roots, and sustain themselves in an erect position.
Secondly, they supply food to the trees at each period of
their growth. And thirdly, they are the medium in
which many chemical changes take place that arc
essential to the suitable preparation of the various
elements of plant food, which the soil is destined to yield
to the growing tree, for the production of stem, foliage,
flowers and fruit. In fact, a fertile soil may well be
described as a laboratory, as well as a mine.

From numerous investigations and ascertained facts in
relation to soils, certain important deductions in regard to
fruit growing may safely be drawn.

It may be too much to say that a fruit tree will not
grow in a soil that is destitute of nitrogen, but at the
same time it may certainly be affirmed that no profitable

COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 15

crop of fruit can be grown unless the soil itself, or the
manure which is applied, contains nitrogen.

That substances rich in nitrogen increase the verdure,
darken the foliage-colour, and generally promote and
prolong the growth of the trees is a recognised fact.

Lime is found in all fertile soils, and, indeed, it enters
into the composition of every kind of plant and animal.
And experience teaches us that it forms a very neces-
sary element in all successful fruit growing, and more
especially in the production of stone fruit. In its more
common form it tends to strengthen the stem and woody
portion of the tree, generally shortens the period of
growth, and hastens the time of ripening.

Hence we find that retentive clays that contain little or
no lime in their composition extend the period of growth
and ripening, with the result that some of the strong
growing varieties do not properly mature their wood or
ripen their fruit, and are most easily affected by frost.

On the other hand, in a shallow, moderately light soil,
say from fifteen to twenty inches deep, which rests upon
a subsoil of chalk, marl, or loose rock, the growth of a
fruit tree will be moderate, the shoots short and sturdy,
and the fruit well ripened.

A careful examination of the most successful vinej'ards
and fruit orchards on the Continent will show that the
greater part of the soil consists of argil-calcareous or
argillaceous gravel.

The vineyards of the Rhine are all planted upon thin
soils, with rocky foundations, bnt sparingly covered with
soil.

COMPOSITION OF SOILS.

The following particulars as to the constituents of Cali-
fornian soils may be of interest.

16 FRUIT CULTURE.

Adobe Soil, 12 to
22 inches deep.
Per cent.

Adobe Subsoil, 22 to
l!0 inches deep.
Per cent.

Loam .

. 47-6

. 23-4

Clay .
Gravel .

. 31-9
. 20-5

. 33-5
. 43-1

Total 100-0 100-0

Organic matter
Lime

. 5-72
. 1-05

Potash .

. 0-45

Soda .

. 0-07

Magnesia
Phosphoric acid
Iron oxide

. 1-21
. 0-23

4-67

. 6-60

. 0-99

. 0-10

. 0-10

. 1-91

. 0-11

. 7-29

The high percentage of iron oxide as shown above, is
probably the chief contributing cause of the brightness
in colour of the Calif ornian fruits.

We will now give some analyses of English soils, by the
late Dr. Volcker, as affording good examples of the more
frequent and important varieties of soil in the British
Isles, adding such remarks as may appear applicable to
each.

1. COMPOSITION or A CALCAREOUS CLAYEY SUKFACE SOIL.
Selected Constituents in 100 parts.

Per cent.

Organic matter II '08
Clay . . 52-06
Sand 2i-53

Per cent.

. V •">

Lime . . llv>i
Potash . . 0-32
Phosphoric acid 0'12

Such a soil for fruit growing requires only to be kept
up to its present condition of fertility, which may be done

Organic matter
Clay
Sand

. 4-38 .
. 18-09.
. 76-16 .

Lime

. 1-37 .

Potash .

. 0-49 .

Phosphoric acid

. 0-12 .

COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 17

by giving an occasional dressing of good stable manure,
say from ten to twenty tons per acre, and bringing it into
play by an application of from one to two cwts. nitrate of
soda per acre, whilst for the pnrpose of giving colonr to
the fruit add one cwt. sulphate of iron every second year.

2. COMPOSITION OF A FERTILE LOAM.
Selected Constituents in 100 parts.

Surface Soil. Subsoil.

Per cent. Per cent.

2-59
41-79
55'15
0-47
0-88
0-19

This soil, which contained a little lime intermixed with
the clay subsoil upon which it rested, with abundance of
potash and phosphoric acid, might be kept up in fertility
by an application of stable manure or compost, to which
might be added a mixture composed of 3 cwts. super-
phosphate of lime, 2 cwts. nitrate of soda or sulphate of
ammonia, and 1 cwt. sulphate of iron.

3. COMPOSITION OF A HEAVY TENACIOUS CLAY.

Selected Constituents in 100 parts.

Surface Soil. Subsoil.

Per cent. Percent.

Organic matter . . 4'87 . . 4*80

Clay .... 75-29 . . 78'13

Sand .... 9-26. . 10-97

Lime .... T15 , . 2.23

Alkalies and magnesia . 1'37 . . 0'32

Phosphoric acid . . 0'06 . . 0'04»

C

18 FRUIT CULTURE.

This soil, which came from the upper oolite formation,
contained but a very small proportion of sand or of phos-
phoric acid, and would be greatly benefited for fruit grow-
ing by a liberal application of old " mortar rubbish,"
and an occasional dressing of 2 cwts. superphosphate, 2 to
3 cwts. basic slag (ground fine), 1 cwt. muriate of potash,
and 1 cwt. of nitrate of soda.

4. COMPOSITION OF A STERILE SANDY SOIL.

Selected Constituents in 100 parts.

Per cent.

Organic matter . . . . 5 '36

Clay 4-57

Sand 89-82

Lime 0'25

Alkalies and magnesia. . , . 0'49
Phosphoric acid . . . . .a trace.
A plentiful supply of rich stable manure is here re-
quired, with about 4 cwt. superphosphate, or 6 cwt. of
basic slag, 2 cwt. of muriate of potash, and 1J cwt. ni-
trate of soda. And as this soil contains an abundance of
sand for draining purposes, a frequent and liberal appli-
cation of liquid manure may be given,

5. COMPOSITION OF AN ORCHARD SOIL COVERED WITH TURF

Selected Constituents in 100 parts.

Per cent.

Organic matter . . . . .11*70

Clay 48-39

Sand 35-95

Lime 1*54

Potash 0-91

Phosphoric acid ..... O'OS

This soil, which may be described as a vegetable mould,

ANALYSIS OF FRUIT. 19

contains abundance of organic matter with a fair propor-
tion of sand and clay, and can therefore be kept in fertility
by an occasional dressing of 1J cwts. superphosphate.

Every ordinary soil% however " worn out " it may be,
can do something towards supporting plant life. It does
this by virtue of what may be aptly termed its " natural
strength." By this is meant the capacity which it has
as the resultant of its chemical composition and physical
character, previously described, its supply of plant food
and moisture, its texture, warmth and so on, for yielding
crops of fruit year after year without manure.

This strength accumulated by natural processes, or im-
parted artificially, is like a deposit in the bank, which we
can drawn upon slowly or rapidly at will, but which will,
sooner or later be exhausted unless new deposits are
made.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FKTJIT AND FRUIT TREES.

A study of the chemical composition of the wood of
various fruit trees, and of the fruit itself, will teach us
what is abstracted from the soil by their growth.

Table showing the percentage composition of the wood
of various fruit bearing trees.

Selected Constituents in the ashes of 100 parts.

Phosphoric
Potash. Lime. Magnesia. Acid.

Apple. . . 19-2 63-6 7*5 4-9

Pear . . . 4'2 77'2 o'l 3*8

Cherry . . 20'8 287 9'2 77

Easpberry . .14*2 38*2 10'8 23'6

Walnut . . 11-3 35'9 37 4'1

Chestnut . . 101 43'6 32 1-5

The timber of freely growing fruit trees yields when

20 FRUIT CULTURE.

burnt as fuel but a small proportion of ashes, which on
analysis show that there is, besides vegetable matter, a
great loss of the mineral constituents of the soil, which
will of course be greater, according as the pruning knife
is used upon the branches, and the leaves after falling are
removed from the land.

The following table shows the percentage composition
of the ash or mineral matter of the fruits themselves.

Potash.

Soda.

Lime.

Mag-
nesia.

Iron.

Phos.
Acid.

Sulph.
Acid.

Silica

Apple
Cherry
Damson

46-21
51-85
45-98

14-02
2-19

5-66

4-87
7-47
12-65

6-53
5-46

8-17

0-93
1-98
1-19

10-89
15-97
13-83

3-05
5-09
2-37

2-82

9-oe

9-22

Gooseberry
Strawberry
Chestnut .

38-65
21-07
39-36

9.92
28-48
21-73

12-20
14-21

7-84

5-85
7-84

4-56

5-89
1-03

19-68
13-82

8-25

5-89
3-15

3-88

2-5£
12-01
2-32

Figs .
Pears

28-36
54-69

26-27
8-52

18-91
7-98

9-2 L

5-22

1-46
1-04

1-30
15-20

6-75
5-69

5-9S
l-4£

Plums

59-21

0-54

10-04

5-46

3-30

15-10

3-83

2-36

The following table shows the amount of mineral in-
gredients extracted from the soil by the growth of one ton

of different kinds of fruit.

Ibs.

Apples 9-0

Pears ....... 67

Cherries 15'0

Plums 13-7

Gooseberries ...... 11'2

Figs . 51-5

Walnuts 38-1

Filberts 33'6

It is obvious, therefore, that every ton of fruit con-

ANALYSIS OF FRUIT. 21

tains several pounds of mineral matter, the whole of
which is gathered by it, through the roots and branches
from the soil.

The following table shows the analysis of the ashes of
apples at different stages of growth and different sizes,
the quantities of the various ingredients being given in
parts per 100.

Unripe Ripe Small

Apples. Apples. Apples.

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.

Silica .... 0-58 1-23 2'16

Ferric oxide . . 0'47 046 2'16

Phosphoric acid . . 8'96 8'20 873

Lime .... 6'85 5*66 8'85

Magnesia . . . 4*80 4'30 4'7G

Potash .... 54-02 56'74 52'44

Soda .... 2-10 1-94 2'08

Undetermined . . 2222 21'47 20'62

The only ingredients contained in the ash which there
is any need of noting, are the phosphoric acid, potash,
and lime ; for these are the only ones in which the soil is
likely to become deficient, and therefore which need to be
returned to the land to keep up its fertility.

From the above analysis we find there would be taken
from an acre of land yielding 100 bushels of fruit by
sample No. 1, 6 Ibs. phosphoric acid, 37f Ibs. potash, and
4| Ibs. lime ; by sample No. 2, 71bs. phosphoric acid, 371bs.
potash, and 3^ Ibs. lime ; by sample No. 3, 7-^ Ibs. phos-
phoric acid, 43 Ibs. potash, and 7J Ibs. lime.

From these facts we learn the importance of thinning
fruit as soon as it is of sufficient size, and also that it

22 FRUIT CULTURE.

costs less to grow a bushel of large and perfect apples than
it does to grow a bushel of small and inferior fruit.

It is further evident that to produce good crops of
apples for any number of years, the ground, after the
trees are planted, must have phosphoric acid, potash, and
lime returned to it as well as nitrogen if we wish to keep
up production and fertility of the soil.

When we remove crops of fruit Ave take away the
materials they have accumulated and absorbed from the
soil. It may take many years of fruit growing on a
fertile soil, before the exhaustion and injury arising from
the removal of the crops will become manifest; but when
injurious results have once become apparent they will not
always admit of a speedy remedy.

Now this brings us to another point. This food supply
varies, as we have already seen, in different soils. It
varies, not only as a whole, but in its different parts.
Sometimes one element, sometimes several may be lacking.
If so it cannot yield a fall crop.

This same variation runs through both natural or in-
herent strength and condition. You. may often take a
soil whose natural strength is below the point of profit-
able production, and by adding a single substance, a phos-
phate, or nitrate for instance, bring it into profitable
condition.

Further, a soil may be so compact that air and moisture
cannot get into it to convert the crude materials it con-
tains, nor the roots make their way through to obtain the
food that has been made available. It may be so loose
and non-retentive that the food-ingredients will escape.
It may be so dry that fertilisers will be useless, and the
fruit trees wither on it, or so wet and cold as to prevent
their growth. But by proper tillage, drainage, and

PREPARATION OF GROUND. 23

amendment soil- texture may be improved, its powers of
holding water and supplying plant food increased, and
thus by manuring it may be brought into condition to
yield profitable returns for all that is done for it.

The next question very naturally is, what ingredients
of plant food are most frequently deficient in our soils for
fruit growing ? This, of course, can only be ascertained
by an analysis of the particular soil in question. Within
the last few years considerable advance has been made iu
the knowledge of all that relates to the application and
action of manures; and it is, we fear, too often a subject
for regret, that cultivators of orchards suffer from dimi-
nished produce and depreciation of land, arising from a
want of a due appreciation and application of those
principles by the aid of which some other branches of
agriculture and horticulture have of late years so much
profited.

CHAPTER III.
PREPARATION OF GROUND.

THE suitability or otherwise of land for immediate plant-
ing would depend largely upon the cultivation that it had
received, as well as to its natural quality; and the combi-
nation of the two would determine the kind of preparation
required to render it suitable for planting. Probably the
first consideration is that of drainage. Be sure that the
land is properly drained. Nothing could be worse for fruit
trees than to be planted in land the subsoil of which is
close and water-logged. There are, of course, many soils
that do not require draining. A test as to its nature
in this respect may be made in the following way. If

24 FRUIT CULTURE.

on digging to the subsoil you find it porous and per-
forated by worms, you may conclude that there is sufficient
circulation of water and air through it. If, on the other
hand, you find the soil close and retentive, with no
worm-holes, you may conclude that the land ought to
be drained. Pipe-draining is more expensive than the
old plan of straw or bushes, but will be found to well
repay the extra outlay in the long run. Let me here
emphasize the importance of draining. If the land be
water-logged, it is impossible for fruit trees to thrive and
maintain a healthy condition. They will become mossy
and covered with long grey lichen, and subject to canker
and many other diseases, and instead of producing good
profitable crops, will become so stunted and unhealthy
that what fruit is produced will be comparatively worth-
less.

The operation of draining is so well understood that
there is no need here to describe it in detail, but in set-
ting out the drain it is always well to mark out the in-
tended direction of the rows of trees before commencing,
and then to place the drains midway between the rows
of standard trees. They are then at the farthest distance
possible from the roots of the most permanent trees, and
should they at any time require attention, they may be
opened without damage to the trees.

The next consideration is the breaking up of the land.
If it has been used only for ordinary husbandry, it should
in the first place be broken up to a greater depth than
has hitherto been the case. The best means of accom-
plishing this Would have to be considered and determined
according to the extent and local conditions. If the
area is but small, it might be best to break it up by
hand. But if sufficiently large and open, it may be done

rilEPAllATION OF GROUND.

25

at much less expense by a steam cultivator. This imple-
ment merely breaks up and stirs the ground, and does
not reverse the position of the surface and the subsoil,
but merely loosens the land and slightly mixes the two
together.

I may here men-
tion the somewhat
new implement that
we used here three
years ago, which
gave us satisfaction,
— one of Proctor's
Steam Diggers (Fig.
2.) The work of this

FIG. 2. — PROCTOR'S STEAM DIGGER.

implement is the
nearest approach to
hand digging that I

have seen, and does literally dig the ground with strong
steel forks. The only drawback that we found was that it
can only be used in dry weather, as the great weight of
the engine passing over the land when it is at all wet
does more harm than good. But when the land is dry
enough to bear the weight without closing the ground, it
makes splendid work, breaking up and slightly mixing
the subsoil, and throwing it back leaves it in a light and
open condition; and it breaks up the subsoil in such a way
that an uneven broken bottom is left below the soil,
through which water easily escapes. And if it can be
dug up for a few weeks before being required for planting,
so much the better.

If, however, no steam tackle can be obtained, or there is
not sufficient room for its proper use, a good substitute
may be found in the use of the subsoil plough. This

26 FRUIT CULTURE.

follows the ordinary plough along each furrow, breaking
up the subsoil from 6 to 9 inches below the depth of the
ordinary plough. It is best to employ two teams, the
first one ploughing a deep ordinary furrow, followed by
the second team with the subsoil plough. As to a suit-
able make of plough to use, we ourselves tried several
without getting one exactly to answer our purpose. But
we last season had one made as shown by Fig. 3. The

FIG. 3. — SUBSOIL PLOUGH.

upright peg on the right-hand side of the cutting share
we have found to effect all that is required, and it will
be seen, on watching the plough in operation, that this peg
thoroughly lifts and breaks up the subsoil, thus leaving
it in a loose and open condition.

Where there is not, however, sufficient land for either of
the foregoing appliances, it may of course be prepared by
hand. This should be done by what is ordinarily known
as bastard trenching, or the breaking up of the land two
spits deep ; but in doing this, on 110 account must the sub-
soil be brought to the surface, but merely broken up and
turned over, turning the next spit of surface soil on to the
top of the subsoil thus broken up.

Whether it is intended to plant orchard standard trees
alone or mixed plantations, I would strongly urge the
advisability of thus moving the whole of the land to an
even depth in preference to digging or trenching holes for
each tree. If the land be at all stiff and retentive, this

PREPARATION OF GROUND. 27

digging of single holes is about the worst possible plan
that can be adopted, each hole becoming a mere pan or
basin to hold water. In this stagnant water the roots
and fibres decay, and the tree becomes stunted, cankered,
and unhealthy. But in circumstances where this digging
of single holes is the only plan that can be adopted —
where the land is in grass, and intended to remain so —
let the evils alluded to be avoided by arranging some
means of draining the water from each hole, such as
running a drain between each alternate row of holes, and
connecting the holes on either side with the drain.

As to the condition of land best suited for planting,
probably that from which a root crop has been taken, after
having been well manured for the roots, may be the best
of all. The land will then necessarily have been well
worked for the roots, and well mannred ; the residue of
the manure will be sufficient for the trees at the time of
planting, and will be in the best condition for the newly
forming roots to feed upon. But if the planting is to
follow a corn crop, it will be naturally in a more ex-
hausted condition, and will require the application of
more manure at the time of planting.

One of the most important considerations is to select
land that is clean ; otherwise, if trees are planted upon
land encumbered with weeds, and they once get amongst
the roots of the trees, great annoyance and expense will
be the result for years, and many of the more tenacious
weeds cannot afterwards be extracted without injury to
the tree.

If the land be in a poor condition, and has been badly
cultivated, it will be far better to wait another season
before planting, in order to clean and give good prepara-
tion, than to attempt to plant it in an unsuitable condition.

28 FRUIT CULTURE.

In such a case ifc is therefore best to take a clear summer
fallow, to break up the land as described with the cul-
tivator, and keep it well stirred through the summer,
applying a good coat of manure in the autumn before
planting. This will really involve no loss of time, but a
saving in the end, as the great aim in planting should be
to get the trees to flourish and subsequently progress
without impediment.

CHAPTER IV.
WHAT TO PLANT.

question that we now arrive at is a very important
one, and needs most careful consideration as to all cir-
cumstances affecting the case. Some of the points that
may influence the decision may be summarized under the
following heads : —

1st. The special line of culture.

2nd. The markets within reach, or other means of dis-
posal.

3rd. Whether early or late markets, or both.

4th. Whether growing for jam or other preserve.

5th. The special varieties suitable for the soil and
situation.

It will now, I think, be seen what need there is to keep
a definite object in view in order to avoid mistakes in
starting. Guided by the above conditions, adopt whatever
special line seems most likely to succeed in your own par-
ticular case. Then study carefully what varieties would
best answer that purpose, and meet the special require-
ments you have in view. If you have any special facility

WHAT TO PLANT. 29

for supplying a retail market, you would probably be able
to realize the highest price, and to meet this you would
have to plant a considerable number of varieties, and such
as would probably extend in use over a lengthened season.
If, on the other hand, you should grow for a wholesale or
distant market only, it would be better to cultivate but
few varieties, so that you would have large quantities of
the same kind to deal with at one time. Or, should you
be growing for a jam factory or other preserving estab-
lishment, you would naturally select varieties that would
be best suited to that particular purpose. It will be im-
possible in the compass of this work to give suitable in-
structions to meet all cases which may arise, but the
following list of varieties will be found a good general
one from which selections may be made to answer most
of the above requirements.

Standard Apples.

K signifies kitchen ; T, table or dessert. The usual
season in which they are in use is indicated by the
month.

BLENHEIM ORANGE.— K.T. Nov. to Feb. The king of
apples when grown as a standard, the large fruits being
suitable for kitchen, and the small ones for dessert. The
greatest drawback to this variety is the length of time
that elapses before it comes into bearing, eight or ten
years being the usual period : a long time for this age of
speed. But it is a variety that we cannot do without
and can afford to wait for, there being plenty of others
which step in to supply the gap during the period of pro-
bation. Tree, a vigorous grower, with a spreading habifc.

Cox's OKANGE PIPPIN.— T. Oct. to Feb. The king of
dessert apples, medium in size, rich in colour, juicy in

30 FRUIT CULTURE.

texture, delicious in flavour. There is no apple in the
world that can equal it in quality. Tree, a moderate
grower, with a spreading habit.

DUCHESS OP OLDENBURG. — K. & T. Aug. to Sept.
Medium, roundish, oblong, pale yellow, very handsomely
streaked with red, and carrying a delicate bloom. Quality
fair, an immense and early bearer. The tree, however,
does not succeed on all soils, requiring one of a fairly light
and porous nature.

ECKLINVILLE SEEDLING. — K. Sept. to Oct. A large and
fine apple, flat and slightly angular, a greenish yellow,
and dotted with brown specks, its only fault being that
it is very soft and requires careful packing for market.
Tree, a vigorous grower, with a somewhat erect habit.
Thrives well on heavy soils.

GOLDEN NOBLE. — K. Oct. to Dec. A large, and, as
its name implies, a truly noble apple, round and even in
shape, with a beautiful clear yellow skin. Tree a
vigorous grower, with a spreading habit.

KING OF PIPPINS. — T. Oct. to Jan. Medium, oblong,
rich yellow, flushed red. One of our handsomest apples,
being a model in outline and colour. The tree is a good
grower, and a certain bearer, and one of the best for
market purposes.

NORFOLK BEEFING.— K. Nov. to July. Medium size,
round and flattened ; colour, a very dull, deep red. Tree,
a vigorous grower, with an upright habit. Valuable on
account of its extreme lateness.

POTT'S SEEDLING. — K. Aug. to Sept. A large angular-
shaped fruit, slightly flattened; skin, pale yellow. A
very free cropper, and good quality. Tree, a good grower,
with a slightly spreading habit.

WARNER'S KING. — K. Oct. to Dec. A very large and

WHAT TO PLAXT. 31

fine apple, round, and somewhat flattened; skin, pale
green. Tree, a vigorous grower, with very large foliage,
and, considering the size of the fruit, a free bearer. The
tree has a spreading habit.

WELLINGTON.— K. Dec. to April. A large and well-
known fruit. One of our most valuable kitchen apples
for late use, and, coming in as they do when fruit is
scarce, good samples command high prices. Tree of a
spreading habit, and fruit in season from November to
April, and even later when well kept.

WINTER QUEENING OR DUCKSBILL OF SUSSEX. — T. and
K. Nov. to May. A medium-sized, conical fruit, covered
with deep crimson. It is grown largely in Sussex, especi-
ally by cottagers and small growers, and called by them
the Winter and Scarlet Pearmain. The tree has a
spreading habit, and crops well. A valuable late apple.

WORCESTER PEARMAIN. — T. Aug. to Sept. Medium,
conical ; colour, deep crimson ; quality, only second rate ;
but it makes up in appearance what it lacks in quality.
Being a heavy and certain cropper, and extremely hand-
some in appearance, it can be highly recommended as an
early market variety.

Beyond the foregoing, a supplementary list of other
useful varieties may be mentioned as follows : —

Beauty of Kent, Bramley's Seedling, Claygate Pear-
main, Dutch Mignonne, Early Julien, Gladstone, Golden
Knob, Queen Caroline, Schoolmaster, Sussex Forge,
Yellow Ingestrie, Yorkshire Beauty.

Bush or Pyramid Apples.

CELLINI. — K. and T. Sept. to Oct. Medium to large,
conical, highly flushed and streaked, and very handsome.
Tree forming a natural pyramid, and very early bearer.

82 FRUIT CULTURE.

It should not, however, be planted on cold, clay soils,
where it is subject to canker.

Cox's ORANGE PIPPIN. — See also Standards.

DCCHESS OF OLDENBURG. — See also Standards.

ECKLINVILLE. — See also Standards.

FROGMORE PROLIFIC. — K. and T. Oct. Large, hand-
some apple, pale yellow, streaked with red, of first-rate
quality, a free bearer and strong grower.

HAWTHORNDEN (NEW). — K. Nov. to Dec. Very large,
pale green, flushed, and sometimes highly coloured on
cheek. Tree, a vigorous grower and heavy cropper. A
great improvement on the old Hawthornden.

KESWICK CODLIN. — K. Aug. to Sept. Medium, coni-
cal, pale yellow, somewhat angular in shape; a well-
known variety, being a prolific bearer and a good one to
give a return quickly.

KING OF PIPPINS. — See Standards.

LORD DERBY. — K. Nov. Very large, oblong, greenish
yellow. Tree, a strong grower and free bearer, the only
fault of the fruit for market being its green colour. It
rarely fails to produce a good crop. One Kent grower
this season had a crop of this variety alone of 2,000
bushels.

LORD GROSVENOR. — K. Sept. Large, conical, palo
yellow, slightly ribbed. An immense bearer that does
remarkably well on heavy soils. A good substitute for
Lord Suffield where that variety will not thrive, but not
equal to it in quality.

LORD SUFFIELD. — K. Aug. to Sept. Large, conical, pale
yellow, very even surface, and of first-rate quality. Where
it will succeed it cannot be surpassed, being an early and
continuous bearer ; but it should not be planted 011 heavy
or shallow soils, or the results will be most unsatisfactory.

WHAT TO PLAST. 33

The best soil for it is a light, warm loam, with porous
subsoil, and even then it \vill not always succeed.

POTT'S SEEDLING. — See Standards.

PRINCE ALB:<RT (LANE'S). — K. Oct. to Jan. Large,
handsome fruit, pale green, streaked bright red ; a very
iirm apple. It has only come to the front rank during the
last few years, having been much too long kept in
obscurity. One of the very best to grow for profit, being
a litting companion to Stirling Castle, which variety it
succeeds.

STIRLING CASTLE.— K. Sept. Large, round, and some-
what flat, good quality, and immense and certain bearer.
One of the very best apples to give a return quickly, and
one that does well on almost all soils.

WORCESTER PEARMAIN. — See Standards.

Supplementary List.

The above may be supplemented by the following
varieties, many of which are scarcely second to the fore-
going, and indeed two or three of the newer varieties be-
low enumerated are likely to prove more valuable than
some of the foregoing.

Alfriston, Baumann's Red Winter Reinette, Bismarck,
Col. Vaughan, Golden Spire, Loddington, Lady Sudeley,
Mank's Codlin, Northern Dumpling, Pcasgood's Nonsuch,
Professor, Ross Nonpareil^ The Queen, Yorkshire Beauty.

Standard Pears.

BEURRE Bosc, OR CALEBASSE. — Oct. to Nov. Large,
P3*riform ; skin, pale brown. A very rich melting pear,
grown largely for market.

BEURRE CAPIAUMONT.— Oct. iledium, pyriform, fair
quality, and prolific bearing; very hardy.

D

34 FRUIT CULTURE.

BEURRE DIEL.— Oct. to Nov. Large, roundish pear.
Tree, somewhat spreading, hardy and prolific.

BEURRE HARDY. — Oct. Medium size, reddish-brown
colour, obovate, rich and juicy. Tree, most vigorous
grower. A variety that should be grown by every one.

CLAPP'S FAVOURITE. — Aug. to Sept. Large, pyriform,
highly .coloured, and very handsome; quality good. Tree,
of good, upright habit, and a vigorous grower. One of
the best for exhibition or market.

CONSEILLER DE LA C(EUR. — Oct. to Nov. Large, pyri-
form, rich, tender, melting, pear. Tree, a most vigorous
grower, and deserves much wider cultivation.
; GLOU. MORCEAU. — Dec. to Jan. Medium size.- Flesh,
white, tender, and very juicy. Tree, a moderate grower,
of a somewhat spreading habit.

JERSEY GRATIOLI. — Sept. to Oct. Medium size, round,
rich and sugary. One of the best early autumn pears.

LOUISE BONNE DE JERSEY. — Oct. Large, pyriform. A
very handsome pear, of first quality. Tree, a moderate
grower ; habit, upright ; free bearer, and a good pear for
market.

MARIE LOUISE. — Oct. to Nov. Large, pyriform. Flesh
white and buttery, and when well grown, the finest
Savoured pear we have, but it should be planted only in
good soils as a standard, the tree being tender.

Stewing Pears.— Catillac, and Uvedale's St. Germain.

Bush Pears.

CLAPP'S FAVOURITE. — See Standards.

DOYENNE BOUSSOCH. — Sept. Medium to large, round
and very handsome, melting and juicy, quality fair. A
most prolific bearer.

DOYENNE DU COMICE. — Nov. Very -large, rich and most

WHAT TO PLAST. 35

delicious flavour. There is no pear to equal it for size
and quality combined. The tree is of an upright habit,
and moderate bearer.

DCCHESSE D'ANGOULEME. — Nov. Very large, roundish,
obovate, half melting, but rather coarse. .Well known as
"Duchess" in the market, and largely imported from the
Channel Islands and France. Upright habit.

JERSEY GRATIOLI. — See Standards.

LOUISE BOXXE DE JERSEY. — See Standards.

PITMASTON DUCHESSE. — Oct. to Nov. Very large, pyri-
form, handsome ; flesh, tender and melting. One of the best
to grow for profit, as it commands a ready sale on account
of its large size and good appearance.

PRINCESS (RIVERS'S). — Nov. Large, pyriform, melting
and juicy. A seedling from Louise Bonne de Jersey, but
a more vigorous grower than its parent, and certainly an
acquisition. Of upright habit.

CONSEILIER DE LA C(EUR. — See Standards.

MARIE LOUISE D'UCCLE. — Oct. Medium to large, obtuse,
pyriform; flesh fine, melting, and richly flavoured. Tree
forms a natural pyramid or bush, and is a free bearer,
and very hardy.

BEUKRE ALEXANDER LUCAS. — Nov. Large, obtuse, pyri-
form, very handsome pear, but comparatively unknown.
Tree, a moderate grower and good bearer; fine showy fruit.

BEURRE CLAIRGEAU. — Nov. Large, pyriform, highly
coloured, and very handsome. Fruit of moderate quality.
.The tree is a strong grower, of good habit, and is a very
constant bearer,

DURANDEAU. — Nov. Large, juioy, sweet, and excellent
quality. Very handsome in appearance, somewhat like
Beurre Clairgeau, but of better quality. .Treer a -mode-
rate grower, of an upright habit.

36 FRUIT CULTURE.

GLOU MORCKAU.— See Standards.

HESSKL OR HAZEL. — Oct. Medium, round, juicy and
sweet, but not of high quality. An abundant bearer, and
probably at one time more largely grown for market than
any other kind.

WILLIAMS' BON CHRETIEN. — Aug. to Sept. Large, obtuse.
Flesh white and melting, with a fine aroma. Tree, a
strong grower, with an upright habit. A well-known pear.

The above varieties are all suitable for bush and pyra-
mid forms of culture, and the following* additions may
also be made : —

Souvenir du Congres, Beurre Superfin, Brock worth
Park, Fondante d'Automne, Madame Treyve, Thompson's,
Zepherin Gregoire, Marie Bcnoist, Gansel's Bergamot,
JJeurre Bachelier.

Stewing Pears. — Catillac, and Uvcdale's St. Germain.

Plums for Standards.

Cox's EMPEROR. — K. & T. Sept. Large, round, dark
red plum, An abundant bearer. Tree, a vigorous grower.

CZAR. — K. July and Aug. Large, purple, rich and
good. Enormous bearer. Tree, upright in habit, and
strong grower. Superior to the Early Prolific, being of
larger size.

GISBORNU'S. — K. Sept. A medium oval, yellow plum
of second quality, but boing an immense and regular
bearer is a profitable one for market growth.

EARLY ORLEANS.— -K. Aug. Large, round, purplish
red, of good quality, largely grown for market, but is
being somewhat superseded by Early Prolific and Czar,
but being very hardy, it should be by no means omitted.

OLD ORLEANS. — K. Aug. Me Hum, round, purple plum.
A heavy bearer and very hardy.

WHAT TO PLANT. P,7

POND'S SKEDLIN:;. — K. Sept. An exceedingly large,
red, oval plum ; highly recommended on account of its
large size. Tree, a strong grower of upright habit

PRINCE ENGLEBERT. — K. & T. Sept. A large oval,
deep purple fruit, a rich and excellent plum. An enor-
mous bearer, and good for preserving.

SULTAN. — K. & T. Aug. A large, round, deep red
plum ; one that ought to be better known.

VICTORIA.— K. & T. Sept. A large oval, red plum,
sweet and juicy. An enormous cropper, and one that may
be termed everybody's plum.

Bush Plums.

EARLY PROLIFIC. — K. July. Medium, round, purple;
an enormous bearer. Tree of moderate growth, and one
of the very best for market purposes.

CZAR. — See Standards.

KIRKG'S BLUE. — T. Sept. Large, roundish oval, rich
and juicy. Tree, a moderate grower, forming good pyra-
mid or bush. Altogether a desirable plum.

GREEN GAGE. — T. Aug. Medium, round, and very
rich in flavour. There is no plum to equal it in the rich-
ness of its flavour. The tree is a strong grower of good
habit.

EARLY* ORLEANS. — See Standards.

POND'S SEEDLING. — See Standards.

PRINCE ENGLEBERT. — See Standards.

Cherries for Standards.

BEDFORD PROLIFIC. — July. A large, black cherry. Tree
very hardy.

88 FRUIT CULTURE.

FROGMORE BIGARREAU. — Mid Jane. Large, yellowish
red, rich and tender. A great bearer.

BIGAIIRKAU NAPOLEON. — July to Aug. Large and fine,
oherry, red, rich and tender. An abundant bearer.

BiGARiiEAU KKNTISH. — End of July. A large and fine
cherry, yellowish red. A regular cropper.

BLACK HEART. — Mid July. A good useful old variety.

GOVERNOR WOOD. — Beginning July. Fine large cherry,
light red, flesh tender. Tree, a most vigorous grower.

Cherries for Bush Culture.

ARCHDUKE. — July. Dark red, rich and good. In
appearance somewhat like May Duke, but later.

EMPKESS EUGENIE. — End of June. Large, red, early,
rich variety of the May Duke. Tree forms a good
pyramid.

MAY DUKE. — July. Large, red, rich, and excellent. A
well-known old variety, forming a handsome pyramid.

MORELLO. — Aug. to Sept. Dark red, black when ripe,
large in size. Very largely grown for market, and a
most profitable variety to grow in this form, bearing
profusely as a pyramid.

KENTISH. — July. Medium, rod; a well-known sort,
largely grown in Kent for preserve.

Bush Fruits.
GOOSEBERRIES.

LANCASHIRE LAD. — Large, bright red. A good bearer
largely grown, and gathered green to thin the berries.
Of a good, upright habit.

CROWN BOB. — Large, red, and a good quality. An abun-
, dant bearer, and moderate grower.
/ WARRINGTON. — Medium red. An extraordinary bearer,

WHAT TO PLANT. 39

and first class for preserving. More largely grown at one
time than any other variety. Pendulous in habit.

WHITESMITH. — A large and fine bush ; the best of the
whites to grow in quantity.

WIITNHAM'S INDUSTRY. — Medium, dull red. Immense
bearer, of recent introduction ; having a thick skin, it wil)
bear carriage remarkably well when ripe. This variety is
also largely picked green, to thin the fruit.
BLACK CURRANTS.

LSK'S PROLIFIC. — A large and fine currant, remarkably
rich and sweet. The best for market cultivation. Car-
ter's Champion is sometimes claimed to supersede it, but
is certainly no improvement.

BLACK NAPLES. — Large, and of good quality. At one
time largely grown, but now superseded by Lee's Prolific.

RED AND WHITE CURRANTS.

LA VERSAILLES. — Red ; very large fruit, and enormous,
sized bunches. When well grown the berries are nearly
as large as a cherry, much superior in every way to the
Dutch and Grape varieties. Tree, a moderate grower.

HACGHTOX CASTLE. — Red; large size bunches, a very
strong grower and moderate bearer.

WHITE GRAPE. — Large ; of first quality, good size
bunches.

WHITE DUTCH. — Large and fine currant ; berries of a
good size, and forms a good bush.

RASPBERRIES.

CARTER'S PROLIFIC. — Large and fine, of a dull red colour.
An enormous bearer, and altogether the most profitable
variety to grow.

FASTOLFF. — Medium ; bright red, and good quality
Strong, sturdy grower.

40 FliUIT CULTURE.

CHAPTER V.
"PLANTING.

IF the plantation is a mixed one, consisting of both top
and bottom fruits, it is best to plant the standards first.
The most convenient direction for the rows should be
chosen, and, if possible, these should run north and south,
in order to give the bush trees as much sun as possible.
Peg out the position of each tree in order to insure plac-
ing the whole in straight lines and at true angles.
Having pegged out the first row, next determine the angle,
which can be done best by a quarter-staff. Then proceed
to peg out the other rows. If this is carefully done, the
trees will then appear in straight lines from whatever
direction they are viewed. In setting out the ground,
it is now needful to bear in mind what roadways may be
necessary, in order to afford easy access to all parts of the
plantation, for the purposes of cultivating and manuring
the ground, and gathering and collecting the fruit. The
distance apart at which to plant the standards will be
regulated by the bottom fruit intended to be grown, and
the nature of the same, etc., as indicated below.

Standard apples, pears, and plums, on good ground,
for pyramid or bush forms of the same trees below,
may be planted twenty-four feet apart ; bat where the
land is not so good, or currants or gooseberries are in-
tended to be grown beneath, they maybe planted eighteen
feet apart.

Cherries on good ground thirty feet, or on second
quality ground at twenty-four feet.

Between the standards at twenty-four feet apart, the
bush trees, if on the paradise or quince stock, may be

PLANTING 41

planted at six feet apnrt, which would giye three trees
between each standard, and three rows of bush between
each row of standards (Fig. 4). At this distance they

OOOQ

4. — 0 STANDARD APPLES, 24 FEET APART.

o BUSH APPLES ON PARADISE STOCK, G FEET APART.

o

<© ©

FIG. 5. — 0 STANDARD TREES, 24 FEET APART.
o BUSII TREES, 8 FEET APART.

would yield a quicker and better return for the first six
or eight years, but after that they usually become some-

42 FEUIT CULTURE.

what crowded, and each alternate tree may be removed
to form a new plantation. Therefore a better distance
for a permanent plantation is to plant the bush trees at
eight feet apart, giving- two trees between each standard,
and 'two rows between each row of standards (Fig. 5).
And, in the same way, if standards are planted at eighteen
feet, one pj^ramid may be planted between each, and one
row between each row of standards, or gooseberries may
also be planted in the same way at six feet apart. Bat
for gooseberry or currant culture between the standards,

®oo e o © o o o o <g)

OoooooOQOOO

O o o o o o o oooo
O o o o o o o o o o o

QeOoooooooo
Oo@o ooo^o o o

FIG. G. — ® STANDARD TREES, 25 FEET.
o BUSHES, 5 FEET APART.

the usual distance for ordinary ''ground is to plant the
standards twenty-five feet apart, and the bushes between
at five feet apart (Fig. 6). Or, if the land be very rich,
the standards may be planted twenty-four feet, and the
bushes six feet.

Still another and an excellent arrangement is to plaiit
standard apples or pears twenty-four feet apart, with a
pyramid plum between each, and a row of pyramids
between each row of standards. Then, between each of

PLANTING. 43

these, successively plant a bush fruit, of either gooseberry
or black currant, as per Fig. 7.

In planting the standards, it is well to bear in mind
the habit of the varieties planted, and to arrange the rows
alternately with one tall variety, and the next of a lo\ver

FIG. T.--0 STANDARD APPLE.
X PYRAMID PLUM.
o GOOSEBERRY OR CURIUNT.

spreading habit. To assist planters in this respect the
following table gives the habit of each of the trees men-
tioned.

HABIT OF TREES.
STANDARD APPLES, SPREADING.

Duchess of Oldenburg, Golden Noble, Warner's King,
Cox's Orange, Blenheim Orauge, Winter Queening, Wel-
lington, Early Julien, Yorkshire Beauty, Bramley's Seed-
ling, Claygate Pcarmain, Gladstone, Queen Caroline.

STANDARD APPLES, UPCIGHT.
Worcester Pearmain, Ecklinvillc, King Pippin, Xor-

44 FRUIT CULTURE.

folk Beefing, Pott's Seedling, Golden Knob, Mannington,
Beauty of Kent.

STANDARD PEARS, SPREADING.

Beurre Bosc, Beurre Diel, Glou Morceau, Marie Louise
Ilessel or Hazel, Conseiller de la Coear.

STANDARD PEARS, UPRIGHT.

Bearre Capiaumont, Beurre Hardy, Louise Bonne de
Jersey, Williams' Bon Chretien, Clapp's Favourite, Jersey
Gratioli.

STANDARD PLUMS, SPREADING.

Cox's Emperor, Early Orleans, Old Orleans, Victoria,
Sultan.

STANDARD PLUMS, UPKIGHT.
Czar, Gisborne's, Prince Engelbert, Pond's Seedling.

It is also a great convenience in after years to have
each row a distinct variety, and of course as many rows
of one variety in succession as you please, but do not
break the row by planting two or three sorts.

Now for the actual operation of planting. The land
having been previously prepared, as before directed, it will
only be needful to dig out a very shallow hole for the
tree. But dig it wide enough to admit of all the roots
being laid out at full length. If the land, however, re-
quires the application of manure at the time of planting,
the hole should be dug slightly deeper, and a small
quantity of manure placed in the bottom, with a sprinkling
of soil to cover it.

The next operation should be to drive the stakes firmly
into their positions, in the centre of each hole. The
usual plan is to plant the tree first and stake afterwards,
but there are several advantages in placing the stakes
first. You avoid the danger of damaging the roots in

PLANTING. 45

thrusting the stake through, and also the risk of dama-
ging the branches in driving it home. It is also ready
for securing the tree immediately on planting, and one
other advantage, which is not the least, is that it enables
you to arrange the rows in perfectly straight lines at
leisure, and permits you to proceed rapidly with the plant-
ing when the trees are lifted, thus avoiding the un-
necessary exposure of the roots. If fall standards are to
be planted, the stakes should be seven feet long, allowing
eighteen inches to enter the ground, which, if it has
been properly prepared, will be loose to that depth.
They should be stout, and of some wood that will stand for
three years. If only small stakes are used they soon
decay ; at the end of the first season many will want
renewing, and they will require constant attention and
renewal for several years. It is therefore by far the
most economical plan to provide stout stakes in the first
place.

The trees should then be laid out to the holes ready for
planting, and each tree should be carefully examined as
to its roots. In lifting from the nursery, all the larger
roots will be found to be more or less bruised by the cut-
ting of the spade. All these should be trimmed by a clean
cut with a sharp knife, and any long, coarse roots should
be shortened back. This clean cutting of the roots en-
ables them to quickly form new fibrous roots, and these
rapidly establish themselves in the soil.

There is a right way and a wrong in performing even
this simple operation. Never hold the tree in such a
way that you cut the larger roots with an outside or
vertical cut, but cut on the under-side from the centre of
the tree towards the outside. The cut portion is then
underneath the tree, and lies flatly and firmly on the

46 FRUIT CULTURE.

soil, enabling the newly forming fibres to take a rapid
hold of the ground and radiate over it.

Then one operator should hold up the tree, placing it
to the south-west side of the stake towards the prevailing
wind, whilst the other places on the roots some soil, the
finer the better. See that the roots are well spread out,
and none of them curled back or doubled under the tree.
When covered with line soil, slightly shake the tree up
and down, to help the soil to settle between the fibres, but
do not lift enough to draw the roots out ; and here it will
be found very useful to have a small stake with a round
end in one hand, to help to fill in the soil firmly about

FIG. 8. CORRECT PLANTING.

the roots, which is better and more safely done at this
stage with the stake than with the foot. Then add more
soil, and tread it in, taking great care not to bruise the
stem or any of the roots. Next add a little more manure,
and finish by placing the remainder of the soil on the
surface, covering up the tree to the collar, or to the
depth at which it has stood in the nursery. Then gently
tread the whole, leaving it in a -mound. Bear in mind
that the object is to place the roots in such a position that
they may extend horizontally, spreading in all directions
in the surface soil, as shown on Fig. 8, and on no ac-

PLANTING. 47

count plant too deeply, causing the roots to ascend in
growth towards the surface or to perish in the subsoil
(Fig. 9).

Immediately after planting, secure the tree to the state.
Be careful to wrap round the tree a band of straw or hay,
or a piece of bagging, and tie the stake firmly to it with
strong tar string, making the last tie across the strings
between the stake and the tree, thus tightening the whole
and securing them against the danger of chafing. These
ties will require to be periodically examined, in order to
loosen and re-tie any that may require to be so treated.
It is essential that the tree should be secured firmly

FIG. 9. WKONG PLAXTIXO.

against rocking with the wind, as nothing is more hurtful
to the young rootlets than to be torn from their hold of
the soil by constant motion of the tree; and the difference
in growth during the first two or three years between a
firmly staked and a wind- rocked tree is marvellous.

Some planters use two stakes, but this is not really
necessary, provided the one used is sufficiently strong,
and the tree well secured as described.

When the standards are properly planted and secured,
the planting of the bush or pyramid trees between them
is a very simple and straightforward matter. The lines
being already determined, it is only needful with a rod to

48 FRUIT CULTURE.

mark the spaces between, to dig holes and plant the trees
in a similar way to that described for the standards. No
staking in the case of these bush trees will be necessary.

Raspberries are in some cases planted below apple trees,
in which case they should be set out at a distance of four
to five feet from row to row, and twelve to fifteen inches
from plant to plant in each row. But these are more usu-
ally grown in open fields, in which case they are sometimes
planted by placing the sets along the open furrow during
the time of ploughing, allowing the next furrow to cover
the roots. This, however, is a somewhat rough and ready
way of doing it, and not one that can be recommended, as
the plants are frequently driven somewhat out of their
places by the plough, and it is difficult to make good, even
work in this way. A far better plan is to plough the
whole of the land first, and dig holes for each plant in the
ordinary way afterwards. Small holes only are required,
and the line of the furrow may generally be taken as a
line for each row.

Rabbits. — One matter will, after planting, require some
care and watchfulness j namely, the danger of injury to
the trees by rabbits. If there should be any in the
vicinity of the plantation, it is well to be prepared in
time ; and if the plantation is a mixed one, and the
ground entirely occupied by the trees, it would be the
cheapest plan to place wire netting round the whole of
the outside. But where standard orchard trees alone arc
planted, there are other means adopted which are less
costly, and answer the purpose fairly well. There are
some preparations advertised for painting the stems
of the trees to prevent the rabbits from touching them ;
but these preparations should be used with care, for fear
of damage being done to the bark of the trees. Any

LABELLING. 49

greasy or sticky preparation covering1 the bark for a
lengthened period is in danger of damaging it. "Where
furze bushes or trimmings from hedges can be easily
obtained, a simple plan is to tie a few of these around
the stem of each tree; or three or four laths or loose
pieces of bark, which can be obtained from most saw-
yards, will also answer the purpose.

Labelling. — Another matter which will require imme-
diate attention after planting, is that of securing the
names of the varieties planted. It is always well in
the first place to take a plan of the plantation, noting
each row with the varieties planted in the same. This
plan should be carefully preserved in case of any acci-
dent to or loss of the labels in the orchard. Various
plans are adopted for the labelling of the trees, some
using a number stamped upon tin or lead, with a book
of reference ; but this means is not always satisfactory,
and it is often the cause of delay and annoyance to
have to procure the book, whicfc is often not at hand
when wanted. It is much more convenient, econo-
mical, and interesting to have each variety distinctly
named in full, the best label for this purpose being
Pinches' Patent, which is a cast-iron label with the names
in raised characters, plain and indelible,
as shown in Fig. 10. This should bo
attached to a branch of the tree by either
galvanized or lead wire, care being taken
to leave a sufficiently large loop to allow
for the growth of the tree; and even FIG. 10.
then it is needful to examine the fas- FRUIT LABEL.
tenings periodically, and see that no damage is done.

Shelter. — If the plantation is at all exposed, it is highly
important to provide some suitable shelter, Wind-swept

E

50 FltUIT CULTURE.

plantations suffer exceedingly, especially when young
and open between the trees. Shelter may be given most
quickly by lines of Lombardy poplar, planted about two
feet apart. Its close upright growth affords a good wind
break, but it is somewhat objectionable on account of its
tendency to draw nourishment from the plants near it.
Therefore, if possible, arrange for a roadway between a
poplar hedge and the plantation, and if the roots are
found to extend across the roadway into the plantation,
they should be periodically cut by digging a trench and
cutting all roots that cross. A belt of fir trees affords
valuable shelter at the outsides, if the position is very
exposed, and in some places damsons are used for this
purpose, and where they are likely to afford sufficient
protection they are the most profitable, as they produce a
paying crop. The cluster damson is the best for this
purpose, and the trees may be allowed to extend them-
selves, with very little pruning, until they form a close
hedge. Standards of these may be planted at ten feet
apart, or, if there is no hedge below, it is best to plant-
standards at twelve feet apart, and a feathered tree

between each.

Strawberries.

Strawberries require such totally different treatment
from fruit trees, they are here dealt with separately, as
to planting and management. The best soil for them is a
strong loam with a cool subsoil, but they will nourish in
a 'great variety of soils. Do not, however, plant them on
dry sand, chalk, or dry gravel. In some instances, how-
ever, they nourish well on gravel which has in it a
mixture of clay.

They are usually grown on large open fields, and grown
alone. The soil should be prepared, as for other fruit, by

PLANTING STRAWBERRIES. 51

extra deep cultivation, bat it is not necessary to trench
the land by hand. It can always be done for strawberries
in the open fields by horse labour or steam cultivation.
Above all, let the land be thoroughly clean, and in good
condition, and it should have a heavy coat of manure
before planting, as much as forty to fifty tons per acre.
This should be applied, if possible, several weeks before-
hand, and thoroughly mixed with the soil.

The time of planting is either August or March. The
latter is preferable, unless the planting can be done early
in the autumn to allow the plants to establish themselves
in the soil, otherwise they are liable to be lifted by
winter frosts. To escape this danger many growers pre-
fer to plant in March. The land should be levelled
and rolled before commencing to plant, and marked out
in lines thirty inches apart, and fifteen to twenty inches
in the row. In Kent, where large quantities are planted,
a marker is used, made in the form of a light wheel,
having pegs at the distance apart that the plants are to
stand in the row, and this being pushed along the row
marks the distances quickly and evenly. The runners for
planting are usually selected from strong two- year-old
plants, and they are dibbled in with a setting stick, care
being taken to press the plant firmly to the soil, and nob
to bury the crown.

In a short time the young plants throw out strong
runners, which are usually cut off during the first summer,
and to do this they require going over three or four times
at least. The land must be kept clean both by horse and
hand hoeing, and in autumn a mould-board plough is used
to throw a furrow each way between the rows, casting it
towards the plants to protect them and assist drainage.
These furrows are levelled in the following spring by the

52 FRUIT CULTURE.

horse hoe, and the ground is kept clean until the plants are
in bloom. Barley or oat straw is then spread between
the plants to keep the fruit clean. The straw can be re-
moved after the fruit is picked, and either stacked away
for future use, or carted to the yards. A good crop is
usually taken the second season after planting. After
the fruit has been picked, the straw is raked oft' and the
foliage trimmed, and by the second year the land will
require a good dressing of stable manure applied in
autumn. Also soot and artificial manures may be applied
advantageously each year. The duration of the crop is
usually five to six years, after which the yield declines,
and the plant is not worth retaining.

Varieties of Strawberries

SIR JOSEPH PAXTON. — This is at the present time more
largely grown than any other variety, being a heavy crop-
per, rich in flavour, and what is highly important to the
market grower, stands packing well. Consequently it is
more largely used than any other for punnetting.

YISCOMTESSE HERICART DE THURY. — Fine large fruit,
which stands well the wet weather, its abundant foliage
protecting the flowers and fruit. Fine for preserving.

SIR CHARLES NAPIER. — A fine late variety, large and
good cropper, and travels well.

ELTON PINE. — A showy fruit, and highly coloured right
through the flesh. On this account it is much prized for
preserving.

ELEANOR.— One of the latest, and on that account useful;
free grower, and hardy.

LAXTON'S NOBLE. — This variety, though of recent intro-
duction, has come rapidly to the front as a market variety.
It is the earliest out of doors, ripening ten days or a

CULTIVATION. 55

fortnight earlier than Sir J. Paxton. This is a great
consideration, enabling the grower to realize good prices,
and it also helps to prolong the season, and to distribute
the work of gathering and marketing more evenly. It is
borne in bunches, and the fruit is very large, round in
shape, and of a high colour. On some light soils it is
considered of somewhat poor flavour and the flesh light
and woolly, but on heavy soil the flesh is firm and the
flavour really good. The plant being a vigorous grower
and a heavy cropper makes it altogether a most profitable
variety to grow.

AFTER CULTIVATION OF ORCHARDS AND
PLANTATIONS.

For orchard or standard trees, if on grass, not much
ground cultivation can be given. It is not a good plan to
take crops of hay from an orchard. Long grass during
its growth so shades the ground, and excludes sun and
air, that it is very hurtful to the trees, and causes the
young fibrous roots to decay. It is a far better plan to
.pasture such land with sheep, especially if they are fed at
the time with corn or cake. The land then becomes en-
riched instead of impoverished, and a good supply of
nutriment to the trees is maintained. Otherwise it is
needful to apply manure on the surface periodically, in
order to encourage the formation and growth of the
fibrous roots near the surface.

Further directions as to the fit treatment and improve-
ment of fruit trees on grass land will be found in the
chapter upon renovating old orchards.

If the standard trees, however, are planted on arable
land, it is preferable to keep it open, and not to lay it
down to grass for the first few years, but if possible keep

54 PKUtT

it cultivated, manured, and cropped with any green crops,
but not with corn. Such cultivation may be done by
horses, if great care is taken not to rub or damage the
trees, and also not to plough too deeply near to them.
If the trees are set out evenly, and in true lines in all
directions, most of the ground may be covered by such
horse cultivation, by crossing in two or three directions,
but there will always be some ground near to the tree not
moved. This must be treated by hand. It will require
hoeing in summer to keep clear of the weeds, and should
be forked over in the winter, or dug lightly with the
spade.

MIXED PLANTATIONS.

The cultivation here will much depend upon what is
planted, and how closely. If bush apples, pears or plums
are planted, with no strawberries between, it will be pos-
sible to use the hoe or scarifier for the first year or two,
but it is hardly possible to use the plough to advantage in
such plantations. If the intervening land between the
trees be filled up with strawberries or other more perma-
nent ground crop, hand cultivation entirely will have to
be resorted to. In any case the work will have to be done
principally by hand. This weeding, forking, and digging
of the plantations is usually performed by piece work,
the prices of which are given in Chap. VII. Manure is
applied according to the nature of the soil, the crop, and
the growth of the trees. It is well to arrange this, if
possible, in rotation; taking, for instance, the third of a
plantation each year.

oo

CHAPTER VI.
PRUNING.

On this question there is considerable diversity of
opinion, and rightly so, for it admits of it. The condi-
tions under which the pruning is performed are so
different that the same practice under varying conditions
leads to widely different results. Therefore, study first
all the circumstances affecting the case, then proceed
accordingly.

I will now endeavour to indicate some of the points to
bo studied, with directions for treatment in particular
cases.

Standard and Half Standard Apples at the time of Plant-
i»g.— Supposing yon have obtained trees which have been
properly treated in the nursery, you will have a head
varying in size according to the age of the tree. The
considerations that would govern you as to the amount of
pruning to be given at planting would be these : the time
of planting, the condition and quality of the ground, the
age and the formation of the tree, and to some extent
the variety. If the tree is young, with a head of only
young growth, you may generally shorten back pretty
hard, especially if planted in autumn in ground that is
rich, and in good condition. In such a case you may
cut back at least two-thirds of the growth, and always
cut clean away any surplus number of branches. The
effect of this pruning under the above conditions will be
the production of good strong growth, and the formation
of a strong foundation for the future tree. But supposing
the tree to be older, and one that has in the head older
wood, upon which there may be already some fruit buds,

56 FRUIT CULTURE.

it is necessary to be much more sparing with the knife,
not cutting back more than half of the young growth of
the leading shoots. Should there, however, be too many
of these, cut away all surplus ones, in order to keep the
centre or foundation of the tree well open. A standard
tree of four or five years' growth, that has had proper
treatment up to that time, would have already a good
foundation with considerable wood in bearing condition.
In this case it would be the greatest folly to adopt the
old, and still too prevalent, practice of cutting in the
growth almost to the main stem, and would be undoing
at least the work of two years, and simply losing so much
time. The object which should constantly be borne in
mind is to obtain the largest tree in the shortest time
with the greatest extension of branches.

The old system of continued hard pruning for several
years certainly has the effect of producing abundance of
strong growth ; but it is so much growth in the wrong
place and to a wrong purpose. This annual shortening
causes the tree to become what is known as mop-headed,
with a quantity of rank wood growth closely matted to-
gether, half of which has to be entirely cut away. And
the again repeated shortening in the absence of fruit buds,
which cannot form under such treatment, causes only a
fresh outburst of useless side growth.

To Summarize. — If the trees are young, the ground is
good, and the planting done in autumn, you may venture
to_prune tolerably hard ; but if the trees are older, or the
ground not so rich, or the planting through any circum-
stances delayed until the spring, be very sparing of the
.knife; cut hard the first season only when all the cir-
.cumstances lead you to expect a response to the knife in
good strong growth. Otherwise wait until the following

PRUNING. 57

season, when the tree will have established itself firmly
in the soil, by getting a good root hold, and will then
be in a better position to answer to the knifa. It is
frequently seen that when trees are planted under any
adverse circumstances, and pruned close at the time of
planting, and especially when a dry season ensues, such
trees present the appearance of mere stakes, and the root
action will be much slower and much less through the
restriction at the top. It is better to err on the safe side ;
which is, I firmly believe, to wait until the tree has taken
hold of the soil and commenced its root action.

Having so pruned the tree in the first place, as to form
a good foundation and a well-balanced head, the after
treatment required is very simple. Remove completely
all surplus branches. Keep the head well opened to
admit all the sun and air possible to ripen and perfect
the fruit, and also the very important, but much over-
looked, point, to allow of the proper ripening and
maturing of the wood and of the fruit buds. Remove any
surplus side growth, thereby encouraging the formation of
fruit spurs upon all the leading branches. In shortening
the main branches, always cut close behind an underneath
or outward pointing bud, and not to the top or inward
one.

Standard pears and plums require very much the same
treatment as that described for apples. Cherries, how-
ever, should have the knife used very much more
sparingly, and after the first year or two require no
shortening and very little thinning. There is great
danger of gumming by the free use of the knife ; and, if
the branches are allowed to extend, they are soon covered
with fruit spurs, which, producing abundant crops, check
and regulate the superabundant wood.

58 FRUIT CULfUItti.

Bash Apples. — In pruning this class of tree, a great deal
will depend upon the variety, some growing so much
stronger than others. In the first place, taking a variety
that makes but little growth, all the pruning that is ne-
cessary when the tree is procured, supposing it to be two
or three years old, and the number of shoots from four
to eight, will be as follows. The main object will be to
open the centre of the tree. This is done by simply
cutting the shoots that may be crossing each other to
within two or three eyes of the base of the shoot. The
leading branches may then be cut back about two- thirds
of their length to an outer bud. This may be repeated
each succeeding year, bearing in mind the form of the
tree desired. The result of the pruning will have been
to stimulate wood growth and the formation of fruit
spurs. A tree with the centre well opened, fully exposed
to the sun and air, is capable of producing large and fine
flavoured fruit.

With regard to the stronger growing varieties, the
pruning will be much the same, only that the leading
shoots will not require to be cut back so closely as the
weaker growing kinds ; they must be allowed more free-
dom of growth, which will result in the development of
fruit spurs instead of rampant wood growth, and when
once in fruit they will check themselves naturally. When
the trees have reached the height of from four to six feet
the leading shoots may be cut back more closely, with
the view of keeping the tree down, and not so much ex-
posed to the wind, or well below the standard trees above
them. In many fruit gardens along the south coast, and
in other exposed situations, the trees are trained as open
bushes, and allowed to reach the height of six to eight
feet, when they are pruned to an even height, forming flat

50

tops of a uniform height.. This affords the greatest possible
protection to the individual plants, as the storms sweep
over the level tops with comparatively little harm.

Bush Pears. — This form of tree is usually being worked
on the quince stock, and requires very little pruning when
once the bush is well formed, and this stock should always
be used for this form of tree, unless the soil be very light
and dry. The trees are usually planted at from two to four
years old, having from four to eight branches, about two or
three feet in length. The first pruning should be to cut
back these shoots to about one foot from the base, with the
result that each will throw out two or three good leading
growths. The subsequent pruning would be to shorten
the leading shoots, and leave a few smaller branches as
the tree extends, always keeping the centre of the tree
open and clear from surplus growth.

Gooseberries. — These require rather hard pruning for the
first year or two. Thin out any surplus shoots, and shorten
the remainder by at least half their length. In cutting, they
require exactly contrary treatment to that of the standard
trees in this respect. Cut behind the upright bud, the
object here being to lead the branches as upright as pos-
sible, and to keep them from drooping to the ground, this
being the general tendency with the most prolific goose-
berries, the weight of the fruit soon bringing the branches
down. Subsequently allow the main branches to extend,
but keep them a good distance apart. Shorten all side
growth to within two or three eyes of the main branch,
to encourage the formation of spurs ; but as the main
branches extend, allow some side growths to remain and
also extend, where space will allow. Always keep the tree
sufficiently open to permit the hand to pass freely to the
centre for gathering and pruning purposes. Gooseberries

60 FRUIT CULTURE.

fruit not only on the spurs, but also upon well-ripened
wood of last year's growth. By keeping the trees well
Opened it allows them to fruit on the inside as well as at
the extremities. Summer pinching may be adopted to
advantage, as it assists in ripening fruit, and also in the
formation and maturing of fruit spurs. Do not allow
gooseberries to fruit much for the first season or two, and
what fruit there is should be gathered green, which does
not so much exhaust the tree.

Currants. — These may be treated much in the same way
as described for the gooseberry, only keep the tree more
open, with greater spaces between the branches. Strong
fruiting spurs are formed upon old wood, producing, npon
thinly dispersed branches, large bunches of fruit thickly
set in clusters, so thick indeed that they hang in per-
fect masses from the branches. The fruit is also
developed fully, and is much more easily arid quickly
gathered than when allowed to be more thinly dispersed
upon crowded trees. Summer pruning of red currants
is most useful. Shorten all useless side growths in June.
Then all that is required in the winter pruning is to cut
back the remainder of the summer pinching, to within
one or two eyes of the branch, and to shorten the growth
of the leading branches by half or two-thirds. This treat-
ment sounds somewhat severe, but it is the most satis-
factory one.

Black Currants. — These require entirely different treat-
ment from the foregoing. Whereas the red currant forms
fruiting spurs, the black currant does not, but fruits prin-
cipally on the young wood. Therefore the growth may
be allowed to remain much closer together. Remove all
weakly shoots and immature growth, and leave much
of the strongest of the current year's growth at full

PRUNING. 61

length, the older branches being removed to make room
for the young growth, and to keep the tree sufficiently
open and properly balanced. They may be allowed to
spread low and to extend to large bushes.

Raspberries. — When the canes are planted, they are at
once shortened to within about nine inches or afoot of the
ground. This will cause them to throw up two or three
strong canes the following summer. The after pruning
required is the removal of all spent fruiting canes in
autumn. Then, during winter or spring, remove any sur-
plus young canes by cutting away close to the ground,
and shorten the remainder to about two to four feet from
the ground, according to age and strength of stool. In the
case of some of the taller varieties, however, it is neces-
sary to leave them longer, in which case they are usually
tied together for support ; but for open field culture, where
they are not staked, it is needful to keep them short, so
that they may support the weight of the fruit.

THE BEST TIME TO PRUNE.

There is some difference of opinion as to this point.
But theory has to give way to practice, and probabilities
to possibilities. To those who have large plantations to
deal with, it is not possible to do it all at one time ; but
the work has to be extended over a considerable period,
and to be performed according to labour available, and
as other work will allow. It is usually commenced
immediately on the fall of the leaf, and continued through
the winter months ; but where it is possible to get it done
in a comparatively short period, there is no doubt that
the safest time to do it is after the turn of winter, when
the severest weather is past, say about February.

In some seasons, when the weather is favourable to late

62 FRUIT CULTURE.

growth, wliicli is followed by immature and badly ripened
wood, and when the pruning under such circumstances is
done in autumn, the severe winter following will damage
much of the wood, and cause gaps and vacancies in
the trees ; whereas, if the pruning is deferred until the
spring, any such damaged wood can be removed, and the
sound wood selected for retention. Therefore, where
pruning has to be commenced in autumn, select the
hardiest kinds and the best ripened wood to operate
upon first, and such as is also most sheltered. The wood
and pith are more liable to damage when the pruning has
taken place ; bat when pruned shortly bofore the sap
rises, the wounds quickly heal.

CHAPTER VII.
COST AND KETUKNS PEE ACRE.

DISTANCES FOR TREES AND QUANTITIES PER ACRE.

Distance. Number
Feet. per Acre.

Standard Trees, Apples, Pears, Plums 24 ... 75
With Bush Fruit, Gooseberries or Cur-
rants, between Standards ... ... 4 ... 2,647

With Bush Apples, Pears, or Plums

between ... ... ... ... 6 ... 1,135

Or Bush Apples, Pears, or Plums, if

on richer soil ... ... ... 8 ... 605

Or Standard Trees 21 ... 99

Bush Apples, Pears, or Plums between 7 ... 790

Or Standard Trees 18 ... 134

Bush Apples, Pears, and Plums between 6 ... 1,076
Or Bush Apples, Pears, and Plums be-
tween 9 401

COST AND RETURNS PER ACRE.

G3

DISTANCES, IF EACH GROWN SEPARATELY.

Distance. Number
Feet. per Acre.
Standard Apples, Pears, or Plums, on

poor soil ... ... ... ... 18 .. 134

Standard Apples, Pears, or Plnrns, on

better soil 21 ... 99

Standard Apples, Pears, or Plums, on

rich soil , 24 ... 75

Standard Cherries 30 ... 48

Bush or Pyramid Apples, or Pears 0:1

Dwarfing stocks 6 ... 1,210

Bush or Pyramid Apples, Pears, or

Plums, stronger grown on free

stocks and rich soil ... ... 9 ... 537

Filberts 12 ... 302

Currants and Gooseborries on poor soils 4 ... 2,722
Currants and Gooseberries on richer

soils 5 ... 1,742

Raspberries, 5 ft. rows by ... ... 1 ... 8,712

Raspberries, 4 ft. rows by 1 ... 10,890

Strawberries, 2 ft, 6 in. rows by ... IV ... 11,616

1 ... 17,424

COST OF TREES AND PLANTS,
This varies considerably, according to age and quality.

Standard Trees of Apples, Pears, Plums, and Cherries,
from £5 to £10 per 100.

Half Standard Apples, Pears, Plums, and Cherries,
£4 to £7 10^. per 100.

Bush Trees of Apples, Pears, Plums, and Cherries,
from £2 10*. to £5 per 100.

Pyramid Apples, Pears, Plums, and Cherries, from £5
to £10 per 100.

64

FRUIT CULTURE.

Gooseberries, from 10s. to 15s. per 100.
Currants, Black and Red, from 8s. to 12s. per 100.
Raspberries, from 25s. to 35s. per 1,000.
Strawberry Runners, from 6s. to 10s. per 1,000.

COST OF PREPARING LAND.

Steam cultivator, twice over, including coals and water,
30s. to 40s. per acre.

Double ploughing with subsoil plough, 30$. per acre.

Digging, one spade deep, 4d. to 6d. per rod, £2 13s. 4>d.
to £4 per acre.

Digging, two spades deep, Is. to Is. 6d. per rod. £8 to
£12 per acre.

COST OF CULTIVATION AND PRUNING.
Digging between trees with spade or fork, 20s. to 30s.
per acre.

Hoeing according to weediness, 20s.
Pruning Standard Trees, 20s. per acre.
Pruning Black Currants, 18s. per acre.
Pruning Red Currants, 22s. per acre.
Pruning Gooseberries, 25s. to 30s. per acre,
Pruning Raspberries, 9s. to 12s. per acre.

COST OF PICKING FRUIT, AND YIELD PER ACRE.
For these figures I am indebted to Mr. Cecil Hooper,
who has carefully collected the information from many
Kent growers

Strawberry
Raspberry
Grooseberry
Red Currant

Bough

Rough

Average

Gross

cost per

cost per

yield per

return

ton.

acre.

a<-re.

per acre.

£ s. d.

£

Tons.

£

3 18 0

... 8

... 2 ..

. 42

500

... 10

o

. 46

1 14 0

... 5

. . . o

. 25

200

4

2

30

COST AXD RETUMES PER ACRE.

65

Hough Hough Average Gross
cost per cost per yield per return

ton.

acre.

acre. per acre.

£ *.

d.

£

Tons.

£

lack Currant ... 4 0

0 ...

8 ...

2 ...

34

lum Standards ... 1 0

0 ...

7 ...

7 ...

100

'amson ,, ... 2 0

0 ...

12 ...

6 ...

96

herry „ ... 2 6

8 ...

9 ...

4

100

pple „ ... 0 14

0 ...

7 ....

6 ...

60

ear ... 0 11

8 .

7 .

5

50

The following facts may also be interesting, as show-
ing the continuous yield of fruit from one apple tree
during a term of ten years. I can vouch for their
accuracy, as they were furnished by a friend of mine in
Essex.

The tree was a Warner's King, of pyramidal form, and
was planted at Ramsden, in Essex, in November, 1871.

1872 Crop, 3 large Apples.

1873 „

1874 „

1875 „

1876 „

1877 „ ...

2 or 3 Apples.

pecks.

"

1878
1879

1880

1881
1882

Thus the average crop for the ten years was four pecks
per year. These he sold in Chelmsford market at an
average of Is. 6d. per peck.

The tree occupies a space of not more than 3 square

F

66 FRUIT CULTURE.

yards; and calculating an acre of such trees 8 feet apart,
or 681 per acre, the gross return would be £204 per acre
yearly.

CHAPTER VIII.
RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS.

Many of the old farm orchards in this country are in a
most deplorable condition, the result of utter neglect,
lack of knowledge, or want of care, and probably in many
cases the three combined. Do not, however, too hastily
condemn, cut down, and grub up such orchards, but care-
fully examine their condition. See whether sufficient life
and vigour remain in the trees to pay for an attempt at re-
suscitation. Remember the time that it takes for fruit trees
to grow and develop before arriving at maturity. If the
trees are not too old, and the situation is at all promising,
and the soil suitable, or capable of improvement, spare
the trees. I have seen some wonderful transformations
in such orchards after a year or t\vo of careful attention.

First ascertain what varieties the orchard contains. If
they are suitable, and worth retaining, by all means keep
them. Such trees should during the autumn or winter
be carefully treated in the way of pruning and cleaning.
Cut away all interlacing branches, and do it with no
sparing hand, laying all parts of the tree sufficiently open
to admit the sun and air. Entirely remove branches
where they are too thick, and clear away all superfluous
and twiggy growth, leaving sufficient young growth and
blossom buds for future cropping, and especially retain
all the fruit buds and spurs which are closely set upon

If EXO \\ITIXG OLD ORCHARDS.

the leading branches. But a word of caution is here
needful as to some varieties, such as Devonshire Quar-
renden or Worcester Pearmain, which fruit only on the
terminal buds of the current season's growth.

In cutting away branches, where it is needful to use a
saw, cut as close as possible to the union, taking great
care not to allow the branch, in fall-
ing, to split and tear away a portion
of the wood or bark. To avoid this,
cut round the under side of the
branch before sawing through from
above. In every case of using the
saw, be very careful to trim off all
roughness left by the saw with a
sharp knife, and finish with a clean
cut of the bark round the outside.
This should be done in order to allow
the wound to heal over as soon as
possible by the growth of fresh bark,
which it will rapidly do after a clean
cut as above directed.

In thinning some of the outer
branches which are difficult to reach
by hand, it will be needful to use one
of the pruning appliances for this
purpose, one of the best being the
one shown (Fig. 11). But it is always
best, where possible, to use the knife;
and in the case of all small growth
let each shoot be shortened with a
clean cut behind the bud. Two useful
hand pruners are also shown (Figs.
12 and 13). FIG. 11.

(58

FRUIT CULTURE.

FIG. 12.

FIG. 13.

In the case of any tree
which is known to be of a
worthless or inferior variety,
if of apples or pears, it de-
serves consideration whether
such trees are sufficiently
young and vigorous to be
worth re-grafting. If they
are fairly healthy, and not
too old, considerable time
may be gained by re-grafting.
To prepare for this operation,
select three to six branches
of moderate size, shortening
them, back to within two or
three feet of the main stem,
cutting clean away any large or crooked branches. The
trees may be thus prepared at any time during winter.
The grafting must, of course, be done in the spring, when
each of the branches left may be grafted with some ap-
proved variety.

Crown or rind grafting is the mode usually adopted.
The scions should be cut in February, and firmly bedded
in the soil. These scions, or future grafts, should be
selected from strong, well-ripened wood of the last sea-
son's growth ; and it is very important that they should
he taken from trees that are healthy, and free from canker
*nd other diseases. Some of the diseases, canker particu-
"arly, are well known to be hereditary, and if existing in
rhe tree from which the scion was taken, would probably
re-appear in the grafted tree after two or three seasons'
growth.

The scions having been previously cut and prepared as

RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS.

69

above, it is best to leave the actual operation until the
flow of sap is fairly brisk. Select the scion and cut into
the length, leaving two or three buds above the point of
insertion. Then cut the lower half with a sloping splice
cut, ending in a wedge-shaped point. A small notch
should then be cut in the upper part of the splice to rest
on the stock. If the stock has five or six branches of but
moderate size, one graft only should be inserted in each,
and should be placed upon the upper side. Make one
clean upward cut through the bark the length of the
splice on the scion, and
raise it on one side with
the spatula of the knife.
Then slip the scion under
the bark until the shoul-
der, as shown in Fig. 14,
rests upon the stock, or
end of the branch that
has been cut off. Then tie
firmly round, and cover
the union and the end of
the stock with clay or
grafting wax. The latter is best for standard trees. A
good preparation may be bought ready prepared, called
L'homme-Lefort grafting wax, which can be obtained of
most seedsmen or sundriesmen, or it may be made as fol-
lows : One part of suet, two parts of Burgundy pitch,
four parts beeswax, and three parts of turpentine. Melt
over a gentle fire, and mix together, adding more turpen-
tine if found needful. Apply with a thin lath, taking
care to completely exclude the air from the wounds. If
only two or three large branches are left on the stock
two grafts may be inserted in each.

FIG. 14. — CROWN GRAFTING.

70 FliUIT CULTURE.

The following are a few strong-growing apples suitable
for use in re-grafting : —

Bramley's Seedling, Blenheim Orange, Ecklinville,
Golden Noble, Hawthornden (New,) Loddington, Lord
Derby, Lord Grosvenor, The Qneen, Warner's King,
Winter Queening, Tower of Glamis, Alfriston, Frogmore
Prolific, Worcester Pearmain, Professor.

Care must be taken to untie the graft before damage
is done, as such trees having superabundant sap are apt
to swell very rapidly when the graft starts, which graft
will require some support for the first year or two to pre-
vent it from blowing out. This can easily be done by
tying a small stake to each branch and securing the graft
to it. Trees thus treated, if grafted with a good variety,
will often bear the second season, and in four years' time
make good progress, and I have seen them in some cases
bear bushels of fine fruit. It may also be mentioned
here, that in some cases where trees are considerably
cankered, this plan of re-grafting with a healthy, vigorous
variety, will give back new life, health, and vigour to the
tree. In the case of plums and cherries, re-graffcing will
not answer, the severe cutting back causing them to gum.

Another condition in which trees are usually found in
old orchards, is one in which they are covered with moss
and lichen. The first care of the cultivator should be to
remove this. It may be done in the following manner.
Obtain fresh lime, which, when it is slaked sufficiently
to run into perfect dust, should be applied to the trees
as fresh and hot as possible, throwing it amongst the
branches upon a moist and damp day. When thus thrown
into the trees it will ascend in clouds, and the branches
and moss being wet, the dust will adhere to them, and it
will soon cause the moss to loosen and fall oft'. Or the

RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS.

lime may be dissolved in water and applied to the trees
with an old garden pump or syringe, which has the same
effect. Then scrape off from the stem and the larger
branches all the old and loose bark. This may be done
by a small hoe or piece of iron hooping. Such loose bark
is a receptacle and safe retreat for all kinds of insect
pests, and when it is removed the bark should be washed
with a mixture of lime, tobacco juice, and quassia; and
if thus dressed, it will soon present a clean, bright, and
healthy appearance.

As to the improvement of the ground, and the treat-
ment of the roots of such trees, much may be done in this
direction. There are some who advocate severely cutting
back the roots by digging a trench a few feet from the
stems all round the trees, and filling in this trench with
fresh soil. The addition of the fresh soil undoubtedly
does good by supplying the tree with fresh nutriment;
but by cutting back the roots in the way named, I con-
sider that as much harm as good is done by it, and the
tree is considerably checked in growth for one or two
years. A better plan is to dig the surface round the trees
for a space of six or eight feet from the stem, but on
no account let this digging be too deeply done. Merely
turn over the turf, if there is grass below the trees, to a
depth of three or four inches, the object being not to
cut away or disturb any of the roots, but to feed,
strengthen, and encourage them. The mere opening of
the soil, and allowing the sun and air to penetrate, is
in itself of some advantage, but it should be followed
up by the application of suitable manure on the surface.
This will encourage the formation of fresh fibres, which
will soon result in a general improvement in the tree
throughout. In some cases I have seen this digging

72 FRUIT CULTURE.

carried out far too vigorously and too deeply, thus cut-
ting away a great portion of fibre and smaller rootlets
which are the most valuable, and in the best position
of all for the production of good fruit. This digging
to too great a depth again checks and retards the growth
of the tree until it has had time to recover from the effects.
Sometimes, in the case of large orchards, the plough is
used in breaking up the turf. It answers the purpose in
a somewhat rough way, but there is the danger of going
too deeply, to the damage of the tree as above described,
and in using the plough it is also important to turn over
the whole of the ground between the trees. Therefore,
some amount of hand labour has to be resorted to as well,
and I doubt whether there is much saving by the use of
the plough in this case.

Immediately on breaking up the ground, apply a
moderate dressing of fresh lime. This will be found
beneficial in many ways. It is not only a commodity
which is very necessary to the healthy growth of fruit
trees, especially of apples, but it helps to decompose the
vegetable matter in the freshly turned soil, thus preparing
it for the food of the tree, and also to destroy many grubs,
larval, and other insect pests. Soot may also be applied
in the same way with considerable benefit. It is a
valuable agent in producing colour in the fruit. If this
digging up and dressing with lime is performed in the
autumn, it will be well not to apply manure until the
spring-. This may be done by spreading over the surface
a good coating of farmyard or stable manure. But if
these are not easily obtainable, recourse may be had to
other valuable materials, such as shoddy, furriers' waste
clippings, and tanyard refuse. These all contain valuable
elements of fertility, and are most of them lasting man-

GATHERING, PACKING, AND DISTRIBUTING. 73

uvos. Other artificial manures maybe applied; but in
using these, it is needful to study the natural composition
of the soil, and also to note what particular ingredients
may be absent or deficient, in order that these only may
be supplied. See also Chap. II.

The effect of this breaking up of the soil and manu-
ring round the tree is wonderful. You immediately .see
vigorous healthy growth of wood, and followed by fruit
in most cases double or treble the size of that produced
by the neglected trees. Whilst the thinning of the wood
and opening of the trees, allowing sun and air to pene-
trate, in addition to the application of lime, soot, phos-
phate and oxide manures, the ripening and colouring of the
fruit will be properly performed ; and instead of having
a quantity of small, colourless, immature fruit, you will
have a greater bulk of good, sound, highly-coloured pro-
duce, properly matured, and such as will command a good
price in any market.

CHAPTER IX
GATHERING, PACKING, AND DISTRIBUTING.

XEXT in importance to growing the fruit is the matter
of gathering and disposing of it. In the first place, as to
gathering. There has been in times past, as to farm
orchards, little science or care displayed in gathering the
fruit. The plan adopted might be picturesque, and might
answer the purpose where only small fruit was grown for
cider-making, but it is not one that can be adopted where
good fruit is produced. The old style of scaling the trees
with ladders, and shaking down the fruit, would only do

74 FRUIT CULTURE.

where it was of little value. In the most vigorous shaking
given to the trees there were always a few stragglers
who survived the shock, and these were dealt with by
the use of a long pole. Such a method is only admissible
in the case of fruit intended for cider-making.

TIME TO GATHEK.

As to the early varieties and those intended to be sent
direct to market, it is important to gather them as early
as possible, and many of them may be gathered even
before they are ripe, as allowance has to be made for the
time that must elapse between gathering and the con-
sumption of the fruit, and many of these early varieties
ripen very quickly after gathering and last but a very
short time in a fit condition for use. Even some of the
later or mid-season varieties may be gathered before they
arc ripe under special circumstances. For instance, if
the crop should be somewhat short and prices high early
in the season, it will in some cases pay the cultivator to
gather some varieties even before they have attained
their full size. One of the varieties that will often pay
for treating in this way, is the Warner's King. But
this matter can only be determined by the condition of
the market at the time.

In gathering fruit, especially apples and pears, to be
stored for mid-season or late use, it is needful to allow
them to remain on the tree until fully matured. A
general fault in gathering for storing is perhaps to gather
too early. This results in the fruit shrinking in the
stores, causing the rind to shrivel and giving the fruit
a soft, leathery, and unattractive appearance, besides
being of poor quality through not having been properly
supplied with the juices and saccharine matter which

GATHERING, PACKING, ASD DISTRIBUTING. 75

arc formed during; the later stages of development, and
which are essential to the good keeping and good quality
of the fruit.

All soft fruits, such as plums and cherries, must of
course be gathered as soon as ready.

The operation of gathering from the tall standard trees
requires more care than is usually bestowed upon it. The
fruit may be gathered into a bag slung over the shoulder
by a cord from corner to corner, leaving the mouth open,
but in using such bag great care is needed not to bruise
or damage the fruit, and it is far better to use a small
handled basket. Such basket may be slung from the
ladder by a simple pot-hook, and the fruit will not be
so much in danger of being bruised. Avoid placing a
ladder against, the tree, but use one with a wide base,
with a pole hinged to the top for support.

PACKING THE FECIT.

Apples, pears, and plums are mostly sent to market
in baskets known as sieves and half-sieves. The fruit
should be at once graded and sorted, each sort being
kept distinct. This sorting and grading is an important
operation, and is one that is much neglected in this
country to the great loss of the grower. It is frequently
the case that fruit from farm orchards is gathered and
all varieties are mixed together, very little, if any, atten-
tion is given to grading, and it is sent to market in this
condition, often with early, mid-season, and late varieties,
cooking and dessert, large and small, in one mixture.
It is not surprising that foreign apples are preferred to
English when this is the case. Who can cook such a
mixture of fruit as this ? Foreign apples, on the other
hand, being carefully graded, and only one variety to-

76

FRUIT CULTURE.

gether, the cook knows exactly what she has, and the
cooking quality is uniform.

Smaller packages than half-sieves may be adopted
with advantage in the case of the choicest dessert kinds.
We may learn much from the French in respect to the
packing of such fruit. The careful and tasteful way in
which they send their fruit to market, and the attractive
form in which it is packed and displayed, have a great deal
to do with the favour which it finds with consumers; and

Fras. 15, 16, 17.— CHIP BASKETS.

the adoption of similar modes in this country will be
found to pay well. Such specimens of choice fruit as
may be selected in gathering, should be packed in small
packages. Many such packages of a suitable nature are
now made at very reasonable prices.

Soft fruits must be dealt with as they ripen. It will
pay to gather all the best quality and pack in small
punnets ready for retail purchasers, or in small square
card boxes or square chip baskets. These are made to
fit into larger packing cases, in which they are forwarded
to the agent or salesman. (Fig. 15.) If fruit thus packed

GATHERING, PACKING, AND DISTRIBUTING. 77

is good and even in quality throughout, the buyers soon
find it out, and purchase accordingly. One great advan-
tage in thus packing the fruit is, that the small purchasers
get the fruit without its being re-packed, and no handling
is needful from the time it leaves the garden to its arrival
at the consumer's.

After selecting the largest and best in this way, the
smaller fruit of raspberries, strawberries, and currants
will be almost as good for preserving purposes. These
are picked into peck baskets, and raspberries into small
tubs. Some large growers, who have a quantity to dis-
pose of, will contract with a jam factory months before-
hand, and in some cases for a succession of years even, at
fixed prices, the fruit, of course, being gathered and sent
in as it becomes ready.

Plums, being also soft fruits, are treated in the same
way; but I would strongly urge growers to take much
more pains with the choice dessert plums, in the way of
packing them in small light baskets or boxes, putting
them up in an attractive and tasty manner, so that they
may be handed to the consumer without being rubbed
and mauled about by the various hands they may pas;
through.

Pears. — Here again the choice dessert varieties are
worthy of much more care in packing than they receive
at present. For this small shallow boxes may be used,
the fruit being packed closely in single layers, placing
a small quantity of soft material at the bottom of the
boxes, with a little also between each fruit, wedging each
layer tightly together ; then fill up with some soft mate-
rial on the top, so that the lid presses firmly on the fruit.
This is important, in order to prevent the fruits from
moving and rubbing each other. Boxes of proper dimen-

78 FRUIT CULTURE.

sions can easily be obtained of packing-case makers at
a moderate price. The best and cheapest packing mate-
rial to use is wood wool, specially made for the purpose.
It is light, elastic, and clean, and made of wood which is
free from smell.

Apples. — The choicest dessert apples may also be
packed in the same way, and for really prime dessert
fruit would pay for the cost of packing-. It is not neces-
sary to use tissue paper in which to wrap each fruit of
apples and pears, as wood wool is so clean that it adheres
but very little to the fruit ; but at the same time with
really good specimens it is desirable to do so. A little
labour, with the small cost incurred, is well repaid. Ever
bear in mind that dessert fruit should be made to look
as clean and attractive as possible. A little taste dis-
played in the packing of each fruit with white or tinted
tissue paper, and the boxes margined with ornamental
paper, often ensures a ready sale for foreign fruit of even
second-rate quality. The dressing and packing of choice
fruit can easily be done at the homestead by women and
children, who with a little practice soon do it quickly and
well.

As to the more bulky fruit which has to be sent to
market in large quantities, such as apples and pears, two
things are most essential ; namely, to keep the sorts dis-
tinct, and grade the fruit to even sizes. This cannot be
emphasized too much. A basket of apples or pears with
several sorts mixed, though each may be equally valuable
by itself, would be of considerably less value in the
market than a basket of each variety separate. And
never top up the basket with larger selected fruits ; for
although this is a common practice, it brings its own swift
reward. It is immediately detected and, suspicion being

GATHERING, PACKING, AND DISTRIBUTING. 79

aroused, prices rule accordingly. Therefore here, as in
all other things, honesty is the best policy. To grade the
fruit, empty the baskets out on the tables, or trays made
for the purpose, lined with thick felt to prevent bruising.
The sorter then, with the fruit in front, draws it forward
and passes the various sizes to right and left into the
different cases, putting into a separate basket any diseased
or inferior fruit.

DISTRIBUTION.

The mode adopted with regard to the marketing and
distribution of fruit must be determined by each grower
according to his individual position and circumstances,
the quantity and variety of the fruit grown, and the cha-
racter of and distance from market. The employment of
a fruit salesman as an agent in distribution is in many
cases needful, but the less you have to rely upon the
middleman the better. In all cases endeavour to make
your arrangements for the sale of the produce as soon as
you can estimate the crop, which can usually be done
many weeks before the time. Arrange, where prac-
ticable, for direct supply as far as possible. Growers
who have sufficient energy and perseverance to arrange
for a direct supply to hotels, restaurants, clubs, and even
some private houses, will in many cases find it advan-
tageous to do so. In this case the small boxes, baskets,
and crates as described previously may be employed,
and they may also be used to advantage in the case of
supplying retailers in small towns; and where this is
at all practicable, it is better to adopt such a plan than
trust to sending large quantities at all times to London.
As the result of concentrating such enormous consign-
ments to London in plentiful seasons, good fruit can fre-

80 FRUIT CULTURE.

quently be purchased in the streets of that city at a much
lower rate than it can be bought in many of our provincial
towns within a short distance of the growers. Therefore
the question of the most suitable market to which, to send
the fruit requires careful consideration, in order to avoid
waste of capital, inadequate profits, and loss or deteriora-
tion in the food supply of the people.

In the case of a number of small growers residing in
the same district, much might be done to mutual advan-
tage by co-operation in the matter of distribution, not
only as to conveyance, but in finding and arranging for
the supply of the best markets.

There are three methods of transit adopted — road, rail,
and water. The Road, where it is practicable, is un-
doubtedly the best, possessing the advantages of delivery
direct from the garden or orchard to the salesman, dealer,
or consumer, in the freshest possible condition. Another
advantage in thus sending in cases, where large quantities
are grown and heavy vans are employed in the delivery,
is the usual practice of loading back with manure, which
is always required by the grower, and is usually obtained
very cheaply in the neighbourhood of delivery ; also empty
baskets, punnets, and cases are brought back by the vans.
But besides this delivery of large quantities in heavy
vans, much more might be done than is at present the
case, in the delivery to consumers or retailers by light
vans. This is especially the case in provincial towns,
where an enterprising grower, willing to take the trouble,
may send regularly to customers supplies of fruit, over a
lengthened period ; and in some cases this may be com-
bined with other produce of the farm or garden, such as
eggs, poultry, butter, and vegetables. Consumers would
gladly avail themselves of such regular supplies fresh

GATHERING, PACKING, AND DISTRIBUTING. 81

from the grower, and growers would reap the beneGt in
scouring the best prices.

Water. — There being only a very limited number of
growers so situated as to have an opportunity of using
this mode of conveyance, it may be dismissed with only
a few words. Even where it exists, it is seldom available
for soft and perishable fruits. Some of the Kent growers
living contiguous to the river have tried it ; and although
it is less costly than either road or rail, it was found to
be too slow, and occasionally caused considerable loss by
arriving too late for intended markets.

Rail. — Hence the great bulk of fruit sent to market at
a distance of more than a few miles from the place of
production is conveyed by rail. Much fruit is sent in
this way long distances, from south to north and north
to south, according to times and seasons ; and it is a pain-
ful fact that much fruit is deteriorated in quality and
value through being crowded in transit in unsuitable
railway trucks, which have no proper ventilation. The
weather being frequently hot at the iime, fermentation
rapidly sets in, and the fruit is quickly affected.

This not only concerns the grower, in the price realized
for the fruit, but the consumers receive it in a deteriorated
and unwholesome condition.

I had the opportunity to note the marked difference in
the keeping of fruit in different temperatures, when assist-
ing to cany out some experiments on behalf of the Royal
Horticultural Society, as to the time that fruit could be
preserved fresh in cold storage. We found that such
perishable fruits as strawberries and cherries could be pre-
served fresh and sound for several weeks in a uniformly
low temperature, the nearer to freezing point, without
being quite so, the better. Therefore, if railway companies

G

82 FRUIT CULTURE.

could be induced to provide trucks constructed with a
cold air chamber, it would be a great advantage, and
growers would not mind paying a trifle higher charge to
ensure choice fruit being conveyed in prime condition.

Here again we may learn from the Americans, for they
have vans thus constructed, and these make up their fruit
trains. These trains bring ripe and luscious fruit from the
Southern States and California, hundreds, and even thou-
sands, of miles, in fresh and sound condition, to the Eastern
States. We want similar arrangements in this country
to convey strawberries and other ripe fruit from the
southern counties to the northern towns ; and when
the strawberries are over in the south, to convey late
strawberries from Scotland to London and other southern
towns.

CHAPTER X.
STORING, PRESERVING, ETC.

The term " storing " only applies to such hardy fruits as
will keep in their natural condition for varying periods
after gathering, until fit for use, and applies practically
only to apples and pears, with the exception, of course,
of nuts.

Apples. — There are many varieties of these that will keep
in a good sound condition for many months under favour-
able conditions, and that apples thus preserved usually com-
mand a much higher price is well known. By provid-
ing the means of thus prolonging the season of supply
the grower is enabled to a large extent to choose his time
for marketing, and those sorts that can be held until

STORING, PRESERVING, ETC.

spring in good condition are readily purchased at far
higher prices, and when they can be kept until the
American supply has become exhausted they realize high
figures. Hence it is highly desirable that, where late
apples are grown, some proper means should be provided
for keeping them until they arrive at their best value.

What are the conditions required, and how they may
be provided, I will now try to explain. The first con-
dition is, that they should be inaccessible to frost, except
it be occasionally two or three degrees. Secondly, the

FIG. IS. — APPLE STORE.

temperature should be maintained as equable as possible,
and not exposed to any sudden rise or fall. Thirdly,
they should not be too dry. Fourthly, some means of
ventilation should be provided when required.

The easiest and cheapest mode of accommodation must
of course depend upon the resources that each grower has
at hand; but the needful conditions are more easily and
cheaply provided than many imagine. A cave in a chalk
bank or a sand-hill makes an admirable apple store, where

84 FRUIT CULTURE.

all the requirements are present except fitting up the
needful shelves. Where this is impracticable, it is some-
times the case that a barn or other farm building may be
easily converted into a suitable store by the construction
of an inside lining of match-boarding, the intermediate
space being filled up with sawdust, straw, or sedge hay.

Where, however, none of these means exist, a simple
store may be made as follows. It is best explained by
the illustration (Fig. 18.) Mark out the ground for the
building, 10 ft. wide, and length according to requirements.
Then excavate the soil to a depth of 18 in. or 2 ft., accord-
ing to the means of thorough drainage. Next build a
wall 4 1 in. thick and 4 ft. high from the excavated level
on either side, and use the surplus soil to form a solid
bank at the outsides to the top of the wall as shown.
Then form the roof of rafters, which may be made simply
of rough poles, and cover the whole with a thick coat of
thatch, at least 15 or 18 in. through, and coming down
well over the banks at each side. It then only remains to
fit up the inside with four shelves on each side, 3 ft. in
width, and leaving 3 ft. for the path. These may be
formed of any rough boarding, sawn to about 3 or 4 in.
wide, and placed with 1 in. space between each, with £.
ledge 6 in. high in front to keep the fruit from rolling off.
A double door should be fitted at one end, and a double
window at the other, which should also have a shutter to
exclude the light. Leave the earthen floor, which ensures
sufficient moisture to keep the fruit plump. The apples
may be placed in layers four or five fruits thick.

In such a structure, with shelves 3 ft. wide, a bushel of
fruit will occupy about 2 ft. length of shelf; so that a
building so constructed, if 100 ft, long, would take 4QQ
bushels of apples.

STOKING, PRESERVING, ETC. 85

When placing the fruit in the store, be sure that it is
dry, and free from damaged and diseased fruits, and fully
ripe. When once placed, it is best to handle or disturb
the apples as little as possible. In attempting to remove
decayed fruit, it is frequently the case that more harm
than good is done.

Some of the varieties most suitable for storing are
Wellington, Norfolk Beefing, Claygate Pearmain, Winter
Pearmain or Duck's Bill, Mannington's, Stunner, Alfris-
ton, Ross Nonpareil, and Prince Albert.

For the first week or two they throw off considerable
moisture. Therefore immediately after placing in the
store plenty of ventilation should be given until the fruit
ceases to perspire. After this they may be kept close,
occasionally giving them a little ventilation.

Fumigating. — After the store has been once used, be
very careful before storing to thoroughly cleanse every
crevice. Also fumigate it thoroughly by burning sulphur
in it while closed up. This fumigating, if properly done,
will destroy all insects and Iarva3, as well as fungoid
germs. A coating of lime- wash will also help to sweeten
the store.

Pears. — These require quite different treatment from
apples, inasmuch as they would, if placed in the low moist
temperature suited to apples, lose their flavour entirely.
Therefore they require a much drier building, and, if
possible, one where the temperature can be artificially
raised by hot-water pipes or other means. Pears must
not be laid so thickly on the shelves as apples, neither
can they be kept so long. There are few varie ties that
pay for storing at all. The following are some that can-
not be used when gathered, and may be stored with
advantage for a time : —

86 FRUIT CULTURE.

Doyenne du Cornice, Beurre Diel, Duchesse d'Angou-
leme, Buerre Ranee, Chaumontel, Catillac, Easter Beurre.

PRESERVING.

Under this heading are included not only the making
of jams, jellies, syrups, and other sugar preserves, but
also bottling, canning, evaporating, candying, and other
means of preserving. Most of this preserving is done at
factories, as it requires considerable machinery and many
appliances to perform the work properly, arid it is there-
fore generally treated as a distinct branch. There are a
few large growers, however, who have their own factories
in conjunction with their plantations ; but most of the
factories are conducted either by private firms, or by
companies, who erect them in the neighbourhood where
the fruit is grown, and contract with growers to take all
their produce at fixed prices.

I think that much more may be done by growers them-
selves than has hitherto been the case in preserving some,
at any rate, of their own produce. It woul$ not pay to
erect costly machinery, or appliances for jam-making,
where the growth was only limited. But there are other
means of preserving without the use of sugar, as men-
tioned above, some of which can be effected almost as well
by the growers themselves as at large factories, and there
is no doubt room for unlimited extension in this direction,
as it should be borne in mind that fruit which is preserved
without the agency of sugar could be used for a greater
variety of domestic purposes, and in much larger quan-
tities. Moreover, any such means of preserving, especially
in seasons of abundant crops, would be of great advantage
to the grower, saving him from the great loss of having
to place his fruit upon the market when it is already

STORING, PRESERVING, ETC. 87

congested, and when under such circumstances it some-
times happens that the price realized is sufficient to
little more than cover the cost of carriage and salesman's
expenses.

JAM-MAKING.

This being a distinct art and craft, it is beyond the
scope of this work to describe the various processes in
detail, therefore a mere outline will be given. The work
commences with gooseberries, followed by strawberries,
currants and raspberries, then ripe gooseberries, and

FIG. 19.- STEAM PA* FIG. 20.— TILTING PAN.

lastly plums. It is, of course, the case that large quanti-
ties are ready at one time, and have to be dealt with as
gathered. This is a busy time for the factories, and it is
an impossibility to complete the process of jam-making
with the whole of the fruit as fast as it arrives. There-
fore a large portion of it is " rendered," or simply boiled
and placed immediately while hot in large stone jars
corked tightly and stacked away, to be dealt with as time
will allow.

FRUIT CULTURE.

The boiling is done in copper preserving pans, as shown
in Figs. 19 and 20, which are heated by steam forced into
the jacket of the pan as shown in engraving, each pan
being swung on a pivot to facilitate emptying. An
enormous quantity of fruit can be rendered in the course
p£ a day by the use of these pans.

, The fruit is sorted over and picked as soon as it arrives
at the factory, and this picking of stalks and eyes, etc., is
performed principally by women and girls, but in some
cases ingenious machines are also used for the purpose.

The various processes of manufacturing the jams and
jellies, etc., are then performed at leisure, with the fruits,
either distinct or mixed according to requirements ; and
some factories also, to fill up the time during the slack
season, make syrups, fruit comfits, and sweets.

BOTTLING.

The bottling of fruit in hot water is one of the simplest
means of preserving, and plums, gooseberries, black cur-
rants, sometimes red currants and raspberries, preserved
in this way are most useful and marketable.

The mode of operation is so simple, and the appliances
required are so few, that it is within the compass of many
moderate-sized growers to perform the work themselves.

A shallow galvanized boiling tank is required. The
fruit is carefully picked and put into bottles, these being
then placed together, with hay between and under them, in
the tank. The tank is then filled with water to the necks
of the bottles. The water is then heated until the fruit
shows signs of cracking, when the bottles are filled with
boiling water and immediately covered with some air-tight
stopping whilst boiling hot. In large factories they are
usually heated by steam. The corks are afterwards tied

STORING, PRESERVING, ETC. 89

on, and should be covered with a piece of tinfoil, and a
neat label to each bottle finishes the operation.

Gooseberries are usually bottled green, and currants
when ripe. Plums should be gathered before they are
quite ripe, as in the case of some varieties, if allowed to
become fully ripe, the skin is apt to crack.

Another mode of bottling has also lately been adopted,
by which the fruit is simply placed in the bottles, a liquid
poured over them and the bottles corked, without being
heated. The preparation of the liquid is at present a
trade secret, so that it cannot be given here.

EVAPORATING.

This is a means of preserving that promises to become
of considerable importance to all growers. The practice
of fruit evaporation in America and on the Continent has
during the last few years increased enormously. In.
years of plenty, whsn fruit is low in price, any means of
preserving and converting it into a marketable com-
modity must be of value to the grower, and also a benefit
to the community. The use of the evaporator is there-
fore worth a more extended trial, as by its use the fruit
is not only preserved from waste, but its use is extended
over a lengthened period.

In some figures given in the Royal Agricultural
Society's Journal for 1890, it is stated that in the State of
California alone, during 1888, the total weight of fruit
evaporated amounted to 31,450,000 Ibs., of the value of
£431,590. There are several different makes of ap-
paratus in use, but Fig. 21 is the one that was awarded
the prize at the contest at the Royal Agricultural
Society's Jubilee Show at Windsor, and is now in opera-
tion at Chiswick, at the Royal Horticultural Society's

90

FRUIT CULTURE.

Gardens. The following description of the process, and
of the chemical change produced in the fruit, is taken
from a paper read by Mr. B. W. Badger to a meeting of
the Royal Horticultural Society in August, 1890, and is .
reported fully in that Society's Journal, vol. xii. : —

" It is necessary to point out that evaporated fruit must

. 21. — FRUIT EVAPORATOE.

not be confounded with sun-dried or kiln-dried fruit ; the
latter are both very inferior in quality, and are in a
different chemical state. Sun-drying is still much used
in California and elsewhere, but is being rapidly super-
seded by the more scientific process of evaporation. The
description of the chemistry of this process which I am
about to submit to you I have selected as being the best

STORING, PRESERVING, ETC. 91

I am acquainted -with, for which I am indebted to an
eminent American scientist, Dr. J. F. Symons, of Fayette-
ville, Arkansas. It is the account he gave to the ' South-
West Association of Fruit and Vegetable Evaporators'
at Springfield, Mo., and will, I hope, afford useful infor-
mation as to the reasons why properly evaporated fruits
are superior to those which are sun-dried or kiln- dried.
Dr. Symons says : —

" ' I will no\v describe the process of true evaporation.
It has been found that by removing a part of the water
rapidly, in swift-moving currents of air, heated from 240°
F., a different product is the result, wholly unlike either
the fresh or sun-dried fruit, which will keep better, is
more digestible and nutritious, is less acid, and will sell
for more in the market. But if, after having heated the
air hot enough, there is not sufficient circulation, or the
currents are not rapid enough, the fruit will cook and
then dry, or burn the same as in a close oven. Appier
will cook in boiling water at a temperature of only 212°
F., or bake in an oven at 225° F. ; but if the heated air
circulates fast enough, the fruit will not cook or burn or
become itself heated to the temperature indicated by the
thermometer, even at 300° F., for the evaporation of the
water is a cooling process, and every particle of vapour
leaving the minute cells which contained it carries with
it also a large amount of caloric in a latent form, and
thus keeps the heat of the apples far below the surround-
ing air. The chemical changes which belong to truly
evaporated fruit will now begin, and the albumen, instead
of being slowly dried, is coagulated precisely the same as
in an egg when boiled. The soluble starch existing in all
the fruit, and composed of CCH1005, will, if the heat is
high enough, combine with one equivalent of water

92 FRUIT CULTURE.

(HoO), so that now we have an entirely different com-
pound, to wit, glucose, or fruit sugar, which will assist in
the preservation of the fruifc, instead of being liable to
decomposition as the dried starch is in sun-dried or
slowly dried products.

'"All the pectine, or fruit jelly, remains in the cells
undecomposed, or is left upon the surface by the evapora-
tion of the water in which it was dissolved, and may be
seen condensed upon the surface, instead of being decom-
posed, and passing on with the starch and gluten into the
acetic fermentation. The diastase or saccharine ferment
contained in all fruit, and which is the primary cause of
its decay, has been rendered inoperative, and all germs
of animal or vegetable life have been destroyed by the
high heat. It is by this chemical change which I have
briefly described, in uniting a part of the water already
contained in the fruit with the fruit starch, that these
truly evaporated products are rendered more wholesome,
more digestible, more indestructible, and are thereby
made more valuable, not only as articles of food, but
because they are not subject to deterioration and loss.
And it is also the reason why a bushel of apples will
make more pounds of evaporated fruit than can be made
by sun- dry ing it, as a portion of the contained water
which would otherwise be lost is retained by combining
with the starch to form glucose, and the carbonic acid,
which is always lost in the slow decomposition resulting
from sun-drying, is retained in its natural combination
with the other substances composing the fruit, and hence
it is heavier. These profitable and healthful chemical
changes which I have mentioned are all in accordance
with the laws of nature, and are certain to take place if
the necessary conditions of heat and air, as I have detailed

STOKING, PRESERVING, ETC.

them, are properly supplied ; otherwise you will have a
different product, and no matter how fine your apples,
how perfect your paring, coring, and trimming, or how
white you may have bleached them, you have not made
truly evaporated fruit, and no matter how many have
been deceived by its bright colour, or full weight, or
fancy packing, your fruit will not stand the test of long
keeping in warm, damp weather. The natural starch,
gluten, and albumen of the fruit, instead of being cured,
or made indestructible by the chemical changes which
constitute the difference between the evaporated and
dried fruits, will absorb moisture from the air, will swell
or increase in bulk, and be attacked by mould, will
absorb additional oxygen, and finally sour and decay.'

" The mode of preparing apples for drying in an
evaporator is, first, to pare them, then to remove the
core, and finally to cut them into slices or rings. It is
customary now to submit the pared apple before slicing
to the fumes of sulphur, which process is called 'bleach-
ing,' the object being to prevent the discoloration of the
fruit, which is nearly certain to take place unless the
fruit is placed in the heated evaporator directly it is cut.
The bleaching process is said to improve the appearance
of the fruit, and not to injure its flavour. Paring, coring,
and slicing are done very rapidly by ingenious machines
which are to be bought at a moderate price. The pre-
pared fruit is then placed on wire trays, made to fit inside
the drying- chamber of the evaporator, and there remains
until the whole of the moisture has been abstracted.
The time occupied in doing this varies from 2| hours to 4
or even 5 hours, according to the kind of apples operated
upon. After passing through the evaporator, the next
thing is to pack the dried fruit in neat boxes which hold

94 FRUIT CULTURE.

25, 50, or 75 Ibs. These boxes are lined with paper:
50 Ib. boxes are those mostly used. They are 24 inches
long, 12 inches deep, and 12 inches wide ; they are made
of f-inch stuff (with ends 1 inch), poplar wood being
preferred. The evaporated fruit, before being used for
making pies, tarts, compotes, etc., is soaked in water for
a sufficient length of time to swell to nearly its normal
bulk."

PRUNE DRYING.

The process of prune drying in France varies from this
somewhat, and may be interesting to some readers. It is
as follows : —

All the apparatus required consists of trays and two
or more ovens. The trays are made either of wicker-
work or wood, are round or triangular, and deep enough
to carry a single layer of plums, and allow of their
being placed upon each other without crushing the fruit.
Every morning the trees are looked over, and the fruit
that is ripe is picked, just before the flesh begins to soften.
The plums are placed in the trays, put for an hour or two
in the sun, or in a current of air, and then laid on the
floor of the oven. These ovens are made just like or-
dinary bread ovens ; they are usually built in pairs, each
one about ten feet long and four feet wide inside, and
are heated by burning a certain quantity of wood inside
them. When the fruit is put in, the temperature should
be about 100 degrees Fahrenheit. In the course of a few
hours the plums assume a curious, puffy appearance, and
if the heat is too great, they will burst, a result most
carefully to be avoided. They are taken out of the oven,
cooled, and again put in with temperature at about 132
degrees; again withdrawn and cooled, and this time the

STORING, PRESERVING, ETC. 95

fruit is turned by placing an empty tray upside-down
over a full one, and turning them over together. They
are again put in the oven, this time the heat being raised
to 170 degrees. This operation is repeated until all the
plums are completely preserved. Some dry more quickly
than others, and are picked out and placed in other trays
as they are ready. The more slowly the whole operation
is performed the better, and the oftener the plums are
put into the oven, the higher the quality of the produce.
When ready, the plums are sorted into various grades.

The total crop of plums in France, according to La
Nature, is estimated at 38,000 tons, fully half of this
being made into prunes.

CONVERTING FRUIT INTO VARIOUS DRINKS.

Cider and perry making is an old practice in the
country, and thousands of acres of apple orchards were
planted for the purpose
of growing fruit for
cider only, special va-
rieties being grown for
that purpose, and many
of the small farm or-
chards were cultivated,^
or more properly speak-"

ing existed, for the pur- FlG- 22-

. , . PULPING OR BTBAHUNO MACHINE.

pose or supplying the

cellar with the required quantity of liquor for the farm
hands. But the rapid spread of temperance principles,
and the change in the social conditions of the people,
have largely altered the old arrangements of supplying
drink to labourers, and hence the practice of cider-
making by farmers •--as largely declined. But there is

06

FRUIT CULTURE.

still a large quantity made for sale in some of the old
cider-making districts of Devon, Hereford, Gloucester,
and Wilts.

But -with the decline of cider-making another industry
has sprung up in its place, that of the manufacture of

FIG. 23.— FRUIT PRESS.

non-alcoholic drinks arid syrups. For this purpose much
of the small fruit is used that is sorted out from the liner
samples selected for dessert, and these, by the use of a
pulping machine and a press, may be rendered into juice
qn the spot, and disposed of to the manufacturers for

GRAFTING, BUDDING, AND STOCKS. 97

the completing processes of conversion into the various
required commodities. A useful pulping and straining
machine, shown in Fig. 22, is used for extracting pips,
stalks, stones, etc., from plums, currants, strawberries,
raspberries, apples, and other fruits; and also a useful
press for extracting the juice, Fig. 23.

A few contrivances of this kind would enable growers
to make the most of their produce and prevent the waste
of any.

CHAPTER XL
GRAFTING, BUDDING, AND STOCKS.

!Mo>T fruit-growers purchase their trees already worked
from nurserymen, who of course devote their whole time
to the work, and systematically raise the trees for the
different purposes required, and the constant oversight
required can be better given in the regular routine of a
nursery than by private growers. Also, most growers
cannot wait the time required to produce the trees of a
planting size.

But in some cases growers may prefer to raise some of
their own trees, and I will now describe the various
operations in doing so.

Apples, pears, plums, and cherries are raised either by
grafting or budding. There has, however, lately sprung
up a controversy respecting the system of propagating by
grafting, and the practice has been severely condemned ;
but there is no other means of propagation with which I
am acquainted that answers the requirements. It is true
that some apples can be raised from cuttings, but it is a
slow process) and a poor stunted appearance such bushes

H

FRUIT CULTURE.

present, and it is impossible to make a decent standard
tree from cuttings. Therefore, until some more satis-
factory means can be discovered, grafting and budding
will continue. If grafting is properly performed, and
suitable stocks are used, no evil results will follow, but
far otherwise. Indeed, by the proper selection of stocks
upon which to work the different varieties, the cultivator

FIG. 24.— CKAB STOCK.

FIG. 25. — ENGLISH PARADISE STOCK.

is enabled to exercise control over the general habits of the
plant, its fruiting qualities, periods of fruitf ulness, and the
quality of the fruit itself. This is a matter that has re-
ceived much careful study during the last few years, and
we have probably yet much to learn in this direction.
Almost a revolution has been effected in apple culture,
for instance, by the use of the paradise stock for dwarf
tre?s, and the quince stock for pears. Both of these

GRAFTING, BUDDING, AND STOCKS. 99

stocks so influence the tree that varieties worked upon
them commence fruiting several years earlier than the
same varieties worked upon the ordinary, or free stock.
The following are a few outline facts respecting the
various stocks used, the purposes for which they are em-
ployed, and the influence exercised.

CRAB AND SEEDLIXG APPLE (Fig. 24). — Used for all
trees intended for standards for orchards, or for bush or
pyramids of the free-fruiting and weak-growing varieties.

Doucix OR BROAD-LEAVED PARADISE. — This stock is more
surface rooting than the crab, but almost as rank in
growth, and is therefore not of sufficient influence as a
dwarfing stock.

ENGLISH PARADISE (Fig. 25). — Used for most varieties
of apples for bush culture. The growth of wood is much
shorter and closer upon this stock than upon the crab, and
with most varieties fruit is produced the second year after
grafting, and one of the most important characteristics
of this stock is that it produces a mass of fibrous roots
which spread horizontally over the surface instead of
penetrating so deeply into the subsoil, as in the case of
the crab, as shown by the illustrations.

FRENCH PARADISE. — This stock exerts an even more
dwarfing influence over the scion than the above, so
dwarfing indeed, that it is only suited for the growth of
horizontal cordons or very miniature bushes, and for
growing in very rich soils.

PEAR STOCK. — Used in all cases for standard orchard
trees, and in some cases for pyramids where the soil is
very light and dry. The roots penetrate deeply, which
in cases of dry soils is an advantage, but on strong lands
pyramids make rank growth, and with restrictive pruning
become unfruitful.

100

FRUIT CULTURE.

QUINCE STOCK. — Used in most cases for pyramid and
dwarf pears, inducing short growth and early fruitful ness,
and like the paradise, it is a surface-rooting stock. Some

FIG. 26.— DOUBLE-WORKED PEAR ON QUINCE,
A Quince Stock. B Beurre d'Amanlis. C Marie Louise.

varieties of pears, however, such as Marie Louise, will not
unite directly with the quince. In this case they have
to be double worked (Fig. 26) \ that is, the stock is first

GRAFTING, BUDDINfy -AND,

worked with a variety that takes freely to the quince,
such as Beurre d'Amanlis, and the following season a
Marie Louise is worked upon the Beurre d'Amanlis as
close to the quince as possible, so that when complete
there is an intervening piece of Beurre d'Amanlis of only
two or three inches in length, but this enables the Marie
Louise to establish itself firmly and contentedly upon the
stock, and the dwarfing and fructifying influence of the
quince is practically the same as if established direct.

In practising this double working it has been noted
that a certain influence is exercised over the quality of
the fruit, in some cases such influence being for good, so
that we have something more to learn in this direction
which may be of benefit to cultivators.

MUSSEL PLUM. — Used for plums intended for orchard
standards, and also for pyramids. There are two or three
distinct types of mussel, which somewhat influence size
and fruitfulness of the tree, but not to a large extent.
The different types are carefully selected in nurseries, and
the free growing and largest leaved varieties used for the
standard trees.

MYROBOLAN OR CHERRY PLUM. — This has been con-
siderably used for working plums upon. It is a very
strong grower, and produces fine trees in a short time,
but it is not very safe to use for strong and heavy lands.
Its growth is very late in autumn, and is consequently
liable to damage by winter frosts.

COMMON PLUM. — This is a somewhat dwarf plum stock,
and is suitable for pyramid or bush trees.

WILD CHERRY OR GEAN. — Used for orchard standards
and also for pyramids, being the hardiest and freest
stock.

MAHALEB CHERRY. — A somewhat dwarf stock used for

102 FMUJT CULTURE.

pyramids, and especially for the Morello, which, does
remarkably well upon this stock.

Preparing the Stocks. — The crab stocks, myrobolan
plum, wild cherry, and mahaleb, are all raised from seed ;
and the quince, paradise, mussel and common plums
are usually raised by layering, cuttings or suckers. The
stocks are grown in nursery rows until they are large
.enough to plant out in lines for working. They are then
lifted, and the stems carefully trimmed of all side growth
near the base, and shortened to about eighteen inches,
and all coarse roots carefully trimmed. They are then
planted out on well-prepared land in rows two feet six
inches apart, and one foot from plant to plant. Stocks
thus planted out one autumn will be ready for budding
the following July or August, or for grafting in the spring
of the following year.

Grafting. — The stocks intended to be grafted are pre-
pared in the early spring by trimming closely any side
growth to the height of about six inches from the ground,
and cutting off the top at that height.

The scions of the varieties intended for grafting should
be cut from the trees in February, labelled and bedded
firmly in the soil. This tends to check the flow of sap,
and allows the sap in the stock to be more active than the
scion at the time of the operation. The wood selected
should be clean and free from all disease, of moderate
growth, and well ripened. Clay must then be prepared
before commencing the work. This is done by selecting
good strong clay, and mixing it with finely chopped hay,
and cow manure. This must be well mixed, and beaten
over two or three times before using.

Grafting wax is also sometimes used, but for young
trees worked near the ground I do not think that there is

GRAFTING, BUDDING, AND STOCKS.

103

anything better than clay. In the case of working trees
standard high, however, there is some advantage in using
wax, as it is less likely to be loosened by motion. It may
be purchased, or made as described on page 69.

The time for doing the work is usually March and
April, depending upon the season. There are several
different kinds of grafting employed, but the one generally
adopted for young fruit
trees is that of tongue-
grafting. The scion is
first selected and trim-
med to a length of
from four to five inches,
and always cut close
behind a bud, as in Fig.
27. A clean sloping
cut is then made at
the base. The next
operation is to cut the
tongue. Then select a
clear place on the
stock, and make a clean
upward cut, as nearly
as possible corres-
ponding in size and

shape to the cut in the scion. Then from near the top
make a downward cutting, forming a tongue on the stock.
The next operation is to place the two together, allowing
the tongues to pass each other, and press the scion down
to the stock, taking care that the two barks unite on one
side ; then with a piece of bass matting wind firmly
round the stock below the graft, and proceed to wind
upwards to the top, and finish by passing the end twice

FIG. 27. — TONGUE GRAFTING.

104 FRUIT CULTURE.

under the tie, and drawing tightly. Then immediately
close the wound completely with a piece of clay wrapped
firmly round, and press firmly to a tapering point round
the scion at the top, and to the stock below. This com-
pletes the operation, and nothing more will be required
except to watch the clay to see that it is not washed down
during rain before the graft has commenced to grow.
When the young growth is a few inches high, the clay
must be removed, which is done by giving it a sharp tap
on one side whilst holding something firmly against the
other side. The tie will next require attention, and must
be loosened as soon as it shows signs of cutting, which
may be seen by the swelling of the bark around and
between the bands. As the growth proceeds it may be
necessary in some cases to support the graft with a stake,
or a high wind may blow it off. The next operation is
performed in the autumn, and is called snagging, or
trimming off the end of the stock with an upward sloping
cut to the scion, considerable practice being required to
make a clean cut, and not to damage the scion. A young
tree of the desired variety is thus firmly established upon
the stock, and may afterwards be pruned and trained into
the required form.

Budding is performed at the time when the sap is in
full flow, and as soon as the young growth of the tree is
sufficiently advanced to allow of the bud being properly
removed, this usually being in July or August. The
stocks are side-trimmed, but not topped as for graft-
ing. The young wood is then cut from the tree from
which it is intended to propagate, and placed in a can
of water to keep moist. The branch is next taken,
and the leaves trimmed off, leaving only the leaf stalks
remaining. The branch is then held in the hand as in

GRAFTING, BUDDING, AND STOCKS. 105

Fig. 28. The buds at the base of the branches and also
those near the top are rejected, and only those in the
middle portion are nsed. Holding the wood as shown,
make a clean cut with a sharp knife, entering the wood
deepest just below the bud. Then come out with a long
slope. The next operation is the most delicate and also
the most important of the whole performance. Hold the

FIG. 28. — CUTTING OUT A BUD.

bud thus removed firmly by the leaf stalk between the
thumb and finger, and with the other thumb nail carefully
commence to lift the wood from the bark, then strip clean
off by a somewhat sharp jerk. Then examine the bud,
and if this operation has been successfully performed
there should be no cavity at the bud, but the alburnum or
eye of the bud should be left in even with the bark. It
sometimes happens with an unskilful workman, or when

106

FRUIT CULTURE.

the wood is not in prime condition, that a splinter of the
wood is left below and above the alburnum. In such a
case it must be carefully removed without drawing out
the alburnum with it. If this should be the case it may
be seen at once, as the eye of the bud will have a clear
cavity, and 011 no account should such a bud be inserted,
as nothing but the bark is left, and no tree can possibly
grow from it.

The bud having been properly prepared (Fig. 29 A) is
held between the thumb and finger of the lef t hand, whilst

A B C D

. 2'J.— BUDDING.

A Bud Prepared. B Stock, with Cut made. C The Bud Inserted.
D The Finished Operation.

with the right an incision is made in the stock by a clean
upward cut, and a cross cut at the top, as per Fig. 29 B,
raising the bark at either side with the ivory spatula of
the knife, commencing from the cross cut at the top. If
the stock is in good condition, the bark will rise freely
from the wood. The bud is then inserted from the top
and pressed somewhat firmly down under the bark, and
the upper portion of the bark attached to the bud that

GRAFTING, BUDDING, AND STOCKS. 107

still projects above the cross cut is cut off evenly with it,
thus allowing it to fit closely to the bark above, as in
Fig. 29 C. Then commence to tie below the bud until
proceeding upwards you pass carefully, the eye of the bud ;
draw the tie closely under the point of the bud, continue
the band for a turn or two above the cross cut, and finish
with a hitch the same as in grafting. If this is properly
performed, the bark which was raised from the stem will
be drawn tightly over the sheath of the bud, and the bud
itself will lie closely on the wood where the sap flows, and
will soon form a union with the stock.

No further covering is needed, as in the case of grafts,
but the tie will require examining in the course of the
next two or three weeks, and gradually loosening as the
stock swells, and the tie may be removed altogether
before the winter. The buds should thus lie dormant
until the following spring. The top growth of the stock
is not removed at the time of budding, but is cut off
during the ensuing autumn or winter, leaving, however,
six or eight inches of growth above the bud. The use of
this piece of the stock will be apparent during the follow-
ing summer, when the bud has commenced its growth }
which it usually does at an angle away from the stem.
The young shoot is then drawn upright to the stem, as in
Fig. 30. This not only gives the young growth the start
in an upright position, but secures it against being blown
out by wind, which would happen in rough weather and
when full of foliage, the point of union not being strong
enough to stand the strain during the first season. This
portion of the stock, having performed its duty by the
ensuing autumn, is then removed at the line A with a
clean cut slightly sloping upwards. The young tree is
now complete, and can bo trained into the desired form.

108 FRUIT CULTURE.

In budding pears on the quince stock one important
point should be noted, and that is to insert the bud as
near to the ground as possible, it being most important in
planting this tree in its permanent position to cover the
whole of the quince stock by the soil, as the stock being
very susceptible to the dry weather will, if exposed, cause

FIG. 30.

a check in the swelling of the fruit, and cracking will
ensue. The neglect of this point has led to much disap-
pointment and loss, and in many cases has caused the
quince stock to be condemned ; but if worked close to the
ground, and the stock covered as described, there is no
danger in this respect. With no other stocks is this the
case, and the buds may be inserted at from four to six
inches from the ground.

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Fanners' Magazine.

MANURES AND THEIR USES. By Dr. A. B. GRIF-

FITHS, F.R.8.E., F.C.S., late Principal of the School of Science, Lincoln.
"This little book may well take its place in an agricultural library as supply-
ing knowledge which otherwise might need research through many scattered
sources of information." — Nature.

THE DISEASES OF CROPS AND THEIR REMEDIES.

By Dr. A. B. GBIFFITHS.

" It furnishes in brief compass the life histories of the principal insects and
other 'enemies of the farm, and offers instructions as to the best ways of de-
stroying them or preventing their attacks." — Glasgow Herald.

LONDON: GEORGE BELL & SONS, YOBK STBEET, COVENT GABDEKT.