AGRIC, OEPT,

PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLOMBIA

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Irrigation in British Columbia

BULLETIN No. 44

THE GOVERNMENT OF

PRINTED BY
AUTHORITY OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY.

VICTORIA, B.C.:

Printed by William H. Cullen, Printer to the King's : Excellent Majesty.
1912.

PRACTICAL
INFORMATION

ON

IRRIGATION

FOR

BRITISH COLUMBIA
FRUIT GROWERS

By B. A. ETCHEVERRY

THE GOVERNMENT OF

PRINTED BY
AUTHORITY OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY.

VICTORIA, B.C.:

Printed by William H. Cullen, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty.
1912.

\

u 5 « , * » •

-.-,-

Practical Information on Irrigation for
British Columbia Fruit Growers.

INTRODUCTION.

In proportion to the extent of agricultural land suitable for irrigation
in the arid or semi-arid part of British Columbia, the water supply avail-
able is probably more abundant than that of most of the arid regions of
the states of the United States, but it is also no doubt true that there are
many districts where the supply is either not sufficient or else not avail-
able at a reasonable cost to irrigate all agricultural soil which needs irri-
gation to make it productive. It is therefore important that the available
water supply be conserved and used with care and economy in order to
cover as much land as possible. This may be done by supplementing the
natural flow of the streams by storage reservoirs and by preventing the
waste of water.

Measurements made in the United States show that on most irrigation
systems consisting mainly of unlined canals excavated in earth, the losses
in conveyance from the leaky ditches amounts to about 50 per cent, of the
water diverted from the source of supply, and of the remaining 50 per cent,
from one third to one half is lost by evaporation, percolation and other
wastes due largely to crude methods of irrigation.

Storage reservoirs have been built on many of the streams to increase
the water supply. A few irrigation companies are lining their canals with
concrete, or using wooden flumes and pipes for their distributaries to stop
the conveyance losses of water. This practice will increase the water sup-
ply available for new lands, but there will still remain the waste which
occurs when water is applied to the land by a careless irrigator or one
who does not know the practice and methods of skilful and economical
irrigation.

Irrigation in British Columbia with the exception of a few isolated
cases, is new and the methods of conveying water to the land and of apply-
ing it to the soil are in many cases crude and wasteful. The average
irrigator is not interested to the same extent as the irrigation company in
saving the water to use it on new land, especially if he pays for the water
at a fixed rate per acre and not for the quantity actually used, or if he has
an early water right which permits him to use and waste all he desires.
But there are other reasons why the irrigator or fruit grower should use
water skilfully and economically. First, because if water is valuable and
is sold according to the amount used, the elimination or decrease of waste
will decrease the water bill. Second, careless and wasteful use of water is
liable to cause water-logging of lands not properly drained. Third, it is
possible to use an excess of water which will interfere with plant growth
and affect the fruit.

For these reasons the writer has attempted to put together information
which he hopes will be of value to the new settlers, present fruit growers
and to irrigation companies. The information is given under the fol-
lowing topics:

1. Selection of an irrigated farm and laying out orchard.

2. Units of measurement of water and methods of measuring water.

3. Methods of conveyance of water.

4. Duty of water and factors influencing the correct use of water in
irrigation.

5. Irrigation and cultivation of orchards.

6. Irrigation of potatoes.

7. Irrigation of alfalfa.

8. The use of small pumping plants for irrigation.

The writer has not attempted to take up questions which are purely agri-
cultural or horticultural and wherever information along those lines is
given it is because of their relation to irrigation.

During the summer of 1911 the writer at the request of the British
Columbia Government, visited many of the irrigated districts of the prov-
ince. On two other occasions he has visited the districts in the vicinty of
Kamloops and Summerland. This experience has been of great value in
selecting for this bulletin information based not only on personal experience
and observation, but also on the best practice in the irrigated districts of
the United States. Because of the similarity in conditions of the fruit
growing regions of British Columbia and those of northwestern states of
the United States such as Oregon, Washington, Idaho and Montana, the
practice in those states has been given more weight. The writer has not
limited himself to his own experience, but has drawn freely from authorita-
tive sources, especially the bulletins of the Irrigation Investigations Office
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and the bulletins of the Agricul-
tural Experiment Stations of the various western states, for which due
credit has been given in all cases.

I.— SELECTION OF AN IRRIGATED FARM
AND SETTING OUT ORCHARDS.

SELECTION OF AN ORCHARD OR FARM UNDER IRRIGATION.

The intending purchaser should select his land only after he has made
a careful investigation of all the requirements necessary for a good farm
or orchard. The factors which he should consider are:

1. Climatic conditions.

2. Chemical composition of the soil.

3. Texture of soil and subsoil.

4. Location and site of orchard.

5. Surface conditions.

6. Drainage.

1. — Climatic Conditions.

These include precipitation and its distribution, temperature, wind
movement, length of growing season, etc. A study of the rainfall and its
distribution will show whether irrigation is necessary or only desirable.
The rainfall, no matter how large during the year, is generally deficient
during the growing season and there are very few localities which can not
be benefitted by irrigation. This is well shown by the extension of irriga-
tion in fruit districts of California, Oregon and Washington where it was
formerly believed that irrigation was not necessary.

The conditions desirable for fruit growing are that the growing season
be sufficiently long to mature the fruits and that there be no great or sud-
den fluctuations between high and low temperatures in the winter and
spring time. At very high elevations the growing season is too short.

Early frosts in the fall and sudden increases of temperature in the spring,
followed by severe late spring frost, may cause considerable damage.

Strong winds are destructive to both trees and fruit and should be
provided against by planting wind breaks. The existence of strong winds
may be indicated by the trees being permanently bent.

2. — Chemical Composition of the Soil.

The soil must contain all chemical plant food elements and decayed
organic matter or humus. As a rule if the soil is deep, these are all pres-
ent in sufficient quantity with the exception of humus which is often lack-
ing . The lack of organic matter can, however, be corrected by growing
suitable crops.

The soil and subsoil should be free from alkali salts. This may be
indicated by the character of the native plants. Sagebrush and buffalo
grass usually indicate that the soil is easily cultivated, well drained, deep,
free from alkali and fertile in chemical plant food, but some times deficient
in humus. Greasewood and salt grass indicate the presence of alkali. An
analysis of the soil will be of great value. The soil should be rich in
potash, phosphoric acid, nitrogen, lime and humus.

3. — Texture of Soil and Subsoil.

The best soil is one which is deep, retentive of moisture and underlaid
with an open subsoil. The presence of a hard or impervious stratum
closer than 5 feet to the surface is injurious and a greater depth is prefer-
able. The hard stratum prevents deep rooting which is essential for fruit
trees. A shallow soil underlaid with open gravel may not have sufficient
plant food, will require frequent irrigations, and may cause a large waste
of water. Fruit trees will grow in a variety of soil. Apples prefer a deep,
retentive loam rich in humus. Cherries will probably do best on a well
drained, sandy soil or light clay loam, rich in plant foods, but it should not
contain an excess of nitrogen, which has a tendency to produce excessive
wood growth. Peach trees will do best on sandy soil. Pears will grow
best on clay soils and can be grown on the heavier bottom lands. They all
require a deep, rich, well drained soil.

The character of the soil and subsoil is best determined by boring holes
with a soil auger to a depth of 10 feet.

The behavior of the soil when irrigated is important. A clay soil or
soil which is very close will absorb water very slowly and is more difficult
to cultivate and will probably bake after each irrigation. As a rule a
sandy loam irrigates well and is easy to cultivate but a very porous soil
will allow the water to percolate freely beyond the reach of the plant roots
without spreading sideways when applied in furrows.
4. — Location and Site of Orchard.

The orchard must have good air drainage as well as soil drainage. The
best air drainage is obtained on rolling lands, on hillsides or on the benches
well above the bottoms or lower sides of ravines or depressions where the
cold air settles at night. A very desirable location is found at the upper
end of small valleys. What is desired is the daily occurence of good air
currents.

There seems to be considerable difference of opinion as regards proper
exposure. A southern exposure will usually produce earlier fruit because
of the earlier growth in the spring, but where there is danger of injury be-
cause of late spring frosts a northern exposure will retard the budding and
there is less liability of the trees being injured.

6

5. — Surface Conditions.

The best land for irrigation must have a uniform slope and be free from
ravines or depressions which increase the cost of the distribution system
and which are liable to be damaged by the accumulation of waste water.
Irregular slopes are difficult to irrigate. Land which is smooth is much
cheaper to prepare for irrigation. Slopes which are very steep can often
be well irrigated by running the furrows across the slopes. Very few
soils can be irrigated without excessive washing of the soil on slopes steeper
than 10 feet in 100 and usually the fall of furrows should be less than 2
feet in 100. The washing of the soil and in some- cases the leaching out of
the fertilizing salts from the upper part of the orchard may not be notice-
able at first, but the accumulation of this effect may do considerable injury
to the land. Steep slopes also have the disadvantage that they make culti-
vation, spraying and handling the fruit more difficult.

6 . — Drainage .

The drainage of the soil is very important. The intending purchaser
who wishes to grow an orchard or other deep rooted plants should avoid
low lying lands. On a tract which is under a new irrigation system the
bottom land may be quite dry and the water table far below the surface.
The soil may be quite porous and underlaid with gravel. This may lead
to the belief that drainage conditions are very good. But with the exten-
sion of irrigation on the higher surrounding land, the drainage conditions
are often changed. The higher land is usually porous, absorbs water
readily and encourages a waste of water which is not always avoidable. This
•effect, combined with the percolation losses from leaky ditches will cause a
.gradual rise of the water table, and unless there is a good natural drain
in the trough of the valley, the water table will soon rise until it is near
the surface and finally drown out the trees or plants.

Land where the water table has not yet reached the danger height is
sometimes spoken of as sub-irrigated land and many advantages are
claimed for it, but as a rule this land will soon be injured by a continued
rise in the water table and should be avided for deep rooted plants
at least.

While the higher lands are usually free from injury by water logging,
there are many instances where layers of hardpan may collect the water
and interfere with its downward percolation and cause a rise of the water
table too near the surface.

The purchaser should investigate these conditions thoroughly and
examine the subsoil as well as the top soil by boring deeply with an auger.

PREPARATION OF LAND FOR ORCHARD.

1. — Clearing the Surface. .

Land to be irrigated is seldom heavily timbered and is generally free
from timber. To prepare land which is timbered the first operation is the
felling of the trees which are used for lumber or cut into firewood, the
value of which may partly pay for the cost of clearing. The removal of the
stumps is the next operation. This may be done by various methods, but
the process is always quite expensive. It may be done: First, By the hand
method with shovels, picks, mattocks and axes. Second, By the use of
stump pullers. Third, By the use of powder. Fourth, By the burning
method, which consists of boring auger holes at the foot of the stump into
which fires are built. Sixth, By the char pit method. This last method
which has been developed recently, has given very good results. The cost

of removing stumps in the State of Washington by this method was found
to vary from 25 cents to $1.00 each for stumps as large as 40 inches in
diameter. While the method is most economical for clay soil, it was found
that it could be successfully applied to sandy soil. The method has been
fully described in General Bulletin 101 of the Agricultural Experiment
Station of Washington State College at Pullman, Washington. The cost of
clearing will naturally vary with the density of growth and the method used
to remove the stumps. It may vary from a few dollars to fifty or one hun-
dred dollars for heavily timbered land.

Where the native vegetation is small brush or grasses, the land should
be plowed deeply, then raked to remove the large brush, which is burned.
This is followed by harrowing and the grading operation.

Where the vegetation is tall sagebrush, it must be removed before the
land can be plowed. This may be done in several ways. Where the brush
is not abundant it may be grubbed off by hand. Where the brush is thick
and very dry it may be burned off while standing. A method largely used
in the Yakima Valley is to break off the brush by drawing a railroad rail
or heavy timber over the land, first in one direction and then in the other.
The best time to do this is when the ground is frozen. It requires a team
on each end of the rail. The brush breaks off at or below the surface and
is then raked into windrows or piles and burned.

The cost of clearing off heavy brush in the Yakima Valley varies from
about $2.50 to $3.00 per acre when done with a rail and teams and about
$3.75 when done by hand. The cost of the first plowing is about $1.50 to
$2.00 per acre. The plowing is followed by harrowing and then the surface
is ready to be graded and prepared for irrigation. This includes the proper
location of the ditches, the grading of the land and in some cases the grow-
ing of some crop to improve the condition of the soil.

Before grading the surface the location of head ditches or flumes must
be decided on. They must be so placed that when constructed they will
give the furrows a desirable grade and must divide the field so that the
furrows will not be over 300 feet long for sandy soil and 500 to 600 feet
for more impervious soil. Before the construction of these ditches the
land must be graded to conform with them.

The grading of the land has been usually neglected in the irrigated sec-
tions of British Columbia. This is due largely to the character of the land.
Much of it is rolling or on fairly steep hillsides which can be irrigated with-
out grading. But in many cases the land would have been much improved
by some grading.

The mistake is often made of planting orchards and other crops before
the land has been even properly cleared in order to give the trees an early
start and shorten the time before they will bear. In some cases this
results in leaving a field or orchard which is difficult to irrigate and which
can not be improved by grading because of the trees or other crop which
have been planted. The time gained by planting earlier will often be more
than balanced by the poor growth due to improper condition of the soil
and the uneven application of water. The loss in time necessary to apply
the water on poorly prepared land and the waste of water is often greater
than the cost of preparing the land.

For furrow irrigation, which is the method most universally adaptable
to British Columbia, the only grading necessary is that the land be given
a uniform slope and all irregularities removed by scraping off the humps

8

and filling the depressions where otherwise water would collect. Rolling
land or land having a steep slope usually requires little grading.

The implements needed for grading are usually some form of scraper
and a smoother or leveler. For removing large knolls or for carrying con-
siderable earth the Fresno scraper, which is a wide steel scraper, is ex-
tensively used. For loose sandy soil and where the haul is short, the Buck
scraper is very effective. It is used extensively in the Yakima Valley and
in nearly all irrigated districts. It consists of a board 10 to 14 feet wide,
shod along one edge with a steel plate, which can be adjusted to any angle
by means of a lever arrangement connected to it and to a foot board or tail
board (Fig. 1). To finish the surface smooth a leveler sometimes called
float or drag is used after the scraper (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1. — Buck scraper for leveling land.

(Farmers' Bulletin 373, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Fig. 2. — Leveler or float.

(Farmers' Bulletin 392, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

2. — Growing Crops to Improve Condition of Soil.

Most soils of the arid type are lacking in organic matter or humus and
can be much improved by preliminary cropping to plants which will add
humus and bring the soil into good condition. The crops used are clover,
alfalfa, peas or cereals. Prof. Fisher, horticulturist for the Montana Agri-
cultural College, states that a method which is practiced with success is to
plow the land deep in the fall and grade it. In the spring following oats
and red clover are planted. The oats are harvested the following fall and
the next year one crop of clover hay can be cut and the second crop plowed
under as a green manure. Prof. Judson, horticulturist for the University
of Idaho, recommends clover the first season, plowed under in the fall, and
potatoes or other hoed crop planted the following spring.

3. — Locating the Tree Rows.

The tree rows should be located to facilitate the application of water.
On steep slopes it is desirable to run the furrows on a grade not steeper
than 2 feet in 100. It is therefore advantageous to locate the tree rows on
a line which will give about this 'grade. There are two common methods
of laying out orchard tracts, one known as the square method and the other
as the hexagonal or the equilateral triangle system. The square system is.
easier to lay out and is best adapted to the use of fillers. The hexagonal
system has the advantage that the furrows can be run in three or four
different ways and that the trees cover the ground more uniformly. The
two methods are illustrated in the accompanying sketches. The square-
system shows an apple orchard with fillers. These sketches are taken from
Farmers' Bulletin 404, (U. S. Dept. Agr.) which gives the following in-
formation:

"Under irrigation systems peach trees should be spaced 20 to 22 feet,,
pear and cherry trees 22 to 28 and 30 feet, apple trees 30 to 36 feet. On
the Pacific Coast the tendency toward wide spacing has induced many
growers to insert peach fillers between the slower growing apple trees.
The arrangement of trees in a young orchard in Douglas County, Washing-
ton, is shown in the square system shown above. Here the trees are set
in squares 18 feet each way but in every other row peach trees alternate
with the standard apple trees. In the remaining rows Winesap apple trees,
are used for fillers. As the apple trees grow and begin to crowd the fillers,
the peach trees are removed. If more space is required the Winesaps can
be taken out leaving the apple trees in squares 36 feet both ways."

Jon* tie* fact, J

SM— (§ — © (

a

Fig. 3. — Plan of planting apple orchard with fillers.

Fig. 4. — Hexagonal or triangular plan of planting orchard. .

10

The methods of staking out the orchards to locate the position of the
trees and the setting of the trees as well as other information on apple
growing are given in Bulletin No. 43 on Planting the Apple Orchard, pub-
lished by Agricultural Experiment Station at Moscow, Idaho, also in Bul-
letin 77 on Fruit Tree Planting in Montana, published by Montana Agricul-
tural College Experiment Station at Bozeman, Montana.

II.— UNITS OF MEASUREMENT OF WATER AND
METHODS OF MEASURING WATER.

NECESSITY FOR KNOWLEDGE OF MEASUREMENT OF AVATER.

When water is so plentiful that the irrigators can obtain all the water
they want and whenever they want it, there is no trouble about its division
and no necessity is felt for the measurement of water. But these con-
ditions do not prevail in many districts and where they do exist a know-
ledge of the measurement of water will help to prevent the large waste due
to crude methods of irrigation and to over-irrigation which may damage
not only the crops of the careless irrigator but also the land and crops of
the landowners below, by the waterlogging of the Boil.

Where water is not so abundant the necessity for a knowledge of the
measurement of water is felt to a greater extent. An equitable division of
the water can only be obtained by correct measurements. The orchardist
or irrigator can only know whether he is getting the water he is entitled to
or not by measurements of the water delivered. It is only by such means
and from a knowledge of the values of the units of flow that the depth of
water applied to the land is obtained. This is desirable if the orchardist
wishes to irrigate intelligently and determine the effects of different quan-
tities of water on the amount of crops produced.

Other reasons for which there is a necessity for a knowledge of the
measurement of water are:

First. — To measure the amount of water carried in a creek or the dis-
charge of a pump.

Second. — To know the required capacity of a pump or of a ditch to give
a certain volume of water on a given area of land.

Third. — To determine by measurements at different points on the ditch
the seepage losses occurring in that section of ditch.

Fourth. — To be able to compute the storage capacity of a reservoir
necessary to give a flow to irrigate a given tract of land.

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT.

The units of measurement can be divided into two classes: first, those
used for flowing water; second, those used for water at rest. The units
commonly used for flowing water are the cubic foot per second and miners'
inch, and for water at rest, the acre foot is used.

1. — The Cubic Foot Per Second or Second Foot.

The cubic foot per second is the standard unit of measurement of flow-
ing water in British Columbia. It may be defined as a cubic foot of water
moving at the rate of one lineal foot each second. For instance, a flume
12 inches wide, carrying a depth of water of 12 inches, and placed on such
a grade as to give a velocity to the water of 1 lineal foot each second has

11

a carrying capacity of 1 cubic foot per second. In any case the cross sec-
tional area in square feet multiplied by the velocity in feet per second will
give the discharge in cubic feet per second.
2. — The British Columbia Miners' Inch.

The legal value of the miners'/inch in the Province of British Columbia
is the quantity of water that will pass through an orifice two inches high
by half an inch wide made in a two inch plank, the water to have a con-
stant head of seven inches above the upper side of the orifice, and every
additional inch of water shall mean so much as will pass through the said
orifice extended horizontally half an inch.

In cubic measurement one inch of water shall mean a flow of water
equal to 1.68 cubic feet per minute. This is equivalent to 35.7 miners'
inches for one cubic foot per second.
3.— Acre Foot.

This unit of measurement is the best unit for measurement of larga
volumes of water at rest and is the legal unit in British Columbia (Water
Act 1909). It may be defined as the quantity of water which will covei'
one acre to the depth of one foot; it is equal to 43,560 cubic feet.

An acre inch is equivalent to 1-12 of an acre foot. It is equal to the
quantity of water which will cover one acre one inch deep.

4. — Relation Between Cubic Foot Per Second, Miners* Inch and Acre Foot.

The cubic foot per second and the miners' inch indicate only a rate of
flow and to specify any fixed quantity it is necessary to state the time or
duration of flow. For instance a flow of 1 cubic foot per second will give
in one 24 hour day as many cubic feet as there are seconds in that time or
86,400 cubic feet which is equal to nearly 2 acre feet or 24 acre inches.
In other words a flow of 1 cubic foot per second in one hour will give a
quantity of water sufficient to cover one acre to a depth of one inch.

The miners' inch as defined by the Water Clauses Consolidation Act,
1897, is equal to about 1-36 of a cubic foot per second, or one miners' inch
in thirty-six hours will give as much as one cubic foot per second in a period
of one hour, which quantity is about 1 acre inch. As a unit of measure-
ment the miners' inch is condemned by many engineers. While there are
some objections there are also many advantages in its use. The objec-
tions usually raised are:

First. — That its value in British Columbia and in the different western
states of the United States is not uniform.

Second. — That the unit is associated with a measuring device and un-
less the factors controlling the method of measurement are correctly pre-
scribed by law and followed in making the measurement, it is liable to
give inaccurate results. The Consolidation Act of 1897 requires that it be
measured through a board 2 inches thick. This, as explained farther, is
objectionable and greater accuracy would be obtained by using a thin board
not over 1 inch thick.

Third. — The term has often been confused with the cross sectional area
in square inches of a flume or pipe. For instance if a flume is 10 inches
wide and 6 inches deep: it is sometimes wrongly stated by some irrigators
that there are 60 miners' inches, the irrigator not thinking that the flow is
also dependent on the velocity of the water which varies with the grade of
the flume.

The main advantage of this unit of flow is that for small flows the irri-
gator has a better understanding of its volume when stated in miners'"

12

inches. However, as a method of measurement, it has some advantages as
explained farther.

To convert measurement from one unit into another the
equivalents are useful:

I cubic foot per second is equal to 35.7 miners' inches.

1 cubic foot per second is equal to 6.25 Imp. gallons per second, or 7.5
U. S. gallons per second.

1 cubic foot per second will give in one minute, 375 Imp. gallons, or
450 U. S. gallons.

1 cubic foot per second will give in 24 hours, 2 acre feet (approximate-
ly), or 1 acre inch in one hour.

1 British Columbia miners' inch will give in one minute, 10.5 Imp. gal-
lons, or 12. U. S. gallons.

1 British Columbia miners' inch running for 36 hours will give 1
acre inch.

METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS.

Measurements of water may be obtained by means of:

1. Volumetric measurements.

2. Weirs.

3. Miners' inch boards or boxes.

4. Special devices such as Grant-Michell meter.

5. Measurements of velocity of water and cross section of canal or
flume.

For a measuring device to be entirely satisfactory it should meet the
following requirements:

1st. It should not only measure the water at any one time, but it
should keep a continuous record of all water delivered.

2nd. In many cases it is desirable that it should maintain a constant
flow when once it is set for full capacity or fraction of full capacity.

3rd. It should be able to handle any fraction of its full capacity.

4th. It should not require difficult computations to obtain the results
of the measurements.

5th. It should not be easily interfered or tampered with.

6th. Where the available grade is small it should require the least pos-
sible loss of head.

7th. The cost of the device should not be excessive.

There is no device which will fulfill all these requirements.

On the irrigated systems of British Columbia the heads of water de-
livered to the irrigators are usually small, in many cases only a few
miners' inches, and there is generally sufficient fall or grade to permit the
installation of any type of measuring device. The devices which are most
feasible at a moderate cost for delivery of water to the irrigator are the
weir box and the miners' inch box.

To measure the flow of streams or canals the weir board may be used
when there is sufficient fall to allow its installation; otherwise measure-
ments of the cross section and of the velocity by means of floats or current
meters must be made.

1. — Volumetric Measurements.

This method of measurement can only be used for very small volumes
of water. It consists of a tank of a given volume in which the irrigating

13

water is delivered, and the time to fill the tank is recorded. Knowing the
volume in cubic feet and the time in seconds, the rate of flow in cubic feet
per second may be obtained by dividing the first by the other. For in-
stance, if the tank is 2 feet wide, 4 feet long, and 2 feet deep, it holds 8
cubic feet of water and if it takes 40 seconds to fill the box the rate of flow
is 8 cubic feet in 40 seconds or 1-5 'of a cubic foot per second or about 7
miners' inches.

2. — Weirs.

The weir is the most generally used measuring device found on irri-
gation systems, for the reason that it is simple to construct and use and
will give accurate results when properly installed. The weir is generally
limited to moderate quantities of water and requires sufficient fall or grade
for its installation and for these reasons can not always be used, but in
British Columbia the quantities of water to be measured are usually small
and in most cases there is ample fall. These conditions are very favorable
for the installation of a weir.

The term weir is applied to any dam or barrier across the stream
over which the water flows. The weirs used in irrigation consist of a board
or barrier into which a notch is formed through which the water flows.
The volume of water passing through the notch is obtained by knowing the
length of the notch and measuring the depth of water passing over it. The
form of notch is generally either trapezoidal or rectangular and in some
cases a triangular or V shaped notch is used.

The trapezoidal weir is known as the Cippoletti weir and is more com-
mon than the other forms. It consists of a horizontal crest and the two
sides, each sloping outward one inch for every four inches rise. The rec-
tangular weir has vertical sides. The first form has the advantage that the
flow may be computed by means of a simpler formula. The second form is
'a little easier to construct and is more accurate because its formula has
been derived from a larger number of experiments. In either case the flow
can be obtained by referring to the tables given farther.

The weir may consist of a simple board placed across the ditch or of a
board set in a short section of flume or box, in which case it is called a weir
box. The weir board may be of wood, metal or concrete. When made of
wood or concrete it is desirable to use a metal plate to form the edges of
the crest and the sides. When no weir box or flume section is used, the
weir board is placed directly across the canal, and sufficiently braced with
posts. A weir box or flume box is generally used. The box is a short flume
section whose length is not less than 8 to 12 feet. The width and depth
must be at least sufficient to give the required dimensions to the weir
board. The weir board should be placed at a distance from the upstream
end equal to two-thirds the length of the box, the lower third forming a
floor for the falling water. The depth measurement should be made at
least 4 to 6 feet upstream from the crest, from a post or scale fixed on the
side of the flume with the zero point level with the weir cre^t. To obtain
accurate results the following rules for the dimensions of the notch should
be observed:

1st. The greatest depth of water which should be allowed on the crest
of the weir should not be more than one-third the length of the weir and
the least depth 1 inch. The depth is usually controlled by the fall avail-

14

able. Where the fall available is small, a large length and small depth are.-
necessary.

2nd. The distance from the crest of the weir to the bottom of the canal,
or floor of the weir box should be at least three times the depth on the weir.

3rd. The distance from the edges of the weir notch to the sides of the-
canal or of the weir box should be at least twice the depth on the weir.

4th. The upstream side of both the crest and the edges of the weir
notch should be brought to a knife edge or to a sharp corner; the bevelling,
should be on the downstream side. With a sharp corner and a thickness of
crest not greater than one-half the minimum depth of water the discharge
will be the same as for a knife edge.

In placing the weir in position the following directions must be fol-
lowed:

1st. The weir when used on a ditch should be placed in a section of the
ditch which is straight for at least 50 feet above the weir and the center
line of the ditch should be perpendicular to the weir board and pass,
through its center. The cross section of the channel should be not smaller
than the cross section of the weir box, in order to have slow velocity and
fairly calm water above the weir. If the weir box must be placed near the
takeout gate the velocity must be made uniform by means of baffles.

2nd. The weir must be set high enough to give to the overflowing
sheet a free fall on the downstream side. A common rule is to make the
level of the water on the downstream side lower than the crest by not less
than one-half the depth of water on the crest. To obtain the free fall it is
best to select a section of the ditch which has considerable grade.

3rd. In letting water in a weir box through a pipe it should discharge
at the bottom of the box and the depth of the box should be sufficient to
produce a calm body of water on the upstream side of the weir. In some
cases this requires the use of baffle boards to break up the velocity of the
approaching water.

4th. The crest of the weir should be level from end to end.

5th. The measurement of head should show the true elevation of the
water surface above the weir crest. Directly at the crest and for a short
distance above it the water surface curves down. This requires that the
water be measured a certain distance upstream.

Measurement of discharge.

When the weir has been installed the only measurement to take is the
depth of water or head over the crest of the weir. To make this measure-
ment it is necessary to provide a reference point level with the weir crest,
from which the depth is measured. This point must be at least 2 feet up-
stream from the weir crest for a small weir, and preferably 4 to 6 feet.
For a weir box this reference point may be a nail driven part way in the
side of the box at the level of the weir crest, or a bracket or support formed '
by nailing a strip to the side of the box. For a simple weir board a stake
may be driven into the ditch. The depth of water above the reference
point can be obtained sufficiently close for ordinary purposes by using a
carpenters' rule and reading the depth to nearest one-eighth of an inch.

Knowing the length of the weir crest and having obtained the depth of
water, the discharge in cubic feet per second or miners' inches may be ob-
tained by referring to the following tables:

15

Table of Discharge for a One Foot Clppolletti Weir.

Depth of
water
on crest.

Discharge.

Depth of
water
on crest.

Discharge.

Inches.

Cubic feet
per second.

Miners'
inches.

Inches.

Cubic feet Miners'
per second. inches.

1

.08

2.9

4

.65

23.1

m

.10

3.5

4y8

.68

24.2

1%

.11

4.0

41/i

.71

25.3

1%

.13

4.6

4%

.74

26.5

i%

.15

5.4

41/2

.77

27.6

1%

.17

6.1

. 4%

.81

28.8

1%

.19 . • '

6.8

4%

.84

29.9

178

.21

7.5

4%

.87

31.1

2

.23

8.2

5

.91

32.3

2y8

.25

9.0

51/8

.94

33.5

2y4

.27

9.6

51/4

.97

34.7

2%

.30

10.5

5%

1.01

36.0

2%

.32

11.4

B%

1.04

37.0

2%

.34

12.3

5%

1.08

38.5

2%

.37

13.2

5%

1.12

40.0

27/8

.40

14.1

6

1.19

42.5

3

.42

15.0

61/4

1.26

45.0

3y8

.45

16.0

6!/2

1.34

48.0

3%

.47

17.0

' 63,4

1.42

51.0

3%

.50

18.0

7

1.50

53.5

3y2

.53

19.0

71,4

1.58

56.0

3%

.56

20.0

7i/2

1.66

59.0

3%

.59

21.0

7%

1.75

62.5

*%

.62

22.0

8

1.83

65.0

This table is computed for a one foot Cippolletti or trapezoidal weir, but
it may be used for longer weirs by multiplying the quantities given by the
length of the weir in feet. For instance a two foot weir will give twice the
discharge obtained for a one foot weir. An 18 weir will give 1% times
the values given in the table. For accuracy a one foot weir should not be
used for depths greater than about 4 inches. For larger discharges it is
preferable to use a longer weir crest.

16

Table of Discharge for Rectangular Weirs Wltla Full Contractlonii.

Depth of

water
on crest.
Inches.

Discharge
for one foot weir

Discharge
for two foot weir.

Discharge
for three foot weir.

Cubic feet Miners'
per second, inches.

Cubic feet Miners'
per second, inches.

Cubic feet Miners'
per second, inches.

1

.079

2.8

.159

5.7

.239

8.5

•1%

.094

3.3

.189

6.75

.285

10.2

i%

.110

3.9

.222

7.9

.33

12.0

1%

.126

4.5

.255

9.1

.38

13.75.

1%

.144

5.1

.29

10.4

.44

15.6

1%

.161

5.8

.32

11.7

.49

17.6

i%

.180

6.4

.36

13.0

.55

19.7

i%

.20

7.1

.40

14.5

.61

21.8-

2

.22

7.8

.45

16.0

.67

24.0

2%

.24

8.6

.49

17.5

.74

26.3

2%

.26

9.3

.53

19.0

.80

28.7

2%

.28

10.1

.58

20.5

.87

31.0

2y2

.30

10.8

.62

22.1

.94

33.5

2%

.32

11.6

.67

23.8

1.01

36.0

2%

.35

12.5

.72

25.5

1.08

38.5

2%

.37

13.3

.76

27.2

1.16

41.2:

3

.40

14.1

.81

29.0

1.23

44

3*4

.44

15.8

.91

32.6

1.39

50

3%

.49

17.6

1.02

36.4

1.54

55

3%

.54

19.5

1.13

40.2

1.71

61

4

.60

21.3

1.24

44.1

1.88

67

4%

.65

23.3

1.36

48.4

2.06

73-

4%

.71

25.2

1.47

52.6

2.24

80

4%

.76

27.3

1.49

57.0

2.43

87

5

.82

29.4

1.72

61.4

2.61

93

534

.86

31

1.84

66

2.81

100

5%

.94

33

1.97

70

3.00

107

5%

1.00

36

2.11

75

3.20

114

6

1.06

38

2.23

80

3.41

122

IK

2.38

85

3.63

130

6%

2.51

90

3.87

138-

6%

2.65

95

4.06

145

7

2.80

100

4.29

153

».fi

3.00

107

4.47

160

8

3.40

121

5.20

186

8%

3.70

131

5.65

201

9

4.00

142

6.15

220

9%

4.30

154

6.64

237

10

4.64

166

7.15

255

10 H

5.00

178

7.71

275

11

5.32

190

8.24

295

11%

5.65

202

8.78

314

12

6.00

215

9.34

333

The above table is for rectangular weirs with crest 1 foot, 2 feet, and 3
feet long. It will be noticed that for this type of weir the discharge is not
exactly in proportion to the length of the weir crest, especially for the
greater depths of water on the crest.

The form of construction of the weir will depend on the conditions
where it is used. It may be used on a ditch or a flume in which case it is
placed either as a weir board or a weir box across the canal or flume as
shown in the accompanying illustrations (Fig. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) or it may be
used to measure the water taken out of a pipe in which case it is placed!
around the takeout valve as shown in Fig 11.

Fig.5. — Trapezoidal weir board placed across a ditch.

(Courtesy of Irrigation Investigations Office, U. S. Dept. of Agr.)

FIgr. 6. — Trapezoidal weir board with side wings and apron.

(Courtesy of Irrigation Investigations Office, U. S. Dept. of Agr.)

Fig. 8. — Rectangular weir box.

(Courtesy of Irrigation Investigations Office, U. S. Dept. of Agr.)

Fig. 9. — Rectangular weir in concrete lined canal.

(Courtesy of Irrigation Investigations Office, U. S. Dept. of Agr.)

Fig. 12.— Weir box take out valve, FUf, 13,— Weir box in position.

Fig. 14. — Weir box and take out from pressure
pipe used by Gage Canal Co., Riverside. Cal

(O. E. S. Bulletin 119, U. S. Dept. Agr.1

17

Weir board 011 a ditch.

The method of placing a trapezoidal weir board across a ditch is shown
by Fig 5. The measurement of depth of water is taken from the top of a
stake driven level with the crest of the weir. Fig. 6 shows a trapezoidal
weir board placed in a ditch with an apron and side wings to prevent cut-
ting of the earth sides and bottom of the canal.

. BOX FOR

3 TO 4O MfNER.5 INCHES.
Weir box.

Fig. 7 is a drawing of a trapezoidal weir box. The weir crest is 12
inches long, the depth of the notch is 7 inches. It is designed for a capa-
city of 5 to 40 British Columbia miners' inches. It can be used for as little
as 3 miners' inches. For 40 miners' inches it requires a depth of water on
the crest of 5 % inches which is a little large for that width of notch, and
for very accurate results a larger weir would be preferable.

Wings and cut off aprons are provided on the upstream and downstream
end of the box to prevent the water from washing around or under the box.
A wooden strip is nailed on one side of the box with its top level with the
weir crest, from which the measurements of depth of water will be taken.

Fig. 8 is a photograph of a similar weir box installed to measure the flow
from a pumping plant.

The method of installing a rectangular weir in a concrete lined canal is
shown by Fig. 9. In this case the weir board is made of metal plates.

Concrete weir box and takeout from a concrete flume. (Fig. 10).

This box is used on some of the irrigation systems of southern California
for takeouts from concrete flumes. The form of construction is equally
well adapted to takeouts from wooden flumes or concrete lined canals. The
flow is regulated by wooden gates which control the flow in the canal and
in the weir box. To form a still body of water in the box grooves are pro-
vided for the insertion of baffle boards. The water which passes over the
weir discharges into the private flume of the orchardist.

19

Transverse section

Isometric sketch.

Fig. 11. — Typical weir box for valve take out from pressure pipe line.

20
Weir box and takeout from pipe line under pressure.

Where the water is carried in a pipe line under pressure the water must
be delivered through a valve connected to the pipe. A good type of
measuring weir box will consist of a rectangular box placed around the
valve, with the measuring board placed at the top of one side of the box.
Fig. 11 shows a form of measuring box very similar to those installed on
the cement pipe lines of the irrigation system of the Fruitlands Irrigation
and Power Company near Kamloops. It consists of a concrete measuring
box placed around a takeout valve cemented to the pipe line. The valve
is obtained from the Kellar and Thompson Manufacturing Company of Los
Angeles. It is cemented over a hole cut in the cement pipe and regulates
the flow in the box. The box is rectangular, made of four concrete walls
4 inches thick, reinforced with strands of barb wire 6 inches apart. A
notch is formed in one of the side walls and a rectangular weir plate made
of galvanized iron strips is cemented in. To measure the depth of water
above the crest a metal bracket is cemented in the wall opposite the weir
opening and at the same level as the weir crest. The water which passes
over the crest discharges into the irrigator's flume or ditch. In case of an
earthen ditch it is necessary to prevent erosion or washing away of the soil
by the falling water by providing a receiving box or basin or by protecting
the soil with paving.

Similar boxes' are used in southern California for delivering water from
cement pipes and iron pipes, and could well be used in British Columbia
for delivery from wooden pipes into the private flumes or ditches.

Figs. 12, 13, 14 show the type of box used by the Gage Canal Company
of Riverside, California. The box is not built in place but is cast in wooden
forms. It consists of a floor slab and a tapering rectangular box. Fig. 14
shows the box in position connected to a private concrete flume. The in-
side of the box is 45 inches deep, 16 inches square at the top and 22 inches
square at the bottom. The walls and floor slab are 2 inches thick. The
opening for the weir is 12 inches high and 14 inches wide and the metal
weir plate which is cemented in this opening gives a rectangular notch 10
inches wide and 8 inches deep.

Some irrigation companies in southern California simplify the construc-
tion of the weir boxes by using in place of the rectangular box, two or more
sections of large size cement pipe placed vertically around the valve. The
weir is formed by cementing a weir plate in a notch cut in the upper part
of the pipe.

3. — Miners' Inch Board or Box.

The miners' inch as a unit of measurement has the disadvantages pre-
viously stated but the method of measurement associated with the miners'
inch unit has many advantages.

1st. The irrigator can tell at a glance how much water is being de-
livered. It requires no computation or reference to tables.

2nd. It is well adapted to measuring small volumes of water and is
fairly accurate if properly carried out.

3rd. The flow through a miners' inch board is affected much less by a
change in water level than the flow over weir. A 10 per cent, rise of water
level will increase the flow over a weir by 15 per cent, while with a miners'
inch board the flow is increased only 5 per cent.

21

The disadvantages are:

1st. The device is not adaptable to large volumes of wtaer because the
required length of the orifice may be too great.

2nd. Unless the conditions necessary for accurate measurements are
carried out, the results obtained may' be very inaccurate.

The device consists of a board or thin wall in which is made an orifice,
which conforms with the conditions necessary to give the volume as defined
by law. The board may be set directly across the ditch or it may be placed
in a short section of flume or in a box.

The controlling conditions to give measurements in British Columbia
miners' inches are given in the Water Clauses Consolidation Act of 1897.
Briefly stated the miners' inch orifice must be 2 inches high and the head
on the upper side of the orifice must be 7 inches; this gives 8 inches on the
center of the orifice. The Act states that the orifices must be made in a 2
inch board. This thickness is liable to give inaccurate results, unless the
four edges of the orifice are bevelled outwards so as to give sharp corners.
To obtain accurate results the jet coming through the orifice must touch
only the upstream edges and clear the downstream edges so as to discharge
freely into the air. With a board 1 inch thick, if the corners are sharp, it
is not necessary to bevel the edges for the water jet will clear the outer
edges. It is, however, preferable to either bevel the edges or use thin
metal plates. The orifice must be made of such length that it will measure
the maximum amount of water desired. For instance if this volume of
water is 100 miners' inches, the orifice 2 inches high must be 50 inches
long. To obtain a smaller volume the orifice must be adjustable by means
of a sliding gate.

To measure a large volume of water the length of the orifice will be
excessive. To avoid this it may be desirable to use an orifice 4 inches high
instead of 2 inches. This will make the necessary length only one-half the
length required for the 2 inch height and the accuracy of the device will
not be affected to any great extent provided the orifice is made in a thin
plate. In either case the head on the center of the orifice must be 8 inches.

To obtain accurate results at least 6 inches must be allowed on the up-
stream side of the board from the lower edge of the orifice to the bottom of
the ditch or floor of the box into which the board is placed, and at least 2
to 4 inches from the ends of the orifice to the sides of the ditch or box. On
the downstream side the jet should discharge freely into the air.

The form of construction of the miners' inch measuring device will de-
pend on the purpose for which it is used. It may be used to measure the
flow in a ditch or flume in which case it may be given the form shown in
Fig. 15 or it may be used to measure the water carried by a pipe under no
pressure and is then built as shown in Fig. 16. Where the pipe is under
pressure the miners' inch box can be built around the valve in the same
manner as the weir box shown in Fig. 11, using a miners' inch orifice plate
in the place of the weir plate.

Miners' inch box placed in canal or ditch.

The form of miners' inch box to use for measurement of water carried
by a flume or ditch is shown in Fig. 15. This box consists of a short sec-
tion of flume with the miners' inch board placed at the downstream end.
The box may be made as the weir box shown in Fig. 7 and connected with
the earth ditch by similar wings and cut off apron. The miners' inch ori-

22

fice is 2 inches high and its length adjustable by a slide. The center of the
orifice is 8 inches from the top of the board, the lower edge of the orifice is
6 inches above the floor. The edges of the orifice are bevelled on the down-
stream side. The slide consists of a 1 in. x 6 in. piece which passes through
a hole of the same size cut through the side of the box. At one end of this
piece is screwed a short block which fits into the bevelled orifice and which
has one edge bevelled to conform with the other edges of the orifice. To
measure the water the slide is pushed in or pulled out until the water
stands level with the top of the board; when the slide is pushed in too far
the water overflows the top of the board; when the orifice is opened too
wide, the water level drops below the top. The number of miners' inches
passing through is equal to the length of the orifice multiplied by two. To
facilitate the measurements the orifice may be graduated with inch and
quarter inch marks, each half inch representing a flow of 1 miners' inch.

Fig. 15 — Miners' inch measuring box.

23

of overflow wa//.

+- Crest of overflow wa/l
~\Minene inch plsfe

Section

Section

rtiners inch 0/atc

TYP/C4L /I/HER.? INCH BOX fO/t TffKE OUT
FROM &KRVITY f/ff L/HE UMDCR. HO
Fig. 16.

Miners' inch box and takeout from pipe line under no pressure.

Where a pipe line is under no pressure the conditions of flow are similar
to those in an open ditch. The pipe line is placed on grade and to take out
water from it, it is necessary to form a takeout box by means of which the
water is checked and forced to rise to the height at which it is delivered to
the irrigator. This is somewhat similar to the check gates which are placed
across an open canal where it is necessary to raise the water level to make
a delivery into the head of the irrigator's flume or ditch. For a pipe line
the takeout and measuring device can be formed in one structure as shown
in Fig. 16. This form of box is used on the Fruitlands Irrigation system
near Kamloops and is similar to the boxes used on many irrigation systems
of southern California. The box is rectangular and is divided into two
compartments by an overflow wall at the bottom of which there is an open-
ing, controlled by a slidegate. In one of the side walls of the upstream
compartment a miners' inch plate is placed with the center of the orifice 8
inches below the crest of the overflow wall. The walls are all reinforced
with strands of barb wire. The water enters the upstream compartment

24

and by means of the gate in the overflow wall can be made to rise level
with the overflow crest and the quantity delivered is regulated by adjusting
the orifice. The pressure on the orifice is regulated and kept more or less
constant by the overflow wall. The excess water passes over the overflow
wall and also through the regulating gate into the downstream compart-
ment and from there into the pipe. By proper adjustment of the gate the
water level may be kept fairly constant. When the gate is entirely closed
the excess water will pass over the overflow and increase the pressure on
the orifice and the accuracy of the measurement will depend on the quan-
tity of water passing over and the length of the overflow crest. A moderate
increase in pressure will not affect the accuracy very greatly, for instance a
1-inch increase in pressure will increase the volume delivered by 6 per cent.
It would be feasible to use a weir plate in place of the miners' inch plate,
but with a weir plate the quantity delivered could not be adjusted and the
accuracy would be affected to a much greater extent by an increase in
depth of water on the crest.

Fig. 18 shows a similar box used in southern California. It differs from
the previous one in that instead of delivering the water through an orifice
adjustable in size by a slide, it is delivered through a number of openings
varying in size and each closed by a slide gate. In the illustration the
three smaller orifices are opened and the fourth one closed. The water
passes through the orifices into a basin formed by two half sections of pipe
cemented to the box and connected at the bottom to the private pipe of the
orchardist.

Miners' inch box and takeout from pressure pipe line.

To deliver water from a pipe under pressure and measure it by miners'
inches the same form of construction could be used as for a weir box (Fig.
11), using a miners' inch plate instead of the weir plate. This form of
miners' inch box is shown in Fig. 19 which illustrates a box used in south-
ern California. In this case the orifice is 5 inches high and is regulated by
two slides. The pressure on the center of the orifice is 4 inches, which gives
a depth of water of only \\/2 inches from the upper edge of the orifice to
the water level. The height of the orifice is too great in proportion to
the pressure.

Miners' inch box with overflow wall for canals or flumes.

The use of an overflow to regulate the head on the opening can be ap-
plied to miners' inch boxes installed in earth ditches or in flumes very
much in the same manner as for pipe lines. Fig. 20 illustrates the con-
struction of the device. It consists of a section of flume divided into two
compartments by the parallel overflow crest wall in between. The compart-
ment which forms part of the supply ditch is open at both ends and the
flow can be checked or regulated by flashboards. The other compartment
forms the box from which the water is taken out through the orifice in the
side wall. The flow into the box is regulated by a gate and the excess passes
over the crest of the overflow wall back into the canal. The crest of the
overflow should be 8 inches above the center of the opening and must be
of sufficient length to dispose of the excess without increasing the depth
of water to a great extent.

Fiji. 18. — Miners' inch and take out box used at Covina, California.

Fig. 10. — Miners' inch box and take out from pressure pipe at
Riverside, Cal.

(Courtesy of Irrigation Investigations Office, II. S. Dept. of Agr.)

Fig. SO Miners' inch box with overflow wall, for canals.

25

4. — Special Measuring Devices.

Fig. Sl.^Grant-Michell meter; capacity 100 cubic feet per minute.

The Grant Michell meter is known as the Australian meter, having
originated in that country. It consists of a four bladed fan fastened to the
lower end of a vertical spindle which transmits the revolution of the fan to
a gear box at the upper end. This mechanism is suspended from a cast iron
bracket over a wrought iron orifice plate placed below the canal bed and
built or bolted down into the downstream part of a box divided into two
parts by a baffle wall open at the bottom and extending above the water
surface. The water passes down through the opening formed by the
baffle wall and the box, then flows upward through the orifice and imparts
a rotary motion to the fan. The gear box forms the recording device, which
consists of a series of dials giving a continuous record in acre inches and
fractions, or in cubic feet. The fan, spindle and gear box are removable
and portable and can be used for several boxes. The discharge depends on
the size of the orifice plate and on the difference in elevation in the water
surface upstream and downstream. The size of the meters is generally
based on a 3 inch loss of head, but may be designed for less. The orifices
range from 9 to 40 inches in diameter and are used for discharge of 1 to 20
cubic feet per second. The serious objection to this meter is the high cost,
ranging from $60 for the smaller one to $250 for the larger one. These
prices are the catalogue prices of Geo. Kent, Ltd., 199-204 High Holborn
Street, London.

5. — Measurement of Discharge by Obtaining Velocity of Flow and Cross
Section of Flume or Canal.

This method is best adapted to the measurement of large volumes of
water when the installation of a weir is not feasible because of lack of
grade or because of the large volume of water. The method depends on the
principle that the discharge in cubic feet per second is equal to the area of
the cross section of the stream in square feet multiplied by the velocity in
feet per second. The following principles will give a better understanding
of this method of measurement.

1st. The velocity in a canal varies with the form of the channel, the
smoothness of the sides and bottom and the grade.

26

2nd. The velocity varies in different portions of the channel, being
smallest near the bottom and the sides and greatest on the center line of
the channel just below the surface.

3rd. In a given channel the velocity increases with an increased volume
of water in the channel. For instance a flume 3 feet wide carrying water
to a depth of 1 foot with an average velocity of 2 feet per second gives a
discharge of 6 cubic feet per second. When it carries a depth of 2 feet the
area of cross section is doubled and the velocity will be increased to about
2.55 feet per second giving a discharge of 15.80 cubic feet per second which
is more than double the first amount.

To obtain the velocity the following methods are commonly used:

1st. Surface floats of chips or other material.

2nd. Rod floats of bottles, tubes cr rods.

3rd. Current meter.

To obtain the velocity with surface floats or rod floats the procedure is
the same. It is carried on as follows: Select a straight section of canal at
least 50 feet long where the cross section is uniform and the flow not affect-
ed by obstructions. Lay off the course by placing two wires across the
canal or simply stakes at the desired distance apart which may be 50 or
100 feet. Place the float above the upper wire and time the float for its
travel over the course. The distance in feet divided by the time in seconds
gives the velocity of the float in feet per second. When a rod float is used it
must be weighted at the lower end so that it will float vertically. This may
be done by placing weights in the bottle or tube or by wrapping lead or
wire at the lower end of the rod or simply tying a stone to the end of a
stick. Rods 1% to 2 inches in diameter should be used. The length of
the rod should be such that it will nearly touch the bottom. The velocity
obtained with a rod float will represent the average velocity, but the velocity
obtained with a surface float is 20 per cent, greater than the average
velocity and must therefore be multiplied by 8-10 to give the average
velocity.

To obtain the discharge accurately it is necessary to subdivide the cross
section into partial areas bounded by imaginary vertical lines extending
from the bottom of the canal to the top of the water surface and obtain the
velocity for each one (Fig. 22). The widths of these areas are marked by
tags placed on a wire or marks on a plank spanning across the canal and
the depth of water at each tag is obtained by soundings or measurements
with a graduated rod or rule. The width in feet multiplied by the average
of the two depths for each section will give the number of square feet in
the section. This product multiplied by the velocity in feet per second will
give the discharge for each partial area and the sum of discharges of each
partial area will give the total discharge.

Fig. 22. — Subdivision of oaual cross section for measurement of discharge.

27

The velocity is obtained as explained above by placing the floats so they
will travel as nearly as practicable between the tags or marks. It is diffi-
cult to get the floats to travel straight down the stream and often the in-
accuracy due to this can not be avoided. When rod floats are used, rods of
different lengths are usually necessary.

For an ordinary trapezoidal section a less accurate but more expedient
procedure is to obtain the total area of the cross section of the channel by
multiplying the depth by the average width (which is the sum of the top
width and bottom width divided by two) and to multiply the area, thus ob-
tained, by the average velocity. The average velocity is found as explained
above, using either surface floats or rod floats.

In case the waterway is a flume the width in feet multiplied by the depth
of water in feet will give the cross section.
Current meter.

The current meter generally used to measure the flow in canals consists
of a small wheel made up of vanes or cups connected to a rod about which
it revolves. The wheel when placed in the flowing water is set in motion
by the action of the current and the revolutions are transmitted to a record-
ing or sounding apparatus. By noting the time and the revolutions, the
number of revolutions per second are obtained. The velocities correspond-
ing to the number of revolutions are known for each current meter.

A current meter is expensive and is not likely to be possessed by the
ordinary irrigator. For that reason a detail description of its use is
not given.
Rating station and rating flume.

A rating station is a section of canal the discharge of which is known
for different depths of water. To obtain the relation of depth to discharge
it is necessary to rate the station. This is done by the measurement of
discharge for a wide range of depths, from which a table is prepared giving
the discharge at any depth. The rating' station should be selected where
the waterway has a straight reach of nearly uniform cross section above
and below and there should be no obstructions to interfere with the flow,
such as gates below it. The selected section should have a channel which
is not liable to change by scouring or silting. To insure a permanent sec-
tion a rating flume, which is a short section of flume, is often used. The
depth of water is indicated by a graduated rod placed on one side of the
canal or by graduations marked on the side of the flume.

Automatic registers.

The volume of water delivered over a weir or the discharge of a ditch
flume or creek obtained by measurements at a rating station or rating
flume will vary with the fluctuations in the water level. Where it is de-
sired to have a continuous record of the quantity of water, automatic
registers have been used. These registers are of different types. They
can, however, be classified in two classes. They all consist of a clock, a
float and a cylinder or drum to which is fastened a sheet of paper on which
the depth of water at different times is recorded by a pencil or pen.

With one class of register the cylinder is placed vertically and is rotated
by a clock which gives it one revolution a week. The pencil is connected
to the float which is placed in a well or box built on the side of the weir
box or rating flume and connected with the water through an orifice. The
fluctuations in water level cause a rise and fall of the float and a corre-
sponding movement of the pencil which is recorded on the sheet placed on

28

the drum. Fig. 23 shows a simple form of register of this class used in
southern California, the cost of which is about $40.

The other class of register differs from the first class in that the cylinder
is placed horizontally and is rotated by the float instead of by the clock and
the pencil is carried parallel with the cylinder by connections with the
clock. In each case the record obtained is the result of two motions which
give an irregular line showing the fluctuations and giving the depth of
water at any time. The various types of registers are illustrated and de-
scribed in Bulletin 86, part 1, of the Office of Experiment Stations of the
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

The cost of registers ranges from about $40 upwards and for that reason
they are seldom used for the measurement of water delivered to irrigators.
They are, however, of much value in the operation of a system when in-
stalled at the head of laterals.

Fig. 23. — Automatic register used at Riverside, California.

(O. E. S. Bulletin 86, Part I., U. S. Dept. Agr.)

29

III.— CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOR THE IRRIGA-
TION SYSTEMS OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

TYPES OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS.

The topography of the land of the irrigated districts of British Columbia
is often very rough and the land irrigated is generally rolling as com-
pared to irrigated land in most of the arid region of the United States.
Because of the character of the topography the construction of an irriga-
tion system is expensive and difficult. Ordinarily the main canal which
heads at the diversion dam, is excavated on the steep hillsides and con-
tinued around the hills, skirting the land to be irrigated. The main laterals
or main branches head at the main canal and, where possible, run down the
ridges which separate the smaller valleys which make up the entire body
of land covered by the system. These laterals either supply directly the
farms or are the source of supply for smaller laterals. A large part of the
main canal is often excavated in porous material and fissured rock and
frequently it must cross canyons or depressions. Open canals have been
used where possible; flumes placed on benches cut in the side hill have
been used where the side hill was too steep, where the material was too
porous, or where the excavation of an open canal was impossible or too ex-
pensive, and flumes on trestles or wooden pipes have been used to cross
depressions.

Because of the low winter temperature which -will cause freezing of
water in open canals, at least two irrigation companies have used in the
place of open canals for the main as well as for the distributaries, a system
of wooden pipes buried in the ground below the reach of frost in order that
the irrigation system could be used for domestic supply as well.

The distribution system consists of all laterals and branches necessary
to deliver water to each farm. The topography of the land is such that
the laterals must often be placed on grades that are too steep for earth
ditches and on irregular slopes where the depressions must be crossed by
flumes or pipes. Because of this and also because of the small volumes of
water usually carried by the laterals, wooden flumes and wooden pipes have
been extensively used. Where wooden flumes are used they are placed as
much as possible on mud sills resting on the ground and the depressions
are crossed on trestles. Where pipes are used they are usually under more
or less pressure but occasionally they may be placed practically on grade
with very little or no pressure on them, in which case they act more as a
covered flume.

The systems of British Columbia can be classified into the following
types based on the form of construction used.

1st. Those which consist of an open main canal and of open laterals,
(either open ditches or flumes), and to which class belong the irrigation
systems at Keremeos, Penticton, and Walhachin, and parts of the systems
of White Valley Irrigation Company, Summerland, Naramata.

2nd. Those which consist of an open main canal and of pipe line dis-
tributaries such as the Kelowna Irrigation Company and the Fruitlands
irrigation system near Kamloops, the latter consisting of a concrete lined
canal and cement pipe.

3rd. Those which consist entirely of pipe lines, both for mains and
laterals such as the Kaleden system and part of the Summerland system.

30

As regards the cost of installation the first type ha« the advantage that
the cost per acre of the distribution system is less than that of a wooden
pipe system. For ordinary conditions it is roughly estimated that a
wooden flume system will cost one-half as much as a wooden pipe system.
For very rough land requiring a great deal of fluming on high trestles, the
comparison in cost would not be so favorable to wooden flume. As far as
durability is concerned, the life of a well constructed wooden flume should
be between 8 and 12 years. The life of a wooden pipe which is full only
part of the time is problematical; it depends somewhat on the kind of wood
and on the soil in which it is placed. In Idaho 4 in. x 4 in. wooden posts
used for lot corners, made of the best fir and painted, have been almost
completely destroyed in one year. There are a number of instances where
wooden pipes have gone to pieces in four or five years or even less. How-
ever, if the pipe is made of good selected material, free from sap wood, the
life should be from ten to fifteen years for a wooden pipe empty part of
the year. The life of wooden pipe which is kept constantly full and buried
to such depth as to prevent freezing, would be considerably greater, prob-
ably 20 to 30 years provided the soil in which it is buried does not contain
injurious salts. Were it not necessary to prevent the water in the pipe
from freezing, it is my opinion that the life of a wooden pipe kept constant-
ly full and under sufficient head for the wood to be saturated, would be
increased if it was laid above ground not in contact with the soil.

As far as the cost of maintenance is concerned, a wooden flume system
requires frequent repairs, tarring, and calking, the cost of which would be
greater than the maintenance of a pipe system.

It is impossible to represent numerically the above statements with any
degree of accuracy because of the varying conditions. Roughly they may
be represented as follows:

Annual cost of wooden flumes and wooden pipes1 given in per cent, of
first cost:
For wooden flumes, life 8 to 12 years —

Annual maintenance and repairs distributed over entire life. . 5 per cent.

Sinking fund for renewals 9 " "

Interest on capital invested 6 "

Total .....20 " "

For wooden pipes empty part of the time, life 10 to 15 years —

Maintenance and repairs 2 "

Sinking fund for renewals 7 "

Interest on capital invested 6 " "

Total 15 " "

For wooden pipes always full, life 20 to 30 years —

Maintenance and repairs 1 " "

Sinking fund for renewal 4 " "

Interest on capital invested 6 "

Total 11 «• <<

These figures show that the annual cost which must be provided for to
maintain and renew a system and pay interest on capital invested is 20 per
cent, for a wooden flume system, 15 per cent, for a pipe system part of the
time, and 11 per cent, for a pipe system always full. These costs are in the
ratio of 1.8, 1.3 and 1. Therefore a flume system is more economical than

31

a wooden pipe system, which can be kept full of water only part of the time,
when the cost of the wooden pipe system would be in excess of 1.3 times the
cost of the flume system. Also the flume system is more economical when
the cost of a wooden pipe system which can be kept full of water all the
time is 1.8 times the cost of the fliiiiie system. As stated above, a wooden
pipe system under average conditions will cost about twice as much as a
wooden flume system; therefore, if the above cost alone is considered a
wooden flume system is more economical. But there are other relative
advantages and disadvantages which should be considered.

The third type of system — that is, the wooden pipe system which can be
kept full all the year around without freezing — has the advantage that it
can be used for domestic supply. The other two types require a separate
domestic system if domestic water is desired. But it is not always possible
to combine the two, for often the source of supply from which the irrigation
water is obtained may be frozen in the winter or it may be so polluted that
it is not safe drinking water and if it must be filtered or treated to purify
it, it would be very poor economy to have to purify the irrigation water as
well as the domestic water which are carried in the same pipe. If these
conditions exist a separate domestic system is preferable.

PERMANENT CONSTRUCTION.

The short life of wooden flume and wooden pipes and the increasing
value of water have led to more permanent and better class of construction
throughout the arid region. Wooden flumes on trestles are being replaced
by steel flumes; wooden flumes resting on the ground or bench flumes which
were necessary to carry the water on steep hillsides or through porous
ground, are being replaced by concrete flumes and concrete lined channels.
Concrete linings are being constructed wherever the seepage losses must be
prevented because of the value of water loss or because of the damage
caused to adjacent land by the seepage water. Concrete pipes, both plain
and reinforced, which a few years ago were only used in southern Cali-
fornia, are now being used to some extent in many of the irrigated dis-
tricts of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and other western states and their
use is growing. The use of plain concrete pipe is, however, limited to small
heads and concrete pipe reinforced with steel can only be used for moderate
heads. So far reinforced concrete pipe has been used only where pressure
heads are under 100 feet, and some manufacturers of reinforced concrete
pipe will guarantee them for heads as large as 150 feet. But it can not be
expected that cement pipe will replace wooden pipe where pressures are
large and as much of the land covered by irrigation systems in British Co-
lumbia is irregular and the surface has a steep slope which often produces
high pressures, the use of reinforced concrete pipe can not be adopted in
general. For such locations wooden pipes, especially if they can be kept
full and protected from freezing, are the best solution. On steep slopes
which are fairly uniform with no deep depressions, it is possible to so regu-
late the pressure that cement pipes can be used.

During the past two years some of the irrigation companies of British
Columbia have realized the economy of improved method of construction
and some of the work which has been done and is being done is equal to
any in the country. Excellent examples of permanent construction are
found on the systems of the Kelowna Irrigation Company and the South
Kelowna Company, near Kelowna, and the Fruitlands Irrigation and Power
Company, near Kamloops. Some of the systems installed and others which

32

are in the process of construction will cost upwards of $50 an acre and
probably as high as $100 an acre. Those systems which are installed and
which consist largely of wooden flumes or wooden pipes, will before very
long require renewal to a large extent, and where these systems have
passed in to the hands of municipalities this cost of renewal will have to be
met directly by the farmers or fruit growers of the municipality. The in-
formation given in the following pages will, it is hoped, be of assistance in
the reconstruction of old systems and in the installation of new systems.
The subject has been subdivided and is taken up in the following order:

1st. Seepage losses in canals.

2nd. Canal linings to prevent seepage losses.

3rd. Steel flumes.

4th. Plain concrete pipes.

5th. Reinforced concrete pipes.

CONVEYANCE LOSSES OF WATER IX ( AXALS.

All irrigators are well acquainted with the fact that the losses in con-
veying water in earth canals are in many cases very large and with newly
excavated canals are often so great that it is difficult to deliver water at the
lower end. On irrigation systems with unlined canals these losses usually
range from 25 to 60 per cent, of the water diverted and taken in the canal
system, and there are many instances where the losses are much greater.
In two miles of canal of the Canyon Creek Irrigation Company, near Ke-
lowna, the losses amounted to 60 per cent, of the water entering the canal.
This is not an exceptional case for on some California canals losses of 64
per cent, per mile have been observed. It is safe to state that on an irri-
gation system consisting of earth ditches, only 50 per cent, of the water
diverted is delivered to the fields.

The water lost by seepage disappears through some underground drain-
age channel or raises the water table of the lands adjacent to and below
the canal. This causes the waterlogging of the land or accumulation of
alkali salts on the surface. This effect, combined with wasteful irrigation,
has been the cause of over ten per cent, of the irrigated lands of the West
becoming unfit for crop production. On one project in eastern Washington
after only the first irrigation season considerable land was waterlogged and
in some portions the water table had risen sufficiently to cover the land sev-
eral feet deep. These damages alone, in many cases, justify the expense of
lining the canals. But even if injury by waterlogging is not considered,
there are many localities where the water is sufficiently valuable to make
the lining of canals to stop the loss of water a paying proposition. The
amount of money which one is justified in spending will be in proportion
to the extent of the losses.
1. — Extent of Seepage Losses in Canals.

The extent of seepage losses depends on many factors such as porosity
of the soil, the form of cross section, the size of the canal, the number of
seasons the canal has been operated, the amount of silt in the water, the
velocity of flow, the depth to the water table, etc.

The most valuable general observations as regards the amount of these
losses are those of the Irrigation Investigations Office of the United States
Department of Agriculture. From series of measurements on seventy-three
ditches in the western states, they have found that the average loss per mile
of ditch is 5.77 per cent, of the entire flow; the measurements range from
a maximum of 64 per cent, per mile to a slight gain in a few cases. Large

Fig. 24. — Concrete lined canal of Fruitlands Irrigation and
Power Company, Kamloops, B. C.

Fig. 2.%. — Concrete lined canal of Fruit lands Irrigation and
Power Company, Kamloups, II. C.

Fig. 26.— Concrete lined canal of Kelowna Irrigation Co.,
Kelowna, B. C.

27. — Method of using forms for backfilling to prepare canal for
concrete lining, Fruitlauds Irrigation System,
Kamloops, It. C.

Fig. 28. — Earth canal ready for concrete lining, Fruitlands Irrigation
System, Kamloops, B. C.

Fig. .'JO.- — I 'onus in position for concrete lining, l<'ruii lamls Irrigation
"System, Kamloops, B. C.

Fig. 31. — Construction of concrete lining, Kelowna Irrigation
Company, Kelowna, B. C.

33

canals in general lose less in proportion than small ones. The measure-
ments show that the loss per mile averages about 1 per cent, for canals
carrying 100 cubic feet per second or more, about 2y2 per cent, for canals
carrying 50 to 100 cubic feet per second, 4% per cent, for canals carrying
25 to 50 cubic feet per second, and i'l % per cent, for canals carrying less
than 25 cubic feet per second.

For some purposes it is preferable to know the extent of seepage ex-
pressed in cubic feet of water per day per square foot of wetted area of the
•canal. This is equivalent to stating the depth of water in feet lost each day.
A number of measurements have been made in various parts of the country
and some of these have been assembled by P. W. Hanna, Project Engineer
•of Boise U. S. Reclamation Service Project, in Idaho, who states that from
careful consideration of the data assembled, it would appear that a seepage
loss of 0.5, 1 and 1.5 cubic feet per square foot wetted surface per day might
be assumed for canal losses respectively for rather impervious, mediumly
pervious and rather pervious soils. Based on the above figures and as-
•suming a common form of cross section, he obtains the following results as
the seepage loss per mile expressed as per cent, of flow.

Capacity of Loss in per cent of flow per mile

canal. „•

'Cubic feet For rather imper- Mediumly pervious Rather pervious

per sec. vious soil. soil. soil.

1C or less 4 8 12

11 to 25 2.5 4.5 7

•26 to 50 1.5 3. 4.5

51 to 75 1. 2. 3.

76 to 100 .75 1.5 2.5 .

The above table gives results which agree with those obtained by the
Irrigation Investigations Office as closely as can be expected because of the
numerous factors involved.
2. — Evaporation Loss From Water Surface of Canals.

The losses above stated include seepage and evaporation, but contrary to
the general belief, the losses of evaporation from flowing water in a canal
•are insignificant when compared with those of seepage. It has been shown
that the losses of seepage and evaporation per day might be assumed at
0.5, 1 and 1.5 cubic feet of water per square foot of wetted surface, respec-
tively for rather impervious, mediumly pervious and rather pervious soil.
These are equivalent to losses of water 6, 12 and 18 inches deep. As com-
pared to these figures, the evaporation from water surface for the irrigation
season will generally be about ^4 of an inch per day, which is from 25 to
75 times less than the above seepage losses. Seepage and evaporation
measurements made at Twin Falls, Idaho, and reported by Elias Nelson
(Bulletin 58, University of Idaho) show that the evaporation ranged from
less than 1 per cent, to less than 2 per cent, of the total loss in the canals.
On one of the largest systems in the San Joaquin Valley, California, the
total length of canals is 165 miles and the total seepage loss was 28 per
cent, and 30 times greater than the evaporation loss. These and other
numerous experiments show that the evaporation losses in the conveyance
of water are so small as compared with the seepage losses that they are of
no importance.

PREVENTION OF SEEPAGE LOSSES IN CANALS.

To prevent the loss of water in conveyance lining the canals with differ-
ent materials has been tried. Those used or experimented with are con-

34

crete, wood, asphalt, oils, and clay puddle. A good lining should fulfill the
following requirements: it should be water tight, prevent the growth of
weeds, stop burrowing animals, be strong and durable, and preferably not
affected by the tramping of cattle. From investigations made by the writer
in 1906 and from more recent experience as regards the efficiency of the
different types of linings, the following results can be anticipated:

1st. A good oil lining constructed with heavy asphalt road oil applied"
on the ditch sides and bed at the rate of about 3 gallons per square yard,
will stop 50 to 60 per cent, of the seepage.

2nd. A well constructed clay puddle lining is as efficient as a good
oil lining.

3rd,- A thin cement mortar lining about 1 inch thick, made of one part
cement to four of sand, will prevent 75 per cent, of the seepage.

4th. A first-class concrete lining, 3 inches thick, made of one part of
cement to two of sand and four of gravel, will stop 95 per cent, of the
seepage.

5th. A wooden lining when new is as efficient as a concrete lining, but
after two or three years, repairs and maintenance will become an important
item and by the end of eight or ten years, it will necessitate complete
renewal.

The cost of an oil lining where oil can be bought at California prices
(about 2 cents a gallon) is about % cent per square foot. Cement mortar
lining 1 inch thick costs about 3 to 4 cents per square foot. Cement con-
crete 2 inches thick costs about 6 cents and 3 inches thick about 8 cents a
square foot. These prices do not include the trimming and preparation of
the ditch before the lining is put on, which would add from % to 1 *£ cents
per square foot. The cost of a clay lining depends greatly on the nearness
of the canal to suitable clay. If clay is close at hand, it can be hauled and
spread on the canal, then either tramped in by cattle or worked in by drag-
ging over it, at a cost of less than 1 cent per square foot, but there are
localities where the writer has seen enough money spent on clay linings to
pay for a good concrete lining. Wooden lining has been used in very few
cases and the cost of such a lining built of 2 inch lumber nailed on sills and
side yokes will not be less than that of a 2 inch concrete lining and not
nearly as durable.

The disadvantages of the cheaper linings are the following: An oil lin-
ing stops only a part of the seepage losses, and while it will resist erosion
well, it probably will not prevent the growth of weeds for more than one
season unless a high velocity is used, and it will not stop the activities of
burrowing animals. Another serious objection is that suitable oil would
be hard to obtain in British Columbia at a reasonable cost. Oil linings have
not been sufficiently tested to determine their durability.

Clay puddle will not prevent the burrowing of animals, and weeds grow
rapidly, especially since the velocity of the water must be small in order to
prevent the eroding or washing of the lining.

A concrete lining has none of the above disadvantages and it meets the
requirements of a good lining better than any other material. The only
objection is its higher first cost. This, however, can be partly balanced,
especially on side hill work, where a new canal is to be constructed, by using,
a higher velocity and a smaller cross section, thus decreasing the cost of
excavation. Where an old canal must have its capacity enlarged, this may
be done either by lining the canal which will gfve a higher velocity because

35

•of the smoothness of the channel, or by increasing the cross section by ex-
cavation. The cost of extra excavation, especially on side hills through hard
material, may be greater than the cost of lining.

Concrete lining will usually prove to be the most economical type of
lining to use in British Columbia. ' However, where good clay is available
;and where it is not financially feasible to use concrete, clay puddle may be
msed to advantage in improving leaky earth canals when the velocity of flow
is under 3 feet per second.

1. — Concrete linings.

The earliest use of concrete linings was in southern California about
1880 when the increasing value of water made it necessary to do away with
losses. Since that time practically all of their canals, which are compara-
tively small, carrying less than 100 cubic feet per second, have been lined
with concrete and in some cases replaced with concrete pipes. Until re-
cently very little concrete lining had been done outside of that region, but
during the last few years concrete lined canals have been constructed on
many of the projects of the United States Reclamation Service and on
numerous private projects. There are now several examples in California,
Oregon, Nevada, Washington, Idaho and other states and during the past
two years some excellent work has been done in British Columbia. The
Fruitlands Irrigation and Power Company near Kamloops has lined about
6 miles of its main canal which averages 3y2 feet in depth, 4 feet wide at
the bottom and 7 % feet wide at the top, with an average thickness of con-
crete of 3 inches and when the system is completed there will be about 15
miles of concrete lined canal. (Pigs. 24, 25). The Kelowna Irrigation
Company, near Kelowna, has lined the upper 5 miles of its main canal, 2*/2
feet deep, 3 feet wide at the bottom, and 5 y2 feet wide at the top, with 3
inches of concrete (Pig. 26). The remaining 7 miles of the canal, which is
1.5 feet deep, 2 feet wide at the bottom and 4% feet wide at the top, is
lined with 2 inches of concrete.

Form of cross section, and thickness of lining.

Unlined canals in earth are usually constructed broad and shallow with
the side slopes varying according to the character of the soil. This may be
as steep as y2 horizontal to 1 vertical for hardpan or very firm soil, or as
flat as 2 to 3 horizontal to 1 vertical for loose sandy soil. For a lined canal
it is more economical to use a comparatively narrow deep section and fairly
steep side slopes. This reduces the excavation and the amount of concrete.
The side slopes must not be much steeper than the slope on which the
•ground will stand or the earth pressure may be sufficient to push the sides
in and break the lining. The side slope and the thickness of the lining are
dependent upon each other and they vary with the depth of the canal, the
character of the soil and the method of construction. Generally the flatter
the side slopes, the thinner can the lining be made. In southern California
fairly satisfactory results have been obtained on many systems with linings
1 inch or less in thickness. But because of extremes in temperature and
the low winter temperature, it is probable that such thin linings would not
be very satisfactory in British Columbia. There are no good examples of
very thin linings built where the winter temperature is low. The writer
has seen four miles of canal in eastern Washington lined with y2 to 1%
inches of concrete. The lining was rather badly cracked, but this was
largely due to poor workmanship. It made it possible, however, to carry
water over this length of canal which was impossible before its construction.

36

For the ordinary conditions in British Columbia the following thickness
of concrete lining and side slopes should be used. For a canal 2 to 4 feet
deep excavated in an ordinary firm soil which will stand naturally on a
slope not flatter than 1 or 1 y2 horizontal to 1 vertical, use a concrete lining
not less than 3 inches thick built on a slope of ^horizontal to 1 vertical, or
a lining not less than 2 inches thick built on a slope of 1 horizontal to 1
vertical. For loose soil which will stand naturally on a slope of 2 or 3
horizontal to 1 vertical use a 3 inch lining placed on a slope of 1 vertical
to 1 horizontal. For canals 12 to 18 inches deep use a minimum thickness
of 2 inches.

When side slopes of % horizontal to 1 vertical are used, the form of
cross section requiring the least concrete will have a bottom width equal
to 94-100 of the square root of the area in square feet and a depth equal to
76-100 of the square root of the area. When the side slopes are 1 horizontal
to 1 vertical, the bottom width and depth will be 61-100 and 74-100 respec-
tively of the square root of area.
Shrinkage and expansion.

No matter what the thickness is, unless the concrete is reinforced with
steel, or expansion joints provided, cracks are to be expected because of the
contraction or shrinkage in the winter. These cracks will usually be fine
cracks occurring at more or less regular intervals and the leakage through
them will be small and often silt up. For better appearance and to dis-
tribute the cracks at uiform intervals, the lining shoud be laid in sections
or strips 6 to 8 feet long.
Effect of frost.

Frost should have no effect on the lining if the soil is well drained. But
when the soil contains water, freezing will produce heaving of the soil which
will not be resisted even by thicker linings than those recommended.
Usually a canal which must be lined is located where the water drains too
readily from the soil, but if the canal is located where water is liable to
collect behind the lining, a drain should be provided. The drain should be
a 3 or 4 inch tile placed below the floor of the canal lining in a trench 12
inches deep, located along the center line of the canal and the tile covered
preferably with loose rock, gravel, sand, or other porous material. To dis-
charge the water collected cross drains should be placed every 400 or 500
feet or wherever there is a drainage channel. The tile may be omitted and
the trench filled entirely with rock or gravel but this is not as efficient.
Method of construction of concrete linings.

The details of construction in lining canals usually vary with the ideas
and judgment of the men in charge of construction. There are two general
methods of construction.

The first method of construction requires forms behind which the con-
crete is placed. The second method requires no forms, the concrete being
spread on the bottom and sides of the canal much in the same manner as
for sidewalk work. The first method is used when the side slopes are
steeper than 1 horizontal to 1 vertical. The second method is used for side
slopes of 1 to 1 or flatter.

Construction of concrete lining by means of forms.

This method has been used by the Fruitlands Irrigation and Power Com-
pany, near Kamloops, by the Kelowna Irrigation Company and the South
Kelowna Irrigation Company. It has also been used extensively on a num-

37

ber of canals in southern California. It is well adapted to canals less than
8 or 10 feet wide at the top. The method is as follows:

For a new canal the excavation is made about 6 inches larger on each
side than the finished earth section when ready to receive the lining. For
an old earth canal all vegetable matter is removed and if necessary more
material taken out in tlie same manner as for a new canal. In each case
the bottom is brought carefully to grade. To shape the canal ready for the
lining, the means used on the canals of Fruitlands Irrigation system near
Kamloops were wooden forms 6 feet long. These forms are placed in posi-
tion in the €xcaavted section as shown in Fig. 27, earth is thrown in be-
tween the form and the earth bank and well puddled with plenty of water
which was pumped for this purpose. This was found much better and more
economical in labor than tamping the earth. Even when using a very wet
mud, the ground drains sufficiently to allow the removal of the forms next
morning. This leaves a very smooth ditch with moist banks ready to
receive the concrete lining (Fig 28). The wooden form is a trapezoidal
trough with no bottom; the sides are tongue and groove or shiplap boards
nailed to frames made of 2 in. x 4 in. scantlings cross braced for rigidity.

To place the concrete forms similar to the earth forms are used (Fig.
29). This concrete form is smaller than the earth form by the thickness
of the lining and is built so as to give a greater thickness of concrete at the

/,n«<J Cana/ w/U
concrete form

fined CanaJ-

Concrete form
for can a/.

METHOD or co/yctfr£- un i no CANALS WITH roK.ns

HS U3E-D BY FR.UITLAHDS IK.H16ATION AND

CO.. LTD
Fig. 29.

38

corners where the floor and sides come together. The concrete work follows
shortly after the earth forms are taken off when the banks are still moist.
The concrete forms are placed in position in the finished earth ditch, but
instead of placing them continuously as the earth forms, only every alter-
nate form is put in place (Pig. 30) ; then the concrete, which is mixed wet,
is placed between the form and the earth and well- stirred or cut with thin
bars. To protect the earth slope when pouring the concrete mixture, it is
well to cover the earth slope with thin galvanized iron sheets, which are
pulled up as the concrete is poured in. The sides and bottom are put in
at the same time. This gives a good connection at the corners which is very
desirable. To do this it is necessary to block the forms above the ground
by 3 inches (the thickness of the lining). To hold the concrete at the
ends of the sides and also to hold the form the right distance away from the
earth side, 2 inch by 3 inch pieces are placed edgewise between the earth
slope and the wooden forms. When the sections have hardened the forms
are removed and moved ahead to the adjacent section. In order that the
ends of the form will rest on the two adjacent completed sections the forms
should bea little longer than 6 feet (the length of a section), preferably 6
feet 6 inches. After the removal of the forms the concrete must be pre-
vented from drying out too quickly, this may be done by protecting it with
burlap kept wet by sprinkling or by letting water in the completed section
as soon as possible. It is preferable to keep the concrete moist for several
days after the removal of the forms.

The proper handling of the forms especially on rough side hill work
will materially affect the cost. When the lining is started from the upper
end of a canal and the work progresses downstream, probably the most
economical manner is to place the forms in position for a length of canal
which can be lined in one day and begin the concrete work at the down-
stream end and extend it upstream. The concrete at the downstream end
hardens first and this allows the removal of the downstream forms which
are carried downstream in the ditch and placed in position at a distance
from their previous position equal to the length of canal lined in one set-
ting of the forms. This procedure allows continuous work and does away
with the necessity for carrying the forms around the side hill.
Joints.

The lining is done in strips in order that all contraction cracks will occur
at the joints which are places of weakness. To separate the sections more
distinctly the edges of the sections may be painted with oil or a strip of
tarred paper may be used. By using short sections the contraction cracks
are very small and the seepage through them is negligib.e. It is probable
that the. cracks in most cases will silt up.
Expansion joints.

Ordinarily expansion joints are not necessary but there are some classes
of soil in which any seepage through cracks will cause the settlement of the
soil and destroy the lining, in which case it may be desirable to do away
with all open joints to prevent seepage by using some form of expansion
joint. This, however, is quite uncommon but occasionally occurs where the
soil has probably been formed from the coarser material carried by the
flood waters of a heavy cloudburst and deposited in small fan shaped val-
leys or benches. The lack of rainfall and of the occurrence of further
cloudburst, has left the soil in an unsettled condition and any seepage
water passing through the concrete lining may carry off the finer soil par-
ticles into the subsoil below and cause a settlement.

39

For these conditions it may be advisable to use expansion joints spaced
about 12 feet apart and omit all other joints. However, the writer believes
that the soil can be thoroughly settled by running water in the excavated
canal prior to the construction of the lining. The expansion joint, if de-
sired, could be made by imbedding in the edges of the adjacent section a
metal tongue about 4 inches wide! This tongue may be of galvanized iron
well painted with oil to prevent adhesion of the concrete.
Method used near Kelowna by Kelowna Irrigation Company.

The method was very similar to the one described above. The main
difference was that no separate earth forms were used. The concrete forms
were placed in position in the excavated ditch and galvanized iron metal
plates were put outside of the concrete form and held away from it by
pieces of timber of the thickness of the lining (Pig. 31). The earth back-
filling was placed against these plates and the concrete was poured in be-
tween the plates and the concrete forms. The plates and pieces of timber
were pulled out as fast as the concrete was poured in.

The above methods of lining by means of forms are limited to side slopes
steeper than 1 to 1, because when using a wet mixture even with side slopes
between % to 1 and 1 to 1, the forms will tend to raise. Bolting the forms
together will help to "keep them in position.
Construction of concrete lining without forms.

This method of construction has not been used in British Columbia but
it is used extensively on irrigation canals in California and other states
where concrete lining was necessary. It is the method to use for side slopes
of 1 to 1 or flatter and is well adapted to large canals. While the first
method is usually preferable for new canals on side hills, because steeper
side slopes can be used, the second method may be preferable in the valley
or in level land and especially in loose sandy soil which will stand naturally
on slopes of 2 horizontal to 1 vertical or more.

The method used in preparing the excavated earth canal for the lining
and in applying the concrete lining varies. One of the best methods which
has been used by the Gage Canal Company of Riverside, California, is
as follows:

Preparation of earth canal (Fig. 32). Place the grade stakes 20 feet
apart along one side of the ditch at a distance of 1 foot from the top of the
sloping side. Hold a level rod or cross section rod across the ditch with one
end resting on the grade stake, set the corresponding grade stake on the
other side and put the bottom stakes in position by measuring down from
this rod. By means of these stakes the bottom is cut to grade. To trim
the side slopes, iron strips 1 inch wide, % inch thick and of suitable length
are driven edgewise in the sloping sides 3 feet apart, and extending up and
down the slopes. The lower ends of these bars are placed in line by means
of a line stretched between the bottom grade stakes and the proper slope
is given to the bars by using a specially constructed slope level, which con-
sists of a wooden rod on which a level bubble is placed, the bubble coming
to the center when the rod is on the desired slope. The iron bars when in
position, are guides for a sharp iron straight edge with which all irregu-
larities are shaved off and hollow places filled in and well tamped.

A modification of this method would be to locate the top and bottom
grade stakes by means of a templet of the same form as the finished ditch,
the templet being equipped with a plumb bob or spirit level will indicate
when it is in position (Fig. 33). Then stretch longitudinal lines between
the stakes and grade approximately to these lines and finish the dressing

40

Slope rod

METHOD Of TRIHMIN& C0IVAL US CD OA/ GH&G CfiHflL,

FlK. 32.

TEMPLET

METHOD

Flg. 33.

41

by placing flatwise 2 inch by 4 inch timbers across the slopes at the dis-
tance desired and with a straight edge tamp and level the earth between.

It is important to remove all deposits of vegetable character and the
sides and bottom must be well settled to prevent the cracking of the lining.
It is well to run water in the diteh before the ditch is prepared and lined.

The placing of the concrete should follow the trimming as soon as pos-
sible and if the channel is dry it should be thoroughly moistened by sprink-
ling. The concrete lining is built in alternate strips or panels. To place
the concrete wooden guide pieces of the thickness of the lining are laid
across the side slopes at the required distance apart which may be 3 feet
or more. The concrete is spread between these studdings and raked to
about a uniform thickness, tamped and made smooth and level by means
of a straight edge resting on the guide timbers. The floor is finished in
the same manner. Fig. 34 shows the completed canal.

Cost of concrete linings.

The cost of concrete lining varies a great deal with the accessibility of
the canal, the material through which the canal is cut, the planning of the
work, the efficiency of the construction force, the price of labor and
material.

The cost of lining with forms is given by the following examples.

The Anaheim Union Water Company of southern California, which has
many miles of concrete lined canal, obtained the following unit cost for
1,000 feet of a canal 9 feet wide at the top, 6 feet wide at the bottom and
3 feet deep, lined with average thickness of concrete of about 3 to 31/&
inches, with the corner at the bottom made thicker.

170 barrels of cement at $2.70 ......................................... $ 460.00

170 cubic yards of gravel at 65c ........................ . .............. 110.00

Labor of backfilling using earth form .................................. 254.00

Labor of placing with concrete form .................................. 212.00

$1,036.00

Cost oer lineal foot, including backfilling-, $1.036.
Cost per square foot, including- backfilling, $0.0818.

For 4,070 feet of a smaller canal 2% feet wide at the top, 1 foot wide at
the bottom and l1/^ feet deep, lined with 2 inches thickness of concrete,
the cost was:

Total cost
Material. for

4070 feet.

180 barrels of cement at $2.40 .......................................... $432.00

180 cubic yards of gravel at $1.25 ................................. . ..... 225.00

Total labor for backfilling, mixing and placing concrete ................. 270.06

$927.06

Cost per lineal foot, including backfilling, $0.228.
Cost per square foot, including backfilling, $0.0526.

The wages paid were:

$1.75 per day for men using earth form and backfilling.

$2.00 per day for men mixing and placing concrete.

$3.00 per day for foreman.

These costs include only the cost of materials in the concrete and the

42

labor, but do not include cost of engineering, depreciation and interest on
cost of forms and plant. These items would be small for the work was
done under the supervision of the superintendent of the company who is
paid largely for other duties, and the cost of forms and plant was small.
The wages and cost of cement are low and the canal was easily accessible,
making the cost of lining lower than could be obtained in British Columbia.
On the system of the Fruitlands Irrigation and Power Company, near
Kamloops, the cost of lining 12,000 feet of canal 4 feet wide at the bottom,

3 V2 feet deep, and 7 *£ feet wide at the top with 3 inches of concrete aver-
aged as follows:

Hauling forms, placing forms, backfilling with earth forms.. $ .18 per lineal foot

Cost of cement 50 " " "

Cost of sand and gravel 16 " " "

Cost of placing concrete forms, mixing and placing concrete .30 " " "
Gasoline for concrete mixers 01 " "

$1.25

Cost per lineal foot, including backfilling, $1.25.
Cost per square foot, including backfilling, $0.105.

The concrete used was a mixture of 1 part of cement to 3 of sand and

4 of gravel. The cement cost $3.40 delivered on the job. The above cost
was obtained where the canal was easily accessible along the foothills and
the forms and concrete mixer could be easily moved along the banks of the
canal. The cost of engineering, administration, interest and depreciation
on cost of plant are not included in the cost.

On several thousand feet of canal where the canal was excavated on a
steep rocky side hill, it was very difficult to deliver the concrete and the
total cost of the above items was $1.72 per lineal foot or 14^ cents per
square foot.

On the system of the Kelowna Irrigation Company, which has about 12
miles of lined canal, no separate form was used for backfilling the earth;
instead metal plates were held away from the concrete forms by studding
of the thickness of the concrete inserted between concrete forms and the
plate as described above. The cost of lining 24,000 feet of main canal, 3
feet wide at the bottom, 2^ feet deep, and 5^ feet wide at the top gave
the following average cost:

Making rock drain below floor, hauling forms, placing forms

and backfilling $ .21 per lineal foot

Cost of cement and hydrated lime 47 " " "

Cost of sand and crushed rock 16 " " "

Mixing and placing concrete 49 " "

Miscellaneous 03 " " "

Cost per lineal foot $1.36

Cost per square foot 158

The concrete was a mixture of 1 part of cement to 3 of sand and 5 of
crushed rock. Cement cost $3.20 to $4.10 delivered. The wages were
$2.75 per day of 10 hours for common labor and $3.50 to $5.00 for skilled
labor. The cost of engineering, which included location of the canal and
the cost of depreciation and superintendence, brought the total cost to
17.73 cents per square foot. As the cost of lining only is considered here the
cost of location should not be added. The higher cost per square foot ob-
tained in this case was due to the higher cost of cement, the necessity for
building roads to deliver material and move forms and mixer aleng the

43

canal and to the placing of a rock drain under the floor of the canal. It
was also necessary to rush the work and this probably increased the cost.

The South Kelowna system has started during this summer to excavate
and line the upper part of their main canal which is in very difficult ground
on very rocky and steep hillside, in some places the excavation alone costing
over $3 a lineal foot. The canal was very inaccessible, requiring the con-
struction of expensive roads to deliver the material and move the mixers.
The forms were carried considerable distance around the bluff. This and
other difficulties as well as the high cost of cement, brought the cost very
high. Cement cost about $5.25 a barrel delivered at the mixer, and was
mixed with 4 parts of sand and 5 parts of crushed rock. The canal was 3
feet wide at the bottom, 3 feet 3 inches deep and 6 feet 3 inches wide at the
top. The lining 3 inches >thick /cost about $2.15< a linear footer; about 21
cents per square foot.
Cost of lining without forms.

The main canal on the Gage Canal system near Riverside, California,
has a bottom width which varies from 5 to 10 ft. and a depth from 3^ to
4 feet and side slopes of 1 to 1. The contract cost for trimming the canal
and placing the lining of cement mortar % to 1 inch thick was from 3%
to 4 cents per square foot. This work, however, was done many years ago
when labor was cheaper.

The Burbank Power and Water Company of Washington has recently
lined 4,100 feet of the main canal which has a bottom width of 6 feet 6
inches, a depth of 2y2 feet and a top width of 14 feet. The lining is 2%
inches thick for the bottom and 3 inches thick for the sides. At the top
of the sides the lining extends horizontally for 6 inches to form a coping.
The concrete was mixed in the proportion of 1 part of cement to 2 of sand
and 4 of gravel. The lining was finished by painting with a thin mixture
of 1 part of cement to 1 of sand. The contract price was $12.50 a cubic
yard or about ll1/^ cents a square foot.

The U. S. Reclamation Service has lined 6 miles of the Main South Side
Canal on the Boise Project in Idaho, with a concrete lining 4 inches thick.
The canal is 40 feet wide at the bottom, 8 feet deep and 64 feet wide at the
top. The concrete mixture was 1 part of cement to 3 of sand and 6 of
gravel. A finishing coat of cement mortar was floated over the concrete to
give it a smooth surface. The work was done at a cost of a little less than
10 cents a square foot excluding the cost of preparing the foundation.

These and many other examples show that for either method of con-
struction and with average conditions and average prices, a concrete lining
3 inches thick should cost from 10 to 15 cents, including cost of backfilling
or trimming the ditch to prepare it for the concrete lining and all cost of
engineering, depreciation and interest on the equipment necessary for the
work. A concrete lining 2 inches thick should cost from 7 to 12 cents.
The lower cost in each case should be obtained with very favorable con-
ditions.
Economy of concrete linings.

While concrete linings have many advantages, it is not an economical
proposition to line canals indiscriminately without considerng all the fac-
tors upon which a decision should be based. The problem resolves itself to
a comparison between the cost and the benefits derived. The factors which
must be considered are (1) cost of construction, (2) cost of maintenance
and operation, (3) damages due to waterlogging and alkali, and (4) value
of water loss.

44

When a new canal is to be constructed the choice between an unlined
canal and a concrete lined canal will depend largely on the first cost of
construction. When there is sufficient fall available, a concrete lined canal
can be given a steeper grade than an unlined canal which could not resist
the erosion due to high velocity. The steep grade and also the smoother
cross section will give a high velocity which will make the necessary size
of the canal much smaller. The concrete lined ditch can also be given
steeper side slopes which will decrease the excavation. For these reasons,
the amount of excavation, especially on side hill work, will be much smaller
for the concrete lined canal than for the unlined canal. This will reduce
the cost of excavation sufficiently to balance for at least part of the cost of
lining, and in some cases where the excavation is in hard material, the con-
crete lined canal may cost less than an unlined canal. Where there is not
sufficient fall available to give the lined canal a steep grade, the com-
parison will not be quite as favorable but even then a lined canal because
of its smooth bed and sides will have a greater velocity than an unlined
canal on the same grade, and therefore a smaller cross section, and on side
hill work in hard material the saving in cost of excavation will be con-
siderable. Other benefits which must be considered are the decreased cost
of maintenance and operation and the greater safety. There are no weeds
to contend with, no breaks to mend and consequently the cost of patrolling
is eliminated. To this must be added the value of the water saved and the
prevention of waterlogging of the land below a leaky ditch. These benefits
can not be closely estimated when a new canal is to be constructed but
should be considered before deciding the feasibility of a concrete lining.

With existing canals the problem is to prevent the seepage losses or to
increase carrying capacity by either enlarging the canal or by lining it
with concrete. The extent of the seepage losses can be obtained by meas-
urements, the damages done to adjacent land below and the maintenance
of the canal are fairly well known and will furnish sufficient data to esti-
mate what can reasonably be spent in concrete lining. When the capacity
of the canal must be increased, the choice is between making a larger un-
lined canal or to use a lined canal of smaller cross section which will have
a higher velocity because of the smoothness of the sides and bed. There
are many cases where the value of the water loss alone will justify the im-
provement of the canals by lining. This is obtained when the value of the
water loss will be equal to or larger than the depreciation and interest on
the capital invested. As an illustration, if a canal carrying 50 cubic feet
per second throughout the irrigation of 4 months or 120 days, loses 3 per
cent, per mile, which is not excessive, this loss is equal to a continuous flow
of 1.5 cubic feet per second or 3 acre feet, which gives a total of 360 acre
feet whose value at $1.50 an acre foot is $540. For this case we would be
justified in spending per mile a capital, the interest of which plus depreci-
ation is equal to $540. If we assume interest and depreciation at 8 per
cent., the capital is about $6,700. In most cases this would be more than
enough to build a concrete lined canal of that carrying capacity, depending
on the velocity which can be used.

STEEL FLUMES.

During the past two seasons several miles of steel flumes have been used
on the irrigation systems of the Kelowna Irrigation Company and of the
Fruitlands Irrigation and Power Company, near Kamloops. The flumes are
semi-circular and are made of metal sheets curved in a semi-circular form
with a bead or corrugated groove rolled in each edge of the sheet. The

45

sheets are put tegether by means of an interlocking joint formed by over-
lapping the edges which fit over each other. The joint is made tight by
means of a curved rod which fits on the outside of the corrugated groove
and a curved bevelled bar or small channel on the inside. The steel rods
carry the weight of the flume. The ends are threaded for nuts and pass
through the carrier or tie beams which are supported on stringers usually
about 16 feet long. The stringers rest on trestle bents to which they are
connected by bolts. By screwing the nuts the outside rod is drawn firmly
against the flume and the channel or bar presses on the inside making a
water tight joint. The method of construction and the completed flume are
shown by Figs.

There are two makes of flume on the market, one known as the Maginnis
galvanized steel flume, sold by the Maginnis Flume Co., Ideal Building,
Denver, Colorado; the other known as the Hess flume, sold by the Hess
Flume Company, First National Bank Building, Denver, Colorado. The
first type of flume has been used in British Columbia. The second type has
been developed only recently. The construction is very similar, differing
•only in the method of forming the interlocking joint. ' The Maginnis flume
has a small channel which fits on the inside of the flume at each joint,
while the Hess flume has a bevelled bar which fits in the groove. The
Hess flume is made in sizes ranging from a diameter of 15^4 inches to 12
leet 9 inches, the Maginnis flume in sizes ranging from 15 inches to 10 feet
2 inches. The capacities given in the catalogues are for the flumes running
full with no free board or clearance between the water level and the edges
of the sheets. The purchaser should consider this and obtain a flume of
ample capacity. The Hess flume has a greater capacity than the same size
Maginnis flume because of the form of interlocking joint. The inside chan-
nel of the Maginnis flume projects above the inside/ surface of the metal
.sheets, while the outside surface of the bevelled bar of the Hess flume is
flush with the inside surface of the sheets.

The metal used is either galvanized iron or steel sheets or some metal
such as Ingot Iron or Toncan metal. These last two metals are a grade oi
iron in which all impurities found in ordinary steel or iron have been elim-
inated as far as possible. The resulting metal has the property of resisting
rust or corrosion much better than the common or galvanized iron and
•steel. The cost of the better grade of metal is 'not much higher and it
should be used in all cases.

As regards economy, the first cost of a metal flume will be higher than
that of a wooden flume, but its greater durability as well as its water tight-
ness will make its ultimate cost lower.

PLAIN CONCRETE PIPE NOT REINFORCED.

During the past thirty years cement pipes from 6 to 36 inches in diam-
eter have been used very extensively in southern California where the
scarcity and value of water have necessitated its most economical use and
have justified the expense of putting in the best form of construction. On
many systems the open ditches, especially the laterals, have been entirely
replaced by cement pipes. Several hundred miles of cement pipes are now
in use and it will not be many years before open ditches will have disap-
peared with the exception of some of the larger main canals. The advan-
tages which have led to their adoption are:

1st. They eliminate the losses of conveyance.

2nd. They do not occupy any land which can not be cultivated.

46

3rd. They do not interfere with traffic and cultivation.

4th. They do not collect the seeds of weeds and distribute them on the*
irrigated land.

5th. They minimize the cost of maintenance.

Where cement pipes have been found deficient it has almost always been
due to defects in the process of manufacturing. The use of cement pipes,
during the last few years has been extended to other states and there are
now many miles of pipe on some of the irrigation systems of eastern.
Oregon, eastern Washington, and Idaho. During the past two years several
miles of pipes have been manufactured by the Pruitlands Irrigation and
Power Company, near Kamloops, for use on the distribution lines of the
system.

The cement pipe so extensively used in southern California is made in:
sections two feet long. One end of the pipe tapers in and the other end
tapers out so that when two pipes are joined together they form a bevelled
lap joint. This form of joint is preferred to bell joint used for sewer pipes
because the outside of the pipe is straight and the pipe is easier to lay; it
also requires less material to manufacture. The pipe is made by means of
metal moulds in which a moist mixture of cement and sand or cement and
gravel is very carefully tamped. The mixture is comparatively dry in order
that the moulds may be removed to be used again immediately after the-
tamping is finished. This is necessary to obtain a large output with one set
of moulds and as much as 100 feet a day of 30 inch pipe and 500 to 400
feet of 6 to 8 inch pipe are made by experienced pipe men with one set.
After the pipe is made it is carefully cured by being kept moist for at least
one week and allowed to harden. At the end of a month it is ready to be-
laid and joined in the trench with cement mortar.

The sizes -commonly used are 6, 8 and 10 inches inside diameter for
private distributing line® and 10 to 30 or even 36 and 48 inches for the-
main lines of the irrigation system. The sizes to use in any case depend
on the desired carrying capacity and the grade or fall obtainable.

The cement pipe, as manufactured by this dry process, has not the same
strength nor is it as impermeable as a pipe made with a wet concrete and
can only be used to cross shallow depressions or where the pressure is
very moderate. The pressure head which it will safely stand depends on
the efficiency of the manufacturer, the mixture used and the diameter of"
the pipe. The writer recommends the following maximum values as safe
for pipes manufactured with care:

Diameter of pipe

Maximum

Pressure Head

in Feet.

in inches.

1 to 2 mixture.

1 to 3 mixture.

1 to 4 mixture.

12

20

15

12

14

' 20

15

12

16

18

14

10

18

18

14

10

20

16

12

8

24

16

10

g

30

12

8

g

By using unusual care, experienced pipe men can make pipe which will
stand safely 30 per cent, greater heads than those given in the above table.

The use of hand tamped non-reinforced pipe is therefore limited to low
pressures and great care must be used in planning and constructing pipe

OF THE
COLLEGE OF

lines in order that the safe pressures recommended above be not excee
and all sudden stresses or pulsations which are likely to occur where air is
allowed to accumulate in the pipe line must be prevented by providing
ample air vents or air inlets at all summits in the pipe line. These air in-
lets can be formed by cutting a hole ;n the pipe and cementing to it a ver-
tical stand pipe made of several sections of cement pipes, the lower end of
which is cut to saddle around the hole and the upper end extending above
the height to which water will rise.

1. — Manufacturing Hand Tamped Cement Pipes.
Mixtures used.

The best proportion to use depends on the material available. With
.good clean pit gravel containing about 50 to 60 per cent, sand, less cement-
can be used than with sand alone. The mixtures commonly used are 1 part
of cement to 4 parts of pit gravel and sand for pipes up to 18 inches in
diameter, and 1 part of cement to 3 parts of gravel and sand for larger
pipes. If crushed rock or screened gravel is used, a good mixture is 1 part
•of cement to 2 of sand and 3 or 4 of gravel or rock. No gravel or rock
larger than one-half the thickness of the pipe should be used. To make
the pipe more water tight 5 per cent, of the weight of cement in hydrated
lime is added. The sand and gravel must be free from dirt or organic
matter.

Mixing materials.

The mixing is very important. It is usually done by hand and in small
batches, but for a large plant concrete mixers are advisable. The ma-
terials are mixed by means of a hoe or with a shovel; they should be mixed
three times dry and three times wet. While it is desirable to use as much
water as possible, only sufficient water is added to the mixture to give the
consistency of damp earth which will retain its shape when squeezed in the
hand. When too much water is added the mix will stick to the mould
and the pipe will collapse when the mould is removed. In order to make
the ends smoother, some manufacturers use for the ends a finer and richer
mixture made of 1 part of cement to 2% or 3 of screened sand.
Process of moulding. (Pigs. 36, 37, 38).

The moulds consist of a set of base rings which are bevelled to form the
base of the pipe, an inside core, an outside jacket, a funnelled sheet iron
hopper, a rimmer or cast iron ring which fits around the inside core and
levelled on the inside edge, a tamping bar and a feeding scoop. The pipe
is usually made on a solid platform or levelled area. To set the mould in
position the inside core is placed inside of the base ring and clamped tight
to it by turning a lever, the outside jacket is placed around the base ring
and contracted by turning a lever. The hopper fits on the top of the out-
side jacket. The mortar is fed in the moulds and spread in thin layers of
one to two inches thick. Each layer must be carefully and uniformly
tamped all around the inside core in order that the core be not shifted and
the pipe made unequal in thickness. When the last layer has been tamped
a little extra material is placed all around the top and the hopper is re-
moved; the rimmer is then placed around the inside core, is jammed down
and revolved, at the same time pressing down on the pipe . The inside core
is now contracted and removed; the rimmer is taken off. If the pipe has
been made on a platform it is now carried by means of lifting hooks with
the jacket still clamped on the base ring and placed on level ground. The

48

jacket is now released and removed and the pipe left on the base ring until1
it has hardened. For large size pipe to avoid lifting and carrying the pipe,,
the base rings are placed on the levelled ground instead of on the platform.

Where the pipes have to be used for pressures slightly greater than
those given and especially for pipes above 18 inches in diameter, it is
advantageous to place in the moulds during the tamping process hoops of
ordinary wire about six inches apart. This permits using a slightly wetter
mixture and adds strength to the pipe without increasing the cost ma-
terially.

Considerable practice is necessary before satisfactory pipe can be made-
and many pipes will be broken before sufficient experience has been
acquired.
Curing the pipe.

When the process of moulding is completed the manufacturing is not
finished and the pipe may be ruined if not properly cured. The dry mix-
ture does not contain sufficient water for the cement to crystallize properly
and additional water must be supplied by sprinkling during the curing
period. The first sprinkling is done with a fine spray as soon as the pipe
has set sufficiently to stand it without washing. After this the pipe must
be kept continually moist by frequent sprinkling or by covering with wet
burlap or sacks for a period of at least one week and not be allowed to
dry or become white.
Coating the pipe.

To make the pipe less pervious it is usually coated on the inside with a
thin paste of neat cement. Some prefer to use a cement lime mixture
made of 2-3 cement and 1-3 lime. The coating of the smaller sizes of
pipes, 6 to 12 inches in diameter, is often obtained by dipping the m"pe in
the liquid. For the larger sizes of pipes the coating is applied with a fiber
brush. It is preferable to do this as soon as the pipe will stand the hand-
ling, usually when it is 24 hours old, at which time the base rings can be
removed. To lift the larger size pipes a lifting jacket which fits around the
pipe and tightens when the pipe is lifted, is often used.

Cost of moulds.

There are various makes of moulds, some of which are very cheap. A
good mould must be substantially made to withstand the tamping and must
be easily and quickly set in position and removed. The largest manufac-
turer of the moulds used in southern California and supplied to the U. S.
Reclamation Service for use on some of its projects is the Kellar and
Thomason Company of Los Angeles, California. Their list price in Cali-
fornia of a set of moulds for 6 inch pipe with 100 base rings is about $50;
for 12 inch pipe with 100 base rings, $82.50; for 18 inch pipe with 50 base-
rings, $94.25; for 24 inch pipe with 25 base rings, $107.50; and other
sizes in proportion.

Dimensions of cement pipes and rate of manufacturing.

The table given below gives the thickness of the pipe, the number of feet
made per barrel of cement, the number of men in one crew of pipe makers,
and the number of feet of pipe made per day. The number of men stated
is the number required for a large production. The number of feet per day
is not the maximum which may be obtained but is an average rate for good
experienced men. The 1 to 3 mixture requires about 2 % barrels of cement
per cubic yard of concrete. For the 1 to 4 mixture 1 3/i barrels of cement
per cubic yard are required.

Fig. 35. — Steel flume in process of construction, Fruitlands Irrigatioi
and Power Co., Kamloops, B. C.

Fig. 36. — Moulds for casting hand-tamped pipe, showing inside
core in position.

Pig. 37. — Process of tamping.

/•

39. — Method of laying and joining cement pipe.

Fig. 40. — Moulds for casting 46-Inch reinforced concrete pipe,
Umatilla Project, Oregon.

Fig. 41. — Process of casting pipe, Umatilla Project, Oregon.

Fig. 42. — Inside core and spiral reinforcement in position for castinj
30-inch reinforced concrete pipe, Umatilla Project, Oregon.

Fig. 43. — Placing concrete in moulds, Umatilla Project, Oregon.

• . .

Fig. 44. — Reel for making spiral reinforcement, I inalilla
Project, Oregon.

49

Cement Pipe Data.

Inside diameter Thickness
of pipe of pipe
in inches in inches

Nnmber of feet of pipe
made with 1 barrel of
cement

Men composing
one crew

Number of
feet made
per day

l:4mixture

1:3 mixture

6

.... 1 1-16

95
63
47
36

28
23
19
17
15

HVa
9
6%

75
j* 50

37

28

22
18
15
14
11%

1C 1/2
9
7
5

1 mixer, 1 or
2 moulders,
1 finisher and
helper.

1 or 2 .mixers
2 moulders
1 finisher
and
helper.

3 or 4 mixers
2 moulders
1 finisher and
helper.

400-500
350-400
300-400
250-350

225-325
200-275
150-225
125-175
100-150

100-150
90-120
90-110
80

8

10

1 %

12

11/2

14

1 %

16

1 %

18 ...

1 %

20

.... 1%

22

2

24

214

26

2%

30

36

3

Cost of making pipe.

The table of cost given below is obtained from the above data and for
the following prices of labor and material:

Portland cement, $3.50 delivered on the ground.

Gravel, $1.00 a cubic yard.

Labor: Tampers $3.00 a day; mixers and sprinklers, $2.50 a day.

The figures given include all materials and labor and an allowance of
about 10 per cent, for interest and depreciation on plant, administration
and supervision, and should not be exceeded with efficient workers.

Cost of Making Cement Pipes (in cents), per Lineal Foot.

Diameter
of pipe
in inches.

Cost for 1:2
mixture.

Cost for 1:3
mixture.

Cost for 1
mixture.

•A

6

13 cents

10 cents
12
15
20
25
30
35
43
60
75
85
115

7 cents
9
11
15
20
25
30
35
50
1 63
70
95

8

15

10

20

12

. . 25

14 ,

30

16 ,

36

18 ,

42

20 ...

50

24

68

26

. . 87

30

95

36

130

2. — Construction and Laying of Pipe Line.
Excavation of trench.

The pipe should be laid sufficiently deep below the surface to have an
earth covering of at least 12 inches and preferably 18 inches or even more.
The bottom of the trench should be graded on an even grade to avo:d short
siphons which may produce air chambers in the pipe. The width of the
trench should be larger than the outside diameter of the pipe by about 12
inches to allow the pipe layers sufficient space to work in. The trench
width and depth with the cost of excavation are given in the table below,
based on an 18 inch depth of earth covering. The cost of excavation and
backfilling is assumed at 20 cents a cubic yard.

50
Cost of Excavation for Cement Pipe Lines (In cents), per Lineal Foot.

-Excavation in

Depth of trench. Width of trench. cubic yds. per
pipe. lineal foQt tion in cents.

6 inches

26 inches

20 inches

.13

2.6

8

28

22

.16

3.2

10

31

25

.20

4.0

12

33

27

.23

4.6

14

35

29

.27

5.4

16

38

32

.32

6.4

18

40

34

.35

7.0

20

42

36

.38

7.6

24

47

41

.50

10.0

26

49

43

.55

u.e

30

54

48

.66

13.2

36

60

54

.83

16.6

Laying the pipe. (Fig. 39).

The pipes are placed in the trench standing on end with the bell end or
grooved end up. To lower the large pipes more easily they may be slid on
a chute or skid made of timber. The pipe sections are joined with a mix-
ture of 1 part of cement to 2 of fine sand. The taper end of the pipe which
has already been laid, and the bell end of the pipe to which it is to be
joined, are brushed clean and well wetted with a fiber brush. About an
inch thick of the soil under the bottom of the joint to be made is removed
and a trowel full of mortar is spread in its place to form a bed of mortar.
The bell end of the pipe which is standing on end is filled with cement
mortar and is jammed against the taper end of the previously laid pipe.
The mortar which is squeezed out on the inside of the joint is wiped with a
wet brush to form a smooth joint. To complete the joint a band of mortar
from 2 to 3 inches wide and *4 to % inch' thick is formed on the outside
of the pipe.

It is always preferable to lay the pipe uphill to avoid the shrinkage at the
joints due to the pipe pulling away. It is well to protect the bands from
the action of the sun for about 30 minutes before backfilling by using wet
burlap or placing a board over them. To raise a pipe and hold it on grade
do not use clods but shovel in dirt and compact it by tamping. The bands
should be wetted before backfilling; this must be done carefully by shovel-
ing the earth, free from rocks, around the pipe and tamping it until the
pipe is well covered. With loose sandy soil which packs easily, very little
tamping is necessary. The pipe should not be used for at least 2 to 3 days,
especially if under pressure, to give sufficient time for the bands to harden.

In the accompanying table is given information regarding the laying
and hauling of cement pipe, based on the wages and cost of material given
above. Ten per cent, has been allowed for supervision, organization, break-
ing of pipe and miscellaneous.

51
Cost of Laying and Hauling Cement Pipe (In cents) per Lineal Foot.

Diameter
in inches

Weight of
pipe in
pounds
per foot.

Number of
feet laid
per bbl.
of cement.

Number of
men in
laying
crew.

Number of
feet laid
per day

Cost of laying
exclusive of
trenching and
hauling', in
cents per foot.

Cost per
foot of
hauling
2 miles.

6

20

500

3

600

2.25

.9

8

32

400

3

600

2.50

1.4

10

42

350

3V<

500

3.00

1.9

12

56

300

3

450

3.50

2.5

14

69

225

3

400

4.00

3.1

16

85

200

3

300

5.00

3.8

18

100

175

4

300

6.25

4.5

20

110

150

4

300

6.60

5.0

24

160

100

6

300

10.0

7.2

26

175

85

6

250

12.0

7.9

30

220

75

6

200

14.0

9.9

36

320

60

7

200

17.0

14.4

The cost data given in the preceding table are assembled and given
below.

Cost of Making, Laying, Trenching and Hauling Cement Pipe (In cents), per

Lineal Foot.

Diameter
of pipe
in inches

Cost of making

Cost of
laying.

Cost of
trenching

Cost of
hauling
2 miles.

Total Cost

1:3 pipe

1:4 pipe

1:3 pipe

1:4 pipe

6

10

7

2.25

2.6

.9

15.75

12.75

8

12

9

2.50

3.2

1.4

19.10

16.10

10

15

11

3.00

4.0

1.9

23.90

19.90

12

20

15

3.50

4.6

2.5

30.60

25.60

14

25

20

4.00

5.4

3.1

37.50

32.50

16

30

25

5.00

6.4

3.8

45.20

40.20

18

35

30

6.25

7.0

4.5

52.75

47.75

20

43

35

6.60

7.6

5.0

62.20

54.20

24

60

50

10.0

10.0

7.2

87.20

77.20

26

75

63

12.0

11.0

7.9

105.90

93.90

30

85

70

14.0

13.2

9.9

122.10

107.10

36

115

95

17.0

16.6

14.4

163.0

143.00

These cost values agree quite closely with those given below which are
those obtained for about 5 miles of pipe on the irrigation system of the
Fruitlands Irrigation and Power Company, near Kamloops. The concrete
mixture used was composed of 1 part of cement to 21/& of sand and 1*&
of stone, which corresponds to a 1 to 3 mixture of cement and pit gravel.
Cement cost $3 a barrel, sand 75 cents a cubic yard, crushed rock $2.50
a cubic yard, common labor $2.50 per day, skilled labor $3 to $3.50 per
day, and teams $6 per day. The cost given includes all materials, labor,
supervision, and depreciation on plant.

Cost of Making and Laying Concrete Pipe on Irrigation System of Fruitlands
Irrigation & Power Co., Near Kamloops.

Diameter of pipe.

Cost, of making.

Cost of laying-.

Total cost.

8 inches

11.1 cents

10 "

15.7 "

12

20.

11. cents

31. cents

16

29.5 "

15.5

45

20

39.5 "

20.3 "

59.8 "

2 4

54.7 "

23.3 "

78

52

3. — Other Methods of Making Cement Pipe.

The lack of uniformity in the pipe made with a dry mixture tamped by
hand as described above and the porosity of the pipe, have led to other
processes of making pipe, some of which are still in the experimental stage.
Two methods have been used, machine tamping and the wet process.
Machine tamped pipe.

Machine tamped pipe is made by a number of plants in the West includ-
ing one at Peachland. The pipe is made with a comparatively dry mixture
much in the same manner as hand made pipe, but the mixture is thorough-
ly tamped by a mechanical tamper of email cross section which tamps
rapidly and gives a high degree of compression. The inside core also ro-
tates during the tamping processes and this gives the inside of the pipe a
very smooth surface. The pipe obtained by this process is a very dense
pipe. It should be very uniform and superior to the hand made pipe,
especially when a pipe is desired for pressure heads greater than the hand
made pipe will stand.

The pipe is made with a bell end similar to sewer pipe. This requires
more material than the shiplap end obtained with the hand made pipe
which increases the cost.
Pipe made by wet process.

To make pipe by the wet process, a wet mixture of cement mortar or
cement concrete is poured in the mould and after the mixture has hardened,
the moulds are removed. As this takes several hours, only a few pipes can
be made per day. For a large output several moulds would be needed and
the cost of the plant would be high. However, the moulds need not be as
strong as those used for hand tamping and could be obtained at a much
smaller cost. The increased cost of plant would be overbalanced, if a
large quantity of pipe was made, by the saving in labor and also by the
saving in cost of material because a pipe equal in strength and imperme-
ability could be obtained with less cement.

To reduce the number of moulds it has been attempted to accelerate the
hardening of the mixture by heating it with steam. This process, how-
ever, is still in an experimental stage. The U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, through its Irrigation Investigations Office, is investigating the wet
method of making pipe. The U. S. Reclamation Service has also devised
methods of making a wet mixture cement pipe at a reasonable cost for the
Tieton irrigation project in Eastern Washington, and for other projects.
Their results have not yet been published.

REINFORCED CONCRETE PIPE.

There is a great field for a concrete pipe which will stand moderate
pressure and can be manufactured at a cost which will compare well with
that of wooden pipe. The hand tamped plain concrete pipe has sufficient
strength only for low pressures, and machine tamped pipe or pipe made
by the wet process has not been sufficiently tested to know what heads it
will stand, though they are probably safe for at least twice the pressure
resisted safely by hand made pipe. Reinforced concrete pipe has been used
successfully for pressures above 100 feet and is guaranteed by some pipe
manufacturers for pressures as large as 150 feet. Reinforced concrete
pipe consists of a skeleton of iron or steel imbedded in the concrete shell
of the pipe. The reinforcement is made of rods or bars of metals, or some
form of expanded metal or wire mesh. For small pipes the circumferential
reinforcement is often made as a spiral of wire. For larger pipes the re-

53

inforcement is bent into hoops by means of rolls and the ends are welded,
or overlapped and tied together with wire, or bent to form hooks and a
longitudinal rod passed through the eye of the hooks.

The pipes may be made in short sections cast in moulds as the non-
reinforced pipe described above, or they may be built continuously in the
trench. The latter method has the advantage that it does away with the
joints which are usually the point of weakness, but it requires a thicker
pipe and is only used for the larger sizes of pipes. For pipes up to 4 or
even 5 feet in diameter the first method is generally used and the pipes
are cast in sections 3 to 8 feet long. The thickness of the shell seldom
exceeds 2 % to 3 x/i inches. When the reinforcement consists of a spiral,
the wire is wound by machinery and kept to the proper spacing by means
of longitudinal rods tied to the spiral wire. When hoops are used, they
are also tied to the longitudinal reinforcement.

Two companies in the United States make a specialty of the construc-
tion of reinforced concrete pipes. One is known as the Meriwether pipe
made by the Lock Joint Pipe Co., of New York, with branches at Win-
nipeg arid at Seattle, Washington. The other is made by the Reinforced
Concrete Pipe Co., of Los Angeles, California. These manufacturers make
pipe lip to 72 inches in diameter, from 2% to 7 inches thick, in sections 3
feet long. On the Umatilla project, in Oregon, several miles of reinforced
concrete pipe 30, 46 and 47 inches in diameter have been constructed.
The sections were made 4 feet long for the 30 inch pipe and 8 feet long for
the larger size. The Roswell park project in Idaho has four miles of re-
inforced pipe, some of it resisting heads of 70 feet.

1. — Method of Casting Reinforced Concrete Pipe. (Umatilla Project,
Oregon.)

The pipes are usually cast in moulds which consist of an inside col-
lapsible core, an outside sectional jacket and a base ring. The process of
casting used on the Umatilla project is a good illustration of this form
of construction. For the large size pipe cast in sections 8 feet lon£, the
inside core is made of two main pieces of curved steel plate % inch thick,
held together by a vertical hinge, and a third narrow closing piece or wedge
which fits between the other two pieces when the core is set up and is re-
moved when the core is collapsed. The outside jacket is made of twelve
curved parts, each 2 feet high and 1-3 of a circumference in length, which
when joined in sets of three form a section of the jacket 2 feet high.
These parts are made of % inch steel plate and to the edges of each part
are riveted angles by means of which the parts can be bolted together.
The base ring which forms the bell end of the pipe is made of cast iron.
(Figs. 40, 41).

To set up the moulds the inside collapsible core is placed in position
fitting inside the base ring, and the lowest section of the outside jacket is
formed by bolting the three parts around the base ring. The reinforcing
skeleton is placed around the inside core, then the concrete, which is a wet
mixture of 1 part of cement to 1.8 parts of sand and 3 parts of gravel, is
poured between the forms and worked down by means of thin tamping
bars. (Fig. 37). The outside jacket is built up in sections, each being
filled nearly to the top before the next one is bolted on. To fill the last
section a funnel shaped collar is placed around the inside core and bolted
to the top of the section. When filled the collar is removed and the upper
end of the pipe is finished by hand. The forms are removed 24 hours

54

after the pipe has been moulded and the pipe is left standing on the base
ring for eight days.

For the 30 inch reinforced pipe the forms used are 4 feet long and
made of lumber lined with sheet steel (Figs. 42, 43). The interior core
consists of two main parts and a wedge or closing piece. The outside form
is made of four parts bolted together.

The reinforcement is made of wire wound into spirals 4 feet long by
means of a reel on which are hinged spacing bars with notches which give
the wire the proper spacing. (Fig. 44). After the wire is wound, longi-
tudinal rods 4 feet long are placed on the outside of the spiral and con-
nected to it by bending the ends over the wires of the spiral at the two
ends and by tying them together with wires. The spiral can then be re-
moved from the'reerby turning down the hinged spacing bars, and is made
more rigid by cross lacing with wire.

2. — Method of Joining.

The pipes, after they have hardened sufficiently, are placed in the trench
where they are joined. The best time to lay the pipe is in cold weather, for
a rise in temperature will produce expansion and make the joints tighter,
while if they are laid in the summer time, any contraction due to lowering
of the temperature will tend to produce shrinkage cracks. The joints may
be made in three ways: (1) bell and spigot, (2) collar joint, and (3)
lock joint.

Bell and spigot joint.

The bell and spigot joint has been used on smaller pipes where the pres-
sure is not great. On the Umatilla project some of the 30 inch pipe has
been laid under a pressure head of 23 feet with this type of joint. The
pipes are similar to the non-reinforced pipe previously described and have
a taper end and a bell «nd, the joints being made in the same manner as
the joints for non-reinforeed pipe.

Collar joint.

This joint is used for larger pipes and greater pressures. The joint is
made with a reinforced collar from 4 to 8 inches wide, whose inside diam-
eter is slightly larger than the outside of the pipe. The collar, which has
been slipped over the pipe last laid, is placed over the joint and the space
between the interior of the collar and the outside of the pipe is filled with
a rich cement grout poured through two holes in the collar and prevented
from running out by means of a mortar paste spread around the edges of
the collar.
Lock joint.

The lock joint is intended to make the longitudinal reinforcement con-
tinuous. It is used by the Reinforced Concrete Pipe Company and the
Lock Joint Pipe Company.

3. — Method of Making and Laying Reinforced Concrete Pipe on Roswell
Project, Idaho.

On this project the reinforced pipe was made with the dry mixture hand
tamped pipe around which was wound the reinforcing steel wire which was
covered with a rich cement mortar. The method of winding the wire,
applying the plaster and laying the pipe is described as follows by Zenas
N. Vaughan, the engineer in charge:

"Two movable bulkheads, with crank-handles attached, are so arranged
that the pipe length can be firmly clamped between them. At a distance
back of this device a steel shaft, into which is cut a screw groove, works

55

freely horizontally. Back of this, and horizontal to it, a wooden shaft is
placed for regulating the tension of the wire, and still back of this is a
vertical spindle, from which wire unwinds automatically. The wire used
for reinforcing is a No. 12 gauge, galvanized wire, having a tensile strength
between 500 and 600 pounds. A coil of this is placed vertically upon the
spindle, the wire is passed around the tension shaft, thence into the screw
groove, and is finally firmly attached to one end of the pipe length by
soldering. The pipe is then revolved by two men at the crank handles, by
which process the wire is wound upon the pipe under a high tension, the
spacing of the laps of the wire being made even by the screw groove.
Variation in spacing for different heads is accomplished by using pulleys
of different diameters, to govern the rate of revolution of the grooved
shaft as compared with that of the pipe length. The reinforcing is stressed
the same as that in the main pipe.

When the reinforcing reaches the end of the pipe length, the last two
or three laps being made parallel, it is again soldered, and the wire is
severed. A steel trowel curved to conform to the shape of the pipe, and
suspended above it, is then dropped into place, and then cement mortar
1%-1, is run upon the pipe as it revolves, the trowel smoothing this down
to a uniform thickness. The bulkheads are then undamped by a lever at
one side, the pipe is removed, and is carried away to be properly cured.

"In the trench the bell and spigot ends of the pipe are fitted together, as
in the case of sewer pipe. Around the joint is placed a flexible form, made
of very heavy canvas, attached to blocks of wood, sawed out in such a way
that a space of about one inch measured transversely to the pipe, and six
inches longitudinally is left vacant for the reception of the mortar. Along
each edge of the form is run a 12-gauge wire, terminating at one end in an
iron ring, at the other in a tongue pin, curved in shape, so that when
clamped through the ring, it draws the wire to a high tension, firmly bind-
ing the form to the pipe. The form is then filled with cement mortar, and
immediately afterwards the interior of the joint is carefully pointed to in-
sure water tightness, independently of the collar, as far as practicable. As
soon as the collar forms can be removed, the trench is backfilled, to pro-
tect the collars while curing." — Journal of Idaho Society of Engineers,
pp 40-41, Vol. No. 1.

In southern California reinforced pipe built in the same manner has
been used. It is wound with No. 12 galvanized wire spaced about 1%
inches apart and coated over to protect the wire from corrosion. The cost
of reinforcing the hand tamped pipe is 10 cents per foot for 10 inch pipe,
15 cents for 12 inch pipe, 25 cents for 20 inch pipe, and 35 cents for
26 inch pipe.

4. — Cost of Making Reinforced Concrete Pipe.

On the Umatilla project in Oregon, a number of reinforced concrete pipe
lines 46 and 30 inches in diameter and aggregating several miles in length,
have been installed and are entirely successful. These pipes were three
inches thick, made as described above. The cost of each is given below.
The concrete was composed of 1 part of cement to 2.3 parts of sand and 3
parts of gravel, screened through 1 inch mesh and rejected on *4 inch
screen. Cement cost $2.25 a barrel, sand $1.00 a cubic yard, gravel $2.65
a cubic yard. The steel spiral in place cost 5 y2 cents per pound.

Inside diam-
eter of pipe
in inches

Length

Maximum
head.

Cost of
pipe.

Total cost laid
including hauling
trench excavation.

Cost of placing1
and making joints
including material

46

9831

110

2.97

4.43

.59

46
46

5312
1284

36
15

2.24
2 24

3. 86
3.26

.48

30. .

5330

45

1 26

2.25

30. .

3556

26

1 26

2.45

30. .

3645

25

1 26

2.04

.22

30. .

1622

18

1.26

1.96

56

The Reinforced Concrete Pipe Company of Los Angeles quotes the fo
lowing approximate prices which include the material, the making and la;
ing but not the excavation of trench and backfilling:

Cost in dollars for

25 ft. head.

50 ft. head.

100 ft. hea

24

1.75

2.00

2.3U

30 .

2.25

2.50

3.00

36 . . . .

.... 2.65

3.10

3.60

42

3 20

3.65

4 25

48

3.85

4.40

5.10

The prices in southern California for reinforced pipe made with LEI
tamped pipe wound with wire and plastered with mortar are quoted as To
lows. These prices are for the pipe laid:

6 Inch pipe $ .20 per lineal foot

8 " " 30 •* ' "

10 " " 40 •

12 " " 60 " " •'

14 " " 75 " " ~

20 " " 1.20 "

26 " " 2.00 •• M • •"

The prices in British Columbia due to higher cost of cement wou
probably be about 10 per cent, higher.

5. — Advantages and Economy of Reinforced Concrete Pipe.

The great advantage of reinforced pipe is its durability. The first co
as compared to wooden pipe is usually a little greater, but its longer li
will make its ultimate cost much lower, especially when the pipe can m
be kept constantly full.

It has been shown that for a wooden pipe whose life is 10 to 15 yea
the total annual cost to pay interest on first cost, renewal and depreciatio
is 15 per cent, of the first cost, and for a wooden pipe whose life is 20 1
30 years, about 11 per cent. For a concrete pipe, depreciation and r
newal are practically eliminated; therefore interest only, at about 6 pi
cent., need be considered. Based on these figures a concrete pipe would 1
as economical in cost as a wooden pipe even when the concrete pipe co
about twice as much as the wooden one. The prices of wire wound woe
pipe good for 50 to 100 feet head are about as follows for the Okanaga
district:

6 inch pipe $ .28 per lineal foot

8 " " 38 "

10 " " 52 "

12 " " 57 "

14 " " 64

16 " " 80 "

18 " " 95 "

20 " " 1.25 '

22 " " 1.45 "

24 " " 1.60 " "

The prices for wooden stave pipe for 50 foot head, built in place, ai
about as follows:

Diameter. Per lineal foot.

26 inches $1.80

28 " 2.00

30 " 2.20

42 " .;'.' 2.80

48 " 3.40

54 " 3.90

57

Comparing the above prices with those for reinforced concrete pipe it is
seen that there is no great difference in first cost, but if ultimate cost is
considered, the economy is in favor of reinforced concrete pipe.

However, the use of reinforced concrete pipe is limited to moderate
heads, under 100 or 150 feet, and they require careful workmanship and
an expensive manufacturing plant. Wooden stave pipes have* the advan-
tage that they can be used for higher heads and that they are easily ana
quickly put together.

With concrete pipes it is very necessary to prevent the accumulation o.f
air in the pipe to avoid water hammer. This requires that air valves of
ample capacity be placed wherever air will collect in the pipe.

IV.--DUTY OF WATER AND FACTORS INFLUENC-
ING THE CORRECT USE OF WATER
IN IRRIGATION.

DUTY OF WATER.

A knowledge of the quantity of water used in irrigation and of the
factors influencing the correct use of water in irrigation is necessary if
the best use of the available water supply of British Columbia is to be
obtained. The term duty of water is used to express the relation between
the area of land served and the quantity of water used. It may be further
qualified by using the expressions gross duty, duty measured at heads of
laterals, and net duty.

The gross duty of water represents the relation between the quantity of
water diverted from the source of supply and the total area of land irri-
gated. It is obtained from measurements of the flow taken at the head of
the main canal of the irrigation system and includes besides the quantity
applied to the land, all losses and waste in conveyance.

The duty of water measured at the head of the lateral is higher than
the gross duty because the losses obtained from the head of the main canai
to the head of the lateral are not included.

The net duty of water represents the water delivered to the field as
obtained by measurements taken at the margin of the field. It includes
besides the quantities used by the plants, the losses by evaporation, perco-
lation and waste occurring on the field, which can be controlled to a large
extent by a skillful irrigator.

The duty of water is spoken of as high when the area irrigated by a cer-
tain volume of water is comparatively large, and as low when the area is
comparatively small. The gross duty is lower than the net duty, tne differ-
ence depending on the efficiency of the main canal and distributaries. If
all losses of conveyance were eliminated, the gross duty and net duty would
be equal. A knowledge of the gross duty is necessary for the engineer to
plan the irrigation system in order to make allowances for the conveyance
loss. It is also of value in determining the efficiency of a system.

The net duty must be distinguished from the correct amount of water
required for maximum production, for it merely represents the volume of
water which is used according to the available water and the judgment and
skill of the irrigator. In most cases where water is abundant, the quan-
tity used is in excess of what is actually needed, while where water is very
scarce, it may be less than the correct amount. The correct amount of
water to use is that quantity which is necessary to produce maximum yield

58

when all the losses of water by percolation, evaporation and waste which
can be controlled by ordinary careful methods of irrigation and cultivation,
have been eliminated.

The duty of water can be stated in three ways:

1st. In number of acres irrigated by a flow of water of one cubic foot
per second for a certain length of time during the irrigation period.

2nd. In number of acres irrigated by one miners' inch for a certain
length of time during the irrigation period.

3rd. In number of acre feet per acre which is equivalent to stating the
depth of water applied to the land.

The first and second expressions must always include the time in order
to specify a given volume of water. For instance a duty of 1 cubic foot per
second for 100 acres during the entire irrigation season of 5 months or
150 days would mean 300 acre feet on 100 acres or a depth of 3 feet on
the land. If the length of time or period of delivery is only one-half of
the irrigation season, the water delivered will give a depth of 18 inches on
the land. In the same way a duty of 1 miners' inch to 2 acres during half
the time of an irrigation season of five months will give a depth of water
on the land of about 5 inches per month or a total depth of 25 inches
per season.

The third method of expressing duty avoids any misunderstanding. For
instance 2 acre feet per acre means a depth of 2 feet of water on the land.
The duty when expressed by either of the first two methods can easily be
converted into acre feet or acre inches per acre by the relation previously
given which is: One cubic foot per second in 24 hours will give 2 acre feet,
or 1 acre inch per hour, and one British Columbia miners' inch in 36 hours
will give 1 acre inch. Based on this relation, the following equivalents
are obtained.

Depth of Water Applied to the Land In One Month of Contlnuoux Flow.

Rate of flow.

Depth

applied.

1 miners'

inch

to 1

acre,

or 1

cubic

foot per

second

to 36

acres. .

, ..20

inches

1 miners'

inch

to 2

acres,

or 1

cubic

foot per

second

to 72

acres. .

, ..10

"

1 miners'

inch

to 3

acres,

or 1

cubic

foot per

second

to 107

acres. .

...6

2-3 "

1 miners'

inch

to 4

acres,

or 1

cubic

foot per

second

to 143

acres. .

... 5

"

1 miners'

inch

to 5

acres,

or 1

cubic

foot per

second

to 180

acres. .

, .. 4

"

1. — Principal Factors Affecting the Net Duty of Water in Irrigation.

The factors which have more or less effect on the duty of water are:
1st. The kind of crops. It is known- tfe«t' some crops* require more
water than others; for instance, alfalfa requires more water than orchards,
and young orchards require less water than full bearing orchards.

2nd. The preparation of land, method of application of water and skill
of the irrigator. Poor preparation of the land will cause water to accu-
mulate in the swales and uniform distribution of water is difficult. With
furrow irrigation unless great care is taken in the division of water be-
tween furrows, there will be a larger amount in some furrows than in
others. When the furrows are too long a large excess of water sinks into
the soil at the upper ends of the furrows and goes down beyond the plant
roots. At the lower ends of the furrows there is often a waste which may
cause injury to the neighbors' land or to the road below. If deep furrows
are used there is less water and wet soil exposed to the air and less evapo-
ration than with shallow furrows.

59

3rd. The time and frequency of cultivation. Thorough cultivation as
soon as possible after irrigation decreases evaporation losses.

4th. Number of seasons irrigation is practiced. In all irrigated dis-
tricts it has been the experience that irrigation causes a rise of the water
table. If this rise is too great it may submerge the roots and waterlog the
soil, but if the water table rises only .to a deptfi where the soil' water can be
drawn by capillarity to the roots, this will lessen materially the necessary
amount of irrigation water.

5th. Climate. Rainfall, temperature, humidity in the air, wind move-
ment, all have an effect. The rainfall and its distribution are important.
Abundant rainfall or snow in the winter will be partly stored in the soil
and is available to deep rooted plants during the growing season, thus
decreasing the necessary irrigation. On the other hand, light showers
during the summer may do more harm than good by destroying the soil
mulch and increasing soil evaporation. An increase in temperature and in
wind movement will increase the soil evaporation.

6th. Character of soil and subsoil drainage. A sandy soil underlaid
with a porous subsoil which drains readily will take care of large volumes
of water without waterlogging and encourage waste.

7th. The value of water, method of payment for water, judgment of
irrigator. A high cost of water leads to higher duty. If water is sold at so
much per acre of land independent of the > amount of water used, it is
human nature for the average irrigator to use all he can. On the other
hand, where the water charge is based on 'the quantity actually used, this
leads to careful use and high duty. This factor combined with the judg-
ment or lack of judgment may have more effect on value of the duty of
water than all the other factors together.

Because of all the factors on which the duty of water depends, it is to
be expected that there is a great difference in the value of the duty of
water obtained in different localities or even in the same localities for
farms, or orchards under the same conditions but owned by different
parties. There are no measurements of the duty of water in British Colum-
bia, but values of the duty of water in the arid states of the United States
are very numerous. These measurements have been largely made by the
Irrigation Investigations Office of the U. S. Department of Agriculture,
usually in cooperation with the state governments. In a review of ten
years of irrigation investigations, carried on by the U. S. Department of
Agriculture since 1898, Mr. R. P. Teele gives a large number of duty of
water measurements which are' very instructive. ; Tnese ntSa*stil'eime-nts;
show that the gross duty ranges from a maximum average of 13.18 acre
feet per acre for 7,000 acres of the Modesto system in California, to a
minimum of 2.0 acre feet per acre for 5,160 acres irrigated by several
small systems in the Santa Ana Valley, of California. The gross duty for
50,000 acres in the Yakima Valley irrigated by several canal systems is
5.70 acre feet per acre. For 20,000 acres of the Bitter Root Valley the
average is 4.69 acre feet per acre.

The duty of water is generally lower for a new system, because seepage
losses are greater for new canals, new lands require more water, water is
more plentiful as only a part of the land is irrigated, and the irrigator is
less skillful. As the system gets older, less water is used and the gross
duty increases. This is well shown in the following table.

CO

Gross Duty of Water Under Sunnyside Canal, Washington.

Year. Area irrigated (acres). Quantity of water per acre,

(acre feet).

1898
1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1904.
1909.

6,883
8,497
10,947
14,964
18,870
32,000
47,000

11.4

10.6

10.2

9.6

9.1

6.0

4.57

This table shows that after 11 years only two-fifths as much water was
used as in the first year, or the same amount of water will irrigate 2^
times as much land.

The duty of water measured at the heads of laterals. On new canals the
average of measurements made on several canal systems shows that about
50 per cent, of the water diverted is delivered to the laterals. On older
canals the percentage is much higher. For the Sunnyside Canal in eastern
Washington it was 79 per cent, in 1909.

The net duty of water is the duty as measured at the margin of the
fields. This duty is much higher than the gross duty as shown by the
table below.

Quantities o£ Water Delivered to Several Farmn Compared With Water Received
at head of Main Canal, or Xet Duty vs. Gross Duty.

State.

Canal.

Gross duty,
or water di-
verted by
canal. Acre
ft. per acre.

Net duty, or
water de-
livered to
farms. Acre
ft. per acre.

Per cent

Remarks.

California...
Idaho

.Gage
. Ridenbaugh

2.16

1.98

92

Concrete lined
canals and pipe
systems.

Washington.

laterals
.Sunnyside. . .

M

4.79
9.60
4.57

2.50
3.96

2.79

52
41
68

For year 1901.
For year 1909.

These measurements show that for the Gage canal system, which con-
sists of a main canal, concrete lined with cement mortar about 1 inch thick,
and pipe distributaries, 92 per cent, of the water diverted reaches the land.
The measurements for the Sunnyside canal show the increase in efficiency
of a system as it gets older. The above results indicate that in a new canal
system of unlined earth canals the water delivered to the farms is probably
not more than 40 per cent, of the water diverted. For old canals in good
condition the efficiency will be increased to 65 or 70 per cent.

2. — Duty of Water for Orchards.

There is relatively little data on the duty of water for deciduous orch-
ards. The data which is of most interest to British Columbia fruit growers
is that obtained for the orchards of Washington, Idaho and Montana. Mr.
S. O. Jayne, Irrigation Manager in the State of Washington for the U. S.
Department of Agriculture, gives the following information:

"The water on a 20 acre apple orchard at Wenatchee was measured
during the season of 1908, showing that a depth of 23.04 inches was ap-
plied between May 13th and September 23rd. On the same orchard in
1910 27 inches of water were used, the first irrigation was May 30th and
the last September 12th. The trees were seven years old in 1908 and bore

61

a very heavy crop that year, another in 1909 and another last year. The
orchard is one of the best cared for as well as one of the best producers of
the Wenatchee district. The irrigation was done with more than ordinary
care and intelligence. But the soil texture is rather coarse and the water
holding capacity low, thus favorable to^Jarge percolation losses in the sub-
soil. Undoubtedly a considerable saving in water would have been pos-
sible had the furrows used been only 330 feet long instead of twice that
length."

"Another Wenatchee orchard of 50 acres, including apples, peaches and
other fruits, used 16 inches in 1908 and 17.5 inches in 1910. The soil here
was somewhat heavier than in the former case, but the furrows used were
twice as long and besides the run off was considerable. Part of the orch-
ard, however, was not in bearing and none of it so uniformly good as the
other example cited. The annual precipitation at Wenatchee is about 6
to 8 inches and comes late in the fall, winter and early spring."

"The records of one of the Spokane valley companies show that on that
system a depth of 14.7 inches was applied in 1905, 19.2 inches in 1906,
22.8 inches in 1907 and 17 inches in 1910. The annual precipitation at
Spokane is about 18 inches of which less than a fourth occurs during the
irrigation season."

In the Bitter Root Valley of Montana, measurements were made on a
40 acre tract of orchard trees. The tpp soil was a vegetable loam under-
laid by a gravel and small cobbles subsoil. In 1900 the 5 year old orchard
was irrigated in April, June, July and August. The total depth applied in
the four irrigations was about 18 inches and the rainfall during the irri-
gation season was 1^ inches. In 1901 the 6 year old orchard received
four irrigations and the total depth applied was 18.7 inches; the rainfall
during the season was 5.9 inches. In 1902 the orchard received 21 inches
of irrigation water and the rainfall for the season was 8 inches.

These measurements and others made by the U. S. Department of Agri-
culture are assembled in the following table.

Xet Duty of Water for Orchards.

Acre a... Year.

Wenatchee, "Wash

20

1908

1.92

Coarse soil.

20

1910

2.25

<« «

50

1908

1 33

Medium soil

«

50

1910

1 45

Spokane Valley System, Wash

ii .1 ii «
Boise Valley Idaho

1 farm

1905
1906
1907
1910

1.23

1.60
1.90
1.42
1.48

Bitter Root Valley, Mont.....

40
40
40

1900
1901
1902

1.50
1.56
1.77

1 62

Vegetable loam
underlaid with
subsoil of gravel
and small cobbles.

This table shows that from 1.23 to 2.25 acre feet per acre were used on
these orchards, with an average of 1.62 acre feet per acre or a depth of
about 19% inches. This is equivalent to a net duty of 1 cubic foot per
second for 148 acres during an irrigation season of 4 months. Expressed
in British Columbia miners' inches, it would be 1 miners' inch to a little
over 4 acres.

Professor Portier, Chief of Irrigation Investigations for the U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, makes the following statement in Farmers' Bul-
letin 404, Irrigation of Orchards:

62

"In general the most water is applied in districts that require the least.
Wherever water is cheap and abundant the tendency seems to be to use
large quantities, regardless of the requirements of fruit trees. In Wyom-
ing the duty of water is seldom less than at the rate of a cubic foot per
second for 70 acres. In parts of southern California the same quantity of
water not infrequently serves 400 acres, yet the amount required by the
fruit trees of the latter locality is far in excess of the former. In recent
years the tendency all over the West is toward a more economical use of
water and even in localities where water for irrigation is still reasonably
low in price, it is rare that more than 2 % acre feet per acre is applied in a
season. This is the duty provided for in the contracts of the Bitter Root
Valley Irrigation Company of Montana, which has 40,000 acres of fruit
lands under ditch. Since, however, the water user is not entitled to receive
more than one-half of an acre foot per acre in any one calendar month, it
is only when the growing season is long and dry that he requires the full
amount."

"In the vicinity of Boulder, Colorado, the continuous flow of a cubic foot
per second for 105 days serves about 112 acres of all kinds of crops. This
amount of water if none were lost would cover each acre to a depth of
1.9 feet."

3. — Duty of Water for Alfalfa.

A number of measurements have been made to determine the quantity
of water applied on alfalfa fields. In Washington measurements on tue
Sunnyside project of the Yakima valley gave a net duty in 1909 of 2.79
acre feet per acre. This represents the average for 47,000 acres included
in the system, of which about 30,000 acres were in timothy, clover and
alfalfa, 10,000 acres in orchard, and the remainder in potatoes. Professor
Waller of Pullman, Washington, obtained from measurements made in
1905 on five farms in Washington, aggregating 189 acres, an average net
duty of 2.35 acre feet per acre or a total depth of 28.2 inches, the values
for the different farms ranging from 21 inches as a minimum to 39.0
inches as a maximum. The average yield was 7.85 tons per aero; the
field receiving 39 inches of water gave a yield of 8 tons per acre, and that
receiving 21 inches 7% tons per acre.

In Idaho, measurements made by D. H. Bark in 1910 on five farms in
the Big and Little Wood valleys gave the following results:

Net Duty of Water for Alfalfa on lliu and Little Wood River Valley*, Idaho.

Locality. .

Vrea (acres!

K..d.fN.L I

otal depU
jplied (ft.:

i Estimated
i yield.

Ketchum

158 4

Sandy loam gravelly subsoil

21 13

3 to 8%

Hailey

15.2

Gravelly loam gravelly and

sandy subsoil

16.00

3 to 4

Gooding

51.0

Uniform lava ash soil

4 80

4

Gooding

31.8

4 06

4

Gooding

696

„ ,

4 00

4

The large depths of water applied on the farms of Ketchum and Hailey
are due to the amount of water decreed by court being far in excess of the
needs 01 the land; this leads to wasteful and careless use. These amounts
are double or triple the amount used upon similar and more porous soils in
the upper Snake River valley. The soil absorbed a large quantity of water
but retained only a small part of it, the remainder being lost by percolation.

4. — Duty of AVater for Potatoes.

Measurements were made in 1905 on four tracts of potatoes in Wash-
ington aggregating 27 acres. A mean depth of 17.6 inches of water was
used and the yield was 8.5 tons per acre. Other scattered measurements

63

made in various states gived uties ranging from 1.00 acre foot per acre in
the San Joaquin valley of California, to 7.8 acre feet in Nevada.

The duty of water measurements give above show the usual conditions
obtained on an ordinary irrigation system. The large losses in conveyance
which occur from the head of the main canal to the point of delivery on the
farm, are shown by the large difference between the gross duty and net
duty. The values of net duty of water show the variations in the quan-
tities of water applied not only on different crops but also for the same crop
under similar conditions. These variations are due not only to local con-
ditions but largely to the skill used by the irrigator in preventing losses of
water and to the value of the water. The decrease of the losses or increase
in duty as the water becomes more valuable and the irrigators more skill-
ful, is well shown by the measurements obtained on the Sunnyside project
in eastern Washington.

FACTORS INFLUENCING "THE CORRECT USE OF WATER
IN IRRIGATION.

The net duty of water represents the best use of water only when suffi-
cient water is applied to give the best crop production and when the losses
of percolation and evaporation are eliminated as much as practicable by
skillful application of water and proper cultivation. An intelligent use
of water in irrigation requires a careful consideration of the following
principles:

1st. Disposal of water applied to the soil.

2nd. Relation of soil water to soil texture.

3rd. Evaporation of soil water and methods of checking it.

4th. Percolation of water applied to the soil and percolation losses.
1. — Disposal of Water Applied to the Soil.

The water applied to the soil is disposed of in four ways:

1st. Plant transpiration. A useful part is used to produce plant
growth. It passes from the soil into the root hairs, from the root hairs
into the stem and is carried to the leaves from where it evaporates. This
process is called plant transpiration.

2nd. Soil moisture evaporation. A part is lost by evaporation from the
soil. This loss will depend on the texture of the soil, the porcentage of
moisture in the soil, the method of irrigation, the time and frequency of
cultivation, the temperature, the humidity in the air, the amount of wind
movement.

3rd. Soil percolation. A part is lost by percolation into the soil beyond
the reach of plant roots. This loss depends on the character and quality of
soil and subsoil, the depth to the water level, the topography of the land,
the skill of the irrigator, the efficiency of the distributing system, the
length of the furrows.

4th. Surface waste. A part is lost by the waste of water at the ends
of fields or furrows. This water passes to the lower neighbor or on the
roads where it may do considerable damage. This loss can be prevented
by using care.
2. — Relation of Soil Moisture to Soil Texture.

Water may exist in the soil in three conditions: (1) hygroscopic water,
(2) capillary water, and (3) gravity water.

Hygroscopic water is that which occurs in all soils not dried by artificial
heating. It is the moisture which a soil dried by artificial heat will absorb
from moist air. It exists as a very thin film surrounding each particle but

64

is distinguished from capillary water in that it does not move by capillary
action or otherwise and can not be absorbed by the plant roots in sufficient
quantities to be of any practical value to sustain normal plant growth.

Capillary water is that which exists as a thickened film around each soil
particle and partially fills the pore spaces. It is held in the soil against
gravity and is not drawn out by drainage. It moves in the soil in any direc-
tion, and rises in the soil between the soil particles because of the same
action which draws the oil up a lamp wick. Capillary water is of greatest
importance to plant growth. It covers the plant roots and is the water on
which the growth of plants depends.

Capillary water moves from a wet soil to a drier soil and this is what
causes the water to spread laterally and to be drawn from the wetter sub-
soil to the surface where it is evaporated if the evaporation is not checked
by a mulch. The water will rise to a greater height in a soil whose texture
is fine than in a soil whose texture is coarse, but the rapidity of rise is
greater for a soil of coarse texture than for one of fine texture. For in-
stance, Professor Hilgard found that in a sandy soil the maximum height to
which water rose was 17 inches in 6 days, while the maximum height for
a clay soil was 46 inches in 195 days. In the sandy soil it took 1 hour to
rise 8 inches while in the clay soil it took 12 hours to rise the same height.

Gravity water is that water which moves downwards through the soil
pores because of gravity. When the soil is saturated the pores are entirely
filled with water and that water which fills the space between the pores not
occupied by capillary water, is gravity water. Gravity water is not retained
by the soil if there is natural or artificial drainage. It passes downwards
and supplies capillary water to the soil below and the excess reaches the
water table or a drainage channel. When there is an excess of gravity
water, it passes down to a depth which is too far below the ends of the
plant to be drawn up by capillarity and is wasted.

A soil which is saturated contains gravity, capillary and hygroscopic
water. A soil which is drained contains capillary and hygroscopic moisture
only. A soil which is air dried in the sun contains hygroscopic moisture
only and a soil which is dried by artificial heat contains no moisture.
Percentage of free moisture in soil for ji'ant viroutli.

The pores for most cultivated soils will average from 25 to 50 per cent,
by volume of the entire volume, being smallest for sandy soils and greatest
for clay soils. For plants to grow it is necessary that they have air as well
as water and for best growing condition it has been found that the capillary
water in the soil should range from 40 to 60 per cent, of the pore space.
This leaves about an equal space for air. In other words, for maximum
growing condition a very sandy soil containing 25 per cent, pore space
should have 10 to 15 per cent, by volume of free moisture, while a heavy
clay soil containing 40 to 60 per cent, pore space should have 20 to 30
per cent, by vo'ume of free moisture. Expressed in per cent, by weight,
for a very sandy soil air dried weighing 110 pounds per cubic foot, the free
moisture content should be from 5.7 to 8.5 per cent.; for a stiff clay soil
weighing 75 pounds the moisture content should be 16.6 to 25 per cent,
and for an average sandy orchard loam, 10 to 15 per cent. Professor
Loughridge found that on a sandy soil where the moisture content in the
fourth foot of the soil was 15 per cent, by weight, there was an excess of
moisture which crowded out the air and caused the trees to suffer. In this
case the correct moisture content should have been about half of the pore
space or about 10 per cent, by weight.

65

The minimum amount of free soil moisture in four feet of soil necessary
to keep trees in good growing condition has been found to be from 2.5 to S
per cent, for apples and prunes, 3 to^4 per cent, for pears, and 1 per cent.
or even less for apricots and peaches. The irrigator may use these above
relations to determine by experiment if his soil has sufficient moisture. The
procedure would be to take samples from the soil around the roots and
determine the percentage of moisture. This is done as follows: By means
of a soil auger take soil samples of each foot of soil beginning with the top
soil where the roots begin, which may be 6 inches or more from the surface,
down to the depth to which they extend, which may be four or five feet or
more. The samples should be immediately placed in a jar to prevent
evaporation. A very suitable jar is a glass fruit jar which can be closed air
tight. The percentage of moisture is determined by weighing out 100
ounces of the sample before losing any moisture; then spread the sample
thinly over a tin plate and expose it to the sun for the greater part of a
day or until thoroughly air dried. If the weight is now 90 ounces there
was 1 ounce of free water for every 10 ounces of moist soil, which is suffi-
cient for good growing condition. If the weight air-dried had been 97
per cent, it would show that there was only 3 per cent, free moisture and
that irrigation was necessary.

Professor Loughridge found from determination of soil moisture in
southern California citrus orchards (Bulletin 203, Office of Experiment Sta-
tions, U. S. Department of Agriculture) that the percentage of soil mo'st-
ure for a sandy loam averaged about 4.68 per cent, for the upper 4 feet and
5.76 per cent, for the upper 13 feet before irrigation and immediately after
irrigation the percentage in the upper four feet averaged about 9.64 per
cent. Six weeks after irrigation the amount of moisture was a little greater
than previous to the application of water. About one-fifth of the water ap-
plied was retained, the other four-fifths had been taken up by soil evapora-
tion and plant transpiration. For a clay loam soil the percentage of
moisture averaged for 5 feet depth of soil, 6.81 before irrigation, 11.27
immediately after irrigation, and one month after irrigation the moisture
percentage almost returned to its normal amount before irrigation. On a
heavy loam the percentage of free moisture was 5.47 before irrigation and
10.86 immediately after irrigation.

3. — Evaporation of Soil Water and Methods of Checking It.

The effects of the various factors influencing soil water evaporation have
been investigated through very interesting experiments made in the arid
region by the Irrigation Investigations Office of the U. S. Department of
Agriculture, the Agricultural College of Utah, and others. The results
were obtained by means of tanks or pots filled wTith soil and placed as nearly
as possible under actual field conditions for irrigation and cultivation. The
water applied was measured in each case and loss from evaporation was
obtained by weighing the tanks at desired intervals. The results obtained
have appeared in the following bulletins: U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin 177; Utah Agricultural Col-
lege, Bulletins 80, 86, 104, 105. While these investigations have been
carried on for some time, the results so far published are not sufficient to
justify definite conclusions, but the work is being continued and with the
additional information very valuable and practical results will be obtained.

66

Fig:. 45. — Evaporation during a period of 33 day* from null irrigated
(( InoheM deep, Davlfi, Cal.

No
Mulch

6 inch
Mulct,

June 3 to 24- - Z/ Days

Fig. 46. — Effect of mulches
evaporation from noil,
Davis, Cal.

Fig. 47. — Effect of mulches
evaporation from soil,
AVenatchee, Wash.

: 67

The results already obtained by experiment are of great value in indi-
cating how some of the factors on which the use of water depend can be
controlled by the irrigator. These results may be summarized as follows:
Extent of exaporation from bare soils not cultivated.

On four California orchard soils an average of 12% inches of irrigation
water was applied and the evaporation loss per season (Feb. 23rd to Aug-
ust 31st) was 94 per cent. This shows the large percentage of loss in soil
moisture which may obtain during a long season. The rate of evaporation
depends much on the moisture in the soil. The results obtained on a sandy
orchard loam in southern California are as follows:

For a sandy loam saturated weekly evaporation was 4.75 in. water

Fora sandy loam with 17.5% free water. . . .weekly evaporation was 1.33 in. water
For a sandy loam with 11.9 % free water .... weekly evaporation was 1.13 in. water
For a sandy loam with 8.9 % free water .... weekly evaporation was .88 in. water
For a sandy loam with 4.8 % free water. . . .weekly eavporation was .25 in. water

The large rate of evaporation from soils which are very wet indicates
the necessity for wetting as little of the surface as possible when irrigating.
With orchards this may be obtained by using deep furrows.

The rate of evaporation for a period of 33 days following an irrigation
6 inches in depth is illustrated in the diagram given below for a California
brown loam soil not cultivated after irrigation (Fig. 45). This diagram
shows the excessive rate of evaporation immediately after irrigation when
the surface soil is very wet. The loss during the first three days was 17
per cent, of the water used and is about equal to one-half of the total loss
during the 32 days which is 35 per cent. These results indicate the im-
portance of preventing the evaporation loss as early as possible after
irrigation.

Effect of Depth of Furrows on Evaporation from Soil.

Fig. 48.

€8

Effect of soil mulches on soil evaporation.

The effect of dry soil mulches of different thickness applied on the soil
surface after irrigation are shown in the diagrams given below. The first
one (Fig 46) is for the California soil whose daily rate of evaporation is
given above. The second one (Fig. 47) is for a Wenatchee orchard sandy
loani soil typical of the orchard lands of the north central portion of the
State of Washington. These diagrams show the effectiveness of different
depths of mulches. A 9 inch mulch practically stopped all evaporation.

These experiments represent theoretical conditions which can not be
obtained in the field. It is, however, possible to approach these conditions
by producing a mulch by cultivation. Conditions more nearly like field
conditions were followed in another experiment made in California on a
sandy loam soil. In this experiment 8 inches of water was applied to the
soil surface in a furrow 4 inches deep. The water was applied during the
first two days and at the end of the third day some of the tanks were culti-
vated 6 inches deep, the others receiving no cultivation. The evaporation
loss during the first three days was 10.5 per cent, or .84 inch, during the
next three days it was 1.2 per cent, from the cultivated tanks and 3.6 per
cent, from uncultivated tanks, showing that the loss from cultivated soil
was one-third that from uncultivated eoil.

Effect of depth of furrows on soil evaporation.

The experiments made on California orchard soil imitated as much as
possible actual field practice. A depth of 5 *4 inches of water was applied
to different pots, on the surface and in furrows 3, 6, and 9 inches deep.
The irrigation lasted two days and the soil was cultivated at the end of the
third day. The evaporation losses for the first three days and for the next
seven days following cultivation were as shown in the accompanying dia-
gram. The loss for furrows 12 inches deep was % of the loss obtained
with surface irrigation.

4. — Percolation of Water Applied to the Soil.

To obtain maximum benefits from irrigation water the water applied
should be uniformly distributed throughout the soil down to the lower end
of the roots and any water which passes beyond the capillary reach of the
lower ends of roots is wasted. It flows underground either into some drain-
age channel or may cause considerable damage by the waterlogging and
the rise of alkali in the lands below. In actual practice 't is impossible to
obtain perfect distribution of water and have no waste, but by careful
irrigation it is possible to minimize the loss by percolation.

Effect of texture of soil and subsoil on percolation.

When water is applied in irrigation, the soil directly in contact with the
water is saturated, a portion of this water moves downwards and wets the
soil beneath furnishing capillary water or free moisture to the roots below.
If sufficient water has been added, the excess water passes into some drain-
age channels or down to the level of standing water. This excess water is
wasted. This loss by percolation is usually greater in open soils well
drained through which gravity water percolates readily and it is very easy
for a careless and wasteful irrigator to use a great deal more water than
necessary. Some of the waste can not be eliminated because when a soil
is irrigated by furrows the upper end of the furrows where the water is
turned in receives an excess of water. In some southern California orch-
ards with careful irrigation, it has been found that the water at the upper

69

<end of the furrows percolated to depths as great as 30 feet. Where irriga-
tion is practiced less carefully the waste is no doubt still greater. Mr. D.
H. Bark, in charge of Irrigation Investigations in Idaho, states that some-
times on porous soils where the water is run long distances, as high as
95 per cent, of the water percolates so deep on the upper one-third of the
field that it passes beyond the zone of the roots and is lost. The waste can
be minimized by using short furrows

Sandy soil underlaid with gravel is the most difficult to handle to pre-
vent percolation losses but they may be made small by using frequent
irrigation applied in light quantities instead of heavy irrigations, a part of
which is wasted, and by laying out the distribution system so that the water
does not have to travel long distances in the furrows or over the fields.

Percolation of water applied in furroivs.

It is important that the irrigator should know how the water applied to
•orchards in furrows distributes Jtself within the soil, in order that he may
know how far apart the furrows should be, how long they should be and
the length of time water should be run in the furrows. The correct prac-
tice will vary with the different types of soils and each irrigator should be-
come acquainted with his soil by observing the motion of the water in the
«oil by means of borings made with a soil auger and trenches dug across
-the furrows.

Very interesting experiments were made in southern California citrus
orchards by Professor Loughridge for the Irrigation Investigations Office
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture (Bulletin 203, Office of Experiment
-Stations). Cress trenches were dug across several furrows to a depth of
5 or 6 feet, the furrows were extended over the trench by ishcrt wooden
troughs. At regular periods during irrigation a thin slice of soil was cut
from the face of the trench exposing a fresh surface of the wet area. The
•outlines were measured and recorded during and after the period of irri-
gation. The accompanying diagrams give the percentage cf free moisture
in the soil and show by irregular curves the depth of percolation at
different times.

Fig. 49. — Outlines of percolation under sixteen furrows in sandy loam.

(O. E. S. Bulletin 103, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

The first diagram (Fig. 49) is for a sandy loam soil, 7 to 9 feet deep
underlaid with a sandy soil. The observations were made in a trench
excavated across sixteen furrows. The furrows were 660 feet long and
the trench was half way down the furrows; it required about five hours for
the water to travel half the length of the furrows and about 12 hours more
to reach the end. This diagram shows results which are very surprising
to the irrigator. It is commonly believed that the water spreads laterally
so as to give a fairly uniform distribution throughout the soil, but the
diagram shows that the water spreads only a small distance laterally,
usually less than 3 feet from the furrows, which is not sufficient to wet the
soil uniformly. In the first foot 77 per cent, of the soil was wetted, in the
second foot 78.75 per cent, in the third foot 71.13 per cent., in the fourth
foot 40 per cent., in the fifth 27.50 per cent., and in the sixth 5 per cent.
This shows the necessity for placing the furrows close to the trees and for
having sufficient number of furrows to bring them close together.

The next diagram (Fig. 50) is for a gritty clay loam with a subsoil
which is very compact, but which quickly absorbs water and becomes soft.
The trench was made across five furrows half way down the furrows. At
the end of 54 hours the water was cut off. The distribution of water in
this soil was much more uniform than in the previous case. This is due
to the soil being more compact which produces a slower downward perco-
lation and a greater sideways motion because of the greater effect of
capillarity.

The third and fourth diagrams (Figs. 51, 52) show the limit of percola-
tion in a sandy soil from single furrows 10 inches deep and 5 inches deep
for a period of seven hours. With the deep furrow there is a greater
depth of percolation and the water spreads farther sideways. The deep
furrow also has the advantage that less of the surface mulch is wetted than
with shallow furrows.

The fifth and sixth diagrams (Figs. 53, 54) show the outlines of perco-
lation in heavy loam for four deep and four shallow furrows under the
same conditions of soil and water. The deep furrow gives a more uniform
distribution of water, a greater depth of percolation, a greater sideways
absorption, and a smaller percentage of moisture rises by capillarity to the
surface to be lost by evaporation.

The seventh diagram (Fig. 55) shows the probable distribution of moist-
ure in a sandy loam lengthwise with the furrows, from the head to the
foot of the furrows as determined by a few borings. The furrows are 660
feet long and the water was run in them for a period of three days. Suffi-
cient borings were not taken to determine the curve accurately. Other
experiments showed that the curve may ascend quite abruptly toward the
surface as indicated by the dotted line. This diagram shows clearly that
the water is not evenly distributed; the depth of percolation near the head
ditch is much greater than the average depth of percolation along the fur-
row; a large part of the water passes beyond the reach of plant roots and
is wasted. With heavy soils the difference in percolation would not be so
great. This experiment shows the necessity for short furrows, especially
in sandy soils.

71

O 1 2 J ? S 6 7 a 9 tO // /2 /3

Fig. 50. — 'Outlines of percolation imilcv five furrows in gritty clay loam.

(O. E. S. Bulletin 203, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Fig-. 51. — Outline of percolation in sandy soil from
furrow 10 inches deep in seven bourn.

(O. E. S. Bulletin 203, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

2. — Outline of percolation in sandy soil from
furrow ."5 inches deep in seven hour;).

72

S t> 7 6 9/0/1/2/3

Fig. 53. — Outlines of percolation under four deep furrows In heavy loam.

(O. P:. S. Bulletin 203, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Fig. 54. — Outlines of percolation under four shallow furrow* In heavy loam.

(O. E. S. Bulletin 203, U. S. Dept. Apr.)

-3* .8
c^tjO3tjau^

Fig. 55. — Curve showing probable lower limit of percolation from head to foot
of furrows In sandy loam.

(O. E. S. Bulletin 203, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

V.— IRRIGATION AND CULTIVATION OF
ORCHARDS.

DISTRIBUTION OF WATER.

For the orchards of British Columbia, as well as for other field crops,
with the exception of some level lands devoted to growing hay, furrow
irrigation is the only feasible method.

The success in obtaining uniform distribution of water by furrow irri-
gation depends largely on the method used to divide the water equally be-
tween the furrows. The earliest method of carrying the water to the head
of the furrows is by means of the earthen head ditch located along the
upper boundary of the orchard at the upper end of the furrows. The
division of the water is effected by cuts made in the side of the earth ditch.
This method is still used by many, but because crude and unsatisfactory,
it has led some orchardists to adopt improved methods of division such as
lath tubes or iron spouts placed in the ditch bank, while some of the best

73

orchardists have replaced the earth ditch by wooden flumes or the more
permanent concrete flume or concrete pipe distributing system.

Where the orchard is small and the slope regular, one head ditch or
head flume carrying the water from the point of delivery and placed on the
highest part of the land to be irrigated, may be all that is necessary. But
for larger orchards and for irregular slopes, it is necessary to have two or
more head ditches or flumes to which the water is carried by a supply
ditch, pipe, or flume. In laying out stfCh a distribution system the irrigator
should study the topography of the land and subdivide his orchard with
sufficient head ditches to give furrows which are not too long and too
steep. Usually it is desirable to make the furrows not over 600 for ordin-
ary sandy loam and 300 feet for more porous sandy soil.

6

No. I.

No.a.

No.3.

No.4.

form of No.4.

Fig-. 5G. — Typical forms of earth ditches.

1. — Earthen Head Ditch.

The head ditch is placed along the highest boundary of the orchard or if
there is a ridge through the center of the orchard, it is placed on this
ridge and supplies the furrows running down the slope on both sides. The
proper grade depends on the volume of water to be carried and on the
character of the soil; the velocity must not be too great or it will erode
the soil. On the other hand it is best to have sufficient velocity to prevent
the growth of water plants. Velocities of 2 to 2y2i feet per second are
desirable. The diagram (Fig. 56) and accompanying table to which has
been added the last column, are taken from Bulletin No. 4: Guide to
Irrigation Practice on the Pacific Coast, by S. Fortier, issued by the Pub-
licity Committee of the Fifteenth National Irrigation Congress.

74

Table Giving the Mean Velocity and Discharge of Ditches With Different Grade*.

Farm Ditch No. 1.

Grade.

Mean velocity
in feet per
second.

Discharge.

Inches
per rod.

Feet per
100 feet.

Feet per
mile.

Cubic feet
per second.

British Co-
lumbia
miners' ins.

K

.25

13.33

1.01

.67

24

%

.38

20.00

1.23

.81

29

i

.51

26.67

1.42

.93

33

1%

.63

33.33

1.59

1.05

37

1%

.76

40.00

1.75

1.16

41

2

1.01

53.33

2.04

1.35

48

2y2

1.26

66.67

2.28

1.50

53

3

1.51

80.00

2.50

1.64

58

3%

1.77

93.33

2.70

1.78

63

Farm

Ditch \ ... 2.

%

.13

6.67

.82

.80

28

%

.25

13.33

1.16

1.00

36

%

.38

20.00

1.42

1.30

46

i

.51

26.67

1.64

1.50

53

IK

.63

33.33

1.84

1.70

60

1%

.76

40.00

2.02

1.80

64

1%

.88

46.67

2.18

2.00

71

2

1.01

53.33

2.34

2.10

75

2%

1.26

66.67

2.61

2.40

85

Farm

Ditch \ ... 3.

%

.06

3.33

.79

2.08

74

J/4

.13

6.67

1.13

3.00

106

J/2

.25

13.33

1.60

4.20

150

%

.38

20.00

1.97

5.20

185

1

.51

26.67

2.28

6.00

213

1JA

.63

33.33

2.57

6.80

242

Farm

Ditch \ ... 4.

1-16

.03

1.58

.84

4.20

150

H

.06

3.33

1.08

5.40

192

%

.13

6.67

1.54

7.70

274

%

.19

10.00

1.89

9.50

338

%

.25

13.33

2.20

11.00

390

%

.31

16.67

2.45

12.20

434

3i

.38

20.00

2.69

13.40

475

Ditches of the above forms can be made by first plowing four furrows
and then removing the loose earth either with shovels or a narrow scraper,
or the loose soil may be thrown up on the sides by using a V scraper or
crowder as illustrated below (Fig. 57, 58).

To turn the water into the furrows the water is checked and the water
surface raised by placing in the ditch dams of canvas or metal tappoons,
or by making dams of earth or manure. When the ditch is permanent a
wooden or concrete check gate can be placed in the canal. The greatest
difficulty in Irrigating from an earthen head ditch is the care necessary
to give a satisfactory division of the water in the furrows. A skilled irri-
gator may adjust the size and depth of openings made in the ditch bank so
as to secure a fairly uniform flow in the furrows, but it requires attention
to prevent the washing of the soil at some of the openings which will
cause greater discharges through these openings and lower the water level
in the ditch so that other furrows receive little or no water. To prevent

75

Fig. 59.— Lath tube.

.Fig. 60. — Method of placing lath tube In flitch bank for furrow irrigation.

(Farmers' Bulletin 373, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Fig. 03. — Concrete distributing flume.

76

this some use pieces of sacks or canvas, others use pieces cf shingles or
small rocks, etc. A better improvement is the use of short tubes placed
in the bank of the head ditch. These tubes may be made of laths nailed
together and cut in two foot lengths or may be pieces of discarded pipes-
% inch to 2 inches in diameter. A lath tube having an inside opening 1
inch square placed 8 inches below the water level will give a discharge of
1 miners' inch. The flow through the tube can be regulated by a slide.
The surface of the water can be kept at the proper height by means of
check gates regulated by flashboards and spaced according to the grade of
the ditch. The accompanying sketches show the lath tube and the manner
of placing them, and also the check gates in the ditch bank. (Figs. 59, 60)_
2. — Wooden Head Flumes.

Wooden flumes with small openings in one side give more accurate
division of the water and are used very extensively in Eastern Washington.
They can also be elevated above the ground to carry water over shallow
depressions which is an advantage over earthen ditches. However, the
height above the ground must not be over two or three feet or the water
falling through the opening into the furrows will cause excessive washing.
The flumes usually vary in width from 8 to 12 inches and from 6 to 10
inches in height, and the openings are controlled by metal or wooden slides.
3. — Concrete Head Flumes. (Figs. 61, 62).

The short life of wooden flumes has led most of the orchardists of
southern California to use either concrete flumes or cement pipes. A con- "
crete head flume is made of the same form as the wooden flume and gal-
vanized iron spouts or tubes from % to 1 % inch in diameter are inserted
in the side of the flume before the concrete has hardened, there being one
spout for each furrow (Fig. 63). On steep slopes where the velocity is
high, to give an even distribution through the spouts, checks made of short
pieces of lath are inserted below each opening as shown in. the accompany-
ing sketch. To hold the checks in place, one end of the lath fits into a
groove cut in the side of the flume by means of a trowel before the con-
crete is hard.

The thickness of the floor for all sizes up to 24 inches in width is 2
inches. The side walls for all depths up to 12 inches are 2% inches thick
at the top and 3 inches at the bottom. The flumes are made almost any
size. The dimensions and cost of some of the sizes commonly used in
southern California are as follows:

Bottom width.
Inches.

Depth.
Inches.

Cubic feet of concrete per
lineal foot of flume.

Cost per lineal foot
in cents.

8

11

.54

20

9

12

.60

21

10

12

.63

24

10

14

.66

25

10

16

.69

26

LO

18

.71

27

10

20

.74

28

10

22

.77

28%

10

24

.80

29

12

12

.71

25

12

14

.74

26

12

16

.76

27

12

18

.79

28

12

20

.82

29

12

22

.85

29i/2

12

24

.88

30

77

The cost of labor and materials for which the above costs were obtained
are: Labor $2.00 to $2.50 for 9 hours, cement $3.50 a barrel, and gravel
$1.50 a cubic yard.

i

78

The flumes are constructed on the ground by using a set of forms or
moulds into which the concrete is placed (Fig. 64). The moulds consist of
an inside bottomless trough similar to the form used for lining ditches, but
made with the same dimensions as the inside of the flume, and outside
walls or sheathing held the proper distance apart from the inside form by
means of spacing blocks and heavy U shaped iron, straddling over the out-
side wall and inside wall. Instead of the U shaped iron, the outside walls
could be held in place by stakes driven in the ground. To build the floor
and sides at the same time the inside walls are held above the ground by
the spacing frames a height equal to the thickness of the floor. The flume
is built in sections 12 feet long, which is the length of the forms. No pro-
vision is made for contraction and small shrinkage cracks occur. These
could be eliminated by inserting at the edges a metal tongue 2 or 3 inches
wide imbedded about halfway into each section. This tongue should be
well painted with oil or soap to prevent the adhesion of the concrete and it
will then act as a tongue and groove joint.

To permit the quick removal of the forms, which is necessary unless
sufficient forms are used to build a considerable length at one setting, the
concrete is mixed comparatively dry and requires careful tamping. A mix-
ture of 1 part of cement to 5 of well graded pit gravel is generally used.
It is important that the concrete be kept moist by sprinkling or otherwise
for a period of at least one week. When completed the side walls are
partly backfilled with earth up to about one-half of their height. It is
better to have the spouts at least 4 inches long and preferably six to pre-
vent the washing away, by the action of the water coming out of the spout,
of the soil from under the flume, which will cause it to settle and crack.
These galvanized iron spouts are made by local metal workers at a cost of
4 % to 5 }i cents each.

4. — Cement Pipes and Distributing Stand Pipes. (Figs. 65. 66).

In southern California many hundreds of miles of cement pipes have
been used for the distribution of water to orchards and in recent years its
use has been extended to some of the orchards in Washington and Idaho.
While many orchardists in southern California still prefer the open flume,
there are the following objection® to open flume:

1st. Teams and farm implements can not cross the flume and there is
always a strip of land on each side that can only be partially cultivated
because it can not be crossed in the opposite direction.

2nd. The flume is liable to be damaged by the teams and farm im-
plements.

3rd. The flume may settle and crack if the earth underneath is washed
away by the water passing through the spouts into the furrows.

4th. The furrows can only be made with teams and cultivators up to
15 feet from the flume and they must be completed by hand.

5th. Leaves may fall in the flume and stop up either partially or com-
pletely the openings of the distributing spouts, which requires extra time
on the part of the irrigator.

These disadvantages have led many of the orchardists to the use of
underground pipes which do not interfere with cultivation.

A complete underground pipe distributing system consists of:

1st. A main pipe line which carries the water from the measuring box
or point of delivery to the lines of distributing stands which take the place
of head ditches.

79

2nd. The distributing lines which conduct the water from the main
pipe line, and which are connected to the distributing stands.

3rd. The distributing stands or basins by means of which the water is
brought to the surface and distributed into the furrows through small
galvanized iron spouts inserted in the sides of the basin.

4th. Regulating boxes and accessories.

A typical system is shown in the accompanying sketch (Fig. 67). The
pipe lines are made of hand tamped pipe placed in trenches of such depth
that there is at least one foot of earth covering. The method of making
the pipe sections and joining them, as well as the properties of the pipe
and the cost of making and laying have been fully described (pages
47 to 57.) The main pipe line or feed line is not necessary where only
one line of stands is necessary, such as where the orchard is small and
can be irrigated with one set of furrows 330 or 660 feet long. But for
larger orchards it is desirable that the orchard be supplied by two or more
head ditches or distributing pipe lines in order to limit the length of the
furrows to not over 660 feet and preferably 330 feet for sandy soil. The
main supply pipe feeds the distributing lines and conducts the water from
the measuring box or point of delivery to the head of the line of stands.
At the junction of the line of stands with the main pipe, turnout boxes with
suitable gates are necessary to control the flow into each line. The lines
of distributing stands extend across the direction of the furrows. At the
head of each tree row and in line with the trees a stand is connected to the
distributing line.

There are various ways of making the stands and of regulating the
flow. They vary only in details and can be classified into two distinct sys-
tems, one known as the overflow system, and the other, the pressure system.

The overflow system is best adapted where the line of stands is placed
on a flat uniform grade. The pressure system is best where the slope of
the ground is steep and not uniform. These two systems are illustrated in
the accompanying diagram (Fig. 68). With the overflow system the lines
of stands must usually be divided by means of overflow boxes or pressure
regulating boxes into a number of sections depending on the grade, and
each section includes a number of distributing stands, the tops of which
are placed at the same level. The overflow box acts as a check in a head
ditch and by closing or regulating the gate of the overflow it causes the
water to rise in the distributing stand and maintains the water surface
in the stands at about a uniform level. If the gate of the overflow box is
closed the water which is not distributed through the stands above it,
passes over the overflow to supply the stands below; this makes the system
practically automatic. The distributing stands are seldom made higher
than 16 inches above the ground; when it exceeds this a new section or
group of stands is made by inserting another overflow box. On steep grade
the cost is much increased because of the great number of overflows.

The pressure system, or valve system, is so called because the dis-
tributing line is divided into a number of sections, depending on the grade,
so that each section is under a water pressure which the pipe will safely
stand. Because of the pressure it is necessary to regulate the flow into
each basin by means of a valve. Usually the sections should not be longer
than 600 feet and the pressure head should not exceed 15 feet. The boxes
which divide the line in sections control the pressure by means of a gate.

80

The diagram shows the position of this gate which is placed on the up-
stream or inlet side of the box. The pressure of the water tends to push
the gate away from the gate frame and cause leakage. To prevent this the
gates, which are named pressure gates to distinguish them from the cheaper
slide gates, are so designed that when the gate is closed turning the handle
brings the gate tight againsT its frame. This is obtained through some

Fig. 57. — Adjustable V crowder.

Fig. 58. — Using adjustable V crowder.

Fig. 61. — Distribution of water in furrows from concrete bead flume.

' 62. — Concrete distributing flume connected to weir take out box.

Fig. 65. — Distribution of water in furrows from stand pipe.

Fig. 66. — Line of distributing stand pipes for distribution of water
from cement pipe.

Fig:. 69. — Construction of distributing stand pipes.

Fig-. 70. — Distributing pressure stand pipe, type D.

Fig. 71. — Applying water in deep furrows.

72. — Making deep furrows with plows attached to
wheeled cultivator.

Fig. 74. — Applying water in zigzag furrows.

81

3 Y& T£M .

A & C

DETAILS or DJSTWBUT/NG

DETAILS or OVERFLOW $TAND.

Fig. OS. — -Details of cement pipe distributing lines.

82

mechanical device which varies in construction with the different manufac-
turers. Instead of using pressure gates, the ordinary slide gate can be used
by placing it on the downstream side or outlet to the box, but in this case
the box must be built so that its top is higher than the highest distributing
stand of the section. This may require a height of 10 or 15 feet above the
ground, which is objectionable. The pressure system can be used where
the distributing line has to cross shallow depressions. In all cases the line
must be divided into sections so that the maximum head will not exceed

15 feet.
Details of stands.

The stands are shown in detail in the accompanying diagram. Stand
A, used for the overflow system, consists of a section of 6 or 8 inch pipe
placed vertically with the lower end cut to saddle over a 6 or 8 inch hole
made in the pipe line by means of a sharp pick. The joint is made with
a rich cement mortar mixed in the proportion of 1 part of cement to 2 of
sand. Around the upper end of the pipe, at the surface of the ground, is
placed the distributing basin and the space in the basin around the smaller
pipe is filled with cement mortar. The basin is usually a section 6 to 18
inches long of 16 inch pipe. Around the circumference of the basin, near
the floor, from 4 to 6 distributing gates or spouts are inserted and cemented
in holes cut as soon as the basin has been made or cast in the basin when
making it in the metal moulds.

Stand B is also used for the overflow system and consists of a single
length of pipe 8 to 12 inches in diameter in which the spouts are inserted.
(Fig. 69). The larger basins of the type A are preferable where the fur-
rows tend to wash together.

Stands C and D are used for the pressure system. They are made as
stands A and B with the addition of the regulating valve cemented in the
upright pipe (Fig. 70). Stand E. can be used also for the pressure system.
It is similar to basin B with the top closed by a cap of cement mortar. This
stand requires that spouts be opened from the outside and unless they are
properly made, the pressure will cause them to leak. With the other stands
the spouts may open either from the outside or inside.

Overflow stands.

Overflow A is ordinarily made of a section of 16 inch pipe at the top of
which is cut an overflow notch 5 or 6 inches deep and 7 inches wide and
against this 16 inch pipe and cemented to it is a semi-circular or 2-3 cir-
cular section of an 8 inch pipe. The gate in the upstream compartment is
a simple slide gate.

Overflow B consists of an overflow wall 2 inches thick built in a 14 or

16 inch pipe. Overflow C is made of two stand pipes connected with a
short piece of 6 inch pipe.

Draining the pipes.

In order to empty the pipe to prevent bursting by freezing and also to
flush out any silt, it is necessary that at all the lowest points openings con-
trolled by valves or gates be provided.

Accessories.

The accessories needed for a pipe system are: (1) the galvanized iron
spouts, (2) regulating gates, which are either the simple cast iron or steel
slide gates or the pressure gates, (3) the valves. These devices are made
by several manufacturers in southern California and vary in detail. Prob-

83

ably the largest factories are these of Kellar and Thomason Manufacturing
Company at Los Angeles, and the Pomona Manufacturing Company at
Pomona. The prices given below are for California. The first firm will
deliver their appliances at Vancouver for the same prices as quoted for
California points and for orders amounting to $1,000, a discount of 10 per
cent, is given, but to this the duty of 33 per cent, must be added. No doubt
the second firm would give about the same prices.

Cost of Galvanized Iron Distributing Gates.

Diameter. Price for light weight. Price for heavy weight.

1 inch 4% cents 7 cents

1% " 5

1% " 5% " 10 "

Cost of Valves.

No. of valve. Size of opening. Price.

5

2y2 inches

$ .70

6

2% "

.75

8

5

.85

10

6

1.10

12

8

1.80

14

10

2.75

Cost of Gates.

Size of opening. Cast iron slide gates. -Cast iron pressure gates.

6

$1.60

$ 3.40

8

1.75

3.85

10

2.50

4.60

12

3.60

5.90

14

4.60

7.85

16

5.70

10.25

18

.':•• 8.20

12.50

Approximate Cost of Stands in Place.

Type of stand.

Price complete.

A
B
C
D
Overflow

$1.00 to $1.50
.90 to 1.25
1.75 to 2.00
1.65

2.75 slide gate.

5. — Pressure Pipe Lines and Valves.

On some of the orchards in the Okanagan and Grand Forks districts and
also on orchards in Idaho and southern California, the water is distributed
over the orchards in high pressure, wood-banded pipe lines. The pipe lines
take the place of the head ditches; they are tapped at each row or wherever
desired by a standpipe formed by screwing in the wood short sections of
galvanized iron pipe capped by an ordinary garden valve to regulate the
flow. Where the land is very irregular and it is desired to keep the water
under pressure, this form of construction is the most desirable and in fact
the only feasible one, but if it is possible to break the pressure and main-
tain it within the safe pressures for cement pipes by proper regulation, the
cement pipe distributing system has the advantages of lowest cost, greater
durability and better division of the water between furrows.

84

6. — Laying Out Furrows: Number, Length, Depth and Slope.

The number of furrows varies greatly with the opinion and judgment of
the irrigator. For young orchards frequently only two furrows are used
for each row of trees, one on each side of the trees. For older orchards
usually at least three furrows are used, one on each side of the tree rows
and one in the center between tree rows. To obtain a more uniform dis-
tribution of moisture, as many as six or eight furrows to each row of trees
are used. The present tendency is to use deeper furrows and space them
farther apart (Fig. 71). A depth of 8 inches is frequently used. In
southern California orchards are usually furrowed with plows attached to
the frames of wheeled cultivators in the place of the cultivator teeth (Fig.
72). Furrows 9 inches deep have a bottom width of 10 inches and a top
width of 15 inches.

The experiments described under the distribution of water in furrow
irrigation gave some interesting results which should guide the orchard-
ist in adopting the best arrangement of furrows. These experiments
showed that for a sandy soil with furrows 4 feet apart it took about 24
hours for the water to spread sideways and meet between the furrows; for
a clay loam about 12 hours was sufficient. These experiments also showed
that for a deep furrow the sideways spread was greater than for a shallow
furrow. The sideways spread for sandy loam was limited to about 2 feet
on each side of the furrow and for clay loam about 3 feet; this would indi-
cate that the distance apart of furrows should be not over four feet for
sandy loam and six feet for clay loam. The furrows on either side of the
row of trees should be placed as near as possible to the tree to moisten the
soil directly under the tree.

Fig. 73. — Method of laying out zigzag furrows.

(O. E. S. Bulletin 236, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

85

Usually the furrows are made parallel to the rows of trees. As the
trees grow older it is not possible to get the furrows near the trunk which
leaves a space between the trees in a row which is comparatively dry. To
wet the soil more uniformly the land is'fcrpss furrowed so as to form zig-
zag furrows around the trees (Figs. 73, 74). The furrows indicated by the
dotted lines are first made, then crossed at right angles and the necessary
cuts and fills made with a shovel. Because of the greater length, slower
velocity and the larger area wetted, the zigzag furrows receive a larger
stream. Frequently only the lower half, third, or fourth of the furrows is
zigzagged. This will tend to give the lower part of the orchard as much
water as the upper part which otherwise receives a greater quantity.

The length of the furrows ranges usually from 330 to 1320 feet, which
is the length of a 40 acre tract. As a rule the furrows should not exceed
660 feet and preferably 330 feet. On sandy soil, especially, short furrows
not over 330 feet long are desirable; otherwise the upper side of the
orchard receives a large excess of water before the lower part has received
sufficient.

The grade of the furrows varies widely with the topography or lay of
the land. Some orchards on flat valley soils do not permit of a steeper
grade than 1 inch to 100 feet while orchards on steep side hills may re-
quire placing the furrows on much steeper grades. The proper grade de-
pends much on the character of the soil. On ordinary soil a flat grade of
3 to 6 inches in 100 feet is preferable. On steep hillsides flat grades for
the furrows can often be obtained by setting out the trees so that the fur-
rows will run across the slope. Some soils that do not wash badly are
irrigated successfully with furrows as steep as ten or twelve feet to the
hundred, but usually such grades are excessive and require that very small
streams be turned into the furrows and great care taken to prevent wash-
ing of the soil. Where steep grades are not avoidable short furrows
should be used.

APPLICATION OF WATER.
1. — When to Irrigate Orchards and Quantity of Water to Use.

Most orchardists have their opinion as to when irrigation is necessary.
They may be guided by the appearance of the fruits and the leaves, but the
best way to determine the necssity for irrigation is by a study of the soil.
This is best done by borings or excavating trenches to determine where
the roots are and how much free moisture there is in the soil. The method
of taking soil samples and the determination of percentage of free moisture
in the soil have been explained (page 65). After the orchardist has be-
come familiar with his soil and knows the best percentage of moisture for
his trees, he may be able to tell readily by taking a sample of the soil in
his hand whether there is sufficient moisture or not.

It has been stated above (page 65) that the minimum amount of free
soil moisture in four feet of soil to keep apple trees in good growing con-
dition has been found to be from 2.5 to 3 per cent, by weight. Dr. Lough-
ridge found in his experiments on citrus orchards in southern California
that the moisture content in the upper four feet varied from about 4.7 per
cent, by weight before irrigation, to 9.64 per cent, immediately after irri-
gation for a sandy soil, from about 6.81 per cent, before irrigation to 11.27
per cent, immediately after irrigation for a sandy loam, and from about
5.47 to 10.86 per cent, for a heavy loam. The percentage of free moisture

86

6 weeks after irrigation was reduced by soil evaporation and plant trans-
piration to about the same or slightly higher than just before irrigation.
Based on these figures with irrigation at six week intervals, the percentage
of free moisture to add at each irrigation would be about 5 per cent, for
sandy loam and 4.5 for clay loam or heavy loam, or about 5 pounds of
water to 100 pounds of soil. For a soil air dried weighing from about 100-
to 110 pounds, this is equivalent to about 1 inch of water to 12 inches
depth of soil. This gives for the correct quantity of water to put in the
upper six feet of soil in order to maintain the proper quantity of soil
moisture, a depth of about 6 inches of irrigation, applied at six week inter-
vals during the growing season.

These figures are based on results obtained for full grown citrus
orchards which in California usually require about twice as much as apple
trees or other deciduous trees. Therefore about 3 inches of irrigation
water at each irrigation separated by intervals of 45 days should be ample.
That this amount may be sufficient for a young orchard at least is shown
by the following case in Idaho described by Don H. Bark, in charge of Irri-
gation Investigations for the U. S. Department of Agriculture. The orch-
ard is a thrifty 5 year old orchard located at Twin Falls where the annual
precipitation varies from about 8 to 18 inches. During the growing season
of 1910 the rainfall was 1% inches and the depth of irrigation water ap-
plied was about 7 *4 inches. The soil was kept well mulched by frequent
cultivations and the moisture at the end of the season in the fall was fully
as high as at the beginning of the season. This one caee is not conclusive
but it shows the possibilities of small quantities of water carefully used.
The examples of net duty of water on orchards in eastern Washington and
Montana given on page 61 indicate the quantities used with ordinary care
in irrigation and cultivation. It is interesting to notice that the measure-
ments made on citrus orchards showed that the amount of soil moisture
supplied to sandy loam soil was practically the same as for heavy loam soil
and clay loam. This is probably true of any soil which is sufficiently deep
and not underlaid with a very open sandy or gravelly soil, in which case
the soil should be irrigated more frequently and less depth of water applied
at each irrigation.

2. — Number of Irrigations Per Season.

The number of irrigations will depend on the capacity of soil to retain
water. The orchardist should be guided mainly by the examination of his
soil and should try to keep the moisture content within the limits stated
above; that is, the free moisture should be between 5 and 10 per cent, of
the weight of the soil. For an open soil, well drained, or for a shallow soil,
light irrigations applied frequently are best; for a deep retentive soil three
to four irrigations 4 or fi inches deep are ample. The practice in some of
the fruit growing districts of Washington, Idaho, Montana and Colorado is
described by Professor Fortier in U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers'
Bulletin 404, on Irrigation of Orchards, as follows:

"In the Yakima and Wenatchee fruit-growing districts of Washington,
the first irrigation is usually given in April or early in May. Then follow
three to four waterings at intervals of 20 to 30 days. At Montrose, Colo.,
water is used three to five times in a season. At Payette, Idaho, the same
number of irrigations is applied, beginning about June 1 in ordinary sea-
sons and repeating the operation at the end of 30 day intervals. As a rule,
the orchards at Lewiston, Idaho, are watered three times, beginning about

87

June 15. From two to four waterings suffice for fruit trees in the vicinity
of Boulder, Colo. The last irrigation is given on or before September 5,
so that the new wood may have a chance to mature before heavy freezes
occur. In the Bitter Root Valley, Montana, young trees are irrigated
earlier and oftener than mature trees. Trees in bearing are, as a rule,
irrigated about July 15, August 10, and August 20, of each year."

R. W. Fischer, Horticulturist for the Montana Agricultural College,
states the following: ^

"As a general rule, young trees need not be irrigated more than once or
twice during a season. Old bearing trees will require from two to four
irrigations. Young trees are irrigated about June 15th and possibly July
15th. Old trees are irrigated about June 15, July 1, July 20, and August
15th. In connection it may be added that the mean annual rainfall is about
12 to 15 inches, about half of which comes in the months of May, June,
July and August."

3. — Fall and AVinter Irrigation.

Experience shows that irrigation too late in the summer keeps the tree
in growing condition and the immature growth is easily damaged by the
early frost in the fall. This is one of the causes of winter killing of trees.
On the other hand when irrigation is stopped too early in the summer and
the soil is not retentive, there is insufficient water to meet the demands of
soil evaporation and of tree transpiration during the fall and winter, and
the soil becomes too dry for the trees, which are consequently damaged or
killed. In many orchards the practice is not to irrigate after the beginning
of August. In some cases, especially on porous non-retentive soils, it
would be well to irrigate in the fall or mid-winter after the leaves have
fallen and when there is no danger of starting a second growth. The
proper time for this last irrigation would be in late October or in November
and only sufficient water should be added to moisten the soil.

4. — Running Water in the Furrows.

The stream of water or heads used in orchard irrigation depend on the
manner of delivering and the depth applied on the land. Some canal com-
panies deliver a continuous flow in proportion to the area irrigated, others
deliver the water in turns or rotation and each irrigator receives a larger
head than by continuous flow for a portion of the time. The second method
is preferable. It les'sens the losses of evaporation and seepage, eliminates
the waste of a continuous flow when not in use, enables the irrigator to
apply the water in a short length of time, and encourages proper applica
tion of water.

The heads delivered to the irrigator for orchard irrigation by furrows
may range from a few miners' inches to 100 or more miners' inches. For
small orchards heads of from y2 a cubic foot per second to 1 cubic foot per
second or 20 to 40 miners' inches are desirable. The table below gives the
time necessary to irrigate 4 inches deep, different size orchards with differ-
ent sizes of streams:

Size of strear
miners' inche

n, Number

of days required to irrigate, 4 inches deep, orchards of

!S- 5 acres.

10 acres.

15 acres.

20 acres.

30 acres.

40 acres.

5
10

6 days
. . . . 3

12 days
6
3

2

18 days
9

3

2*4

24 days
12
6
4
3

36 days
18
9
6

4V2

48 days
24
12
8
6

20

30. ...

1

40

88

The number of furrows into which the irrigating head may be divided
will depend much on the character of the soil and grade of furrows. In
some cases one half a miners' inch or even less may be run into each fur-
row while for some sandy soils it is necessary to use 3 or 4 miners' inches
in order that the water will reach the lower end of the furrow and not be
all absorbed at the upper end. On tight soil a small stream must be used
in order that it will run slowly in the furrows and give time for the water
to percolate into the ground without a waste at the lower end. To prevent
the upper end of the furrows from receiving too much water it is always
desirable to begin with a large stream into each furrow and rush the
water to the lower end, then reduce the size of stream to obtain an even
distribution.

With furrows 330 feet long, 6 feet apart, and a British Columbia miners'
inch to each furrow, the time which the water must run to give an average
depth of water on the soil of 6 inches is about 10 hours. Depending on the
nature of the soil and length of the furrow, the time the water is run into
the furrows varies from 4 to 48 hours. Prof. R. W. Fischer, of Montana,
found that on the clayey loams of the apple orchards on the east bench of
the Bitter Root River, it requires from 12 to 18 hours to moisten the soil in
furrow irrigation, 4 feet deep and 3 feet sideways.

5. — Prevention of Losses of Water Applied; and Cultivation.

The losses which occur in the application of water to the soil are:

1st. The losses due to unequal distribution of water iu the soil caused
by deep percolation and waste at the upper end of the fields, unequal
division of water between furrows, and excessive use of water which is not
retained by the soil.

2nd. Loss from neglect, because of careless irrigation which allows
waste in the low places and at the ends of the furrows, causing injury to
roads and adjoining orchards or farms.

3rd. Loss by evaporation of the water in the furrow itself and especial-
ly of the soil moisture from the wet soil.

The remedies to minimize the losses due to unequal distribution of
water in the soil and the waste due to deep percolation have been fully
discussed in the preceding pages. The loss from neglect can be largely
prevented by care. The losses due to evaporation can be lessened by apply-
ing the water in deep furrows and by thorough cultivation.

Irrigation with deep furrows places the water well below the surface
and does not wet the surface soil to the same extent as with shallow fur-
rows; this decreases the evaporation loss and permits cultivation of the
orchard soon after irrigation. It also encourages deep rooting which Is
always desirable except where the soil is very shallow.

Cultivation is one of the most important factors not only to prevent
evaporation, but to improve the condition of the soil. To prevent evapora-
tion the soil should.be cultivated immediately after each irrigation. Pro-
fessor Fischer, Horticulturist for the Montana Agricultural College, states
that as a general rule orchards should be cultivated every ten days during
the growing season until about August 1st. Cultivation should stop at that
time, especially in young orchards in order to induce the trees to mature,
thus putting them in better condition to endure freezing temperatures in
the early fall and winter. He describes the process of cultivation in
Montana as follows:

89

"Orchard soils are usually plowed in the spring during April or early
May. This plowing may be done with a two horse team using a fourteen
inch plow. The plowing should be from six to eight inches deep. The soil
is turned towards the trees one year alfd away from them the following
year. The last one or two furrows near the trees can be plowed with a
one horse eight inch plow plowing only from four to six inches deep so as
not to interfere with the roots near the trunk. On soils that work easily it
is sometimes possible to cultivate the soil deep enough with the disc har-
row, thus doing away with the spring plowing. After plowing the land
should be smoothed using a smoother or leveler. After smoothing the soil
is cultivated with a spring tooth harrow going at least two ways in the
orchard. This is followed with a spike tooth or smoothing harrow."

A deep granular mulch 6 to 8 inches thick is much more effective for
deep soils than one only 3 or 4 inches thick. If thorough cultivation is
practiced, frequent irrigation is not* necessary. Irrigation water can not
take the place of frequent and thorough cultivation. The effects of irri-
gation in furrows of different depths and of mulches of different thickness
have been determined quantitatively 'by the experiments previously de-
scribed (pages 68 to 72).

VI.— IRRIGATION OF POTATOES.

1. — Selection of Soil.

Potatoes are grown very profitably in many of the irrigated districts.
They may be grown separately as a commercial crop on land devoted to
this purpose, or they may be planted between tree rows in order to obtain
some income from the land while the trees are young and for this pur-
pose they are preferable to deep rooted plants which are always more or
less detrimental to the proper growth of an orchard. They can also be
grown on land which is to be planted in fruit trees, for the purpose of im-
proving the texture of the soil.

Potatoes which are grown on orchard soils either prior to planting the
orchard or while the trees are young, can not be expected to give as large
yields as obtained on soils which are selected for the purpose of growing
potatoes. Orchard soils are not always well suited for large yields of
potatoes. This is especially true of a soil which is deficient in organic
matter, but the continuous cultivation, the irrigation and the digging up
of the soil when harvesting the crop in the fall will very much improve
the condition of the soil.

When potatoes are to be grown separately and for the chief purpose of
obtaining maximum production, the soil should be carefully selected and
given proper treatment. The best soil is a sandy loam of fairly porous
soil, well drained, with sufficient humus or decayed organic matter to put
it in good condition and increase its power to retain moisture.

2. — Treatment of Soil.

To otbain heavy yields sandy soils must usually be prepared by growing
a foundation crop which will add humus to the soil. The best crops for
this purpose are alfalfa, clover, and peas. To keep the land in good pro-
ductive condition the rotation of crops is usually advocated. A common
practice in Colorado is to grow either clover or alfalfa for two years,
potatoes for two years, and grain or peas for one year; this last crop is
sometimes omitted.

90

Where alfalfa is the foundation crop it is rather difficult to plow it up.
This is usually done by plowing the alfalfa when it is blooming, first shal-
low to a depth of 3 or 4 inches, in order to turn over the plant and cut off
the crown at that depth to expose the roots to the sun. This is followed
by a deep plowing in the fall which leaves the land in good condition for
the potato crop.

New land is broken up in the fall previous to growing crops by plowing
deeply and allowing it to stand in that condition until spring when it is
either worked up by a shallow plowing 4 to 6 inches deep and then har-
rowed, or simply pulverized and worked up with a disk or spring tooth
harrow.

3. — Planting Potatoes.

The time of planting varies with climatic conditions and the kind of
potatoes. Early potatoes are planted in the spring as soon as the frost
is out of the ground and when there is no danger of late hard frosts. Late
potatoes may be planted as late as the middle of June, but usually earlier
is more desirable, especially where there is a deficient water supply in the
late summer.

The depth of planting depends on the condition of the soil and the kind
of potatoes. Early potatoes planted in moist retentive soil are placed 2 to
2^ inches deep; where the soil is not retentive and is dry, or where there
is danger of heavy frost, 4 inches is better. The rows are spaced 36 to 42
inches apart and the hills in the rows 12 to 15 inches apart; on rich land
they may be placed as close as 8 inches apart.

The seed may be either whole or cut. Good size seed must be used. In
Colorado medium size whole seed as large as two ounces is preferred.
Four ounce potatoes are cut in two and six ounce potatoes in three. Pota-
toes raised on irrigated land are not considered the best for seed, and dry
land seed from Wisconsin, Minnesota or from non-irrigated land of Colo-
rado, are generally used in that State. It is important that the seed be
properly selected. A uniform size is desirable. Seed averaging 1 *£ ounces
in weight and spaced 12 inches apart in rows spaced 40 inches apart will
require about 1200 pounds of seed to the acre.

For small areas the seed is placed in the furrow and pressed by hand,
then covered with plow or harrow. For large areas mechanical planters
drawn by a horse are used. They will open the furrow, place the seed,
cover it, and pack the soil.

4. — Cultivation.

The cultivation should begin soon after planting. The first cultivation
between the rows which are indicated by the tracks of the planter, begins
a week after planting. This cultivation should be 8 or 10 inches deep in
order to well aerate the soil and kill the alfalfa which may have a tend-
ency to sprout again. The cultivator drawn by two horses, has four
shovels, two for each side of the row; they are 4 to 5 inches wide and 14
to 15 inches long. The cultivator is followed by a harrow. Cultivation is
continued with the harrow passed over the land in both directions once a
week, if possible, until the plants are 5 or 6 inches high. Shallow cultiva-
tions after each irrigation until the plants cover the ground is desirable.

5. — Quantity of Water Required for Potatoes.

Experiments made by the Agricultural College of Utah on the relation

91

Locality.

Depth of water applied in inches.

Yield in bushels per acre.

Salt Lake County

71/2

210

10

217

11%

258

16%

270

201/2

265

Morgan County....

17%

257

19%

325

19%

227

211/2

250

251/2

282

26

205

Experiment Station

Plat 9

124

15

217

20

446

27

362

40

523

The above results show that 16 to- 20 inches of water will give a yield
nearly as great and in some cases greater than a larger quantity. This is
also corroborated by measurements made by D. H. Bark in Idaho in 1910.
The results obtained are given below.

Number of
irrigations.

Date of first Total dept
and last applied in
irrigation. inches.

h Yield, tons per acre.

Percentage
marketable.

Marketable.

Culls.

Total.

3. ...

May 13-July 15

10%

18

24i/2

2.16
4.40
3.93

.99
1.56
2.54

3.15
5.96
6.47

68y2
75
61

5
6

.May 13-Aug. 9
May 13-Aug 18

These potatoes were planted June 1st and 2nd at the rate of 1,000 Ibs.
to the acre on fall plowed land which had been in grain during the season
of 1909. The land received one irrigation before planting. The water was
applied in deep furrows 220 feet long and the land was cultivated six times.
Mr. Bark states that the yields were very unsatisfactory owing to the poor
stand secured, but it is thought that the amounts applied would have been
sufficient for maximum crops had the stand been good.

While these experiments are not conclusive, they are of value in showing
that the bigger yields are not always obtained with the largest quantity of
water and that above a certain depth of water the increase in yield, if any,
is small as compared to the increase in quantity of water applied. The
yield does not depend entirely on the quantity of water applied but on the
time of application and the care in planting and cultivation.

6. — Time to Irrigate.

Soil which is moist and retentive does not need any irrigation before
planting, but for dry soil or for late planting one irrigation before planting
followed by cultivation, is necessary. During the first stages of growth
thorough cultivation is more important than irrigation and no irrigation
may be necessary until July. The number of irrigations will vary from
two to four for ordinary sandy loam, but on porous, sandy soil or on shal-
low soil which does not retain moisture, five or even six shallow irriga-
tins may be preferable. Frequent irrigation, especially early in the season
when the water is cold, will retard the growth. The moisture in the soil
should be kept fairly uniform until the tubers begin to form, when a large
quantity of water is required. The need of irrigation may be indicated by

92

the appearance of the plants such as the darkening of the leaves, or prefer-
ably by an examination of the soil under the surface where the tubers form.
The soil is in good condition when a ball of earth squeezed in the hand
will retain its shape.

The last irrigation should be applied before the growth of tuber ceases
in order to give about one month and a half to two months for ripening in
dry earth. Where potatoes are grown between tree rows, late irrigation
and cultivation after the first of August will keep the orchard in growing
condition too late in the fall and will not give tte wood sufficient time to
mature before the first hard frosts.

7. — Method of Irriagtion.

Potatoes are irrigated by furrows made midway between the rows. The
furrows are made by a double mouldboard plow which forms a V trench,
the bottom of which should be about 6 to 12 inches below the crown of the
plant. The length of the furrows should not be over 200 or 300 feet for
porous sandy soil and not over 500 to 6CO feet for more retentive loam.
Greater lengths give unequal distribution of soil moisture with an excess
or waste at the upper end due to deep percolation.

A common practice in Colorado is to open alternate furrows for the first
irrigation, and for the next irrigation open the furrows in the intervals
between rows which were left unopened in the first irrigation. For more
than two irrigation the alternation is repeated.

The division of water between furrows, the size of the stream delivered
to each furrow, t^e length of time the stream is run into the furrows, are
the saire and controlled by the same factors as the irrigation of orchard
and alfalfa by furrows previously described.

Potato vines are shallow rooted and the frequent application of cold
water no doubt retards their growth; for this reason some irrigators prefer
to apply the water at night when the soil and water have had all day to
warm up in the sun. This practice also has the advantage that the loss of
moisture by evaporation is decreased. Many growers object to night irri-
gation because of the night work necessary to distribute the water. How-
ever, this may be cut down to a minimum by a proper preparation of the
ground and the regulation of the water delivered to the furrows by placing
spouts in the banks of the head ditch at the head of each furrow or by
using for tte head ditch a flume with auger holes as described for orchard
irrigMion.

Additional information on the agricultural phase of potato growing
may be otbained by consulting the following bulletins:

Potato Investigations, Bulletin No. 94, Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, Pullman, Washington.

Potato Culture on Irrigated Farms of the West, Farmers' Bulletin 386,
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

VII.— IRRIGATION OF ALFALFA.

The value of alfalfa as a forage crop and as a foundation crop for
orchards or potatoes to be grown on soils lacking fertility, make it desir-
able that information on the proper methods of irrigation of this crop be
included in this bulletin. The growing of alfalfa is not widespread in
British Columbia, but its rapid spread in almost every state of the United
States makes it reasonable to expect that it will become a more import-
ant crop

93

1. — Methods of Irrigation. V

The methods of irrigation given for alfalfa will apply to practically all
forage crops as clover, peas, etc. Because of the rolling character of most
of the irrigable land of British Columbia, the method best adapted to the
irrigation of alfalfa is the furrow method, almost universally used in the
Yakima Valley of eastern Washington, said often spoken of as the Yakima
or corrugation system. Another system adapted to rolling land and used
extensively in the Rocky Mountain states — Colorado, Montana, Wyoming
and Utah — is known as the flooding method. It consists in running small
parallel ditches through the fields, 50 feet to as much as 200 feet or more
apart, and running the water over the ban-k of the ditches down the slope
of the fields. This method requires an irrigating head of from 40 to 100
miners' inches or 1 to 2 y2 cubic feet per second and is more wasteful than
the corrugation method. The other methods of irrigation commonly used
are known as the border method and the check method. These are adapted
only to comparatively level land and require large heads of water. Only
the first method will be described as it is the one best adapted to most of
the irrigable land of British Columbia. The other methods are fully
described in Farmers' Bulletin 373 on Irrigation of Alfalfa, which can be
obtained from the U. S. Department of Agriculture, at Washington, D. C.
Furrow method of alfalfa irrigation.

The water is run in shallow furrows from which it spreads laterally
and moistens the soil on each side. The laying out of the head ditches or
flumes, the length and slope of the furrows, and the application of the water
is much the same as for orchards. The farmer often makes his furrows
too long in order to avoid many head ditches. This is poor practice for it
causes unequal distribution of water with a loss by percolation at the
upper end of the furrows. It is best to plan the distribution system so

J2"* 12" flume

"x &" Flume.

350'

S

Z&O'

LEGEND

- -- F/ume

»•• Slope of La net
•"— ^~* Direction of F/ow /n Flume

330'

Fig-. 75. — Distribution system for ten acre traet, Kenewiek, \Vnsh.

(O. E. S. Bulletin 188, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

94

that the furrows do not exceed 660 feet for ordinary loam soils and 330
or even 220 feet for porous sandy soils. This requires that the field be cut
up by two or more head ditches or head flumes fed by the supply lateral.
A typical wooden flume distribution system for an alfalfa field at Kenne-
wisk, Washington, is shown in the accompanying diagram (Fig. 75). The
furrows are made 3 to 6 inches deep, about the same width, and spaced
from 18 inches to 4 feet apart, depending on the character of the soil. The
furrows are commonly made by the use of a marker or furrowing sled
which may be a rough implement made of logs fastened together and
spaced the right distance apart, but preferably made of timber as shown
below (Fig. 76). This leaves a smooth furrow, without clods to interfere
with the flow.

Fig. 70. — Furrowing: Sled.

(Farmers' Bulletin 392, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

The water is divided and distributed into the furrows from the head
ditch or flume as for orchard irrigation, usually from spouts placed in the
ditch bank or from holes bored in the side of the flume. At first a larger
stream is turned into each furrow to rush it through to the lower end and
then the opening is regulated to give a small stream which is allowed to
run 12 to 24 hours for furrows 330 to 660 feet long and 24 to 48 hours for
furrows 660 to 1320 feet long. For porous soil a larger stream for a
shorter time should be used. With furrows 2 feet apart and 330 feet long
it will require about 1-5 miners' inch to each furrow, running for 24 hours,
to give a depth of 9 inches of water on the land. The practice in the
Yakima Valley is to make the furrows 18 inches apart when the land is
first seeded and to abandon every other one after the plants are well rooted.
2. — Amount of Water Required.

The duty of water measurements given for alfalfa (page 62) show the
great variations in quantity of water applied by different irrigators in dif-
ferent localities. These quantities do not give any idea of the correct
quantity of water to use. The maximum yield of alfalfa obtainable in any
case will depend not only on the quantity of water used, but on the time
when it is applied. When properly applied it has been found that different
quantities of water will give different yields but that the increase in yield
is not in direct proportion with the increase in quantity of water applied
and there is no. doubt for every particular case, a depth of water which will
give a maximum yield and any quantity applied above that is not only
wasted but decreases the yield because of the excess moisture in the soil.
Professor Fortier in 1903, when director of the Montana Experiment Sta-
tion, made experiments on seven plats of alfalfa to determine the relation
between quantity of water applied and yield. The results obtained are
given in the following table taken from U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Farmers' Bulletin 373 on Irrigation of Alfalfa.

95

Quantities of Water Applied to Alfalfa and Yields Secured, Montana
Experiment Station.

Plat
number.

Depth of
irrigation.

Depth of
rainfall.

Total depth.

Yield per acre
of cured
alfalfa.

1
2

.5 ft.
None

.70 ft.
70

1.20 ft.
70

4.61 tons

1 QT

3 .

1 0

70

1 70

442

4

1.5

70

2 20

3 75

5

2.0

70

2 70

6 35

6
7

2.5
3 0

.70
70

3.20
3 70

7.20

7 68

Mr. Alex. McPherson, Secretary of the Idaho Board of Horticultural
Inspection, states that in southern Idaho 24 inches of water applied pro-
duced the maximum crop of alfalfa amounting to seven tons of baled hay,
while thirty-six inches produced six and one-third tons; besides the field
was damaged to some extent by excessive use of water.

Mr. Don H. Bark, in charge of Irrigation Investigations in Idaho, has
carried on during the past two seasons some very interesting experiments
on the water requirements of plants and duty of water. The method used
was to select fields averaging about 15 acres on typical farms of the state.
These fields were divided into three equal parts. On one part the owner
used the same manner of irrigation and same quantity of water as had
been his usual custom. On the second part a greater amount was used
and on the third part, a smaller amount. The water was carefully meas-
ured and the yields weighed to determine the amount giving the greatest
yield. The results obtained for the different crops, grain, alfalfa, and
clover, are given in the Eighth Biennial Report of the State Engineer
of Idaho.

The only experiment for red clover was made on a two year old clover
field with very sandy and gravelly soil. Below 2 feet from the surface and
extending to a depth of at least 100 feet, the subsoil was of 35 to 40 per
cent, sand and 60 to 65 per cent, coarse gravel. The water table was 55
feet from the surface. The field was irrigated by flooding, the water being
run over the surface distances from 910 feet to as much as 2359 feet. The
results obtained were ES follows:

Number of irrigations.

Total depth of water

Yield per acre.

9
10

6.92 feet
8.40
11.74

3.78
4.85
4.60

The greatest yield was obtained with the medium amount of water. But
in all three cases the quantities used are very large and include a waste
due to the very open character of the soil and to the long distance the
water is run. A large proportion of the water is lost by deep percolation,
especially at the upper end of the field. The waste could be lessened by
running the water shorter distances, preferably less than 500 feet.

The experiments for alfalfa were made on a variety of soils. A very
sandy and gravelly soil, very similar to the above, was irrigated in the
same manner, the water being flooded distances from 1979 to 2550 feet.

96

Nnber of irrigations. Total Water Yield per acre

4 6.35 feet 3.78

6 6.92 3.65

7 9.40 5.2

The greatest yield was obtained from the greatest amount of water. In
this case also water was flooded much too far and the loss by deep percola-
tion is no doubt very great. The waste could be very much lessened by
using frequent light irrigations and shortening the distance the water has
to travel. Because of the waste in both of the above gravelly soils, these
results do not represent the correct quantity of water to use.

On a very sandy loam of fine texture down to a depth of 6 feet or more,
the yields obtained for four year old alfalfa were as follows:

Number of irrigations.

Total depth of water
applied.

Yield per acre.

3
5

7

1.61 feet
2.65
4.82

4.44
4.28
4.57

The field was well prepared for irrigation. The yields were nearly the
same for the different depths of water applied.

For a clay soil 6 feet or more deep with a thin layer of hardpan 2 or 3
feet below the surface, the yields of an alfalfa field 5 years old were:

Number of irrgations. Total ' Water Yield per acre.

8 1.89 feet 4.00

8 2.85 3.66

_ 9 3.45 4.37

While the yield was greatest for the largest quantity of water used, it
was not much greater than that obtained where the smallest quantity of
water was used.

On a clay loam of the same character as the above clay soil the yields
from a one year old alfalfa field were:

Number of irrigations. Total depth of water ~ Yield per acre.

applied.

7 1.43 feet 2.85

7 2.11 4.93

7 2.25 4.35

The re&ults obtained from these experiments show that on gravelly soil
a much larger quantity of water may be used than on more retentive soil.
But the quantities used do not represent the amount of water required
for they include large losses due to deep percolation which can be very
much reduced by running the water shorter distances and using light irri-
gation applied more frequently. As a rule the yield seems to increase with
the quantity of water applied, but the increase in yield in most cases is
slight for a considerable increase in quantity of water and in some cases a
greater yield was obtained with the smaller quantity.

The U. S. Department of Agriculture has made experiments on thirty
plats of alfalfa at the University Farm at Davis, California, to determine
the best use of water on alfalfa. The yields obtained for varying amounts
of water are as follows:

97

Yield in tons per acre.

Depth

of water applied.

In 1910.

In 1911.

None.

12

24. . . .

30

32

36

48

4.08
4.79
6.43
8.09

7.60

8.45

6.03
7.52
8.38
9.50
9.20
9.33
9.65

The plants were two years old in 1910 and three years old in 1911. The
rainfall during the fall, winter and spring preceding the summer of 1910
was about 12 inches, and preceding the summer of 1911 it was about 22
inches. The rainfall during the growing season from the beginning c
April to the end of October in both years was less than 1 inch. The soil
was a «andy loam of great depth and the substantial yields obtained with-
out irrigation show the power of this soil to retain the moisture produced
by the winter and spring rains. The results show that the yield increases
materially with an increase in the amount of water applied up to 30 inches,
which gave a greater yield than 32 or 36 inches and almost as great as
48 inches.

The experiments made in Montana, Idaho and California, described
above seem to indicate that 30 inches of water carefully applied will give
.almost maximum yields. While greater yields may be otbained-by adding
greater quantities of water, the increase is only small and will in most
cases not pay for the extra water. Where water is valuable it may be more
economical to use even less than 30 inches. The best practice in southern
California where water is valuable compares closely with the experiments
mentioned. At Pomona, California, the rainfall for 1903-4 was about i
inches; the quantity of water applied by pumping averaged 2.3 feet in
-depth and the yield of cured hay averaged 1 to 1.5 tons per acre per c
ting, five or six cuttings being common.
3. — Number of Irrigations.

Where there is sufficient moisture in the soil due to rainfall no irri-
gation may be necessary for the first crop. For each succeeding crop i
is common practice to apply one irrigation either before or after cutting.
On gravelly porous soil and on shallow soils, two or even three irrigations
for each crop may be preferable. Irrigation before cutting is the custom
in the Yellowstone Valley of Montana. It has the advantage that the soil
being shaded by the plant, the evaporation of soil water is decreased II
:also tends to prevent baking of the soil and permits an earlier irrigation
for the last crop, which is an advantage if the available water runs short
before the end of the season. The disadvantages of irrigating before
cutting are that the plants interfere more or less with the distribution of
water and that the soil may take considerable time to dry out sufficient y
to permit harvesting. For these reasons many irrigators prefer t
.after each cutting.
4 — The Proper Time to Irrigate Alfalfa.

' Farmers' Bulletin No. 373 on Irrigation of Alfalfa written by S.muc
Fortier of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, gives the follow,!
information on the proper time to irrigate alfalfa, winter Irngation. wmter
killing and seeding of alfalfa:

98

"The general appearance, and more particularly the color of the plant,
are the best guides, perhaps, as to when water is needed. When healthy
and vigorous, alfalfa is of a light-green color; but when the supply of
moisture is insufficient the leaves take on a darker and duller shade of green
and begin to droop, and unless water is provided both stems and leaves
wither and die. Another test is to remove a handful of soil 6 inches or so
beneath the surface and compress it in the hand. If it retains its ball-like
shape after the pressure has been removed, and shows the imprints of the
fingers, the soil is sufficiently moist, but if it faHs apart readily it is too
dry. In connection with such tests it is well to bear in mind that they are
more or less influenced by both soil and climate. It is therefore necessary
to observe the growth of the plant closely on all new alfalfa fields to
determine if possible how f?r such tests may be relied upon, the chief
object being to maintain at all times as nearly as practicable the proper
amount of moisture in the soil surrounding the roots of the plants to
prevent a checking of their growth.

"Alfalfa commonly receives careless treatment at the hands of western
irrigators. When water is available and is not needed for other crops it
is usually turned on the alfalfa fields or meadows whether these need it
or not. There is no question that yields of alfalfa might be considerably
increased if more care was used in finding out when to apply water. In
each kind of soil and under any given set of climatic conditions there is a
certain percentage of soil moisture which will give best results. Under the
present unskillful practice it is impossible to maintain uniform soil-
moisture conditions for any length of time. The soil is apt to receive too
much or too little water, or else it is deluged with cold water at a time
when it needs only heat on«l air. The number of irrigations required de-
pends upon the depth and nature of the eoil, the depth to ground water,
the number of cuttings, and the rainfall, temperature, and wind movement.
Other things being equal, more frequent waterings are required in the
warm sections of the South than in the cooler portions of the North. The
number of irrigations per year for alfalfa ranges from 4 in Montana and
Wyoming to as many as 12 in parts of California and Arizona. In localities
where water is scarce during part of the season the number of waterings
as well as the amount used each time depends on the available supply. It
is a common practice to apply frequent and heavy irrigations in spring
when water is abundant and to water less often and more sparingly when
the supply is low."

5. — Winter Irrigation of Alfalfa.

"When water is applied either to bare soil or to crops outside of the
regular irrigation season it is termed winter irrigation. The practice
thus far has been confined largely to the warmer parts of the arid region.
It has become well established in Arizona and California and is being quite
rapidly extended to parts of Oregon, Kansas, and the Rocky Mountain
States.

"Experience has shown that a deep retentive soil is capable of storing
a large quantity of water. On account of the fluctuation of western streams
of all kinds, from the small creek to the large river, the greatest flow of
water often comes at a season when there is least demand for it. In a few
localities adequate storage facilities have been provided to retain the
surplus, but as a rule it is allowed to go to waste. The passage of so much
waste water led to the introduction of winter irrigation and in nearly
every case the results have been satisfactory. The chief differences be-
tween winter and ordinary irrigations are the larger volumes used, the
crude manner of conveying and applying the water, and the dormant or
partially dormant condition of the plants at the time of irrigation.

"Besides furnishing a supply of much-needed moisture, winter irrigation
when conditions are favorable, prevents winter killing and improves the
mechanical condition of the soil."

6. — Winterkilling of Alfalfa.

"In the colder portions of Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and the
Dakotas alfalfa is apparently winterkilled from a variety of causes and
sometimes from a combination of causes. The percentage of loss aiound
Greeley, Colo., has been placed at 2 per cent, per annum. In this locality
and throughout the Cache la Poudre Valley in northern Colorado most of

the winterkilling is done in open dry winters and is quite generally at-
tributed to a scarcity of moisture in the soil. In the winter of 1907 con-
siderable damage was done to the 'alfalfa fields around Loveland, Colo.,
on account of the long dry spell in midwinter. The old alfalfa fields suf-
fered most. It was the opinion of the farmers that a late fall irrigation
would have prevented the loss.

"Near Wheatland, Wyo., the higher portions of the fields suffer most
damage in winter, and here also the cause is said to be lack of moisture in
the soil, combined with the effects produced by cold and wind.

"At Choteau, in northern Montana, a farmer watered, late in the fall,
part of an alfalfa field which was 2 years old, and it winterkilled, while
the unwatered portion escaped injury. This and other evidence along the
same line which might be given go far to demonstrate that under some
conditions too much moisture is as detrimental as too little.

"Probably the chief cause of the winterkilling of alfalfa is alternate
freezing and thawing. The damage from this cause is greatly increased
when any water is left standing on the surface. A blanket of snow is a
protection, but when a thin sheet of ice forms over portions of a field the
result is usually fatal to plants. The bad effects of alternate freezing and
thawing on alfalfa may be observed at the edge of a snow bank. This
crop is likewise injured by the rupture of the tap roots caused by the
heaving of the soil.

"Prom present knowledge of the subject, the means which may be used
to protect alfalfa fields from winterkilling may be summed up as follows:
Where both the soil and the air are dry the plant should be supplied with:
sufficient water for evaporation, but the land should be drained so thor-
oughly that none of the top soil is saturated; a late growth should not be
forced by heavy irrigations late in the growing season; if the soil is dry,
irrigate after the plants have stopped growing; and the latest growth
should be permitted to remain on the ground, unpastured, as a pro-
tection.

"It may be stated in conclusion that the loss to the farmer from the
winterkilling of alfalfa is not as great as might appear at first. • The dam-
age is done in winter, and there is ample time to plow the plants under and
secure another crop, which is usually heavy, owing to the amount of
fertilizers added by the roots of alfalfa. The Montana farmer who in-
creased his average yield of oats from 50 to 103 bushels per acre by
ploughing under winterkilled alfalfa illustrated this point."

7. — Seeding Alfalfa on Land to Be Irrigated.

"In the upper Snake River Valley, in Idaho, alfalfa is usually preceded
by a grain crop. The stubble is plowed 6 to 9 inches deep in the fall, and
early in the spring it is double-disked, harrowed, and smoothed. Prom 8
to 20 pounds of seed is then drilled in 0.75 inch to 1.5 inches deep in rows
6 inches apart. When oats is used as a nurse crop it is seeded first, 80
to 100 pounds per acre being used. Prom 8 to 12 pounds of alfalfa seed
are then drilled in, in the opposite direction. Some farmers use a com-
bination drill which seeds both at the same time. When no nurse crop is
used the alfalfa plants are clipped when they reach a height of 8 to 12
inches. This is necessary to hold the weeds in check and to cause the
plants to Btool.

"In the Yakima Valley, March and April are preferred for seeding
alfalfa, both on account of the climate and the abundant water supply of
that period. The ground is plowed deep, graded, smoothed, and harrowed.
From 10 to 20 pounds of seed are then put in with a broadcast seeder and
harrowed lightly. The furrows are then marked off and irrigation begins.
The ground is kept moist constantly until the young plants are fairly well
established. The use of so much water at the start is due largely to the
tendency of the soil to bake if allowed to become dry.

"The alfalfa growers of Montana are about equally divided in opinion
as to the advantages of using a nurse crop. Those who seed grain with
alfalfa claim that they get more out of the land the first season, whi
those who are opposed to this practice believe that the injury done to the
alfalfa plants by the grain crop extends through several years and that
the small gain of the first year is more than offset by the lessened yields
of alfalfa in subsequent years.

100

"In northern Colorado, rotation of crops is practiced and alfalfa seed
is sown with a nurse crop, usually wheat or barley. The seed is drilled
early in the spring with a common force-feed press drill equipped with an
auxiliary seed box for alfalfa seed, which is scattered broadcast between
the grain rows and covered by the disk wheels of the press drill. From 12
to 20 pounds of alfalfa seed are sown. Irrigation before seeding is not
practiced. There is, as a rule, sufficient rainfall to furnish both crops with
moisture until the grain is ready to head out and the alfalfa is 4 to 6
inches high, when the field is irrigated.

"At Wheatland, Wyoming, various methods of seeding alfalfa are in
use, but the one which gives the best results may be described as follows:
Drill in 1 bushel of barley to the acre; then in a week or ten days cross
drill the field, sowing 12 to 15 pounds of alfalfa, setting the press drill
so that the seed will be covered 0.75 inch to 1.5 inches deep."

Information on the various agricultural questions involved in alfalfa
growing and its use can be obtained in the following bulletins:

Alfalfa Growing, Farmers' Bulletin No. 215, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, D. C.

Alfalfa Bulletin No. 66, Agricultural Experiment Station, Moscow,
Idaho.

VIII.— THE USE OF SMALL PUMPING PLANTS
FOR IRRIGATION IN BRITISH COLUMBIA.

While British Columbia is favored with a system of large rivers such
as the Thompson, the Fraser, the Kettle Valley and lakes such as the
Okanagan, these splendid large bodies of water are practically not avail-
able for gravity irrigation because of the topography of the irrigable land.
The irrigable land exists usually in separate small valleys formed on both
sides of smaller streams, or in small benches high above the rivers or
lakes, generally with considerable slope towards these bodies of water.
This position of the irrigable land combined with the flat grade of the
rivers makes diversion by gravity flow directly from these sources an
economical impossibility. These conditions have made it necessary to
utilize the smaller streams or creeks, the flow of which is irregular, being
abundant at the beginning of the irrigation season but in many cases de-
creasing to an insufficient volume before the close of the season. Most
of the watersheds of these streams are favored with reservoir sites which
can be utilized at a moderate cost to regulate the flow. Up to the present
the natural stream flow, supplemented in some cases with storage water,
has been the usual source of supply. Naturally the systems most easily
constructed were installed first and the best available sources have been
taken up. With the increasing demand for water to put new land under
irrigation, less favorable sources of water supply must be utilized and the
cost of development will become greater. There will s ill remain bodies
of land for which no gravity water is available or only available at a very
high cost, and which may be situated at a moderate elevation above the
large rivers or lakes. For these conditions the development of a water
supply by pumping may be the best solution. The information given below
applies to small pumping plants, irrigating from about 10 to 100 acres.

CONSIDERATIONS CONTROLLING THE SELECTION OF A
PUMPING PLANT.

The proper selection of a pumping plant depends upon many factors
which should be carefully considered by the intending purchasers. These
factors are: (1) capacity of plant and period of operation, (2) the kind

of pump, (3) the class of engine or driving power, ,(4*> the:flrs
fuel cost, (6) cost of fixed charges and attendance. "Th'e'se factors' are1"
interdependent and should be considered together. Their relative import-
ance will vary with local conditions and for that reason it is not possible
to state definite rules which will apply in all cases. A study of the con-
ditions affecting each factor is therefore necessary in each case.

1. — Capacity of Plant and Period of Operation.

The required capacity of the plant will depend on the area irrigated,
the duty of water or depth of water required on the land and the period
of operation. For ordinary orchard soil in the arid part of British Colum-
bia a total depth of 12 inches of water during the irrigation season will be
sufficient for young orchards. For a full bearing orchard 18 inches should
be ample, while for alfalfa and other forage crops 24 to 36 inches is plenty.
Where the cost of pumping is high, such as for small plants and high
lifts, it will usually not be feasible to grow at a profit anything but
orchards. To reduce the cost of pumping, no excess water should be used,
all losses should be prevented by careful irrigation and thorough cultiva-
tion, in which case a young orchard on fairly deep retentive soil may not
require more than 6 to 9 inches of irrigation water and a full bearing
orchard not more than 12 or 15 inches during the irrigation season. To
put a depth of 2 feet of water on one acre, it takes a flow of very nearly
1 cubic foot per second for 24 hours; this is equivalent to 450 U. S. gal-
lons per minute for 24 hours. This relation can be applied to any case to
obtain the size of the pump. For example, if it is desired to irrigate a
40 acre orchard 1% feet deep, in an irrigation season of 120 days, this
requires 60 acre feet in 120 days, or % of an acre foot per day. This
will be obtained by a pump giving ^4 of a cubic foot per second, or 110
U. S. gallons per minute, when the pump is operated continuously 24 hours
a day every day during the irrigation season of four months. For a 10
acre orchard the required capacity based on the same conditions would be
1/4, the above or 28 gallons per minute or 1-16 of a cubic foot per second,
or about 2*4 British Columbia miners' inches.

The above two examples are based on a pump operating continuously at
the rates given above. While continuous operation decreases the required
size of plant, it is usually preferable to select a plant of larger capacity
and operate it only a part of the time. This is especially desirable for very
small orchards in which case continuous operation gives a stream too
small to irrigate with. The other disadvantages of continuous opera-
tion are:

1st. Continuous operation requires continuous irrigation and constant
attention to operate the pumping plant. For very small tracts a regulat-
ing reservoir may be used, but it must be of considerable capacity to be of
any service and it must be lined with concrete to prevent seepage losses of
the water which when pumped is too valuable to lose. Usually it is prefer-
able to purchase a larger plant and do without a reservoir.

2nd. Continuous operation means that the water can not be applied to
the different parts of the orchard within a short time, so that only a small
part of the orchard or farm receives the water when most needed, and the
remainder must be irrigated either too early or too late.

3rd. Continuous operation gives a small stream which can not be ap-
plied economically.

*:V 102

, 4 :*th. A sri?.ll plant is less efficient and requires a proportionately larger
*'^u*i -consumption than a larger plant to pump the same quantity of water.

On the other hand a very short period of operation requires a compara-
tively large pumping plant which will greatly increase the first cost of
installation, the interest on the capital invested, the depreciation and fund
necessary to provide for renewal.

Usually it is desirable to operate the pump not over 1-2 or 1-3 of the
time during the irrigation season and often a shorter period is desirable.
This requires a pumping plant two or three times or more the size required
for continuous irrigation. The capacity of the pump must be sufficient in
all cases to give a large enough stream to irrigate economically; even for
the smallest orchards a stream of at least 5 miners' inches or about 63
U. S. gallons per minute, is desirable.

For a full bearing orchard 18 inches of irrigation water applied in about
3 irrigations of 6 inches each at intervals of 30 to 40 days should be ample
in most cases. As stated above, where the water has to be pumped to a
high elevation the higher cost of the water demands great care in its use
and 12 to 15 inches total depth of irrigation water would be sufficient.

The table below gives the required pump capacity for various sizes of
orchards or farms and for different periods of operation. It is based on a
depth of irrigation water of 6 inches each month, or 18 inches in 3 months,
which is taken as the irrigation season. The period of operation is given
in number of 24 hour days that the pumping plant is operated each month.
These days need not be consecutive; for instance if the operation period is
10 days, instead of applying 6 inches of water in one irrigation lasting 10
days, the soil may be so porous and gravelly that it will not retain moisture,
in which case it may be preferable to apply 3 inches at a time in two irri-
gations during the month, of 5 days each. The required pump capacity
is given in U. S. gallons per minute instead of Imperial gallons because the
pumps sold in British Columbia are mostly rated in U. S. gallons per
minute.

\ r< «- V.-M > Capacity of Pump* In V. S. Gallon* Per Minute to Give a « Inch Depth

of Water on the Land Each Month When Operated the Following

Number of 24 Hour Day* Per Month.

Area
Acres.

30 days.

20 days.

15 days.

10 days.

5 days.

2% days.

1 day.

5

19

28

38

56

113

225

563

10

37.5

56.25

75

112.5

225

450

1125

15

57

85

113

170

340

675

1690

20

75

113

150

225

450

900

2250

30

na

169

225

338

675

1350

3375

40

150

225

300

450

900

1800

4500

60

226

338

450

675

1350

2700

6750

80

300

450

600

900

1800

3600

9000

120

450

675

900

1350

2700

5400

13500

The capacity of pumps for smaller or greater depths of water applied
per month can be easily computed by proportion from the values given.
For different areas and different periods of operation the capacity may be
obtained by interpolation.

2. — Kind of Pump.

The kinds of pump commonly used to raise water for irrigation are (1)

103

centrifugal pumps, (2) power plunger pumps, (3) deep well pumps, (4)
air lift pumps, (5) hydraulic rams.

Deep well pumps and air lift pumps are used for pumping underground
water from deep wells. In British Columbia the underground water supply
is unknown and need not be considered at present when the water supply
is obtainable from the large streams and lakes adjacent to irrigable area.
For pumping from these sources -the centrifugal pumps and the power
plunger pumps are the best adapted. Hydraulic rams are used for small
quantities of water such as for domestic purposes or for irrigation of small
pieces of land. They are economical in operation, but require special con-
ditions such as a nearby stream with sufficient fall in a short distance.
The choice between a centrifugal pump and a power plunger pump will
depend on the capacity required and the height of lift.

Centrifugal pump.

A centrifugal pump consists of a circular casing with the inlet or suction
^nd connected to the center and the outlet or discharge end formed tangent
to the perimeter. Inside the casing is the runner or impeller keyed on the
shaft and revolving with it. It is formed of curved vanes closely fitting
the casing and corresponds to the piston or plunger of a plunger pump.
When in operation the impeller by revolving imparts a velocity to the water
between the vanes and forces it away from the center of the casing to-
wards the perimeter or rim of the casing through the outlet and up the
discharge pipe. This produces a partial vacuum at the center of the im-
peller which induces a flow through the suction pipe into the casing. The
number of revolutions of the runner or speed of the pump has an exact
relation to the head or lift against which the pump is working and for
every head there is a speed for which the pump works most efficiently.
This speed can be obtained from the pump manufacturers. It is important
that the pump be connected to an engine or motor which will give it the
proper speed. Overspeeding is preferable to underspeeding but either
reduce the pump efficiency.

Simple centrifugal pumps specially designed and driven at a sufficiently
high rate of speed may be used for lifts considerably over 100 feet, but
usually the sock pump obtainable from the manufacturers is not suitable
for lifts over 75 feet and for the smaller sizes the total lift should not ex-
ceed 50 feet. For higher lifts compound or multi-stage centrifugal pumps
are used. These consist of two or more pumps connected in series, the
discharge of the first pump or stage is delivered into the suction of the
next pump and the operation is repeated according to the number of stages.
Usually 75 feet to 125 feet is allowed to each stage.

Where the required capacity of the pump is over 100 or 150 gallons per
minute and the total life less than 75 feet, the centrifugal pump is no
doubt the best adapted.

' Centrifugal pumps are usually denoted by a number which represents
the diameter of the discharge in inches. The efficient capacity of each size
will vary to some extent with the speed of the pump which depends on the
total lift pumped against. The pumps can, therefore, not be rated accu-
rately. The capacities given in the accompanying table are worked out
from the ratings given by a reliable pump manufacturer and are subject
±o considerable variations either above or below the values given.

104

ft « to

C » 0

C +-

-• 03

A

o

.5

1 •

o g

Number of

acres irrigated, 6 in. deep

R "£ »4 •

3 2 d ®

0 3

5 3

^

O d £

each

month

for

operation period,

during

ft fa ,C .C

"o be E

"o "2

O

*j

sl'S

the month, of

o -o -2 -2

ft j/i ^

ftg

§ £

«5

ft

J2 3 «>
-M ^ C

30

20

15

10 5 2%

1

1 o o5

U }3 ft

g 8

U w

0

s

g B

days.

days. days.

days, days- days.

day.

2 100

22

8 27

18

13

9 4% 2»4

9-ltt

2% 150

33

12 40

27

20

13 6^ 3%

1 3-10;

3 225

50

18 60

40

30

20 10 5

2

3% 300

66

24 80

53

40

27 13 6Vfe

2 2-&

4 400

90

32 110

71

55

36 18 9

3 2-3

5 700 1.

60

57 190

127

95

63 32 16

6 1-3-

6 900 2.00

71 240

160

120

80 40 20

8

7 1200 2

70

95 320

213

160

107 54 27

10 2-$

8 1600 3

50

125 430

287

215

143 72 36

14 1-3

To start a centrifugal pump the suction pipe and the pump must be
filled with water or primed. This may be done by closing the discharge
pipe with a check valve and connecting the suction end of a hand pump-
to the top of the casing. Where a steam engine is used a steam ejector
may take the place of the hand pump. For small pumps and low lifts a
foot valve on the end of the suction pipe may be used and the pump primed
by pouring water in the casing, or suction pipe. The disadvantage of a foot
valve is that if the water is not clear a small stone or twig may lodge itself
in the foot valve and prevent priming. This will necessitate that the suc-
tion pipe be uncoupled and the obstruction removed.

The pump must be placed as near as possible to the water level to keep
the suction lift down. While theoretically the suction lift may be as great
as 33 feet at sea level and about 30 feet at an elevation of 3000 feet, it is
desirable not to exceed 20 feet and less is preferable.

The plant efficiency can be increased by reducing the friction in the suc-
tion and discharge pipes. As few bends as possible should be used and
these should be made by using long turn elbows. The suction and dis-
charge pipes should be larger than the intake and outlet openings of the
pumps and joined to the pump with an increaser. The diameter of the
suction pipe and especially of the discharge pipe should be 1 % times the
diameter of the intake and if the discharge pipe is long it may be economy
to make its diameter even larger. Enlarging the lower end of the suction
pipe will further decrease the friction. This may be done by a funnel-
shaped section whose length is about 3 times the diameter of the suction-
pipe and whose large end is about 1 % times the diameter of the pipe. The
larger opening at the entrance to the suction pipe will decrease the tend-
ency to suck up sand or gravel. When the water carries weeds, gravel, or
other material a strainer should be used and the total area of the strainer
should be at least twice the area of the suction pipe. The discharge pipe
should not carry the water any higher than necessary.

Power piston or plunger pumps.

This type of pump consists of one or more cylinders in each one of
which a piston or plunger moving backwards and forwards sucks the water
in the cylinder and forces it up the discharge pipe. When the cylinder has
only one suction valve and one discharge valve the motion of the piston in
one direction causes suction and displacement in the opposite direction
forces the water through the discharge pipe. With two sets of valves so
arranged that there is a discharge for each displacement of the piston, the-

105

pump is known as a double acting pump. When the pump has two
cylinders it is known as a duplex pump, with three cylinders it is a triplex
pump, and in either case may be either double acting or single acting.

The capacity of the pump will depend on the diameter of the cylinder,
the length of the stroke of the piston, and the number of strokes or revolu-
tions per minute. The capacities of a few sizes of double acting, single
piston pumps, single acting triplex pumps and of double acting duplex
pumps are as follows:

Capacity of Double Acting, Single Piston Pump.

Diameter of
water cylinder.

Length of stroke.

Revolutions or
strokes per minute.

U. S. gallons
per minute.

3 inches

5 inches

40

12.4

4

5

40

21.6

5

5

40

34

6

6

40

58

7

6

40

80

8

6

40

104

Capacity of Single Acting, Triplex Piston Pump.

3 4

50

18

4 4

50

32

4 6

50

50

5 6

50

76

5 8

45

91

6 8

45

131

7 8

45

180

7 10

42

210

8 10

40

270

8 12

40

310

9 10

40

340

Capacity of Double Acting, Duplex Pumps.

2%

75

20

3 -„-••.'

75

36

3%

60

58

4

60

78

5

60

120

6

60

174

5 K

) a 50

170

6 K

) " 50

245

7 K

) 50

334

8 1

J 50

522

9 1

| ,- 50

660

The sizes of pumps and the capacities vary with the different manufac-
turers. The values stated above show the approximate range of the different
sizes. For small capacities the double acting single piston pump may be
used. For larger capacities usually the single acting triplex pump and in
some cases the double acting duplex pump is used. The triplex pump is
generally preferable; it has the advantage that the power is constantly ap-
plied because of the strokes overlapping and this gives an even flow with
little pulsation. The suction and discharge pipe should be larger than the
suction and discharge openings of the pump as for centrifugal pumps. The
suction pipe should be as short as possible and the pump placed as near
the water surface as possible in order to keep the suction lift low.

106

A plunger pump must be given proper care in order to work efficiently
and keep it in working condition. It should be carefully cleaned and oiled
and at the close of the pumping period it must be emptied in order that it
will not be damaged by freezing and the cylinders and water passages
cleaned and oiled to prevent rusting.
Choice between Centrifugal pump and power plunger pump.

The choice between a power pump and a centrifugal pump will depend
on the lift and capacity.

In irrigation work power pumps are best adapted to high heads above
75 feet and to small or moderate volumes of water, usually under 200
gallons per minute. For these conditions the efficiency of a power pump is
usually greater than that of a centrifugal pump. For greater volumes the
plunger pumps are comparatively expensive and centrifugal pumps are
usually preferable unless the lift is excessive. The centrifugal pump has
the advantage that it is simple in construction with no parts to get out of
order, and that it is cheaper than a power pump. The selection should be
made only after careful consideration of the first cost of the pump and the
annual cost of fuel, operation and maintenance. Where the lift is high the
fuel cost will be considerable and it is good economy not to select the
cheapest pump obtainable but one that is guaranteed for a high efficiency.
On the other hand if the pump is only to be operated a very small portion
of the season it would be poor economy to invest a large capital in a high
grade pump to save in fuel cost.

3. — Classes of Engines or Driving Power.
Methods of eonnet'tion of pump and engine.

Centrifugal pumps and power pumps are generally driven either by gaso-
line engines, steam engines or by electric motors. The pumps are usually
either direct connected or connected by means of belts, gears or chains.
Direct connection is preferable when possible, it is more economical in fuel
consumption and does away with the adjustment of belt or chain necessary
with belt or chain driven pumps.

The connection of the pumps and driving power must be such that the
pumps will be given the speed or number of revolutions per minute for
which they are designed and for which highest efficiency is obtained. For
this reason direct connection can only be used where the driving power
and the pump have the same speed.

The speed of centrifugal pumps is usually high and so is that of electric
motors and for that reason they can, if properly designed, be direct con-
nected; this is done usually by means of a flexible coupling. Gasoline and
steam engines are generally operated at a much lower speed than centri-
fugal pumps and for that reason are not direct connected unless the engine
and pump are specially designed. This is done by some manufacturers.

Power plunger pumps are operated at a slow speed and for that reason
are not direct connected to the driving power.

When connected by gears, belts or chains the driving gear and driven
gear, and the driving pulley and driven pulley must be proportioned so
that the pump will be given its correct speed. When a plunger pump is
built as a single machine with a steam engine, with the piston or plunger
of the water cylinder on the same driving rod as the piston of the steam
cylinder it is called a direct acting steam pump. The fuel consumption of
a steam pump is greater than that of a steam driven power pump and for
that reason steam pumps will not be considered.

107
Capacity of engine.

The power necessary to lift water is indicated in horse powers. A horse
power represents the energy required to lift 33,000 pounds 1 foot high
in one minute; this is equivalent to 3960 gallons of water per minute
raised 1 foot high. This relation enables one to find the horse power
required in any case by multiplying the discharge of the pump in gallons
per minute by the total lift in feet frnd dividing by 3960. The result
obtained represents the useful water horse power necessary to lift the
water. The horse power delivered by the engine to the belt or gears when
the pump is belted or geared to the engine, or to the pump itself when
direct connected, is the brake horse power and must be greater than the
useful horse power to allow for the loss of energy in the pump and trans-
mission. The horse power developed within the engine itself is the indi-
cated horse power and must be greater than the brake horse power to allow
for the energy loss in the engine itself. Gasoline engines and motors are
rated on brake horse power. Steam engines are rated on indicated horse
power.

The combined efficiency of a pumping plant represents the ratio of the
useful water horse power to the rated horse power of the engine, and will
vary considerably with the type of pump, method of connection of engine
with pump and the care taken in operating both pump and engine at the
proper speed. In ordinary field practice a good pumping plant, properly
installed, should easily reach the efficiency given in the following table:

Efficiency of Centrifugal Pumping Plants.

No. of centri- £is0ch?;r?,e ln Water horsepowei Brake horse-

P- <oot ofll«. — ey. „,„ P „

2

100

.025

30 per cent.

.081

2%

150

.038

35

.11

3

225

.057

40

.14

3V2

300

.08

45

.18

4

400

.10

45

.22

5

700

.17

50

.34

6

900

.23

50

.46

7

1200

.31

50

.62

8

1600

.41

55

.75

The efficiency of power plunger pumps varies with the size of the pump
and with the lift. A greater efficiency is obtained with the higher lifts and
with the larger sizes. The efficiencies of properly installed plunger pumps
and the horse power for various lifts are given in the following table:

108

Brake Horse Power Required to Operate Plunger Pnmpti.

Diameter
of
cylinder.

Length
of
stroke.

Capacity
in U. S.
gal. per
minute.

Efficiency and Brake Horse
Power for lifts of

50 ft.

100 ft.

150ft.

200 ft.

250ft.

3 inches

4 inches

18

Efficiency
Horse Power

.30
.75

.40
1.1

.42
1.6

.45
2.0

.45

2.5

4

4

32

Efficiency
Horse Power

.35
1.2

.50
1.5

.60
2.0

.65
2.5

.65
3.1

4

6

50

Efficiency
Horse Power

.35
1.9

.50
2.5

.60
3.1

.65
4.0

.65
4.8

5

6

76

Efficiency
Horse Power

.40
2.4

.55
3.5

.65
4.4

.70
5.5

.70
6.7

5

8

90

Efficiency
Horse Power

.40
2.8

.55
4.1

.65
5.2

.70
6.5

.72
7.8

6

8

131

Efficiency
Horse Power

.45
3.6

.60
5.5

.65
7.5

.70
9.3

.72
11.4

7

8

180

Efficiency
Horse Power

.45
5.0

.60
7.5

.65
10.5

.70
13.

.72
15.5

7

10

210

Efficiency
Horse Power

.50
5.25

.65
8.0

.70
11.

.75
14.

.78
17.

8

10

270

Efficiency
Horse Power

.50
6.75

.65
10.25

.70
14.50

.75
18.25

.78
22.1

9

10

340

Efficiency
Horse Power

.50
8.5

.65
13.

.70
18.

.75
23.

.78
28.

Type of Engine.

The above table will give the size of the engine. The driving power
must be either a gasoline engine, steam engine, or electric motor. The
methods of connecting the engine with the pump have been already con-
sidered. Other factors being equal, direct connection is preferable when
possible. A few general considerations of the types of engine are given in
the following paragraphs.

Steam Engine.

For small plants irrigating a few acres, the steam engine, although very
reliable, is practically out of the question because it requires a licensed
engineer whose salary would be prohibitive. However, for larger areas
and where coal is cheap, it may be cheaper than either a gasoline engine or
electric motor. For large plants operated continuously it may be economy
to install an efficient boiler and a high grade compound condensing, triple
expansion, or quadruple expansion, steam engine, in order to decrease the
fuel cost. For small plants operated only for short periods during the
irrigation season it is much more important to decrease the cost of instal-
lation. The interest on the capital invested and the depreciation of the
plant are very important items of cost as compared to the fuel cost. For
these reasons unless the acreage is large and the lift very high, the steam
plant will consist of a semi-portable locomotive type boiler and an ordinary
slide valve steam engine.

Gasoline Engines.

A gasoline engine is fairly reliable if it is strongly built and operated
with care. Cleanliness and proper attention are necessary. All parts and
bearings should be kept in fine adjustment and properly oiled, by examin-
ing the engine at least every two or three hours. The circulating water

109

should be kept fairly hot but not too hot. It should be nearly boiling as it
comes out of the jacket.

The engine should be regulated by nleans of the governor to give the
proper speed to the pump. To keep down the fuel consumption the gaso-
line feed should be so adjusted that there will be a miss in every ten or
twelve explosions, and the engine should be worked up to its full rated
capacity.

Over 75 per cent, of the troubles happening to gasoline engines are due
to the sparking device. This can usually be remedied by cleaning all con-
nections free from oil, scraping the ends of wires, tightening screws or re-
placing the batteries.

Electric Motors.

Electric motors are reliable and easy to operate, requiring very little
attention.

4. — First Cost of Plant.

The first cost of a pumping plant depends on the grade of machinery,
the cost of transportation, the expense of installation. Because of these
factors accurate estimates of cost can not be given. However, the ap-
proximate cost values given below will be of value to the land owner who
is considering the feasibility of a pumping plant. The values given repre-
sent the prices at Vancouver and do not include transportation and instal-
lation.

Approximate Cost of Single Stage Centrifugal Pumps.

No. of pump.

Capacity in TJ. S. gallons per minute.

Cost.

2

2%

3

4
5
6

7
8

100
150
225
300
400
700
900
1200
1600

$ 70
85
95
110
120
140
190
240
285

The cost of two step centrifugal pumps of the same sizes will be about
four times the values given above.

Approximate Cost of Triplex Single Acting Power Pump.

Diameter of
water

Length of
stroke in

Capacity
in U. S. Height of
gals, per lift.

Cost.

cylinder.

inches.

minute.

4

8

65 75 to 100 ft.

$ 270

5

10

130

400

6

12

220

550

4

6

48 175

300

5

8

91

440

7

8

180

600

8

10

270

950

8

12

310

1000

110

Approximate Coat of Electric Motor*, Gasoline Engines and Simple Slide Valve,
Non-condensing Steam Engine, With Locomotive Boiler and Auxiliaries.

Power.
Horse

Cost of electric motors.
1200 rev. per minute.

Cost of gasoline Cost of steam
engines. engines.

2

$ 90

3

110

5

160

$ 475 $ 650

10

260

725 800

15

280

900

,000

20

340

1,100 " 1

,200

25

1,300

,350

30

410

1,600

,500

40

...

2,100

,700

Cost of accessories and installation.

The above costs are for the pumps and engine and do not include the
accessories, the foundation, the labor of installation, and the housing. For
an electric plant the cost of transformers should be added unless these are
supplied by the electric company. The accessories will include the suction
and discharge pipes, the valves and fittings, the priming pump, the con-
nection between pump and engine. The suction pipe is usually made of
steel; the discharge pipe may be steel or wood banded pipe and should cost
delivered at different points in the arid part of British Columbia about
as follows:

Cost of Pipes Safe for ISO Feet Head.

Diameter
of pipe.

Cost per foot of wood banded pipe.

Cost per foot of
steel pipe.

4 inches

$ .20

$ .30

6

.30

.50

8

.40

.80

10

.55

1.10

12

.65

1.35

14

.75

1.60

16

.95

2.00

18

1.10

2.50

20

1.44

3.00

For a rough estimate the total cost of valves, priming pump, all fitttings
and suction pipe, but not discharge pipe, may be taken as about 10 per cent,
oi the cost of pump and engine for a gasoline or steam plant and ?0 per
cent, for an electric plant. The cost of installation should not exceed 5
per cent. The cost of a building to house the plant will range from about
$25 for a small plant to $100 or more for a larger plant. The cost of
transportation and hauling will depend on the railway charge from Van-
couver and on the distance from the station to point of installation.

5. — Fuel Consumption and Fuel Cost.

The selection between a steam engine, gasoline engine and an electric
motor will depend to some extent on the comparative cost of coal, gasoline,
and electrical energy.

A gasoline engine is usually guaranteed for a fuel consumption of 1-J>
to 1-10 of an Imperial gallon of gasoline per rated or brake horse power
per hour. A new engine well adjusted will come up to this efficiency, but
an engine that has been operated some time will consume about 1-7 of an
Imperial gallon of engine gasoline or distillate per brake horse power
per hour.

Ill

The fuel consumption of a steam engine will vary greatly on the type
of boiler and engine. A small slide valve non-condensing engine under 25
horse power will use probably 5'0 to 60 pounds of steam per brake horse
power per hour. A locomotive type of boiler should give 5 or 6 pounds of
steam for 1 pound of coal. Therefore, a small steam engine under 25
horse power should consume about 10 pounds of coal per brake horse power
per hour. Steam engines of the same type from 30 to 50 horse power will
consume from 5 to 8 pounds of coal per brake horse power per hour.

Electrical energy is measured in Kilowatts. A Kilowatt is equal to 1 1-3
horse power, but because of the loss of energy in the motor, 1 Kilowatt
will usually give about 1.1 brake horse power. Based on this figure 1
brake horse power hour is equal to 9-10 of a Kilowatt hour.

The above values show that to produce 1 brake horse power per hour,
it requires either 1-7 of an Imperial gallon of distillate, about 10 pounds
of coal, or 9-10 of a Kilowatt hour. Based on these figures the table below
shows the cost of fuel per brake horse power per hour for several equiva-
lent cost values of fuel. In the table is also given the fuel cost of pumping
one acre foot of water through a lift of one foot, assuming plant efficiency
of 50 per cent, and 75 per cent.

Equivalent units costs

of fuel.

Fuel costs (in cents).

Cost of
gasoline
in cents
per Imp.
gallon.

Cost of
coal in
dollars
per ton
(2,000 Ib.)

Cost of
electricity
in cents
per K. W.
hour.

Per brake
h. p. per
hour in
cents.

Per acre
lifted

foot of water
1 foot high.

50%
efficiency.

75%
efficiency.

14

$4.00

2.25

2.0

5.5

3.65

16

4.55

2.50

2.30

6.3

4.20

18

5.15

2.85

2.55

7.0

4.70

20

5.70

3.20

2.85

7.8

5.25

22

6.30

3.50

3.15

8.65

5.75

24

6.85

3.fcO

3.45

9.5

6.30

26

7.40

4.15

| 3.70

10.20

6.80

The price of engine gasoline bought in drums is about 24 cents per
gallon delivered at Kamloops and 26 cents per gallon at Okanagan points.
These prices are equivalent to coal at $6.85 to $7.40 a ton or electricity at
3.80 to 4.15 cents a Kilowatt hour. The fuel cost is, however, only a part
of the total cost of pumping.

6. — Fixed Charges and Attendance.
A. — Fixed charges.

The cost of installation represents a capital which if invested would
bring in an income represented by the interest. It is therefore necessary
to consider this interest as part of the cost of operation. To this should be
added the annual cost of repairs, maintenance and renewal. These items
of cost represent the fixed charges. After 6 or 8 years a gasoline engine
may need to have its cylinder rebored and a new piston provided, the cost
of which is about one-fourth the cost of a new engine. With ordinary care
the life of a gasoline engine may be taken as 10 years; the life of an
electric motor about 15 to 20 years. The fixed charges on the entire plant
may be taken as follows:

112
Fixed Charge*.

Gasoline engine plant. Electric plant. Steam engine plant

(small).

Depreciation

and renewal

8 per cent.

5 per cent.

8 per

cent

Repairs and

maintenance

3

1

2

Interest

6

6

6

17

12

16

B. — Attendance.

An electric motor requires a minimum of attendance, small gasoline
plants require frequent inspection, and steam engines require a licensed
engineer and for that reason can not be economically used for small plants
operated during short periods. The cost of attendance for an electric
motor pumping plant should not exceed 5 cents per hour, for a gasoline
engine plant 10 cents per hour and for a steam engine plant 40 cents per
hour. While electric motors and gasoline engines are usually operated by
the orchardist or irrigator, his time is valuable and a charge should be
made for it.

7. — Final Selection of Type of Plant.

The final selection of a pumping plant should be based on a careful
consideration of the factors stated above. The best size of plant, the period
of operation, the kind of engine or driving power, can only be correctly
determined by a final consideration of cost of installation and cost of
operation. For small plants operated for short periods during the irri-
gation season steam engines are not to be considered even where coal is
cheap because they must be operated by a licensed engineer whose salary
would be excessive in proportion to the saving obtained by using cheap
coal. Where electric power is available the choice is between a gasoline
engine and an electric motor. The electric motor requires minimum
attendance, it is reliable and its first cost is much less than that of a gaso-
line engine. For these reasons if electric power is available, an electric
motor is preferable to a gasoline engine and will prove far more economical
than a gasoline, even should the cost of electrical energy be higher than
the fuel cost for a gasoline engine, which is not likely to obtain in British
Columbia because of the high cost of engine gasoline or distillate.

At Grand Forks, British Columbia, electricity was sold for pumping
plants at the rate of 3 cents per Kilowatt hour; as far as fuel cost is con-
cerned this is equivalent to gasoline at about 19 cents a gallon. This is
less than the cost at which gasoline can be obtained and in addition gives
the advantages stated above.

The application of the above information and cost data to any par-
ticular case is illustrated by tbe following examples:

First example: A 20 acre orchard is to be irriagted by pumping. The
quantity to be applied is 6 inches per month and the total depth in one
season, 18 inches. The lift is 50 feet and the discharge pipe 200 feet long.
Engine gasoline costs 24 cents per Imperial gallon. Assuming the pump is
operated 1-3 of the time or ten twenty-four hour days each month, this
will require a pump capacity of 225 gallons per minute (page 102) which
is obtained with a No. 3 centrifugal pump (page 104) and 7 horse power
engine (page 107). The discharge pipe will be 4 inches in diameter. The
first cost and total cost of operation will be about as follows:

113

First Cost of Plant.

No. 3 centrifugal pump , * 95

7 H. P. gasoline engine \ 600

Priming pump, suction pipe, fittings, etc 79

Freight charges and hauling. 30

200 feet of 4 inch wood 'banded discharge pipe * \ go

Installation, 5% of cost 40

Building to house plant 40

Total cost $955

Total Annual Cost of Operation.

Fuel cost of 7 brake H. P. engine for 3 periods of 10 days each or 720 hours

is equal to (page 111) 720x7x3.45 — 17,000c or $170

Fixed charges at 17 per cent, of first cost 160

Attendance 720 hours at 10 cents 72

Total cost for 20 acres $402

Cost per acre * $20.10

Where electric power is obtainable the first cost of plant and annual
cost of operation for the same conditions, assuming the unit cost of electric
power to be 3 cents per Kilowatt hour would be:

First cost of plant $530.00

Total annual cost of operation 245.00

Cost per acre 12.25

Tabulated below are the first costs of gasoline engine pumping plants
and the costs of operation for orchards of 20, 40 and 80 acres for lifts of
50 feet and 150 feet and for different periods of operation. For the higher
lift single acting triplex pumps are used. The costs given are based on
gasoline at 24 cents a gallon, for a depth of irrigation of 18 inches for the
lower lift and depths of 18 inches and 12 inches for the higher lift, it being
assumed that by careful use of water, if the soil is retentive, 12 inches
may be sufficient. The discharge pipe is assumed to be 200 feet long.

Cost of Pumping With Gasoline Engines and Centrifugal Pumps for 50 Foot Lift,
Gasoline 24 Cents a Gallon.

f-TT O (2

-Ss^i

a 3 a»

Is si

ijj

o

IN a

a-s

ff> -

Annual Cost of operation per acre;
18 in. depth of water applied.

Fuel

Fixed Attendance Total
charges

20

40

80

10

20

5

11
20
10
22

400
225
113
900
400
225
900
400

4 12 $1,225

7
5

25

12

7

25
12

955

725

1,855

1,225

955

1,855

1,225

$ 8.25
8.75
12.00
7.75
8.25
8.75
7.75
8.25

$10.50
8.10
6.20
7.90
5.25
4.10
4.00
2.60

$1.90
3.60
7.20

.90
2.00
3.60

.90
2.00

$20.65
20.45
25.40
16.55
15.50
16.45
12.65
12.85

114

Cost of i • ii in pi ii u With

I '

and Single
: MS for ISO Foot Lift.

Acting Triplex

£

*5W

l.H

!•

oS

Annual cpst of operation per acre for a depth

Area in Ac

Number
24 hour d«
pump is o]
ated mont

Capacity
pump ii
gallons p
minute

Horse pow
of engrin

First cost
iiistallatit

of irrigation water of
18 inches

of 12 inches

Fuel Fixed Atten-
Charges dance

Total

Total

20 8 1-3 270 15 $2,370 $15.50 $20.00 $3.00

$38.50

$32.30

12 1-2 180 10 1,740

15.50 14.80 4.50

34.80

28.10

25 90 6 1,280

18.75 10.90 9.00

38.65

29.90

40 131-4 340 18 2,764

'15.00 11.70 2.40

29.10

23.20

162-3 270 15 2,370

15.50 10,00 3.00

28.50

22.30

25 180 10 1,740

15.60 7.40 4.50

27.50

20.80

80 26 1-2 340 18 2,760

15.00 5.85 2.40

23.25

17.35

The capacities of pumps, especially plunger pumps, and the sizes of
engines, vary with the different makes, and for that reason the sizes given
are not always obtainable, but sizes approximating these can be used
in place.

The above cost estimates are only approximate. They are based on the
conditions stated above and are not applicable to all cases because of the
varying conditions which make the installation of nearly every pumping
plant a special problem. The estimates are made for gasoline engines and
are considerably higher than for electric motors. The first example showed
that with an electric plant the cost of pumping was only 60 per cent, of the
cost with a gasoline plant. The tabulated values show the following inter-
esting results:

1st. The cost per acre of pumping is much larger for a small area than
for a large area.

2nd. The cost per acre does not vary considerably with the period of
operation, and in some cases a plant moderately large operating for a
shorter period will cost less per acre than a smaller plant operating a
longer period. This is due to the lower fuel cost obtained with the larger
more efficient plant and the decreased cost of attendance for the shorter
period of operation which overbalance the larger fixed charges. Even
should the resulting cost be smaller for the smaller plant, the inconveni-
ence due to pumping for a long period and the extra labor in irrigation
may overbalance the saving in cost.

3rd. For the lifts assumed a period of operation equal to about ten
twenty-four hour days during the month or one-third of the time during
the irrigation season seems to be preferable with the centrifugal pump.
With the higher price triplex plunger pumps a period of operation of one-
third to two thirds of the time jis preferable.

CO-OPERATIVE PUMPING.

The lower cost per acre for larger areas shows the advantages to be
gained by cooperation between small owners. By uniting and installing a
large plant instead of several smaller plants the cost of installation and
operation is very much reduced and the plant can be given more compe-
tent attention which relieves the orchardist and increases the life of
the plant.

Where by such cooperation several hundred acres can be brought to-
gether, a central steam plant to generate electric power, which is trans-
mitted to the several electric motor pumping plants, is the most economical
and best solution.

115

For separate plants above 20 or 40 horse power, gas producer plants
connected to gas engines will furnish the cheapest power. These plants are
reliable and easily operated. They consist of the producer in which hard
coal is placed and through a process of partial combustion, in presence of
air and steam, forms the gas which operates the engine. Gas producers
operated on hard or anthracite coal hdve been in successful operation for
a number of years and those operated on soft or bituminous coal are com-
ing into use, but have not been very successful. The fuel consumption is
very low, usually from 1 to 1 % pounds of coal per horse power for one
hour, or y2 to % of a cent, per horse power for one hour with hard coal
at $10 per ton. This is from 5 to 7 times less than the fuel cost with
gasoline at 24 cents a gallon. Producer gas plants are more expensive than
gasoline engines and for smaller plants the fuel economy will be over-
balanced by the larger interest and depreciation charges. For very large
single plants high duty steam engines will be the most economical form
of installation.

LIMIT OF ECONOMICAL PUMPING.

The cases previously worked out for gasoline engine pumping plants
show that for small tracts of 20 to 80 acres the cost of lifting sufficient
water to give a depth of irrigation water of 18 inches will range for a lift
of 50 feet from about $12.50 per acre for the larger area to about $20.00
per acre for the smaller area, and for lifts of 150 feet the respective costs
are about $23 and $35 per acre. These costs may seem high as com-
pared with gravity water, but to obtain an idea of the economy and
feasibility of developing water by pumping, comparisons must be made
with the value of irrigation water in the irrigated districts of British Co-
lumbia and also in other localities under the same conditions. In British
Columbia, up to the present, gravity water obtainable without pumping
has been quite plentiful. For that reason pumping has not been necessary,
and very few pumping plants have been constructed. However, water is
becoming more valuable and the steps which many irrigation companies
in British Columbia are taking to conserve water and prevent losses of
transportation by carrying the water in concrete lined canals and in pipes
constructed at considerable expense, show that water has become sum-
ciently valuable to justify pumping. If a comparison is made with water
thus obtained, we find that the cost of construction of a well constructed
system may go up to $50 or $60 an acre and even higher. This cost is
charged up to the land which is sold to the orchardist and in addition
reasonable profit is made on the value of the land. It is probably con-
servative to assume that land under an irrigation system will cost at least
$100 an acre more than similar land for which there is no gravity supply.
The chief advantage of gravity systems is the low annual cost of operation,
usually less than $6 per acre, but if to this be added the interest on the
difference in cost between land under the irrigation system and land which
is to be supplied by pumping, assumed at $100, the total annual cost may
be $10 to $15 an acre. This is about equal to the cost of pumping with
gasoline engines to a height of 50 feet and about half as large as for lifts
of 150 feet. Where electric power is available or for large pumping plants
the cost of pumping would compare very favorably with gravity water even
for higher lifts than those stated above. There are many contemplated
hydro-electric power installations in the irrigated regions of British Co-

116

lumbia which, if materialized, will be of great value in extending the area
irrigated by pumping.

A consideration of pumping in other districts is of interest to show its
feasibility. In eastern Washington water is being pumped in one case to
an elevation of 250 feet above the source of supply. In the citrus district
of southern California lifts above 200 feet are not unusual and it is con-
sidered profitable to pump 460 feet. In the Pomona district of southern
California, the cost of pumped water averages $15 per acre for one acre
foot when purchased from irrigation companies, while for smaller private
plants the cost is often greater. In 1905 the Irriagtion Investigations
Office of the United States Department of Agriculture made tests on
various pumping plants and these show that the cost of pumping at private
plants of 10 to 100 horse power with lifts of 100 to 300 feet, varied from
$10 to $90 per acre for one acre foot of water.

There is a limit beyond which it is not economically feasible to pump.
In the California citrus districts lifts above 400 feet have been profitable.
For the orchard lands of British Columbia equally high lifts should be
profitable, for the net return per acre from a good apple orchard is usually
more than that from a citrus orchard. A citrus orchard 10 years old
should average a net profit of $100 to $150 per acre. The net profits from
apple orchards 10 to 12 years old in the Yakima Valley are given in bul-
letins of the United States Department of Agriculture as $200 to $600 per
acre. With profits larger than those obtained from citrug orchards in
southern California, what has been considered feasible in pumping there
is at least equally so for the apple orchards of British Columbia when no
other more economical source of water supply is available. However, for
small pumping plants and small areas the writer believes that it is well
not to exceed 200 feet, while for larger plants lifts of 400 feet may be
economically feasible.

117

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page.

INTRODUCTION 3

I. — SELECTION OF AN IRRIGATED 'FARM AND SETTING OUT

ORCHARDS: —

Selection of an Orchard or Farm Under Irrigation 4

1. Climatic conditions 4

2. Chemical composition of the soil 5

3. Texture of soil and subsoil 5

4. Location and site of orchard 5

Preparation of Land for Orchard 6

1. Clearing the surface 6

2. Growing crops to improve condition of the soil 8

3. Locating the tree rows . ." 9

II. — UNITS OF MEASUREMENT OF WATER AND METHODS OF
MEASURING WATER: —

Necessity for Knowledge of Measurement of Water 10

Units of Measurement 10

1. The cubic foot per second or second foot 10

2. The British Columbia miners' inch 11

3. Acre foot 11

4. Relation between cubic foot per second, miners' inch and

acre foot 11

Methods of Measurement 12

1. Volumetric measurements 12

2. Weirs 13

Measurement of discharge. . . . . . 14

Weir board on a ditch 17

Weir box 17

3. Miners' inch board or box 20

Miners' inch box placed in canal or ditch 21

Miners' inch box and take out from pipe line under no

pressure 23

Miners' inch box and take out from pressure pipe line. ... 24

Miners' inch box with overflow wall for canals or flumes. . 24

4. Special measuring devices 25

The Grant-Michell meter 25

5. Measurement of discharge by obtaining velocity of flow and

cross section of flume or canal 25

Current meter . 27

Rating station and rating flume 27

Automatic registers . . . 27

III. — CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOR THE IRRIGATION SYSTEMS OF
BRITISH COLUMBIA: —

Types of Irrigation Systems ; . t , V; 29

Permanent Construction 31

Conveyance Losses of Water in Canals 32

1. Extent of seepage losses in canals «-,. ;>.^. 32

2. Evaporation loss from water surface of canals 33

Prevention of Seepage Losses in Canals 33

1. Concrete linings 35

Form of cross section and thickness of lining 35

Shrinkage and expansion 36

Effect of frost 36

Method of construction of concrete linings 36

118

TABLE OF CONTENTS — CONTINUED.

Page.

Construction of concrete linings by means of forms. . . 36

Joints 38

Expansion joints 38

Method used near Kelowna by Kelowna Irrigation

Company 39

Construction of concrete lining without forms 39

Cost of concrete linings 41

Cost of lining without forms 43

Economy of concrete linings 43

Steel Flumes 44

Plain Concrete Pipe Not Reinforced 45

1. Manufacturing hand tamped cement pipes 47

Mixtures used 47

Mixing materials 47

Process of moulding 47

Curing the pipe 48

Coating the pipe 48

Cost of moulds 48

Dimensions of cement pipes and rate of manufacturing. . 48

Cost of making pipe 49

2. Construction and laying of pipe line 49

Excavation of trench 49

Laying the pipe 50

3. Other methods of making cement pipe 52

Machine tamped pipe 52

Pipe made by wet process 52

Reinforced Concrete Pipe 52

1. Method of casting reinforced concrete pipe 53

(Umatilla project, Oregon.)

2. Method of joining 54

Bell and spigot joint 54

Collar joint 54

Lock joint 54

3. Method of making and laying reinforced concrete pipe on

Roswell project, Idaho 54

4. Cost of making reinforced concrete pipe 55

5. Advantages and economy of reinforced concrete pipe 56

IV. — DUTY OF WATER AND FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CORRECT USE
OF WATER IN IRRIGATION: —

Duty of Water 57

1. Principal factors affecting the net duty of water 58

2. Duty of water for orchards 60

3. Duty of water for alfalfa 62

4. Duty of water for potatoes 62

Factors Influencing the Correct Use of Water in Irrigation 63

1. Disposal of water applied to the soil 63

2. Relation of soil moisture to soil texture 63

Percentage of free moisture in soil for plant growth 64

3. Evaporation of soil water and methods of checking it 65

Extent of evaporation from bare soils not cultivated 67

Effect of soil mulches on soil evaporation 68

Effect of depth of furrows on soil evaporation 68

4. Percolation of water applied to the soil 68

Effect of texture of soil and subsoil 68

Percolation, of water applied in furrows 69

V. — IRRIGATION AND CULTIVATION OF ORCHARDS: —

Distribution of Water 72

1. Earthen head ditch 73

119

TABLE OF CONTENTS — CONTINUED.

Page.

2. Wooden head flumes 76

3. Concrete head flumes .• 76

4. Cement pipes and distributing stand pipes 78

Details of stands ^ 82

Overflow stands .... .''.' . 82

Draining the pipes 82

Accessories 82

5. Pressure pipe lines and valves 83

6. Laying out furrows: number, length, depth and slope 84

Application of Water 85

1. When to irrigate orchards and quantity of water to use. ... 85

2. Number of irrigations per season 86

3. Fall and winter irrigation 87

4. Running water in the furrows 87

5. Prevention of losses of water applied, and cultivation 88

VI.— IRRIGATION OF POTATOES: —

1. Selection of soil 89

2. Treatment of soil 89

3. Planting potatoes 90

4. Cultivation 90

5. Quantity of water required for potatoes 90

6. Time to irrigate 91

7. Method of irrigation 92

VII.— IRRIGATION OF ALFALFA:—

1. Methods of irrigation 93

Furrow method of alfalfa irrigation 93

2. Amount of water required 94

3. Number of irrigations 97

4. The proper time to irrigate alfalfa 97

5. Winter irrigation of alfalfa 98

6. Winter killing of alfalfa 98

7. Seeding alfalfa on land to be irrigated 99

VIII. — THE USE OF SMALL PUMPING PLANTS FOR IRRIGATION IN

BRITISH COLUMBIA: —
Considerations Controlling the Selection of a Pumping Plant 100

1. Capacity and period of operation 101

2. Kind of pump 102

Centrifugal pump 103

Power piston or plunger pump , 104

Choice between centrifugal pump and power plunger
pump 106

3. Classes of engines or driving power 106

Method of connection of pump and engine 106

Capacity of engine 107

Type of engine 108

Steam engine 108

Gasoline engine 108

Electric motors 109

4. First cost of plant 109

Cost of accessories and installation 110

5. Fuel consumption and fuel cost 110

6. Fixed charges and attendance Ill

(a) Fixed charges Ill

(b) Attendance 112

7. Final selection of type of plant 112

Cooperative Pumping /. 114

Limit of Economical Pumping 115

PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

(STATISTICS BRANCH).

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS, 1911

BULLETIN No. 46.

THE GOVERNMENT OF
THE PROVINCE OF BRITISH CC...:

JP^INTED BY A UTHORITY OF
THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

VICTORIA, B.C.:

Printed by WIWLIAM H. CULLIN, Printer to tbe King's Most Excellent Majesty.

1SJ2.

PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

(STATISTICS BRANCH).

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS, 1911

BULLETIN No. 48.

THE GOVERNMENT OF
THE PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

PRINTED BY A UTHORITT OF
THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

VICTORIA, B.C. :

Printed by WILLIAM H. CULLIN, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty.

1912.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

VICTORIA, B.C., 29th April, 1912.
The Hon. Price Ellison,

Minister of l-'iimiiri' mid

SIR, — I have the honour to submit herewith Bulletin No. 45,
dealing with the general conditions of the crops, etc., throughout
British Columbia in 1!)11, as compiled in the Statistics Branch of
the Department of Agriculture.

1 have the honour to be,

Sir,
Your obedient servant,

WM. E. SCOTT,

Deputy Minister of Agriculture.

INTRODUCTION.

The collection of statistics relating to the acreage of the various crops,
number of live-stock, and the general resources of the Province of British
Columbia has been a branch of work in the Department of Agriculture
that for some years past has not received the attention which it justly
deserved; however, this bulletin is now the advent of the reorganization
of the Statistics Branch. It is the intention of the . Department to issue
periodically crop reports dealing with the prevailing conditions, obtaining
at the same time the market prices, and generally such information as will
be of great interest and paramount importance towards the advancement of
agricultural affairs in the Province.

Last year 221 correspondents were enrolled throughout the Province,
who voluntarily give their services in compiling reports dealing with the
estimated yield, and subsequently with the estimated acreage and actual yield,
of the different crops throughout the specified districts. The services of the
correspondents have been appreciated, and their support all round has been
very generous.

At the present time the Statistics Branch is undergoing a remodelling
process, and it is anticipated that the scheme at present under consideration,
if put into force, will prove the one most likely to give the best satisfaction
in regard to the obtaining of information from farmers throughout the
districts as affecting the condition of their crops, together with prospects
of harvest returns.

The information as herein embodied will help to give the general public
interested in the development of the Province of British Columbia an idea
as to its potentialities, general resources, and great possibilities in regard to
the productiveness of the land.

In this bulletin I have divided the Province into groups as follows : —

(1.) Islands, comprising the Districts of Alberni, Comox, Cowichan,
Nanaimo, Victoria, and the Gulf Islands :

(2.) Lower Mainland, comprising the New Westminster and Delta
Districts :

(3.) Thompson River Watershed, comprising the Districts of Ashcrol't,
Kamloops, and Nicola :

(4.) Northern British Columbia, comprising the Districts of Atlin,
Cariboo, Clinton, Hazelton, Peace River (Fort St. John), Skeena,
and Stikine:

(5.) Dry Belt and Boundary Districts, comprising the Districts of
Okanagan, Fairview, Grand Forks, and Greenwood :

(G.) Eastern and Western Kootenays, comprising the Districts of Revel-
stoke, Kaslo, Golden, Cranbrook, Rossland, and Fernie.

The statistical tables give information as to the actual state of affairs
with regard to the crop production in each specified district as grouped under
above headings, and in continuity will be found tables giving the average
prices. The agricultural resources of the Province are also shown as a whole,
together with the estimated value of products during 1911.

In these days of rapid development and the necessity of complete trans-
portation throughout all parts of a producing area, it is highly essential

that statistics relating to the supply of human food should be as trustworthy
as practical results and most modern methods can make them. Varying
changes have taken place regarding the economic conditions prevailing
throughout the world during the nineteenth century, and in the Dominion
of Canada, and more especially in the Province of British Columbia, the
economic revolution is still in progress. Everybody is interested in the wealth
and resources of the Province, no matter in what walk of life their duties lie,
and the information such as it is hoped will be obtained and disseminated
from time to time by the Statistics Branch will be of paramount importance
to the public at large, though more especially so to the agricultural com-
munity.

ALBERT E. CRADDOCK,

Secretary and Statistician.

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS, 1911.

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.

rpHE winter of 1910-11 was visited by a heavy snowfall, which provided
-L ample water for irrigation purposes where necessary. The spring was
normal as to time, but in certain frnit'sections the heavy spring frosts injured
the blossoms somewhat.

The early summer in the Dry Belt was marked by coolness and unusual
precipitation, which aided materially in the production of a very large crop,
especially so in vegetables.

The climatic conditions were similar in the Kootenays, whilst on the
Lower Mainland, where the spring was backward, a warm, dry summer
followed.

On Vancouver Island and throughout the Gulf Islands the summer was an
unusually dry one, vegetables and fruit suffering to some extent. The fall
was exceptionally fine and very favourable to the harvesters.

At all interior points throughout the Mainland the month of October
proved very dry, and the first general snowfall, with low temperatures
following, occurred throughout the Province towards the end of this month
and the beginning of November.

NOTE. — Where it has been deemed worthy of special note to comment upon a
particular item or return dealing with the crop reports in any district, mention is made
accordingly.

MIXED FARMING.

GRAIN, HAY, HOOTS, AND LIVE-STOCK.

GKOUP No. 1 — ISLANDS.

Area in Crop.
Acres.

Average
Yield.

Total
Yield.

Alberni District.
Wheat

34%

25.0 bus.

862 bus.

Oats

343

40.5 „

13,920

Barley

5%

29.9 „

157

Hay

1223

1.9 tons

2,421 tons

Potatoes

48%

5.8 „

285% „

Other crops

32

5.7 „

184

Market-garden crops

14

12 2

172

GROUP No. 1 — Continued.

Area in Crop.
Acres.

Average
Yield.

Total
Yield.

Comox District.

Wheat 1091/2 33.7 bus.

Oats 895 45.8

Barley 3 30.0

Grain hay ! 7G 2.0 tons

Hay 2,374i/2 2.1 „

Potatoes 1 ; 541/2 6.5 „

Other crops 17<»ii 12.6 „

Market-garden crops 80J/2 11.0

Cowichan District.

Wheat 10714 29.5 bus.

Oats , 570 41.7 „

Barley 0% :;n.o „

Itye 1 24.0 .,

Hay 156 2.0 tons

Potatoes 109 .".'.»

Other root crops 58 9.7

Other crops si 10.1

Market-garden crops 22 12.0

l\anaitno District.

Wheat 147 L»7.(5 bus.

Oats 326 53.1 „

Barley ; 33 30.0 „

Hay 1,318 2.2 tons

Potatoes 981/2 6.2 „

Other crops 151 13.3 n

Market-garden crops j IT, 12.0

Victoria and Gulf Islands
District.

Wheat I 1,122 38.3 bus.

Oats 1,165 39.3 „

Barley 51 302 „

Rye 13 24.0 „

Grain hay 110 2.0 tons

Hay 2,346 2.2 „

Potatoes 618 6.3 „

Other root-crops 65 4.2

Other crops 290 9.7

Market-garden crops 193 12.0

bus.

tons

3,694

41,024

90

152

5,159

1,0071/2

2,233

886

3,157 bus.
23,770

1.-,
24

tons

1.

572

822
264

43,033

45,796

1,540

312

220

5,392

3,931

278

2,827

2,325

bus.

4,0fi2
17,320

990
2,922 tons

619
2,013

300

bus.

tons

GROUP No. 1 — Concluded.
SUMMARY OF GROUP No. 1.

Area in Crop.
Acres.

Average
Yield.

Total
Yield.

Wheat ....

1,5201,4

36.0 bus.

54,808 bus.

Oats

3,299

43.0 „

141,830

Barley ...

92%

30.1 „

2,792

Rye

14

240 ,

336

Grain hay .

186

2.0 tons

372 tons

Hay

96731/>

21 ,

20778

Potatoes

1,02s1/*

6.3 „

6,495

Other root-crops

123

69 ,

850

Other crops

730%

11.0 „

8,079

Market-garden crops

334 %

118

3947

This group shows the third highest average production per acre in oats
(43 bushels) and the second in wheat (36 bushels) in the Province.

Taking the Islands generally, the hay-crop was better than that of 1910;
grain, other than oats and wheat, previously mentioned, showing a good
average production.

June frosts in many districts cut down potatoes and lowered the average
yield. Roots and market-garden crops show a high average.

Live-stock.

Beef cattle , 1,693

Dairy cattle 3,738

Horses 4,785

Sheep 5,586

Swine 4,736

Acres.

Acreage of land under grasses 9,673%

Acreage of land cleared 2,033

Acreage of land in crop — grain, fruit, etc 5,554^4

Acreage of grazing land, including bush 49,045*

GROUP No. 2 — LOWER MAINLAND.

New Westminster, Delta, etc.

Area in Crop.
Acres.

Average
Yield.

Total
Yield.

Wheat

1,007

36.8 bus.

37,070 bus.

Oats

23,354

55.9 „

1 307,176

Barley

628

49.2 „

30,900

Rye . . .

24

40.0 „

960

Hops

320

1,500 Ib.

480,000 Ib.

Hay

38,961

2.1 tons

81,959 tons

Potatoes

4,8] 4

6.6 „

32,210

Other root-crops

878

12.0 „

10,536

Market-garden crops

1,718

12.0 „

20,616

* According to actual returns received, though not to be taken as a complete
record of all grazing lands in the group.

8

Fall wheat, oats, barley, and rye do remarkably well in this group of
districts, all these varieties of grain showing the highest average production
in the Province.

Hay, roots, market-garden crops, and hops also show a very high average.

Live-stock.

Beef cattle 254

Dairy cattle 4,559

Horses 12,140

Sheep 1,G40

Swine 860

Acres.

Acreage of land under grasses 38,961

Acreage of land cleared 3,500

Acreage of land in crop— grain, fruit, etc 34,483

Acreage of grazing land, including bush 47,498

(See note after summary, Group No. 1, re grazing land.)

GROUP No. 3 — THOMPSON RIVER WATERSHED.

Area in Crop.
Acres.

Average
Yield.

Total
Yield.

Ashcroft District.
Wheat

1 541

900 bus

30 890 bus

Oats

1,411V>

:;:; <;

47505

Barley

525

300

15 750

Hops

1

500 Ib

500 Ib

Grain hay

°4

1 5 tons

36 tons

Hay

10542

22

23 660 1/2

Potatoes . .

907

89

8 142

Other crops

1 451V?

46

6 676^2

Market-garden crops

192 y,

120

2 '410

Kamloops District.
Wheat

515

360 bus

18 540 bus

Oats

10

40 0

400

Barley

50

300

1 500

Hay

1 783

2 8 tons

n 1 40 tons

Potatoes

131V.

60

7S<)

Other root-crops

3

5 0

1r»

Other crops

59

12 O

fi94

Market-garden crops

4

12 0

40

Nicola District.
Wheat

19°

QO 4 HITS,

>.
K 040

Oats

007

41 2

qo nr>r.

Barley

78

tj..^ ,,
303

•> •» <•>

Grain hay

24

1 ^ ton*:

Hay

7 Q7Q

1q

1 K K(\O

Potatoes

80

fi 2

KK(*

Market-garden crops

ll1^

11 4

190

GROUP No.
SUMMARY OF GROUP No. 3.

Area in Crop.
Acres.

Average
Yield.

Total
Yield.

Wheat

2248

24 5 bus

55 279 bus

Oats

2,358%

36.9 „

86,530

Barley

653

366

19593

Hops

1

500 Ib

500 Ib

Grain liay

24

1 5 tons

36 tons

Hav .

20304

21

44 372^

Potatoes

1,127 %

84

9487

Other root crops .

3

50

15

Other crops

1 503 V:>

4 8

7 300%

Market-garden crops

207%

119

2487

Grain-crops show a very fair average in this group. Alfalfa is a profit-
able crop, and should be more extensively grown.

The average production of potatoes (8.4 tons per acre) is the highest in
the Province, the Ashcroft District itself showing an average of 8.9 tons per
acre.

Market-garden crops also show a heavy production. Beans and corn pay
well.

Live-stock.

Beef cattle 15,138

Dairy cattle 1,030

Horses 4,128

Sheep 3,448

Swine 2,311

Acres.

Acreage of land under grasses 20,304

Acreage of land cleared 4,985

Acreage of grazing land, including bush 206,531

(See note after summary, Group No. 1, re grazing land.)

GROUP No. 4 — NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA.

Area in Crop
Acres.

Average
Yield.

Total
Yield.

Atlin District.
Grain hay

13

1.5 tons

19% tons

Hay .

101

1.0 „

101

Market-garden crops

5.6 „

48

10

GROUP No. 4 — Continued.

Area in Crop.
Acres.

Average
Yield.

Total
Yield.

Cariboo District.
Wheat

510

22.3 bus.

11 414 bus

Oats

2,207

392

87707

Barley

102

29.3 „

2990

Rye

43

100 ,

430

Hay

3937

1 4 tons

5 687 ^£ tons

Potatoes

176

64

1 126%

Other root-crops

IS

116

°10

Market-garden crops

35

92

3°4

Clinton District.
Oats

21

387 bus

814 bus

Barley

0^»

400

°0

Rye

10

100

KMI

Hay

2933

2 0 tons

F; Cfifj tons

Potatoes

4

1 5

Q

Other root-crops . .

g

00

72

Market-garden crops

1C

120

100

Haselton District.
Oats

4HO

60 0 bus

27 000 lm«

Barley

30

300

<>()()

Hay

7500

1 4 tons

nOOO tnii«

Potatoes

75

50

«*7 r

Other root-crops .

60

8 0

OIO ,,

JO A

Market-garden crops

Peace River District (Fort St.
John).

Oats (cut for hay), barley, etc.
Hay

60
51

no

8.0 „

2.0 tons
1 3

4SO

102 tons
ooo

Potatoes

4

-L.O ,,

50

90

Other root-crops

1^

100

1 "»

Other crops

3

1 0

Skecna River District.
Wheat

2

ir, A |1n<,

OA Vine

Oats

fJQl/

fiO 2

o '70^;

Barley

1

15 0

on

Hay

fifiQlA

o Q fnnc

Potatoes

63

65

41 0

Market-garden crops

9%

120

Stikine River District.
Grain hay

00

2 0 tons

Hay

80

o n

i no

Potatoes

1

60

11

GROUP No. 4— Concluded.
SUMMARY OF GROUP No. 4.

Area in Crop.
Acres.

Average
Yield.

Total
Yield.

Wheat

517

22 1 bus

n444 hne

Oats

2 74114

435

119 316

Barlev

184%

21.9

4042

Rye . .

53

100

530

Grain hay

35

1.8 tons

63i^ tons

Hav .

15 369 1^

1 6

24 803%

Potatoes

323

60

1 943%

Other root-crops

88

88

778^6

Other crops

3

10

3

Market-garden crops

129

89

1 158

The spring was dry and cold, with an average rainfall in summer, which
was followed by an exceptionally fine fall.

The averages for yield of oats in the Hazelton and Skeena River Districts
are amongst the highest in the Province.

Oat straw was short in some districts.

The hay-crop was good generally, in places a heavy second crop being
cut, the hay curing well.

Market-garden produce in many districts proved a partial failure owing
to the ravages of cutworms, and the early, dry, cold season.

The foregoing figures show conclusively that large quantities of agricul-
tural products have to be imported into the territory encompassed in Group
No. 4, and the table of prices in this bulletin will convey immediately to the
lay mind the possibilities there are for further increased development in
order that a supply may be provided locally equal to the demand.

Live-stock.

Beef cattle 11,932

Dairy cattle 584

Plorses 3,537

Sheep 1,395

Swine 946

Acres.

Acreage of land under grasses 15,3691/£

Acreage of land cleared 2,705

Acreage of land in crop — grain, fruit, etc 4,1271/4

Acreage of grazing land, including bush 182,649

(See note after summary, Group No. 1, re grazing land.)

12

GROUP No. 5. — DRY BELT AND BOUNDARY DISTRICTS.

Area in Crop.
Acres.

Average
Yield.

Total
Yield.

Okanagan District.
Wheat

G,G53^

28.8 bus.

191 983

bus

Oats

4,040

44.1

178 189

Barley .

457

37.6 „

17212

Rye

7

25.0

175

Hops

45

844 11).

38000

Ib

Grain hav . .

717

1 8 tons

1 347

tons

Hay

13,219^j

9 0

°9 075

Potatoes

'2 7<)."iy>

71)

21 992

Other root-crops

81

11-7 „

1 198

"

Other crops

410

140

5760

Market-garde^ crops

875%

T'.X „

11 2°7{u

Fairview District.
Wheat

288

36 7 bus

10570

bu*

Oats

413

5" :{

•>1 (••}!-

Barlev

45

noo

2250

Grain hay

1)1

1 4 tons

129

Hav

2 141

21

4 546

Potatoes

7<>

"• ')

470

Other root-crops

5

1°0

60

'•

Other crops

°0

1° 0

940

"

Market-garden crops .

15

1 7

110

>»

Grand Forks District.
Wheat . .

305

31 4 1ms

10 Tin

Oats

75' »

300

37 950

Barley

-,-,

40 0

9 9OO

"

Grain hay

1 |s

°0

OCA

"

Hay

220

9 3 tons

r-.-iA

Potatoes

6°3

60

«? 701

Other crops

184^

135

9 474

"

Market-garden crops

if,:;'.,

96

1 56°

'*

Greenwood District.
Wheat

1 637

279 bus

45 820

Oats

1 134

353

40 Ofir»

Barlev

27

296

800

"

Rye

60

95 o

1 ^00

Grain hay

15

3 0 tons

45

Hay

213°

1 5

Q 37O

Potatoes

189

50

955

"

Other root-crops . .

17

11 7

900

Other crops

26

11.5

300

"

Market-garden crops

27

1°0

Q94

"

13

GROUP No. 5-^jC (included.
SUMMARY OF GROUP No. 5.

Area in Crop.
Acres.

Average
Yield.

Total
Yield.

Wheat

8 903%

29 0 bus

258 683 bus

Oats

6,346

43.7 „

277 839

Barley

584

384

29 4g9

Rye

67

25.0 .,

1675

Hops

45

844 Ib

38 000 Ib

Grain hav

971

1 .8 tons

1 817 tons

Hav

17 712%

21

37 510

Potatoes

3,656%

7.4 „

27 208

Other root-crops

103

141

1 458

Other crops

640%

13.6 ,.

8774

Market-garden crops . .

1 081%

122

13 223%

In the Northern Okanagan fall wheat was good and spring wheat light;
oats and barley good; a considerable amount of grain being cut for hay.

Potatoes and sugar-beets were a very good crop in this section also.

In the Southern Okanagan, to the boundary, potatoes were light. In
the Greenwood District grain-crops were good, roots particularly so. At
Grand Forks the season was a good one, especially for potatoes and truck-
crops.

The figure for oats (43.7 bushels per acre) is the third best average in
this Province, and for barley (38.4 bushels per acre) is the second best.

Hoots at an average of 14.1 tons per acre and market-garden crops at
12.2 tons an acre are the highest in the Province.

Potatoes at 7.4 tons per acre being the second highest average for same.

The crop of hops in the Okanagan was good, but owing to labour
difficulties it was picked late and some waste occurred, thus affecting the
average yield.

Live-stock.

Beef cattle 9,746

Dairy cattle 1.711

Horses 7,022

Sheep 4.952

Swine 4,162

Acres.

Acreage of land under grasses 17,712%

Acreage of land cleared 21.368

Acreage of land in crop — grain, fruit, etc 46.064

Acreage of grazing land, including bush 253,807

(See note after summary, Group No. 1, re grazing land.)

GROUP No. 6. — EAST AND WEST KOOTENAYS.

Area in Crop.
Acres.

Average
Yield.

Total
Yield.

Revelstoke District.
"Wheat

19

14.7 bus.

280 bus.

Oats

03

•T..O „

2,325

Barley

7V2

10.0 „

75

Rve

0J/2

12.0 .,

6

Grain nay

19%

2.0 tons

30 tons

Hav

l.(i!)3l/&

2.1 ..

3,566

Potatoes

L29U

04

830

Other root-crops

4

12.0 ,.

L8

Other crops

4

12.0

48

Market-garden crops ........

73

1"0 „

876

Kaslo District.
Wheat

:•,.-»

28 s lui^

1 010 bus

Oats

•>•>!/>

r.7 »;

1 >M>7

Hav .

x<;i -y.

2 1 tons

1 Sl SV, tnll^

Potatoes

295%

41)

1 4r»7

Other root-crops

o

T>0

24

Other crops

10

( ; r»

65

Market-garden crops ...

37%

10°

37S-Y,

Golden District.
Wheat

."4

31 0 1 u<

1 7"7 1 us

Oats

."7

407

•> ;{•>•>

Barley .

7

"•'o

lr>4

Flax

3

135

40 1/,

Grain hay

03

•> i tons

l(l7i/> ton<

Hay

282

20

."<;[

Potatoes

s

90

T2

Other crops

3

12.0

86

Market-garden crops

o

120

•>4

Cranbrook District.
Wheat

ftsr^

•>4 1) ] l]s;

•) -)1 •) l-iiv;

Oats

•>is

40 4

S ^'>0

Barlev

o

400

°40

Rve

54

04 -[

1 °00

Hay

704

•> •> t()ii-<

1 0')7 ton^

Potatoes

63 U

40

•>-(sV,

Other crops

6

12.5

7<i

Market-garden crops

31 V2

11. r, -„

366 „

15

GROUP No. 6 — Concluded.

Area in Crop.
Acres.

Average
Yield.

Total
Yield.

Rossland District.
Wheat . . .

2

25 o bus

K(\ \\viS}.

Oats

1%

623

93

Barley . . .

314

23 1

Q-l

Rye

4

30

OJ- ,,

12

Grain hay . .

5534

2 0 tons

111 I/, fftrie

Hay

771%

1 9

1 469^4

Potatoes ...

39

4 6

181

Other root-crops

16

40

64

Other crops . .

41/0

14 0

«o

Market-garden crops

163

22

363

• Fernie District.
Wheat . . .

76

30 8 bus

9 QIA hn«

Oats

70

368

9 581

Barley

14

31 7

444

Rve

5

500

950

Grain hay

5414

9 7 tons

1 48 tons

Hay

1 219%

1 8

2 ^75%

Potatoes

12414

4 0

509

Other crops

15%

74

116

Market-garden crops

66%

79

531

SUMMARY OF GROUP No. 6.

Area in Crop.
Acres.

Average
Yield.

Total
Yield.

Wheat

274%

27 7 bus.

7 625 bus

Oats

462

37.7 „

17,438

Barlev

38

261 „

994 „

live

63%

247

1 574

Flax

3

13.5 „

40^5 .,

Grain hay

222%

2.2 tons

496 tons

Hav

5,592 1/£

2.0 „

11,390^5 „

Potatoes

660

5.2 „

3,319i/£ „

Other root-crops ....

22

6.1 „

136

Other crops

43

9.3 „

404

Market-garden crops . .

374

6.7 „

2,538% „

This is a widely scattered section with varying conditions, a medium
position being held as regards grain averages. The areas under cultivation
are limited. In the northern section grain was mostly cut for hay ; alfalfa
was poor, potatoes and roots were good, the former running up to 8 tons per
acre in some districts ; speculation is affecting agricultural interests in the
Golden District.

16

In the Kaslo District oats and hay crops were heavy and vegetables
were of fine quality, with a strong local demand.

In the southern section, also, grain was largely cut for hay ; barley up
to 40 bushels per acre and oats up to 110 bushels per acre being produced in
individual cases; hay-crops were heavy and roots fair. Hops grow well in
the Cranbrook District, but are very little cultivated.

Live-stock.

Beef cattle 1,565

Dairy cattle Mil

Horses 4,227

Sheep in'.".

Swine 1.3S2

Acres.

Acreage of land under grasses 5.51)2%

Acreage of land cleared 2,085

Acreage of land in croi> — grain, fruit, etc 4.209%

Acreage of grazing land, including bush 87.001

(See note after summary. (Jrmip No. 1, re grazing land.)

RECAPITULATION.

Area in Crop
Acres.

Average

Yirl.l.

Total

Yield.

Wheat

14 4701/1

29.", i u<

l"l '.109 bus.

( ;;li;>

3s.5(»o%

~«».5 .,

1. 9.~o. 129

Barley

2 ISO 14

37.0 ..

HIT^:;

Kve

••:•,<;%

2 1.C. „

5,105

F1M\

3

13.5 „

40 1/, ..

I lops

360

I.IK',.0 Ih.

51S.5<IO 11).

( i rain hav

i.43x%

1.0 tons

2.7S41/. tons

1 lax-

107,613

2.0 .,

220.813%

Potatoes . . .

11 r.u'.i'..

0.9 „

MM 503 vi „

Other root-crops

1 .21 7

11.3 .,

i:;.773V> ••

Other crops

"920%

8.0 „

L'J. r.00% „

Market-garden crops

3.8441/2

11.4 ..

n.'.iiou, ..

Live-stock.

Beef cattle 40,328

Dairy cattle 12.51.",

Horses 35,839

Sheep 17.944

Swine 14,398

Acres.

Acreage of land under grass 107. OK!

Acreage of land cleared 36.670

Acreage of land in crop — grain, fruit, etc 108,665%

Acreage of grazing land (from partial returns),

including bush £26,531

17

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18

YEAR mil

AVERAGE PRODUCTION PER ACRC
DF POTATOES. RDDT5 B MARKET GARDEN CROPS

BRITISH COLUMBIA

19

SUMMARY OF CROPS AND STOCK, INCLUDING PERMANENT

GRAIN.

OTHER CROPS.

H

Bushels.

Value.

Tons.

Value.

Tons.

(1 ) Islands

190,766
1,376,106
161,432
135,332
560,659
27,631

$ 193,233
1,080,917

132,157
2v>i 2^7
498,385
28,921

240
i

19
40 bus.

$192,000
200

15,200

80

21,150
81,959
44,408i
24,867
39,327
11,886*

(2 ) Lower Mainland

(3.) Thompson River Watershed . . .
(4 ) Northern

(5 ) Dry Belt and Boundary

(6 ) East and West Kootenays

Total

2,460,926

$2,160,327

259i tons.
40 bus.

$207,480

223,597

N.B. — Group values estimated at average rates prevailing in each district. Totals valued at a\
as the northern district of the Province exceeds very much the proportionate values obtainable in ot

YEAR ISII

AVERAGE PRODUCTION
DP HAY

BRITISH COLUMBIA

19

PERMANENT STOCK, IN BRITISH COLUMBIA, WITH VALUES.

HAY.

Fufix AND SMALL FRUITS.

VEGETABLES.

Tons.

21, 150
S1. <).-,<>
44,408*
24,807
:',!), :;27
ll.SSGi

22:;.5J)7

Value.

Boxes.

$ 42.",,000
l.:!72,813
843,797
871,368
7Si>,006
250,112

11,200

7,802

100

2::2.7i;L«
10,054

30.3,040

Crates.

Tons.

<M ;.i<;:)

3,150

1,696

1,001

54,022

21.4!»7

178,135

21'. 4ii7

is. I'M;
5,756

4M'.».7L':;

1!>.2X!M

3,8831

5o.«;r,::j

$878,181

162,966

Value.

1,226,30

24.-:. s
1,196,1
187,98

$4,206,061

.•allied at average prices for the whole Province. This l»asis of computation has he
inahle in other districts, mainly owing to present lack of transportation facilities.

YEAR 1911

AVERAGE PRICE
DF GRAIN

BRITISH COLUMBIA

21

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22

Live-stock.

Beef cattle, each .......................... •$ 75 00

Dairy „ „ .......................... 90 00

Horses „ .......................... 130 00

Sheep „ .......................... 8 00

Swine „ .......................... 13 00

FRUIT.

It will be noted that in the following figures allowance should be made
regarding areas, inasmuch as the yield returns are approximately correct, while
the areas are based upon partial returns from the Crop Correspondents.

No. 1 — ISLANDS GROUP.

Estimated Bear-
Acres. ing Acreage. Estimated Yield.

Applies .............. 1, ass Vi 4(i3 20,675 boxes.

Pears ............... 144Vt 48 2,000

Apricots ............. li/i 114

Plums and prunes ____ 10314 54 2,887 „

Peaches ............. 3%

Raspberries .......... 71 Vj '24 12,574 crates.

Strawberries ......... 544% isi 83,595 „

Apples were generally reported as being a light to very poor crop. Pears,
average crop; plums and prunes, poor to fair; cherries, poor to fair: small
fruits, good. The short fruit-crop was due to the late spring frosts. A large
proportion of the orchards are young, and practically only sufficient fruit is
grown for home consumption in many localities.

GROUP No. 2 — LOWKK MAIM. AND.

Apples

Estimated I'.i-nr-
Acn-x. in.u Arivatic. Estimated Yield.

1,387% 402 9,000 boxes.
30 M> 12 100 „
(200 „ (sour).
1)4 J400 „ (sweet)

Pears

( 'lierries .

Apricots

Plums and prunes ....
Peaches

273V2
5
6%

11 M

91

2
2
4

1,500

1,058
2.092

crates.

Raspberries

Strawberries .

The apple-crop was poor, late frosts being accountable for much damage.
Pears were a poor crop; plums and prunes, fair to poor; cherries, fair; and
small fruits, good.

GROUP No. 3 — THOMPSON RIVER WATERSHED.

Estimated Bear-
Acres, ing Acreage. Estimated Yield.

Apples 1,481% 185 4,680 boxes.

Pears 98 12 250 „

(1,250 „ (sour).

Cherries 50% 7

) 1,650 „ (sweet).

23
GROUP No. 3 — Concluded.

Estimated Bear-

Acres. ing Acreage. Estimated Yield.
Plums and prunes .... 117 %v» 14

Peaches ............. 68 8 32 boxes.

Raspberries .......... 8% 1 500 crates.

Strawberries ......... 9 1 1,046

Currants ............. 4 1 150

In the Kamloops District apples were a light crop, the plum, prune, and
cherry crops being very poor. Small fruits were a good average.

In the Ashcroft District down to Hope, hardy winter apples paid well;
pears were fairly good ; plums, prunes, and cherries were very good ; and small
fruits were a heavy crop.

In Nicola District fruit is scarcely grown in marketable quantities yet.

GROUP No. 4 — NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA.

Acres. Estimated Yield.

Apples .............................. 38 100 boxes.

Pears ....................... ........ 2

Cherries ............................ 2

Plums and prunes ......... , ........ 2^

Raspberries ......................... 2*4 395 crates.

Strawberries .................. ...... 6% 1,306

At Alexandria, in the Cariboo District, fruit-growing is still in the experi-
mental stage. A few apple-trees bore light crops, but late spring frosts
damaged the buds. Raspberries wrere a fair crop.

At North Bonaparte (Clinton) no large fruits were raised this year, but
small fruits did well.

At Terrace, in the Skeena District, young apple-trees yielded well ; sweet
cherries were exceptionally good. Small fruits also bore heavily here and at
Masset (Graham Island).

GROUP No. 5 — DRY BELT AND BOUNDARY.

Estimated Bear-

Acres. ing Acreage. Estimated Yield.
Apples .............. 18,237 3,039 198,825 boxes.

Pears ............... 9043,4 151 5,174 „

Apricots ............. 9014 15 542 „

Plums and prunes ____ 980*4 163 22,292

Peaches ............. 2,361% 393 555 „

Raspberries .......... 166*4 27 23,571 crates.

Strawberries ......... 168% 28 30,021

Currants ............. 2 ... 430

In the Fairview District, including the South Okanagan Valley and
Similkameen, the apple-orchards are young and only giving partial crops ;
plums, prunes, and cherries had light crops; small fruits fair.

At Grand Forks the apple-crop was good, practically a full one. Cherries,
pears, plums, and prunes and small fruits bore well.

In the Greenwood District (Rock Creek, etc.) there are many young trees
not producing yet. Small fruits did well where grown.

24

In the northern part of the Okaiiagan Valley the apple-crop was light ;
plums and prunes, fair; cherries, poor; and small fruits, good. At lake points
farther south, apples were medium and other fruits fair. Peaches were a
failure, owing to spring frosts.

GROUP No. 6 — EAST AND WEST KOOTENAYS.

Estimated Bear-
Acres, ing Acreage. Estimated Yield.

Apples 1,499% 375 18,000 boxes.

Pears 127% 32 33 „

(158 „ (sour).

Chemes 133^ J12G [I (sweet).

Apricots 43 11

Plums and prunes 40% 10 510

Peaches 53% 13 225 ..

Raspberries 28*4 7 3,982 crates.

Strawberries 1)0 22 1(5,092 „

( 1urrants 30% 8 1,418 „

Knxt Knntt'mui Section.

Small fruits were a very good crop at Athalmer and Wilmer. At Cran-
brook the crop of large fruits was light, whilst at Moyie and Wasa trees are
scarcely of bearing age yet. Strawberries and currants were a good crop.

Wcxt Kofttciidi/ tfrction.

Ifcrcltttokc District. — Apples, plums, and prunes are all young here, as is
(he case ai Nakusp and Arrowhead, and the crop was light.

A'n.v/0 District. — At Lardo and Mirror Lake small fruits were good, apples
medium, and other fruits light. At Crawford Bay and Ainsworth the apple-
crop was medium ; small fruits, fair.

/'o.v.s-/(///f/ District. — Most of the orchards are young and bearing light
crops. Sour cherries were a heavy crop at Klko; small fruits generally a
medium to heavy crop.

The tot:il acreage in orchard accounted for by Crop Correspondents is
31,819 acres, and allowing 10 per cent, for omissions, etc.. a fair estimate of
total plantings up to 1!>11 would be :j5.tlOO acres.

The crop of apples this year is about 40 per cent, of that of 1910; all
other fruits also yielding light crops. The total estimated value of fruits and
berries was .$878,181.

TREE-PLANTING, ETC., IN 1911.

The acreage newly planted to fruit in 1911 is estimated at 10,500 acres;
and of the standard fruit-trees, seedlings, grafts, and bush fruits required,
151,751 dollars' worth were imported from various points; the balance, valued
at $199.038. being raised in the home nurseries throughout the Province.

At interior points winter apples of the following varieties have been
planted almost exclusively: Mclntosh Red, Jonathan. Wagener, Grimes Golden,
Rome Beauty, Winesap, Spitzenberg, and Yellow Newtown, the varieties vary-
ing according to locality.

Few peaches, but an increased number of apricots, were planted in the
more southerly districts.

The acreage in strawberries and raspberries has been largely increased
in the West Kootenay districts, and to a lesser extent on the Lower Mainland.

25

Vegetables of all varieties throughout the Province have been an excellent
crop (see tables of separate districts for produce), the total value of the fruit
and vegetable crop for the year being estimated at $5,084,241, against $1,939,110
for 1910. «*

YEAR 1911

AVERAGE PRODUCTION PER ACRE

OF GRAIN

BRITISH COLUMBIA

ff-r^^^/^ 7-^o^f-sc,^ ^^ST- ^rva &f,r £,£:t.-r t-o*

r^

55

/

» ~~

50

492 ^^^LX

45

/ /

CM. TS 4J5

•^

^

/

40

'x

,*'*

/

40 <«?v^-

X\s

35

//

\

/

'

\

J

^..<.

'

/

\x

f

.-•' \

30

/

N\
\
\,,

/_ -

\

25

/

,--"""""X

/

Wf*£Z*7- 221

/„.--—"""

euv«.^rx 219

16

/

~>«- 10 10

/

MOVEMENT OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLES

BY RAIL DUEING SEASON 1911.
(Supplied ~by the C.P.R. Co. and Dominion Express Go.)

VEGETABLES.

Vegetables (mixed) 2,045% tons

Potatoes 692

Onions 838

Roots 9,804

Tomatoes . 226

13,605%* tons

* It will be understood that the above figures only represent a percentage of the
whole crop, a Large proportion being consoimed locally, and a considerable quantity
being shipped by water, no record being kept >of same.

26

FBUIT.

Apples 3,076 tons

Pears 37V2

Peaches 29% „

Plums 9%

Prunes 47 ,.

Mixed fruit . 435

3,634i/2* tons

Fruit and vegetables (unclassified) 1,392 tons

Canned goods 270 „

18,902 tons
The totals for 1910 were 8,745 tons, the increase in 1911 being 116.1 per cent.

* It will be understood that the above figures only represent a percentage of the
whole crop, a large proportion being consumed locally, and a considerable quantity
being shipped by water, no record being kept of same.

YEAR 1911

AVERAGE: PRICES

OF FRUIT
BRITISH COLUMBIA

27

PRICES OF PACKED FRUIT.

FOE YEARS 1909, J<010, AND 1911.

Average,

Average,

1911.

1909 and 1910

Highest.

Lowest.

Apples 40-lb box

$130

$1.75

$1.25

Crab-apples 40-lb box

140

200

150

Pears, 40-lb box

1.45

2.00

1.25

Plums 20-lb box

80

1 00

60

Prunes, 20-lb. box

70

1.00

GO

Peaches 20-lb box

70

1 58

107

Cherries (sour), per Ib

09*4

2.25 box

2.00 box

Cherries (sweet) per Ib

125

100

Strawberries, 24-lb. crate

2.45

2.75

1.75

Raspberries, 14-lb crate

1 70

275

225

Blackberries, 14-lb. crate

1.65

Gooseberries, per Ib ..

07%

Currants, per Ib

OG

2 50 crate

2 25 crt

Loganberries,

250

I.— IMPORTED NURSERY STOCK.

INSPECTED AND CONDEMNED AT THE PROVINCIAL FUMIGATING-STATION,
VANCOUVER, B.C., IN 1911.

Number
inspected.

Number
condemned.

Ter Cent,
condemned.

Standard fruit-trees (total) . . ....

369,874

17,816

4.8

Standard apples and crabs
Nut and fig trees

255,099
2,499

13,278
o

5.2

Seedlings and grafts

2,704,629

93,020

3.4

Bush fruits (grapes, currants, raspberries)
Small fruits (strawberries, etc.)
Miscellaneous stock

94,069
60,656
398,307

543
2322

0.5
0.5

28

II.— NET IMPORTS OF NURSERY STOCK, WITH VALUES, FOR 1911,

CANADIAN PROVINCES AND DUTIABLE.

Estimated Value.
Standard fruit-trees. 352.05S. valued at $15 per 100. . $ 52>ox

Nut and fig trees, 2,497, valued at $20 per 100

409

Seedlings and grafts. 2.<;il.<509. valued at 2 cents each 52.2:52

Bush fruit-trees. 93,52<>, valued at 25 cents each . . . 23,381

Small fruits. <iO.<;r»<;, valued at $5 per 100 3,032

Miscellaneous stock, 395,985, valued at $5 per 100 ... 19.799

Total . $151,751

Value of nursery stock imported from United States,
etc. . $19,500

From Canadian Provinces $132,245

Estimated value of nursery stock produced in British
Columbia $199,038

|||._IMPORTED FRUIT, ETC.
INSPECTED AND CONDEMNED AT VANCOUVER. B.C.. IN 1911.

Number
insprrfi (1.

Number
condemned.

PerCent.

condemned.

Apples boxes

KJ5.405

». :.:,:;

2.7

] »(>n rs

25,1)03

2.510

10.0

Plums

19.714

455

2.3

Peaches

S5.3S9

768

0.8

\pricots

10.7.17

39

Prunes

9 2(J7

25

02

Quinces

149

()ran<res Californi:ni .

94,725

3.407

3 5

Or*in<res Japanese

!)•» 1109

2 118

• > •>

Oran<res \ustralian ... ,

110

Oranges Tangerine

20

Lemons

10704

104

0.6

Grape Fruit . .

3,050

409

11.2

Limes ,,

04

Pine-apples ,

7"7

Persimmons . ,

10

40

Tomatoes

23 243

o •>

Peppers ,,

247

Total

547 872

14404

o (;

29

IV.— RETURN OF IMPORTED FRUITS, ETC.

INSPECTED AT VANCOUVER, B.C., IN 1911.

Boxes (Net).

Average Net
Weight.
Lb.

Total
Weight.
Lb.

Apples

100,852

40

0,434 080

Pea rs

22403

40

899 720

Plums

19,259

20

385 180

Peaches

84 G21

20

1 092 420

Apricots

10757

20

215 140

Nectarines ...

39

20

780

Prunes

9,242

20

184 840

Quinces

149

J 35-40, large )

4005

Oranges, California!! . ...

91 31S

) 20, small (

72

0 574 890

Oranges Japanese

90491

j 10-12. small )

1 091 09S

Oranges, Australian

110

| 15-17, large (
35-40

4125

Oranges Tangerine

20

15-20

350

Lemons

3 6 600

78

1 294 800

Grape Fruit

3241

08

220 388

Limes

04

75-85

5120

Tomatoes

23 188

20

403 700

Pine-apples

727

80-100

05 430

Peppers

947

5-10

1 852

Persimmons

10

20

200

Passion Fruit

40

50

9 000

Total

533 408

19 071 314

APIARIAN STATISTICS FOR SEASON 1911.

WEST OF LILLOOET DIVISION.

Estimate of
Efficiency.
Per Cent.

Possibilities
of Locality.

Lb.

Total
Number
of Bee-
keepers.

District.

Number of
Colonies,
1st April.

Honey-
production.

Lb.

Average
Production
perCoIonv.
April.

Lb.

Number
of Colo-
nies, 1st
October.

15
40
20

50

33

2,000
15,420
5,000
3,000

5 000

15
46
25
4
1
11

Agassiz
Chilliwack . . .
Oomox
Pewdney
Harrison Mills
Hatzic

257
S>5
51
3
110"

318
6,530
1,193
1,531
24
1,778

5.5
25.4
14.0
30.0
8.0
15.0

72
357
121

5
1 35

15

(not good)
400
0 400

15
o

The Islands . .
Lillooet
Lvtton

38
7
24

84
60
1,700

2 2
§'.5
70.0

50
10
30

5
50
20

1,000
36

2,500
1,800
1 000

10
1
10
10
q

Ladysmith . . .
Mission
Nanaimo
Rosedale
Sardis

33

49

36

21

56
000
1,244

245

1.7
25.1)
25.3

12.0

46

85
46
40

2

Steveston ....

60

1,800

30.0

60

Totals

163

••

875

17,463

19.0

1,134

30

Total honey-production, 17,463 tt>. ; possibilities of district, 39,520 It). ;
estimated efficiency of bee-keepers, 30 per cent.

KOOTENAYS, DRY BELT, AND BOUNDARY DIVISION.

Remarks.

Total No.
of Bee-
keepers.

District.

Number of
Colonies,
1st April.

Honey-
production.

Lb.

Average
Production
per Colony,
April.

Lb.

Number
of Colo-
nies, 1st
October.

Died.
No bees kept.
No bees kept.

1
1

'4
'4

3

1

Athalmer .
lirisco ....
(Jolden
(Jrand Forks
Kamloops
Kelowna
Keremeos .
Malakwa

34

'i

2,125

".">

62.5
25 0

54

20

7

Winter killed

o
18
1
1

Itossland
Salmon Arm . . .
Sevmour Arm . .
Trail

30

77

750
620

25.0
8.0

80
171

'3

• >

Vcrnon

50

1,800

360

42

.)

Walhachin

1

3

•>

\VilnnT

3

No bees kept.

Windermere

Totals. .

42

••

193

5,320

27.5

302

Total honey-production, f».32oii».

Estimated total number of bee-keepers in British

Columbia 1.1 or,

Colonies, April, 11)11 7,300

Total honey-production lOO.-1'.ir. H>.

Honey imported in 11)11. duty paid 12.W,r, It).

Honey imported in 1011 (estimated from Cana-
dian Provinces i . 301.-! V, .

Total 425,151 ..

Prices.

British Columbia production 3." cents per Hi.

United States, etc.. production 14 „ „ „

Eastern Provinces .... . '_'."» „

COMPARISON OF TOTAL AGRICULTURAL IMPORTS AND HOME

PRODUCTION.

Year 1010
(Totals).

Year 1011
(Totals).

Increase.

Decrease.

Live-stock and poultry . . .
Dairy produce
Meats

$ 7.820,151
6,347,351
1 049 000

$ 7,700.778
6,263,743
2 003 108

$ 353,508

$65,373

83,608

Fruit and vegetables ....
K<r£s and honev

2,270,571
424 320

5,631,525
1 355 850

3,072,565

889 510

Malt, hay, grain

10,729,074

12,148,150

1,212,316

Miscellaneous

339 142

1 178,628

937,980

$29,586,215

$36,341,782

...

...

31

Increase for the year 1911, $6,755,567, or 22.8 per cent.

The total value of home-produced and imported articles for consumption
for the year 1911 is $36,341,782, against $29,586,215 for the year 1910. This
is an increase of $6,755,567, or 22.8 per"' cent, for the whole year.

Taking the values of imported products in 1911, we find the total to be
$14,699,854, a decrease of $487,371, or 3.2 per cent., compared with the 1910
figures ($15,187.225). This year, also for the first, time in the history of
British Columbia, the value of live-stock, dairy and other agricultural products
produced in the Province exceeded the combined values of similar imports from
all other points, the figures being as follows : Home products, $21,641,928 ;
total imports, $14,699,854; excess, $6,942,074, or 47.2 per cent; and the value
of similar home products in 1910 is exceeded by $7,242,838, or 50.3 per cent.

The chief increases in home production are as follows : —

1910.

1911.

Increase.
Per Cent.

Milk

$2 563 837

$3 295 000

28 6

Fruit and vegetables

1 939 110

5 084 241

169 1

Eg^s

156 247

255 II9

63 9

Honey

3200

35 173

Hav

3 947 530

4 913 566

24 4

Grain

1 400 000

2 160 327

54 3

DUTIABLE IMPOBTS.

As regards dutiable imports, the figures for 1911 ($3,840,183) show an
increase of $1,486,551, or 63.1 per cent., over those of 1910, the chief increases
being in the following items : —

1910.

1911.

11

||

Live-stock

$254 221

$523 301

105.8

Canned meats, pickles, jams, etc
Eggs

266,063
114 233

505,359
471,616

89.9
312.8

Butter . .

173 879

344 735

98.2

Hav

105777

237,674

124.6

Fruits (green)

331 461

543 114

63.8

Decreases.

1910.

1911.

ate

gg

Malt

$49,167

$10,233

79.1

Condensed milk

10,367

7,367

28.9

32

The increase in above articles of consumption is very noticeable, showing
the rapid growth of population.

As regards the figures for malt, it is understood that Eastern malt is, to
a certain extent, supplanting the United States product, Winnipeg being the
chief shipping-point now, but no reliable figures are available at present as
to what extent the supply coming from the East originated in the United
States.

IMPORTS FROM PROVINCES IN THE DOMINION.

These were valued at $12.X33.593 i" 1J)10, 'ind $10,859,671 in 1911, showing
a decrease of $1,973,922, or 13.3 per cent., the chief decreases being in the
following items: —

11)10. 1911. Decrease.

Per Cent.

Live-stock and poultry #5.< MM ).<H55 $3,471,105 30.5

Butter, cheese, and milk 2.477.493 1.5X9.021 35.8

drain 2.22<;.<;ou 2,021,464 <>.:»

Increases.

I'.Hn. I'.Ml. Increase.

Per Cent.
Eggs $129.4:5.- $501.517 280.7

A striking feature of the statistics for 1911 is the large increase of 63.1
per cent, apparent in the importation of dutiable agricultural products, chiefly
from the United States, whilst similar imports from Canadian Provinces show
a decrease of 15.3 per cent, on the total value.

Although the total agricultural imports from the Dominion amounted to
$10,859.671, and from the United States (chiefly) to only $3.X40.ls:5. yet the
fact is disturbing that foreign imports are increasing so largely at the expense
of Dominion interests: this probably being due to the lack of co-operative
enterprise at home. This Province is expanding so rapidly that the home
supply of all agricultural products, although showing a great increase during
the past year, is quite inadequate to meet the demand. American producers
have apparently grasped this fact more quickly than their Eastern Canadian
competitors, and, having in their favour increased transportation facilities.
their surplus products have been shipped in at the lowest possible figure to
allow of a marginal profit to all parties.

MARKETS, LIVE-STOCK, ETC.

The total importations of dairy and poultry products into British Columbia
for the year 1911 were as follows: —

Butter $954,908

Milk (including condensed) and cream 373.667

Eggs 973,133

Poultry 1,142.735

Cheese . 654,706

Total $4,099,149

Excluding cheese, of which practically none is made in British Columbia,
there is a total of $3,500.000 sent out of the Province annually for articles
which should be produced at home.

33

The year's importations of fresh meats, including bacon and ham, mutton
and lamb, pork and lard, total $1,260,091, whilst beef cattle, sheep and swine
were imported to the value of $1,260,510.

In the past year there has been a* noticeable increase in the consuming-
capacity of Prairie markets, due mainly to increased population, and also to
the fact that a late and wet season there furnished an unusually favourable
market for early vegetables.

There has also been an increased demand for British Columbia apples from
Australian houses, and for all fruits and vegetables from Coast markets.
The home markets, however, fall far short of being supplied, and in the year
1911 the Province imported the following fruits and fruit products, etc.,
chiefly from the United States : —

Apples, other fruits and berries $547,284

Preserved fruits 255,367

Jellies, jams, etc 111,856

Pickles . 59,443

Total $973,950

Similar products totalled $542,107 in the year 1910.

The greatest increase in consumption of food products during the past year
has been in bacon and ham, mutton and lamb, pork, eggs, and poultry.
The value of dairy produce (exclusive of milk) importations amounted to
$1,609,614, and the value of dressed poultry and egg importations amounted
to $2,115,868.

The home production of dairy produce (exclusive of milk) amounted in
value to $985,462, or 61 per cent, of the market demand. The demand also
for dressed poultry and eggs was $1,234,472 in excess of the home supply.
A satisfactory feature of the year has been an increase in the supply of home-
produced milk, valued at $3,295,000, and eggs, valued at $255,112. Eggs.
however, show a still greater increase in importations from the United States
and Canadian Provinces, the increase from the former being 312.8 per cent.,
and from the latter 280.7 per cent, on the values for 1910.

The rapid growth of city population has resulted in an increased demand
for milk, which has affected the quantity of butter manufactured.

The increased demand for mutton and pork has not been met with a
corresponding development in the raising of sheep and swine, the numbers
of the former showing a lessened production during the year.

As in the past year, the heaviest importations in live-stock have been in
horses, beef cattle, and sheep, the United States imports of horses showing
the very large increase of 300 per cent.

DUTIABLE AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS.
IMPORTED FROM FOREIGN COUNTRIES FOR THE YEARS 1910-1911.

11

1!

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Horses

No

929

$ OS 993

2,968

$ 294,110

Cattle

55

4.07.")

36S

10.341

Sheep

39.013

151.153

61,471

21S.OU

Swine

14

200

Poultry, estimate, year
Bacon and hams . .

1911, Ib.

2 383 710

432,901

512,437
3,261,328

117,800
487,443

( 'aimed meats

333 535

55 417

552 337

7s <;«.>;;

Mutton and lamb

0 6X1 729

203 382

3 317,915

24G,OG8

Pork

145,704

20,337

1C5.106

21,713

Lard

2 192 429

317509

2 199 322

244,976

Eggs .

. . . .doz

535.704

114,233

2,362,039

471,616

Butter

Ib.

178.X7'.'

1,485,825

344,735

Cheese

•'<)!) 31 3

40207

233 836

42,158

I lav .

. . . .tons

105 777

15,283

237,674

Malt

Ib

0 l!>.~i 77X

49 107

655 473

10233

Condensed milk

101,902

05,213

7,367

Pickles

e"ls

43 393

41 870

G48G7

."!» n:i

Fruits, viz. : —
Apples

bhl.

39,101

138,44."

07,481

245 322

Berries

Ib

347 .".1C

38GG5

530 031

59612

Cherries

141 lx<;

15,072

205,401

24922

Cranberries

bus

3,061

8478

2801

9710

Currants

. . . Ib

108

8

1 935

308

Grapes

701,037

38,194

1,191,831

57.047

Peaches

1 209 GSG

34389

1 859 079

60776

Plums

.... bus.

7141

17 G79

11 G25

:;:; .".19

Quinces, apricots, pears
Fruit, other, green

, etc. Ib.

40,270
25."

1,381,700

51,252
39

Fruits, preserved ....

Ib.

2.2751*1-1

95944

3 219 586

255 367

Jellies jams, etc

1 002 743

72820

1364633

111 856

Nursery stock

12917

19500

Honey

Ib

134457

123 660

17060

Total

$2 353 032

$3 840 183

AGRICULTURAL

HOME PRODUCTION.

1911.

1

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Horses

No

8,959
13,442
4.171
13,458
14,398
2,505,130

2,403,055
10,985,000

2 220,000
1.475,000
1,002,744
49,402

10,291,200
1,084,380
3,843,442
162,966

850,373
100,495

223 597
2,400,926
40
518,500

3,300,000

$ 1,343,850
1,008,150
375,390
107,664
187,174
626,284

2,828
J 28,395

43,313
13,390

1,808,750

3,090,195
9,375,300

2,000,000
1,340.964
1,457,040
44,966

1
I- 48,477,630

446,420
20,000

207,770
1.575,000

Cattle, beef . .

dairy

"

Sheep

. \\

Swine

Poultry . .

Ib

Live-stock

3,648,512
985,462
3,295,000

Butter

Ib

Cheese

Milk

o-a]

Dairy produce

4,280,462

Bacon, ham

. Ib.

399,530
111,860
223,707
7,914

Mutton lamb

Pork

"

Lard

Meats

743,017

\ pplps

Ib

385,920
62,328
429,933
4,206,060

5,084,241

255,112
35,173

Other fruits

. tons

Berries

Vegetables

Fruits and vegetables

Fg°'s

doz

Honey

. Ib.

Malt .

. Ib.

290,285

4,913,566
2,160,327
80
207,400
199,038
115,000

Hay

Grain — wheat, oats, barley, and rve
Fla\

. bus.

Hops .

. Ib.

Miscellaneous — canned meats and jams, etc. . .
Totals

. Ib.

7,595,411

$21,641,928

* This was yalucd too high ; 60 cents per gal. y-ould be an ayerage. or $547.359 total.
t Fruit-import figures shown as $163,620 in Budget figures for 1911.
$ Imports from all points in 1910 totalled $15,187,225, and not $14,962,904 as shown In B

35

AL PRODUCTS (PROVINCIAL AND IMPORTED)
FOB THE YEARS 1010 AND 1011.

iMi-oinn, I-KOM CANADIAN- ri:«,vix.-i:s.

I.MI'O

1010.

1911.

1910.

19

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

28
95

13

DO
50

05

00

MID

64

40
K5(5

30

L'O

too

TO

'OO

$ (50(5.000
1,135,820

303,193
101,477
385,370

5,985

J 11.497
1 1.20:!
153,677
2,188
5,124,378

3,060,865
3,039,694
732,600

1,087,109
212,340

r 7X.OOO

2.700

2,507,588
301,485

155,827
1,837,695

$ 1.047.:::.-.

(5S«.l M'li
136,345
.".",7 MO
32,820
1,024,875

2,606

r,(;.T::t;

(No ret
105,365
15,160

:,.r,t;T.ooo

1,680,041
3,200.000
820,333

(No rot
i No rot

i No iv i

803,556

(No ret

150,001

2,250,400

$ OOS.007
2.267,565
nms. i
850,493
151,600
1,113,400

2,068

:;<;x
61,471

14
r.ll'. 4:!7

1,485,825
233,836

(11). t i;r..2i:5

3,261,328
3,317,015
165,106
2,100,322

8,097. 7UO
5,277,439
700,026

L' :i(52,039
123,666

655,473
15)283

2,571,865

3,471,105

5,000,005

1.081,5fiS

i'..-'(;':{,837

610,173
612,548
3061300

1,171.800
640,000
665,633*

3,645,40.")

1.589,021

2,477,493

303,215
101,691
203.370
7,195

217,422
42,460

urns, i
urns.)

675.471

259,891

1,930,110

:5.900
270

«ims. )

1,939,110

4,170

156.247
3,200

501.517
75,372

129.435

urns. »

159,447

576,889

129,4.",.",

3,0'47.5:;o

1,400.000

60,162

2.S04.886
2.021.464

132,245

:; IM 10.000
2,226,600

5,407,092

4,958,595

5,226,600

$14,398,990

$10,859,071

$12,833,593*

in Budget Speech for 1011.

37

EXPORT FRUIT-PACKAGES, ETC., IN BRITISH COLUMBIA.

INSIDE MEASUEEMENTS.

Size of Box, etc.
Inches.

Average Weight

(Net).

Remarks.

Apples
Crab-apples ....

10 x 11 x 20
10 x 11 x 20

41 Ib.

( ai)i)le)

50 „

The half apple-box is

1814 x 11 x SMj
( pear) ....

40 „

also used on the
Lower Mainland.
As used in Upper Coun-

isi/4 x 11 x si/2

40-48 „

try ; half pear-box
and peach-box (20
Ib.) also sometimes
used.

Peaches

18*4 x 11% x 4

17-21 „

Plums

181/4 x 11% x 414
1814 x 11% x 41/2
15% x 15% x 41/4

20-22 „

4 basket crate

Prunes

20-25 „

Shipped largely in

Apricots

15% x 15% x 4i/4

19-20 „

peach-boxes.
4-basket crate

Cherries

IS1/, x 9 x 214

8i/>-9 „

Sour cherries (4-basket

Raspberries

2/5-quart carton (24

crate), equals 16-18
Ib Sour cherries

to 1 crate) ; size
of carton, 5^4 x
514 x 1

14 ,

(special pack), equals
24 Ib.
Size of crate 16% x

Strawberries ....

4/5-quart carton (24
to 1 crate) ; size
of carton 5% x
5Vi x 8

24

23% x 5%.
Size of crate 16% x

Loganberries ....

2/5-quart carton (24
to 1 crate)

16 „

23% x 6%.

Currants

As for strawberries.

Grapes . . .

G-quart basket (ap-

Rhubarb

proximately) ....
20 x 15% x 7%

40 „

Six 6-quart baskets
reckoned as 100 Ib.
by the Express Co.

Cantaloupes
Tomatoes
Cabbage

12 x Hi/2 x 20%
1814 x 1134 x 5
25 x 23 x 18

23 „

Lettuce

2814 x 16 x 12

38

INDEX.

PAGE.

Introduction 3

Mixed farming 5

Average production of grain, hay, roots, etc 17

Summary of crops and stock, with values 19

Average prices 21

Fruit 22

Tree-planting 24

Movement of fruit and vegetables (C.P.R. Co., and Dominion Express Co.) 25

Prices of packed fruit 27

Nursery stock imported, etc 27

Imported fruit inspected and condemned 28

Apiarian statistics 29

Imports and home production of Agricultural products 30

Markets and live-stock 32

Dutiable agricultural imports. 1910 and 1911 34

Table of agricultural products, 1910 and 1911 35

Table of export fruit-packages 37

VICTORIA, B.C.:

Printed by WILLIAM II. Cri.ux, PrinU-r to the Kind's Most Excellent Majesty.

1012.

"OF THE
COLLEGE OF

PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

(WOMEN'S INSTITUTES).

BULLETIN No. 46.

FOOD AND DIET

PART I.

—BY —

MISS ALICE RAVENHILL,
Fellow of the Royal Sanitary Institute, etc., etc

THE GOVERNMENT OF

THE PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

PRINTED BY
AUTHORITY OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY.

VICTORIA, B.C.:

Printed by WILJUA.U H. CULLI-V, I'riuter to the King's Most Eicelient Majetuy.

PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

DEPARTMENT OF 'AGRICULTURE

(WOMEN'S INSTITUTES).

BULLETIN No. 46.

FOOD AND DIET

PART I.

MISS ALICE RAVENHILL,
Fellow of the Royal Sanitary Institute, etc., etc.

THE GOVERNMENT OF
THE PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

PRINTED BY
AUTHORITY OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY.

VICTORIA, B.C.:

Printed by WILLIAM H. CULLIN, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty.

1912.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

VICTORIA, B.C., October, 1912.

The Honourable Price Ellison.,

Minister of Agriculture.

SIR, — I have the honour to submit herewith Bulletin No. 40,
entitled " Food .and Diet, Part I.," prepared on behalf of the
members of the Women's Institutes.

I have the honour to be,

Sir,
Your obedient servant,

WM. E. SCOTT,
Deputy Minister of Agriculture)

Superintendent of Institutes.

FOOD AN;D DIET

PART I.

mHERE was a certain little Dutch boy, named Jacob Moleschott, born
jL in the Netherlands so long ago as August 9th, 1822, to whom the study
of the human body and its functions were of such absorbing interest that he
became, in course of time, a foremost authority on the processes by which the
food we eat becomes built up into our very substance, changing in marvellous
fashion into blood, bones, muscles, and nerves. Indeed, young Moleschott
devoted his brilliant abilities to this subject of human nutrition to such purpose
that he held the position of Professor of Physiology (i.e., the knowledge of
how each part of the body performs its special work) at no less than three
prominent European universities, and was made a Senator of the Kingdom of
Italy while still in the prime of life.

His opinion on matters connected with food and diet is consequently
entitled to respect, and the quotation of one of his favourite sayings will form
a good introduction to this bulletin : —

"COURAGE, CHEERFULNESS, AND A DESIRE TO WORK DEPEND
MOSTLY ON GOOD NUTRITION."

That is to say, that when in good health we possess courage to face
uncomplainingly the little frets and fatigues of daily life, as well as the
power to brace ourselves to solve its big problems or to bear the shock of
bereavement, suffering, or loss.

Cheerfulness does not desert us when engaged in the monotonous round
of daily tasks, any more than when surrounded by a party of merry friends.
Infused with the buoyant energy of health, the desire for work is so keen that
it is carried on as conscientiously in the privacy of family life as when stimu-
lated by the competition of the commercial world or by the applause of public
opinion. On the contrary, wThen weak or poorly — that is, when nutrition is
defective — this energy for work gives place to weary boredom and languor.

Seeing, therefore, this

CLOSE CONNECTION BETWEEN FOOD AND EFFICIENCY,

it is obviously our duty to learn at least the broad principles upon which
healthful diet depends. There is, of course, a still prevalent opinion that
what we eat or drink is purely our own concern, a question merely of taste,
convenience, custom, or purse. Whereas modern teaching confirms the opinion
of Jacob Moleschott, that to a large extent harmonious living depends on daily
diet.

WHAT IS NUTRITION,

that it should bulk thus prominently in the comfort, the happiness, and the
productiveness of life? To be in a state of good nutrition may be defined as
that condition of the body when all its requirements for growth, repair, and
capacity for work are satisfactorily fulfilled. Professor Chittenden (of Yale
University, U.S.A.), who is devoting his life to the promotion of intelligent
human nutrition, through his study and teaching on this vital subject of food
and diet, has aptly described these requirements and their accomplishment by
means of food as

THE THREE GREAT MYSTERIES OF LIFE.

How rarely most of us give even a passing thought to either one of these
" great mysteries " : —

(1.) The power of the child to grow:
(2.) The power of the body to repair its worn-out parts:
(3.) The power it possesses to perform work; not only what is commonly
called work — namely, muscular activity carried on under the con-
scious direction of the brain — but also those marvellous, ceaseless
activities of the internal organs — heart, lungs, liver, intestines, for
example — performed independently of our will, which are practically
continuous throughout life.

THE GROWTH OF THE BRAWNY, MUSCULAR MAN,

from the microscopic atom which was his beginning, depends materially upon
the food with which he is supplied during the twenty-five years of active,
bodily growth.

Measurements show conclusively that growth in height and weight are
influenced to a remarkable degree by

THE DIET OF THE CHILD.

Thus the results of a most carefully i-i.mim-ted investigation carried <>ui
in Scotland showed that, in families where the income was approximately
equal, the children of careless, ignorant parents. \\lio took no trouble about
the character of their food, averaged at thirteen years of age 11 Ib. less in
weight and 3!/4 inches less in height than children in homes where thought
and trouble were given to this important matter. Hut of far givatrr moment
than the quantity of bodily increase is its qua Jit it-

Mental capacity, a well-balanced nervous system, a high standard of
morality, are the product, to a degree realized by but few of us, of the
standard of nutrition maintained during the years of growth.

THE WEAKNESS AND LOSS OF FLESH ASSOCIATED WITH
DEFICIENT FOOD,

and the fact that death succeeds prolonged starvation, are results so familiar
that no further proofs are called for to show that, in the absence of suited
food, the daily wear and tear of the body are not made good ; it wastes away,
while the power to move and work gradually ceases.

Now, most of us have at some time or another heard

THE HUMAN BODY COMPARED TO A STEAM-ENGINE;

though, as a matter of fact, it is infinitely more marvellous in its construc-
tion and mode of work than any man-made machine, srill, the comparison
helps us to explain this subject of what food does for our bodies; for some
kinds of food may be described as the building material of which the engine
is constructed, while other kinds of food (called " energy -producers")
correspond to the fuel employed to heat the engine's boilers. If the metal
of which the engine is constructed is poor in quality, or if repairs be care-
lessly carried out, the engine fails to do good work, no matter how abundant
and excellent is the fuel with which its fires are stoked. Or if the fuel
be poor in quality or deficient in quantity the most perfectly built engine
becomes useless. Similarly with the body. If poor material is supplied in
the form of food, either growth, power of self-repair, or capacity for work,
or possibly all three, will suffer to a greater or less degree.

A large proportion of discomfort, languor, irritability, disappointments
in life, as well as actual sickness, are the results, not of deficient food — that
would be easily understood — but of

DEFECTIVE FOOD;

a much more common fault in a country where the standard of living is
fairly high. Money may be freely spent upon the most costly forms of food
and endless trouble may be lavished on its preparation, but the results are
fruitless, or even actively detrimental to health, if the food is not suited to
the eater.

It is no exaggeration to say that

THE SUFFERING ASSOCIATED WITH ERRORS IN DIET IS
INCALCULABLE.

Bodily vigour is diminished, mental alertness is dulled, there is failure
to resist disease, and a general deterioration is brought about. The con-
clusion of the whole matter may be briefly summarized as follows : —

Food is the most important source from which material is supplied for
the growth of the body, for its repair, and for furnishing it with material
from which to produce heat or energy for its activities.

The study of nutrition is concerned —

(1.) With the various ways in which the different kinds of food and
drink serve the needs of the body throughout life:

(2.) The value of these different kinds of food and drink under different
circumstances or for different purposes.

OUGHT WE THEN TO GIVE CONSTANT CONSIDERATION TO WHAT
WE EAT AND DRINK?

The reply to this most natural inquiry will take the form of another
question, namely : Who is included in this pronoun " we " ? If it includes
each member of every household, the answer will 'be

AN EMPHATIC " NO."

It would be morbid and undesirable to concentrate too much attention
upon the selection of our daily diet, but if the " we " refers to housewives
only, then the answer would be

AN EQUALLY EMPHATIC "YES."

It is plainly the cook's duty to prepare and present at table food suited
to the requirements of the consumers. What these requirements are it is
the purpose of this bulletin to show.

THE LESSONS OF EXPERIENCE.

In order to understand why experience has guided healthy human beings
to choose and to combine at one meal those foods wrhich are in common use
all over the world, it will be of interest to learn what each kind of food does
for the body after it has been digested, for then it becomes apparent how
reliable a guide Nature is, if we will but follow her lead. Take, for example,

A MIDDAY MEAL

of roast, stewed, or boiled meat, potatoes, cabbage, bread, stewed fruit, with
a light pudding or cream. Millions of families sit down to just such a
meal daily in the continents of Europe and America.

8

Why is this combination of food so generally chosen and en joyed f Well,
lean meat builds up and repairs the bodies of those who have been spending
several hours in various forms of activity, physical or mental.

Fat meat supplies fuel for the furnaces of their bodies, which need to be
stoked periodically, as the reservoir of a lamp needs to be refilled with oil.

Potatoes, bread, and a light pudding (if that form part of the menu)
provide fuel also, but of a somewhat different kind from the fat of meat, or
cream. It can be turned to account more quickly as a source of heat or
energy in the body. It might be compared to the kindling, useful to start a
fire or to revive it, whereas fat resembles more nearly the coal subsequently
employed to keep the fire in over many hours. Or, to use another simile,
fat taken as a fuel-food resembles the money lying at our account at the
bank, to be drawn upon when the money in our purse (which we spend daily.
and to which we can compare the fuel supplied by cereals, vegetables, and
fruits) needs to be replenished or supplemented.

Finally, the cabbage and stewed fruit eaten at this dinner consist almost
entirely of water, of which the body requires a very large amount. They
also contain what are known as "salts," mineral sui .stances which are
necessary to the building-up and well-being of the body.

Many people add condiments (i.e.. pepper, mustard, vinegar) to their
food as they eat it; and some form of beverage is taken with every meal to
satisfy the body's need for fluid. This review of the

CONSTITUENTS OF THE FOOD TAKEN AT AN ORDINARY MEAL

shows that they may be separated into five kinds or classes, to which
attention must now be given.

It is advisable from the beginning of our study to assign the correct name
to each class of food, so that future references to this subject may be easily
understood. Indeed, there is no difficulty in remembering either these names
or the particular work each does in the body, for, of the five names, three
are quite familiar, viz. : fat, salts, and water; and the other two act as
reminders of their functions in the body.

By far the most important class of foodstuff is the first, known as pr»/< •///.
a word which signifies to be of the first importance, to be pre-aiiinrnt .•
because only the foods found in this class contain the building material
indispensable to life. Were they banished from the diet, death would
inevitably ensue. Meat, fish, game, poultry, eggs, milk, and cheese, all
contain this vital "protein." It is present also in corn, wheat, oats, peas,
beans, and lentils, but in less digestible form than in animal foods.

In the second class — viz., /afs— are included animal fats, such as suet.
dripping, lard, butter, and cream; as well as vegetable fats, olive-oil, for
instance, and the oil contained in nuts. These fats are all sources of heat
and energy to the body, whence they are distinguished as fuel or warmth-
giving foods.

It has already been pointed out that the third class, called carboliii<lr<it<s.
consists also of energy-producing or fuel foods. Its very name suggests this
office, for it is composed of two Latin words meaning coal and water. That
the name accurately describes the composition of the foods found in this class
becomes apparent when it is understood that they consist chiefly of water
and of solid substances, which serve the body much as coal, oil, or wood serve
an engine. These solid substances are forms of starch and sugar, and are
present in flour, cornstarch, rice, sago, tapioca, potatoes, oatmeal, and other
farinaceous foods and cereals; while sugar is found in all fruits.

9

A potato, for instance, consists of 81 per cent, of water and rather more
than 15 per cent, of starch. Fresh peas contain 78 per cent, of water and
16 per cent, of starch ; and though rice or cereals are almost pure starch when
purchased in a dried condition, large quantities of water must be used in
their preparation before they are fit for food. Most fruits, such as apples,
peaches, or berries, contain from 85 to 90 per cent, of water and from 5 to
15 per cent, of sugar.

"STOP A MOMENT,"

some one will exclaim. " You have mentioned oatmeal in two classes of food-
stuffs, once as an illustration of those containing body-building material and
then as an example of carbohydrate food. Now, which statement is
correct ? "

Both are right, my friend, for, rich as oatmeal is in protein, it is even
richer in carbohydrates, and perhaps it may surprise you further to learn
that it contains fat too. It is owing to the fact that cooked oatmeal contains
representatives of all five classes of foodstuffs — protein, fat, carbohydrates,
salts, and water — that the Scottish nation was celebrated for its vigour of
mind and body when oatmeal combined with milk constituted the main
sources of its food-supply.

The question also enables a passing reference to be made to

ANOTHER POINT OF EQUAL IMPORTANCE AND INTEREST,

which will be dealt with more fully later on, viz. : that no foods — except sugar,
cream, and olive-oil — contain only one class of nutrient. From three to all
five of the five classes are represented, though to a very variable amount, in
each form of food — bread, meat, or berries, for instance ; but, for convenience,
it is customary to group each food in the class of which it is the most
representative.

Now, we must return to the enumeration of these classes, of which the
next in order is the fourth, consisting of salts or mineral matters, such as
iron, potash, phosphorus, lime, and several more. These salts are urgently
needed to maintain the health of the body as well as to build its parts. If
the supply were to cease, so would life, even though an ample diet in all other
respects were provided. It is not, therefore, a matter for surprise that they
are found in every form of food eaten by man, as well as in most drinks,
water included. Their chief source of supply, however, is in cereals,
vegetables, and fruits ; hence the stress laid upon the inclusion in the daily
diet of cabbage, salads, etc. The adult human body contains about 7 Ib. of
these mineral matters.

The last, but by no means the least important, class to be mentioned is
water. About two-thirds the total weight of the body consists of water, so
that its claims to constitute a class of food are immediately apparent. Water
must be consumed to maintain this proportion as well as to furnish the 4%
pints of fluid, more or less, which are given off daily from the lungs, skin,
and internal organs. As the body possesses a very limited capacity to form
water in its own tissues, most of its needs must be supplied from its diet. To
furnish this supply

ABOUT HALF THE WHOLE WEIGHT OF SOLID FOOD EATEN
CONSISTS OF WATER,

besides which another 2 or 3 pints should be taken daily in liquid form,
preferably as pure water.

10

RESTRICTION IN THE DAILY CONSUMPTION OF WATER

means interference with the complex chemical changes always proceeding
in the digestive system, muscles, and other parts of the body. When these
are interrupted or hindered by an insufficient supply of water, indigestion,
constipation, gout, and many other forms of disorder and discomfort occur
or are accentuated.

We are apt, too, to ignore the benefit derived by the body from a thorough
cleansing within as well as without. A tumbler of hot or cold water drunk
on rising in the morning or on going to bed at night is as beneficial to health
as the morning or evening " tub." The water washes away and dissolves
mucous and other matters in the digestive tube, leaving it fresh and clean
for the reception and digestion of the next meal.

A SIMPLE AND OFTEN EFFECTIVE TREATMENT

for occasional attacks of indigestion is to rest the overtaxed organs by
abstaining from all food for twenty-four hours, meanwhile sipping a cupful of
hot water every two or three hours.

In any case, remember this: that, unless the consumption of water be
restricted by doctor's orders, the body benefits by taking at least a quart of
fluid a day as water, not even in the form of tea, coffee, or cocoa ; on the
understanding, of course, that the water is pure: or. if the only available
source be suspicious, that it is made safe by boiling for from twenty minutes
to half an hour.

A little reflection in the light of the information just gained will simply
confirm the statement made earlier in this bulletin — namely, that experience
has guided healthy human brings to choose just the right forms of food for
the upkeep of his body. This fact becomes quite clear when the classes of
foodstuffs, with illustrations from their representatives in daily use in our
homes, are arranged in tabular form : —

BODY-BUILDING FOODS. HEAT- AND ENERGY-PRODUCING FOODS.

(1.) Protein — Meat, fish, milk, eggs, (1.) Protein — In the foods just enu-

cheese, peas, beans, etc. merated.

(2.) Mineral Matters or Salts— (2.) Fats— Of meat, eggs, butter,

These are found in all foods, cream, oil, etc.

but especially in vegetables and

fruits.

(3.) Water — Present in all foods, (3.) Carbohydrates — Present in cer-

but needs supplementing in eals, farinaceous foods, most

fluid form. vegetables, and all fruits.

One more explanatory remark is necessary about these classes before
passing on to the next part of the subject. Readers will have observed that

PROTEIN APPEARS IN BOTH GROUPS OF FOODSTUFFS,

though it has been mentioned as a body-building food only. The fact is that
protein can fulfil both these vital functions (another reason for its proud title
of "pre-eminent"). But it is rarely relied upon to serve the double purpose
of body-builder and energy or heat producer. In the first place, because it is
chiefly found in the most expensive kinds of foods — eggs. meat, poultry, etc.;
in the second place, because these foods contain their nutrients in very con-
centrated form; whereas, strange as it may sound, a certain bulkiness in the

11

diet is essential to the maintenance of health. Before this fact was known
repeated efforts were made to supply only highly concentrated food to explorers
or to armies on the march, and

MUCH SURPRISE 'WAS EXCITED

at the disappointing results of the experiments. By degrees these were
traced to the detrimental effects of insufficient bulk in the food consumed.
This desirable element is furnished by the carbohydrate foods, a fact which
will be further explained a little later on.

A very natural question at this stage will be: How has accurate knowl-
edge been gained of just

WHAT SERVICE THESE CLASSES OF FOODS RENDER TO THE BODY?

The part played by these foodstuffs in the nutrition of the body has been
quite gradually discovered by close observation and by scientific methods of
various kinds, so that to-day, when it is desired to understand accurately the
particular worth of any form of food, it is submitted to

FOUR DIFFERENT KINDS OF TESTS,

known respectively as: (1) The chemical; (2) the physical; (3) the
physiological; and (4) the economic.

(1.) Chemical tests for food-value are designed to discover the exact
amount of each nutritive constituent a food contains. The bread, meat,
cheese, or other substance is subjected to certain processes which enable the
trained worker to separate out the protein or fat or carbohydrate or mineral
matters present, no matter how minute a proportion they may form
of the whole. In the early days of these chemical investigations into food-
values the interesting fact was discovered that similar constituents to those
in man's chosen foods are present in his body, not, of course, in the form
familiar to the naked eye; for the food eaten has to pass through many
changes during the intricate process of digestion before it can be carried by
the blood and lymph to the bones, muscles, nerves, and various organs the
structure of which it maintains.

Fig. (1) gives an idea of the relative amount of each of these five
classes of substances which are found in the full-grown body ; naturally not
massed together as in the illustration, but dispersed in varying amounts and
proportions and forms in the different tissues.

Obviously, therefore, it is a matter of importance to supply the right
amount of each substance by means of our daily diet, in order to maintain
their relative proportions in the body. Too much protein or too little fat
might conceivably disturb the balance of health. That is just

THE LESSON MAN IS LEARNING AT SOME COST

and by slow degrees. An excess of protein does not mean an increase of
strength or a finer body. Rather it results in disordered nutrition instead
of growth; in debility and dyspepsia instead of strength; and if there be
too little fat in the diet the deficiency is associated with

MANY FORMS OF ILL-HEALTH;

a tendency to " take cold," or to contract tuberculosis, or to suffer from
constipation ; to name but a few of the results now known to follow an

Fig. 1.

13

insufficient supply of this important foodstuff. Before life became so artificial
as it is to-day, instinct guided human beings to a surprising degree not alone
in the right choice of their foods, but in their correct combination also. Eggs,
rich in protein, have been eaten for untold generations with bread, ' rich in
carbohydrates, and butter, a form of pure fat. Some kind of vegetable has
been habitually consumed with meat or poultry ; beans, rich in protein arid
carbohydrates, are still allied with fat pork; veal, deficient in fat, is eaten
with rashers of bacon; the acid of apple-sauce is a usual combination with
the highly concentrated forms of protein and fat found in pork or goose.

THE FAULT OF TO-DAY

lies in the failure to adapt old and often in themselves good customs to
modern requirements. Thus the combination and quantity of certain common
foods, suitable to a man taking hard exercise or whose consumption is limited
by the difficulty of securing much of it, become unsuitable when selected by
the sedentary town dweller, or by the man in easy circumstances, who can
eat just as much as he likes; which is quite a different thing from just the
amount required by his body ! This point will be treated more in detail in
Part II. Meanwhile, further and fuller reasons must be given why other
means

OF ESTIMATING FOOD-VALUES

call for consideration, besides the method of identifying its chemical con-
stituents. Were a housewife to study these only, she might soon find herself
in the same plight as a friend of mine, who had listened with great interest
to a lecture on

THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF OUR DAILY DIET,

from which she learned that cheese and dried cod-fish contain very high pro-
portions of protein (cheese, 35 per cent.; salt cod, 25 per cent), and that
pleasant flavours promote digestion. This lady was most anxious to rear
up a family of tall children and loved to consult their tastes whenever
possible ; so she proceeded to apply to her menus the information thus
recently acquired. Soon the doctor was summoned to a houseful of
querulous, dyspeptic children, whose mother, full of the best intentions, had
been providing a diet in which cheese and salt cod figured daily ; and who
had permitted unrestricted access to jam and pickle jar, as well as to sauce-
bottle, in her desire to please their palates.

Poor woman ; she learnt a very sharp lesson on

THE RISKS OF TOO SLIGHT A KNOWLEDGE OF A BIG SUBJECT.

The doctor explained to her that, in the first place, no child under ten
or twelve years of age should even know the taste of cheese, salt cod, pickles,
or sauces — foods to be eaten at any age with discretion. In the second place,
he pointed out that she had gained this imperfect information because she
had attended but one lecture of a course. In the succeeding lectures to that
to which she went, the lecturer had explained why chemical analysis alone,
useful as it is in its place, is an insufficient guide as to the food-value to
the human body of the articles eaten at the different meals.

14

A CHEMICALLY PERFECT FOOD MAY BE IMPOSSIBLE OF

DIGESTION

or otherwise unsuitable to the consumer; consequently, great importance is
attached by competent authorities to the three other tests just mentioned.
The second of these, namely,

THE PHYSICAL TEST FOR FOOD-VALUES,

will now be discussed. To enter intelligently into the worth of this test
readers must be reminded of Professor Chittenden's three great mysteries of
life: (1) The power of the body to grow at the expense of the food eaten;
(2) the power to renew the worn-out parts of the body by the utilization of
the daily diet; and (3) the power to derive energy from this supply to run
the machinery of the body, and thus to work.

HOW IS THIS ENERGY DERIVED FROM FOOD?

An engine derives energy from the steam generated by the water in its
boiler, which is heated by the combustion of fuel in its furnace. We con-
stantly talk, too, about the body's furnace and how it is stoked by the fats
and carbohydrates present in the food we eat; but all the time we realize
that what we say is. after all, but a figure of speech. Nevertheless, food does
seem to warm us up on cold days, when we thoroughly enjoy suet puddings,
hot buttered toast, or pork and beans; whereas in warm weather we instim
tively turn from these foods and choose fruit, custard, and sponge-cake.

To take another example of what our sensations teach as to the
connection between food and energy. Every one has noticed that, when
wearied by a long spell of work,

A GOOD MEAL REVIVES US AMAZINGLY

and restores our flagging energies; and we have all experienced at some
time or another that when very hungry, even pleasures lose their savour;
but soon after taking food a sensation of refreshment is felt and we resume
our work or play with renewed zest. There can be no doubt that

FOOD AND ENERGY ARE CLOSELY CONNECTED.

Yea, more than this, food — -its sufficiency or deficiency — can and does
affect the character and direction of the actions by which energy is outwardly
expressed. Have you ever heard that

THE TERRIBLE EXCESSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

may be attributed to brains disordered by starvation? By one of life's
perplexing ironies, this poor, starved people actually guillotined, in their
misdirected energy, the great founder of modern chemistry, Lavoisier, who.
before his execution in 1794, had fortunately set men on the right road to
discover the character of the changes undergone by food in the body, which
result to the eater in a supply of energy for work.

Since the days of Lavoisier, the process he dimly perceived has been
clearly traced. It is now proved that these changes are brought about by

A PROCESS OF SLOW COMBUSTION,

technically called "oxidation," always going on in the liver and muscles.
The process does not exactly resemble the rapid combustion, accompanied by

15

smoke and flame, to which we are accustomed in our stoves; but it is
similar in character, though very different in degree. The heat of the body
in health rarely exceeds 99° Fahr., whereas that usual in a stove is many
times as much; even in an oven attached to a stove the temperature may
register 400° Fahr. or more.

Are we not all familiar with the fact that

ONE RESULT OF ACTIVE EXERCISE IS TO QUICKEN THIS PROCESS

of combustion in the body? In cold weather we instinctively run, dance, or
otherwise take active exercise to " get warm " ; while in hot weather we
move about slowly and as little as we can in order " to keep cool." If the
body becomes disordered by disease, then combustion may increase too
rapidly; the patient "burns" with fever; and if the temperature rise and
remain too high he " burns out " — that is, he dies. In an invalid, weakened
by long illness, the process of combustion proceeds too slowly; the tem-
perature is " below the normal," blankets and hot-water bottles are needed
to keep the body warm enough to live.

SOMETIMES THE FURNACE IS CHOKED WITH IMPERFECTLY
CONSUMED FUEL.'

The amount of fuel-food eaten has been in excess of the body's needs
or unsuited to its capacity for digestion. Measures are resorted to to clear
out the accumulation, by means of purgatives or otherwise, while food is
temporarily withheld.

Evidently, then, there are many points of general resemblance between
the combustion with which we are familiar in engine or kitchen-stove and
that proceeding so marvellously within our bodies.

The results of Lavoisier's observations led his followers to make many
further discoveries bearing on food as a source of energy to the body. The
fact was discovered that

IF A PORTION OF DRY FOOD IS BURNED, IT WILL GIVE OUT A
DEFINITE, MEASURABLE AMOUNT OF HEAT.

An ounce of lean meat, for instance, yields just so much heat, an ounce
of butter yields so much, an ounce of sugar so much ; consequently, their
relative worth as sources of heat to the body can be accurately measured ;
though that is not exactly the point I now want to make, which is this:
After a large number of experiments had been made and many years of
devoted labour had been expended, the further fact was proved that, when
digested, these foods supplied an amount of energy equal to the amount of
heat they produced when burned outside the body. The result of all 'this
scientific work is that the energy-\ralue of anything we eat can now be as
accurately measured as the weight of flour, sugar, and raisins are measured
for a cake or pudding. It is true that

THE HOUSEWIFE USES OUNCES AND POUNDS

as her scale of measurement, whereas the student of food-values uses what
he calls "calories" ("calor" is the Latin word for heat) when he estimates
how much heat — or its equivalent, energy — is given up to the body by the
portion of meat, bread, jam, or fruit consumed at a meal.

16

An ounce of fat measured by this " heat " scale yields more than twice
as much heat, and therefore energy, as do similar amounts of protein or
carbohydrate.

WHITE OF EGG IS PRACTICALLY PURE PROTEIN.

If the white of an ordinary-sized egg is burned with proper precautions,
it yields 16 calories.

SUGAR IS PRACTICALLY PURE CARBON.

If a small lump be burned, of the same weight as the white of egg, it
also measures 16 calories.

OLIVE-OIL IS PRACTICALLY PURE OIL OR FAT.

If a corresponding weight of olive-oil be burned (about a thimbleful) , it
would yield nearly 40 calories; that is more than twice the amount of heat
measured in the other two cases.

It is a sound instinct, then, which impels us in cold weather or when
doing hard manual work to eat more fat-containing foods than when sitting
quietly at a desk or worktable; or when "melting" with heat at midsummer.
A man doing hard, muscular work needs to eat daily food which will furnish
him with about 3,000 calories.

TABLE OF NUTRITIVE VALUE OF SOME COMMON FOODSTUFFS.

1 Ib. of

Calories
alb.

Refuse,
per Cent.

Water,

per CVnt.

Protein,
per Cent.

per Cent.

Carbohy-
(Irati-s.
per Cent.

Sugar (granulated) =
Rice

1,857
1 630

12 4

78

04

100

7:1

Peas, beans, or lentils,
dry

1 r.'.Hi

13.2

22.3

1.8

59.1

Meats (about)

!."v

12

:,:,

H;

ir,

Fish ( fresh ) .

:jss

30

45

12

4

Milk :.....

Potatoes .

325
325

is

87
67 1

3.3

1 8

4
0 1

5

15 3

Bananas

290

40

44.5

0.7

0.5

1-". 7

Apples, grapes, etc...

L-sr,

25

60

1

0.9

12.9

A LUMP OF BLUBBER AFFORDS AS KEEN PLEASURE TO AN
ESQUIMAUX CHILD

as does a stick of chocolate to one of our own small folk or a banana to a
little blackamoor in the Tropics, because it lives in an intensely cold climate
and its body-furnace calls for more vigorous stoking. How is it, then, that
few people can take fat in any quantity, if it is so useful as a source of lu-.-it
and energy to the body?

The answer to this inquiry is found in the fact that

FAT IS MORE DIFFICULT TO DIGEST,

and takes longer to undergo the series of changes necessary before it yields
energy to the body, than is the case with foods containing protein or carbo-
hydrates; so we find that mountain-climbers, harvesters, or men on a long
march, eat, by preference, chocolate, preserves, or molasses in large quantities ;
because sugar undergoes more rapid combustion in the liver and muscles than
fat does; thus the energy it yields is more quickly available to meet any
unusual call.

17

CAUTION. — Do not hastily conclude that our consumption of sugar may
be unlimited, or that the more sugar we swallow the higher will be the degree
of energy we attain.

More information on this point will be given later on ; meanwhile remember
the profound truth of St. Paul's behest " to be temperate in all things."

MAKE A MENTAL NOTE OF THIS FACT, HOWEVER:

The starved or ill-nourished individual is incapable of good or prolonged work,
mental or physical, because he is insufficiently supplied with the fuel-food
which constitutes the foundation of bodily energy. Here is a good illustration
of the fact: —

Concern was excited, some years ago, by the poor physical condition of
the children at the Duke of York's School in London, an asylum founded for
the orphans of soldiers. The fault lay partly with the overcrowded dormi-
tories, partly, it was thought, in the prolonged hours spent in school. More
sleeping accommodation was provided and book-learning was reduced, one-half
of each day being given to manual training in workshops and to physical
drill. Imagine the committee's disappointment w^hen

THERE WAS AN IMMEDIATE FURTHER DROP IN THE AVERAGE
HEIGHT AND WEIGHT

of the already undersized and delicate children, who seemed, in some way,
conscious of their deficiencies, for, out of 460 boys, eighty besieged the
dispensary every day, asking for cod-liver oil. No pains were spared to
discover where the error lay in their management ; and at last the true cause
was found.

The children were being called upon for an amount of work quite beyond
their strength, and certainly beyond the energy furnished to them in their
diet. Calculation showed that

THE ENERGY-PRODUCING FOOD SUPPLIED WOULD SUFFICE FOR
ONLY HALF THE AMOUNT OF WORK DEMANDED OF THEM.

The boys were getting too little body-building material and too little fat. The
little fellows begged for cod-liver oil, not alone for its own sake as a fuel-food
(though naturally they were ignorant of this technical fact), but because a
slice of bread and butter was usually given with it !

Directly an adequate diet was supplied the cod-liver-oil appetite vanished,
and the children gradually gained in health and energy.

Readers may be interested to know, by the way, that

THE AMOUNT OF WORK DONE BY THE BODY CAN BE AS
ACCURATELY MEASURED AS THAT DONE BY A MACHINE.

When this calculation has been made, it becomes comparatively easy to
estimate just the amount of fuel or energy-producing food needed by the
worker. Be pleased to note, however, the precaution exercised by the word
" comparatively" The reason for its use leads, us on to the third and most
important test of all for food-values, viz. :

THE PHYSIOLOGICAL TEST.

This test approaches the subject by putting the following series of
searching questions to every foodstuff, or food-fad, or much-advertised patent
preparation, as it passes them in review : —

18

(1.) How does it behave in the stomach and intestines?

(2.) Is it easily digested?

(3.) To what extent is it absorbed?

Truly has it been said that

WE LIVE, NOT BY WHAT WE EAT, BUT BY WHAT WE ABSORB.

Chemical analysis may show a substance to contain just the right propor-
tions of protein, fat, or carbohydrates; it may yield a satisfactory degree of
energy in the process of slow combustion ; but, unless it is easy of digestion
and unless its nutritive constituents can be absorbed by the blood, it is valueless
as food.

SAWDUST, PETROLEUM, HOOF-PARINGS,

for example, can pass the first and second tests triumphantly ; but they fail
to fulfil either requirement of the third — they can neither be digested nor
absorbed.

What is the distinction, you will inquire, between these two

PROCESSES OF DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION?

In the first place the digestion of food must precede its absorption. The

several stages of digestion may be roughly outlined as follows; they are far

too complicated and elaborate to be described in detail in popular language: —

(a.) The selection of suitable food in market or store. Dirty, stale,

diseased, bruised, or " sophisticated " foodstuffs should be rejected,
(ft.) The proper preparation of the chosen food in the kitchen, either by

cleansing, manipulation, or the application of heat. (See Bulletin

36.)
(c.) Thorough mastication of the food by the teeth; « process of crushing

and grinding, by which nutritive constituents are set free and large

surfaces are formed, upon which the digestive secretions may act.

To " bolt " food is to remain unfed and cruelly to irritate the organs

of digestion.
(d.) The swallowing of the food and the passing of it on to organs and

secretions thenceforth beyond our control, but the efficiency of which

are much influenced by a process entirely under our control — namely,

sufficiently prolonged mastication.
Every one ought to know that

PROPERLY CHEWED FOOD

stimulates the stomach to perform its part efficiently in this marvellous
process of digestion. Similarly, while the stomach is accomplishing its own
task in masterly fashion, it incites the intestines and pancreas (sweetbread)
to an equally high standard of performance. If

THE WHOLE SEQUENCE OF EVENTS

is to be perfectly carried out, no detail must be slurred over or omitted, other-
wise the succeeding stage of nutrition cannot be successfully accomplished.
Fortunately, therefore, Nature has kept the greater part of the prolonged
process of digestion in her own hands. Were it entrusted to us it would not
be half as well performed ; indeed, just as soon as we concentrate our attention
upon one or other stage of the journey taken by our food through our bodies,
just so soon is the stage interrupted and all sorts of accidents occur.

19
Have you ever heard that

EVERY PARTICLE OF FOOD CONSUMED,

whether it be a spoonful of milk-pudding or a hard cracker, must assume a
fluid form before it can serve the body as nourishment? Digestion is largely
a process of liquefaction, and the change has to take place somewhere between
the lips and the marvellous surface of the small intestine, which absorbs and
passes these fluids through its own substance to the blood and lymph which
bathe every portion of the muscles, nerves, bone-cells, etc., of which the body
is built up.

The long tube, which extends from the mouth right through the trunk,
in which digestion takes place, is, virtually, as much cut off from direct com-
munication with the lungs and heart, for instance, or with the limbs, as if it
were completely outside instead of inside the trunk. Consequently,

THE WELFARE OF THE WHOLE INDIVIDUAL

depends upon —

(a.) The reduction of nutrient material to fluid form within this tube:
(6.) Upon the efficiency with which it is absorbed and distributed to the

different tissues, which call for repair or energy.

If the food is by its nature incapable of digestion, as, for example, the
skins, stones, and seeds of fruit and vegetables; or if the surface of the
intestine is unequal to its work, as in cases of cholera or typhoid fever: or
if the eater is worried or plunged into profound thought, so that an unusual
amount of blood is busy in the brain ; or if he is overtired, so that the blood
and nerves are half poisoned by the chemical results of great fatigue — then
no absorption is possible, and all sorts of miseries, known as indigestion, are
the result.

NOW FOR A WORD OF GOOD ADVICE.

If the appetite fails, do not hurry to force it ; just go without eating until
hunger returns. No healthy person suffers from occasional absence of all
food, except water, for twenty-four to thirty-six hours. Hunger is the body's
cry for food; when it wants nourishment, hunger makes itself felt. A loss
of appetite in a healthy, well-fed person usually means that too much food
or food of an improper kind has been eaten ; or maybe the eater was overtired,
worried, overexcited, or otherwise incapable of making use of the food he
forced down, thinking it the right thing to do.

FOLLOW NATURE'S LEAD,

and do not force food on the unwilling digestive organs; they will ring an
insistent dinner-bell when ready for work. Of course, if illness be the cause
of loss of appetite, then the form and frequency of the diet is a matter for
the physician to decide.

It may be useful here to mention another important fact. Readers may
be puzzled over

THE APPARENT INCONSISTENCY

of insisting that all food must be well absorbed and yet saying (on page 11)
that unless some indigestible material be eaten, such as cellulose, constipation

20

follows, with all its long train of disagreeable companions. The fact to
which attention is now to be drawn reconciles these two apparently contra-
dictory statements. In describing meat as rich in protein or bread as a
carbohydrate food, it is not meant that these foods contain only protein or only
starch. In almost every case these nutrients are combined with a greater or
less amount of the other four classes of nutritive substances as well as with
cellulose or similar indigestible fibrous matters, from which it is the work of
the digestive organs to separate them. The residue remains in the intestine to
serve the purpose of " ballast," which, in the course of its expulsion from the
intestine, carries with it other undesirable products, which have accumulated
in the process of digestion.

Let us suppose that a man requires 4% oz. of protein to repair the daily
wear and tear of his body ; he could find no foodstuff in which this protein
occurs in pure uncombined concentrated form. He would have to eat 1^ Ib.
of meat, for instance, in order to get his 4% oz. ; or if he preferred eggs and
milk, he would have to drink two quarts of milk and eat nine eggs ! Of course,
such a diet is mentioned only to illustrate my point, not as an example to be
followed. Once more it must be emphasized that

THE METHODS OF EXPERIENCE

find full confirmation when subjected to the tests now under consideration in
respect of food-values. A healthful diet must be a mixed diet ; then the excess
of a particular nutrient in one article, such as protein in meat or fish, is
balanced by the high proportion of starch in another, such as potato or rice ;
or of fat in another, such as butter. Part II. will deal more at length with
this matter of the constituents and combinations of foods in common use, but,
just in passing, mention may be made of another interesting fact — namely,
that after the first two or three years of life, the nutritive substances in milk
and soup are better absorbed when bread is eaten with them than when
taken alone.

Another factor of physiological importance must not be overlooked; it
is that of

INDIVIDUAL TASTES OR DISLIKES IN FOODS.

This is a matter which materially influences the absorption of food.
There is profound truth in the old saying that " One man's meat is another
man's poison." The food which makes your mouth water, for instance (a
good omen for its digestion, by the way), may leave mine unaffected or even
seem to parch it up, so objectionable to me is your favourite dish.

Eggs are actual poison to some luckless individuals, just as mutton occa-
sionally produces nausea in others, or shell-fish may be the cause of nettle-rash.
A sufferer from severe asthma has been known to enjoy freedom from this
distressing complaint after a supper of lobstar salad, while tortured for hours
after a meal of boiled fish. Generally speaking, food hated is food wasted.

Food has been compared by one writer to ore, and the nutrients it contains
to the precious metal concealed within the ore. Digestion is the process by
which the body secures these hidden treasures. The chemical test tells us
how much metal is present in a given mass of ore. The physiological test
shows whether the body possesses the machinery or tools necessary to extract
and utilize it.

21

The fourth and remaining test to be discussed is

THE ECONOMIC TEST FOR FOOD-VALUES.

It concerns itself with —

(1.) The price we pay for our foods;

(2.) The amount of them we waste; and

(3.) Their management in the kitchen.

Professor Atwater used to say that for persons in good health, foods in
which the nutrients are most expensive are like costly jewels. People who
are well off may be justified in buying them, but they are not economical.

Besides getting good value for our money by an understanding choice of
foodstuffs, we ought to check extravagance along two other lines. Many of
us eat more than we want, or, rather, more than the body needs, and there
is often careless waste of food.

THE THRIFTY HOUSEWIFE

\vill constantly ask herself : " Are the nutritive substances contained in the
food I should like to buy worth the price asked? How much energy will be
furnished for that sum ; how much building material will it supply? " To
quote Professor Atwater again : " There is no more nutriment in an ounce
of protein or fat of the tenderloin of beef than in that of the round or
shoulder." ..." A quarter of a dollar invested in the sirloin of beef at
22 cents per pound pays for one and one-seventh pounds of the meat with
three-eighths of a pound of actually nutritive material. This would contain
one-sixth of a pound of protein and one-fifth of a pound of fat, and supply
11,120 calories of energy. The same amount of money paid for oysters at
the rate of 50 cents per quart brings two ounces of actual nutrients ; an ounce
of protein and 230 calories of energy. But in buying wheat flour at $7 a
barrel, the 25 cents pay for six and a quarter pounds of nutrients, with eight-
tenths of a pound of protein and 11,755 calories of energy."

BREAD IS UNQUESTIONABLY THE CHEAPEST FORM OF FOOD

where energy is concerned. It will furnish for the same cost three times the
amount of energy which would be obtained from milk or ten times as much
as could be got in the form of meat for that amount of money. If building
material is in question, peas rank first as a source of cheap supply. They
work out at about half the cost of cheese. Were an equal expenditure made
on both foodstuffs, peas would keep the body in repair for two days, while
there would be only enough protein in the cheese for one day's requirements.
But, because cheaper to buy and chemically satisfactory as regards their
nutritive constituents,

PEAS ARE NOT THEREFORE SUPERIOR TO CHEESE

as builders-up of the body. It must be borne in mind that each test has to
be passed by the particular foodstuff under consideration before its order of
merit can be conferred. There are two drawbacks to peas. They call for
prolonged cooking, and their nutrients are difficult for the digestive organs to
extract and for the tissues to absorb. A large quantity must be eaten to
furnish all the body needs. Cheese, on the contrary, need not be cooked and
is highly concentrated ; but here lies another pitfall, cheese is unsuitable as a
food unless five or six times its bulk of bread or cracker or biscuit is eaten
with it to furnish the requisite bulk.

VEGETABLE FOODS,

which consist chiefly of starch and sugar, arc far cheaper than are animal
foods, of which the protein value is high. For this reason, it is fortunate
that from four to five times as much carbohydrate is called for in our daily
diet as of the more expensive proteins and fats. But, unfortunately,

THERE IS A GENERAL TENDENCY TO EXAGGERATE

these relative proportions in favour of the less expensive and often more
attractive carbohydrates. Few people can resist the enticements of cakes,
puddings, candies, or fruit, and eat them in excess of their requirements.
The i>oint cannot be too strongly emphasized that, if in comfortable circum-
stances, we constantly

EAT TO PLEASE OUR PALATES AND CHOOSE OUR FOOD ACCORDING
TO THE LENGTH OF OUR PURSES,

not from an intelligent sense of what Is best for us or of true economic
worth. The market price of food is no guide to its real money or food value.
When we eat an egg for which we have paid more than 2 cents, we pay for
the pleasure it gives us to eat it ; for its food-value is in no way commensurate
with its cost, when that cost ranges from 4 cents to 0 or more cents an egg.
Then, too,

THE WASTE FROM BAD COOKING AND SERVING

or from bad combinations of foods must be taken into account, for it opens
up a huge economic question. Kitchen and table refuse is not total loss in
the country, for it goes to pigs and ixniltry, bringing compensation in the form
of pork and eggs. But in cities the material thus wasted has been found to
amount to one-ninth of the food bought, and that the most expensive ninth,
for analysis has shown that such wastes consist usually of about one-fifth
of the protein and fat-containing foods, which, as we have learnt, are the
most costly which appear on our tables.

IF THE FOOD WASTED IN AN ORDINARY HOUSEHOLD

were collected over a period of one month and then displayed before the
family's eyes, much horrified surprise would be experienced. Careless leavings
on plates, unpalatably prepared dishes or unappetizing modes of service, would
account for most of this accumulation; but it is also to he wished, though,
alas! vainly, that such a convincing method of conviction were also possible
with the " overeaten " food swallowed, which is just as much wasted !

A NOTED ENGLISH PHYSICIAN,

who was a profound student of this subject of food and diet, wrote as follows:
" I have come to the conclusion that more than half the disease which embitters
the middle and latter part of life is due to a mi tin hi c errors of diet . . .
and that more mischief /// tin- form <tf nctunl ilisrnxc, of impaired vigour, and
of shortened life accrues to civilized man . . . from erroneous habits
of eating than from the habitual use of alcoholic drink, considerable as I
know that evil to be."

II

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25

References to our tendency to

OVER-EAT CARBOHYDRATE FOODS

have been so frequent (bread, cakes, biscuits, farinaceous puddings, cereal
preparations, and candies) that the minute quantity of this nutrient stored
in the human body — see Fig. (1) — will excite some curiosity. What becomes
of all the starch and sugar consumed daily in every household?

If only the correct amount of these carbohydrates is taken in the course
of the day, it is used right away by the muscles to supply the energy they
need for their constant activities. Very little of this rapidly consumed form
of fuel remains over. Should more fuel be called for unexpectedly, there is
a reserve of fat, some of which can be employed for the purpose, until the
next stoking with carbohydrates takes place.

AN EXCESS OF STARCHES OR SUGAR

clogs the machinery of the body with half-consumed fuel and loads it with
much unwholesome, watery fat, which interferes with the harmonious working
of its parts ; just as a fire is choked with half -burnt wood and ash cannot burn
brightly until the ashes have been raked out. A body overloaded with fuel-
food is hampered in its work, even damaged, by a surfeit of candies or an
excess of cakes and tarts.

IF AN ENGINE HAS TO PUT ON A SPURT,

fuel is piled on to its furnace; so, if we are taking much exercise, more
carbohydrates are allowable, indeed necessary, to supply the extra demand for
fuel; and we can indulge, though always with reason, our taste for sweet
things; but when confined to the house by the weather or other causes, or
when on the shady side of fifty, when we expect a certain amount of waiting
upon from our juniors, good sense dictates reduction of carbohydrate food.

HOW ARE WE TO JUDGE WHAT IS THE CORRECT PROPORTION OF
THESE DIFFERENT FOODSTUFFS

which should be consumed at different times of life, and by what considera-
tions should our daily diet be guided? These questions are of great import-
ance and call for careful answers. As we have now learnt, much light has
been thrown by chemical analysis upon the proportion of each nutrient con-
tained in our common foods. A useful, working knowledge of some of these
will be gained from a study of Fig. (2). Observe that the protein present
in animal foods is always combined with more or less fat. In some cases the
amount is very small, as in white fish, for instance. (Note,

THE GENERAL CUSTOM

of eating melted butter with whiting or halibut to make good this deficiency.)
In cheese, however, there is as much fat present as protein. That there is
actually a little fat in bread and potatoes will occasion some surprise; and
very few people realize how much fat there is in an egg. As a matter of fact,
the form of fat found in an egg is peculiarly easy of digestion ; hence one of
the reasons why eggs are so generally recommended for invalids and young
children. The traces of fat in bread and potatoes are too small to be taken
into account in our diet.

26

MORE SURPRISING STILL IS THE FACT

that potatoes and fruit contain protein. Potatoes contain just over 1 per
cent, of protein, so much of which is habitually lost owing to careless peeling
and cooking that it has been calculated that the loss of this nutriment from
a bushel of potatoes, peeled arid soaked before cooking, is about the equivalent
of a pound of beef-steak. Consequently, the careful housewife and intelligent
cook steam or otherwise prepare potatoes "in their jackets," that "nothing
be lost."

Apricots, strawberries, grapes, raspberries, and bananas all contain about
1 per cent, of protein; while in dried fruit the amount varies from 5.5 per
cent, in figs and 4.4 per cent, in dates to 2.5 per cent, in prunes and raisins.
This explains why these dried fruits form so usual and sufficient a substitute
for meat in hot climates, such as Arabia, where meat is either difficult to
procure or to keep wholesome for even a few hours, owing to the intense heat.

THE LARGE AMOUNT OF FAT IN NUTS

will also excite interest. When thoroughly dn-weil or ground in a machine,
nuts are among our most nutritious foods: for which reason they are a fruitful
source of indigestion when eaten at the close of a full meal or at odd moments
during the day.

The average composition of nuts, such as walnuts, chestnuts, almonds,
filberts, etc., is as follows: —

Protein 15 to 20 per cent.

Fat 50 to 60

Carbohydrates 9 to 12 „

Salts 1 „

Water 4 to 5 „-

What further do nuts contain, you will ask, to complete the hundred
parts? The question is most timely, for it enables reference again to be made
to the substance — cellulose — found in all vegetable foods; a substance which.
though wholly indigestible, is nevertheless of great imi>ortance and value, for
cellulose is the "ballast" mentioned on page 20. It is a fibrous substanr...
which serves as a framework to support the juices, rich in carbohydrates and
salts, of which the bulk of vegetables and fruits are composed.

THE DELICATE, TISSUE-PAPER-LIKE SUBSTANCE

remaining in a " squeezed " lemon is cellulose. It encloses, fragile as it
appears, all the nutrients in this class of foods, and locks them most effectively
JUVM.V from the digestive juices, unless the framework be broken down and
crushed by the teeth or softened by cooking or by acids, such as vinegar. It
is for this reason that old or slowly grown vegetables call for prolonged, slow
cooking, as these cellulose envelopes have become toughened and almost woody
in consistency. Under any circumstances, this framework is particularly dense
in nuts, which is another reason why they are so generally difficult of
digestion. A third cause is found in their high proportion of fat, and a
fourth in their extreme concentration.
All the same,

THIS FACT MUST NOT BE LOST SIGHT OF:

Indigestible as cellulose is, it constitutes, if well chewed and well cooked, a
most important element in our diet. Food, such as eggs or milk, which can
be almost entirely absorbed, results in constipation, because there is not enough

OUNCES of FOOD.

•QOOJ JO S3ONHO

29

bulky residue left in the intestines to excite them to expel the undesirable
matters, which accumulate after nutrients have been absorbed in the process
of digestion. Oatmeal, green vegetables, whole-meal bread, fruits, etc., are
prescribed for this trouble, because the.y leave a relatively large amount of
this desirable " ballast," which, as it is pushed along by the worm-like move-
ments of the intestine, carries with it matters, minute perhaps in bulk,
but highly injurious to the health, if allowed to remain in the bowels, through
the delicate lining of which they are liable to be absorbed into the blood;
hence

"BILIOUS ATTACKS," SKIN-ERUPTIONS, LEADEN-HUED SKIN,

and other indications to the trained eye of self-poisoning, technically called
" auto-intoxication." But again a caution is necessary. Valuable to health
as is this bulkiness of vegetable foods, it becomes a disadvantage if these be
taken to excess ; for then the nutrient substances, always more difficult of
digestion and absorption when eaten in vegetable form, may be so rushed
along, owing to the stimulating effect of this class of "ballast" upon the
intestine, that there is not time for the process of absorption to be completely
performed, and the eater suffers from insufficient nutrition.

MAN IS DESIGNED TO EAT A MIXED DIET,

and in temperate climates he is at his best when he eats about one part of
animal food to four or five parts of vegetable.

Attention must now be directed to Fig. (3), for it emphasizes several of
the facts which bear most materially upon

THE SUBJECT OF APPROPRIATE FOOD.

The series of figures, from 0 to 80, which run along the top and bottom
of this diagram, represent the years of age from birth onwards ; while the
Roman numerals at each side refer to the amount of food (in ounces) which
is required by the healthy human being during these years.

The lowest curve of the three represents the quantity of fat which should
be included in the daily diet, the middle curve demonstrates the quantity of
protein necessary, and the upper curve indicates the proportion of carbo-
hydrate, shown by experience, to be desirable at the different age periods.

It will be seen that at birth the three classes of foodstuffs are called for
in equal amount, hence milk — see Milk in Fig. (2) — is the sole and appropriate
form of food for the infant. But each year a greater divergence occurs in the
three curves. More protein is wanted than fat, and, as muscular activity
increases, the demand for carbohydrates increases out of all proportion to the
increase of the other two nutrients, which maintain a fairly close relationship
throughout life.

NOTICE THE ALMOST ABRUPT UPWARD COURSE

of each curve until the year 24 is reached, the age when growth is practically
complete. Then, with one consent, each curve begins to decline; though, be
it observed, not in the same proportion, and in a very gradual, long-drawn-
out fashion.

What does all this signify? How does it concern the housewife? Is it
not rather a matter for the medical man or the scientific worker than for us,
every-day sort of folk?

These questions shall receive replies in the same order as that in which
they have been put. The lesson taught by this diagram is the significance

30

throughout life of food suited to the eater. It is a vital matter that our diet
be adapted to our age, both in quantity and quality. The appalling animal
loss of infant life is an object-lesson of this fact. Feed an infant in accord-
ance with the Law of Nature, and it survives almost any kind of ill which
may befall it. Neglect this law, and no human skill, no exquisite climate,
no expenditure of money, will rear it to maturity.

The small child and the grown man, the youth and his grandfather,
each need varying amounts and proportions of food. To overfeed old age is
to shorten and to sadden the declining years; to underfeed youth is to warp
and check the normal course of development.

PROVISION FOR GROWTH AND FOR WARMTH

are the urgent requirements of the new-born child. Protein and fat are
therefore of primary importance. Not much sugar or starch are needed, as
during the first six or nine months of its life the infant leads, or should lead,
an almost vegetable existence; sleep, warmth, and food fulfil its demands
which should be met with machine-like regularity. With the development
of a more active phase of life a diet of different proportions is required. The
addition of crisped bread, of a lightly cooked egg, and other suited foods,
such as farinaceous puddings, white-fish, later on poultry and certain kinds
of stewed fruit with cream, gradually train the child's digestive organs while
meeting his bodily needs, until. l>y the age of seven or eight years, a healthy
child will be eating much the same food as its parents, only with a larger
proportion of milk, and generally of a simpler character.

The teachings of this diagram concern the housewife most nearly, because
it is she who must provide for these ever-changing requirements. Not, of
course, that any one suggests the making of elaborate calculations daily; or
that the attention of the family should be concentrated upon the varying
proportions of nutrients desirable under varying conditions. But every
intelligent woman must familiarize herself with tin- broad principles which
govern healthful feeding at each age period, and apply them to the best of
her ability. For this is a question of efficiency, and of the courage, the cheer-
fulness, and the love of work associated with good nutrition.

NOW THAT THE FACTS ARE KNOWN,

it becomes a duty to make use of them. Otherwise man cannot do his full
or best work in the world; he cannot serve his country or his empire to the
degree of which he should be capable ; he cannot play his part in the progress
of civilization ; he cannot become the parent of healthy children ; he cannot
enter fully into his heritage of culture, of experience, of world-wide
knowledge.

With the object of equipping the housewives of this Province with that
" working knowledge " of intelligent feeding to which repeated reference has
been made, Part II. of this bulletin will be devoted to the practical applica-
tions of the theoretical information furnished in these pages.

ALICE RAVENHILL,

Fellow of the Royal Sanitary Institute; Certificated Lecturer
National Health Society, Great Britain and Ireland.

Author of "Practical Ifyyifnc for Use in Schools";
"Elements of Sanitary Laic"; "Some Characteristics
and Requirements of Childhood"; "Household Admin-
istration"; "Household Foes,1" etc.

Late Lecturer on Hygiene, University of London, King's
College for Women.

31

NOTICE.

The Department of Agriculture is issuing the following series of bulletins
prepared by Miss Alice Ravenhill, Shawnigan Lake, B.C., to be available for
distribution among the members of the Women's Institutes throughout the
Province : —

No. 1. The Place and Purpose of Family Life.
„ 2. The Preparation of Food.
3. The Preservation of Food.
,, 4. Labour-saving Devices in the Household.

5. Food and Diet — Parts I. and II.
„ 6. The Art of Right Living.
7. The Care of Children.

BULLETINS ISSUED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

No. 7. Flax.

„ 8. Feeding Farm Animals.

„ 20. Varieties of Fruit Recommended. (Revised.)
„ 25. Orchard Cleansing.
,. 28. Production of Eggs.
„ 29. Poultry Industry on the Pacific Coast.
„ 30. Guide to Bee-keeping in British Columbia.
„ 32. Control of Bovine Tuberculosis in British Columbia.
„ 33. Fruit-growing Possibilities, Skeena River and Porcher Island

Districts.

„ 34. Fruit-trees and Black-spot Canker.
„ 35. The Place and Purpose of Family Life.
„ 36. The Preparation of Food.
„ 37. The Preservation of Food.
„ 38. The Construction of Silos.

„ 39. Natural and Artificial Incubation and Brooding.
„ 40. Alfalfa.

„ 41. Labour-saving Devices in the Household.
,, 42. Apiculture in British Columbia.
„ 43. Women's Work in British Columbia.
„ 44. Irrigation in British Columbia.
„ 45. Agricultural Statistics, 1911.
„ 46. Food and Diet — Part I.

Applications for bulletins published by the Department of Agriculture
should be addressed to the Secretary, Department of Agriculture, Victoria, B.C.

VICTORIA, B.C. :

Printed by WILLIAM H. CULLIN, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty.

1912.

fcRARy

'. l*i

COLLEGE OF

PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

(WOMEN'S INSTl'ITTKS).

BULLETIN No. 47.

FOOD AND DIET

PART II.

— BY

MISS ALICE RAVENHILL,
Fellow of the Royal Sanitary Institute, etc., etc.

THE GOVERNMENT OF
THE PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

PRINTED BY
AUTHORITY OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY.

VICTORIA, B.C.:

Printed by WILLIAM H. CULLIN, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty.

1913.

PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

(WOMEN'S INSTITUTES).

BULLETIN No. 47.

FOOD AND DIET

PART II.

— BY —

MISS ALICE RAVENHILL,
Fellow of the Royal Sanitary Institute, etc., etc.

THE GOVLRNMENT OF
THE PROUWCE OF BRITISH COLUBtA.

PRINTED BY
AUTHORITY OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY.

VICTORIA, B.C.:

Printed by WILLIAM: H. CVLLIX, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty.

1913.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

VICTORIA, B.C., June, 1913.

The Honourable Price Ellison,

Minister of Agriculture.

SIR, — I have the honour to submit herewith Bulletin No. 47, entitled
" Food and Diet, Part II.," prepared by Miss A. Kavenhill, F.K.San. Inst.,
on behalf of the members of the Women's Institutes.
I have the honour to be,

Sir,
Your obedient servant,

WM. E. SCOTT,
Deputy Minister of Agriculture,

Superintendent of Institutes.

FOOD AND DIET :

PAET II.

THE quality and sufficiency of diet/' writes one of the leading authorities
upon the subject of human nutrition, "has a far-reaching influence upon
the development of the race, an influence which is directly seen in the physical
well-being associated with an adequate supply of suitable food. The

"PROGRESS OF ANY NATION WILL BE HAMPERED

if its citizens are ill-fed, for upon food depends not only life itself, but the power
to work and to resist disease. Further, the development of the race is indirectly
affected by diet, through the sharpening of the wits and the social co-ordination
which arise . . . from the necessity for the provision of food. For the supply
of food depends upon the exertions of the individual and its regular distribution
upon the organization of the race."

TO THE THOUGHTFUL READER OF THESE FORCEFUL WORDS

it must seem a strange oversight that, for several centuries, the provision of
daily food was considered of small account; a burden to be loaded on to any
shoulders rather than those of the mistress of the household; an occupation which
called for supervision, it is true, but which was quite capable of performance
by any uneducated woman. It was not until philanthropists began to realize that

THE CAUSES OF ILL-HEALTH EXIST CHIEFLY IN THE MISMANAGEMENT

OF THE BODY

and in neglect of its needs, that the connection between food and efficiency was
discerned. Even then, when the first stir was made, some forty years ago, to
provide definite training in the art of cooking, with a view to the betterment of
the national health, such instruction was only considered necessary for the poorest
and most youthful females of the community (small girls of eleven in the public
schools). Several more years elapsed before the mere preparation of a few cheap
and simple dishes was supplemented by some teaching on the constituents of food
and their relative value to the body, or was extended to the better-off and more
favourably situated members of society, who were practically as ignorant of the
subject as their poorest neighbours.

DURING THE LAST QUARTER OF A CENTURY,

as the intimate relation of food to health has been more and more realized,
painstaking and accurate investigations have been carried out, with the result
that much evidence is now available to confirm the statements just quoted, namely,
that upon the character of our nutrition, as furnished by our daily diet, depend: —

(1.) National progress:

(2.) Power to work:

(3.) Ability to resist disease.

Records of the past bear witness to the fact that, although scientific confirma-
tion of their observations was not at their disposal, as it is at ours, yet, among
the ancient nations — Assyrians, Persians, Egyptians, Greeks — the careful feeding
of their young people was directed and sometimes even undertaken by the State
itself.

IN THOSE FAR-OFF DAYS,

when the offices of priest, physician, and lawgiver were closely linked (often, indeed,
united in one ruau), strict regulations, associated with religious observances and
characterized by direct hygienic intention, were commonly made on the subject of
food and diet: witness the strict tenets of the Mosaic laws and corresponding
precepts laid down on the subject by Buddha and Zoroaster.

WOMEN OF ALL RANKS,

but more especially those at the head of large establishments, gave much time
to acquiring a knowledge of all the processes then in use for the preparation of
food until late in the medireval period; and combined therewith a study of the
utilization of herbs and simples for the preservation of health and the healing of
disease or wounds. A gradual growth of contempt for

THIS KNOWLEDGE AND THE ART OF ITS APPLICATION

seems to have gone hand-in-hand with the Puritan reaction from the self-indulgent
excesses of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when any pleasing of the
palate or consideration of personal likes or dislikes were distrusted as a temptation
from the Evil One; so that the preparation of the family food was by degrees
handed over to the untrained helper or the hired girl. Poor human nature has

PAID ALMOST AS HEAVY PENALTIES

for the effects of this exaggerated disdain of its physical requirements as it has
done for the intemperance and debauches of other generations. It devolves uiKm
us to see to it that this twentieth century should be distinguished by a happy
mean in its methods, which under wise and skilful direction should be free alike
from undue luxury or from injudicious asceticism.

THE MODERN HOUSEWIFE

has abundant opportunities, by means of the press, useful publications, women's
institutes and congresses, to sharpen her wits upon the whetstone of sound theory;
while as a result of social progress, in the form of ever-increasing, highly organized
and cheaper means of rapid communication with other countries, the resources
of practically the whole world are at her disposal for the furnishing of her table.

THE TOOLS OF THE MODERN HOUSE-MOTHER

are interest and observation, right knowledge and its constant application. By
taking advantage of every opportunity to utilize and improve these tools, she
can make good, in a large measure, her deficiency of definite training ; which, mean-
while, she will take care her daughters shall enjoy. In the first place, she must
bear in mind that

(1.) THE FUNCTIONS OF FOOD AND DRINK

are to build and repair the body, to supply it with heat and energy and generally
to maintain it at a high pitch of efficiency. In order to ensure that these functions
of food are fulfilled, she must remember, in the second place, that

(2.) ALL FOOD MATERIALS

are composed of one or more nutrient substances, known as protein, fats, carbo-
hydrates, mineral salts, and water. But as

(3.) NO ONE FOOD MATERIAL

contains these nutrients in exactly the proportions required by the body, she must,
in the third place, remind herself that a mixed diet has been proved by experience
to be necessary to health. Consequently, if she be a careful and observant house-
keeper, she will use her wits so

6

(4.) TO GROUP HER DISHES AT EACH MEAL IN THE DAY

as to supply, so far as possible, the right proportion of nutrients to the various
consumers. Further, she must seek information, if she does not already possess
it, as to the best way to present these nutrients, in order that they shall be suitable
to:—

(1.) The time of day:

(2.) The season of the year:

(3.) The age and state of health of the eater:

(4.) The occupation of the eater:

(5.) The idiosyncrasies of the eater.

At first sight, these requirements may appear to involve

IMPOSSIBLE AND UNHEARD-OF TROUBLE.

What overwhelming demands are made upon time, for instance, if no one kind
of food or combination of foods is adapted to people of different ages, or even for
the same person under different circumstances. But such fears are exaggerated.

THE MASTERY OF A FEW GUIDING PRINCIPLES,

applied by well-sharpened wits, will render the provision of a wholesome daily
diet for an average family a pleasure, not a penance; and will lend new interest
to daily doings.

The first demand of the learner will be for precise directions. " Please furnish
me with a specimen correct diet." Well, here are three examples of

THE AMOUNT AND RIGHT PROPORTIONS OF FOOD

for a healthy, middle-aged man to eat in one day. In each case there is about
one part of protein to four or five parts of fat and carbohydrate, which are the
proportions of body-builders and heat and energy producers shown by experience
to suit most people; they also yield the amount of heat (measured, as you will
remember, by calories) which is necessary for a good day's work. When put
before us in this form, these new requirements will appear less exacting and more
familiar : —

DIET I.

13 oz. beef-steak.

3 oz. butter.

6 oz. potatoes.
22 oz. bread.

DIET II.

4 oz. sausage. 5 oz. beans.

14 oz. codfish. 2 oz. rice.

2 oz. butter. 16 oz. potatoes.
1 pint milk. 9 oz. bread.

3 oz. sugar.

DIET III.

10 oz. beef. 1 pint milk.

(J oz. ham. 12 oz. potatoes.

2 eggs. 9 oz. flour.

2 oz. butter. 1 Oz. sugar.
Obviously such an amount of solid food as appears in each diet (about 3 Ib.)

could not be eaten all at once. Hence our custom of dividing it into three meals
a day.

Obviously, also, the first diet is the least attractive of the three.

The variety offered by the second and third would be far more appetizing;
and, as a matter of fact, the cost in cash of these two amount only to about
1 cents more than No. I. ; though, of course, their choice and preparation would
call for more time.

Obviously, again, such an amount of food would be too much for some men
and perhaps too little for others. It would depend upon their build, their occupa-
tion, and so on.

Consider the difference between the work of a harvester on the prairies and
a merchant in his office. The one works very hard with his muscles and compara-
tively little with his brain. He uses up much energy in his hard work and
produces as a result much bodily waste. He requires, therefore, relatively laip
amounts of body-building and energy-producing foods. The merchant's brain, on

the contrary, is intensely active; his thoughts are concentrated on many anxious
problems, whereas his muscles get little exercise. Consequently, he needs less
food than the harvester and of a somewhat different kind, for brain-work, however
strenuous, does not wear away the body as does muscular exertion.

THREE USEFUL LESSONS MAY BE LEARNT

from a study of these specimen diets : —

(1.) The reason why our daily consumption of food is divided into meals ami
not eaten all at once:

S

(2.) The superior attractions of varied over monotonous food:

(3.) The connection between the individual and the food he takes.

Let us consider these facts more closely.

(1.) WHY WE EAT MEALS.

The body requires daily a given an/bunt of food. Were this to be eaten all
at once, the result, apart from other discomforts, would be extreme drowsiness
and inactivity after eating, such as we notice in a dog after he has gorged himself,
or such as is observed among uncivilized men, whose habits in this respect
resemble those of certain animals. By the judicious division of his daily portion
of food into three portions, eaten at different times, civilized man has found he
can prolong his hours of effective work and equalize his energy.

THE NEEDS OF THE BODY ARE MET

by " stoking its furnace " with moderation at regular intervals. Its activity should
be quickened, not checked, by a well-chosen meal. Where sleepiness succeeds eating,
more food than is necessary has probably been taken, or food of an unsuitable
character.

THE DAILY MEALS OF AN ADULT

consist, in most countries, of a fairly light breakfast and lunch, with a more
substantial repast in the evening, when the day's work is over. For children, who
should be early in bed, the heaviest meal must be at midday, or a store of digestive
disorders will be laid up for the future, as a result of overtaxing their digestive
systems in the evening. Remember in this as in other connections that

YOUNG HUMAN NATURE IS VERY OBLIGING;

it will endeavour, and to all appearance succeed in the endeavour, to adapt itself
to the demands so ignorantly made upon its powers. Only after the lapse of
years will the result of these demands make their appearance. Errors of diet
in youth are responsible for much of the ' disappointment in respect of health,
attainments, or success in later life, of which the true cause is usually unsuspected.

ABSOLUTE REGULARITY OF INTERVAL

should be the rule for family meals; because all the workings of the body proceed
in health with machine-like precision; if this be interfered with by irregularity in
the hours of eating, disordered digestion and poor nutrition are bound to follow.
There are excellent reasons for this assertion. The process of digestion is
a prolonged one; not only must it be completed before more food is eaten, but the

RULE OF NATURE,

that work and rest succeed each other, must also be respected. After the work of
dissolving, absorbing, and circulating food material has been performed, all the
organs concerned require a period of repose. If this rest is denied them their
work is of poor quality and " indigestion " is the result.

A longer or shorter respite from activity is necessary for every gland concerned
in the manufacture of the fluids which digest food or in the other processes of
assimilation, in order to recruit energy; whether these glands are situated in the
mouth, stomach, pancreas, liver, or intestines. A tired person performs poor work,
so do weary organs.

(2.) THE LENGTH OF THE INTERVAL BETWEEN MEALS

depends upon the character of the food eaten at the meals. An ordinary dinner
leaves the stomach in from four to five hours; whereas milk, lightly cooked eggs,
(stale bread, crackers, toast, or steamed or boiled white fish are digested in about
half that time. The body requires an hour or two after awakening in the morning
to "warm up" to its daily work; so it is a sound instinct which guides us to
prefer a not too heavy breakfast.

For most people, this meal consists usually of some well-cooked cereal, coffee
and milk, eggs, toast, butter, marmalade, and fruit. This is eaten somewhere
between 6 and 8 a.m., and is wisely succeeded

BY A MORE SUBSTANTIAL MEAL AT NOON,

or 1 p.m., to restore energy after the morning's work. An interval of six or seven
hours is none too long for an adult before supper. If this meal be the heaviest
in the day, two or three hours must elapse before going to bed.

(3.) FOR YOUNG PEOPLE

such an interval as six hours would be too long; for, where an adult thrives on
three meals a day and long intervals, a child and growing lad or girl require four
meals in the day and shorter intervals. Why is this?

(«.) Because a child has to add to its size as well as to repair the wear ,-111.1

tear of his body: i.e., he has to grow:

(&.) Because a child lives much faster than grown persons, his bodily activities
are greater; so that relatively to his weight he requires more food ami
that more frequently:

(c.) Because, like all small animals, a child has a larger surface in proportion
to his bulk than is the case when growth is complete, consequently h,.
loses heat more rapidly and his furnace calls for more frequent " stoklngs.1*

A HUNGRY CHILD,

that is to say, when hunger is felt for two or three hours before it can be sati«nvd
s a starved child; and a starved child suffers arrest of growth an.l a warping
of development. During the twenty-four years of active growth hunger should
be thoroughly satisfied at each meal. Later in life it is wise to rise from table
able to eat more.

THE SUITABLE REGULATION OF A CHILD'S MEALS

is, without doubt, a serious difficulty in most homes, where there i» no " nursery '1
and all the household eat together, with the same length of interval. To attempt
o evade the difficulty by giving "lunches" to children at odd hours between in.'a.s
cannot be too strongly condemned. The subject will be dealt with in greater detail
lii the forthcoming bulletin on "The Care of Children."

THE ATTRACTION AND VALUE OF VARIED FOOD

was touched upon in Bulletin 36, on "The Preparation of Food"; but calls for
fuller treatment than could then be devoted to it, on account of the Import,, ,
part it plays in good health, temperance, and happv homes

of &^F.*Xy * exercised In reason' just as is the

of JSSSX? haS aSSUmed InCreaSe

THE SIGHT AND ODOUR OF PLEASANT FOOD
and the act of chewing what is palatable are followed, in health by a

not, therefore, neg.ect or despise what the Germans
"PLEASURE-GIVING THINGS"

rs = ;,;•

10

All kinds of herbs come under this head; some vegetables, such as onions, shallot,
garlic, carrots, celery, tomatoes, etc. ; all syrups, sauces, pickles, peppers, and condi-
ments generally. What a pleasant change is made by the addition to soup or stew,

now of a clove of garlic, then of chopped celery or even celery salt; or of a pinch
of spice instead of herbs, or by a dash of mushroom ketchup! Quite a variety of
changes may be rung on what, at bottom, is composed of almost the same con-
stituents by the intelligent use of " pleasure-giving " flavours.

11

The homely soup may be white to-day and brown to-morrow; rose-red with
tomatoes in the autumn and winter, or pale green with fresh peas in summer; or
the inevitable stew may be savoury with onions this week and more strongly
suggestive of carrots at its next appearance.

The " left-overs " of a joint may be served now as a curry, then as potato-pie ;
on another occasion as a Cornish pasty, or, in warm weather, as a meat-loaf, dainty
with decoration of hard-boiled egg and salad.

Potatoes can be boiled or baked in their jackets; or peeled and browned with
the roasting joint; or mashed, or sliced, tossed in dripping or lard and baked ill
a fireproof dish in the oven ; or they can be " riced " through a colander, or served
cold in cubes, covered with white sauce well flavoured with onions.

Rice can be steamed and served with curry, sugar, or syrup ; or boiled with milk
and " moulded " to eat with stewed fruit. It can be cooked with stock and the ever-
useful celery or onion, or baked with grated cheese moistened with milk, dripping,
or batter.

Remainders of bread can be crisped in the oven to eat with butter, cheese, or
soup; they can be cut in thin slices to make bread and butter or bread and jam
pudding; or into finger-strips to line a pudding-basin, filled with stewed fruit and
eaten with cream or custard. They can be grated into crumbs to make apple char-
lotte or steamed or baked lemon-puddings. If bread-crumbs are mixed with milk
in which an onion and some cloves have been boiled, the delicious bread-sauce
which results will transform somewhat tasteless veal into an appetizing repast and
lend a new flavour to whitefish.

Well-browned bread-crumbs, mixed with tomatoes or carrots or fish, eggs, cheese,
or mashed potato (these last five combinations call for some white sauce, stock, or
milk for moistening), make most delicious scallops, especially attractive when served
in fireproof dishes, in which they can be cooked, by the way, at very little cost of
time or trouble.

Tapioca and sago, also, useful and easily digested forms of carbohydrate food,
need not be monotonously presented as " milk -puddings." Set a cupful of either
grain to soak for twenty-four hours in cold water, then mix with some juicy fruit
or SJTUP or tomatoes or well-flavoured soup, and cook several hours in a double
boiler. The result will be a firm jelly which, when moulded, cooled, and served,
will be a most popular " dessert " or addition to a cold-meat meal in summer-time,
when the advantage over the use of gelatine will be readily observed, for sago or
tapioca jelly " sets " at any temperature. Cream or custard should accompany this
" dessert " ; while the addition of a few cold peas or beans, or chopped egg or carrot,
or " remainders " of ham or fish or chicken to the " stock " jelly will enable a
considerable variety of flavours to be provided.

Cheese can be grated and cooked in an almost infinite variety of forms, and
can be rendered easily digestible to most, if not all, consumers by the addition of
a very small quantity of powdered bicarbonate of potash, in the proportion of */4 oz.
to 1 It>. of cheese, or say a large pinch to y± m. of cheese. The potash should be
dissolved in a little milk or water before bring added to the cheese. Its effect is
to restore to its original soluble form the indigestible substance in cheese (casein),
the form, that is to say, in which it exists in milk. This result is seen in the soft,
creamy consistency of the cooked cheese.

A SAVOURY AND HIGHLY NUTRITIOUS DISH

is the result of mixing together two parts of grated bread-crumbs to one part of
grated cheese, and pouring over the mixture a batter of eggs and milk, in which
the potash has been dissolved and to which a seasoning of pepper, salt, and mustard
has been added. This should be baked in a shallow, well-greased tin and eaten
with crisped bread as a substitute for. not supplement to, a meat dish. The mistake
of combining meat with cheese at one meal lies at the root of much of the reputed
indigestibility of cheese, for both are highly concentrated forms of body-building
foods.

12

Grated cheese may be stirred into oatmeal porridge or mixed with the floury
contents of baked potatoes; even hasty puddings may be converted into a savoury
dish by the addition of a little grated cheese.

Fish-pudding (made by mixing the remains of any cold, cooked whitefish with
bread-crumbs, grated cheese, and ketchup), vegetable marrows stuffed with a similar
mixture, turnips served with white sauce into which cheese has been stirred, are
but a few suggestions how to provide " pleasure-giving " and wholesome food at
small cost of time or money — only nevel- omit to add the dissolved bicarbonate of
potash.

Fat is always an essential of wholesome meals; it exercises a definite influence
on digestion, and is an agent in the prevention of that prevalent trouble —
constipation— besides being a source of fuel reserve to the body. How to provide
it in a pleasurable form is not always easy, especially where the supply of milk
and cream or butter is restricted. It so often happens that the fat of meat is
disliked; and distasteful food is ill-digested.

During the winter, in particular, a liberal supply of fat in the diet is important
to health ; fortunately it is .lust at this colder season of the year that conditions
are favourable to a form of fat in food which is rarely disliked — namely, puddings,
in the compounding of which lard, suet, or dripping play a part.

13

THE VARIETY OF THESE PUDDINGS

and their method of service is well-nigh limitless. They may appear as raisin,
ginger, lemon, or fruit puddings ; they may be served with sauces, sweet or savoury ;
they may form a crust enclosing meat, game, or fruit ; they may be boiled, steamed,
or baked, preferably steamed, and the longer, in reason, the steaming process, the
more successful and digestible the pudding. The fireless cooker is a valuable ally
in the preparation of such puddings, which are acceptable to most people until the
weather becomes mild, when they quickly cease to be "pleasure-giving." Then
follows the season for " lighter desserts," in which eggs, cream, and milk enter
more prominently, when, happily, they are at their cheapest.

Fig. 4 clearly demonstrates the high worth of an egg as a source of fat in our
diet; and fat, too, in a highly digestible form. Butter and cream also furnish this
nutrient in a much more easily assimilated form than the fat of beef or mutton,
for instance, which tax some digestions, especially when eaten cold. This remark
does not apply to finely grated suet or to " well-rnbbed-in " lard, which rarely dis-
agree when sufficiently cooked in pudding form after the age of two or three years.

Doubtless, the question of the position of pastry and cakes as

"PLEASURE-GIVING" ELEMENTS IN OUR DIET

has been already asked mentally by every reader of these pages. " Is pastry whole-
some; and, if not, why not?" will be on the lips of every consumer of the popular
national dish — pie.

Well-made, well-baked pastry is a quite allowable " pleasure " to healthy adults,
if eaten with moderation and not too frequently. It should certainly not enter into
the dietary of children, for good reasons.

As was explained on page 11 in Bulletin 3G, all the nutrients in starch foods
are enclosed in indigestible envelopes which it is the object of cooking to burst <>r
dissolve. Now, when butter or any form of fat is combined with flour and then
baked, each grain of starch is enclosed in a film of grease. Grease, as we all know.
protects what it covers from moisture; consequently, the water with which the
pastry is mixed cannot reach the particles of fat-coated flour, and they remain
largely unchanged in character — that is to say, indigestible.

A CHILD NEEDS TO UTILIZE EVERY SCRAP OF FOOD EATEN

if he is to grow and thrive; but his digestive system is not fully developed, and is
liable to suffer more or less seriously from efforts to grapple with material unsuited
to its capacity. Good pastry, once or twice a week, therefore, is legitimate for the
average adult, but illegitimate for the child.

Another reason for the "bad name" given to pastry lies in the change under-
gone by fat when exposed to the high temperature necessary to the baking of
successful pastry. Irritating products are formed which interfere with the process
of normal digestion.

IN RESPECT OF CAKES,

so much depends on the conditions under which they are eaten and the kind of cake.
A slice or two of plain cake, eaten at meal-time, is allowable for all ages after the
second or third year. It is a medium for fat and carbohydrates, susceptible of a
wide variety in flavour, even when quite inexpensive ingredients are employed. But
if rich with butter, eggs, nuts, and fruit, then the matter assumes a different com-
plexion; for the compound1 is highly concentrated and nutritious, only to be eaten
very sparingly even by adults, on account of the tax it imposes on the digestion.
Such cakes are wholly objectionable for children.

THE CUSTOM OF ADDING CHOPPED NUTS TO CAKES
increases to a very high degree their digestive demands; they become undesirable
as additions to a full meal; while currants, whether fresh or dried, can never be
digested, and often cause considerable intestinal irritation in young children. Raisins
and sultanas should always replace currants in the interests of health.

14

A WIDE RANGE OF PLAIN CAKES

can be made with few eggs or none, with dripping or lard instead of butter, flavoured
with ginger and molasses, or with mixed spices, or with lemon or cocoa, which are
quite attractive and wholesome also.

MUSTARD, PEPPER, SALT, VINEGAR, CAPERS, HORSE-RADISH, RED-
CURRANT JELLY, APPLE-SAUCE, AND LAST, BUT NOT LEAST, SUGAR

are permissible condiments at meals, if the rule of moderate consumption be strictly
observed, and if their use be confined (except in the case of sugar and salt) to those
over fourteen or fifteen years of age. They all stimulate the flow of the digestive
juices, hence the custom of eating mustard with rich meats, such as beef or pork,
goose or duck; pepper, too, is habitually taken with green vegetables and vinegar
with raw salads ; because, unconsciously, the eater is aware that these foods call
for energetic digestion.

Capers lend flavour to otherwise somewhat tasteless boiled or steamed mutton;
apple-sauce seems to counteract the excess of fat in pork or goose; and red-currant
jelly supplies the carbohydrate in which mutton or venison are deficient.

Vinegar has an important action in softening the fibres of tough meat or of crab
or lobster or of green vegetables, but its continuous or excessive use is inadvisable;
consequently, pickles must not be condiments of daily consumption.

SPICES AND CERTAIN HERBS

such as fennel, or seeds such as caraways, also relieve the flatulence and associated
distressing distension experienced in some forms of dyspepsia, besides imparting
variety of flavour to food. Their employment for many generations in these
capacities offers another illustration of the sound instinct by which uncivilized
man was guided in the choice of his sustenance.

NONE OF THESE CONDIMENTS EXCEPT SUGAR HAVE ACTUAL FOOD-
VALUE,

but used with discretion they contribute to the digestion and assimilation of the
foods to which they are added.

The use of sugar as a " pleasure-giving " agent needs little recommendation ;
rather

A CAUTION MAY HAVE TO BE UTTERED

as to the amount consumed and the form in which it is taken. There is no question
as to its importance as an article of diet; but what the public fail to appreciate
is that several different varieties of sugar enter into the composition of the forms
which appear at our tables, of which some are more wholesome than others. Cane,
beet, maple, and milk sugar all belong to one large class; of the other, grape-sugar
(familiar to us in raisins) and honey are examples. This class is the more digestible
of the two; as a matter of fact, all the sugars which belong to the first class must
be changed into the form which distinguishes those grouped in the second class
before they can be utilized by the body ; hence these are a stage nearer digestion.

THIS CHANGE MAY BE BROUGHT ABOUT

by the digestive organs or by heat and acids, of which the alteration effected in the
cane-sugar used in jam-making offers an excellent illustration. For this reason,
honey is often better digested than golden syrup or molasses, which are products of
cane-sugar.

CANDIES

are made from both classes of sugar ; sugar-candy and barley-sugar, for instance, or
toffee are made from cane-sugar, while caramels and the creamy matter in chocolate-
creams are made with an imitation of the sugar found in grapes. This is now

15

manufactured on a large scale and is described as " commercial glucose." It is
usually produced by boiling starch with acids, and is quite wholesome when properly
prepared. In these days there is little cause

TO SUSPECT THE NATURE OF THE COLOURING MATTER EMPLOYED

to render candies attractive. The risk associated with their consumption lies rather
in the temptation they offer to eat sugar to excess and in too concentrated a form,
when it is liable to exercise a seriously irritant effect on the stomach, interfering
with the digestion of other foods besides itself.

TO AVOID THESE RISKS

it is wise to imitate the comparative dilution in which sugar occurs in natural foods.
such as milk and fresh fruit. A healthy adult can eat the equivalent of a quarter
of a pound of cane-sugar a day with advantage; but this amount should be dis-
tributed over his three meals and should appear in varied forms. If called upon
for sudden and severe muscular exertion, the addition of another ounce to the day's
allowance will be found directly beneficial, as it is a rapidly absorbed source of
energy.

THE WORTH OF SUITABLE FRUIT

as a medium for sugar for adults and children must again be emphasized, on account
of its digestibility when so taken; and an urgent appeal is made to all readers and
their children to restrict or to reduce to vanishing point the deplorable extra vagam-e
involved in a constant consumption of candies.

THIS APPEAL IS A REALLY EARNEST AND URGENT ONE:

(1.) Because, almost without exception, candies present sugar in an un whole-
somely concentrated form, inevitably damaging and irritating.

(2.) Because they breed dyspepsia and other ailments, the result of being
"sucked" at odd hours, and thus overtaxing the digestive organs by depriving them
of their necessary rest; with the effect of promoting poor nutrition and ill-health.

(3.) Because they interfere with wholesome and natural appetite for simple
food at regular intervals and cultivate a taste for highly flavoured fare, which often
leads to a whole train of unsuspected mischief, of which one form assumes that of

INTEMPERANCE IN RESPECT OF ALCOHOL.

One reason for habitual recourse to alcohol exists undoubtedly in the apparent
fillip which it gives to a jaded palate and the relief temporarily experienced from the
discomforts associated with digestive disorders. The explanation of these is found
iii the fact that one of the first results of alcohol is to numb certain sensations,
which give rise to the false and dangerous misapprehension that it has cured them.

WHEN THE HABIT OF EATING CANDIES AT ALL HOURS

is established during childhood, healthy appetite wanes, nutrition suffers, and the
palate craves for more and more powerful stimulants. With youth comes greater
liberty of action and increased temptation to resort to any means which will give
an appearance of being lively, attractive, or manly. Alcohol in some form or another
seems to offer just the desired spur. The tired, unhealthy stomach is whipped into
a spurt of activity, the depression of dyspepsia is temporarily dispersed by the false
excitement which follows a glass of spirits, and the wits appear to be brightened;
a sharpness which to those who know the true working of alcohol in the body, simply
means that the usual power of self-control is numbed and the ordinary and desirable
reserve of speech and gesture is relaxed.

IT WAS OF DELIBERATE INTENTION THAT TEMPERANCE WAS

ENUMERATED

among the advantageous results of providing intelligently varied food on the family
table. Many a lad and girl slip down the slide of intemperance from no other cause

10

than the deadly monotony of their diet, which produces an overmastering craving
for some change of flavour and some stimulus to their unexercised sense of taste.

A wholesome variety in food is only one factor in temperance, but it is a very
important one, therefore it has been dealt with at some length.

Before proceeding to a consideration of the connection between an individual
and the food which suits him, it will be helpful to pass in review some

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS WHICH AFFECT OUR DIET.

The fact that no specimen diet can be rigidly adhered to in any particular
family will become clear after a study of this section. Not that the publication
or perusal of such dietary tables is therefore to be condemned or despised as
waste of time; they are useful to the housewife in several connections, as well as
to the scientist. If the constituents and amount of the usual food of a large range
of individuals be compared, individuals living in different countries and under
different conditions, it will be observed that, on the whole, the results conform
quite closely to the ideal standard which has been laid down as to the character,
cost, and quantity of food to be eaten. Of course,

AMONG THE VERY POOR

the daily meals would be insufficient in quantity to maintain health, while among
the well-to-do the diet would err on the side of excess ; but, as a ^vhole, healthy
people select their food with considerable intelligence; that is to say, if they yet
the chance and if they have been wisely trained in childhood. Both the chance
and the training depend upon our house-mothers.

The use of printed diet tables becomes apparent if a member of the family
flag, lose appetite, or develop an abnormal capacity for food. It is very helpful
to turn to some guide as to just about what amount and kind of food is natural
at that age and under those conditions of life; so that, unknown to the individual.
means to correct these abnormalities may be found. Girls about fifteen, for
instance, often take up quaint and unwholesome food fads wrhich cannot be
sanctioned; as, for example, when they desire to sustain life upon a diet of
cucumber and tea !

Anaemia is a far too common complaint in early life. If a case occur in the
house, how useful is the knowledge that eggs are a particularly valuable food
for auseniic people, especially when combined writh spinach, because in both cases
iron is present in a very assimilable form.

MANY CHILDREN, IN THESE DAYS, OFTEN TAKE A DISLIKE TO MILK;

but, if the housekeeper is aware that until thirteen or fourteen years of age a
quart of in ilk a day should enter into the diet and is alive to this necessity,
ingenuity will be exercised in the concoction of dishes which contain the requisite
amount of milk unknown to the consumer. Junket, for instance, or milk-soups,
plain custards, cornstarch or rice and other moulds, variously flavoured simple
white sauces to eat with vegetables, or bread-sauce with meat, poultry, game, or
fish. The great value of skim-milk as a body-building food is not half appreciated ;
it is cheap, excellent, and nutritious. Finally, these diet tables are invaluable

WHEN RESPONSIBILITY IS ASSUMED FOR THE CARE

of institutions and their inmates. They guide the judgment as to the probable
sufficiency of the food supplied to those who have no control in the matter of
their own diet.

Assistance will also be derived from a study of the diagrams with which this
bulletin is illustrated, where the proportions of nutrients present have been
purposely associated with familiar forms of food, so that each time these are in
use they will serve to remind the cook of their relative nutritive value.

FIG. 4 IMPRESSES TWO VALUABLE FACTS:

(1.) That milk alone is an insufficient food after early infancy; and that it is
a useful, though not cheap, source of protein and fat at all ages, when combined
with other nutrients. Skim-milk, on the contrary, is the cheapest source of animal
food we have.

(2.) That in considering the food-value of an egg, it must be borne in mind
that about one-third of this value is protein and two-thirds fat ; and fat of a most
digestible form.

FIG. 3 ILLUSTRATES THE CONCENTRATION OF PROTEIN AND FAT IN

CHEESE,

about three-fourths of its food- value being fat. Thus cheese is a very choap
food when properly prepared. This diagram demonstrates also the relatively

BODY-BUILDING and FLESH-FORMING.
SK Mater

HEAT and ENERGY -GIVING-

O- ^a'
£1* St-arcrit* % Sugar* (cai>h*»j*,.r*»j

Fig. 4. Reproduced by kind permission of E. J. Arnold, Leeds, 'England.

high food-value of a herring. It is a perfectly sound instinct which leads the
very poor to buy a " kipper " as a relish to their dry bread, but it is an unsound
custom which serves herring or salmon (another fat fish) before a meat course
at dinner, especially if the meat be itself rich in fat, say beef or pork. If poultry
or game follow such fish this objection is removed, for, in their case, there is
usually a deficiency of fat. For the same reason

THESE FISH ARE UNSUITED FOR THE DIET OF YOUNG CHILDREN.

Dried and smoked fish are some of the cheapest sources of protein for their
elders, because they sell for about the same price per pound as fresh fish, but
contain less than half the amount of water.

IS

FIG. 1 SHOWS THE PROPORTION OF NUTRIENTS IN A TYPICAL CUT
OF MEAT AND IN A LOAF OF BREAD.

The worth of the latter as our main source of carbohydrate food is well brought
out. Most people will probably be surprised at the amount of "gas" present in
a well-made loaf ; it certainly constitutes a good reason why indigestion is associated
with heavy, "soggy" bread.

Bread is, in fact, one of the most nutritious among our daily foods, but it
cannot be regarded as a perfect food, for it contains about eight and one-half parts
of carbohydrates to one part of protein; whereas the right relation of these
nutrients is as 1 : 4.2; neither does it contain more than a trace of fat.

The opinion of experts differs as to the actual

WORTH OF HOME BAKING.

In any case, the saving is rather in the cash cost than in enhanced food-value.
If the fuel used and the worker's time are added to the price of the flour, little
saving is effected; and the time could be better employed (where bakers bread
is available) in adding to the variety of the family diet.

BREAD WILL KEEP QUITE WHOLESOME FOR A WEEK

or more if stored under good conditions; so that an ample supply can be bought
at weekly intervals without risk of waste. No doubt one reason for the faith in
home-made bread lies in the popular idea that it is far more nutritious, because
it is believed that

FLOUR OF A MORE NUTRITIOUS QUALITY

is employed, and that the conditions of its preparation are superior. There is
considerable strength in this latter argument; for,

UNLESS A CAREFUL LICENSING OF BAKE-HOUSES BE ENFORCED

and a system of constant inspection be insisted upon, the conditions in ba*ke-houses
are too often insanitary, even shocking and disgusting.

THE FOLLOWING QUOTATIONS,

taken from Dr. J. M. Hamill's report to the Imperial Government on " The Nutritive
Value of Bread" made from different varieties of wheat-flour, will be welcomed
by many who are perplexed by the rival claims of different brands of flour. The
date of this report is 1911.

"THE DIFFERENCES IN NATURE AND NUTRITIVE VALUE

between breads made from different classes of flour ... do not appear to be
of much importance to the average adult, with whom bread is only one out of
many varied constituents of his dietary. The notion, for example, that ordinary
high-grade and naturally white ' patent ' flour is practically devoid of protein or
nitrogenous constituents, whereas the latter are abundantly present in bread made
from whole-meal and ' entire ' wheat-flours, is erroneous. The differences which
exist in this respect are not relatively of great magnitude, and they may, to a
large extent, be neutralized by imperfect absorption from the digestive tract.
. . . In other words,

"A ' PATENT' FLOUR OBTAINED FROM ONE VARIETY OF WHEAT MAY
CONTAIN CONSIDERABLY MORE TOTAL PROTEIN

and furnish more available energy than an ' entire ' wheat or whole-meal flour
from another kind of wheat. . . . Relatively marked differences exist between
different classes of flour even when derived from the same wheat. . . . To the
average adult

10

"LIVING ON A REASONABLY LIBERAL AND VARIED DIET,

however, these differences cannot ordinarily be of importance. ... If now the
question be asked what variety of flour is best suited for the diet of those adults
whose food consists principally of bread, it should in the first place be answered
that a diet which consists principally of bread, from whatever grade of flour it in.-iy
be made, is unsatisfactory, and that it is more important for those who for one
reason or another are in this position to secure a greater variety of diet — which
does not always mean greater cost — than to rely upon the selection of any particular
form of bread, however nutritious. . . . It is asserted that whole-meal bread
and to a less extent bread made from flours of the 'entire' wheat class are not so
liable to aid the production of caries of the teeth, as a result of fermentative changes.
as is bread made from a highly refined flour such as patent grade flour. The
evidence on this point, however, cannot be considered conclusive in the absence of
more exact experiment."

FflOXJMAXE PBJMOPLSS Of FOODS.

BANANA.

POTATO

A* V/ater

Water.

C, * stfirtera/ matter
£)*£> farcr?e s

Body-building and Flesh-forming. Heat and Energy -giving.

Fig. 5. 'Reproduced by kind permission of E. J. Arnold, Leeds, England.

FIG. 5 OPENS UP THE IMPORTANT QUESTION OF THE PLACE ON OUR
TABLES OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLES.

It is wise to remember, and to let the remembrance influence practice, that alj
fruits require digestion ; though the common habit of eating raw fruit at odd hours
throughout the day shows public ignorance of or indifference to this fact.

Fruit is eaten with most benefit at breakfast, when its worth as an agent in
promoting the regular action of the bowels is well recognized. "An apple a day
keeps the doctor away " is a wise old " saw."

20

EVERY KIND OF RIPE FRUIT IS PERMISSIBLE TO THE HEALTHY ADULT

if peeled and cored ; to eat peel is foolish, if not criminal ; it is about as digestible
as cork, and may be the carrier of serious infection owing to the questionably clean
hands through which it often passes and the unsatisfactory conditions under which it
may be stored. Stewed or baked fruit is .always more easily digested than when raw.

IN THE CASE OF YOUNG CHILDREN AND DELICATE ADULTS,

currants, gooseberries, figs, and rhubarb are unsuitable. The skins and seeds of the
berries and figs and the stringy structure of rhubarb constitute serious irritants to
the intestines and cause many digestive troubles. The pips and skins of grapes
can be removed, but those of berries and figs are too small to be handled.

A CAUTION MUST BE GIVEN ON THE SUBJECT OF BANANAS,

which are a highly nutritious fruit, as the diagram shows. They ought only to be
eaten as a part of a meal, and must be entirely forbidden to young children unless
baked : for the starch they contain is so combined with cellulose as to be quite unfit
for immature digestive organs.
If fruit has to be bought,

DRIED FRUIT IS ACTUALLY CHEAPER THAN FRESH,

because the large content of \vater has been evaporated; when well soaked and
properly cooked they supply a useful element in winter diet.

NUTS HAVE A HIGH FOOD-VALUE;

indeed, they are a specially concentrated form of food, so must be employed with
discretion, not casually eaten by the handful or mixed vaguely into cakes or combined
with desserts, as if they were no more than flavouring essences. A slice of nut-
bread represents the equivalent of a meat-sandwich, only in a less easily digestible
form. When ground or crushed or well masticated, nuts add a pleasant item to
our dietary; but they should be looked upon as a partial substitute for meat, not
as a condiment.

POTATOES ARE USED SO FREELY IN EVERY HOUSEHOLD

that this diagram of their worth as food is sure to arouse interest. They have about
a quarter the nutritive value of bread, but offer a useful form of carbohydrate, in
addition to their importance as a source of mineral salts. The waste of nutrients in
carelessly peeled potatoes is also depicted; for reckless waste is always sinful, what-
ever the income may be.

IN FIG. 2 IS SHOWN THE CONSTITUENTS OF CARROTS AND CABBAGE,

which with turnips, onions, squash, and other winter vegetables provide flavourings,
salts, and bulk in our diet. They thus contribute to its nutritious qualities by
promoting digestion, assimilation, and excretion.

WHAT ARE WE TO BELIEVE ABOUT THE FOOD-VALUE OF PEAS,
BEANS, AND LENTILS?

will be the next question. Can these pulses replace meat, and is vegetarianism
really advisable for us all?

The nutritive value of pulses is high, especially in protein ; indeed, a kind of
cheese and even an artificial milk can be prepared from soy beans; but all pulses
require many hours' soaking as well as prolonged cooking before they are eatable,
which is not always convenient or economical of fuel. By the way. the addition of
a small amount of bicarbonate of potash to the water in which they are soaked
renders them more digestible. During the soaking process

21

THERE IS AN INEVITABLE LOSS OF NUTRIENT MATERIAL,

and the proportion, of water rises — in haricot beans, for instance, from 14 to 73
per cent., and in peas from 9.7 up to 86.9 per cent. This means, of course, a corre-
sponding increase in bulk.

A world-wide authority on the subject of food, Dr. Robert Hutchison, says that

TWENTY-FOUR PLATEFULS OF THICK PEA-SOUP

would be required to give an average man his day's supply of protein; and even
then he would have too little carbohydrate and fat; though were the soup made with
milk instead of water, eight platefuls would suffice. Such a bulk of food is ill-
adapted to the human stomach, of which the utmost capacity is three pints.

THE OLD GREEK PHYSICIAN, GALEN (A.D. 130-180),

was quite right when he said, " Pulses are harder to digest than other foods and
give bad dreams." They are, however, useful to eat with bacon, pork, or other fatty
foods in winter-time, especially for those who lead an active life; but if eaten
frequently by those who lead sedentary lives they are liable to cause flatulence and
other digestive troubles.

ONE OBJECTION TO VEGETARIAN DIET LIES IN THIS MATTER OF BULK.

The volume and structure of a cow's stomach illustrates the provision made by
nature for the accommodation and digestion of the masses of foodstuff required by
an animal dependent for its sustenance on vegetable substances only.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE TEETH AND DIGESTIVE TRACT

in the human body afford evidence that man is designed for the mixed diet he
usually prefers when in health. The fact that he has drifted into an excessive
reliance on animal food does not call for a violent reaction in favour of a purely
vegetable diet. In this, as in other matters which affect our health,

IT IS THE HAPPY MEAN FOR WHICH WE SHOULD STRIVE.

The place of cereals in our bill of fare must be treated with great brevity owing
to the limitations of space. From the nutritive standpoint oatmeal heads the list; it
is so rich in protein, fat, carbohydrates, and salts. But, unfortunately, the husk is so
closely adherent to the kernel that it cannot be separated by ordinary grinding.
The small sharp particles which remain lend to

OATMEAL ITS QUALITY AS A CORRECTIVE

of constipation, on account of their irritating effect on sluggish intestines. This
irritation may, however, be detrimental to the delicate lining of the bowels, which
has led some physicians to forbid the use of oatmeal for children. The exact
reason for the " heating " effect it has in some cases is not yet known. The
numerous

PATENT PREPARATIONS OF BREAKFAST FOODS

on the market possess at least two advantages over ordinary oatmeal. The treat-
ment through which they are passed ruptures the tough cellulose walls of the
grains and partially cooks the nutrients within. Time is thus economized in their
domestic preparation and they become much more digestible; but the price asked
in some cases is wholly out of proportion to the food-value of the much-advertised
goods. Of course, to some people it is worth paying dearly for the convenience,
variety, palatability, and cleanliness of these patent preparations.

MACARONI, SEMOLINA, AND VERMICELLI

contain more than twice the protein present in rkc, and are useful, cheap foods,
especially when cooked with eggs, cheese, or minced meat. Rice is the poorest of

22

all cereals in protein, fat, and salts; it is also only moderately easy of digestion,
so that it is a dangerous delusion which accepts rice as a staple article of diet
in this climate. At least

FIVE POUNDS OF COOKED RICE

would have to be eaten daily by an acti,¥£ man to supply his need for carbohydrates ;
meanwhile he would be starved in respect of protein and fat. Such food fads as
this are very risky, especially if they are allowed to affect the diet of young folk.

THE QUESTION OF BEVERAGES

must also receive attention in these " general considerations," for upon them depend
much of our health and comfort.

Water is the natural beverage for human beings, as it is for most animals.
There is no foundation for the current opinion that free drinking of water with
meals hampers digestion, by diluting the gastric juice. One pint of water at a meal
has no such effect, probably treble that amount would be needed to be detrimental

HOT WATER IS A VALUABLE BEVERAGE,

if for no other reason than that, as it passes rapidly through the stomach, its warmth
increases advantageously the movement of the stomach-walls and thus conduces to
efficient digestion; it is also beneficial because it raises the temperature of the cold
food with which it mixes. All food must reach a temperature of at least 100° Fahr.
before the process of digestion can proceed. Cold water as well as hot softens the
food received into the stomach, assisting it to dissolve.

WATER IS AN INDISPENSABLE AGENT IN EXCRETION,

for it passes rapidly into the intestines, is readily absorbed, and by increasing the
fulness of the blood-vessels promotes intestinal movement 'and secretion. Large
quantities of water passing through the intestines cleanses them also, and thus
reduces a tendency to intestinal fermentation.

HENCE, RESTRICTION IN THE AMOUNT OF WATER DRUNK

means a whole train of miseries, such as gout, because waste matters are liable
to " loiter " in the tissues instead of being thoroughly washed out of them.

"SOFT DRINKS"

have certain definite dietetic advantages. They consist of natural or artificially
prepared water highly charged with carbonic-acid gas, with the addition of soda,
potash, ginger, sugar, or flavouring matters. The gas is an aid to digestion.
Chemically, it promotes an abundant secretion of gastric juice; mechanically, the
bubbling-up of the gas through the contents of the stomach helps to break them
up into particles, so that larger and more numerous surfaces come in contact with
the digestive juice.

Lemonade, orangeade, etc., contain about 1 oz. of sugar per bottle, which may
explain their refreshing influence on cyclists or athletes when fatigued; but with
some people they disagree, a result which may be due to the amount of sugar
present, or to the employment of mineral instead of vegetable acid in their manu-
facture, the effects of which on the body are directly opposed.

TEA AND COFFEE ARE PLEASANT BEVERAGES,

and quite legitimate if made and drunk under correct conditions. In health they
exercise no disturbing influence; indeed, they are great aids to mental work and
" oil the wheels of life " by their gentle stimulation of the brain and nervous
system.

23

WHAT, THEN, ARE THE CORRECT CONDITIONS TO BE OBSERVED?

(1.) Tea should be infused not more than five minutes in freshly boiling water:
then the liquid should be poured off into another hot vessel. Coffee should be
similarly prepared in a jug or percolator, so that the water does not remain in
contact with the " grounds."

(2.) The addition of milk or cream is recommended, for the albuminous matter
in milk throws down the taunic acid present in an insoluble form. For this reason,
if tea has stood too long and become " strong," it is made more wholesome by the
addition of milk rather than of water. Three parts of hot milk to one part of coffee
is the breakfast beverage common to the greater part of Europe. It is to be com-
mended as both useful and nutritive, adapted to morning requirements.

(3.) Sugar adds to the nutritive value of these beverages, but probably detracts
from their healthfulness.

(4.) Both tea and coffee should be avoided at meat meals, especially lea.
Members of the Women's Institutes will be doing a valuable bit of work if they
unite in a determination to banish tea from their tables at dinner and supper. In
the first place,

TEA AND COFFEE ARE CERTAINLY HINDRANCES TO DIGESTION

when drunk at these meals. In the second place, a small cup of cither beverage is
an insufficient amount of fluid for adults. At least three-quarters of a pint of water
is necessary; a pint will, in most cases, be still more beneficial. In the third place.
tea and coffee are not substitutes for water in their effect on the body.

(5.) When the breakfast is a light one, either tea or coffee may be drunk l»y
adults with advantage, and again midway between meals in the afternoon; a Ilritish
custom which is worthy of adoption on this continent.

(6.) THESE BEVERAGES SHOULD BE USED SPARINGLY

by " nervous " people, and not at all by children, whose nervous systems are peculiarly
susceptible to their possibly unsatisfactory effects on nerves and digestion. Personal
peculiarities play a great part in the effect of either drink on adults even in health
and can never be neglected.

COCOA OCCUPIES A PLACE

not really very different from tea and coffee. Its action as a stimulant is less, but
the popular idea of its nutritive value has small foundation, because so little of
it can be taken at a time. It is the milk and sugar mixed with it, not the cocoa,
which constitute it a "food." To supply the energy for an ordinary day's work it
would be necessary to consume 15 oz. of cocoa, made into seventy-five cnpfnls. an
impossible undertaking. Cocoa must therefore be looked upon more as a flavouring
matter than as a food. Like toast, apple, lemon, etc., it

SERVES TO MAKE A PLEASANT VARIETY IN OUR BEVERAGES,

and often enables a faddist to be induced to drink a desirable amount of milk which
would be refused as indigestible if unflavoured with cocoa.

ALCOHOL IN ANY FORM SHOULD BE BANISHED FROM THE TABLE,

no matter how "festive" the occasion, for the following among many more sub-
stantial reasons : —

(1.) The results of carefully conducted and unprejudiced investigations show
that it is unfavourable to muscular work and is a direct hindrance to mental
exertion.

(2.) The medical profession is now convinced that alcohol is unnecessary to
any person in ordinary health ; though some form of spirit is advisedly kept in the
house, under lock and key, for use in emergency, such as acute illness or profound
exhaustion.

24

(3.) Alcohol leads to a rapid loss of heat from the body, because its first effect
is to drive all the blood to the surface. As our sensations are located in the skin,
the result is the feeling of pleasing warmth which gives rise to the misapprehension
that stimulants " warm," whereas most drunkards die of cold if exposed to wet or
severe weather when intoxicated.

TO TAKE ALCOHOL BEFORE GOING OUT INTO THE COLD

enhances all the risks from chill. On the other hand, a small dose of alcohol in
hot water after unusual exposure is sometimes beneficial, because its effect is to
drive back to the surface the blood which has been withdrawn to the deeper
parts of the body in order to maintain the body-temperature, and thus to lessen the
tendency to congestion of the internal organs.

(4.) FOR SOME REASON, NOT YET ENTIRELY EXPLAINED,

the effects of alcohol on human beings to-day, and through them upon their off-
spring, appear to be more pernicious than was formerly the case. Therefore, in the
interests of national health and Imperial stability, complete abstinence from alcohol
is demanded on the part of those who are not even tempted to take it to excess.

MORE DETRIMENTAL THAN OCCASIONAL INTOXICATION

is the habitual taking of " nips," which play grievous havoc with the tissues,
especially those of the brain, and result in a gradual deterioration throughout the
whole body. But this is a huge subject, impossible of detailed treatment in this
bulletin, the remainder of which must be devoted to a consideration of

THE CONNECTION BETWEEN THE INDIVIDUAL AND HIS FOOD.

Readers of this section are particularly requested to bear in mind that the
remarks made apply to the healthy adult, not to children or invalids.

(1.) HOW THE TIME OF DAY AFFECTS THE FOOD EATEN.

So many incidental allusions have been made to this factor in a suitable diet
that little need be added to them. A fairly light breakfast, the heaviest meal of
the day about 0 or 7 p.m., a midday repast more or less substantial according to
occupation, age, and season, a very light supper, if for any reason dinner at 7 is
impossible ; these 'are good general rules for our guidance.

TO BE HUNGRY IS FAR MORE WHOLESOME

than to eat so often and so heavily that the next meal is offered before there is a
natural appetite to eat it. The stomach is not ready for a rich, heavy breakfast,
unless some hours of work are carried on before the meal ; and indigestion is being
courted if a heavy repast be taken just before the bed hour, especially if very tired.

(2.) THE SEASON OF THE YEAR AND ITS INFLUENCE UPON FOOD.

A healthy instinct is generally a safe guide in this matter if we have any choice
in the selection of dishes. Thick soups, pork and beans, stews and suet puddings, all
appeal to our appetite in cold weather ; root vegetables and onions are enjoyed, and
cooked cheese in its many forms is acceptable.

With the first warm days of spring, not only is less food eaten, but a longing
for salads and lighter " desserts " is experienced. Stews become distasteful and must
be replaced by curried or hashed or minced meat. Milk-puddings and stewed fruit
commend themselves,

WHILE THE SKILFUL COMBINATION

of apples with rhubarb or cranberries or blackberries supply a sharpness and fresh
flavour which is must appreciated. It is just in the spring that new receipts will
appeal to the family; they should always be on hand for this season.

Clear soups and purees of fresh vegetables are liked even in summer, when

25

ALL KINDS OF CHANGES HAVE TO BE RUNG

on cornstarch, ground rice, tapioca, and other " moulds " made with milk or fruit-
juice. Eggs can be prepared in a large variety of forms and can be cooked with
tomatoes, spinach, and other vegetables. Fresh peas and beans can be served, hot
or cold, with ham or bacon, while salmon, chicken, or veal can be prepared in many
different ways. The consumption of meat is wisely reduced in hot weather.

FRUIT SHOULD ENTER PROMINENTLY INTO THE DIET,

and cakes and puddings should be less rich in eggs and butter than in cold weather.
Salads are most appetizing; though their digestibility is further hampered when they
are smothered in rich dressings. Autumn brings the welcome variety of game and
venison, many favourite fruits, and appetites sharpened by cooler weather.

IT IS WELL TO BEAR IN MIND AT ALL SEASONS

that to force excess of food on the reluctant consumer does not make for health.
neither does it constitute true hospitality. Always make it easy for any member of
the family, as well as the casual visitor, to decline food or to diminish the ordinary
quantity without attracting attention.

(3.) THE AGE AND STATE OF HEALTH OF THE EATER.

It has already been pointed out (in Part I.) that the proportions of nutrients
required throughout life vary with the age of the eater. After middle life less and
less food is needed, because the bodily activities diminish and the power of the
tissues to assimilate nourishment becomes smaller.

"THE DANGER OF OVERFEEDING THE OLD

is almost as great as that of underfeeding the young/' writes Dr. R. Hutchison;
"an excess of nourishment chokes instead of feeding the flickering flame of life."
A most useful guide to this variation in food requirements is furnished in Fig. 1,
Part I., of this Bulletin. It is not suggested that the actual number of ounces of
each nutrient (as represented by these curves) should be calculated for each year
of age; but the relative requirements are clearly indicated, and that is what the
housewife wants.

THE ACTUAL AMOUNT OF FOOD NEEDED

at the same age varies with each one of us. Women eat less than men, though
perhaps of equal height and weight. It is generally accepted that, other things being
equal, a woman would eat but eight parts of food where a man would eat ten parts.

THE BUILD AND SHAPE OF THE BODY

influence the consumption of food more than is suspected, i.e., the amount of food
required resolves itself into a question of surface. The larger the surface relative
to the bulk of the body, the greater the loss of heat and the greater the amount of
food needed to maintain the normal temperature. Picture for a moment a very tall.
lean man and a short, stout woman. Their weight may be the same, but the man
will need quite a third more food than the woman, because he has at least a third
more surface in proportion to his bulk, from which heat radiates out into the
surrounding atmosphere and is lost to his body.

THE FATTER THE INDIVIDUAL THE LESS FOOD IS REQUIRED,

whereas the lanky youth and weedy girl will have what are called preposterous
appetites if in good health; only by this large consumption of food can they make
good the loss of heat from the relatively large surfaces of their thin bodies.

26

(4.) THE OCCUPATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL AS IT AFFECTS HIS DIET.

The proportion of food needed is actually more affected by work and rest than
by any other factors. The harder the muscular labour, the more food must be eaten.
A man performing very severe labour will require nearly twice as much food as the
clerk in an office, and a third more than a man who is doing light work, such as a
gardener. If the work is mental, not muscular, a very light diet meets the case.
It should be of a specially digestible character, with a strictly moderate use of fats
and carbohydrates. In these two points lie

THE ONLY REAL DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE FOOD OF A MANUAL
AND OF A MENTAL WORKER,

the food of a labourer or of a student. The question is one mainly of quantity
rather than of quality of the diet. The old idea, for instance, that fish was a
" brain " food is without foundation, beyond the fact that whitefish is easier of
digestion than meat. The brain and muscles both derive their nutriment from the
lymph and blood, which circulate impartially over the whole body.

LIGHT FOOD ONLY AND IN SMALL QUANTITIES SHOULD BE THE RULE

when at rest, either on the train or steamer, or when in bed for some slight
indisposition or trifling injury, or when taking a respite from work. In such cases
also it is wise to consume fats and carbohydrates very sparingly.

Perhaps this point will be best illustrated by the following table, which shows
the amount of body-fat utilized under different conditions of life; it brings out
forcibly

THE RELATION BETWEEN WORK AND DIET.

One hour of sleep consumes 0.31 oz. of fat.

One hour of lying awake consumes 0.46 oz. of fat.

One hour of standing consumes 0.55 oz. of fat.

One hour of walking two miles an hour consumes 1.1 oz. of fat.

One hour of walking three miles an hour consumes 1.6 oz. of fat.

One hour of work on treadmill consumes 2.75 oz. of fat.

Toast, eggs, whitefish steamed, clear soup, light farinaceous puddings, and
stewed fruit are advantageous foods for brain-workers, sedentary livers, or tem-
porary invalids; remembering always that he who would gain the mastery must
be temperate in all things.

(5.) THE FINAL CONSIDERATION IS THAT OF INDIVIDUAL
IDIOSYNCRASIES,

the most inconvenient and unwelcome of all the requirements which the housewife
is called upon to meet.

Fortunately, though we all have special favourites in flavours, there are very
few healthy people who cannot eat and enjoy most plain fare. It may be that pork
or goose are too rich for one; then let him eat more apple-sauce and less meat, he
will be none the worse.

It is possible that boiled mutton does not appeal to another, or that parsnips
are distasteful to a third. Such objections mean shorter commons at one meal,
which will hurt no one.

BUT THERE ARE RARE CASES

where porridge or mackerel lead to subsequent vomiting; where eggs or shell-fish
cause a rash, or where roast mutton acts like a poison. These idiosyncrasies cannot
be overcome and must be humored ; that is to say, provision must be made for that
member of the family to ensure sufficient nutrition from other sources. To force
down really hated food, far from overcoming the dislike, will only

27

ADD PHYSICAL DISORDER TO MENTAL DISGUST.

It is well, if opportunity allow, to cultivate n taste for all kinds of food in
youth. Quite often, children will be led to crave for the simplest pudding or tin-
often detested green vegetables by introducing these dishes as special favourites of
their elders, to be enjoyed only as a rare treat. In many cases they are provided
for the child members only of the party, while their elders eat more highly flavoured
fare; then the small folk are apt to conceive a dislike for their "ear-marked" diet
which cannot be shaken, much to their loss then and in later life.

"PLEASE SUPPLY A SELECTION OF MENUS SUITABLE FOR ALL

SEASONS"

has been a constant petition when this matter of the right arrangement of family
meals has been under discussion. Now. such menus might be of interest, but they
would be of small practical worth. Tastes and habits in the selection of forms of
food vary conspicuously in different homes. The facilities for obtaining different
articles of diet are quite as variable, so also are the prices. Eggs and milk may be
purchasable at a reasonable cost to one inquirer, while they can only be used in
very limited quantities by another. One family may, perforce, rely chietly on salted
meat and preserved fruits for several months of the year, while elsewhere fresh
meat, game, and vegetables are always at hand. In one case

THE NEEDS OF CHILDREN CLAIM FIRST CONSIDERATION;

in another there are aged inmates to provide for; in a third case the household
consists entirely of hard-working adults.

The result of a careful study of these two bulletins and of the diagrams with
which they are illustrated should enable every woman of ordinary experience to
select and combine suitable dishes for the nutrition of her household. For instance.
no one would now dream of providing a corn and molasses pudding on a hot August
day, but would arrange combinations intelligently, and with due thought of tempera-
ture, occupation, and age. If the meat course is cold. let the dessert be hot. If pork
or roast beef be the chief dish, provide a light pudding, not one made with suet.
for example.

With baked beans and pork a dessert of stewed fruit and a bread or comstareh
mould is appropriate. Dumplings are very suitable with vegetable-soup; and boiled
jam-pudding is pleasant when cold mutton has preceded it on tin- table. A steamed
batter-pudding with syrup or fruit may follow a dish of fish; and a simple rice or
sago pudding is best if the meat course has been a rich one.

WHATEVER IS WORTH DOING IS WORTH DOING WELL.

There is no royal road to the provision of varied, palatable, wholesome meals
any more than to any other duty in life. Each house-mother must keep her own
wits sharpened, her own eyes on the lookout, her own ears alert, if she is to fultil!
her obligations in this matter of the nutrition of her family. Most failures in these
days result from want of thought, some are the offspring of ignorance. See to it
that neither the one cause or the other exists in your own case.

ALICE RAVENHILL,

Fellotc of the I'oi/<il Snnihini Jnxtitntc : Crrtifn-nh-fl Lecturer
National Health Sodttit, (in-nt It ri hi in <ni<l Ireland.

Author of "Practical li.nt/ifin- for U«e in Schnnlx " ;
"Elements of Sanitary Laic''; "Some Charactcri*ii<-x
mi, I Requirement* of Childhood"; "Household Admin-
istration"; "Household Foes," etc.

Late Lecturer on Hygiene, University of London, King's
College for Women.

NOTICE.

.

The Department of Agriculture is issuing the following series of bulletins pre-
pared by Miss Alice Ravenhill, Shawnigan Lake, B.C., to be available for distribution
among the members of the Women's Institutes throughout the Province : —
No. 1. The Place and Purpose of Family Life.
,. 2. The Preparation of Food.
3. The Preservation of Food.
„ 4. Labour-saving Devices in the Household.

5. Food and Diet — Parts I. and II.

6. The Art of Right Living.

7. The Care of Children.

BULLETINS ISSUED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

No. 7. Flax.

,, 8. Feeding Farm Animals.

„ 20. Varieties of Fruit Recommended. (Revised.)

„ 25. Orchard Cleansing.

„ 28. Production of Eggs.

„ 29. Poultry Industry on the Pacific Coast.

„ 30. Guide to Bee-keeping in British Columbia.

„ 32. Control of Bovine Tuberculosis in British Columbia.

„ 33. Fruit-growing Possibilities, Skeena River and Porcher Island Districts.

„ 34. Fruit-trees and Black-spot Canker.

„ 35. The Place and Purpose of Family Life.

„ 3(3. The Preparation of Food.

„ 37. The Preservation of Food.

„ 38. The Construction of Silos.

„ 39. Natural and Artificial Incubation and Brooding.

„ 40. Alfalfa.

„ 41. Labour-saving Devices in the Household.

„ 42. Apiculture in British Columbia.

„ 43. Women's Work in British Columbia.

„ 44. Irrigation in British Columbia.

., 45. Agricultural Statistics, 1911.

„ 46. Food and Diet — Part I.

„ 47. Food and Diet — Part II.

Applications for bulletins published by the Department of Agriculture should be
addressed to the Secretary, Department of Agriculture, Victoria, B.C.

VICTORIA, B.C. :

Printed by WILLIAM H. CULLIN, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty.

1913.

29

PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA ™™

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BULLETIN No. 48.

EXHIBITING FRUIT AND VEGETABLES

BY

R. M. WINSLOW, B.S.A., Provincial Horticulturist.

PRINTED BY
AUTHORITY OP THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY.

VICTORIA, B.C.:

Printed by WILLIAM H. CULLIN, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty.

1913.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

VICTORIA, B.C., January 15th, 1913.

Hon. Price Ellison,

Minister of Agriculture.

SIR, — I have the honour to transmit herewith Bulletin No. 48,
entitled " Exhibiting Fruit and Vegetables," compiled by E. M.
Winslow, B.S.A., Provincial Horticulturist.

I have the honour to be,

Sir,
Your obedient servant,

WM. E. SCOTT,

Deputy Minister of Agriculture.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE.
Introduction ...... .... ..5

Exhibition of Fruit .. .. .. *; .. 5

Standards of Perfection . . . . . . • . . . . ' . . . . 5

Score-card for Plates of Apples or Pears . . . . . . . . 9

Score-card for Plates of Peaches .. ".. .. .. .. ... 10

Score-card for Plates of Plums and Prunes . . . . . . ... 10

Score-card for Plates of Seedlings . . 11

Plate Collections — Score-cards .; .. • •<.-. '• 11

Boxes of Apples, Pears, Peaches — Score-cards . . . , . . . . 12
Preparation of Fruit for Exhibition ..< . , . . . * . . . . 13

Exhibition of Garden Vegetables .. ... 15

Standards of Perfection for Vegetables . . . . 15

Prize-list, Vegetables . . . . • . . . . 24

Commercial Classes — Vegetables .. .. .. 25

Collection Classes — Vegetables .. " .. • ..26

Adapting this Prize-list to Individual Fairs . . . . 26

Mixing Garden and Field Classes i . ' 26

Rules and Regulations relating to Fruit and Vegetable Sections .. 27

Prize-lists — Formation .. .. .. .'. ..28

Revision of Prize-lists . 32

EXHIBITING FRUIT AND VEGETABLES.

INTRODUCTION.

FOR a number of years past the Horticultural Branch of the Department
of Agriculture has been supplying judges for fruit, and to a certain
extent for vegetables, for the numerous fairs of the Province. This was
undertaken primarily in order to establish uniform and correct standards of
perfection, which the indiscriminate choice of judges by each local fair had
previously failed to do. The reports of the exhibition officials and exhibitors
indicate that, to a very large extent, uniformly correct judging standards have
now been established and maintained.

It is also the desire to use the information so acquired by the Horticul-
tural Branch to modify the prize-lists of the different fairs in such ways as
to promote the culture of the best varieties of fruits and vegetables by giving
the greatest prize-money to such varieties ; by providing for commercial displays
in order to educate exhibitors in the commercial methods of packing; and
generally to build up exhibitions by inspiring their officials to keep well abreast
of the progress of horticulture in their districts.

The work of the Horticultural Branch has been of great assistance to
exhibitors in the identification of varieties; in disseminating a knowledge of
the various blemishes to which fruit is subject; and to a very large extent in
promoting general information on what is ideal in fruit-production. This work,
having been carried on for several years, has given general satisfaction. There
has been a great improvement in the fairs, and the offer made by the Depart-
ment to have the prize-lists of the various fairs revised at the end of each
year by the Horticultural Branch has been generally taken up. This matter
was discussed at the last Agricultural Fairs Association meeting at Victoria,
and the following resolution passed: —

" Be it Resolved, That this meeting is fully in accord with the general
principles of prize-list revision as stated before us by the Provincial Horticul-
turist, and we recommend that the various agricultural associations consult
with the Department of Agriculture on the necessary revision."

Our officials found much room for improvement in the choice of products
for exhibition, in their preparation, nomenclature, and arrangement, and we
have been able to make many recommendations in the revision of prize-lists.
A general demand has been created for information along many of these lines,
but more especially with regard to the score-cards used and the standards of
perfection for the various types of fruits and vegetables, and it is to meet this
demand that the present circular has been prepared.

EXHIBITION OF FRUIT.

STANDARDS OF PERFECTION.

The first step in preparing the exhibit of fruit is to get a mental picture
of the ideal first prize exhibit. Of course, the entry must comply with the
rules and regulations of the association, and be entered in due form and staged
correctly on time and place; but the fruit itself must have a high degree of
intrinsic merit if it is to excel in competition. There are certain standards
of perfection which are accepted as ideal, and in proportion as the exhibits
approach the perfect ideal they should receive awards.

6

The standards of perfection discussed here are the results of much experi-
ence. They have been reached as the result of observation during a number
of years at the fairs of this Province and in the apple regions of the United
States, and in them endeavour has been made to emphasize those qualities
of fruit, in their proper relative proportions, which, when attained, give fruit
pre-eminence.

In answering the question, What is the standard of perfection? we say
of a plate of fruit that it must be free from blemishes and in good condition,
of normal shape and size for the variety, and for purposes of consumption
of the highest possible colour, uniform in all respects, and of high quality
for the variety.

In collections of fruit there must be, in addition, correct nomenclature,
commercial value, proper selection to cover the season, and the various uses
in consumption, and attractive arrangement. For packed fruit there must
be — in addition to the form, size, condition, uniformity, and freedom from
blemishes — proper packing and attractiveness of package; so that standards
take in many points, and must be discussed separately.

There are, however, certain principles upon which all our standards are
based, and upon which our score-cards are prepared. These principles will be
first discussed, and, following them, the various standards and score-cards
separately.

THE SIZE OF FRUIT.

This is a point on which there is much misunderstanding. Many seem
to consider that for exhibition the largest size is the perfect size. This is
manifestly absurd. Fruit is mainly to eat, partly to look at, and its consump-
tion value should rule in exhibition as in use. This principle has been in
much confusion, but the point now stands as clearly defined. In some varieties
of fruits, however, which in British Columbia do not attain the size they do
in more southerly regions, the market demands the size to which it has been
accustomed, and when this size is secured at only moderate sacrifice of quality
and none of colour, as in plums, prunes, and peaches, the size should be large.
The most desired sizes for each fruit will be discussed under their separate
headings.

COLOUR.

Colour, like size, is an obvious quality of fruits, and is one in demand.
Colour is popular because it appeals to the eye, and is also usually associated
with quality. In all our fruits the highest possible amount of colour is
demanded. At the same time it must not be secured at the expense of other
qualities. Some very highly coloured fruit is so because of some injury to
the tree, or from undue exposure of the fruit to sun or warmth. Such fruit
would lose points on condition. The colour must be healthy and attractive, as
well as high, and must be typical of the best in the variety. Any abnormality
of colour scores low, on type and colour both.

FORM.

In shape, the fruit must be true to the type of the variety, as commonly
known. Some varieties vary widely in different districts. In extreme cases
the off-shape fruit must be scored down. In many varieties of irregular or
unsymmetrical form, individual fruits may be chosen that excel in uniformity
and regularity, and while they may score high on uniformity, they may be
so off-type as to be disqualified for form. There is, then, a medium between
the extremes that scores well both ways. For this reason it is desirable to
choose fruits rather more uniform than the usual type of the variety.

UNIFORMITY.

This quality is most important in all classes of fruits. The individual
specimens that comprise the entry should be as nearly alike as possible. They
should each approach the common ideal, which ideal is, of course, the perfect
one for the variety and for its intended use. Uniformity gives attractive-
ness to what, without it, would be -ft collection of unattractive specimens.
Uniformity is also the fundamental of successful packing, and is the basis of
fruit-grading; in itself it also helps to sell the fruit.

Uniformity applies to colour, size, shape, and condition. Some varieties
of fruit are much more variable in shape than others, as, for instance,
Wagener and Mclntosh, as compared with Wealthy, Jonathan, and Northern
Spy ; and in such irregular varieties such perfect smoothness as is expected
in the latter kinds is not typical of the variety, and so would lose points
under " Form."

FREEDOM FROM BLEMISHES AND CONDITION.

It is a fundamental in exhibiting fruit that it should be perfect: free
from all blemishes, whether they cause actual waste or merely disfigurements.
This seems a most obvious axiom, and yet much fruit is shown with most
apparent defects. Just how to deal with fruit infected with disease is often
a problem with the judge, especially at fairs in new districts, or those where
fruit is of secondary importance, as in many Coast sections. To disqualify
all infected fruit would discourage earnest exhibitors, and would sometimes
result in awards going to fruit much inferior in all other essential points.
Our judges are therefore instructed to use their best judgment on this point,
but to be as firm as possible, and to discourage the display of diseased
specimens.

Blemishes are of four main sorts : —

(1.) Insect injuries, which are generally obvious. Most of these, especially
the presence of scale-insects, should disqualify at once.

(2.) Fungous diseases, especially apple and pear scab, brown-rot of the
stone-fruits, etc., for the display of which there is but little excuse.

(3.) Physiological troubles, prominent among which are fruit-pit (or
Baldwin spot) and water-core, for both of which fruit should always be dis-
qualified.

(4.) Mechanical injuries, such as hail-marks, bruises, punctures of the
skin, etc. Many of these, especially slight bruises and healed-over injuries of
any kind, are considered the least injurious. The absence of the stems is,
however, evidence of gross carelessness and should disqualify exhibits of
apples, pears, and plums, as it leads to early decay of the fruit. With prunes,
it is hard to keep the stems on, and it is unnecessary, as breaking-off of the
stem does not with these cause decay. In fact, prunes wither less where the
stems are removed.

POLISHING.

Unless local regulations and sentiment are distinctly against wiping and
polishing, apples and pears may be so prepared. We are aware that this
practice is forbidden in the prize-lists of many of our fairs, but the rule is
now much more honoured in the breach than in the observance. We believe
that it is a regulation which might well be abolished altogether. The large
shows all allow polishing. It really does not affect keeping quality.

CONDITION.

This refers to the stage of ripeness. Specimens of varieties past season
should be in reasonably firm condition, and prizes should be awarded to the

8

entries not past condition at the show. Fruit so far past season as to be
unsightly should not be shown. Winter fruits are not supposed to be of
mature eating quality at the fall fairs, but they should be firm and in a normal
stage of growth for the time of year, not too far advanced, which indicates
short keeping qualities, and not so immature as to suggest possible failure to
properly mature before frosts.

QUALITY.

On the score-cards quality is the combination of flavour, sweetness, texture,
etc., that constitutes edibility. The term includes the quality of the fruit for
preserving or cooking, as well as for dessert purposes. It will be noticed that
there is no place allowed for quality in score-cards for plates of one variety,
or boxes of one variety. This is because it is assumed that all exhibits of
one variety are equal in quality. If not, then the one more deficient in colour
and condition would be of least quality, and would be scored down on those
points. Where varieties compete against each other, however, the question of
quality must be considered as of primary importance, and receives a place
on the score-card in consequence. It is also considered in deciding on the
merits of collections, and is very important in giving awards for the " any
other variety " class, as well as that for seedlings or new varieties.

In commercial exhibits, quality also includes shipping qualities and the
standing of the variety in the estimation of the market. The variety that
ships best and is best liked on the market gets favourable consideration on
these advantages.

In deciding on quality, which, by the way, is a very hard thing to define,
and to quite a surprising extent a subject for a great difference of opinion,
the judge does not test the different varieties, but gives each a score based
on his knowledge of the general estimate of it.

With seedlings and new varieties, however, it is necessary for him to
sample them, and make awards according to his personal judgment.

COMMERCIAL VALUE.

This is scored in collections only, as in box classes each variety is supposed
to have a class for itself. The judge does not decide on the commercial
value of the specimens on exhibition, but takes the general verdict of the
markets to which the fruit of the district normally goes as to the average
value of each variety. It is important to- note that the commercial value of
the variety as locally produced is considered, not its value as produced in
fruit districts in general. Where a district is not yet at the marketing stage,
the judge will make as correct an estimate as possible of the relative com-
mercial values of the varieties in competition.

NOMENCLATURE.

Fruits shall be correctly named. In plate fruits, where it is assumed that
all the plates are named (and this should be required), the judge may dis-
qualify for omission or misnaming. In this latter case, he will, if possible,
make the necessary correction. In collections, it is expected that there may
be some defects in nomenclature, and scoring will be based accordingly. The
names of varieties should be insisted on in all exhibits, and especially in
collections and commercial displays, because their absence greatly detracts
from the educational value of the decision. Labels should be neat, legible,
and convenient to see, but should not be pasted or pinned to the fruit.

SEASON.

The period of time at which fruit is edible is its season. In most seedlings,
or in "any other varieties," the longer-keeping variety would have the most

9

desirable season. With the seedling apple, we would give full points for one
keeping into April or May. In soft fruits, the season of use should be long,
so that fruit will hold up well, and it should come at a time when that fruit
is likely to be in demand, or when there are no other desirable varieties. In
collections for home use, the season implies a long range, from early till late,
so that there should be a supply at all times throughout the year. In com-
mercial collections, the varieties should' include the principal commercial kinds,
and especially those which come at a time of most demand. The commercial
collection should, in other words, give a succession of varieties most in demand
on the market at the times they are in demand.

PACKAGE AND PACKING.

For commercial fruit-production, packages and packing must be of the
highest standard. The package must be adaptable to the fruit, reasonable in
cost, sufficiently strong, and attractive. The packages used in British Columbia
meet these requirements to a reasonable degree. Packing must result in a
compact, firm, full, attractive pack. This will be considered in detail under
the proper heading.

PLATES OF APPLES OR PEARS.

Size 15

Colour 25

Uniformity 25

Form 15

Freedom from blemishes and condition 20

NOTE.— Score-cards are not used for actual judging of plate fruits, except in the
closest competition. The judge can carry in his mind the relative importance of the
points mentioned. All judges are instructed, however, to use the score-card occa
sionally to secure harmony with it, and consequently uniformity.

Size (15 points). — Apples and pears should be of medium sizes. Jonathan
and Spitzenberg should be about 138's ; Snow and Cox's Orange, 175's ; Spy and
Mclntosh Red, 125's ; other dessert varieties in similar proportion. For show-
ing in the United States, choose fruits one to two sizes larger, because in that
country they have a fruit-stand trade that wants larger apples, and the
American apple-box takes slightly larger sizes of fruit to better advantage.
For Canadian conditions, we believe we are well advised in choosing the sizes
as above for British Columbia. It is in medium sizes that the greatest quality,
colour, and length of keeping are secured. There is a tendency in British
Columbia to grow apples and pears to the oversizes, especially because most
trees are young. In cooking varieties, larger sizes are demanded, as, for
example, 112's for Rhode Island Greening. Varieties such as Alexander,
Beitegheimer, and Wolf River, whose large size is their recommendation,
should be as large as possible, consistent with perfect colour, shape, freedom
from blemishes, and condition. Size is not the most important factor, how-
ever, for colour, uniformity, and freedom from blemish are each given a higher
score. Because it is such an obvious quality, however, it usually receives
undue consideration. In many of the newer fruit districts, where most of the
fruit shown is from young trees, consequently large and low-coloured, the
awarding of prizes to fruit of proper size and colour gave apparent prefer-
ence to the smallest fruit shown. Some exhibitors consequently went to the
opposite extreme, and concluded that the smallest fruit was most desired, and
were disappointed at the next exhibition on receiving no award against normal-
sized fruit.

Pears are usually shown oversized ; 2y2 inches in diameter is about correct
for the Bartlett. 2% inches for Flemish Beauty, and other varieties in pro-
portion.

10

Colour (25 points). — Colour should be as high as possible, consistent with
the type of variety in the district. Red varieties of apples should be red all
over. Blush varieties should have a good blush on the cheek. Green and
yellow varieties should have as much red as can be secured, but the clearness
of the green or yellow colour is of first importance in such varieties. Russet
varieties should be evenly russeted all over, and bright-reddish russet rather
than green. The same colour rules apply to pears as to apples.

Uniformity (25 points). — Absolute uniformity is desired, especially in
colour and size, because these are the two main points in grading.

Form (15 points). — Form should be correct for the variety and district,
but is not so important as colour and uniformity. It would be impossible to
describe the correct type of each of the various varieties, even for one district,
and the local type varies, especially between the Coast and the Interior.
Generally, the apple which grows from the centre blossom of a cluster is most
typical, and should be shown ; in fact, to get uniformity in form ind type, all
apples should be so chosen. Type can only be learned by study and practical
handling of the different varieties. In varieties of irregular form, an ideal
rather more regular than the average is likely to be favoured, because of its
uniformity.

Freedom from Blemishes and Condition (20 points). — The presence of
fruit-pit and water-core is especially to be guarded against. Stems of all kinds
should be intact, though the ends may be clipped if long.

PLATES OF PEACHES.

Size 20

Colour 25

Uniformity 20

Form 15

Freedom from blemishes and condition 20

100

Size (20 points).— Size is a more important point with peaches. The
market demands them of the largest size. In the exhibition of late varieties,
sizes from GO's to 72's are most desirable.

Colour (25 points). — Colour should be as high as possible, and specinu-ns
should be absolutely uniform in all respects. The form should be typical of
the variety.

Freedom from blemishes is usually easy to get, but exhibitors must be
careful to avoid split pits, which are very easily overlooked, while small bruises,
not apparent at the time the fruit is set up, begin to show by the time it
is judged.

In cqndition, the peaches should be firm.

PLATES OF PLUMS AND PRUNES.

Size 25

Colour 15

Uniformity 25

Form 10

Freedom from blemishes and condition 25

100

They should be the largest obtainable for the variety, consistent with other
points. Colour should be typical in tone, uniform, and as high as possible.
Uniformity is fairly easy to secure, and is expected in a high degree. In form
the fruit should be smooth and typical of the variety.

11

Freedom from blemishes is important, and such things as split pit and
gummy pit, as in Pond's Seedling, may be easily overlooked. The greatest
care should be taken to have the stems intact in all varieties of plums, because
usually when the stem is lost the skin is broken, and decay will set in. Slight
skin-punctures not readily apparent will quickly lead to brown-rot in many
districts. Fruit should be firm and in first-class condition. If brought from
cold-storage it should not have any m'oisture condensed on it. Preferably, the
bloom should be preserved. The stems need not be left on prunes.

PLATES OF SEEDLINGS AND FRUITS LISTED UNDER " ANY OTHER VARIETY."

Size 15

Colour 20

Uniformity 10

Form 15

Freedom from blemishes 10

Quality 25

Season 5

100

These are very unsatisfactory classes to judge. Plates of seedlings, to
receive awards, should excel most commercial varieties under culture locally,
in colour, uniformity, quality, and in season, while the specimens exhibited
should have good commercial size, and especially should be free from all
blemishes. As little or nothing as to their commercial value can be told from
the plateful of apples, we do not consider this class of much value.

The " any other variety " class is eminently unsatisfactory to all concerned,
for similar reasons. It is usual to award but one set of prizes for the whole
collection displayed under this heading. Many good varieties go unrecognized,
and their owners feel, justly, that there may be several plates each of which
is perfectly worthy of first prize on its variety merits.

We recommend the abolition of this class from prize-lists. If a variety
is worthy of a prize, let it be featured as a variety.

PLATE COLLECTIONS OF APPLES, PEARS, PLUMS, PEACHES, AND OTHER FRUITS

FOR HOME ORCHARD.

Size 5

Colour 15

Uniformity 10

Form 10

Freedom from blemish 20

Quality 15

Commercial value 10

Nomenclature 5

Season 10

100

In this collection, wrhich is a very worthy one, and one which should be
included in all prize-lists, there are the same requirements for size, colour,
uniformity, form, freedom from blemish, and condition as are required of the
individual varieties in their respective plate classes. As different varieties are
shown in the different collections, however, their quality must be taken into
consideration, and this is given 15 points. Commercial value is considered to
the extent of 10 points, because a great part of the product of the home
orchard should be of value commercially to provide for the sale of excess
yields. A wide range of varieties over the season is desired, and so is a

12

range over the different uses to which the fruit is put — dessert, cooking,
jamming, preserving, etc. Collections of not more than twenty-five varieties
are expected, and a number of varieties beyond such limit should not be
encouraged.

Nomenclature should be correct, for one of the greatest values of such
collection is to aid new-comers and intending planters to choose the most
desirable varieties for the purpose.

COLLECTIONS OF APPLES, PEARS, PLUMS, AND PEACHES FOR COMMERCIAL USE.

Size 10

Colour 15

Uniformity 10

Form 10

Freedom from blemish and condition 10

Quality 10

Commercial value 20

Nomenclature "•

Season 10

100

The requirements in this connection arc in some respects like those of
the previous one. The intrinsic merits of the fruit must meet commercial
requirements, as discussed under plate fruits, but quality is less considered,
and commercial value is given a higher score than in home collections. The
requirements of season are somewhat different. Gem-rally, a list of over ten
varieties of apples or four of pears is not encouraged, while the longest keep-
ing commercial kinds should be given most consideration.

KOXKS OF APPLKS. PKAKS. OR PEACH i B.
Fruit-
Size in

Colour 20

I 'niformity 15

Freedom from blemish and condition 1~»

Quality 1 ."

- 75

Package and packing 3

Height at ends 4

Fullness or bulge 4

Solidity or compactness .">

Attractiveness and style of pack ."

Alignment 4

- 23

100

All box displays are intended to be in commercial packages, and the object
of these box displays is to encourage the highest types of fruit and packing
for market purposes. The sizes of the fruit should be those of the greatest
commercial value, usually 104 to 128 to the box in such varieties as Jonathan,
Spitzenberg. Mclntosh. \Vagener, Northern Spy. Large varieties, such as King,
Alexander. Wolf River, etc., may go as high as 72 to the box. while small
varieties, such as Snow, Cox's Orange, and Winesap, should be 175 to 188.
The best commercial size for the variety should be the guiding rule. Markets
for British Columbia fruit prefer 4- and 4^-tier apples. For American exhibi-
tions, in standard dessert varieties choose the close 2—2 packs, 9G-120.

13

The colour should be high, and it will be noted that colour is scored higher
than any other point in commercial packages.

Under uniformity we expect fruit to be as even in colour, size, shape,
and condition as it is possible to get. This is the foundation of successful
grading. Moreover, in every respect, the fruit in the lower layers should be
the same as those in the top rows. We are very glad to see that this rule
is now very generally recognized in British Columbia, and it was extremely
rare in this past season to find a box of apples that was not equally as good
in the lower layers as it was in the top.

Freedom from blemishes is important in boxes, though it does not receive
quite as high a score as in plate exhibits, and a slightly greater amount of
blemishes is allowed.

Quality, for which 15 points is allowed, is taken into consideration only
when two varieties are in competition. In single-variety entry quality is rated
full points for all entries. When varieties compete, quality refers to commer-
cial quality, market preference, and includes keeping quality and range of
season as well.

Package and Packing (3 points). — The box should be of spruce rather than
pine or other inferior woods; in all dimensions should be correct standard
size, evenly cut, and with single-piece ends, sides, tops, and bottoms. In finish-
ing, we expect it to be planed on the inside and the ends on both sides ; proper
cleats ; properly nailed ; put together to make a strong, attractive package.
The wood must be clean. It is preferable not to have the brand exposed in
box exhibits.

HciffJit at Ends (4 points). — The bulge must slope gently to both ends, at
which the fruit must be only about ^4 inch above each end. This is sufficient
to provide tightness when the cover is nailed on. Lower ends may go slack,
while, if higher, the fruit will be bruised by the cover.

Fullness or Bulge is allowed 4 points, which does not fully emphasize its
importance. Boxes of peaches should be full up to the cover, but with no
bulge. Plums and prunes packed in four-basket plum-crates should have a
bulge of about % inch. Apple-boxes should have a total bulge, top and bottom,
of 1*4 to 1% inches. As small as 1 inch may be satisfactory on the very
tight packs, while 1% inches is none too much on the open packs. Too great
a bulge causes too much bruising, and too small a bulge means a light-weight
box, and one that will not carry well. Pears require a heavy bulge, between
2 and 2% inches total, top and bottom, on account of the great shrinkage of
pears in shipment.

Solidity or Compactness (5 points). — The pack must be firm and solid, so
that the fruits are immovable in any direction. Full weight is expected.

Attractiveness and Style of Pack (5 points). — As packed, the box must be
attractive, the wrapping smooth and even, with no torn papers; the general
impression to be one of evenness, neatness, and uniformity. Of the three styles
of packs, only the " diagonal " should be awarded a prize. " Square " or
" offset " packs should be disqualified. A change of pack in the lower layers
should also be disqualified. The pack must be regular and it must be the
correct pack for the shape and size of the fruit.

Alif/Hmcnt (4 points). — The rows of apples, across, along, and diagonally,
must be in perfect alignment. This is the final evidence of skilful grading
and packing. Proper alignment greatly increases the attractiveness of the
packs.

PREPARATION OF FRUIT FOR EXHIBITION.

The actual selection and preparation of fruit for exhibition is a matter
in which a man should learn by experience. Actual practice and the results

14

of showing for a year or two seein almost necessary to the creation of the
proper ideal in the mind of the intending exhibitor. The following are sugges-
tions which in a great many cases would have given much better results if
followed : —

(1.) Get a copy of the prize-list of the local fair as soon as it is pub-
lished, and study it carefully. Mark the classes you expect to compete in.

(2.) Read and re-read the rules and regulations of the show. More
mistakes are made from carelessness in this respect than any other. Some
exhibitors do not seem to realize that the object of the rules is to make
competition equal and fair, and when any exhibitor fails to comply with them
and is still admitted to competition, he has an advantage to which he is not
entitled. The rules should be complied with in making entry, in preparing
the specimens for the show, and in actually setting up the exhibit at the right
time and place.

(3.) Read carefully the paragraphs in this circular re score-cards and
standards of perfection, and get firmly fixed in mind as nearly as you can
what is required.

PLATES OF APPLES AND PEARS.

Require five specimens to a plate of one variety. It is best to select
direct from the tree, choosing a dozen most like the ideal. Handle them
carefully — cotton-wool is good. Keep early kinds in a cool place until exhibi-
tion, in cold-storage if necessary. Leave late kinds on the tree as long as
possible. Pick crabs and other varieties of apples subject to water-core early
enough to prevent its development. All apples and pears should be wiped
before exhibition, and this is best done at the time fruit is being placed on
the table.

For plates of plums and prunes twelve fruits are required. Choose a
considerable number and select from them the most perfect twelve. Be careful
to preserve the bloom, and on plums the stems also. If early varieties, stow
carefully in a cold place. Avoid bruising, and handle as little as possible.
At show-time select the twelve best, watching carefully for skin-punctuivs.
slight bruises, and other places where rot may commence.

BOXED FRUITS.

After deciding what classes you are to enter, choose the fruit on the 1 n-r.
using callipers to get the correct size for the pack you have decided to display.
Handle fruit carefully into clean boxes, and remove to the packing-hou<f.
After the fruit has become cooled, pack the specimens best suited, wrapping
all apples and pears except the top row, which should be packed unwrapped.
Place thick felt paper above the top row, and nail on the lid, using cleats
under it if necessary. For five-box, ten-box, and larger lots, fruits may be
selected from the orchard run in the packing-houses, though this is most
satisfactory if competition is to be keen. The show fruit may be selected
from the boxes as the balance is packed, being placed in separate orchard-
boxes and afterwards packed for exhibit.

When the top layer of apples and pears is wrapped for shipping to the
show and is consequently somewhat slack when shown unwrapped, judges are
instructed to make the necessary allowance.

In preparing for a show, skill and experience are bound to win. The
novice may, however, by taking care to follow the hints given in this circular,
and by observing their practical application in exhibitions, prepare some
extremely satisfactory exhibits.

15

In general displays of fruit and in general district displays, much depends
on the attractiveness and arrangement. This is a matter of art rather than
horticulture, and one in which the rules of art govern.

EXHIBITION OF GARDEN VEGETABLES.

In British Columbia the home garden has not yet achieved the extremely
useful though humble place to which its merits entitle it. There is not the
proper conception of its possibilities as an economical producer of wholesome
and nutritious food. In many districts it is almost altogether neglected, while
even in those most advanced and scientific of intensive farming areas, the
orchard section is not yet universally in favour. The fall fair can do a real
service for its patrons by encouraging a well-grown display of garden products.
For various reasons the vegetable classes have not been as popular as they
should be. I mention the following as among the most prominent difficulties : —

(1.) There is much confusion and lack of information as to what is desir-
able in vegetables; this is true of all types, not more in anything than in the
potato.

(2.) This confusion has been promoted by awards made by different judges
from year to year.

(3.) Many prize-lists are not definite and clear. They lack classes for
many good things, and in many cases group widely different things under single
classes. The prize-lists need revision very much.

(4.) Prize-money is usually rather small, and just as much is paid for the
unusual vegetables, for which entries are few, as for the standard and most
useful kinds, in which competition is keen.

(5.) There has been little effort to get bigger displays, and not enough
effort has been made to show the vegetable exhibits to proper advantage.

Commercial vegetable displays should also be encouraged. Our vegetable-
crops are of greater total value than our fruit-crops, and we would venture
to say that the market could be much further increased by cultivation of better
kinds, and by better grading, preparation, and marketing. The fairs should
foster a knowledge of and interest in commercial vegetable-production. They
can very well do it by good prizes for vegetables in commercial packages,
just as is being done in commercial displays of fruit.

The standards of perfection should be of much use in enabling exhibitors
to show their best in the best possible way. The prize-lists suggested should
be of use in enabling revision committees to amend their own in accordance
with the requirements of the locality.

Shipping organizations should support any movement to educate the pro-
ducers as to the market requirements in vegetables, by suggesting the most
valuable classes and by assisting with prize-money. The secretary of the fair
should give vegetable sections special attention and encouragement. School
children should be interested by special prizes for them, for vegetables and
flowers as well, grown and exhibited by themselves. There should be prizes
for the best display by a settler in his first year, and also for settlers in
their second year. Folks with town and village gardens should be encouraged
by a prize for the best collection from such gardens.

STANDARDS OF PERFECTION FOR VEGETABLES,

UNIFORMITY.

The various specimens comprising an entry, or a package in a commercial
exhibit, or a variety in a collection exhibit, should be uniform in size, form,
colour, and quality.

16

SIZE.

Size should be moderate, not large; in fact, that size in which all the
other qualities of the variety are found to their greatest perfection. In prac-
tically all garden vegetables, oversized vegetables are coarse and of low quality,
and rough. Those under size are very often so because of poor culture, and
then are often tough, of low quality, and even malformed.

COLOUR.

The colour should be bright, clear, and attractive. Colour in vegetables
is a matter largely of condition, and it is a good index of how vegetables
have been cared for.

FORM.

The principal requirement of form is that it should be economical with
as little waste as possible. It must also approach the correct type of the
variety, and be attractive to the consumer or purchaser.

FREEDOM FROM BLEMISHES.

This is not so important with vegetables as with fruits, but still it is
very important. Potatoes should be, however, free from all diseases, such as
blight, rot, scab, and rhizoctonia, all of which are far too commonly seen at
the shows. All vegetables should be free from bruises and breaks caused
by rough handling. This is particularly true of squash and others of that
family.

CONDITION.

Condition should be good. Vegetables intended for long keeping must be
firm, matured, and in every respect in apparently good condition for the
purpose. Cauliflower and similar vegetables should not be past their prime.
as is very often the case.

QUALITY.

This is the most important thing about vegetables. \\V cannot undertake
to give a general score-card showing the relative importance of all these points.
because they differ materially in different vegetables, but in every ease quality
would rank higher than any other point. What constitutes quality in each
vegetable we will discuss under its separate heading.

Preparation of vegetables for show is a point which really should not
be scored, because they should all be properly prepared. All root- vegetables
should be washed free from dirt, fibrous roots and tops removed. Cabbage
and cauliflower should be properly trimmed, and every vegetable should be
so handled as to make it appear most attractive.

In commercial packages all the above points are of importance, and in
addition we expect that the package will be clean, well constructed, and with
the contents firmly packed and of full weight.

In collections of vegetables of all kinds, there are, in addition, to be con-
sidered the variety display, which should be large, sufficient to cover different
uses throughout the season, and display should be made in an attractive and
convenient manner.

It might be well with specially good winning displays of vegetables to
have neat labels indicating the varieties of different vegetables for the general
information of those in attendance.

POTATOES.

t

These should be uniform, particularly in shape and size. For most main-
crop varieties they should run about 8 or 0 oz. in weight, this being the most

17

desirable average size for potatoes for general purposes. The colour should,
of course, be typical of the variety, whether white, pink, pink-eyed, or red.
The netted varieties, like Uncle Sam and Netted Gem, should be fully covered
with thick netting. The skin of all varieties should be corky rather than
smooth, indicating maturity. Where different varieties are in competition,
the white-skinned are to be preferred above all others. In form, potatoes
should be typical of the variety; but the most preferred commercial type is
about 4% inches long, 3*4 inches wide, and 2% inches thick, rounded and
smooth. The eyes should be few land shallow. There should be no evidences
of second growth, and no green ends. Potatoes should be free from blemishes,
especially from the fungous diseases, scab, blight, wet or dry rot, fusarium,
wilt disease, or rhizoctonia, all of which appear too frequently • on show
potatoes. There should be no evidence of greenness caused by exposure to
the sun. Potatoes must not be hollow.

Condition is largely a matter of maturity, and all varieties should be
reasonably well matured for the season, as evidenced by thickness and tough-
ness of the skin and internal evidences. When a knife-blade is sunk into a
mature potato it pulls out hard, and the greener 'and more watery the potato,
the easier it pulls out. When cut across, the potato should cut hard. There
should be a minimum of water, and watery veins about the centre should not
be in evidence. The maturity of potatoes is a very important point

Quality. — While maturity is a big consideration in quality, much depends
on other factors. The people of North America want a potato as dry and
mealy as possible. The ultimate test, of course, is the baking test, and every
show should have a class for six potatoes baked. Quality, aside from maturity
and the amount of water present, is indicated by hardness in cutting, by the
amount of starch, as indicated by milkiness of the sap when the cut surface
is scraped, but chiefly by the depth of the "cortical ring." A very thin slice
taken in cross-section from a potato and held up to the light will show a faint
line of dots, about ys to % inch from the skin. The wider the strip outside
this line of dots, the higher the quality, and vice versa.

Generally, potatoes showing a slight yellowish tinge are of higher quality
than those pure white.

In commercial exhibits, which should be in units, say of either 15-, 50-,
or 100-It). lots, there should be full weight, and the sack or package should be
clean and general appearance attractive. In preparing exhibits of potatoes of
commercial classes, the great points are correct size, uniformity, maturity, and
weight.

ONIONS.

Onions should be uniform, especially in colour, size, shape, and maturity.
For commercial purposes, the ordinary onion should be about 2% inches in
diameter and nearly globular. The colour should be clear and distinct, whether
yellow, red, white, or brown. It is most important to have maturity, which
is usually the deciding point if there is any reasonable amount of similarity
in other respects. Lack of maturity is shown by softness, especially around
the stem end, and by the thickness of the stem. Onions should be uniformly
hard, with small and thoroughly matured stems. The skins should be dry,
firm, and intact. No " double-nosed " specimens should be shown.

The shape should be typical of the variety.

Pickling-ouions, whether red, yellow, or white, should be firm, smooth,
clean, and not over % inch in diameter.

Shallots should be iyt to iy2 inches in diameter, very firm and well
matured, and of uniform colour.

18

When onions are cut across, which is not usually done in judging, there
should be a large number of rings, and each of these should be as narrow as
possible, and the centre white rather than green.

All the roots should be removed, and the stems should be cut off about %
inch from the onion. There should be no bruises or breaks in the skin, the
outer layers of which should not be removed,

BEETS.

Garden beets must be uniform, particularly in colour, shape, size, and
maturity. Though usually shown to much greater sizes, undoubtedly the best
for all purposes is 2% to 3y2 inches in diameter, except in commercial exhibits,
where they should be from 3 to 3% inches. The colour should be a deep red,
and there should be as little waste from green top as possible. The form
should be nearly globular for the globe beets, and typical of the variety in
the long ones, which latter should be 6 to 7 inches long and about 2 inches in
diameter. Beets should be free from blemishes, especially splitting, and a
much-scarred heavy top, which is practically all waste. They should be pre-
pared by washing. The top should be twisted off about % inch from the beet,
but the roots should be left on. It is desirable that the top should have been
as small as possible, as evidenced by small stems.

Quality and inside colour are the most important points about the beet.
When cross-sectioned, it should be red all through, with a minimum of white.
It should cut easily, with an absence of fibre, and the rings should be
numerous and narrow, while the flesh should be sweet and juicy as well
as red.

Commercial exhibits of beets should comply with all the above require-
ments, save that quality is not given so high a place, and more emphasis is
laid on uniformity, smallness of top, and correct size, as given above.

Swiss CHARD.

This is a member of the beet family, of which the stalks are edible. Six
stalks should be displayed with the leaves left on. The stalks should be long,
thick, white, uniform, tender, and clean ; the leaves small in proportion.

CABBOTS.

Garden carrots, as shown, should be very uniform, especially in size and
form; the short varieties from 4^ to 5 inches long, the intermediates from
6 to 7 inches, and the long from 8 to 9 inches. There is not much difference
in colour, which should be bright and healthy in tone. The form should be
tapering to a blunt point in the short types, but to a long point in the other
types. Freedom from blemishes is usually easy to secure in the medium sizes
mentioned above, the chief blemishes found being green tops and a splitting,
due to too rapid growth. Carrots should be washed, the tops of the roots
removed, and the stems twisted off. The top should be as small as possible,
which is shown by the smallness of the scars left.

In commercial exhibits of carrots uniformity is most important. In size
the specimens should weigh % IT), each, while in form they should be short
and thick.

Quality in carrots is indicated by taking a cross-section. The heart should
be small and the flesh small-grained. As tested by taste, the flesh should be
sweet and mild in flavour.

TABLE TURNIPS. ,

The swede varieties should be about 5 inches in diameter, with a small
top, clean, uniform, free from all blemishes, especially the work of the fruit-

19

maggot, firm and smooth. The white and yellow varieties of the white turnips
should be true to type, and in size medium for the variety.

In all types of table turnips there must be uniformity, smoothness, attract-
ive appearance, good type, and, especially, freedom from insect injuries.

CABBAGE.

Two specimens are usually called for in each class of cabbage. They
should be uniform with each other and of moderate size, the pointed kinds
from 6 to 9 inches in diameter, the round varieties from 8 to 10 inches, the
flat varieties from 10 to 12 inches. It is of most importance that both
specimens be firm and solid and heavy, no matter how rigorously tested. In
addition, they must be free from all insect injuries; the stalks should be
removed and the outer leaves.

In commercial exhibits cabbages weighing from 3% to 5 lb. each are
preferred. They are stripped of their leaves more than is usual for exhibition
purposes, leaving no waste from excessive leaves whatever. Packages must
be well up to weight, viz., 200 It), well filled with uniform, clean, smooth, and
very firm heads.

Savoys should be 10 to 12 inches in diameter, and as well matured as
possible. The same amount of firmness is not expected in these varieties as
in the ordinary cabbage.

Red cabbage should comply with the general requirements for flat
varieties, save that it should be of as deep a red colour as possible.

The showing of stock cabbage in garden classes is always to be
discouraged.

BRUSSELS SPKOUTS.

Two stalks each of brussels sprouts are exhibited, with a few of the outer
leaves left on and the roots removed, but the sprouts must be numerous, large,
firm, closely set, free from aphis and other insects, making as heavy a stalk
as possible.

CAULIFLOWER.

The two cauliflowers called for should be uniform, especially in size,
colour, and preparation; should be from 5 to 6% inches in diameter, pure
white in colour, smooth and regular in form. There should be no green
leaves showing through the head, which should be quite solid and dense.
Cauliflower past condition, as shown by softness and openness, should not
be accepted.

In preparing cauliflower for show, remove the roots and all the leaves
except some six or seven, which should be cut off just below the top of the
head, leaving their bases as a protection for it.

SCOTCH KALE.

Two stalks should be called for, uniform, more especially in size, and the
principal requirement is that they be vigorous, clean, and heavy, with large,
dark, numerous, well-curled leaves.

RADISH.

The turnip varieties of radishes are exhibited in bunches of twelve. They
should be washed and the roots and tops left on. They should be prepared as
late as possible before the show, so as to prevent withering. The radishes
themselves should be uniform, of clear red and white, smooth, free from root-
maggots, and very firm. Their principal defect as shown is hollowness or
softness, which can usually be prevented by moderate methods of culture and
by selecting medium-sized specimens.

20

Long radishes must meet with the same general requirements, save that
they should he the shape typical of the type.

SQUASH.

A great many varieties of squash and marrow are shown, under more
or less confused headings, at many shows, and judging is in consequence very
difficult and often unsatisfactory. To put this class on a better basis, we have
recommended certain changes in the prize-list, embracing four varieties of
summer squash and five winter varieties, which, together, give a complete
range of quality over the entire season.

In irarden squash, of which two of a kind are shown, there should be,
principally, uniformity in size, colour, and shape, a moderate degree of size
for the variety, and freedom from skin-punctures and similar blemishes, which
are very destructive, especially to squash intended for winter storage.

The Delicata variety is the earliest vine t.vpe. and is a much superior
quality to any of the bush varieties, which we believe it will largely displace
as it becomes known. Specimens should be about 8 inches long, of the typical,
somewhat i>ear-shaped type of the variety, and of good colour.

Summer crook-necks should be of deejvgolden colour, about 12 inches long,
and moderately crooked.

The scalloped or patty-pan squash should be about s inches in diameter,
uniform, of clear colour, and are truest to type when the scallops are «l

Vegetable marrows should be about 18 inches long, uniform, smooth and
cylindrical, very slightly ribbed, of a uniform cream colour, and heavy.

Wintrr 7'///>rx. — The Green Hut.hard is the principal long-keeping winter
squash. The pair shown must be uniform, especially in size, form, and as
uarty as possible. As the slightest blemishes are almost surely followed l.y
il.--.-iy. the entries showing such blemishes should be cut down heavily in
proportion. The colour should be a deep black-green, with a minimum <>t
white on the under-side. There should be about IV* inches of stem attached.
In size they should be about 14 to 16 inches long and 10 to 12 inches in
diameter.

The Golden Huhbard must comply with the same general characters as
the Green Hubbard, save in colour, which must be a deep golden-yellow.

For the Boston marrow, the same general requirements as to uniform size,
triteness to type, freedom from blemishes, and stem apply as to the IIuM
The colour and the form should be typical of the variety.

The green marrow is becoming rapidly more popular for early winter use.
It is adapted to stewing, not to baking, like the Hubbards. The preen mar
should be uniform, from 10 to 20 inches long, cylindrical and smooth, free from
all blemishes, with l1/^ inches of stem attached, firm, and well matured for the
season.

M nni mot it Chili. — Size and weight first; uniformity in colour and shape;
of good tyi>e for the variety; flat side is not desirable. Other large varieties
suited to culinary use might be entered with this variety; in such case the
class to be called " Large Culinary Squash," as opposed to " Large Field
Squash."

PUMPKINS.

The showing of field pumpkins in the garden classes should lie <lis«..iir;i :_'•••!.
There are two principal varieties adapted to culinary uses, which sin mid l»e
grown throughout the Province, and which are as follows: —

Sugar Pumpkin. — This is the small yellow pumpkin. The two shown
should be uniform, especially in size and shai>e, of a deep-golden colour, from
10 to 12 inches in diameter, and of a flattened, globular shape, free from any
flat side, with 2-inch stem, free from blemishes, and in good condition.

21

Mammoth Tours. — This is the large green pumpkin grown for household
use, and the two specimens submitted should be uniform, especially in size
and shape. The very large sizes are not to be particularly encouraged, as
they are inclined to be coarse and to weigh light. The colour should be clear
and uniform. There should be no flat side.

LETTUCE.

There are three general types of lettuce commonly exhibited— the leaf,
the head, and cos types. In all cases the heads should be large, clean,
uniform, of proper colour, free from aphis. The roots in all cases should
be removed, as well as the smaller damaged outside leaves; and the head
should be washed.

In the head varieties the two heads should be of good size, firm, and
white. The inner leaves of the cos varieties should form a good proportion
of the weight, and should be well blanched.

CUCUMBERS.

Cucumbers are of two principal types — the long, smooth, dark-green,
frame or greenhouse type, and the spine varieties, which are shorter, thicker,
inclined to be three-sided, and characterized by whitish dots, which, in some
varieties, are tipped by very short spines.

In both types there should be uniformity, moderate size, proper colour,
good type, freedom from blemishes, and, above all. there should be a minimum
of seeds and a great depth of flesh, as shown by cross-section.

In pickl ing-cucumbers, these should be uniform, of nice colour, on an
average 2 inches long, and not tapered too much from stem to blossom end.
They should be clean and the withered blossoms should be absent.

CANTALOUPS AND MUSKMELONS.

These two fruits are generally grouped together, but the term " cantaloup "
should properly refer to the white-fleshed, soft type, the term " muskmelon "
properly belonging to the firmer, yellow-fleshed varieties. In both cases there
should be the usual uniformity in size and form. The netting should be well
developed all over, and in cross-section the flesh should be of proper colour,
white or golden-yellow, thick, and of high quality.

CITRONS.

The two citrons exhibited should be uniform in size, shape, and on a cross-
section should show depth of flesh. This might otherwise be obtained by
weighing them, but as facilities for weighing such fruits as citrons, squash,
pumpkins, etc., are usually absent, it is more satisfactory to learn by a cross-
section which is the heaviest. Size and weight are the important characters.

TOMATOES.

There may be classes for red, pink, and pickling tomatoes. We do not
recommend the class of pink varieties, as they are going out of favour under
the popularity of the red kinds.

The red and pink varieties should be uniform in size and shape. They
should be true to colour, of sizes varying with the variety, but usually about
3 inches in diameter. The more globular forms are preferred. There should
be freedom from blemish, especially blossom-end rot, splitting around the stem
end, and open core. They should be firm in condition and should be exhibited
with the stems removed.

Firmness is the most important point, and taken with it the thickness of
the flesh, both of the outer wall and of the sections. The number of sections
should be large and the amount of pulp and seeds limited.

Tickling-tomatoes, whether of the plum, cherry, or pear types, should be
uniform in size, of proper type, and firm.

PEPPERS.

The principal varieties are the large green and the pickling. In the
former class the two exhibited should be as large as possible, green, uniform,
and should weigh up well.

In pickling-peppers the prize usually goes to the quart which is most
uniform.

EGG-PLANT.

This is a class which is found only in the Dry Belt sections, and the
award should go to the two which are largest and most uniform, firmest,
and most free from blemish.

GARDEN PEAS.

In the class of " one quart of green peas in pod " the pods should be large,
free from blemishes, very well filled with large, clean, whole, uniform peas,
of deep-green colour.

The quality of the peas is the most important thing, and they should be
very sweet and of high flavour.

In the class for "one quart of shelled peas" these should be uniform,
deep green in colour, clean, whole, and of high quality, as described above.

•

A quart of green beans is usually supplied, and this applies equally to
scarlet runners, broad 1 runs, wax-podded bush, and green-podded bush, into
which four classes this section should always be divided. In every case the
pods should be of moderate size, uniform, of clear, deep rich colour, smo,,ih.
and in edible condition. They should especially be free from such blemishes
as anthracnose.

Condition or quality as determined by snapping or by taste is the most
important feature.

GREEN CORN.

Six ears of each type should be exhibited. We suggest dividing this < l.iss
into white and " any other variety." The ears should always be stripped of
the leaves, the stalk cut off close up, and the silk carefully brushed away.
The ears should be uniform in length, diameter, and every other ivsj •«•«•!.
The colour should be according to the class and variety, and should be clear
and bright. The cob should be small and the grains should be long, closely
set, and evenly distributed over the whole ear. There must be freedom from
blemishes, and the quality must be high, as indicated by taste.

RHUBARB.

Twelve stalks, neatly tied, constitute an entry. They should be uniform.
especially in size and colour. Size should not be too large, and the most
preferable length is 18 to 20 inches. The colour should be red, bright, and
attractive. The form of the stalks, of course, depends on the variety. All
the stalks should be clean and trimmed top and bottom. They should be
plump and fresh. Quality is indicated by the degree of toughness, and it is
desirable that they should be as brittle, and therefore tender, as possible.

23

The commercial package of rhubarb should be the standard size, 20 by
15% by 7% inches inside measurements. It should be full and well packed,
containing at least 40 Ib. of rhubarb, and, better, 42 or 43 Ib.

SALSIFY.

Six roots constitute an entry. Ttyey should be uniform, especially in size
and shape. The size should be as large as possible, consistent with good type
and appearance, the colour as nearly white as possible, form smooth and
tapering. The fibrous roots and the tops should be removed and the roots
thoroughly cleaned. There is no requirement for quality, but condition should
be first-class.

PARSLEY.

A neat little bunch tied with string is all that is required. The colour
should be deep green, bright, and attractive. The leaves should be very much
curled and heavy. Neatness in preparation is an all-important point.

ARTICHOKES, JERUSALEM.

Six roots are required. They should be uniform in size and shape, should
be as large as possible, consistent with soundness, smooth, free from blemishes,
and in good condition. They must be clean. Quality requirements are much
the same as with potatoes.

CELERY.

This class in celery-growing districts should be divided into white, yellow,
red, and green or winter varieties. In commercial-celery districts it may be
divided into variety classes. In each section six stalks are required, and
uniformity is desired, especially in size, length of stalk, degree of blanching,
condition, and colour. Most varieties should be as large as possible, consistent
with good condition and firmness of stalk.

Colour is important; they should be true to the type of the variety in
•every case. White and yellow varieties should be shown blanched, and their
colour must be pure, clear, and uniform. Red varieties should show the
maximum degree of colour over greenish white. The winter green varieties
should be natural colour for the time of season. They need not be blanched.

In form the bunch should be long and stout, but the stalks must be closely
set and as many as possible of them should be full length. The roots should
all be removed, the root-stock being trimmed down to the usual conical point,
and the outer small or broken stalks should be removed.

Quality is most important, and is usually determined by a test of average
stalks from each entry. The stalk must be firm, free from pithiness, solid,
and heavy. It should not be stringy, but should be brittle and tender. There
are not likely to be many diseases or blemishes, rust being the most important.
This is heavily scored against, and badly affected entries should be disqualified.

In commercial packages of celery the medium-sized box, 28% by 12 by 9%
inches inside, is usually chosen. It should contain full weight, be attractive,
clean, neatly prepared, and packed, solely of one variety, with cover nailed on ;
there should be a slight bulge.

COLLECTION or SEASONING HERBS.

This should contain at least the five most important— sage, thyme, summer
savory, mint, and sweet marjoram. A neat little bunch of each should be
prepared, and for the benefit of the general public plainly and neatly labelled.
There should be principally healthiness and vigour of growth, freedom from
.blemishes or diseased leaves, etc., and a proper stage of growth for the season.

24

FULL PRIZE-LIST, VEGETABLE SECTION.

Prizes.

1. Potatoes, 6 each, 10 principal varieties, each variety. . 3

2. „ 6 any other variety, white 2

3. „ 6 „ „ „ coloured 2

4. Onions, 6 yellow 3

5. „ 6 red 3

0. „ 6 white 2

7. „ 6 brown 2

S. „ quart of pickling, red 2

!). „ „ „ „ yellow 2

10. „ „ „ „ ? white 2

11. ., sets, quart 2

12. „ multipliers, quart 2

13. .. shallots 2

14. Beets, 6 long 2

15. „ 6 globe 3

16. Carrots, 6 long 3

17. „ 0 intermediate 3

18. „ 6 short 3

19. Green corn, 6 ears stripped, white 3

20. „ G „ ., any other colour 3

21. Table turnips. 2 swedes 3

22. „ „ 2 white varieties 3

23. „ .. 2 yellow 2

24. Cabbage. 2 pointed 3

25. „ '2 round 3

26. „ 2 flat 3

27. „ 2 savoy 2

28. „ 2 red 2

29. Brussels sprouts, 2 stalks 2

30. Cauliflower, 2 heads 3

:n. Scotch kale, 2 stalks 2

32. Radishes, 12 turnip '2

33. „ 12 long 2

34. Lettuce, 2 heads leaf 2

35. „ 2 „ head lettuce 3

36. „ '2 ., cos 2

:>7. Squash. 2 crook-necks 2

38. „ 2 scalloped or patty -pan 2

39. „ 2 Delicata 3

40. „ 2 vegetable marrow 3

41. „ 2 Green Hubbards 3

42. „ 2 Golden 3

43. „ 2 Boston marrow 2

44. ,, 2 green , 3

45. „ 2 Mammoth Chili 2

46. Pumpkins, 2 sugar 3

47. „ 2 Mammoth Tours^ 2

48. Cucumbers, 2 long or frame 2

49. ,, 2 spine 3

50. ,, 1 quart pickling 3

51. Cantaloups, 2 2

25

Prtzes.

52. Muskmelons, 2 2

53. Citron, 2 * [[ ' 3

54. Tomatoes, 6 red 3

55. „ 6 pink 2

56. „ 1 dozen pickling;' plum 2

57. „ 1 „ „ cherry 2

58. „ 1 „ „ pear 2

59. Peppers, 2 large green 2

60. „ 1 quart pickling 2

61. Egg-plant, 2 2

62. Peas, 1 quart green, in pod 3

63. „ 1 „ shelled 3

64. Beans, 1 quart scarlet runner 2

65. „ 1 „ Windsor or broad 2

66. „ 1 „ bush, wax-podded 3

67. „ 1 „ „ green-podded 3

68. Celery, 6 bunches white 3

69. „ 6 „ yellow 3

70. „ 6 „ red 2

71. „ 6 „ green or winter 3

72. Rhubarb, 12 stalks 3

73. Leeks, 12 stalks 3

74. Parsley, 1 bunch 2

75. Salsify, 6 2

76. Swiss Chard, 2 stalks 2

77. Collection of seasoning herbs 3

78. Artichokes, 6 2

COMMERCIAL CLASSES.
POTATOES.

In potatoes there should be liberal prizes offered for entries of 15, 50, or
100 lb., depending on the ability of the people of the district to select sufficient
quantities and the amount of prize-money available. In such classes the
amount of first-prize money should be about double the commercial value of
the amount of first-class potatoes at the time of the show. Three prizes
should be given.

BEETS AND CARROTS.

In sacks of 15, 50, or 100 lb. This prize would be of importance only
in the districts producing these vegetables in commercial quantities. There
should be two prizes.

CABBAGE.

One crate of 200 lb. net weight, ready for shipping. Three prizes.

TOMATOES.

One-crate, two-crate, or five-crate lots; 23 lb. net of fruit to the crate.
Three prizes. The four-basket crate should be used.

ONIONS.
In sacks of 15, 50, or 100 lb. Three prizes.

26

RHUBARB.
One box, 40 Ib. net. Three prizes.

COLLECTION CLASSES.

(1.) Collection of garden vegetables grown by a settler in his first year.

(2.) Collection of garden vegetables grown by a settler in his second year.

(3.) Collection of garden vegetables grown on a town or city lot by an
amateur.

(4.) Collection of vegetables from a rancher's vegetable garden.

(5.) Collection of vegetables grown by school children on gardens culti-
vated by themselves.

Classes for school children might be made in potatoes, onions, beets, and
other types of vegetables, as well as this collection.

The object of prizes for collections of vegetables is principallyto stimulate
an interest in the home garden by making better known what can be produced,
and by encouraging those who intend to exhibit to maintain the garden for
the necessary season.

COMMENTS ON ADAPTING VEGETABLE PRIZE-LIST TO INDIVIDUAL

FAIRS.

(1.) We recommend strongly that the quantities specified in each class
be followed. These have been adopted in harmony with the larger shows and
in general practice, but in the younger associations there is a tendency to adopt
unusual quantities, so causing considerable confusion.

(2.) It will be noted that three prizes are indicated for some classes and
only two prizes for others. In those classes of greatest value, in which com-
petition is usually greatest, three prizes are indicated, and we recommend that
the first-prize money in this case should be worth trying for, say $2.50. The
object in making three prizes is that a reasonable proportion of the exhibitors
should get a sum of money. Where two prizes are indicated, the competition
is usually less keen, because the vegetable mentioned is less important. In
these cases the first prize should be about half that of the major classes, say
$1.50, and no third should be given, because there is usually not nearly as
great competition. These prizes should not, however, be made so small as to
discourage exhibitors. The idea is that in the more important classes prizes
should be increased slightly, and in the minor classes they should be decreased
slightly, as compared with present practice, in both cases being increased as
the finances of the association warrant. The importance of the different
classes varies with the locality, and the classification into major and minor
given here will have to be adopted with discretion.

(3.) Many classes here named would be of little or no use in many
districts, such as egg-plant and tomatoes in many Coast and cooler Interior
sections. In such cases the Revision Committee should not include such kinds.
In other cases, as in pickling-tomatoes, the three classes might very well be
made one; the same with pickl ing-onions. Much will depend in such cases
on the adaptability of the district, the amount of prize-money available, and

the amount of competition that is likely to be secured.

»

MIXING GARDEN AND FIELD CLASSES.

One of the most common causes of confusion in vegetable classes in the
fairs of the Province is the mixture of field and garden produce under one
heading. These should by all means be kept separate, and it will be noted

27

that no field produce Is included in the above list. In order to make the
definition clearer, we give the following list of field products which should be
kept under a separate heading from garden products :—

Mangels, globe. Heaviest pumpkin,

intermediate. Squash, field,

long. Kohl Rabi.

Sugar-beets, stock. Stock cabbage.

Stock carrots, white. Thousand-headed kale.

„ „ yellow. Sunflowers.

„ „ red. Field-beans.

Pumpkins, field yellow. Hops.

„ green.

RULES AND REGULATIONS RELATING TO FRUIT AND VEGETABLE

SECTIONS.

In order to simplify the task of the committee whose duty it is to make
such rules and regulations and provisions as will result in fair competition
and the harmonious operation of the show, there is submitted here the most
important of those rules, which, if followed, would result in satisfaction to
exhibitors in these classes.

RULES REGARDING ENTRIES.

1. Intending exhibitors must give notice by duly filling in the proper form
(furnished, on application, by the Secretary) and returning it to the Secretary
not later than (three days before opening date of show). No entries will be
received after that date. Entries must be made in the names of the producers
or manufacturers, only by them or by their duly accredited agents.

2. Entries must comply with the rules and regulations, and exhibitors
must conform with the requirements of their respective classes. This Associa-
tion recommends exhibitors to secure copy of the Department of Agriculture's
circular on " Exhibiting Fruits and Vegetables " for information on preparing
material for exhibition.

3. Entries must be the property of the exhibitor. Produce should have
been grown by exhibitor ; and preserves, jams, canned goods, etc., should have
been manufactured in the establishment of the person exhibiting.

4. All fruits and vegetables must be clean, sound, and properly prepared
for exhibition. The Association reserves the right to refuse acceptance of' any
entry, without stating reasons.

5. All varieties of fruits and vegetables must be correctly, neatly, and
legibly named. Failure to do this renders exhibits liable to disqualification.

6. All entries in fruit and vegetable classes should be staged by 7 p.m.
of (the day previous to opening day).

7. On the entry of each exhibit, a card will be furnished the exhibitor,
specifying the class, definition, and number of entry, which card must remain
attached to the exhibit during the exhibition.

8. The Association's officer in charge will direct the placing of all exhibits,
and exhibitors must strictly obey the instructions given. The Association is
responsible for having all entries in each class staged together.

9. No individual member should stage more than one entry in any one
class, and no one exhibit shall be entered in more than one class.

10. The Association will provide plates for all plate exhibits, and only
these may be used. Exhibits shall not in any way be allowed to carry any
marks that may identify their ownership, except in the case of district exhibits.

28

11. Judges. — Judges will be supplied by the Association in conjunction
with the Department of Agriculture. No person shall act as judge in any
classes in which he exhibits or is interested. Judges shall hand in their
awards in writing, properly signed, to the Secretary. Before leaving the city
each judge shall ascertain from the Secretary whether there are any protests
against any of his awards, in order that he may duly present to the Board his
reasons for the award.

12. Protests.— Any protest must be lodged with the Secretary in writing
within four hours after the awards have been announced. The decision of
the Directors on all matters designated under these rules shall be final. A
deposit of $5 is required with all protests, to be refunded if the protest is
sustained.

13. In addition to the stated premiums offered in the prize-list, the judges
may recommend additional premiums as they may consider worthy, and the
Board of Directors will then determine whether such premiums shall be
awarded, and the amount. Judges may also distinguish such exhibits as they
may consider deserving of notice, but which have not received prizes, by ticket
bearing the words " Highly Commended."

14. Withholding Awards. — In the absence of competition in any section,
or if the articles exhibited be of inferior quality, the judges are instructed
to award only such premiums as they consider merited. They may exercise
their discretion as to whether they will award first, second, third, or any
premiums.

15. Growers are invited to exhibit such productions not specially men-
tioned in the prize-list as are likely to be of interest, as novelties, or for
any other cause. The Association does not undertake to vote awards for
such exhibits, but in cases where such exhibits are recommended for awards
by the judges, the Directors may grant extra awards of such amounts as
they may decide.

PRIZE-LISTS.

The fall fair has several important functions: To promote social inter-
course; to provide amusement; to advertise the advantages of the district;
and to stimulate the culture of the best kinds and types of agricultural produce
by exhibiting what is being produced, and by awarding prizes to those of
greatest merit.

Of these various functions, it is probable that the fruit and vegetable
sections are most valuable in promoting the culture of the most meritorious
products, and their principal aim is therefore educational in character.

To systematize the showing of products and so to distinguish those of
greatest merit, it has been found necessary to issue lists of products, and by
rules and regulations to guide exhibitors into making uniform entries, which
can accordingly be judged on their merits, not only by the judges, but by the
more casual onlooker as well. The prize-list names the various products and
the awards attached to them, and it thus becomes one of the most important
factors, almost the central factor, of the show's organization.

On the prize-list much depends, for, if it is seriously defective, the use-
fulness of the show is lessened, exhibitors become disheartened, and the whole
organization, instead of being each ye,ar a fresh inspiration to better things,
becomes moribund, incapable of educational value, and even a drag on progress.
It is therefore important for the welfare of any annual exhibition that its
prize-list should be formed in accordance with correct principles, and that to
meet changing conditions of development, finances, and educational efficiency,
the prize-list should be given careful annual revision.

29

The following are the more important principles on which useful prize-
lists for fruit and vegetables are based :—

(1.) Fruit and vegetable classes should be pre-eminently educational in
character, demonstrating the perfection the district attains, or could attain,
in the best products for commercial and home use.

(2.) In plate exhibits of fruit, larger prizes should be paid to the best
commercial and home-orchard varieties. From eight to fifteen of these,
depending on the district, should get three prizes, while second-class varieties
should get two prizes only; the first prize in the latter case to be one-half
the amount of the first prize in the first group. Miscellaneous varieties of
limited value, usually far too numerous already, should not be included, or
at most should be given little more than recognition.

(3.) Similarly, the more important types of vegetables should receive more
prizes and larger money than the minor types. This is discussed more fully
under the " Vegetable Prize-list."

(4.) The regular prize-list should provide for exhibits of commercial
packages and packing, with a view to raising the local standard. Depending
on the district, the amount of money given for commercial displays should
vary in proportion to the commercial possibilities and progress of the district.
The amounts of the awards and the sizes of exhibits should be in line with
the commercial value of the various varieties and the possible development of
the district.

(5.) There should be prizes for certain collections, both of home and
commercial fruits and vegetables, but great care should be taken in making
these collections, so that they may be of genuinely valuable character. The
list of collections given below indicates the most valuable ideas.

(6.) Score-cards for judging should be uniform throughout the Province
and in harmony with the rest of Canada. The score-cards given in this
circular have been prepared by our Horticultural Branch in co-operation with
the fruit-growers' associations of Ontario, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island,
and the Dominion Department of Agriculture.

(7.) In general, the conditions of entry should harmonize with those of
the larger exhibitions, so making each local fair a training-school for the
larger fairs of Provincial or international importance.

(8.) Fairs should endeavour each year to add any new types of exhibits
of educational value.

(9.) Apple-packing contests and other new features of great educational
value should be provided for all fairs where the opportunity exists.

SPECIAL CLASSES — FRUITS.

1. Commercial Classes. — One-box, two-box, five-box, and ten-box exhibits
of the few best commercial varieties of apples, with prize-money at least
double the commercial value of the best exhibit.

In pears there should also be one-box, two-box, and five-box exhibits, and
the same with plums and prunes. In peach districts there should be two-box
displays, while in districts where other types of fruit are produced largely
enough to make commercial exhibits desirable, we should have encouragement
along the same lines.

These exhibits should be prepared in harmony with the score-cards given
in the first part of the circular.

2. Collection Classes— A. collection of plates of apples for home orchard,
to be judged according to the requirements of the score-card.

Collections of plates of apples of commercial value, to be judged by the
score-cards given for such commercial collections.

30

Collections of apples for home use may be subdivided into five varieties
of fall apples and five varieties of winter apples, or this may be still further
subdivided for collections of fall dessert, fall cooking, winter dessert, and
winter cooking apples. These collections may all be scored on the points given
above. There should, in addition, be prizes for the best collections of three
varieties of fall pears on plates, and the best five varieties of winter pears
on plates, also the best collection of plums, limited to five varieties, twelve
specimens to a plate. All the varieties in these sections should be plainly
and correctly labelled, or be disqualified.

The pyramid of ninety-one apples makes a very attractive display, and
may very well be included in those districts where large, fine, high-coloured
apples are grown.

3. Packing contests should be included in all districts where commercial
apple-packing is carried on, and for these the following rules are suggested : —

(1.) The management of the fair to furnish necessary tables, paper, boxes,
and apples for the contest, as follows : —

(a.) One table for each competitor, about 3^ by 4 feet dimen-
sions, with burlap cover, after the usual pattern :

(&.) Standard Canadian boxes, 10 by 11 by 20 inches inside
dimensions, care being taken to have boxes properly made of correct
material, as the character of the box materially influences the work
of the packer:

(c.) Paper: For each packer about 3 Ib. of paper, 9 by 9 or
9 by 10 inches in size, depending on apples:

(rf.) Apples: Six boxes Grade No. 1, 150 to the box and larger,
and graded to afford variety of pack.

(2.) Entry fee of $1; entries to close about one week before fair. Con-
testants to draw lots for places and numbers.
(3.) Apples to be placed on the tables by disinterested persons, aiming to

place on each table a fair average of the whole lot.

(4.) All apples to be packed diagonally in the standard Canadian boxes.
(5.) Each contestant to pack three boxes, time to be taken when contestant

places last box on the floor.

(6.) To secure perfect or 20 points for speed, the contestant must pack
the three boxes within twenty-five minutes, every three minutes
longer will reduce the score two points, and if not finished within
sixty minutes, the contestant will be ruled out.
The following score-card to apply : —

Speed 20

Uniformity 15

Alignment 10

Bulge 10

Height at ends 10

Firmness 20

Wrapping 15

100

4. Special Prizes to encourage High-class Packing. — Two-box or five-box
display of apples or pears of one variety, commercially packed, all layers
wrapped, covers to be removed in the presence of the judge, scoring to be
made as follows : —

Grading 25

Packing 75 (subdivided in the usual way ) .

100

31

5. Displays of By-products. — The history of successful horticulture on the
western coast of America is largely the history of the successful development
of canning, preserving, drying, and similar processes. This is most strikingly
illustrated in the oldest sections, as in the State of California, whose fruit
by-products now reach an annual value of $28,000,000 ; the present unimportant
place occupied by industries based on these processes in British Columbia is
comment enough on the newness of fru'it and vegetable growing in this Prov-
ince. To develop the so-called " by-product industries " is one of our big
problems. In educational work along this line, the fall fairs should do much
that they are not at present doing. They have a special opportunity in stimu-
lating an interest in home canning, preserving, and pickling. They could also
encourage the display of the products of the small canning and other plants
now beginning to start up in many sections. We consider that among the
following there are many classes which should secure a place on the average
prize-list : —

HOME PBODUCTS.

Canned Fruits in Glass — Prizes.

1. Raspberries, red, 1 quart 3

2. Strawberries, 1 quart 3

3. Raspberries, black, 1 quart , 2

4. Preserving cherries, 1 quart 3

5. Sweet cherries, 1 quart 3

6. Plums, 1 quart 3

7. Peaches, 1 quart 3

8. Pears, 1 quart 3

9. Apples, 1 quart 3

10. Apricots, 1 quart 3

Preserved Fruits in Glass. — There should be prizes for displays of the
above fruits in this class as well, but perhaps the prizes would not be so large,
and probably two would be sufficient.

Jams in Glass — Prizes.

1. Red currant, 1 pint 3

2. Black currant, 1 pint 3

3. Strawberry, 1 pint 3

4. Red raspberry, 1 pint 3

5. Plum, 1 pint 3

Jellies. — Collection of four varieties, named, in jelly-glasses.

Vegetables, canned in Glass. — Collection of five to ten varieties. There

should be good prizes for this collection, which should include tomatoes, peas,

corn, carrots, beets, rhubarb, and beans.

Prizes.

Home-made wine 3

Raspberry vinegar 3

Mixed pickles, sweet, 1 pint in glass 3

Mixed pickles, sour, 1 pint in glass 3

Collection of pickles, four varieties 3

Catsup, 1 pint in glass 3

Chili sauce, 1 pint in glass 3

Pickled onions, white, 1 pint in glass 3

COMMERCIAL BY-PRODUCTS.

There should be liberal prizes and diplomas for the best display of fruits
and vegetables, canned, .iaimned, dried, and pickled, etc., by factory being

32

operated to offer these products commercially. These factories help a great
deal to give stability to the fruit industry, and it is to the advantage of all
to encourage them.

REVISION OF PRIZE-LISTS.

The judges of fruits and vegetables at each fair, on its conclusion, reported
to the Provincial Horticulturist, enclosing a copy of the prize-list, indicating
the number of entries in each class, and making recommendations on many
points connected with the exhibits themselves, and with the organization of
the fair, its prize-list, rules and regulations, arrangement, etc., which has put
at our disposal a great deal of information that should be of value to every
fair in preparing for a larger exhibit next year.

The officials of the Horticultural Branch are at the service of Revision
Committees to assist them in making their prize-lists and the rules and regu-
lations more educational and more progressive. This work in the past has
had the sympathy of all fairs, and has had the heartiest support from those
which are most progressive. The recommendations which are made in this
circular have been largely gleaned from experience in the judging of fairs hi
this Province.

It is hoped that arrangements can be made for the judges of fairs, especi-
ally those who are connected permanently with the Horticultural Branch, and
the Provincial Horticulturist, to confer with fair officials throughout the
Province, so as to give more direct assistance in recommendations and in
revision.

The Horticultural Branch is arranging to deliver lectures throughout the
Province on fruit-judging and exhibition standards. We expect that this
work, especially with the hearty co-operation of each fair, will not only
increase the educational value of the fairs, but will greatly stimulate the
number and quality of the exhibits and the interest and attendance, so creat-
ing a greater degree of local support for our fall fairs.

VICTORIA, B.C. :

Printed by WILLIAM H. CULLIN, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty

1913.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

(LIVE-STOCK BRANCH).

PEOYINCE OF BEITISH COLUMBIA.

MARKET POULTRY

BULLETIN No. 49.

BY

H. E. UPTON, ASSISTANT POULTRY INSTRUCTOR,
Assoc. O.A.C.

THE GOVERNMENT OF
THE PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

PRINTED BY
AUTHORITY OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY.

VICTORIA, B.C.:

Printed by WILLIAM H. CULLIN, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty.

1913.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

(LIVE-STOCK BRANCH).

PEOVINCE OF BEITISH COLUMBIA.

MARKET POULTRY

BULLETIN NO. 49.

BY

H. E. UPTON, ASSISTANT POULTRY INSTRUCTOR,
Assoc. O.A.C.

THE GOVERNMENT OF
THE PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

PRINTED BY
AUTHORITY OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY.

VICTORIA, B.C. :

Printed by WILLIAM H. CULLIN, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty.

1913.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

VICTORIA, March 8th, 1913.

Hon. Price Ellison,

Minister of Finance and Agriculture,
Victoria, B.C.

SIR, — I have the honour to submit herewith for your approval
Bulletin No. 49, entitled " Market Poultry," compiled by H. E. Upton,
Assistant Poultry Instructor, dealing with co-operation in marketing
of poultry products, ideal standards of the different breeds of poultry,
fattening for market, feeds and feeding, balanced rations, etc., which it
is anticipated will be of material assistance to all those engaged in this
profitable and rapidly growing branch of farming.

I have the honour to be,

Sir,
Your obedient servant,

WM. E. SCOTT,

Deputy Minister of Agriculture.

A type of general-purpose stock.

PEOYINCE OF BEITISH COLUMBIA.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

(LIVE STOCK BRANCH.)

Hon. PRICE ELLISON,
Minister of Agriculture.

W. E. SCOTT,
Deputy Minister of Agriculture.

W. T. MCDONALD, B.Sc., B.S.A.,

Live-stock Commissioner.

H. RIVE, B.S.A.,
Dairy Instructor.

J. R. TERRY,
Chief Poultry Instructor.

H. E. UPTON,
Poultry Instructor.

A. KNIGHT, V.S.,
Chief Veterinary Inspector.

S. A. K. WHITE, V.S., W. W. ALTON, V.S., R. B. ILSLEY, V.S.,
Veterinary Inspectors.

WM. J. BONAVIA,

Secretary of the Department.

MARKET "POULTRY

BY H. E. UPTON, POULTRY INSTRUCTOR.
INTRODUCTION.

WHEN one walks through the many markets that handle poultry products and
closely observes the quality and condition in which dressed poultry is
displayed for human consumption, he quickly asks why the stock is so lean and
bony, or why it looks so bad, sometimes even mouldy. With the exception of a
few markets which handle specially fattened stock, the majority handle stock
which has been in cold-storage for some length of time. Good storage require-
ments must be had to keep
dressed poultry in its prime
condition if being held for any
length of time before marketing.
Another bad feature arises
from the fact that much of the
dressed poultry has not been
properly fitted before it goes into
storage. Some specimens have
had to be cut open in the breast
in order to remove the crop,
which was full of grain before
being killed. Other specimens
have bones which stand out very
prominently, denoting that the
stock has neithor been bred for
market poultry, nor has it been
fed in such a way as would make
the product more edible Fowls
should be bled if they are not
intended for immediate consump-
tion after killing.

The poultry men are in a state
of unrest at the present time as
to the disposal of their surplus
cockerels. If the light-weight
cockerels (that is, Leghorns, Min-
orcas, etc.) have not been hatched
at the proper time, it is as well
to sell them for whatever they
will bring. July and August
broilers do not return enough for
their keep. To have the stock
hatched on time and cater to the
market requirements would mean a greater profit to the poultryman, and also help
advance poultry-growing towards the system which must come if the best is to be
gained.

A finished roaster. Compare with following
illustration.

Heavy-weight varieties have not been, too highly recommended in some parts
of the Province because of the difficulty one has had previously in marketing the
products other than eggs. With the increased prices of foodstuffs and the existing
scarcity of the same, there will ever be a growing demand for more and better-
dressed poultry. We feel that the
producer should be placed in touch
with the situation, thus instructing
the consumer to demand a better
grade of dressed poultry and help to
eliminate so much cold-storage stuff
from our markets, a goodly amount
of which is not produced in British
Columbia.

CO-OPERATION.

While the demand for dressed poul-
try and poultry products is growing,
there is an opening for the progres-
sive poultryman or a body of progres-
sive poultrymen to work together and
cater to a market which, when once
educated to the quality of good poul-
try products, will pay a premium to
the producer. The producer will thus
benefit himself, other producers of
good stock, the markets, and also the
consumers.

There is very little profit for the
individual poultryman to fatten or
plum up his surplus stock for market,
but there is certainly a grand chance
for many of the small producers in
districts to combine and send their
stock to one centre. At this centre
the stock may be fattened and mar-
keted in a more uniform and attrac-
tive appearance. With an unlimited
amount of produce to market, there
is greater chance for selection and
grading than when there are only a
few dozen fowls to market or a few
dozen eggs to be sold. The Cowichan
Creamery, of Duncan, has done ex-
ceptionally good work in handling the
surplus stock for producers in that
vicinity. All its patrons are well
pleased with the results which have
been obtained. It is to be hoped that
several other of the associations will
combine together and market their
products on a business basis, whereby
they will also derive the many benefits
from co-operation.

A cold-storage fowl. Notice the dried,
shrunken appearance.

STOCK FOR MARKET POULTRY.

All breeds and varieties are not suitable for market poultry, for there are
several which do not hold in combination within themselves the power to lay a
goodly number of eggs as well as being a nice table-fowl, although feeding has
much to do in the securing of a good marketable fowl. One must practise selection

in the breeding stock to get a framework on which to produce the flesh. If males
have been selected that have long breast-bones, well covered with flesh or muscle
to the tip of the bone, and mated with females which compare favourably to the
detailed standard which is given, one should produce chickens which are good
utility birds, having well-covered breast-bones. Greater gains are made by marketing
roasters than probably any other form Q£, dressed poultry which is sold.

From practical experience,
the writer feels he could
recommend the following
breeds and varieties for gen-
eral-purpose stock : —

Plymouth Rocks. — There
are five varieties in this
breed, the three most popu-
lar being the Barred, White,
and Buff. This breed is
undoubtedly one of the best
farmer's fowl which we
have. The best strains are
good winter layers, fair
summer layers, and make
exceptionally good roasters.
They are very hardy and
good sitters. The standard
weights are: Cock, 9% Ib. ;
cockerel, 8 Ib. ; hen, 7% Ib. ;
pullet, 6^5 Ib.

Wi/andottes. — There are
several varieties in this
breed, the most popular
being the White, Buff, Silver
Laced, Columbian, and Part-
ridge. This breed has prac-
tically the same characteris-
tics as the Plymouth Rock,
but is a little more blocky
in type. Wyandottes make
good broilers and roasters.
They are good mothers and
fair sitters. They lay a
goodly number of eggs,
though the writer thinks
that the old strains lay a
better number of eggs than
the later strains, which have
been bred much shorter in
the back than the old type.
The standard weights are
1 Ib. less than those of the
Plymouth Rocks.

Rhode Island Reds. — There
are two varieties of this
breed. Single and Rose Comb.
Their body is much longer
in appearance, and not so
massive as the Plymouth
Rock and Wyandotte. They
A pair of good general-purpose fowl.

are hardy, good winter layers, fair summer layers, but do not seem to be as good
sitters as the two above-mentioned breeds. The standard weights are : Cock, S% lb. ;
cockerel. 7% lb. ; hen, 6y2 lb. ; pullet. 5 lb.

Orpingtons. — This breed differs in colour of leg and skin from the above three
mentioned. The more popular varieties are the Buff, White, Black, and Jubilee.
The Buff and White seem to have taken a greater hold with American and
Canadian poultry men than have the Black or Jubilee. They are exceptionally
good winter layers, and make good roasters and fair broilers.

Dorkings. — This is one of the oldest English breeds we have, and are an
exceptionally good type when bred by standard requirements of a utility fowl,
being long in the body and short in the legs. They lay large, white eggs, and are
good sitters.

Sussex and one or two other varieties will do very well from the dual-purpose
standpoint in some parts of the Province. We would not recommend either Sussex,
Dorkings, or Faverolles for the cold, damp parts of the Province, however, because
they are less hardy.

Strain and individuality play an important factor in each case. There is often
as remarkable a difference between two strains of one breed as exists between
two breeds of different origin. In an experiment which was conducted along dnal-

(A.) (B.)

Note prominent head and breast of (A) compared to (B) ; also his pronounced appearance,

denoting strength and vigour.

purpose lines, pure-breds gave higher profits than scrub stock. In crate fattening,
the pure-breds made a greater gain in live weight, and the cost of the feed for them
was less than that of the scrub stock. They also appeared to be much more uniform,
and had a more saleable appearance. (Re. Dom. Poultry Bulletin No. 54, p. 53.)

One can breed quite successfully most varieties of poultry for a certain ideal,
so long as constitutional vigour and stamina are given the first choice in selection.
A good utility standard is given in the following lines, which will help one to select
their breeders : —

(a.) General Appearance. — Weight: Cock, 7 to 8% lb. ; hen, 5% to 7 lb.
Form : Long, moderately deep, broad, low set, rectangular, and well balanced.
Quality: Bone moderately fine and clean, feathers soft and medium in quantity,

skin fine, and scales fine. Condition : Face and head appurtenances bright red, eye
bright, feathers glossy. Style : Active and vigorous, but not restless, showing strong
character.

(I).') Head and Neck. — Comb: Medium in size, fine texture, even and well
attached. Beak : Short, stout, broad at base, well curved. Face : Short and full,
clean cut, short distance between eye and beak, distance well filled in; head broad
at crown, eye clear and full, bright red <?r bay in colour; appendages medium size,
fine and smooth. Neck : Moderate in length, well arched, good flowing hackle' in
male.

(c.) Body. — Shoulders: Broad, and rather flat on top. Back: Broad, width
well carried back, good length, with a gentle concave sweep to tail. Breast : Deep,
wide, full, and round ; fleshing abundant over breast and extending to point of keel.
Keel : Long and straight, well covered with flesh over entire length. Tail : Well
spread and full, not pinched.

((/.) Legs and Feet. — Size: Medium in length, plump, well muscled, set well up
on the body. Legs : Straight, short, wide apart, strong in bone, but not coarse.
Toes : Medium in length, straight, strong appearance.

Notes on Standard. — The above stand-
ard, while not calling for much explana-
tion, would be more clear with one or
two detailed explanatory notes for the
beginner. Any .specimens possessive of
a long, crow-shaped beak should not be
used in breeding. Diagramatically speak-
ing, we prefer a U-shaped breast-bone, it
being deeper and broader and should be
free from crooks. With a breast-bone
of this style we have a good breeder for

utility stock, as also a nice-looking table-
bird when dressed. A bird possessing a

A good comparison of strong and weak young keel which is long and straight, in con-
conjunction with the above - mentioned

breast-bone has a framework on which a goodly amount of meat can be grown. It
is the breast and keel of the fowl which make up the frame on which the greater
part of the meat of the market-fowl is found. If one pays strict attention to the
above points when selecting breeding stock, we will not have so many triangular-
shaped specimens in our yards.

FATTENING MARKET POULTRY.

The market price received for the ordinary lean or unfitted chicken is so small
that the profits which might be obtained from a little extra work are given no
attention. It is estimated that from €0 to 80 per cent, of the live weight of the
unfitted chicken is nnedible matter ; so, also, the consumer must pay a high price
for nothing more or less than offal. Many breeders of general-purpose stock know
that after experimenting themselves and studying the records of many stations, the
greater profit is realized from stock that is fitted and marketed in first-class con-
dition. There are, however, many breeders who still market their surplus stock
alive, or, if dressed, in poor condition. Either of these methods means a loss to the
producer. It is for their benefit, as well as for the betterment of market conditions,
that the subject of fattening is given so much detailed description.

There are several methods employed in different parts in fattening poultry, but
the pen and crate methods seem to be the ones in vogue throughout the Dominion
and the United States. The cramming-machine is used in some places to make a
more prime roaster, but for the farmer or small commercial man the use of this
machine is not advised. Froin the writer's experience, better success, in conjunction
with a more even product, has always been obtained with the crate method. Crate
fattening is more economical than pen fattening, though pen fattening is usually
resorted to because of the lack of proper facilities for the other method. A very

9

easily made and efficient fattening-crate can be constructed of laths, with a few light
boards from a packing-box or soap-box used for ends and partitions. The standard
crate measurements are :
6 feet 6 inches long, 18
to 20 inches high, and 16
inches wide. The top,
back, and underneath
parts are formed of laths
running lengthwise.
The laths on the top and
back should be about
1% inches apart. The
slats on the front should
run up and down, being
placed 2 inches apart, so
that the birds may eat
from the V-shaped
trough in front of the
crate. The laths on the
underneath portion are
placed % inch apart.
The back slat should be
placed at least % inch
from the last slat on the
underneath portion, so
that the droppings will
pass through upon the
floor, rather than accu-
mulate in the crate. A
V-shaped trough 2 inches
deep and 2% inches wide
at the top (inside mea-
surements) is placed in
front of the crate on

Thivr grant roasters. The breast and !«•< 1 ;ir<- plainly seen.

brackets, or it may be hung on two pieces of hay-wire, the trough being
raised about 2 inches from the level of the underneath portion of the crate. After
the crate is finished it may be placed upon stands or upon legs about 2^ to 3 feet

The Cowichan fattening-crate.

off the floor. Nothing, however, should be placed in under the crate, thus ket>]>in-'
the birds in a more sanitary condition. The crates should be disinfected, after each
crateful of birds has been disposed of, with some good, strong disinfectant. At the
end of each season it is well to scrape the manure from the crates and give them a
good washing with boiling water, thus holding to sanitary laws.

The fattening-crate used by the Cowichan Creamery (as shown in the cut)
has the following dimensions : Length, 10 feet ; width, 20 inches from outside slat ;

10

height, 20 inches over all. There are five rows of laths placed lengthwise on top.
These are placed about .2% inches apart. Seven rows of 1-inch stuff, the edges of
which have been skived down, are nailed on to the bottom of the crate about
iy2 inches apart. A piece of 1-inch stuff should be centred on the bottom, the
other three on each side being nailed equal distances apart. The back and three
centre partitions are solid, made of two pieces of 1 by 8-inch shiplap. All other
framework is made of material 2 inches by % inch, except end braces. Inch and
a quarter nails are used in the lath work and 2-inch nails for the rest of work.

In constructing the front of crate, each compartment of which has five pieces
of laths up and down, one piece 16 inches long should be centred in the middle
of the compartment stationary, and two placed at equal distances on each side of
same, nailed permanently. The centre lath works as a door by nailing two pieces
horizontally across the two laths which have been nailed on either side of the
stationary piece, and driving two nails on either side of the centre lath itself to
hold same in firm upright position, yet allowing play enough for easy working up
and down.

The material required for such a crate is as follows: 29 laths 49 inches long
by 1% inches wide ; 4 feet of 1 14 -inch material planed for braces at top and bottom
ends to attach laths to ; 70 feet of 1-inch stuff for bottom pieces ; 20 feet of 2- by
%-inch material for bottom and top front brace to which partitions and front
laths are secured; 36 feet of 1- by 8-inch rough shiplap for partitions and back;
1 Ib. 134-inch nails; 1 Ib. 2-inch nails.

A crate this size allows five compartments of 20 by 22 inches inside measure-
ments. The feed-trough measurements are the same as for the standard crate.

The objectionable features of the pen method are many. When a number of
birds are placed in a house or small coop, there naturally is a tendency to move
around and walk over each other; hence much of the food eaten is wasted by
supplying energy to the bird for its movements. In crate fattening, one can guide
the feed much more readily, keep the birds in a smaller space, have them in a
more sanitary condition, and keep the room darker, preventing so much restlessness.

There are several little details, however, which should be given consideration
as to the handling of the stock before placing them in the crates. A bird weighing
from 3% to 4% It), pays better returns than a heavier or lighter bird, when crate-
fattened. Stock should have reached this weight when from the age of four to
four and a half months.

EXPERIMENT 1.

Experiment to show results of fattening immature stock and mature stock
of weights recommended:—

Number of Cockerel.

Weight when put
in Crate.

Weight at End of
First Week.

Weight at
Killing-time.

Total Gain.

Leg-band.

Lb. oz.

Lb. oz.

Lb. oz

Lb. oz.

60

3 8

3 7

4 6*

0 14*

+ 13

3 9

3 6

5 4

1 11

+67

3 12

3 12

4 14

1 2

+ 0

3 0

2 14

3 14

0 14

2*8

4 7

3 13*

4 12

0 5

236

3 8

3 (f

3 14*

0 11*

255

3 8

3 5

3 14"

0 6

275

5 5

4 15

fi 7

0 2

276

4 1*

3 13*

5 0

0 14$

Brown-Upton, University of Maine. 1910-11.

Notes on Above Figures. — It must be remembered that individuality will play
a large part in all cases. Birds Nos. 60, +13, and +67 made good gains, compara-
tively speaking. Birds Nos. 275, 255, and 223 made very poor gains. The quality
of flesh was much improved, but the stock was range-fed too long before fattening.
The above results are a few specimens experimented with out of several crates.

11

In selecting for size, one desires to fatten birds which have practically attained
their full growth of framework. A fair amount of meat should be developed on
the body.

Crate fattening will yield a good profit to the man who pays strict attention
to the three above-mentioned factors when selecting his stock. Even if they be not
crate-fattened, but shut up in the house for two or three weeks' time, they will
yield more profit than when range-fed.

FEEDS AND FEEDING.

As to the method of feeding that is generally used in fattening poultry, it
would probably be well to mention one or two of the little details that come up
before placing the birds on a genuine fattening ration. We would advise one to
start feeding a little wet mash to the surplus stock when on the range for a week
or two before placing them in the crates. By this method the crop becomes more

Cut showing cramming-machine used at the Cowichan Creamery
and Fattening Station.

enlarged, and the digestive system is made more adaptable to handle the wet
mash, and more of it, when they are placed in the crate. After this time of
preparation the birds should be dueted well with a good lice-powder, to prevent
the irritation which would undoubtedly cause loss of weight when in the crate.
They should then be starved twenty-four hours before giving them the first feed.

12

Begin feeding the birds with a very small quantity of food, usually about 2 oz. of
the mixture at the first feed, then increasing the amount gradually each day, keep-
ing the birds hungry at all times, though having the birds always eager to eat.
Oftentimes a good feeder can make the stock eat as high as 36 oz. of grain to the
twelve birds at a feed. The eighteenth or nineteenth day of fattening in the crate
is usually the last day when the birds, can be forced to eat a greater amount of
food. From this time on the birds gradually eat a smaller amount, so therefore
they should be starved, dressed, and marketed immediately. At this time some
English fatteners begin to use the cramming-machine on the stock for a week or so,
in order to put an even more prime roaster on the market than the crate method
has produced.

EXPERIMENT 2.

Experiment to show loss and gain in weights on relative days: —

1

3

C *j»

<u g

•8*

1 £

||

It

|l

»

a c

Sa

ii

"3 c

ll

i!

fa

4^ £

-u Q

-U

•4-3 C

^

*- a)

+3 "*""* *

-*-J |j

•*"* "*"* 03

-*-* c

go

II

li

-§,_>

.§1

|§J

§•2

|c§ £

it's

ja.35 S?

— -

1

« a

«H

«fc,

ojce

•Sfc

®s

«&,(

'5 33

«W(

IH

Lb. oz.

Lb. oz.

Lb. oz.

Lb. oz.

Lb. oz.

Lb. oz.

Lb. oz.

Lb. oz.

Lb. oz.

Lb. oz.

234

4 10

4 4

4 2

4 3

4 4

4 4

4 6

4 7}

4 10}

5 0

239

4 3|

4 3

4 1}

4 2}

4 3

4 3

4 7

4 9

4 12

5 0

240

4 0

3 14

3 14

3 12

3 13

3 13

4 1

4 3}

4 5

4 11

241

4 6

4 4

4 4

4 7

4 7

4 14

4 15}

5 0

5 3

242

5 6

5 3

5 0

4 11^

4 15}

5 0

5 2

5 3

5 6

5 14}

245

4 1}

3 13

3 11

3 11

3 12

4 0

4 4}

4 6

4 6

4 8

247

4 6

4 2

4 0

4 }

4 Of

4 4

4 6

4 8i

4 12

5 0

258

3 15}

3 10

3 11

3 12

3 11

3 12}

3 14

3 15

4 3

4 12

259
260

4 4}
4 2

4 0
4 1

3 15
3 13

4 0
3 13}

4 2
3 14

3 15}

4 0}

4 6

4 6

4 9}

262

4 9

4 8

4 6

4 6

4 6

4 7}

4 10

4 11}

4 15

C El

267

4 4

4 0

3 13

3 12}

3 14

4 0

4 3

4 5

4 9

4 12}

Brown-Upton, University of Maine, 1910-11.

When the above experiment was conducted, the experimenters wanted to see
exactly what happened during the fattening periods. The writer admits the results
are nothing alarming. Yet, considering the stock was handled over so much and
still put on good gains, one can readily conclude that good profits can be made
from crate fattening.

The feeds which are generally employed in fattening are barley-meal, cornmeal,
low-grade flour, shorts, and white middlings. Ground oats are also used by many,
but they yield a larger profit for the amount fed when the hull has been sifted
out. The mash is usually mixed in the proportion of 1 Ib. of the mixed ground grain
to iy2 Ib. of the sour, skim, or butter milk. It is well to mix the food about twelve
hours before feeding, thus letting the food cream, so to speak, which renders it
more easily digested, on account of the bacterial action which takes place within
the food. If skim-milk, or milk in any form, cannot be obtained, it is well to soak
some beef -scraps in hot water, and use the liquid in the place of the milk. Several
different rations have been used and given out as being profitable. However, there
are many detailed factors that the person engaged must give attention to when
he fattens the stock. The following rations are some which have been termed
successful by many: —

Ration No. 1. — Cornmeal, 3 parts; ground oats, hulls sifted out, 1 part.

Ration No. 2. — Oatmeal, cornmeal, barley-meal, equal parts of each.

Ration No. 3. — Cornmeal, 3 parts; white middlings, 1 part; ground oats, 1 part.

Ration No. 4. — Ground oats, 2 parts; ground barley, 1 part; cornmeal, 1 part.

Ration No. 5.— Ground oats, 200 Ib. ; white middlings, 100 Ib.

Notes on Rations. — No. 1 is probably one of the most profitable rations to feed
in fattening when cornmeal can be got cheap enough. If the stock be well matured,
a person could afford to pay $2 a hundred for cornmeal, if there were enough birds
to make fattening a paying proposition at all.

13

Ration No. 2 is very good. It would work very well in cold weather, and yet
produce fat on the birds. In warm weather a ration like this is to be discouraged.

Ration No. 3 is very good.

Ration No. 4 has given good results wherever used.

Ration No. 5 is that which is used by the fattening-station at Cowichau. Stock
to be fattened in colder climates would fatten at a cheaper cost on Rations 1 and 2.
For warm seasons or that which is experienced for about nine months out of the
year in that district, the ration works to good advantage.

Some experiments have been conducted by feeding dry ground grain to the birds
in the manner that the wet mash would be fed when fattening. They were also
given access to drinking-water as suited themselves. It was observed that the birds
seemed to choke when eating the dry grain. Naturally, they would become ravenous
when fed in this way, and would therefore try to eat too much at a time. Though
only conducted twice, conclusions were to the effect that this was not a profitable
method of fattening. An experiment was also conducted by the writer, in which
twelve males were put in a pen 8 by 10 feet and fed whole grain, with milk to drink,
for three weeks' time. The result was that the texture of the flesh was not improved

A neatly packed box of dressed poultry.

in any way, but the stock weighed more at the end of the period of fattening than
when put in. The results tended to prove that more profit would be obtained from
stock fed in this way than when marketed directly from the range.

CAPONIZING.

We do not think that caponization is a profitable practice to the small producer,
under the present market conditions. The same amount of time used by the small
producer in fattening will pay better returns.

14

PREPARATION OF STOCK FOR MARKET.

Not infrequently does a producer have hard work to market his produce because
of the slack appearance it has when being sold. If the producer does not spend a
few moments in adding to the neatness and attractiveness of his article, he is throw-
ing a share of his profits away. For example, if a poultryman has a dozen fowls to
market, and throws them in his wagon on a bran-sack, and another dozen are packed
in a box lined with clean parchment 'paper, with their feet and heads washed, the
contrast is quickly noted by the buyer. The producer will thus obtain a premium
over and above those which are marketed in a slack condition. Though 2 cents a
pound on a few birds may not be a very large factor, on a commercial basis it is
the small amount which counts up fast and displaces many of the debits to the
credit side.

STARVING BEFORE KILLING.

Too often, well-fatted roasters have their crops full of grain when marketed.
The crop and entrails, as also the meat around the same, soon begin to turn green,

Dislocating the neck. Note the head is turned to right angle with neck, breaking
the joint by a pull downward.

15

due to the bacterial action which is caused by the food souring. Although the body
of a fowl should never be placed in contact with water, the housewife is justified
in washing the carcass of a bird that has not been starved, with soda-water, in order
to sweeten the meat.

It is policy to starve all fowls for twenty-four hours before killing them. At
about the twelfth hour of fasting, one should give them a drink of water, to wash
out the digestive system.

KILLING AND PLUCKING.

If poultry is to be used soon after killing, there will not be much danger of
disintegration set up by the blood which lodges at the base of the brain from dis-
locating the neck. Some believe that the bird does
not bleed properly unless it has quite a long neck,
on account of the fact that all the flowing blood
has only this small crevice to run into.

If the stock is to be held for a certain length of
time before marketing, it is advisable to use a
method of killing which will rid the body of the
blood as it is in circulation when death occurs.
To meet this demand, the following method, with
diagrams, is given after the experimental work
conducted by the United States Department of
Agriculture * as to the best methods with best
results obtainable. This method is endorsed by
commercial poultrymen, colleges, experimental
stations, and many experts. When killing, the bird
should be suspended from the ceiling or rafters by
a stout cord attached to its legs, to the height of
the picker's chest, as shown in cut. A blood-cup
is usually hooked through the nostril of the bird,
in order to catch the blood. By this practice the
blood is kept from the feathers, which may be used
as a by-product. Almost any kind of a knife will
work well, but it is better to have a knife which is about 2 inches long and a *4 inch
wide, with a thin, flat, but strong handle, and a blade which may be sharpened on both

Bleeding. Note the way knife
is held in right hand and blood-
cup attached by hook through
nostril.

A good killing-knife. Exactly half-si/.c.

sides, with a very sharp point. Having it sharpened on both sides, one does not
need to turn the knife when braining the bird after it is bled. The fowl's head is
held lengthwise in the killer's hand, in an inverted^ position, and the knife is run in
just beyond the bony surface of the head, then the jugular vein is cut on the left
side when the bird's head is upside down in the hand, as shown in the illustration.
If the cut is made properly, the bird bleeds profusely. After this the knife is centred
in the groove located in the centre of the roof of the mouth. The knife is placed
downward in tht groove, and then pushed backward into the bony structure of the
head to the distance that might be explained as between the eye and the ear of the

* Circular No. Gl, United States Department of Agriculture.

16

bird. A sharp half-turn will paralyse enough of the brain-tissue to kill instantly
and loosen the feather-muscles. This is all done so quickly, especially by the adept
picker, that the bird has no chance to suffer from the practice. Plucking should be

Diagram of fowl's head, showing the cut for bleeding, as also groove for braining.

commenced at once, pulling the body-feathers first, then the wing and tail feathers.
As soon as the fowl is rough-picked, the pin-feathering and finishing can be done
more quickly in a sitting position.

In the stool method, which is used by some of the large packing-houses, the
picker usually stuns the bird with a club ; then it is bled from the outside by cutting
the jugular veins. The brain is pierced from the outside, also, at the same distance
employed in the string method from the inside. It is really a dirtier method than
the string pick, but when one acquires the knack it can be done more quickly.

DRESSING MARKET POULTRY.

In dressing poultry for market, dry-picking is a system which gives better
results than steaming. It is in the outer layer of the skin of the chicken that
one rinds the taste so peculiar to this sort of meat. When a bird is steam-picked,
this taste is taken away, because the outer layer of tissue is wholly destroyed. It
should be a person's aim, when picking a chicken, to have it in its best condition
and ready for the oven after it has been drawn. Several ideas and methods have
been advanced regarding the best method of removing the feathers, but if the picker,
when plucking, pulls the feathers in a backward position from which they grow, he
will gradually work out a system of his own.

17

Picking and finishing.
SHAPING.

After fowls have been plucked, the picker should wash the blood from the
he.-id and the dirt from the feet and shanks with a damp mjr : then place them on
the shaping-hoard as shown in the illustration. The shaper is made by nailing two

A throe-tier shaping-board.
1S

%- by 6-inch planed boards together at right angles. The trough should be nailed
into a frame and incline slightly backwards. With legs placed alongside the breast
and the breast downward, force the bird into the angle of the shaper, cover with
paper, and lay a brick or something heavy on the back and something on the side,
to hold it in position. The shaping should be done in as cool a temperature as
possible without freezing, and should be continued for at least twelve hours.

HOW TO MARKET.

Poultry should be marketed with their heads on and in an undrawn condition.
In the larger markets of the East, dressed poultry will not bring as high a price
when it has been drawn or the heads removed. The head is the health-indicator
of the bird, so, thus, removing the head from the fowl might give a suspicious
intention. , If the entrails have been drawn from the bird, one might also suspect
that it was sick before being killed. Birds marketed in this way would pick up
dust and bacteria of all forms.

COOLING.

There are two methods of cooling. One is to leave them on the shaper, and
the other is to plunge the birds in ice-water to cool more quickly. When the fowl
is plunged in cold water the body takes up much moisture, and, although it gives
a more plump appearance, the gloss is destroyed from the skin, and if the carcass
be held unfrozen for any amount of time it becomes hard and has a dried-out
appearance. If dressed poultry is to be chilled or frozen, the low temperature

must be constantly main-
tained until the product is
to be consumed. Fluctuat-
ing temperatures will cause
a condensation of moisture,
and allows the bacteria and
enzymes to perform their
destructive work on the
dressed carcass. The United
States Department of Agri-
culture is doing quite ex-
tensive work with storage
relative to poultry. For the
ordinary poultryman it suf-
fices to mention that poultry
should not be held for any
length of time in a damp
room. If the product be
stored, the temperature of
the room should be held at
an even degree, generally
stated as below 40° Fahr.
or 4° Cent.

After removing poultry

Fowl on hoard, showing the correct placing, with hrick as f rom storaSe in a f rozen con'
woight. dition it should be thawed

gradually, by hanging the same in a cool place for about twenty-four hours. When
frozen poultry is plunged into water in order to thaw it, then soon eaten, it has
a flat or rancid taste. Dressed poultry should never be refrozen, if a good, edible
article is desired.

The object of cooling poultry is to get the animal heat out of the body as soon
as possible. Bacterial action takes place quickly in the warm carcass.

19

PACKING AND MARKETING.

When thoroughly cooled, the birds should be packed in shipping-cases made of
basswood, spruce, or ash. If possible, we recommend the use of spruce or ash

A good method of packing twelve birds.

in making the boxes, pine and cedar arc liable to taint the flesh. When ready
for use, the boxes should be lined with parchment paper. It tends to prevent
evaporation, and also keeps the birds and boxes clean.

Several methods of parkirg are in vogue, but the three most common in the
East are the breast, back, and side packs. The following set of dimensions will
assist any who are desirous of making their own boxes, whether it be individual
or association packing: —

No.

Inside Measurement.

Thickness
of Sides.

Wood
Ends.

0

193" x 15 5/16" x 4" . • •

7/16"

9/16"

1

21J" x 16" x 4 3/16"

7/16"

9/16'

o

23 3/l«" x lfi§" x 4 5/16" .

7/16"

9/16"

3

24 13/16" x 17 5/16" x 4g"

7/16"

9/16"

4

26i" x 18" x 5J"

7/16"

9/16"

Case No. 0 is for 12 chickens weighing (plucked) from 2% to 3 IT).

1 „ .. 3 to 3% „

2 „ „ 3i/2 to 4 „

3 ,4 to 4% „

4 „ „ 4% to 5V2 „

The packing should be done in such a way that the shape the shaping-board
has given the stock will be retained. By following the above dimensions when
constructing the boxes for packing, the packer will be able to send out an attractive
package that wrill stay firmly packed with ordinary handling.

Not more than one grade of poultry should be placed in the same box. The
grade and weight of enclosures in the box and full shipping directions should be
marked on the outside, and also on a slip placed on the inside of the box.

Although we have no standard at the present time for dressed poultry, the
following grades are recognized in every market : —

Broilers. — Should weigh from 1^4 to 2% It), each. Stock weighing under this
figure come under another head, and stock weighing over 3 IT), belong in the roaster
class.

20

Roasters. — Should weigh from 5 to 10 Ib. or more at the end of the season.
They are sometimes classified as medium, small, and large roasters.

Fowl. — Embraces all other kinds of dressed poultry when marketed, whether
yearling (males or females) or more.

SHIPPING LIVE POULTRY.

For those who ship poultry alive, /whether it be for immediate killing or not,
overcrowding should be avoided. Overcrowding is not only cruel, but the stock
loses weight quickly, as well as deteriorating the quality of the meat.

A suitable crate for shipping fowls alive.

If coops were constructed of laths or slats on the top and sides the weight of
the coop would be very much lightened, and the stock could secure more fresh air.
If over fifteen head are to be shipped in one crate, a partition of slats will keep the
stock from huddling and sweating in one corner, which often means the total loss
of one or more birds from suffocation.

Eighty cubic inches, at least, for mature light-weight varieties and 95 cubic
inches for mature heavy-weight varieties should be allowed for the most profitable
results.

Sick poultry should not be marketed. It is the shipper who loses when sick
birds are shipped, and not the commission-man.

CONCLUSION.

There is no reason why the great figures telling our imports of poultry produce
should not be made smaller and our export figures larger from now on.

A better system of standardization must be put into operation in the Province
ere long. The only true way to have such a system work successfully is by organiza-
tion. To have organization successful means the co-operation of all the poultrymen
and people interested in poultry-growing throughout the Province.

Much has been accomplished along these lines, but each step must be taken
carefully. One must not forget that the market end of the business has to be
given consideration as well as the ranch itself.

21

The proper way to handle poultry. Note the hand holding the primaries
and legs to prevent restlessness.

BULLETINS AT PRESENT AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION BY THE
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

No. 7.— Flax.

„ 8. — Feeding Farm Animals.

,, 20. — Varieties of Fruit recommended. (Revised.)

„ 25. — Orchard Cleansing.

„ 26. — Practical Poultry-raising.

„ 28. — Production of Eggs.

„ 29. — Poultry Industry on the Pacific Coast.

„ 30. — Guide to Bee-keeping in British Columbia.

„ 32. — Control of Bovine Tuberculosis in British Columbia.

„ 33. — Fruit-growing Possibilities, Skeena River and Porcher Island Districts.

„ 34. — Fruit-trees and Black-spot Canker.

„ 85. — The Place and Purpose of Family Life.

„ 3(3. — The Preparation of Food.

„ 37. — The Preservation of Food.

„ 38. — The Construction of Silos.

,, 39. — Natural and Artificial Incubation and Brooding.

„ 40.— Alfalfa.

„ 41. — Labour-saving Devices in Household.

„ 49. — Market Poultry.

Applications for bulletins should be addressed to the Secretary, Department of
Agriculture, Victoria, B.C.

ERRATA.— On page 10 the title of cut at top of page should read: "Three
grand roasters. The breast and keel bones are well hidden."

The Department is indebted to " Successful Poultryman," Vancouver ; Cornell
University, and Ontario Agricultural College for the use of several of the cuts
printed in this bulletin.

VICTORIA, B.C. :

Printed by WILLIAM H. CULLIN, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty.

1013.

PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

(WOMEN'S INSTITUTES)

BULLETIN NO. 50

THE ART OF RIGHT LIVING

BY

MISS ALICE RAVENHILL,
Fellow of the Royal Sanitary Institute, etc, etc.

THE GOVERNMENT OF
THE PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

PRINTED BY
AUTHORITY OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY.

VICTORIA. B.C.:

Printed by WILLIAM H. CTJLLIN, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majeity.

1913.

PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

(WOMEN'S INSTITUTES)

BULLETIN No. 50

THE ART OF RIGHT LIVING

BY

MISS ALICE RAVENHILL,
Fellow of the Royal Sanitary Institute, etc., etc.

THE GOVERNMENT OF
THE PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

PRINTED BY
AUTHORITY OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY.

VICTORIA, B.C.:

Printed by WILLIAM H. CULLIN, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty.

1913.

DEPARTMENT or AGRICULTURE,

VICTORIA. B.C., March 8th, 1913.

Hon. Price Ellison,

Minister of Ayrwuliurc.

SIR, — I have the honour to transmit herewith Bulletin No. 50
entitled, "The Art of Right Living," compiled by Miss Alirc Kavenhill
Fellow of the Koyal Sanitary Institute, etc., for distribution to th<
members of the Women's Institutes throughout the Province.

I have the honour to be,

Sir,
Your obedient servant,

WM. K. S<1<>TT,

Deputy Minister of A(/ricnlf arc,
Superintendent of Institute*

THE ART OF RIGHT LIVING.

HAT is our chief object in life? There may possibly be a majority
among us who have never paused to consider the question. We have
just lived: got up and gone to bed; eaten and drunk; worked and
talked; grumbled a bit. perhaps, enjoyed and suffered much and
often ; but never given a thought to the REASONS WHY we enjoy
pleasures or endure pain ; much less have we turned our attention
to this question : What is the object of our existence?

Of course, it may so happen that a few among us were reared on the Old
Scotch Catechism. Then our reply to the inquiry will be prompt and mechanical
rather than thoughtful : " The chief end of man is to glorify God and enjoy
Him for ever."

But what possible connection is to be found, you will ask, between this
concise definition of a Scottish Covenanter's religious faith, our own little-
considered ideal of an object in life, and

THE ART OF RIGHT LIVING?

Just this : We consciously or unconsciously glorify God by the standard of
our daily lives, not by the singing of a hymn at intervals of a week or longer.
Our object in life — our ideal — is or ought to be the maintenance of efficiency in
ourselves and our homes, in order that our households may contribute their full
share to the progress of the world and the betterment of humanity.

By what means, then, is energy fostered, health promoted, productiveness
achieved? The answer to this inquiry is found in the title of this bulletin, which
also indicates the connection I desire to trace for you.

RIGHT LIVING SHOULD BE OUR CHIEF OBJECT IN LIFE;

right living is the means by which, through the fullest development of all our
powers, we glorify God. But this is not all. The title introduces another thought
when it speaks of the art of right living.

WHAT IS AN ART?

If a good dictionary is at hand and you turn up the word " art," you will
find it explained somewhat as follows : " Skill, dexterity, tact in planning and
carrying out a project ; a series of rules designed to aid one in acquiring practical
skill or dexterity in performing some specified kind of work."

The full intention of my chosen title should now be clear. Seeing that it
must be our object in life to live up to

THE HIGHEST LEVEL OF EFFICIENCY

of which each individual is capable, we must study rules designed to promote
our ideal, and must acquire practical skill in their performance.

It is a common saying that there is nothing new under the sun ; here is
another proof of its truth in connection with our subject. The famous Greek
poet, Homer, who lived, it is believed, about three thousand years ago, wrote
the following words as a result of his experience of life; —

"IT IS NOT STRENGTH BUT ART OBTAINS THE PRIZE."

That is to say, it is not brute force or endurance which ensure success t
men, but skilled dexterity in playing the game, whatever it may be; in thi
case, the game of life.

Has it never struck you how strange it is that for hundreds of years me
have designed and carried out rules for their guidance in commerce, agriculture
forestry, navigation, and military tactics; they have devoted time and money t
promoting effective methods in the care of crops and stock, even for the wholesal
destruction of human beings ; but have given little heed to the protection of thei
own health and have framed no rules to improve their own race?

The art of right living, as we understand it, took its rise barely a centur
ago. and it is but slowly assuming its

POSITION OF SUPREME IMPORTANCE

in the civilized world of to-day. Nevertheless, great things have been alread
achieved by the devoted service of medical officers of health, sanitary rugim-en
inspectors, and other expert officials. The death-rate has in many cases bee
halved; in others it has been reduced by two-thirds of what it used to be. Th
mortality from infectious diseases among young infants is strikingly lowered; tL
chances of life, and, what is more, of effective life, are correspondingly increase!
and

THE CONTROL OF ILL-HEALTH

is more and more firmly established, as a knowledge of its causes is ohtainec
Each year sees sounder information at our disposal as to the marvellous mean
of self-protection possessed by the human body and of the conditions essenti?
to mental and physical well-being. The distribution of diseased and adulterate
food is subjected- to penalties of increasing severity; tilth is mo:v rapidly an
effectively removed from the neighbourhood of our homes, and more supervisio
is exercised over sources of public water-supply. What more, then, is m>ressar;
in order that the multitude of

DISCOMFORTS WHICH HAMPER OUR EFFICIENCY

and weaken our powers shall also be banished from our homes V

Much more co-operation from private individuals is called for. if health :
to reach the level it could do if all our knowledge were utilized for this art «
right living. T'ntil precepts are translated into practice, they resemble some va.«
treasure hidden in the depths of the sea, while its owners starve and die for wai
of the necessaries of life.

No life need be lost to-day for lack of knowledge. That so many lives ai
warped, curtailed, and wretched is due rather to

INDIFFERENCE, APATHY, AND BAD HABITS.

There is urgent need for every household to study the rules of healthy liviiij
for every housekeeper to acquire skill and tact in their practice ; for each individu;
to feel it his business to understand the conditions under which he can do tt
most and the best work; and then — here comes the pinch, for we are so selfis
and indolent and conservative in our habits — comply with them.

It is absolutely possible for each one of us to raise our lives to

SOMETHING HIGHER, MORE HEALTHFUL AND BEAUTIFUL AND

ADMIRABLE

than those we have hitherto led. Our work need not so often miscarry, nor li
so dull and distasteful. The majority of our daily frets and hindrances are sel:
inflicted; and no quantity of drugs, no floods of self-pity, can heal or remov
them. The remedy lies in the practice of the art of right living, the outlines t

which are mapped out below. The remainder of these pages will be devoted to
sketching in some details; to complete the picture would call for many bulletins.

OUTLINE OF THE ART OF RIGHT LIVING.

(I.)

THE PRACTICE
CLEANLINESS IN

OF

(II.) INTELLIGENT RULES
AND PRACTICE IN
REGARD TO DAILY
ROUTINE IN

OUR

(III.) BECAUSE OF
DUTY TO

the air breathed,
the water used,
the personal habits,
the surroundings.

food and drink,

sleep,

work,

exercise,

recreation.

self,

home,

neighbours,

Empire,

Race.

External
care of

Internal
care of

skin,
hair,
teeth,
clothing,
lungs,
digestive
tract.

A WORD OF CAUTION MAY BE ADVISABLE.

Do not misunderstand me : the maintenance of health does not depend upon
continuous attention to bodily wants or needs; the result would be a population
of nervous invalids ; but upon the formation of healthful Tidbits, which, when
thoroughly ingrained, can be left to take care of themselves and of the body,
while the mind is set free to follow out the course of life whatever this may be.

(I.) THE PRACTICE OF CLEANLINESS.

The housewife's life has been described as a perpetual war against dirt.
Where does it all come from?

Much of it is the result of the constant grinding or rubbing of one surface
against another ; wagon-wheels grind dust off the surface of yard or road ; boots
grind off the surface of their soles as well as of the floors or carpets upon which
their wearers walk. The contact of clothes with furniture is the source of more
dirt, so is their contact with the skin of their owners.

ALL BURNING OF WOOD, OIL, COAL, OF OTHER FUELS

makes dirt; the steam from the vessels on the kitchen stove carries a cloud of
greasy, sugary dirt all over the room. The breath and waste matters excreted
. by men and animals contribute impurities to the air; all living matter as it passes
through countless forms and stages of decay adds its quota of dirt to the atmos-
phere.

MOST DIRT IS, IN THE FIRST INSTANCE, INVISIBLE;

therefore more difficult to control. When it collects on tiny shreds of cotton or
wool: when it settles, several layers thick, in an unoccupied room; when it
adheres as " mud " to shoes and clothes ; when it smells badly, our attention is
attracted, and by its removal we feel some reward for our ceaseless labour in
" cleaning " ; but to banish invisible as well as visible dirt from our homes demands
knowledge of its sources and forms and a very high standard of duty ; for invisible
dirt is by far the more dangerous to our health.

I do not hesitate to say that were the dirt in the air of our houses visible,
there would speedily come about a

B 50

VAST IMPROVEMENT IN THE NATIONAL HEALTH;

for we should be sickened by the sight of the foul air we feed to our poor Ion
suffering bodies. The lungs require no less than 2,000 gallons of air to me
the body's needs every twenty-four hours. Perhaps, during that time, we in*
drink 3 pints of water and eat from 2 to 4 Ib. of food. About the cleanliness
this food and water we think a good deal; about the quality of this enormoi
volume of air we scarcely think at all. So we become

"POORLY," ANAEMIC, DYSPEPTIC, OR PEEVISH;

and suffer from frequent colds, the cause of which we seek in every directu
but the right one. Now, listen to the words of a physician of world- wide renow
Professor Leonard Hill, of the London University, on the subject of " Stuf
Rooms " : " The changing play of wind, of light, of cold," he says, " stimula
the activity and health of mind and body. Cold is not comfortable, neither

To illustrate inexpensive but effective methods of room ventilation.

Reproduced by kind permission of Messrs. E. .T. Arnold & Son, Ltd., from
" Practical Hygiene," by Alice Itavenhill.

hunger; therefore we are led to ascribe many of our ills to exposure and seek
make ourselves strong by what is termed good living. I maintain that the bracii
effect of cold is of supreme importance to health and happiness; that we becon
soft and flabby and less resistant to the attacks of infecting bacteria in the white
not because of the cold, but because of our excessive precautions to preserve ou
selves from cold. The prime cause of ' cold ? or ' chill ' is not really exposu;
to cold, but to the overheated and confined air of rooms and meeting-places.''

There is nothing more fallacious, continues Professor Hill, than the suppositk
that overcoddling indoors promotes health. All our efforts should be directe
he says, towards preventing the overheating of our houses (60° to 65° Fahr.
the correct temperature), and to keeping the air in motion. In overheated dwel
ings the air, confined between the bodies and clothes of the inmates, is raist
almost to blood-heat (99° Fahr.), and becomes saturated with moisture, so thi

6

the ordinary cooling of the body, which is an important function of the skin, is
seriously interfered with. A strain is thrown on the whole mechanism of the
body, one result of which is that the surfaces of the body covered with mucous
membrane (the nostrils and throat, for instance) become dry like the nose of a
sick dog. In this condition they become very susceptible to bacterial infection
and the defences of the body are all weakened. Hence the susceptibility in stuffy
rooms to

CATCH THE BACTERIA OF COLDS AND INFLUENZA.

What can we do to ensure clean air in our homes, if it must be kept moving
and not be overheated? How can we ensure clean air, above all in our bedrooms,
where more consecutive hours are spent than in any other part of our houses?

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THE VENTILATION OF OUR ROOMS.

(1.) Insist upon sash, not casement windows. Keep one or more of these open
at the top night and day, except when there is severe frost. Close the windows
in chilly weather wrhen dressing and undressing, but 'have no fear of fresh air
when in bed. It is far more healthful to have a hot-water bottle in bed all the
year round, and to wear warmer garments during the day, than to live and sleep
with shut windows.

(2.) If you have delicate children or if the bed must stand close to the
window, put a screen between the sleeper and the open window; or fit a board,
6 inches deep and the same width as the window, under the lower sash. (See
Fig. 1) (a). The arrows in the illustration show the upward direction taken by
the outside air as it enters between the two sashes, of which the result is that
it mixes first of ail with the warmer air near the ceiling, so that the chill is taken
off before it comes in contact with the occupants of the room. This is a simple,
inexpensive, and admirable arrangement for sitting-room as well as bedroom
windows during the winter.

IF THE WIND SET DEAD UPON THE WINDOW,

tuck a strip of cotton wadding along the opening between the sashes, fresh air
will enter all the same, but it will be broken up into a thousand streamlets, instead
of rushing in like a flood.

A somewhat similar arrangement for a casement window is suggested at
Fig. 1 (&). The piece of lumber can be cut to any depth preferred lor the screen,
over which the air will enter the room ; it can be bolted into place at night and
removed during the day.

(3.) AIR MUST BE KEPT MOVING IF IT IS TO BE CLEAN.

Now, there can be no movement either in air or water unless there is an outlet
for the stream as well as an inlet. It is a serious menace to the health of
Canadians that, as a consequence of the method of heating their houses, no
provision is made for foul air to escape from their rooms. In Great Britain it
is illegal to build any room, however humble, in which, if there be no chimney-flue,
some other outlet for air is not provided.

An open fire is a valuable means of ventilation (Fig. 1 (c)), and at all times
a certain proportion of dirty air finds its way up a chimney. The usual substitute
in the Old Country is shown at Fig. "1 (d).

AN OPENING IS CUT IN THE WALL CLOSE TO THE CEILING,

about 14 or 16 inches long and from 8 to 10 inches deep. A bit of mosquito-netting
is nailed over the opening on the outside to prevent the entrance of insects or birds ;
and indoors a small " hopper " is fixed over the aperture — i.e., a piece of wood
sloped out from the wall by reason of its triangular side pieces— so that there
shall be no " down draught."

CLEAN WATER

is as essential to good health as clean air. Care ill the provision and protectic
of public water-supplies has saved millions of valuable lives, for cholera, typho
fever, and dysentery are deadly diseases carried from one person or place
another by water.

It may be said that in the country, where each household has its own we
these risks do not exist. That is more or less true; though water may trav
miles in underground streams and still retain the germs of some disease wil
which it has been contaminated at a far-distant point. Besides which, impui
water or insufficient water for cleansing purposes are responsible for a va
amount of poor health, sore throats, and bodily discomforts. Fig. 2 illustrates
state of affairs all too common in many a farmstead. Leakage (2 (a)) fro
privy, cesspool, tank, or manure-heap (2 (b)) finds its way to the well, wil

Fig. i».

Reproduced by kind permission of Messrs. E. .T. Arnold & Son, Ltd., from
" Practical Hygiene," by Alice Itavenhill.

unsatisfactory results to the consumers of the dirty water. The relative positic
of well, midden, stable, cow-shed, pigsty, and sanitary convenience is of gre*
moment to the family health. When in doubt as to the cleanliness of water,

BOIL IT FOR AT LEAST HALF AN HOUR.

The " flat, " taste can be removed and its pleasant sparkle can be restored 1
the simple expedient of pouring it two or three times from one jug into anothei
this restores the air which is driven out by the boiling process.

CLEANLINESS IN PERSONAL HABITS

is a very big subject, which can be touched upon all too briefly in these pages,
must be considered under two heads : —

((/.) External cleanliness, or care of the person; and

(&.) Internal cleanliness, which is of equal importance.

8

(a.) EXTERNAL CLEANLINESS.

This includes care of the skin, nails, hair, and teeth. The story is told of an
old Sussex gardener, innocent of bathing, who remarked : " I be quite clean ; my
sweat cleans me." In one sense he was right. The passage of perspiration through
the skin (and at least a pint and a half of water leaves the body through the
sweat-glands in twenty- four hours) is a 'touch more cleansing process than the mere
throwing of water over the body in a bath. Many physicians advise that every one
should, during some part of the day, undergo sufficient active exertion to induce free
perspiration. One reason why manual workers are so much more healthy than
clerks or servers in shops lies in this fact, that they perspire freely in consequence
of the nature of their work ; whereas clerks, bar-tenders, and others similarly
employed lead sedentary lives in overheated rooms, so that their skins become soft,
flabby, and inactive. But even the hardest labour cannot entirely replace a wrarm
bath, in which by the use of soap and friction surface dirt is removed. Preferably
this bath should be taken at night, as it is advisable

NOT TO LEAVE THE DAY'S DIRT BETWEEN THE SHEETS!

Few people nowadays seem able to take a cold bath, bracing as it is to those whom
it suits ; the reasons for this cannot be discussed here owing to the limits of space ;
neither do they concern our subject, for cold water exercises no cleansing effects.

Perhaps the two points in this connection which most call for emphasis are
these : To cleanse the person thoroughly does not demand gallons of water, pleasant
though it may be to enjoy the luxury of a deep bath. If water is scarce, stand in
a bowl of hot water, and rapidly rub the body all over with a well-soaped loofah,
sponge off the soap and dry with a rough towel. The friction cleanses and stimulates
the skin, more than the amount of water used ; and soap is necessary as well as
the hot water, in order to dissolve and remove the greasy deposit on the skin.

Do not be afraid to wash the hair! It is a mistaken prejudice which leads
people, otherwise clean, to leave the scalp dirty. Is it not a sore disgrace to mothers
all over the world, even in the most highly civilized countries, that from 50 to 80
per cent, of the girls medically examined in the public schools should have unclean
heads? Heads should be washed every fortnight or three weeks; though the use of
strong alkalies to soften the water, such as soda or crude ammonia, or of cheap soap,
is inadvisable; rain-water should be used when possible, and a good quality of soap.

Nails are strangely neglected in many cases ; yet the rim of dirt beneath a finger-
nail may carry infection to the food with which the finger comes in contact; while
ill-kept nails are not only a disfigurement to their owner, but prevent the same
delicacy of touch in the finger-tips, which, next to the lips, are the most sensitive
part of the person and indispensable to the execution of skilled work.

CLEANLINESS AND CARE OF THE TEETH

are even more neglected than are the hair and nails; yet it is no exaggeration to
say that the owner of one decayed tooth is the subject of slow poisoning; while a
whole host of unsuspected ailments more or less serious are the direct result of a
mouth full of unhealthy teeth. It is hoped that Fig. 3 will illustrate the truth of
these statements. It shows two teeth in the upper jaw, split down lengthways, so
that their structure can be seen.

Observe, in the first place, that each tooth consists of three parts: —
(1.) A crown; that is the portion of the tooth which shows above the gum:
(2.) A root or roots; that is the portion of the tooth buried in the jaw-bone:
(3.) The pulp; for the supply of feeling and nourishment.

The crown is covered with enamel, the hardest structure in the human body,
composed of lime and gelatine; but the rest of the tooth is covered with a softer
substance, called " dentine " or ivory. The pulp consists of nerves and blood-vessels,
which enter the tooth from the jaw-bone. Fig. 3 shows in (1) a perfect "bicuspid"
tooth ; alongside it are two " molar " teeth, both of them in different stages of decay.

9

THE PROCESS OF DECAY IN TEETH

is the result of particles of starchy foods, such as bread, lodging iu the crevices of
the teeth, where it favours the multiplication of a certain form of bacteria which
swarm even in the healthiest of mouths. The result of their activity is fermentation
and the production of an acid which dissolves away part of the enamel. Another
kind of bacteria then attack and dissolve the gelatine, so that a hole is formed and
the mischief can spread to the sensitive pulp beneath.

--CROWN

PERIOSTEUM

COVeWINQTHE ROOT

AND BONY SOCKET

OH ALVEOLUS

NCHVC

SECTIONS THROUGH THE PERMANENT TEETH.

IF TAKEN IN TIME,

so that the decayed portion is carefully removed, while the hole is filled with some
proper material, the tooth may last for years. If, however, the trouble is neglected
and spreads to the pulp, great pain is suffered, the pulp dies, decomposes, and an
abscess results, which causes intense suffering, besides the loss of the tooth, which,
meanwhile, will probably have infected its companions. All the time, the owner
of the diseased tooth will have been swallowing the disgusting discharge from the
abscess, which causes all sorts of troubles — constipation, indigestion, " bilious
attacks," tendency to colds, sore throats, etc. The direful results of the collection
of particles of food at various points on the surface of teeth is clearly shown in
Fig. 4, which illustrates the process of decay in teeth.

TO ALLOW A TOOTH TO DECAY AND THEN HAVE IT OUT

is far too common practice ; but, as is demonstrated in Fig. 5, if a tooth is removed
from either jaw it throws two teeth out of use in the other jaw, an important fact
of which most people are ignorant. This illustration shows a complete set of sound
teeth in the mouth of an adult. How many of us possess this valuable aid to health
and beauty?

HOW TO PREVENT DECAY.

(1.) Keep the teeth clean and healthy by thoroughly masticating all the food
eaten, instead of bolting much of it unchewed. For this purpose include crisp toast,
crackers, and raw apples in the daily diet. The custom of eating only pulpy, soft
food and the crumbs of bread is bad for the teeth. Therefore, form the habit of

10

closing each meal with a bit of crisp crust, toast or cracker, or with a raw apple,
the juice of an orange, or with a draught of water, to leave the teeth as clean as
possible.

(2.) Brush the teeth always at night, and advisedly in the morning too, with
some precipitated chalk; quite the cheapest and most reliable tooth-powder. To
increase its effect, draw the brush once or twice across a cake of " Monkey Brand "
soap before dipping it into the chalk.

SALIVA IS STICKY;

it needs a powder to remove it, as it clings to the teeth. Pastes and liquid denti-
frices are mostly expensive and useless, for they do not remove this sticky secretion,
which glues food particles to the teeth.

(3.) Care of the teeth must include their periodical inspection by a competent
dentist ; this is one of the best investments against ill-health, and must never be
neglected.

DECAY OR CARIES OF THE TEETH. X
CEMENT OH ROOTOFTEETTH A

FORMULA or Txe

PERMANENT TEETH

(ONE SIDE).

2 • 1 • 2 • :

2 • 1 • 2 • C

INCISORS. CANINE. PREMOU4R8. TRUE

MO1AR&

BOTH
SIDES

CLEANLINESS IN CLOTHING.

It may seem superfluous to refer to this particular form of cleanliness, especially
as it just now happens to be the fashion to wear short dresses out-of-doors, so that
the disgusting sight of a long skirt trailing in the dust or mud is rare. Will an
enumeration of the constituents of road or street dust suffice to make our women
turn a deaf ear to Dame Fashion when next she decrees long skirts to be " the
mode''? Particles of hair, wool, cotton from animal and our own clothes; specks
of blood, pus, and infectious discharge from cuts, wounds, and sores; expectoration
from the mouths of consumptives or from others full of putrid teeth ; manure and
the droppings of birds and animals. Have I quoted horrors enough for once?

11

C,"YCAR MOLAR B.

BOTH

SIDES

FORMULA or THE fc*l"2*«3 x^^s

PERMANENT TEETH ^ ^ _ ^ — 32

TOTAU

2-1-2-3

INCISORS. CXNINt. PRFMOI.XRS.TMUe

MOLARS.

12

THE CLEANLINESS OF WOOLLEN CLOTHES

or of corsets or of well-worn shoes often leave much to be desired. Remember that
soapsuds and boiling water are one of our best purifiers, worth gallons of much-
vaunted " disinfectants." Remember also the invaluable purifying agents for non-
washable things provided for us free by Nature; I refer to the sun and the wind.

THE OBJECTIONABLE ODOUR

of soiled, long-worn garments is unfortunately familiar. A glance at our stockings
as we remove them at night gives visible explanation of one cause for this. The
white, powdery substance adhering to the inner side of the stockings consists of dead
skin, rubbed off the surface of the legs by friction; the same thing happens hourly
all over the body. If it is left undisturbed it soon decays, as does all dead matter;
and unpleasant is the result to sensitive nostrils ! Though that is of small import-
ance compared with results to general health.

Much more could be written on this subject, but it is necessary to pass on to a
consideration of what is meant by

(b.) INTERNAL CLEANLINESS.

Brief reference must here again be made to the quality of the air we draw into
our lungs. Where this is impure or actually unwholesome, there can be no robust
health. Anaemia is one of the commonest results of the constant breathing of stale,
bad air, and certainly, where there is a persistent tendency to " catch cold," attention
should be directed to the character of the atmosphere where the sufferer spends most
of his or her time. The

LOWERED VITALITY

associated with habitual breathing of a poor quality of air predisposes to depres-
sion, drunkenness, susceptibility to infection of all kinds, debility, languor, and
other miseries. Convincing proof of this fact is afforded by the splendid gain
to delicate children of

OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS.

Well fed and well wrapped up, they are out-of-doors in all weathers, and
colds and infections cease as if by magic.

There is one form of internal cleanliness, however, which must be dealt with
at greater length for it concerns most materially the standard of efficiency we
attain in life: I mean

RIGHT CARE OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT.

Any unhealthy condition of the nose and throat as well as of the teeth
results in digestive disturbances. For this, among other reasons, it is so important
to attend to " adenoids " in children, and to seek medical advice in cases of
chronic colds or sore throats, as well as when attacked by some acute form of
these troubles. It stands to reason that when constant unwholesome discharge
is passing into the stomach there must be interference with the normal process
of digestion, while the discharge itself is partially absorbed and slowly poisons
.:he system.

Another fruitful source of indigestion has received attention in more than
one previous bulletin — viz., eating food at irregular hours, or food uusuited to
the consumer, or food in itself unwholesome. In each case imperfect digestion
leads to the formation of unhealthy residues, difficult for the body to dispose of.
Internal uncleanliness follows, usually combined with what a wise and experienced
woman physician has described as

"THE CHIEF PHYSICAL SIN OF WOMEN,"

namely, constipation. What does this imply? Many things; but one of the mosi
serious is the retention in the intestines of decomposing matter, the products of

13

which are gradually absorbed into the blood-stream, carrying disorder and discom-
fort all over the body, and reflected in the leaden, spotty complexion, languor,
and often foul breath of the sufferer. A mother has few more important duties
to perform with her children than the formation, even from birth, of regularity
in the discharge of solid waste matters from the body. The earlier a habit is
formed,

THE STRONGER AND MORE PERSISTENT IT IS.

Throughout infancy, childhood, and youth nothing must be allowed to interfere
with attention to this physical requirement, regularly, at a stated hour.

Probably the regrettable prevalence of constipation among women is due to
the indefinite and nondescript character of their duties. A man or lad knows
that he must leave the house to start work at a given time and he makes arrange-
ments accordingly; whereas a woman has no such stated hours for her occupations.
Her intentions are just as good ; but perhaps the children take a little longer than
usual to get off to school, or the kitchen fire gives extra trouble, or certain dishes
for the midday meal must be prepared early or they wrill not be ready to time;
and so the morning slips away, without attention to her own physical duties. Thus
the bad habit creeps ahead, and presently it can only be controlled by the constant
resort to drugs, a pernicious and unsatisfactory means of affording relief to the
body.

REMEMBER THE WORDS OF A FRENCH DOCTOR:

" If you want to cure yourself of chronic constipation, you must cultivate
regular habits. Choose a moment which is likely always to be convenient, even
though it involves getting up a few minutes earlier to keep to it with punctuality.
If the effort to relieve the bowel naturally be unsuccessful one day, put the failure
out of the mind for twenty-four hours; then try again at the appointed hour,
probably some success will follow." Never allow more than three days to pass,
however, without relief. But remember that

THE MORE POWERFUL THE REMEDY USED,

the more obstinate will be the succeeding constipation. It is for this reason
that when the addition of more fruit or vegetables to the diet or the drinking of
more water (especially a tumblerful at bedtime and in the morning) have failed
to relieve the trouble, cascara in some form is often recommended. The dose of
this drug can and should be gradually reduced until Nature once more undertakes
her own work.

A WORD OF URGENT CAUTION

is necessary on the subject of relieving chronic constipation by the use of injections,
a means never permissible except under a doctor's orders. In addition to the
many disadvantages associated with the habitual use of this treatment, it must.
be borne in mind that waste material is removed from the lower bowel only, so
that serious accumulations take place in the higher portions which are left
unaffected. An occasional dose of rhubarb, just

TO GIVE THE BODY A SPRING CLEAN,

is advantageous ; but too strong a protest cannot be uttered against habitual resort
to aperient medicine as an aid to internal cleanliness. Such a dose at intervals,
however, will often relieve certain periodical discomforts which hamper some
women's lives, and which are too liable to drive them to stimulants or narcotic
drugs for relief.

It is well worth while to give a periodical dose of rhubarb a good trial ; if
it does not diminish subsequent discomfort, always consult a doctor. Small begin-
nings, when neglected, sometimes result in serious endings. No one can afford
to fritter away health by permitting the continuance of possibly preventable
discomforts, for which a cause always exists.

14

CLEANLINESS OF ENVIRONMENT.

Some elements which enter prominently into our surroundings have already
received attention — namely, the quality of the air we breathe and of the water
we drink, as well as the character of the dirt in our homes and the duty of its
control by intelligent cleaning. All three of these elements could be profitably
discussed at greater length ; so also could others now to be enumerated. The fact is,
these bulletins can only serve as suggestions to their readers ; details on each subject
may be gained partly by means of discussion at meetings or of books, or, like Oliver
Twist, by " asking for more " bulletins.

THE FREE ADMISSION OF LIGHT,

more especially of sunlight, to our rooms is a powerful agent in good health.
Houses should, where possible, be built with a south-east aspect, so that for nine
months in the year each room is daily purified by direct sunshine. The most
sunny room in the home must be the children's bedroom, for they spend more time
in one room than does any member of the household. Admit every ray of sun,

except when the little folk are in bed; and never shield the life-giving sun from
any room except during the heat of summer. It is your

CHEAPEST CLEANSER AND DISINFECTANT.

Set yourself against dark blinds and folds of curtains over your windows.
Please remember that one-third of all the light which enters through a window
pours in through the top quarter of its area. When, therefore, the upper part of
a window is permanently covered by a thick, dark blind, the most valuable portion
of the glass is rendered useless.

Notice the light, washable curtains in Fig. 7. They are graceful, suitable,
washable, easily handled, and render blinds unnecessary. Observe the position of
the bed in this illustration. It has windows near the head and foot, yet is itself
out of any draught. These windows face east and south; so that in the winter
the sun's rays slant in under the south verandah, and in the summer they pour
in through the eastern window before they are too hot for comfort.

15

TO OBSCURE LIGHT IS TO SEEK ILL-HEALTH.

There can be no real cleanliness in a dark house; dirt, darkness, and disease
are inseparable companions. A part of our environment which appeals strongly
to us all, and to which some of us are even disposed to devote too much time, is

OUR BED.

Yet what carelessness prevails as to the cleanliness of this bed. The sleeper
creeps out from between the clothes in the morning, leaving them much in the
position in which they have been through the night. By and by the bed is made.
In what does the process consist? Well, I will say, in what it ought to consist,
and leave you to decide whether your practice comes up to my precept. When
getting out of 'bed throw back the top coverings and just well loosen them, so that
they may cool and dry. Before leaving your room, strip off the under-sheet and

Fig. 7.

blanket, raise the mattress as shown in Fig. 8, and throw open the windows to
their fullest possible extent, allowing a full hour to pass before making up the
bed again.

WHAT IS MEANT BY DRYING A BED?

Most people understand that a bed is better for cooling, but who among us ever
sleeps in a damp bed? Let me remind you that moisture is always leaving the body
through the skin, to the amount of at least a pint and a half in twenty-four hours.
If eight hours are spent in bed, there must be half a pint of moisture shut up in
the bedding; moisture which carries off some impurities from the body; consequently
undesirable to retain around us. Therefore, a bed must be aired, dried, and purified
by light each day.

ALL THE EXCRETIONS OF THE BODY,

solid or liquid, should be removed with the least delay from our houses. Chamber
vessels must be kept covered after use and scalded with soda-water after being
emptied. Give them and the covers free exposure daily for an hour or two to light
and air.

16

There is no method of disposal of slop-water so safe and inexpensive as a trench
about 6 inches deep and from 15 to 20 feet long, filled with stones, and planted on
each side with shrubs, of which the roots absorb the fluid, so that no offence is
caused in even the hottest weather.

An earth-closet is the best method known for solid excretions. The earth must
be dry and free from stones. A small ,quantity should be placed at the bottom of
the pail after emptying, and a shovelful should be shaken over the contents of the
pail after use. The pail should be emptied daily into a 4-inch trench in the kitchen
garden, the contents being just covered with earth. After a few days the trench
can be dug over and plants of the cabbage tribe should be the first crop raised.
The garden will flourish and family health will be maintained where this method
is adopted.

IF ANY OFFENCE IS EXPERIENCED,

the cause will be found either in the misuse of the pail or in its too infrequent
removal. No liquids must find their wTay into the pail, and the removal should be
daily. In snow or frost the contents can be heaped in an outside shed, with the
addition of a sprinkling of dry earth, and removed when the thaw sets in. On no
account must the trench be dug more than 4 or 5 inches deep, as the germs which
convert this valuable manure into a form suitable for plant-nutrition can only work
near the surface; hence a deep trench defeats the end in view.

THE CONTROL OF FLIES

in our environment depends entirely on the proper disposal of refuse, stable manure,
vegetable accumulations, and so forth. Never say you cannot imagine why there
are so many flies. Their presence is a reflection upon your own cleanliness and that
of your family. Banish accumulations of refuse and you cut off your supply of flies.
They prefer stable manure for their breeding-grounds, but will make the best of any
filth which happens to be at hand! Try and persuade your men-folk to sprinkle a
little dry earth over the manure-heap when they clean out the stable, and you will
enlist valuable allies in your fight against the fly-plague. Much more could be said
on the subject of a healthy environment, but it is now necessary to pass on to the
consideration of

(II.) INTELLIGENT RULES AND PRACTICE IN DAILY ROUTINE.

Many people consider routine a deadly, wearisome thing. The general craving
to-day is for constant change and variety. Is it advantageous, then, to prescribe a
regularity which seems so unacceptable to the modern world?

There is no doubt some benefit in reasonable variety in the conduct of a part
of our lives. Mental refreshment is associated with occasional change in the form
of recreation or companionship ; and physical refreshment usually follows change of
air and scene. But a part only of the working of our lives lies under our control ;
the more mechanical processes of existence are carried on independently of our
will and pleasure; as, for example, the act of breathing, the circulation of the blood,
and the process of digestion. That is to say,

THE MECHANISM OF LIFE

is beyond our power to govern, but it depends largely for its eflicacy upon our
daily habits. The machinery of our bodies works with exquisite accuracy if we
give it a fair chance; but, if for months we sit for hours by the fire and then
suddenly attempt to climb a high mountain, we must not be surprised if this
mechanism gets out of order from the unexpected strain put upon it!

If we never go to bed two successive nights at the same hour, can we be surprised
if sleep suffer and fatigue handicap our pleasures?

REASONABLE REGULARITY IN BODILY HABITS

should be our rule, if we want to be efficient and healthful. It is unnecessary for
me again to enlarge upon the importance of regularity in meals. Punctuality is a

17

time-saving, health-promoting, virtue, which should be cultivated in youth and
fostered throughout life. Make a stern rule that in your house, at least, there shall
be no eating or drinking between meals, except, of course, when thirst is excessive
in hot weather.

I refer here more particularly not only to the constant eating of candies, but
to the injurious results of " nips " of alcoholic drinks at all hours in the day ; a habit
bound to bring disaster sooner or later, if not to the drinker, without doubt to the
offspring. All investigation goes to show that

THE CHILDREN OF ALCOHOLIC PARENTS,

not necessarily of what are usually called " confirmed drunkards," are more suscept-
ible to all forms of nervous disease, less fit for the battle of life, than are those of
abstainers. If alcohol must be taken, then let it be drunk at meal-times, not
between-whiles; and remember, more than 1 oz. (two tablespoons) a day is harmful.
Resort to tea or coffee at odd hours is also to be deprecated in the interests of good
health.

REGULARITY IN HOURS OF SLEEP

is of equal importance to health and efficiency, with regularity of meals. This alter-
nation of rest and activity is one of the most strongly marked rhythms in nature.
The rest of winter succeeds the activity of summer in the world of vegetable and
insect life. Night follows day, the ebb-tide alternates with the flood. The human
body is a

MASS OF RHYTHMICAL HABITS.

The temperature rises and falls with absolute regularity when the body is in
good health. Muscular energy is regularly greater in the morning, less in the after-
noon. Did space permit, examples of these bodily rhythms could be multiplied
manifold. The heart, for instance, works and rests in quick alternation, so that it
is hard to believe what is the fact, that it rests just as long as it works. But no
rhythm is more important or more beneficial to health than that of

THE HABIT OF PROLONGED, QUIET SLEEP.

Experts on the subject of nervous diseases and insanity say without hesitation
that sufficient sleep, under suitable conditions, constitutes the best insurance against
breakdowns and mental instability. Like all rhythms, sleep must be permitted at
regular hours, and experimental observations show that sleep before midnight —

"BEAUTY-SLEEP," AS OUR GRANDMOTHERS CALLED IT—

is far more refreshing than sleep, however sound, after midnight. This is a strong
argument against late hours for adults as well as for children. There can be no
sound, vigorous population when the hour for retiring is habitually midnight or later.

WHAT AMOUNT OF SLEEP IS NECESSARY?

This is a question impossible of direct answer. Children can scarcely sleep too
long. (A table showing the length of hours advisable at each year of age will appear
in the bulletin on "The Care of Children.") In later life the number of hours
desirable depend upon the individual and the character of the work done.

Some people do well on six hours' sleep, for others seven hours suffice, while
most women find eight hours none too much for their refreshment. No hard-and-
fast rule can be laid down, except that in every case more sleep is needed in winter
than in summer, owing to the lowered vitality consequent upon absence of bright
light and sun-heat.

WHAT ARE THE MOST SUITABLE CONDITIONS FOR SLEEP?

To this inquiry a most definite reply can be given. Refreshing sleep demands
quiet, darkness, pure air, warmth, and comfort. We need sleep because all activity

18

causes fatigue. Fatigue is caused by the presence in the blood of certain poisonous
matters which result from activity, especially from muscular activity. Hence manual
labourers usually need longer hours of sleep than brain-workers, for only during sleep
are these matters cleared out by the body.

Rest without sleep does not suffice to remove fatigue, and the fallacy that

I

CHANGE OF OCCUPATION IS REST

has cost many overworked people very dear.

Quiet is essential to refreshing sleep, because any noise, even though the sleeper
may not hear it consciously, stimulates the brain.

Light, too, is a stimulus, and interferes with complete repose. People who live
near a trunk or car line or in some crowded city constantly wake in the morning
feeling almost as weary as when they went to bed, because the repairing process, so
active during sleep, has been interrupted by recurring noises or flashing lights.

Pure air is another essential to recuperative sleep. Only in the coldest weather
should the bedroom windows be closed ; have them open to their fullest extent if you
desire good health ; and sleep on the porch, if possible, six months out of twelve.

Warmth is indispensable to good sleep. Don't overload the bed with heavy quilts
or " comforters " ; a hot-water bottle is far more wholesome, and its contents are
conveniently at hand for toilet purposes in the morning.

Down coverlets, when ventilated, are delightful bed-coverings. It can be hardly
necessary, in the twentieth century, to caution against the use of feather beds. They
are in every way unwholesome, enervating, impossible to " air " properly, and perfect
carriers of infection.

Reasonable comfort is most generally provided by modern bedrooms. Knobbly
" flock " mattresses are comparatively rare, having been replaced by purified wool or,
better still, by horsehair. Where the expense of wool or hair cannot be afforded, a
bed filled with chaff, which is so cheap it can be easily renewed at intervals, is much
to be preferred to " flocks," which are too often made from filthy and imperfectly
purified rags and shreds of old cloth clothes. Active measures to prevent the further
manufacture of this form of cheap but most insanitary bedding have been taken in
the Old Country, as the result of the exposures published by the indefatigable Chief
Sanitary Inspector of Glasgow, Mr. Peter Fyfe.

THE HYGIENE OF DAILY WORK

in factories and workshops has now received attention for a hundred years, although
much still remains to be done to secure entire satisfactory conditions for workers;
in many cases, on account of their own indifference to the subject.

But the provision of ideal conditions for the performance of domestic duties has
lagged far behind; women continue to estimate the worth of their service by the
fatigue experienced, and pride themselves, not upon their intelligent adoption of
improved appliances as they come on the market, but upon their ability to produce
good results at an extravagant expenditure of time and energy, without employing
conveniences to be purchased for a few cents or, at most, a few dollars.

SUCH CONDUCT IS UNINTELLIGENT AND BLAMEWORTHY.

Naturally, each woman has her own particular problems and must study the
conditions of her own duties in order to decide where a saving of energy can be
legitimately effected, and in which direction "steps can be saved" to the greatest
advantage.

WORK IS BENEFICIAL WHEN PROPERLY PERFORMED.

Without exercise muscles soon become flabby, and flabby muscles are associated
with all sorts of physical discomforts, besides a passing stiffness when called upon
to exert themselves. Far more injurious than flabby muscles, however, is a flabby
brain. Nerves deteriorate for want of exercise more rapidly even than muscles.

19

WORK CEASES TO BE DRUDGERY WHEN CONSCIOUSLY DIRECTED BY

AN ACTIVE BRAIN.

No more profitable subject can engage the attention of the members of women's
institutes, congresses, or clubs than the more intelligent utilization of activity and
appliances in daily domestic routine. Call in the aid of men, for they have long
grasped the value of right posture, appropriate tools, and well-considered surround-
ings as aids to effective, economical work. Impress upon young people that

POWER TO DO GOOD WORK IS A PRIVILEGE.

The utilization of the labour-saving devices described in Bulletin 41, and their
supplement by others as they are introduced, will so lighten the call upon strength
that energy will remain for other forms of exercise, of importance to mental as well
as physical well-being. Have you ever noticed the change in your feelings of anxiety,
fret, or irritation before and after a short, brisk walk with a pleasant object or in
the company of an agreeable friend V

The blood has circulated more rapidly and promoted more effective nutrition ;
the brain is also stimulated by a purer blood-supply, so that life has assumed a
much brighter aspect. Quickened respiration has increased vitality and given a fillip
to the body's furnace, so that waste matters are more completely destroyed and
nutrition is more perfect. Muscles unexercised by domestic duties are brought into
play, while those wearied with work are given a respite from activity. A short,
sharp walk should constitute a daily tonic. It is cheap, beneficial, and exhilarating.

BY YOUR OWN WELL-BEING ENTHUSE YOUNG PEOPLE WITH THE JOY

OF WORK AND SERVICE.

May not some of the prevalent distaste for family service be due to its associa-
tion with an overwrought, preoccupied woman, always tired, sometimes indifferent
to her appearance or figure? Instil from early days respect for the body, the dignity
of ministering to its needs, the skill involved in the right care of human life, the
joy in lightening the burdens of others, the privilege of utilizing ability to do anything
just as well as it can be done, i.e., the exercise of mind and body in well-doing.

THE PLACE OF RECREATION

in busy lives must not be overlooked in any code of health rules. Have you ever
observed the economy associated with the possession of two instead of one pair of
boots or shoes, so that each pair is worn alternate days instead of continuously?
They much outlast the lives of two pairs worn in succession, while the feet they
clothe are less wearied.

This is but another illustration of Nature's law of rhythm, about which I have
already written. Rest appears beneficial even to inanimate objects, such as boots
and shoes; much more is this the case with human beings. Now, though the old idea
that change of occupation is rest can no longer be supported, nevertheless change of
occupation in many cases means recreation.

RECREATION IS ASSOCIATED WITH LIGHTENED RESPONSIBILITY,

which is one reason why it is so hard for a house-mother to find a place for it in her
busy and responsible life. A man comes in with his day's work done, sits down in
a comfortable chair to read the paper, or goes out to meet his cronies and smoke
a friendly pipe. But his wife has the supper to cook, or the children to bathe and
put to bed, or the week's mending to do, or some clothes to make, or the ironing to
finish. When is her recreation-time to be found? The appearance of thousands of
women give the answer. They never find time to recreate their minds and bodies,
so they lose touch with much that fills life with interest and pleasure and age
prematurely.

Others there are, found more often among the younger generation, who will not
forego the excitements and variety which entered largely into their lives before

20

marriage, so they just scramble through their home duties and let things " take their
chance." In neither case are homes really happy, though in the former they are well
kept ; in the latter they are not.

REASONABLE RECREATION IS A DUTY TO SELF AND FAMILY.

V"*

Make a rule that one hour out of the twenty-four shall be entirely given up to
this process of restoring the powers and preserving your elasticity and efficiency.
One day the best form of recreation may be an hour on your bed. Another day it
may be a chat with a friend ; another day it may be found in a book or newspaper ;
or in retri mining a hat ; or in tending a garden-plot ; or in a game with the children ;
or in making a sketch or picking out a melody on the piano.

VARY THE FORM OF YOUR RECREATION,

but never omit the duty of finding time for it. Women are so apt to forget that duty
to self as well as duty to family is an element in healthful efficiency. Besides this
personal aspect, bear another point in mind. If you want to influence your young
people through the most critical years of their lives (from fourteen to twenty-four),
you must show yourself able to enter into their pleasures, and to share more or
less in their hobbies and pursuits; to discuss with them topics of the day or their
favourite books, to be their comrade as well as their parent or guardian. Perhaps
this argument in favour of recreation will appeal to you more strongly than the
purely personal reasons given above.

I am strongly of opinion that one cause for the still prevalent contempt for
domestic duties and growing indifference to the claims of home and family may
be traced to the accepted idea that a woman's work is never done (whereas in
all other occupations there are stated hours of employment), and the fact that if
a house-mother " does her duty " she is cut off from social life ; while the mother
herself is too apt to consider an overfatigued existence to be her appointed lot
in life and not to give sufficient thought to its possible alleviation.

TOO BUSY TO SHARE IN HER CHILDREN'S AMUSEMENTS,

she gets out of touch with their tastes, and they seek sympathy and companionship
elsewhere. Do not lose sight of this fact : Rest from work and suited recreation
means a direct saving of the vital powers and a consequent prolongation of produc-
tive and useful working-days.

(III.) WHY IT IS OUR DUTY TO PRACTISE THE ART OF RIGHT LIVING.

(1.) Because we owe a duty to ourselves.

(2.) Because we owe a duty to our homes.

(3.) Because we owe a duty to our neighbours.

(4.) Because we owe a duty to our Empire.

(5.) Because we owe a duty to the Race.

Life is designed to yield results ; man is not framed to be a mere cumberer
of the ground. The root of efficient life lies in the home. As is the home so is
the product.

THE BALANCE OF THE BODY

hangs on the quality of the nature it inherits from its ancestors and the surround-
ings in which it lives.

The researches of the last few years have brought ample confirmation of the
teaching of Moses: the sins of the fathers are visited upon the children to the
third and fourth generations.

The children now being reared in our homes are the parents of the next genera-
tion. According to our care of their bodies, according to the use we train them to
make of their will-power, according to the ideals we set before them, will they
be prepared to hand on the torch of human life burning with greater brilliance and

21

a purer light than they themselves received it; or — surely it is unnecessary to
detail the possibilities of deterioration and its gruesome results to offspring.
They are but too familiar.

THE CHARACTER OF OUR FOOD, SHELTER, AND SANITATION

are mainly under our personal control ; but co-operation with the community
around us is necessary for the betterment of the laws and of the general attitude
concerning the protection of food-supplies, conditions of labour, building regula-
tions, control of infectious diseases, and other factors in the promotion of health.

"OF WHAT USE IS AN EMPIRE," ASKED LORD ROSEBERY, "WITHOUT

AN IMPERIAL RACE?"

An Imperial race can be assured if all the knowledge now at our disposal be
applied to the control of our environment and to the intelligent adaptation of
habits to climate, occupation, personal requirements, and social obligations. We
are no longer at the mercy of conditions; it is for us to master them and shape
them to our own purpose.

It has been well said, and the saying is peculiarly applicable to women's work
in our home. " The art of to-day is the beautifying of human lives." It is my
earnest hope that the contents of this bulletin will place at your disposal a part,
at least, of the materials necessary for this noble work. Do not forget duty to
self as well as duty to others; example outweighs precept any day.

See to it, then, that —

The mind's sweetness shall have its operation
Upon thy body, clothes, and habitation.

For faith without works is dead.

ALICE RAVENHILL,

Fclloir of the Itoiidl $<init<n-i/ Inxtitutc; Certificated Lecturer
Xatiomil Health Hocietii, (treat Itritain and Ireland.

Author of " Practical II i/t/iene for Use in Schools " ;
" KteiiiciitK of ttaiiitara Lair-"; "Nome Chnracterixlir*
and Requirements of Childhood"; "Household Adiuin-
ixtration " ; " Jloiixcholtl l-'ncx." etc.

Late Lecturer on lli/</ienc. I 'nircr-iitif of London, 7\/;///'\
CoUeye for Women.

22

NOTICE.

The Department of Agriculture is issuing the following series of bulletins pre-
pared by Miss Alice Ravenhill, Shawnigan Lake, B.C., to be available for distribution
among the members of the Women's Institutes throughout the Province: —
No. 1. The Place and Purpose of Family Life.

2. The Preparation of Food.
„ 3. The Preservation of P^ood.
„ 4. Labour-saving Devices in the Household.
„ 5. Food and Diet — Parts I. and II.

6. The Art of Right Living.

7. The Care of Children.

BULLETINS ISSUED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

No 7. Flax.

,, 8. Feeding Farm Animals.

„ 20. Varieties of Fruit Recommended. (Revised.)

,, 25. Orchard Cleansing.

„ 28. Production of Eggs.

,, 29. Poultry Industry on the Pacific Coast.

„ 30. Guide to Bee-keeping in British Columbia.

,, 32. Control of Bovine Tuberculosis in British Columbia.

„ 33. Fruit-growing Possibilities, Skeeua River and Porcher Island Districts.

,, 34. Fruit-trees and Black-spot Canker.

„ 35. The Place and Purpose of Family Life.

,, 36. The Preparation of Food.

„ 37. The Preservation of Food.

„ 38. The Construction of Silos.

,, 39. Natural and Artificial Incubation and Brooding.

„ 40. Alfalfa.

„ 41. Labour-saving Devices in the Household.

,, 42. Apiculture in British Columbia.

„ 43. Women's Work in British Columbia.

„ 44. Irrigation in British Columbia.

„ 45. Agricultural Statistics, 1911.

„ 46. Food and Diet— Part I.

„ 47. Food and Diet— Part IT.

„ 50. The Art of Right Living.

Applications for bulletins published by the Department of Agriculture should be
addressed to the Secretary, Department of Agriculture, Victoria, B.C.

VICTORIA, B.C. :

Printed by WILMAM II. CULLIN, Printer to tlie King's Most Excellent Majesty.

1913.

23

OF

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

PROVINCE OF BEITISH COLUMBIA.

BULLETIN No. 51.

INFORMATION FOR FRUIT-GROWERS

WITH

LIST OF VARIETIES FOR COMMERCIAL AND
HOME PLANTING.

BY

R. M. WINSLOW, B.S.A., Provincial Horticulturist.

WSV.;

.

THE PRDWNCE OF BRITISH CCLUWBIA.

PRINTED BY
AUTHORITY OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY.

VICTORIA, B.C.:

Printed by WILLIAM H. CTJLLIN, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty.

1913.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

BULLETIN No. 51.

INFORMATION FOR FRUIT-GROWERS

WITH

LIST OF VARIETIES FOR COMMERCIAL AND
HOME PLANTING.

BY
R. M. WINSLO W, B. S. A., Provincial Horticulturist.

THE GOVERNMENT OF
THE PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

PRINTED BY
AUTHORITY OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY.

VICTORIA, B.C. :

Printed by WILLIAM H. CULLIN, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty.

1913.

TABLE OF, CONTENTS,

PAGE.

Introduction 7

Sources of Information « 7

Factors Influencing Choice of Varieties —

(1.) The Growing Season 10

(2.) Winter Climate 11

(3.) Altitude 12

(4. ) The Orchard-site 12

(5.) Fruit-growing Soils 13

(6.) Types of Soils 13

(7. ) The Pollination Problem 14

(8.) Variety Characteristics 15

(9. ) Prospective Production 15

( 10. ) How many Varieties to plant 16

(11.) Transportation Facilities 16

(12.) Markets 17

Comments on using Lists 20

List of Districts —

(1.) Vancouver Island — South-east Section 21

(2. ) Vancouver Island — West Coast 23

(3.) Mainland Coast 24

(4. ) Northern Coast Valleys 25

(5.) Lower Mainland 26

(6.) Lytton, Lillooet, Spence's Bridge 29

(7. ) Kamloops-Walhachin 30

(8.) Southern Central Plateau 31

(9. ) Shuswap Lake 33

( 10. ) Upper Okanagan Lake 34

(11.) Lower Okanagan Lake 38

(12.) Similkameen Valley 42

(13.) Kettle River Valley 44

(14.) West Kootenay 47

(15.) East Kootenay 49

(16.) Central British Columbia 51

General Suggestions to Orchard-planters 52

Map showing Districts At end

Under each district heading there are discussed the main facts concerning its
climate, altitude, area, soils, present production, prospective production, types of fruit
most suitable, transportation facilities, markets, and other considerations affecting its
development. It has been beyond the scope of this bulletin to go into these in great
detail, but the Department is at the service of any intending fruit-grower who desires
further information that will guide him in the choice of varieties or the planting and
care of his orchard.

DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE,

VICTORIA, June 18th, 1913.

Hon. Price Ellison,

Minister of Finance and Agriculture,
Victoria, B.C.

SIR, — I have the honour to transmit herewith Bulletin No. 51,
entitled " Information for Fruit-growers, with List of Varieties for
Commercial and Home Planting," compiled by R. M. Winslow, B.S.A.,
Provincial Horticulturist.

It is hoped that this bulletin may prove of service to fruit-growers
in this Province, in giving information as to those varieties which have
best proved their adaptability in the different districts for commercial
orchards. The information contained therein is compiled from a variety
of sources — from observations made by our Assistant Horticulturists,
from information supplied by fruit-growing associations and leading
orchardists throughout the Province — and may well be taken as repre-
senting the consensus of opinion as to the best and most successful
varieties of fruits in the different fruit-producing centres.

I have the honour to be,

Sir,
Your obedient servant,

WM. E. SCOTT,

Deputy Minister.

INFORMATION IDE FRUIT-GROWERS

WITH

LIST OF VARIETIES RECOMMENDED FOR PLANTING BY THE
PROVINCIAL DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

(As revised November 15th, 1912.)
BY R. M. WINSLOW, B.S.A., PROVINCIAL HORTICULTURIST.

INTRODUCTION.

TN issuing a revised edition of the " Varieties List," the Department of Agriculture
•*• has several objects in view : —

(1.) To provide definite information as to the best varieties of fruit to plant,
both for commercial purposes and for home orchards :

(2.) To enable fruit-growers of each district to take action so as to limit the
choice of varieties for future planting:

(3.) To assist the nurserymen of the Province to better estimate the probable
demand :

(4.) To discourage extensive planting of new or little-tried kinds:

(5.) To encourage the working-over of poor or indifferent varieties with scions
or buds of those which are more valuable.

This revision has been necessitated by the additional information acquired since
the last issue, as to the commercial suitability of varieties, taking into consideration
all that has been learned about their commercial suitability, their adaptations to
various soils, success in different districts, immunity to fungous diseases, etc.

The marketing question has been made a real problem by the recent increased
production in the United States and Canada generally, and ir. the North-western
States especially. The general range of prices received in 1910-1912 has been some-
what lower than in the period 1905-1909, in some instances very much lower. At the
same time, there has been a steady increase in the cost of labour and of living.
These two circumstances — a using cost of production, and a lower selling price —
make it imperative that more care be taken to select the most suitable varieties,
and to plant them under the most suitable conditions.

Variety lists were issued by the Provincial Board of Horticulture in 1908 and
1910.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION.

In the compilation of this list a great many sources of information have been
drawn upon. First of all, there has been the experience of the members of the
Board of Horticulture, which, as the fruit-growers of the Province are aware, is
composed of practical fruit-growers, representing the principal districts — men who
are in an especially good position to know what is best.

The >advice of other prominent fruit-growers and of fruit-shippers throughout
the Province has also been drawn on to a large extent, and the Department of
Agriculture and the intending fruit-grower owe much to them.

The staff of the Horticultural Branch of the Department, as designated else-
where in this bulletin, has been called on for information. These men, by virtue of
their continual observation in the orchards, in the fruit fairs of the Province, and

in the packing-houses, together with the many discussions which they are able to
have, both at meetings and privately, with orchard-owners, are in a position to render
especially valuable opinions.

The Markets Commissioner, stationed in the Prairie Provinces by the Provincial
Department of Agriculture, to study conditions under which our fruit is marketed
and the competition which it must meet, has also advised on the marketability of
the various varieties — a most important point.

FRUIT-GROWERS' ASSOCIATIONS HAVE ASSISTED.

In this past year, the British Columbia Fruit-growers' Association has also taken
considerable interest in the variety question. At the last annual meeting of this
Association, held in January, 1912, a resolution was passed, and it, together with
the discussion on it, is reproduced herewith : —

" Moved by B. McDonald, seconded by D. H. Watson, ' Whereas the shipping
associations of British Columbia consider it of great benefit to the fruit-growers to
confine their planting to fewer commercial varieties more suitable to their districts :
Be it Resolved, That the Association ask the various affiliated associations to recom-
mend lists of varieties for commercial planting in their respective districts to the
Board of Horticulture for the 1912 revision of the lists of varieties recommended.'

" Mr. McDonald : In speaking to that resolution, I think every fruit-grower of
British Columbia realizes the great importance of getting our planted varieties down
to the required number. I would instance Hood River as an example of what I
mean, and I think the sooner British Columbia fruit-growers do the same thing, the
sooner will they achieve the success they are after.

" Mr. Watson : I do not think the question requires much argument. Just
consider Watsonville and Hood River. I think it is up to British Columbia fruit-
growers to adopt the same principle.

" Mr. Bulman : I thoroughly endorse the idea of the resolution, and I think that
the investigations of Mr. Winslow in this direction, are to be commended, and I
would like to see them extended.

" Mr. Maxwell Smith : I may say that never a week passes but I am asked by
some new-comer what are the best varieties to plant, and I think that a list such
as is proposed would meet a long-felt want.

" The resolution carried unanimously."

In compliance with this resolution, the various affiliated associations of the
Province gave considerable study to the question of varieties for their respective
districts, and their recommendations are incorporated in the list of varieties given.

DEPARTMENT HAS INVESTIGATED HISTORY OF VARIETIES.

The Department of Agriculture, in drawing on the sources of information
indicated above, will be seen to have done practically everything possible to secure
what experience could tell as to the conduct of the different varieties of fruit.
Owing, however, to the very rapid development of our fruit industry in the newer
districts, and to the fact that even in our older districts the industry is still very
young, there are very many gaps, for which experience and experiment on the ground
cannot as yet supply the exact information, and it has been both advisable and
necessary to make some investigation of the requirements under which various
varieties of £ruit reach their greatest perfection elsewhere.

It is a well-recognized fact that each variety of fruit requires a certain type
of growing season to reach its greatest commercial perfection, and to approach
reasonably to this ideal the growing season must be nearly like that which it has
been found to be most desired. Drawing on the records of the meteorological
stations of this Province and of Ontario, Nova Scotia, and the North-western
States has enabled us to study those conditions under which the different varieties
seem to succeed best. Many varieties of all kinds of fruits were found to be adapted
to a very limited range of climate, such as the Spitzenberg, Winesap, and Pewaukee
apples, the French prune, the d'Anjou pear, the Foster peach, and the Olivet cherry ;

8

while, on the other hand, there are varieties, such as the Wealthy, Wagener, and Ben
Davis apples, the Bartlett pear, the Elberta peach, and Pond's Seedling plum, thriv-
ing over such wide areas as to well deserve the term " cosmopolitan," as against the
" sectional " character of the great majority. The demonstrated success or failure
of many varieties in parts of our own Province has strikingly confirmed our expecta-
tions based on their behaviour in similar climates. This method of studying climatic
conditions and varieties has led to some interesting and valuable suggestions which
we are following out in distributing varieties of trees for experimental purposes in
our new and untried districts. What is more important, we have been able to verify
the wisdom of choice in the case of certain largely planted kinds. It was learned
that the principal features of the growing season are : —

(1.) Its length:

(2.) The total number of heat units received:

(3.) The mean temperature of the hottest six weeks.

These are all to be derived by a calculation of records of the daily maximum
and minimum temperatures along the lines laid down by the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture's Biological Survey. For example, choosing the section in
which the Winesap apple reaches its greatest perfection, we find that it requires
a growing season of 225 days, with a total of 13,400 heat units, and a temperature
for the hottest six weeks of the growing season averaging 72° Fahr. Under such
conditions the Winesap bears heavily, produces fruit of the desired commercial
size, and of very high colour. Where the season is shorter or less warm, the
fruit lacks in size, colour, and dessert quality, in proportion as the season falls
short of these requirements. We find only a few districts in British Columbia
approaching these conditions. The records for Kamloops show that the Thompson
River Valley has an average of 214 growing days, 12,683 heat units, and a tem-
perature in the hottest six weeks of 69.30° Fahr. The Similkameen Valley, of
which we have unfortunately no records, we believe to be even more nearly
suitable, and this is verified by the fact that Winesap trees in that section are
producing heavy crops of fruit of good size and colour. In no other part of the
Province of which we have record do we find conditions under which the Winesap
is likely to reach the desired perfection. This variety, owing to its great favour
in Prairie and Coast markets, is being planted to an undesirable extent in many
districts where it may not do very well; and intending planters should bear the
above facts in mind. The laws of nature are inexorable ; and the attempt to grow
varieties in unsuitable districts cannot be attended with success

The Mclntosh Red apple is produced to greatest perfection in districts with
about 200 growing days, 11,400 heat units, and a temperature in the hottest six
weeks of 65.5° Fahr. Our investigations show that Vernon has 199 growing days,
11,423 heat units, and 66.5° Fahr. as the average temperature of the hottest six
weeks. It will be seen that Vernon approaches the ideal very closely. Kelowna,
with 201 growing days, 11,507 heat units, and 66.0° Fahr. as the average tempera-
ture of its hottest six weeks, is also very nearly ideal for this variety. The summer
temperature in both cases being a little on the warm side, the keeping quality
of the fruit is not quite as good as it might be.

Turning to Nelson, we find there an average of 202 days in the growing season,
11,427 heat units, and an average six weeks' summer temperature of 65.0 degrees.
We would expect that, with this lower summer temperature and a slightly longer
growing season, the keeping quality would be better. The greater humidity at
Nelson, which we find, when we turn to the records of precipitation, induces the
apple-fungus, known as scab, which is a qualifying factor in this instance.

Turning to Victoria, we find this section to have 271 growing days, 14,409
heat units, and a temperature of 60.8 degrees in the six hottest weeks; obviously,
in every respect the climate is not a suitable one for the Mclntosh Red.

Similar investigations enable us to verify the results of experimental observa-
tion with respect to many of our varieties, which gives us confidence in the results
of this method of investigation. The methods by which the figures are derived,

9

and by which the suitabilities of the district are judged, are much too intricate
to be dealt with here. The examples will serve, however, to show that the
investigation has gone into the question much more deeply than can commonly
be done. There can be no question as to the essential accuracy of the deductions,
but until the material collected on the subject can be published, only the conclusions
as embodied in the variety list herewith can be submitted at this time.

FACTORS INFLUENCING CHOICE OF VARIETIES.

(1.) THE GROWING SEASON.

The character of the season of growth is undoubtedly the most important
factor of all those connected with the choice of a variety. The " growing season "
is really the summer climate of the district, and it is well known that the summer
climate of different districts may vary a great deal, not only in length, but in
temperature, amount of sunshine, amount of rain, wind, etc.

In the choice of varieties the length of the growing season is important, because
many varieties otherwise entirely suitable cannot reach maturity in an insufficiently
long season, such as is often found in a high altitude, though even on the same
altitudes different districts show great variation.

The Yellow Transparent, Duchess, and other early apples thrive in seasons,
so short that the Northern Spy, Jonathan, and other varieties cannot possibly reach
proper maturity. It is practically useless to plant the late winter varieties, except
a very few unusual kinds, in those sections where the growing season is under 180
days. On the other hand, in the sections of longer growing season, combined with
high summer temperatures, the early varieties become very early indeed, and
very perishable. In seasons shorter and cooler the fall varieties may become
winter keepers.

The temperature of the growing season is of almost as much importance as
its duration, and the two naturally go together. Such varieties as the Winesap
will not mature properly in a season, no matter how long, unless the summer
temperature is sufficiently high ; while other varieties, such as the Blenheim
Orange, King, Ribston Pippin, require a reasonably long growing season, but it
must also be reasonably cool, high summer temperatures injuring their keeping
quality and also their flavour.

The relation of sunshine to varieties is also of importance. On the Coast,
the months of September and October are usually hazy, and while the sun may
be visible, the sunshine is not strong. Under these conditions, many sun-loving
varieties, such as Jonathan and Spy, refuse to colour up well, while others,
especially those varieties of English origin, gain their usual colour.

The humidity of the air, while a factor which is not readily susceptible to
observation, has a great deal of influence on the choice of varieties. Where the
air carries a high percentage of moisture many fungous diseases thrive, and in
consequence those varieties of apples which are susceptible to such diseases should
be avoided. It is on this account that the Snow apple, so subject to apple-scab, is
usually badly deformed in Coast regions, and the Flemish Beauty pear is practically
impossible to grow in these sections on that account. For such sections varieties
originally propagated and developed under similar conditions are most likely to
be resistant, and to bear clean fruit.

In other districts, such as the humid sections of the Interior, the relative
humidity is not so great as on the Coast, and it is quite possible, by reasonable care
in pruning and spraying, to grow susceptible varieties with very satisfactory success.
In the Dry Belt, where the humidity is naturally low, and evaporation therefore
greater, the skin of the apple becomes thicker and stronger, making it more adapt-
able for shipping. In this climate fungous diseases are almost unknown, and this
factor need not be considered in the choice of varieties. On the other hand, some
physiological troubles seem to thrive most readily in the non-humid sections, and
varieties susceptible to them should be avoided. In this section, too, those varieties

10

which thrive best under irrigation methods should be chosen. There are some
varieties which do best under irrigation; others require humid conditions; others
have no preference.

The total precipitation, including both rain and snow, is the principal factor in
determining whether irrigation will be necessary or advisable. In regions of exces-
sive precipitation drainage is necessary for practically all varieties of apples, but
there are some few kinds which 'seem to do much better than the average in low
or otherwise wet locations, such as Ben Davis and Golden Russet.

The months of greatest precipitation are also of importance. Some districts
receive their precipitation principally in the winter-time, and there is in consequence
not enough moisture in the summer-time, without irrigation, to bring many* varieties
of apples to commercial size, while other varieties, such as Duchess, Alexander, Wolf
River, and King, will grow quite large enough.

In those districts which have a limited summer precipitation without irrigation-
water available, such early maturing fruits as strawberries, cherries, and early plums
will succeed commercially, where longer season fruits, such as winter apples, would
bo unsatisfactory.

It is because of the lack of summer moisture in Victoria that raspberries do not
succeed as well as strawberries, and similarly in the Lower Mainland, where the
moisture-supply continues later into June, raspberries are more successful, while the
strawberries are softened by the rain.

Heavy rains in the blossoming season are injurious to fruit setting, and are
undesirable. Heavy precipitation in May and June lends itself to fungous diseases,
while heavy precipitation in September and October, such as is found in some
districts, materially interferes with the keeping quality of apples, their colour and
maturity. This question of the seasonal precipitation is a most important one in
the commercial production of fruit.

Wind, or the absence of wind, is in some cases an important consideration. The
valley winds, characteristic of many sections near mountain-ranges, materially help
to prevent frost, but heavy winds cause injury by bruising cherries and other soft
fruits, and by causing apples to fall. Persistent winds from one direction made
tree-pruning a difficult matter, and wind-breaks may be essential to the success of
an orchard in such cases.

Late spring and early fall frosts are material factors in choosing varieties of
fruit. In a section where late spring frosts are likely to occur, it is not advisable
to attempt peaches, Japanese plums, or cherries on a large scale, while walnuts,
apricots, and almonds require unusual freedom from late frosts. Early frosts in the
fall, if not too severe, are of material value in increasing the colour of late apples,
though extremely heavy early frosts are liable to damage nearly all kinds of fruit,
not excepting the hardest of winter apples.

Hail is not unknown in the Interior of British Columbia, and may cause some
loss, but its occurrence is so rare that it effects no material damage, as in some
parts of France, where it is the cause of great loss to the grape-growing industry.

Cloudiness, fog, and haze, which are more or less likely to occur on the Coast,
have an undesirable effect on many kinds of fruit; and on this account, locations
which, because of altitude, exposure to the south, and prevailing winds, or other
reasons, are most free from these, are likely to produce the best fruit.

(2.) RELATION OF WINTER CLIMATE TO THE CHOICE OF VARIETIES.

The average snowfall is reasonably constant throughout each district of British
Columbia, and may be reckoned with as such. In those sections where snowfall is
very heavy, amounting to 3 or 4 feet on the level, it is more desirable to have
varieties of trees which do not break down under the weight of snow. This can
be overcome to a considerable extent by proper methods of pruning, but not success-
fully by high heading, as is sometimes attempted. In all Interior sections where
winter temperatures may drop low, it is most desirable to have some snow covering
to protect the soil and to prevent root-freezing. In the irrigated districts the melting
snow supplies moisture for the early spring months, and where it is a fafrly constant

11

factor, as at Vernon, irrigation is not necessary as early as where snowfall is much
lighter, as in the southern end of the Okanagan Valley. On the Coast snowfall is
rare, though some sections, particularly in proximity to the mountain-ranges, have
more or less.

The minimum winter temperature is one of the principal determining factors in
choosing varieties of fruit, especially in the Interior. In the Coast regions, where
zero temperatures are rarely encountered, practically all the varieties of the tem-
perate regions can be grown, as far as this factor is concerned, with equal success ;
but in the Interior it is very necessary that varieties be chosen wrhich are likely to
stand the minimum winter temperature without damage. The blossom-buds of prac-
tically all' varieties of peaches are frozen by a temperature of 14 or 15 degrees below
zero, and, in consequence, peaches are successful only in a limited number of areas.
The buds of cherries, especially some sweet varieties, suffer at slightly lower tem-
peratures, while the tenderer apples, such as Newtown, Spitzenberg, and Cox's
Orange, are apparently injured at around - 25 degrees. The Mclntosh and Wealthy
stand as low temperatures as are experienced in any of our old fruit districts without
injury to either wood or fruit-bud. In more northerly or higher sections, even
hardier kinds must be used.

In the variety list submitted, the question of winter injury has been given almost
first consideration, and the varieties given may be counted on to stand practically
free from winter injury. In some of our principal fruit-producing sections, winter
injury of tender varieties has been the cause of greater loss than all other factors
combined, but experiment has proceeded so far that this factor becomes almost
negligible in the planting of new kinds.

The duration of periods of low temperature, and the amount of wind with which
they are accompanied, should be considered with absolute minimum temperatures in
considering the effects of freezing, as the duration of the freeze and the amount of
wind aid materially in causing injury.

The humidity of the air in winter is a great factor in the amount of injury
caused by freezing. The greater the humidity, the less injury is caused. This factor
has, however, been also considered in recommending choice of varieties.

(3.) ALTITUDE.

The higher the altitude, the shorter the growing season and the cooler the
summer. Many varieties of fruit in higher altitudes become inferior in size, in
colour, and particularly in productiveness. It is true, however, that the higher in
altitude any variety can be successfully grown, the better is its texture and keep-
ing quality. Practically no fruit is being produced in British Columbia over 3,500
feet above sea-level, and it is very unlikely that commercial fruit-growing can be
conducted successfully over 2,000 feet, except in specially favoured locations wrhere,
either from the topography of the land or the mildness of the climate, or excep-
tionally remunerative local markets, the detrimental effects of high altitudes are
discounted.

None of the Interior fruit sections of British Columbia have an altitude of less
than 800 feet, and the average altitude at which fruit is being produced in largest
quantity commercially at the present time is between 1,200 and 1,400 feet. The fruit
produced at 1,600 to 2,000 feet is, however, notably good in keeping quality and for
dessert purposes. At the higher altitudes many varieties, which are only fall apples
ordinarily, become good Christmas or even late winter apples.

(4.) THE INFLUENCE OF THE ORCHARD-SITE ON THE CHOICE OF VARIETIES.

The proximity of the orchard to large bodies of open water has many beneficial
effects in the prevention of frost, in the modification of winter temperature, and in
increasing the humidity of the air. Such a location is desirable for practically all
kinds of fruit, but is especially desirable where tender varieties or those subject
to frost are most desired. The presence of deep water is one of the best forms
of insurance, in planting any kind of fruit, against vicissitudes of climate at any

12

time of the year. At the same time, proximity to the sea carries these good
qualities to an extreme, reducing the summer temperature so greatly that grapes,
peaches, and other fruits requiring high temperatures in summer, do not thrive,
and winter apples take a long time to properly mature.

The slope of the land is important. A reasonably level orchard costs less to
operate. On the Coast, the most desirable slope for practically all kinds of fruit
is that to the south or south-westveo as to secure the benefit of all the sun possible.
In the Dry Belt, such an exposure lends itself too readily to sun-scald, and on
extreme south-west slopes this may become quite serious, even with low-headed
trees and hardy varieties. Too great a slope increases the cost of irrigation (and
the danger of washing), as does an uneven slope or an absolute absence of it.
Grading is often necessary in irrigation districts to ensure a proper flow of water.
A slope to the east or south-east renders the fruit, plums especially, more susceptible
to spring frosts, and so is not desirable where spring frosts are liable to be prevalent.

Elevation above the low-lying land of a district greatly facilitates air-drainage,
and so assists in avoiding spring frosts in every district, while on the Coast, as
stated above, it helps materially in securing freedom from fog.

In districts with prevailing winds or heavy, winds from any particular direction,
it is desirable to have the orchard protected from such exposure, or if an orchard
is planted in such a location, the varieties should be those which resist such condi-
tions to best advantage. The Wealthy, Mclntosh, Snow, and some other varieties
drop readily before maturity in a high wind, while others, such a*s the Crabs,
Wagener, Winter Banana, Yellow Newtown, and Golden Russet hang well to the
trees under such circumstances. Transcendent crab, in the Interior, and Hyslop
crab, on the Coast, are good varieties for the exposed side of the orchard.

While on the Coast a slope down to the water and facing south-westerly is,
as a general rule, most desirable for apples, for strawberries it may be detrimental,
because of the exposure to( the prevalent south-west wind of that section. In the
Interior, it is a general rule that a slope down to an open body of water should
be chosen ; where this is available, the other considerations as to site are secondary.

(5.) FEUIT-GKOWING SOILS.

The Province has soils of a great many types. Speaking generally, in the
whole of the Coast region the soils which are suitable for fruit-growing are nearly
all of glacial origin, while in the Interior practically all are of an ancient alluvial
character, either being on the floor of prehistoric lakes, or the wash of more recent
mountain-streams. In both cases there is a wide variation of type, whose influence
on fruit-growing we are just beginning to understand. Much in this respect has
yet to be learned by experience, but we are able to make some definite recommenda-
tions at this time.

(6.) THE TYPE OF SOIL.

On light or sandy soils, early maturing fruits and those whose roots naturally
require a light soil, such as peaches, plums, and apricots, are likely to do best. On
the clay loams and slightly heavier soils, many varieties of apples are thriving to
their greatest perfection, while pears prefer distinctly heavy soils. Clay soils, with
heavy clay subsoils, are not at all suitable when they do not yield up their moisture
readily to the tree or to the plant, and on such soils strawberries are extremely
likely to suffer from want of moisture, even though a great deal may be present.
As strawberries, however, require a considerable amount of moisture, the soil should
be retentive in character. Blackberries and currants prefer a low, moist, fairly
heavy soil, while raspberries require it well drained, but still deep and moist. Under
irrigation conditions these factors are all modified somewhat, but the type of soil
is one which should be given due consideration in the planting of all kinds of fruits.

There has been very much indiscriminate planting of fruits on very light,
gravelly, or open soils, on which trees may do well for a few years with sufficient
cultivation or water, but where eventually failure seems certain. Soils of basaltic
origin or of quartz are likely to be open and poor in potash, while those of feldspathic

13

type are usually rich in both potash and lime, though variable in phosphoric acid.
For practically all fruits it is desirable to have a type of soil which carries a quantity
of plant-food in a reasonably available form.

Whatever the soil, it should be reasonably deep. Sour cherries, and in some
cases strawberries and plums, may do well on soils which are rendered shallow by
the presence of hard-pan, impervious clay subsoil, or rock ; but on such soils apple-
orchards are likely to be short-lived, poor in results, and extremely liable to winter
injury. Shallow soils have not sufficient reservoir for moisture, nor have they any
reserve of plant-food, and they should be avoided for what are intended to be long-
lived orchards to a far greater extent than they have been in the past.

The depth of soil is a subject which receives practically little or no considera-
tion from the intending planter, yet it is one on which the future of the orchard
very largely depends.

The amount of decayed vegetable matter or humus in the soil varies greatly in
different districts. Humus is almost absent in Dry Belt soils, but what there is is
four times as rich in nitrogen as the average humus of the soils of humid regions.
Soils which have been newly cleared of coniferous timber are deficient in humus,
and what there is is undesirable, because of its acidity or rawness. Those soils
which have borne a natural growth of willow or alder have more humus, and conse-
quently more available nitrogen ; but, generally speaking, nearly all our soils lack in
this essential constituent, and it must be supplied at some time, either before the
orchard is planted or in its early years. If humus is lacking, the roots of fruit-tress,
which are very much more delicate and exacting in their requirements than the
roots of forest trees — general opinion to the contrary — make much less growth, and
the trees in consequence do not do so well. Practical experience proves that humus
should be supplied early in the life of the orchard, and, preferably, a crop of clover,
vetch, alfalfa, or peas should be ploughed down in the fall before the orchard is
planted.

In most sections the presence of a supply of sub-irrigation moisture, or seepage,
will be of great benefit if it is not in too great quantity or too near the surface.
We find apple-orchards on the Coast doing best where there is such subsoil moisture
as will ensure a supply during the dry summer. Such seepage is also giving good
results in sections of the Interior, but where subsoil moisture is in apparent excess
for the average apple-tree, pears may be planted with satisfactory results.

On soils which show alkali, or which will be subject to alkali, through seepage
or over-irrigation, the best varieties of pears should be planted rather than apples,
because the pears stand alkali much better. Where alkali is present in considerable
quantity, the grape, which is more resistant even than the pear, will still do well.
The peach is not at all resistant, and its planting on such soils should be avoided.

The drainage of the orchard-site should be good. Where it is desirable to have
a home orchard on low soils which are unsuitable for commercial orchards, those
varieties of apples such as Golden Russet and Ben Davis, which are specially
resistant to soil-moisture, should be chosen.

(7.) THE POLLINATION PROBLEM.

It has been learned within comparatively recent years that the pollen of one
variety of apple may not be potent on the blossoms of the same kind, though quite
efficient on another variety. There have been found but a few varieties of apples
and of pears which are self-fertile, and occasionally instances have been found where
the pollen of certain varieties will not fertilize any other variety on which it has
been artificially tried. The study of pollination has solved many problems as to the
failure of orchards, especially those of a single variety, to bear normal crops of fruit.
Such studies also indicate the best varieties for planting together to secure best
results, but only in the district in which the experiments are conducted, as is shown
by the widely different conclusions of experimenters. The results of investigators
in other Provinces and States are therefore not presented here.

No pollination studies have been conducted in British Columbia, this being a
subject of scientific investigation for which we have not as yet had the facilities.

14

Under the circumstances, our recommendation to each intending planter is that he
put in from three to five varieties of apples in blocks of not more than four rows of
each kind, so as to permit bees to cross-pollinate them. It has been found, we might
add, that cross-pollination very often increases the colour and the size, as well as
the quantity of fruit produced. To pollinate successfully, varieties must bloom at
the same time. Practically all the fertilization of fruit-blossoms is done by bees, of
which every fruit-grower should keep 'a few colonies for the purpose.

(8.) THE INFLUENCE OF VARIETY CHARACTERISTICS.

Presuming that we have the most favourable climatic and soil conditions to
produce several varieties of fruit to their best individual advantage, we must decide
on those varieties which have the greatest number of desirable characteristics. If,
for instance, Spitzenberg and Winesap are each suited to certain soil and climatic
conditions, we would unhesitatingly choose the Winesap, because it will usually bear
three boxes to one of Spitzenberg. If in bearing qualities the varieties are equal,
we would choose the one which is an annual bearer, against the variety which bears
only every alternate year. In the consideration of the varieties recommended, we
have given consideration to the growing habits of the different types of trees, their
vitality, their method of growth, their relative costs for pruning, their usefulness
as permianent trees or as filler trees for interplanting between the permanents, their
bearing habits, whether they bear at an early age, as does Wealthy, or very late in
life, as with Northern Spy, or medium, as is the case with Mclntosh. Only a few
varieties are recommended here which have the biennial-bearing characteristic, as
have Blenheim and Baldwin.

In respect to the character of the fruit, there is to be considered, besides quantity,
its quality, colour, size, uniformity, and freedom from blemishes. Supposing the
yield of fruit from two varieties to be equal, we would prefer that which produces
the greatest percentage of high-class fruit and the smallest percentage of cull fruit.
Practically no varieties are recommended which are not of high quality, of good
colour, desirable size, producing uniform fruit, though there are considerable varia-
tions which must be taken into account in choosing the varieties for any particular
section.

All of the factors above discussed in reference to the choice of varieties have to
do with the cost of production. Our aim is to choose that group of varieties of
which the unit cost of production per box will be the lowest. It is of no value to
produce magnificent fruit if the cost of production is to be greater than the selling
price. We know of no varieties which are likely to be more remunerative than the
ones which have been chosen and published in this list.

Turning to the question of the relation of variety to the selling price, we have
found it necessary to consider a number of factors which materially influence the
choice, and which are discussed fully.

(9.) PROSPECTIVE PRODUCTION.

The people of our fruit districts are only beginning to realize that, important
as it is for any grower to limit his list of varieties, it is equally important to each
grower, and to all of them as a whole, that the number of varieties planted in the
entire district be also reasonably limited. One of the greatest handicaps our young
districts have is a production of such wide range of varieties as to disgust the
buyer and discourage the market. In such cases there must be a general campaign
conducted by the broad-minded men of the locality, to induce the owners of
miscellaneous varieties either to pull out the trees or top-work them to the most
desirable kinds.

The orchard survey of the fruit sections of the Province, made in 1911 and
1912 by the Department of Agriculture, has shown in a striking manner the great
disadvantages under which some districts at present suffer, and will continue to
suffer, from such miscellaneous selection. (See the Twenty-second Annual Report
of the British Columbia Fruit-growers' Association.) This will be discussed under
the heading of each district.

15

It must be pointed out that the districts which have been able to ship large
quantities of favourite apples, such as Jonathan and Mclntosh, have been able to
command an average of 15 cents a box more than those districts which have but
limited quantities of such kinds ; and where there is a large proportion of undesirable
or " odd " varieties, the effect has been to depress the price of the good varieties
still further. In other words, the good varieties are used to sell the poor ones,
and the planter of the good varieties suffers by just that much.

There is every reason for every district to limit its choice of varieties to not
more than a dozen, which will amply cover the market. The individual grower
should have not more than four or five if producing for car-load shipment.

When an intending planter must make a choice between two kinds, and other
conditions appear reasonably equal, he should unhesitatingly choose that variety
which has been most largely planted in the district. If this were done, it would
materially assist in developing the production of the few best kinds.

The intending planter can inform himself as to what varieties have been planted
most largely in his district. He is not able, however, to discover what are those
varieties largely planted in other sections which will come into competition with
him, and so is not in a position to judge whether any particular variety is liable
to be produced in more than market requirements, or is likely to be in particular
demand when his own come into bearing. On the question of the plantings made in
British Columbia and the North-west States, which are our chief competitors in
the box-apple trade, we have given this subject consideration, and in recommending
the varieties indicated in the list have kept the influence of other plantings
prominently in mind.

(10.) How MANY KINDS TO PLANT.

This depends much on conditions. If it is the question of supplying a local
market or a special market which requires . supply throughout the season, the
grower would do well to plant all those kinds which are recommended for his
district, even to the extent of seven or eight, or more. But for the greater part
of the plantings to be made in this Province, where the market is a distant one,
and where the fruit is to be handled co-operatively by the growers' organization,
it is infinitely better for each grower to restrict himself to from three to five
kinds. His first object in limiting the number of kinds is to enable him to study
each kind and so get the utmost out of it.

We are reminded of a prominent pear-grower who said, after fifteen years'
experience in growing the Bartlett pear, that he hoped in another fifteen years
to understand just how that variety should be handled to best advantage in his
locality. This is an extreme case; but it is a fact that each variety has its
peculiarities, and that these peculiarities must be studied by the grower if he is
to master them, and to mould them to his own use.

The kinds chosen must, however, be so adjusted as to make as even a demand
as possible on outside labour, referring particularly to the harvesting. In this
respect, it is better to have a series of varieties whose picking period extends
over two and a half months than to have a group of varieties which must all
be picked within two weeks. The question of supply of suitable labour is one
of the problems of our fruit business, and its solution by the individual can be
much facilitated by forethought in this connection.

Aside from the labour of picking, to have a few kinds lessens the cost of
production in other ways, by lessening book-keeping, by lessening the amount of
skilled labour required in pruning, which naturally varies in different kinds, and
generally by all those little economies which come by producing a few things on a
large scale, rather than a large number of things on a relatively smaller scale.

(11.) INFLUENCE OF TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES.

Fruit may be marketed by road, water, or rail, or all three; but, in any case,
varieties must be chosen that will stand the transportation methods. It is practi-

16

cally useless to plant soft fruits where there is a haul of ten or twelve miles before
the rail is reached. Similarly, fruit may be planted in a section so far from its
possible markets that the transportation charges consume all the profits. The
districts which require transfer from boat to rail, or a transfer en route on the
rail-line, are handicapped over those which have main-line facilities.

These questions all have an important bearing on the success of the softer
kinds of fruit, and the cost of transportation has an intimate bearing on the profiU
with every type of fruit. The reductions in freight rates and the improvements
in shipping facilities which have marked the conclusion of negotiations between
the British Columbia Fruit-growers' Association and the Canadian Pacific Railway
are already proving a tremendous advantage to many of our districts. There is no
way, however, of securing as cheap rates for a distant district as for one much
nearer the market. There is a handicap in cost and time which can only be
overcome by superior producing advantages or superior quality of fruit.

The Department will be glad to advise intending shippers of the present
transportation rates, on both car-loads and less than car-loads, and both freight
and express, to the different markets available for each district. The question of
service is one which the intending planter can study for himself on the ground.
He will understand readily the advantages of nearness to markets, in time consumed,
in lessened handling, and in rates.

One 'fundamental feature of the evolution of the fruit-growing industry is
the development of car-load shipments. These effect an economy in time, in rates,
in handling, and in facility of marketing. Orchards so situated that they cannot
readily make up car-loads for a number of years are handicapped to an extent
which a man who has only reached the planting stage can scarcely realize. The
assembly-rate principle, the adoption of which has been secured for our growers
by the British Columbia Fruit-growers' Association, will be of some service to
these scattered points, but the handicap cannot be entirely removed. The people
of a new district should get together and plan the development of the district, as
each does his own orchard, so as to secure shipment of straight car-loads at as
early a date as possible.

(12.) MARKETS.

The list of varieties selected must meet the market. This question is the one
which receives first consideration, and in some cases entire consideration, the
varieties being chosen entirely with reference to market requirements, to the
entire neglect of cost of production and all that enters into it. We aim to choose
varieties for which the net price received per box is as much above the net cost
of production per box as possible. Those varieties for which higher prices are
paid in the market are not necessarily the most profitable ones.

It is only a few years since certain varieties, then in the nature of novelties,
fetched extremely high prices, and were in consequence heavily planted, and have
now reached the market-level warranted by their intrinsic value. It is a serious
mistake to plant a variety on the fashion of the moment. The effort should be
to plant varieties which have real intrinsic merit, and which, from the character
of the fruit, are likely to meet a stable market for a considerable period. It is
not possible for any one to forecast the market indefinitely, but we endeavour to
choose varieties which are likely to meet the requirements of our various markets,
as far as we can at present foresee the demand.

The Canadian Prairie Provinces, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, furnish
the logical market for the great bulk of the fruit produced in the Interior of the
Province. The consumption in the Prairies is increasing tremendously with their
rapid growth in population and in wealth.

Sour cherries are usually in great demand, but they must be marketed when the
rush of sweet cherries is over.

We have never supplied one-half of the demand for strawberries, but require a
greater organization, so as to ship car-load lots by express, to do much in this line.

17

The demand for raspberries, blackberries, and other small fruits is now largely
supplied by imported fruit, and in this case, as in strawberries, the great necessity
is for greater production and organization, so as to market in straight car-loads
by express.

There is considerable outlet for a further supply of sweet cherries, but not of
the softer and light-coloured varieties, the dark cherries being in demand.

Early plums have always paid a remunerative price, and as a rule late plurns
and prunes have also been very satisfactory. The latter are used more largely for
preserving purposes, and on this account shipments should be made in the cheapest
package — viz., the peach-box. Early varieties of peaches of nearly all kinds fetch
remunerative prices, but later in the season only yellow-fleshed and freestone varieties
are desired; indications are that, even with proper kinds, peach prices are likely to
be comparatively unremunerative for several years.

It is likely that present plantings of peaches will largely take care of this market.
In pears the demand has, as a rule, been very good, and fully warrants the extensive
plantings made in recent years, and we believe, also, further plantings in those
districts suitable for commercial pear-culture. The Prairie demand for apples, both
early and late, has heretofore been very good, and is likely to continue so. As a
rule, red apples are desired, and the higher grade and larger sizes, which lind
favour in the big cities, are not so much desired as medium-sized, well-coloured
fruit at a moderate price. The varieties of apples recommended are calculated to.
meet this demand. Our problem will be to get our share of the trade, and do it at
a reasonable profit.

Our great problem in the Prairie and Coast markets is most certainly that of
our competition. The fruit of Ontario and Nova Scotia has a more or less distinct
market of its own, but the North-western States, Washington, Idaho, Oregon, and
Montana, compete directly with us in our own lines, and at the present time supply
the bulk of the trade. It has been assumed that, as our production increased, these
markets would come to us naturally and without difficulty by reason of our advant-
ages of lower freight rates and the protecting Customs tariff. Actual experience in
the past three years demonstrates that the task will be a much more difficult one.
Our competitors to the south have several advantages, which at present more than
offset ours mentioned above: an earlier season which enables them to supply the
markets before our fruit is ripe ; an older industry, with all that it means in skilful
production, packing, and selling; lower costs of labour, money, supplies, and of
living; an established trade in our natural markets, which they have supplied in
larger measure than we have up to the present; and the control of many of the
Prairie fruit-jobbing houses by one body of United States men and capital.
Obviously, some of these advantages will be overcome naturally in the rapid
increase of our production, but the market will not become ours without effort,
and, perhaps, not without considerable expenditure for a separate distributing
organization.

This American competition in the markets of Western Canada is perhaps the
greatest problem of our industry to-day, and it promises to remain a big question
for some time.

In observing the general trend of crops and prices as they will affect our future
markets, it is worth noting that in the decade 1900-1910 the production of various
soft fruits in the United States increased much more rapidly than the population.
Plums and prunes increased 76 per cent. ; apricots, 57 per cent. ; cherries 43 per cent. ;
grapes, 100 per cent. ; and peaches, over 100 per cent. Since 1910 the tendency has
beeai to still further increase, the 1912 crop being much the largest yet produced and
far exceeding 1910, which was the largest up to that time.

A similar increase in production has taken place in Eastern Canada, while the
fruit industry of British Columbia has been practically created since 1900.

Under these circumstances of production, it would not be right to expect a
general high range of prices for the soft fruits in our competitive markets, and this
would affect us more severely than others, because of our present higher costs of
production and the fact that our fruits come on the markets when prices are lowest.

18

Under such conditions as obtained in 1910 and 1912, when hundreds of car-loads of
American fruit were consigned to the already overloaded Canadian markets, to be
sold for what buyers would give, the effect was to force prices down, sometimes even
below the barest cost of production.

The general outlook for apples and pears is more satisfactory. The production
of apples in the United States dropped about 27,000,000 bushels in 1910 from the
1900 level, and while there is apparently some ground for the belief that production
is once more on the increase, still the market may not be fully supplied for some time.
The North-western States are our direct competitors in apple-production as in soft
fruits, and their yields will increase rapidly in the next few years. While they had
about 18,000 acres of apples in bearing in 1912, which produced about 15,000 car-
loads, there are a total of 285,000 acres planted, which, if the whole were to succeed,
might easily produce 50,000,000 or 60,000,000 boxes in 1920, which is about half the
present production of the entire United States. As it is true, however, that only
about 20 per cent, of this may be expected to arrive at commercial bearing, production
will not be nearly so large as these optimistic estimates would indicate. It might
easily happen, however, that prices will have to decline somewhat to bring the
inevitable increase in supply into consumption.

It is possible that intending apple-growers should not base their plantings on
the expectation of prices higher than an average of $1 a box for good fruit. At such
a figure there will undoubtedly be a satisfactory profit in bearing orchards in our
proved fruit-growing districts.

To ensure results, the planting of orchards will require the most careful selection
of varieties, soil, location, and district. There must be, furthermore, constant and
careful attention to the details of management and operations, having in view the
greatest economy in production. There must also be economical and efficient market-
ing, which may be ensured by large shipments under the smallest possible number of
competing organizations.

British Columbia Coast cities, which have been making marvellous growth of
recent years, have far outrun the supply of fruit grown on the Coast in practically
everything, and it seems likely that plantings of all kinds that are reasonably suited
to the Coast conditions will find a ready local market. The grower having little or
no freight rate to pay, no duty, or inspection fees, is at a considerable advantage
over his more distant competitors. The general demand of the Coast is about the
same as that of the Prairie, save that prices are, as a rule, not quite so high ; there
is less demand for crab-apples, and there is more competition from cheap fruit
peddled from door to door in the cities.

The Interior districts are beginning to look to the Coast to dispose of part of
their output, to some extent for peaches, but largely for apples. The Mclntosh,
Jonathan, Wagener, and similar varieties, produced in the Interior, will find a very
satisfactory market, which has been very largely supplied by foreign shipments up
to this time.

Australia and New Zealand offer a very remunerative market for small, perfect
red apples, and for pears suitable for November and December trade. Shipments
have been steadily growing, and as more fruit of the kind required becomes avail-
able the high prices paid by this market will undoubtedly cause a great expansion
in this trade, we believe to the possible extent of 200; 000 boxes, in a few years.

China, Japan, the Philippines, and India have barely been touched as yet, but
promise to take quite a large quantity of apples in a few years. Here, as in
Australia, the demand is for the small, perfect red apple.

The demand in Great Britain, which we have only begun to cater to, is more
for yellow than red kinds, but red dessert apples of certain varieties meet with ready
sale. Yellow Newtown and Winter Banana from British Columbia sell particularly
well. The facilities for shipment to England are good, and as our production
increases the market will become a very large one. Reports from Canadian Trade
Commissioners in South America and inquiries from houses there indicate that there
will be a big demand for our apples in the large cities on the eastern coast of South

19

America. It is reasonably expected that this is a trade which can be catered to on
the completion of the Panama Canal to greater advantage than at present.

COMMENTS ON USING LISTS.

In the use of the lists which follow, the following points should be observed : —

The list has reference mainly to the varieties of greatest commercial value, which
are marked in each case with an asterisk, and to those most desirable for home
orchard planting.

No attempt has been made to include those numerous varieties which may be
of value for those local or special markets which are often to be found by the man
who will cater to them.

The list for each district is not large. There are many other varieties which do
well, and still others may be profitable. But there is a great economy in having but
a few kinds rather than many.

Local associations, such as the farmers' institutes, the agricultural associations,
and the fruit-growers' associations, should make strong efforts to influence the new
plantings of the district. No grower lives to himself alone. His bad choice hurts
the district as well as himself. It is suggested that local organizations conduct a
series of meetings, to make a choice of varieties for recommendation. In making
this list, the Assistant Horticulturist for the district and the Department of Agri-
culture might very well be consulted. Having adopted a list, changes should be
made in it only with the greatest care, and every effort should be made to give it
publicity and to secure its adoption and use.

The list for home orchard planting is deemed fairly complete for the average
home. There are many other good kinds which could be profitably included if the
land and time and money are available for them. In all those cases where the
intending grower feels that the list does not meet his requirements or his conditions,
the Department will be at his service in advising on the kinds most likely to bring
results. Letters on this subject should be addressed to the Provincial Horticulturist
at Victoria.

It is not recommended that each orchard-planter should put in all Ilic A/m/.s
recommended for commercial planting for his section. Rather should he select the
three or four which are best adapted to his own conditions, of location, soil, etc.
If the entire list recommended for the district is considered by each planter, the
effect will be to give the district a continuous line of fruit, to keep the packing-
houses open and to supply the markets.

It is far from being the intention of the Department, in issuing this list, to
discourage experimental work with new or untried varieties. In every section of
the Province there is much information to be had from testing both old and new
varieties of all kinds. Such experiments, if conducted on a large scale, are almost
certain to result in loss to the experimenter, great as their value to the district as a
whole. Every fruit-grower might well do a little experimenting with a few varieties,
but two or three trees of each kind are sufficient.

Even with the greatest care in its compilation, the list offered is not absolute.
It cannot be accepted as final. It would be a mistake for any intending fruit-grower
to take the recommendations for his district as applicable entirely to his own piece
of land.

Our conclusions as to varieties, carefully as they may be made, may be materially
changed in the course of years. We are only at the beginning of a real under-
standing of our different districts and their soils. The problem of markets has only
been presented. Our markets have already established preferences for some varieties
'wre do not. produce to advantage, as, for instance, the Winesap, and things of this
kind will continually have to be met and overcome.

The great problem in the search for suitable varieties is to find kinds to supply
the late winter and spring demand for apples. We have no variety that altogether
meets the requirements — a high-quality, long-keeping red apple of good size, borne
on a hardy and productive tree. None of our present kinds meet these requirements
fully enough.

20

LIST OF DISTRICTS.

•

(1.) Vancouver Island — South-east Section.

(2.) Vancouver Island — West Coast.

(3.) Mainland Coast.

(4.) Northern Coast Valleys.

(5.) Lower Mainland.

(6.) Lytton, Lillooet, Spence's Bridge.

(7.) Kamloops-Walhachin.

(8.) Southern Central Plateau.

(9.) Shuswap Lake.

(10.) Upper Okanagan Lake.

(11.) Lower Okanagan Lake.

(12.) Similkameen.

(13.) Kettle River.

(14.) West Kootenay.

(15.) East Kootenay.

(16.) Central British Columbia.

(1.) VANCOUVER ISLAND — SOUTH-EAST SECTION.

This district, roughly speaking, comprises the cultivable areas included in the
boundaries shown on the map. The principal settlements of the district are those
around Victoria, along the line of the E. & N. Railway, at Comox, and on the Guif
Islands contiguous to the east coast. A considerable proportion of this area, which
is about 180 miles in length, may be cultivated, and much has already been cleared.
The rural population at present might be estimated roughly at 15,000, and the
principal industry is mixed farming, with dairying as its basis; poultry-keeping;
and fruit-growing, the latter being largely restricted to the sections having reason-
able transportation facilities.

The climate is essentially mild and moist, due to the influence of the Japan
Current. The growing season is long, but cool, and the winters are damp and mild,
with occasional frosts and rare freezes. The precipitation varies from an average
of 28 inches annually at Victoria, 40 at Duncan, 42 at Nanaimo, to 70 at Alberni,
the greater part occurring in the winter months. In the greater part of the
district, precipitation in the summer is light, that for Victoria in June, July, and
August being the lowest recorded for any point in Canada. The summer drought
characteristic of the entire district is modified by the prevailing dampness of the
air; the blooming season extends over a long period, and the blossoms, as in all
Coast districts, are more subject to frost in consequence.

The soils of the district are very diverse in character, but are similar in being
largely of glacial origin. Except in the lowlands, they are usually medium to light
in character, and are often underlaid with hard-pan at a depth of 18 to 30 inches
from the surface. A red, sandy, gravelly loam is the most usual upland soil, and
the one on which most of the fruit-growing is conducted. Most soils are deficient
in lime, but have fair amounts of nitrogen, potash, and usually phosphoric acid,
and respond readily to applications of manure and fertilizers.

The Douglas fir is the principal forest tree, and with it are associated more or
less balsam, spruce, and cedar. The only British Columbia oak (Quercus garryana)
is a characteristic feature of many landscapes around Victoria and the Saanich
Peninsula.

The markets for the produce of this district are practically altogether local.
Up to a few years ago, when the rapid expansion of the Coast cities began, it
was expected that the Prairie would be the eventual outlet for fruit, but the
rapidly increasing local population has now far outstripped the production of

21

nearly all kinds of fruit except preserving cherries, so that there is no need, either
present or prospective, to look farther afield for a market. Competition in fruits
on local markets comes very largely from the State of Washington, and to an
increasing extent from the Interior sections of our own Province, but the handicap
of duty and freight in the former instance, and freight in the latter, gives the
local product an advantage which helps to offset some local disadvantages in the
cost of production and the quality of the product.

The fruit-growing industry in this district had its period of greatest expansion
in the years from 1904 to 1908. Experience has already begun to demonstrate that
this development was, after all, more in the nature of an experiment, and some
temporary set-backs, combined with great material prosperity in other lines and a
tremendous increase in land-values, have operated to direct attention away from
the possibilities of fruit-production. There has been some neglect of both young
and bearing orchards, and this is a district where the best of care is absolutely
necessary to profit.

The present production centres most largely around strawberries, principally
the Magoon variety ; preserving cherries, principally the Olivet and English Morello ;
plums and prunes of mixed varieties, but principally Black Diamond, Pond's
Seedling, and Italian Prune; a few pears of numerous varieties; aiid apples quite
largely Duchess, Wealthy, and King. Many varieties of winter apples have proven
unprofitable, but many orchards planted to correct varieties have proven unprofitable
because of unwise selection of location.

Given care in the choice of location and soil, with special reference to varieties
and to markets, fruit-growing will be a profitable industry in this district. A great
proportion of the cultivable area, however, should be retained for other forms of
agriculture more adapted to its conditions.

,The list of fruits recommended is as follows: —
Strawberries —

Excelsior — Early.

*Magoon — Good, firm shipping berry; most useful kind grown here.
*Sharpless — Valued for local market.
Warfield — Second early.
Raspberries —

Marlborough — Early crop.
*Cuthbert — Main crop; fine commercial kind.
*Loganberry — Profitable commercially for local market ; fine for canning and

preserving.
Gooseberries—

*Oregon Champion — Small berry, but free from mildew and productive.

Downing ) ,

( Good for home use.
Industry v

Blackberries —

Snyder — Good quality ; early.

Evergreen — Very productive and vigorous; late; quality low.
Red Currants —

Cherry — Large, but somewhat soft.
Fay's Prolific — Firmer, but smaller.
Preserving Cherries —

*Olivet— The best commercially; a fine money-maker.
*English Morello — Good for fillers in Olivet plantings.
Dyehouse — Earlier than Olivet and Morello.
Sweet Cherries — •

Reine Hortense — Very early; soft; home use.

* Royal Anne— Early ; white ; rather soft ; good for home or local market.
*Bing — Late; very good for home or any market.
Lambert — Very late; good, but light bearer.

22

Peaches — I

Hale's Early

Early Charlotte 1 For home use only; must be trained against walls
Alexander f to secure ripening.

Early Crawford
• ; • • Grapes —

Moore's Early 1 ,

Home use ; must have sunny exposure and warmth
Campbells Early \.

\ to ripen.
Concord

Plums and Prunes — •

Peach Plum — Early and large ; but soft and coarse and inclined to rot.
Czar — Medium early; small; good cropper.
*Engelbert — Very good for home or market.
*Italian — Late; a general favourite.
Victoria — Late; very high quality.
Heine Claude — The best greengage.
Shropshire Damson — The best for jams.
Crab-apples —

Hyslop — Does better than any other crab yet grown.
Pears —

*Bartlett — The standard early pear.

* Louise Bonne — Small on dry soils, otherwise very good. '
*Bosc — Scab-proof; high quality; October.

* Cl a i rgea u — November.
*Anjou — Very good.

Seckel )

Cornice [ H1Sli-quality Pears for early winter home use.

Apples —

Yellow Transparent — Very early.
*Duchess — Next early; gets size on dry soils.

* Wealthy — Fall; must have medium moist soil.
Gravenstein — High quality^ but takes much attention.

*King — Best late apple here.
Grimes Golden "1

Blenheim Orange (. The most promising of late varieties.
Wagener
Cox's Orange — A good, small dessert apple for November and December.

(2.) VANCOUVER ISLAND, WEST COAST.

The boundaries given for this district are as indicated on the. map, and show
in a general way the area included. The list is given as a suggestion for those
sections which have the conditions here described. The climate is quite moist,
being exposed more or less to the full sweep of the Pacific, with an annual precipi-
tation of from 70 to 125 inches, practically all in the form of rain, occurring most
largely in the winter months and least in July and August. The summers are cool,
though July and August have considerable sunshine. The great precipitation and
the high relative humidity throughout the year make fungous diseases especially
troublesome to the fruit-grower, and even with those varieties recommended below,
which are least subject to such diseases, the task of producing clean fruit is not easy.

Inside the boundaries given on the map there are many sheltered districts, where,
because of elevation, good soil-drainage, exposure to the sun, and freedom from frosts
and fog, the conditions are more like those obtained in District No. 1, and where this
is the case the variety list given for that section may be safely followed, due con-
sideration, however, being given to transportation facilities.

The soils of the district are very much like those of the south-eastern half of
the Island, as described above, but have been subject to much greater washing and
leaching of plant-food. The greater precipitation in spring, summer, and autumn
months renders them much less liable to drought and adapts the district for dairying.

23

The west coast is comparatively a new country, which has been much handi-
capped by lack of transportation. The local population is small, but the local fruit-
production at present does not supply its demands. Most hardy fruit consumed in
the section is supplied by Victoria fruit- jobbers.

Commercial production of fruit for shipment is not likely to be undertaken, but
it is eminently desirable that the home orchard in this district, such as will supply
at least the bulk of the fruit used by the farmer, should receive consideration.

The list of fruits recommended is more or less tentative in character, but an
effort has been made to name those varieties which are likely to thrive best under
the conditions.

Strawberries —

Warfield— Earliest.
Clark's Seedling — Firm ; late crop.
Dunlop — Second early.
Raspberries —
Cuthbert.
Loganberry.
Gooseberry —

Oregon Champion.
Blackberries —
Snyder.
Evergreen.
Red Currant —

Cherry.

Sour Cherry —
Olivet.

English Morello.
Peaches —

Early Charlotte ) __
Early Crawford ' Must have suuny wal1'
Grapes —

Moore's Early — Must have sunny wall.
Plums and Prunes —

Englebert ) c

I Small plums, but fairly clean growers.

Reine Claude — For preserving, etc.

Shropshire Damson — For jam-making.
Crab-apples —

Hyslop.
Pears —

Bartlett — A cosmopolitan variety worth trying.

Boussock ) c

I Scab-resistant ; good croppers.

Anjou — Late; high quality; worth test.
Keiffer — Long-keeping.
Apples —

Yellow Transparent — Very early.

Duchess — Second early.

Wealthy — Early fall.

Alexander — Early fall; cooking.

Gravenstein — Fall ; dessert.

King — Early winter; dessert and cooking.

Canada Reinette — A clean-growing early winter yellow apple.

Wagener — A cosmopolitan winter apple worth trying.

(3.) MAINLAND COAST.

Reference to the map will show that there has been included in this district the
greater part of the Coast region of British Columbia, including the north-east half

24

of Vancouver Island, with adjacent islands, and the mainland coast from Howe
Sound north to Bella Coola. In this great area settlement is sparse, and the energies
of the settlers are largely devoted to lumbering and fishing. There is one agricul-
tural community of long standing, viz., that of Bella Coola, but only a small portion
of the Bella Coola Valley is similar in conditions to the greater part of the Coast.

Of the climate we have very few records. They indicate that in general it is
very moist, varying from 50 to 140 inches precipitation, with long but cool growing
seasons, and wet and occasionally cold winters. Great variations In conditions exist,
but so little development has been done, and that so recently, that little definite
information can be recorded as to climate.

The soils are largely gravelly, and much of the same character as described for
Vancouver Island, but there are large areas of gravelly soil, as well as many deltas
of small size, now heavily timbered, composed of rich, deep, and fertile soils. As
on the west coast of Vancouver Island, timber is very heavy, and the cost of clearing
very great, while transportation facilities for the greater part of the territory are
meagre.

The market available is a local one, and is far in excess of the local attempts
to supply it in any foodstuffs, while the fruit grown meets a very ready sale in
competition with fruit distributed out of Vancouver and Victoria. The present pro-
duction of fruit is quite small, and not very much planting of trees has been done
as yet.

The list suggested for settlers on the West Coast of Vancouver Island is recom-
mended for this district also, the conditions being similar.

(4.) NORTHERN COAST VALLEYS.

This district includes the agricultural areas lying in the lower valleys of the
Nass, Kitsumgallum, and Kitimat Rivers, and Lakelse Lake. This is a new
district, attention to which has been attracted because the Grand Trunk Pacific
cuts through it between the Lakelse and Kitsumgallum Valleys. In size, none of
these valleys are large, but there is a total of probably half a million acres of
land which will eventually be brought under cultivation.

The climate is unusually mild for a district of such high latitude, but it is
not nearly so moist as the Coast regions, only a short distance away, beyond the
Cascades. The total precipitation is probably between 30 and 50 inches, and a
great deal of it comes as snow, which lies from December till March over the
entire area. The summers are warmer than on the Coast, and June is the only
summer month having considerable precipitation. The winters, while fairly long,
are mild, probably not more severe than at Nelson, in this respect being suitable for
many kinds of fruits. The growing season, while of moderate length, is cool. No
figures have been kept as to either temperature or precipitation.

The soils are extremely variable, and are largely composed of the wash of
the mountain-sides into the valleys. A great deal of the soil is of the highest
quality, though much of it is underlaid with open gravel, which detracts consider-
ably from its agricultural value.

The timber is not heavy, but under present conditions of labour would cost
from $100 to $125 an acre to clear, and proportionately less as the district becomes
more settled and the cost of labour equalizes with that farther south.

The market for whatever this district can produce lies at its door in the
growing city of Prince Rupert, and along the line of the G.T.P. east to Edmonton.
Interest centres in this district because it is likely to be the only large area in the
north which will produce a wide range of fruit in such commercial quantity as to
compete with the fruit from farther south, which it would be enabled to do by its
advantage of position. Prince Rupert is now supplied altogether with fruit by
boat from Vancouver, and the strawberries produced in this district for the past
three years sold at an average of $6 per 24-lb. crate delivered at the boat on the
Skeena River.

The local population is small, but there was practically no one resident in the
district five years ago. The land is largely held by pre-emptors and by land com-

25

panics under purchase. Very little clearing has as yet been done, and the
Department of Agriculture's experimental trees, planted during the last two years,
form the majority of the trees planted.

The list of fruits recommended is not, therefore, given from local experience,
but is designed to be of use as suggesting those varieties which are likely to do
well in the district, and to find favour in the markets in competition with southern
fruit.

Strawberries —

Magoon.

Wilson.
Raspberries —

Cuthbert.

Herbert.
Red Currants —

Red Dutch.

Ruby Castle.
Gooseberries —

Champion.

Red Jacket

Whitesmith.
Sour Cherries —

English Morello.

Early Richmond.

Osthetm.

Sweet Cherries--
Rein e Ho r tense.

Royal Anne.

Bing.
Plums and Prunes —

Czar.

Monarch.

Reine Claude.

Englebert.

Shropshire Damson.
Crab-apples —

Hyslop.

Transcendent.
Pears —

Bartlett

Bosc.

Clairgeau.

Anjou.
Apples —

Yellow Transparent.

Duchess.

Wealthy.

Alexander.

Wagener.

Mclntosh.

Scott's Winter.

(5.) LOWER MAINLAND.

This district embraces what is usually known as the Lower Fraser Valley. It
is the territory tributary to New Westminster and Vancouver. In size, it is about
130 miles long and up to forty miles wide, and is the most developed, the oldest
and largest agricultural community in the Province, with settlements close together,
territories well served by electric and steam railway-lines, as well as by navigable
waterways.

26

The climate of the western half is characteristically coastal, but the eastern
half has some features which are of a continental character. The growing season
is long, but not so long as that of Victoria, and is moderately cool, the hottest six
weeks averaging about 4 degrees higher than Victoria, and about 6 degrees lower
than in the Dry Belt. Both the fall and spring are long-, the winter is short,
usually mild, and snow may lie to varying depths for several weeks, especially in
the eastern half. A few degrees below zero is known, but is unusual. The winter
precipitation, which is mostly rain, is heavy. Considerable fog and haze characterize
the fall months, and the fall rains set in about September 15th. The district is
pre-eminently suited to dairying, and has many features which make it unsurpassed
in Canada for various types of small fruits.

The soils, while variable, may be characterized as upland and lowland or
delta. The latter are usually deep, though not suited, as a -rule, to fruit-growing,
except for small fruits for the cannery. The uplands are variable, of glacial origin,
have some of the hard-pah which is so prevalent in the stiuth-eastern section of
Vancouver Island, but also have many deep rich soils of the greates^'value for small -
fruit production. In some sections the uplands are quite heavy,' ^iand admirably
adapted for pears. As in all other parts of the Province, there is a considerable
portion of the land which is gravelly or light in character, less favourable for
production than the better soils. The uplands, though usually deficient in lime,
are well supplied with potash and have fair amounts of phosphoric acid. On all
lands the addition of potash is very valuable in securing greater firmness of fruit.

The market for the product of this area is being found very largely in the
Coast cities and in the canning-factories, while the shipment of small fruits, cherries,
plums, and prunes, by express to Prairie points, which has been large in volume
for a number of years, promises to continue so. On the Coast these fruits meet
with competition from the American side, but the tariff duties and higher freight
rates give valuable protection, though the lack of organization among the shippers
gives rise to a lot of irresponsible consignment, and makes the crop unwieldy and
less satisfactory to both shipper and receiver than the straight car-load shipments
furnished by competition.

Fruit-growing began in this territory with the planting of trees by the Hudson's
Bay Company at Fort Langley. The first settlers in Chilliwack and Langley were
mostly from Ontario, and planted many orchards between 1880 and 1895, principally
to a mixture of Ontario varieties of apples, plums, and pears, which have furnished
a great deal of information to guide the later planting in the district. Along the
main line of the C.P.R., plums and prunes, as well as small fruits, were largely taken
up between 1890 and 1905, though plum and prune planting received a great set-back
some twelve years ago through the introduction of the brown-rot fungus, which under
the favourable conditions of a moist climate has greatly restricted the shipping
capabilities of all stone-fruits. The efforts to find good commercial varieties of
plums which are immune from plum-rot have not been a success, and the develop-
ment of the canneries in recent years, which promises to furnish a safe and reason-
ably remunerative market for these fruits, is most welcome.

The general experience in planting apples has not been favourable. Some
shippers made good money for years out of early varieties of apples, and a few of
the later kinds have given fair success, but most varieties do not succeed. Pears
grow well, produce abundantly, but plantings so far have not been large enough to
enable shippers to undertake car-load shipments to Prairie points, local production
not yet meeting the entire demand of the Coast cities. Strawberries for local
markets and express shipments to the Prairie do well, while raspberries are equally
profitable. Sour cherries have been but little tried, but sweet cherries do well, more
especially for local shipments. Grapes and peaches succeed only under the most
favourable conditions, as is true in all Coast regions.

The Lower Mainland is not pre-eminently a fruit-growing section. Greater
profits are to be made in the cultivation of vegetables, in dairying, poultry-raising,
and in intensive mixed farming. In all of these lines a large market lies at the

27

producer's door. In fruit-growing the principal future development will be along
the line of various small fruits, pears, and some early apples.

The age of the district and the great amount of experimenting that has been
done make possible the recommendation of a well-tried list of varieties.
Strawberries —

Excelsior — Very early.
Warfield — Second early.

*Dunlop — The favourite berry for this section.
Marshall — Does well; earlier than Dunlap.
Magoon — Good for local shipments and the cannery.
Raspberries —

Marlborough.

*Cuthbert — Grown almost exclusively.
Gooseberries —

*Oregon Champion — Grown almost exclusively.
Downing.
Industry.
Blackberries —
*Snyder.
*Taylor.
*Evergreen.
Red Currants —
Cherry.
Victoria.

Black Currant — Naples.
Sour Cherries —

English Morello.
Olivet.
Sweet Cherries —

Reine Hortense — Early.
*Royal Anne — A favourite for canning.
*Bing — The favourite black cherry.
Lambert — Very late.
Peaches —

Early Charlotte "1

Alexander i Must have very warm and sunny location, and do best

Hale's Early | against a south wall.
Early Crawford I
Grapes —

Moore's Early "1

Campbell's Early I Must have warmth and air.
Concord

Plums and Prunes —
*Monarch — Shipping.

*Italian Prune — For canning and shipping.
Reine Claude — Home use.
Shropshire Damson — Home use.
Crab-apples —

*Hyslop — The best for this section.
Pears —

*Bartlett — The standard fall pear.
*Bosc — Later than Bartlett; a good variety.
*Boussock — Large and scab-proof.
*Clairgeau — November.

*Anjou — Late November; a very fine pear.
Louise Bonne — Heavy-bearing; small.
Cornice — Very high-quality; Christmas pear.
Seckel — High quality ; long-keeping.

28

Apples —

*Yellow Transparent )

*Duchess [ Home use; exPress shipments.

Wealthy.

Alexander.

Gravenstein — Highest quality.

( Suitable December apples.
Blenheim Orange (

Grimes Golden — Worthy of trial for January and later.
(0.) LYTTON, LILLOOET, SPENCE'S BRIDGE.

This district includes the lower levels, at from 800 to 1,200 feet elevation, in
the valleys of the Fraser and Thompson Rivers, as indicated on the map. This lies
just east of the Cascade Mountains, and is one of the very driest parts of the Dry
Belt, the total precipitation averaging around 8 inches, which falls pretty uniformly
throughout the year at the rate of about % inches a month. The snowfall is light,
and of not much use as a protection to trees or for sleighing. The district is divided
from those on the north and on the east by being somewhat milder in climate. The
growing season is long and sunny, and the summer is the hottest to be found in the
Province.

The total area of possible agricultural land in the district is not large, and
irrigation is absolutely required for all of it.

The soils, as throughout the entire Dry Belt, are usually alluvial in character,
having been deposited on the floor of the great fresh-water lake which at some
ancient period covered the entire Interior country to a depth of about 3,000 feet
above sea-level, present elevation. The most characteristic feature of the agricul-
tural lands of the Dry Belt is the bench or terrace formation, these benches lying
from a few feet to several hundred feet above the present river or lake levels. The
soils, as is common throughout all arid regions, are fertile, and on the whole well
supplied with lime, potash, and phosphoric acid, and though they have but little
humus or vegetable matter, yet their nitrogen is in a very available form.

The greater part of the district is within reach of the C.P.R. and C.N.P.R. main
lines, so that, while the local market is small, there is an excellent outlet, both to the
Coast and to the East, for all that is produced in the district. Freight rates on the
whole are favourable, and the high quality of the product ensures a favourable
market. At the present time railway-construction is consuming most of the vege-
tables and much of the fruit grown in the district, but normally long-distance
shipments are made.

The district has two of the largest old orchards of the Interior — that of
Mrs. Smith at Spence's Bridge, and that of Thos. G. Earl at Lytton. These
orchards, with a number of smaller ones, have been producing very high-class fruit
of many kinds for a number of years. The total acreage of trees in bearing is
not very great, and there has not been enough agricultural land available to permit
of much . further planting, yet the district has one of the most favourable climates,
if varieties are correctly chosen.
Strawberries —

Magoon.
Raspberries —

Herbert.

Cuthbert.
Red Currants —

Fay.

Victoria.
Gooseberries —

Oregon Champion.

Downing.

Industry.

20

Sour Cherries —

Montmorency.
Sweet Cherries —
Royal Anne "^

Bing I Inclined to winter injury.

Lambert
Grapes —

Concord "]

Delaware I Are oyen here

Niagara f
Worden

Plums and Prunes —
Peach Plum.
Bradshaw.
Pond's Seedling.
Italian Prune.
Heine Claude.
Crab-apples —
""Transcendent.
Hyslop.
Pears —

Bartlett.
Flemish Beauty.
Anjou.

Winter Nelis.
Apples —

Yellow Transparent.

Duchess.

Wealthy.

*McIntosh.

•"Jonathan.

* Grimes Golden — Very good.
Northern Spy.

*Winesap — The best variety for planting here.
*Yellow Newtown.

(7.) KAMLOOPS-WALHACHIN DISTRICT.

The lands included in this district lie along the valley of the main Thompson
River; the North Thompson for some distance north of Kamloops; and the East
Thompson to a point -beyond Ducks, on the main line of the C.P.R. to the
east; at an elevation of 1,000 to 1,500 feet. The land in the district suitable for
fruit-growing, under irrigation or irrigable, is only a small percentage of the entire
area, and lies principally along the valleys of the rivers and the lower valleys of
their tributary streams, where irrigation systems, either by gravity or pumping,
can be installed.

The climate is typical of the Dry Belt, with a total precipitation of from
9 to 11 inches annually, evenly distributed throughout the year, the snowfall being,
therefore, light and not of much significance. The air is dry and sunshine is
plentiful and bright. In the winter there may be cold snaps, accompanied by
wind, which prevent the cultivation of any but hardy varieties of fruit. The
summer season is long and warm, bringing all varieties of fruit to a high colour
and quality.

The soils are those of the Dry Belt described under the previous district, being
usually deep, rich, and of good texture. Gravelly areas exist, and are not suitable
for fruit-culture here as in any other section. There is, however, a large percentage
of very good soil.

This district, having main line facilities, both on the C.P.R. and C.N.R., is
well adapted to serve both the Coast and the Prairies, and has so far found a

30

ready market for all it has produced. In this district is grown the Ashcroft potato,
which has a reputation all over Western Canada.

Fruit-growing in this district is looked on with favour, because of the
generally high character of the soil, and the advantages of the summer climate for
producing high colour and quality. Present production is not at all large, coming
as it does from only a few old orchards planted around the establishments of the
big cattle-ranches of a decade ago. 1?hese large ranches are being split up, where
irrigation-water for their cultivable areas is to be had, into 10-, 15-, and 20-acre
tracts for apple-culture. Plantings have been mostly along the lines of the varieties
starred in the variety list recommended below, and these varieties are as a rule
doing well. We do not recommend Spitzenberg or Yellow Newtown for this district,
as occasional winters may be too severe for them.

This district will, in a few years, be one of the largest shippers of fruits and
vegetables in the Province as the projects now under way become settled and
planted.

Strawberries —

Magoon.
Raspberries — •
Herbert.
Cuthbert
Gooseberries —

Oregon Champion.
Downing.
Industry.
Red Currants —
Fay.
Victoria.
Sour Cherries —

Montmorency.
Sweet Cherries —
Reine Hortense.
Bing.

Plums and Prunes —
Peach Plum.
Bradshaw.
Pond's Seedling.
Italian.
Damson.
Reine Claude.
Crab-apples —

Transcendent
Pears —

Bartlett.
Flemish Beauty.
An j on.
Apples —

Yellow Transparent.
Duchess.

^ef1!hy^ I The best two apples to plant.
*McIntosh j

Jonathan.
Grimes Golden.

Scott's Winter — Worthy of trial.
*Winesap — In part of the district is very good.
(8.) SOUTHERN CENTRAL PLATEAU.

In southern British Columbia there is a great deal of farming and ranching
carried on at elevations of from 2,000 to 3,500 feet in a Dry Belt country having

31

from 10 to 18 inches annual precipitation. This includes the Nicola Valley, Grande
Prairie, and similar valleys at similar elevations. The boundaries on the map show
this area to lie entirely between the Okanagan Valley and the Cascades, south of
the Thompson River. There are, however, Dry Belt areas at similar elevations
farther east, and to some extent north of the Thompson River, where similar recom-
mendations of fruit may apply.

In general character, the climate, which is dry, is sunny and cool. The records,
which have been kept at only a very few points, show that summer frosts are not
unknown, while winter freezes may occasionally be severe. Records at Nicola Lake,
at an elevation of 2,120 feet, for twelve years, give a growing season extending from
April 13th to October 20th, a total of 190 days. The mean temperature of the six
hottest weeks is 61.1 degrees, and the mean annual temperature 42.1 degrees. Under
such conditions, only short-season fruits are likely to do well, and due care should be
taken to choose those which have a reasonable prospect of standing the winters.
There is practically no commercial fruit-growing in this district, and it is not likely
to prove remunerative in the strong competition furnished by the valleys at lower
levels, with longer growing seasons and milder winters.

The soils are variable, but a great many of them are good. A great many of
them, such as the volcanic ash, are entirely suitable for fruit-culture — of course,
under irrigation. There is a home market in the territory at present much greater
than local production, and this will continue to be the case for many years. At the
same time, it is recognized that the fruit-growing in this district will be mainly in
the line of building up a home orchard. There are but few orchards planted up to
the present time, but as more is being learned about the climate, and as more care
is taken to choose hardy varieties, it is certain that fruit-culture to some extent will
be carried on quite successfully.

Many kinds of small fruits will, of course, do well, and will have good quality,
and it may be that, with the transportation facilities to be given this territory by
the new railways now building through parts of it, this industry may grow and
develop.

The list of fruits recommended is as follows : —
Strawberries—

Ma goon.
Raspberries —
Ilerbert.
Cuthbert
Gooseberries —

Oregon Champion.
Red Currants —
Fay.
Victoria.
Black Currants —

Naples.

Sour Cherries —
Montmorency.
Dyehouse.
Sweet Cherries —
Vilne Sweet.
Plums and Prunes —
Wild Goose. •
De Soto.
Lombard.

(Try varieties of Americana and Nigra types.)
Crab-apples —

Transcendent.

Martha.

Hyslop.

32

Pears —

Flemish Beauty.
Apples —

*Yellow Transparent
Red Astrachan

*Wealthy L Tne starred varieties give a succession from

*Alexander August to December for market.

Wolf River
*McIntosh

Fameuse.

Scott's Winter.

McMahon White.

(9.) SHUSWAP LAKE.

This comprises some areas which are not usually grouped, but the climatic
conditions are such that development throughout the section is going on along about
the same lines, and recommendations may be made for it accordingly.

The principal agricultural areas are those of Salmon Arm, Armstrong, Enderby,
and Notch Hill. The land lies from 1,200 to 1,600 or 1,700 feet above sea-level, and
from 15 to 500 or 600 above Shuswap Lake. Salmon Arm and Armstrong are old-
settled communities, with a large production of fruits and vegetables.

This section is the most westerly of the Interior humid areas. The annual
precipitation at Salmon Arm and Armstrong averages around 20 inches, which falls
almost equally throughout the area, the greater part, however, in the six winter
months, largely as snow. The winters are not cold, though there is some injury to
the tenderer kinds of fruit. The summers are of good length, and warm, giving a
very fine growing season for such varieties as Northern Spy, Grimes Golden, and
Mclntosh apples. The records show a growing season of 200 days at Salmon Arm,
extending from April 6th to October 23rd, with a mean temperature in the six hottest
weeks of 65.5 degrees, which is warm enough to permit of the development of corn
and tomatoes.

While the total precipitation is not as great as might be desired for an exclusively
non-irrigated district, no irrigation is being practised, and it must be said that as yet
there are no crop failures recorded for this district because of drought.

The soils are much like those of the Dry Belt, save that under more humid
conditions there has been some leaching of plant-food, while the growth of coniferous
timber, which must be cleared, leaves the soil in a less favourable condition for culti-
vated plants for a year or two. Most of the upland soils are deep and retentive
in character, and admirably adapted to a climate where as much moisture as possible
must be conserved by cultivation throughout the growing season.

All parts of the district are within easy reach of the C.P.R. main line, and fruit-
growers find a market both east and west for all that the district will not consume
locally. Salmon Arm ships an average of from thirty to fifty car-loads of apples and
larger quantities of produce annually, and Armstrong, though not a large shipper of
apples, is the largest initial shipping-point in the entire Upper Country for potatoes,
celery, cabbage, and other vegetables.

At Shuswap, Notch Hill, Salmon Arm, Seymour Arm, Mara, Enderby, Armstrong,
and other points, there have been large plantings in recent years, principally to
winter apples, and these are just beginning to come into bearing. Small fruits have
proven satisfactory, especially at Salmon Arm, with its main-line facilities and
progressive fruit-growers' organization. Spraying for apple-scab is necessary.

Because its climate in many respects resembles that of Ontario, the district is
a popular one for certain classes of settlers, and is developing rapidly. The varieties
planted, as a whole, are now being well chosen, though many miscellaneous and odd
varieties planted in previous years have a depressing effect on prices received.

33

The list of fruits recommended for planting is as follows : —
Strawberry —

*Magoon.
Raspberry — •

*Cuthbert.
Gooseberries —

Oregon Champion.

Downing.

Industry.
Red Currants —

Cherry.

Fay.
Sour Cherries —

Early Richmond.

Olivet.

Morello.
Sweet Cherries —

Royal Anne.

Bing.

Black Tartarian.
Plums and Prunes —

Bradshaw.

Yellow Egg.

Pond's Seedling.

Italian.

Reine Claude.
Crab-apples —
*Transcendent.

Hyslop.
Pears —
*Bartlett.

Clapp's Favourite.
*Flemish Beauty — Somewhat liable to scab here.

Anjou.
Apples —

Transparent.

Duchess.
*Wealthy.

Gravenstein.
*McIntosh — Apple-scab is a drawback.

Cox's Orange.

"•Jonathan.

*Grimes Golden.

*Wagener.

*Northern Spy — Very highly considered.

(10.) UPPER OKANAGAN LAKE.

In this section are included Vernon, Kelowna, and the territory tributary to
each. This has been for years the largest fruit-shipping district of the Province,
and is likely to continue to hold that position for some years to come. The fruit-
growing areas constitute quite a large proportion of the land included in the
boundaries as marked on the map, and transportation facilities at present are by
Okanagan Lake and the Shuswap and Okanagan branch of the C.P.R., which joins
the main line at Sicamous. Fruit-growing is conducted at a considerable range of
elevation above Okanagan Lake, which is at 1,200 feet, but practically all the com-
mercial orchards are between 1,200 and 1,GOO or 1,700 feet above sea-level.

34

In this district there is probably more land than in any other district of similar
size in the entire Interior suitable for commercial fruit-growing. No figures are,
however, available for either the amount of cultivated land or the amount of culti-
vable land here.

The climate may be taken as dry, usually warm in summer, and mild in winter.
The total precipitation, as shown by carefully kept records at Vernon and Kelowna,
is between 12 and 15 inches annually, of,, which slightly the greater half falls between
October and March, inclusive. The snowfall is fairly reliable, though not deep, and
furnishes sleighing for some months at levels of 1,500 feet or more, but is not
constant or of much value on the lower levels. While the winter is usually bright
and sunny, there are cold snaps, accompanied by wind, which affect peaches and
the tenderer fruit-trees. Overirrigation and severe pruning have caused what are
normally perfectly hardy varieties of apples to suffer as well, but in general there
have been few mistakes made, and the fruit industry is in a very healthy condition.
In the growing season, which averages in length from April 5th to October 22nd,
a total of 200 days, the average precipitation is about 7 inches, so that irrigation
is necessary as soon as the orchard Is planted. The mean temperature of the six
hottest weeks is 66.3 degrees, indicating warm days, but reasonably cool nights.

What is said about soils in other Dry Belt districts is true here. There is a
very large percentage of good fruit-growing soil in this section, and not many
orchards have been planted in entirely unsuitable locations. It is advisable here,
as everywhere else, for the intending fruit-grower to learn by personal observation
what is the character of his soil and subsoil.

The district is well organized to supply its markets and to meet its competition,
and for a number of years the growers have secured the full market returns for their
produce. The greater part of the output is marketed in Alberta and Saskatchewan,
but, with increased production, more and more is going to the Coast, which has been
heretofore neglected in favour of the slightly higher-priced market to the East.

At the present time, Jonathan, Mclutosh, Wealthy, Transcendent crab-apples,
Wagener, and Italian prunes have been the principal fruits shipped, in quantity
about in the order named.

The orchard survey conducted by the Department of Agriculture in the summer
of 1911 showed the following plantings in the Vernon District: —

" In the area surveyed (3,188% acres) the fruit-trees planted totalled as
follows : —

" Apples 223,615

Prunes 16,042

Pears 7,477

Peaches 2,120

Cherries 3,555

Plums 7,282

Apricots SO

The percentage of varieties of apples planted are as follows: —

" Summer and early fall 3.2 per cent.

Wealthy 9.1

Mclntosh Red 9.3

Crab 9.0

King t).3

Jonathan 21.2

Wagener 14.5

Grimes Golden 3.0 „

Northern Spy 2.5

Spitzenberg 2.2

Newtown Pippin 1.7 „

Other fall varieties 1.4

Other winter varieties 11.5

(This latter includes Snow, Greening, Sutton Beauty,
Baldwin, Delicious, Canada Baldwin, etc.)

35

" Also—

" Jeffries 1.4 per cent.

Winesap 0.3

Cox's Orange 6.0 „

Rome Beauty 2.3

Red-cheeked Pippin 0.5

Salome 0.6

" The varieties of pears include Clapp's Favourite, Bartlett, Flemish Beauty,
Clairgeau, and Winter Nelis, the most extensively planted being Bartlett and
Flemish Beauty.

" Plums have produced well, the leading varieties being the Bradshaw, Wash-
ington, Peach, Pond's Seedling, Yellow Egg, Columbia, and Black Diamond.

" Italian prunes have also been extensively planted, with a lesser number of
the sugar and German varieties, the average production being from three to five
boxes per tree."

Cherries, small fruits, and grapes are planted to only a limited extent.
At Okanagan Centre, which is quite a young district, the total trees planted
were 63,894, the following being the details:—

" Apples 43,363 ; estimated crop, 535 boxes.

Pears 9,898 ; „ „

Plums 50 ;

Prunes 4,799 ; „ „

Peaches 640; „ „

Cherries 5,144 ; „ „

Varieties of Apples planted.

" Summer and early fall 11.4 per cent.

Wealthy 11.8

Mclntosh 12.6

Crab 0.7

King 0.6

Jonathan 18.0 „

Wagener 15.6 „

Northern Spy 0.4

Spitzenberg 12.6

Newtown Pippin 1.8 „

Other winter varieties 14.5 per cent."

This district has a rather milder winter than Veruou.

In the area covered by our surveyor in Kelowna District the following trees
were planted: —

" Apples 131,345

Pears 11,591

Plums 1,254

Prunes 8')830

Peaches 1,250

Apricots '135

Cherries . . .^ 5>711

" The following are the percentages of the varieties planted :—

" Summer and early fall 1.0 per cent

Wealthy 7*>9

Mclntosh Red 14.5

Crab '.'. '. '.'. '.'.'. '.'.'. 5^9

Jonathan 27.6

Wagener 72

Grimes Golden 1.0

Northern Spy Q$

Spitzenberg Q -^

Newtown Pippin 7.0 per cent.

Other winter varieties 15.8 „

(The latter include Ben Davis, Cox's Orange, Wine-
sap, Delicious, and Gravenstein, etc.)."

Westbank, which is on the west side of Okanagau Lake from Kelowna, is a
comparatively new section, in which fruit-trees have been planted as follows: —

" Apples 6,420

Pears 158

Plums 10

Prunes 133

Peaches 500

Apricots 187

Cherries 357

" Varieties planted.

" Mclntosh Red 7.5 per cent.

Crabs 4.2

Jonathan 28.3

Wagener 20.7

Grimes Golden 8.3

Northern Spy 1 ... 8.0

Newtown Pippin 5.0 „

Other winter varieties 5.4 „

Cox's Orange 3.2

Winesap 4.2

Rome Beauty 5.2 per cent."

The information as to varieties planted in these districts, which is given above,
is condensed from the Orchard Survey Report reproduced in the Twenty-second
Annual Report of the British Columbia Fruit-growers' Association, which may be
obtained from the Department on request.

It will be noted from the lists of varieties above that there has been a very
general planting of miscellaneous varieties, even in these, the most advanced districts
of the Province. The tendency towards a selection of the very best varieties is,
however, preventing much further planting of miscellaneous kinds, and it is to be
hoped that the recommendations below will have some influence ii enabling growers
to choose a limited list of commercial varieties.
Strawberries —

Magoon.
Raspberries —
Cuthbert.
Gooseberries —

Oregon Champion.
Downing.
Industry.
Red Currants —
Cherry.
Fay.
Black Currants —

Naples.

Sour Cherries —
Olivet.
Morello.

Sweet Cherries —
May Duke.
Royal Anne.
Tartarian.
Bing.

37

Plums and Prunes —

Peach Plum.

Bradshaw.

Yellow Egg.

Pond's Seedling.

Italian Prune.

Washington.

Shropshire Damson.
Grapes —

Moore's Early.

Concord.

Niagara.

Delaware.
Crab-apples —

Transcendent.
Pears —

*Flemish Beauty

*Bartlett

Howell
*Anjou
*Bosc

Pears have done remarkably well on the lower lands
at Kelowna, and this seems to warrant further
planting.

*Clairgeau
Apples —

Transparent.

Duchess.

Wealthy.
*McIntosh.
•"Jonathan.

*Wagener — Has been winter-injured to some extent.
*Grimes Golden.
*Rome Beauty.

Deliicious — Worthy of extensive trial here.

Yellow Newtown — Worthy of further trial.
*Northern Spy— In certain locations.

(11.) LOWER OKANAGAN LAKE.

In this area are included the communities of Peachland, Summerland, Penticton,
Naramata, and some smaller ones.

The climates at elevations of from 1,200 to 1,700 feet in the Lower Okanagan
Lake District are rather milder, with longer growing seasons, than on the upper
part of the lake, but there is every reason to believe that the benches of Kelowna,
for instance, have practically as long and as favourable a growing season as have
those of Summerland. There is no marked distinction, the general climatic condi-
tions being more favourable in the south.

In proportion to the area ultimately available, this district has been more
thoroughly developed in the past eight years than probably any other similar area
in the Province. In Peachland, Summerland, and Penticton, nearly all of the
possible land-area is under cultivation, and 75 per cent, of it is devoted to fruit.
There will be, however, further plantings in this favoured district, and in every
community there is a great deal of changing of poor varieties to better ones to
be accomplished.

The climate is rather more arid than farther up the lake, the annual precipita-
tion at Summerland and Penticton for a five years' record in each case showing
about 10 inches precipitation, as against I2y2 at Kelowna and 14^ at Vernon.
The growing season lasts from April 3rd to about October 26th, and averages,
therefore, around 206 days long. At the lake-level the season is ten days longer
than on the benches 200 or 300 feet above it, and there are a few hundred more

38

heat units received, but the mean temperature of the six hottest weeks is about
2 degrees less, due to the cooling influence of the deep lake.

The precipitation is fairly evenly distributed during the four quarters of the
year. Snowfall is, of course, light, though at an altitude of 300 to 400 feet above
the lake it is of some use to supply moisture and to provide protection for tree-
roots. All the land in this district unde.r cultivation is of necessity under irrigation.

The soils are typically Dry Belt, ' and a big proportion of the area has deep
volcanic ash and clay loam soils of considerable fertility. There are, however,
considerable areas of open gravel on some of which fruit-growing is being attempted,
with less success. In common with the upper half of the Okanagan Valley, the
district find* It^ ir.Mvket on the Prairie and to some extent on the Coast, while this
year, for the first time, a number of car-loads of apples are being sent to Great
Britain direct.

In this district there was practically no fruit-growing being done up to about
eight years ago, but four large irrigation systems made passible the planting of
the present acreage. It is in this district that the great proportion of the British
Columbia peach-crop is grown, and about one-third of the trees are peaches. As
these are planted as fillers in the apple-orchards, the great majority must be
removed in a few years at latest, and the district will then become to all intents
and purposes a producer of winter apples. Only a small proportion of pears, plums,
or other fruits has been planted.

The following figures, taken from the Orchard Survey of the Department of
Agriculture, indicate the relative plantings of trees in the various sections: —

" Peachland District.

11 Apples 14,2.°>9

Pears 726

Plums 340

Prunes V • 48

Peaches 7,215

Apricots 125

Cherries 963

" Of the trees planted, 66.3 per cent, are over five years old, 33.7 per cent, being
under five years. Peachland has planted less trees in proportion during the last
five years than any other point on the Okanagan; the above represents practically
the entire available acreage.

" The varieties are as follows : —

" Summer and early fall 2.8 per cent.

Wealthy 5.5 „

Mclntosh Red 4.7

Crabs 3.1 w>i

King 0.7

Jonathan 18.7 per cent.

Wagener 17.0 „

Grimes Golden 1.4 „

Northern Spy 3.5 „

Spitzenberg 5.2

Newtown Pippin 2.3 „

Other winter varieties 35.1 „

(The latter are chiefly Bismarck, Snow, Ontario,

Gravenstein, Baldwin, and Canada Red.)

"The varieties of peaches planted are Alexander, Triumph, Yellow St. John,
Fitzgerald, Early and Late Crawfords, and Elberta.

" Pears are chiefly Bartlett and Flemish Beauty, and cherries Royal Anne, Biug,
Governor Wood, Lambert, and English Morello.

39

" Summerland.

" An area of 1,497 acres, with 133 orchards, was inspected here. The following
tables show numbers, etc. : —

" Apples 80,53G

Pears 6,160

Plums 2,087

Prunes 999

Peaches 45,357

Apricots 4,648

Cherries 2,023

" Of the apples, 47.6 per cent, were found to be over five years old, and 52.4
per cent, five years and under.

" Varieties of Apples planted.

" Summer and early fall 0.8 per cent.

Wealthy 2.4

Mclntosh Red 4.4

Crab 2.5

King 1.9

Jonathan 21.0

Wagener '. 18.5

Grimes Golden 2.4

Northern Spy 7.5 „

Spitzenberg 11.5

Newtown Pippin 13.4

Hubbardson's 1.3 „

Winesap 1.0

Baldwin 0.8

Winter Banana 0.8

Other winter varieties 9.8

(The latter include Rome Beauty, Delicious, Snow,

etc.)

" Bartlett and Flemish Beauty pears are the leading favourites, writh Beurre
d'Anjou, Clapp's Favourite, Duchess, and Cornice. The leading varieties of plums
are Pond's Seedling, Coe's Golden, Yellow Egg, Burbank, and Italian Prune.

" Penticton.

" Details were obtained of 102 orchards in this district, with an area of 1,158
acres, the following being the number of trees planted, etc. : —

"Apples 43,274

Pears 3,866

Plums 1,418

Prunes 1,502

Apricots 1,879

Cherries 3,030

"Total trees planted, 97,877, 93.6 per cent, of which were five years old and
under, and 6.4 per cent, over five years old.

" The varieties of apples planted were as follows : —

" Mclntosh Red 5.5 per cent.

Jonathan 32.0 „

Wagener 21.6 „

Grimes Golden 2.6

Spitzenberg 12.3 „

Newtown Pippin 7.0 „

Other winter varieties 19.0 „

(The latter include Winesap, Rome Beauty, and
Delicious, about equal proportions.)

40

" The main plantings of peaches include Triumph, Yellow St. John, Fitzgerald,
Early and Late Crawford, and Elberta.

" Naramata District.

" Sixty-five orchards, with an area of 557 acres, were accounted for here, with
a total of 39,359 fruit-trees planted.

" The following tables show varieties planted, etc. : —

" Apples 20,569

Pears 1,972

Plums 689

Prunes 120

Peaches 11,456

Apricots 3,661

Cherries S94

" Percentage of Varieties.

" Mclntosh Red 3.4 per cent.

Jonathan 30.2

Wagener 19.6 „

Spitzenberg 10.0

Newtown Pippin 12.6 „

Rome Beauty 7.8 „

Winesap i 4.4

Delicious '. 2.2

Winter Banana 4.6 „

Other winter varieties 5.2 per cent."

The varieties recommended for Southern Okanagan Lake are as follows : —
Strawberries —
Glen Mary.
Dunlop.
Raspberry —

Cuthbert.
Gooseberries —

Oregon Champion.
Downing.
Industry.
Blackberries — •

Snyder ) .

' Liable to freezing.
Agawam (

Red Currants —

Cherry.

Fay.
Black Currants —

Naples.
Sour Cherries —

Olivet.

Morello.
Sweet Cherries —

Royal Anne.

Bing.

Tartarian.
Peaches —

Triumph ]

Bale's Early uge and canninfr

Yellow St. John f

Elberta
Apricots —

Moorpark.

Blenheim.

41

Apricots —

Tilton.

Royal.
Grapes —

Moore's Early.

Campbell's Early.

Concord.

Niagara.

Delaware.

European varieties produce well, if protected.
Plums and Prunes —

Peach.

Bradshaw.

Yellow Egg.

Pond's Seedling.

Italian Prune.

Reine Claude.

Damson.
Crab-apples —

Transcendent.

Hyslop.
Pears — ^-.

Flemish Beauty.

Bartlett.

Anjou.

Clairgeau.

Winter Nelis.

Ilowell.
Apples —

Yellow Transparent.

Duchess.

Wealthy.
*McIntosh.
•"Jonathan.
*Grimes Golden.
*Wagener.
*Ronie Beauty.

Delicious ] May prove of highest class commercially on further

Yellow Newtown ( trial.

(12.) SlMILKAMEEN.

In this district are included the lower valley of the Similkanieen (extending
up to a few miles above the town of Keremeos, which is the principal fruit centre
of this section) down to the point where the river crosses the boundary into the
United States, and the valley of the Lower Okanagan River and Osoyoos Lake.
Of this district, no meteorological records have been kept, but practical experience
has shown it to have a longer and warmer season than any other part of British
Columbia, and so it is adapted to certain varieties of fruit which require such a
long season, such as the Winesap apple.

There are several thousand acres of land now under irrigation, and on some
of this has already been planted fruit-trees. Much larger areas of very fine land
will undoubtedly be put under irrigation in the near future, and this, when accom-
plished, will make the district an important one.

As to climate, no definite figures can be offered, but the winters are usually
mild, with little snow, and sunny. The growing season is long, practically free
from spring or fall frosts, and warm.

The district has previously suffered from lack of transportation facilities, having
only the Great Northern Railway, which made it tributary to Spokane. Direct

42

railway connections with Vancouver, now under construction, put the district In
a very favourable position for the production of all kinds of early vegetables and
many kinds of fruits for that market.

An idea of the present state of production and the plantings already made is
given from the following quotations from our Orchard Survey: —

" Twenty-six orchards, with an ar^a of 572% acres, were visited here, fruit-trees
being planted as follows: —

" Apples 30,841

Pears 709

Plums 600

Prunes 76

Peaches 7,126

Apricots 166

Cherries 326

" Of the apple-trees planted, 76 per cent, were five years old and under, and
24 per cent, over five years old. The varieties are: —

" Mclntosh Red 13.7 per cent

Jonathan 38.5 „

Wagener 2.8

Spitzenberg 13.7

Newtown 7.0 „

Baldwin 7.1

Other winter varieties 17.1 ,,

(The latter include Winesap, Yellow Belleflower, and

Delicious.)."

The section on the Okanagan River and Osoyoos Lake is very well described
in the following paragraphs from our report on Orchard Survey: —

" Fa/irview District.

" From here to the boundary, a distance of twelve miles is a very large area of
bench land lying west of the Okanagan River and Osoyoos Lake, at an elevation of
900 to 1,400 feet. The land suitable for fruit-trees is estimated at a minimum of
20,000 acres, the soil throughout being a deep sandy loam with volcanic ash, and
the climate one of the driest in British Columbia. The precipitation for the last
twelve months (rain and snow) was 5 inches, with minimum temperatures on
January 12th and 13th, 1911, of -12 degrees, and on February 2nd, -3 degrees.

"There are only two orchards in this great area, the Park Ranching Co.
(25 acres) and Leslie Hill's (36 acres), the reason being the lack of irrigation-
water."

The list of fruits recommended for the district is as follows: —
Strawberries —
Magoon.
Glen Mary.
Dunlop.
Raspberry —

Cuthbert.
Gooseberries —

Oregon Champion.
Downing.
Industry.
Blackberries —
Snyder.
Agawam.
Red Currants —
Cherry.
Fay.

Black Currants —
Naples.

43

Sour Cherries —

Olivet.

Morello.
Sweet Cherries —

Royal Anne.

Bing.

Tartarian.
Peaches —

Bale's Early.

Triumph.

Yellow St. John.

Elberta.
Apricots —

Moorpark.

Blenheim.

Tilton.

Royal.
Grapes —

Moore's Early.

Campbell's Early.

Concord.

Niagara.

Delaware.

European kinds, such as Black Hamburg and Flame Tokay, have been

produced here for a number of years.
Plums and Prunes —

Peach.

Bradshaw.

Yellow Egg.

Pond's Seedling.

Italian Prune.

Greengage.

Shropshire Damson.
Pears —

Flemish Beauty.

Bartlett.

Anjou.

Clairgeau.

Winter Nelis.
Crab-apples —

Transcendent.

Hyslop.
Apples —

Transparent.

Duchess.

Wealthy.
Mclntosh.

*Jonatban.
Grimes Golden.

*Wagener.

*Delicious.

* Yellow Newtown.

*Winesap — Especially valuable.

(13.) KETTLE RIVER VALLEY.

Of the large area marked out on the map as included in this section, there
is, properly speaking, only a small percentage of land suitable for fruit-growing.

44

and it lies at an elevation of from 1,700 to 2,000 feet, between Rock Creek on the
west and Cascade on the east, the International Boundary on the south, and
extending into the small valleys north of the railways a short distance.

In general climate the district is not unlike that of the Northern Okanagan,
both in summer and in winter, the particular conditions being much the same, save
that in " the boundary " the snowfall is not so heavy. The winter temperatures are
about the same as Vernon, and low temperatures make the tenderer varieties of
fruit impracticable. Midway has th6 reputation of having a colder winter than
Grand Forks, due to the configuration of the valley and its slightly greater altitude.
At Rock Creek, which lies at about 2,000 feet, the snowfall is rather heavier, and
it is probable that the total precipitation is considerably greater.

The soils of this district, which is in the Dry Belt, are not unlike those of the
other Dry Belt districts above described. At Rock Creek there is a considerable
proportion of light and open soils, especially on the bottom lands, while on the
benches it is usually a black loam. At Midwray the soil is a light to sandy loam,
and varies a good deal at different elevations, while in the Grand Forks District
there is a great deal of rich black loam on the lower levels, with sandy clay subsoil,
and some good moderate clay loams on the benches, which lie at heights of from
40 to 100 feet above the river.

The orchards of this district find a market nearly altogether in the mining
towns of the Boundary, the Kootenay, and the Crowsnest, but increased quantities
are reaching the Prairie, while Grand Forks apples sent to Australia have given
good satisfaction. The district is well situated with regard to freight rates locally
and to the Prairies, but the long haul to the Coast results in a higher rate that
way, and the transfers in moving the fruit out in any direction at present result
in some delay. The completion of the Kettle Valley line to the Coast will be of
the greatest assistance to this district in providing for it an additional outlet.

Fruit-growing commenced to develop at Grand Forks quite a number of years
ago, this district being the site of the Hon. Martin Burrell's ranch and the Covert
Estate. The survey reports given below indicate the development of the fruit
industry in the principal areas included in this valley: —

" Rode Creek District.

" Eighteen orchards, with an area of 406% acres, were inspected here. Of
these, five were not irrigated and two only partially irrigated.
" The following tables show numbers planted, etc. : —

" Apples 16,088

Pears 280

Plums 36

Prunes 288

Apricots 250

Cherries 20

" Varieties of Apples.

" Wealthy 25.8 per cent.

Mclntosh Red 24.6

Crab 5.4

Jonathan 25.4 „

Other winter varieties 18.8

(The latter include Delicious, Winter Banana, and
Wismer's Dessert.)

" Midway District.

" Nine orchards, with an area of 174% acres, were visited here, with trees
planted as follows: —

" Apples 8,394

Pears 55

45

Plums 65

Prunes 138

Cherries 30

" Varieties.

11 Summer and early fall 4.2 per cent.

Wealthy 40.4

Mclntosh Red 15.5

Jonathan 10.8 „

Wagener 12.5

Other winter varieties 16.6 „

(The latter include Ben Davis, Winter Banana, and

Wolf River.)

" Of the apples planted, 32.2 per cent, are over five years old, and 67.8 per
cent, five years old and under.

" Grand Forks District.

" Forty-one orchards, with an area of 1,696% acres, were visited here.

" Trees planted.

" Apples 82,213

Pears 6,645

Plums 1,971

Prunes 7,488

Peaches 177

Apricots 300

Cherries 1,426

" Apple Varieties.

" Summer and early fall 1.5 per cent.

Wealthy 3.8 ''„,

Mclntosh Red 2.6 ,,

Jonathan 21.4 „

Wageuer 20.4 „

Northern Spy 11.1

Spitzenberg 4.9

Newtown 5.6

Rome Beauty 2.9

Delicious 4.5

Winesap 3.2 . „

Red-cheek Pippin 2.2

Other winter varieties 15.9 „

" Of the above apples, 12.9 per cent, are from five to fourteen years old, and
87.1 per cent, five years old and under."

The list of varieties recommended for this district is as follows: —
Strawberries —

Magoon.

Clark's Seedling.

Dunlop.

Royal Sovereign.
Raspberries —

Cuthbert.

Herbert.
Gooseberries —

Oregon Champion.

Downing.

Industry.

46

Red Currants —

Cherry.

Fay.
Sour Cherries —

Montmorency.

Morello.
Sweet Cherries —

Royal Anne.

Bing.
Grapes —

Moore's Early.

Campbell's Early.

Concord.
Plums and Prunes —

Peach.

Bradshaw.

Pond's Seedling.

Shropshire Damson.

Reine Claude.
Crab-apples —

Transcendent.

Hyslop.
Pears — •

Bartlett.

Flemish Beauty.

Clairgeau.

Anjou.
Apples —

Yellow Transparent

Duchess.

Wealthy.
*McIntosh.

Alexander.
*Jonathan.

Grimes Golden.
*Rome Beauty.
*Red-cheeked Pippin.
* Ontario.

Northern Spy.

(14.) WEST KOOTENAY.

For this district, we have grouped the large area tributary to the Arrow Lakes,
the Lower Columbia River, Slocan Lake, Lower Kootenay River, Kootenay Lake, and
the West Arm of Kootenay Lake. In the large area included there is only a very
small proportion of land which is, or can be, cultivated and rendered suitable for
fruit-growing, the principal areas being indicated by the survey reports given below.

The whole of the district is characterized by a total precipitation of from 28 to
42 inches annually, being lowest in the southern and south-westerly section, and
increasing to its maximum at Revelstoke and the upper end of Kootenay Lake. The
winter snowfall is usually heavy, and remains on the ground for a long period. Of
the total precipitation, nearly two-thirds falls in the months of October to March,
inclusive, partly as snowfall ; but in the month of June the precipitation amounts
to 2y2 inches on the average, the humid condition then resulting giving rise to a
certain amount of apple-scab, which has to be combated by spraying.

The growing season is longest at Nelson, Creston, and the more southerly points.
In Nelson, for which good records are available, it extends on the average from
April 3rd to October 22nd, a total of 202 days, while the mean temperature of the
six hottest weeks is 65.0 degrees. At Revelstoke, with an altitude of 1,476 feet, as

47

against 1,760 feet at Nelson, the growing season is from April 16th to October 15th,
a total of 182 days, with a mean temperature for the six hottest weeks of 63.3 degrees.
Creston probably has a warmer and longer season than Nelson. As a general rule,
it might be stated that the season is shorter and cooler, between the limits mentioned
for Nelson and Revelstoke, as one goes north.

The climate in general is very like that of some parts of Ontario, save that West
Kootenay is remarkable for its absence of winter injury in any form.

The soils are extremely variable, but in a great proportion they are light and
deficient in most of the elements of plant-food. On the other hand, there is some
very fine soil, and here, as elsewhere, much depends on the land selected.

While the district has been known for a number of years as a great mining
country, its development in fruit-growing is of comparatively recent origin, and at
the present time is just beginning to overtake local consumption of the mining and
lumbering communities in most lines of fruit. In a few years, however, shipments
to the outside must become larger and larger, especially in many varieties of apples
which are produced here to a very high degree of perfection, and which will always
command the favour of the market. The district is favoured in its location and its
freight rates to the Prairie, while a new line being constructed to Vancouver will, it
is expected, result in material improvement in service and in rates to the Coast.
The scattered character of the settlements, and the use of water rather than rail
transportation, result in a relatively higher cost of living and of production, which
may be said to be offset by the very satisfactory quality of the fruit.

The varieties of fruit planted will be definitely dealt with in the 1912 Orchard
Survey Report, now being compiled in the offices of the Department. It might be
said at this time that peaches have been but very little planted, practically not at all
commercially. The same is true of apricots and grapes. Pears, crab-apples, plums,
and prunes have been planted to a small extent, sweet cherries rather more so.
Strawberries have been put in in considerable acreage, especially by the Doukhobor
Society. The principal fruit-plantings are of winter apples, principally Wagener,
Jonathan, Northern Spy, Mclntosh, Ontario, Cox's Orange, Wealthy, King, Graven-
stein, Rome Beauty, and Delicious.

Generally speaking, conditions in this district are not favourable to the ship-
ment of soft fruits, except for such points as have quick rail facilities east or west.
Jam-making is now a well-established industry, and much more than the present
production could be used for this purpose. The great future for this country in
fruit-growing is undoubtedly in such varieties of winter apples as reach perfection.
The list of fruits recommended for planting are as follows: —
Strawberries —

Magoon 1

Dunlop I For shipping.

Royal Sovereign I
Glen Mary )
William Belt { For eanning'
Raspberries —
Cuthbert
Gooseberries —

Oregon Champion.
Downing. •
Industry.
Red Currants —
Cherry.
Fay.
Black Currants —

Naples.

Sour Cherries —
Olivet.

Morello, English.
Early Richmond.

48

Sour Cherries — •

Montmorency.
Sweet Cherries —

Royal Anne.

Bing.

Lambert.

Black Tartarian.
Peaches —

Alexander "j

Triumph }, Peaches must have warm location.

Early Crawford I
Grapes —

Moore's Early "1

Campbell's Early J. Must have favourable location.

Concord
Plums and Prunes —

Peach.

Bradshaw.

Pond's Seedling.
"Italian Prune.

Reine Claude.

Shropshire Damson.
Pears —

Bartlett.

Flemish Beauty — Scabs somewhat; requires careful spraying.

Clairgeau.

An jo u.
Crab-apples —

Transcendent.
Apples —

Yellow Transparent.

Duchess.

Wealthy.

Alexander — Fall cooking.

*McIntosh Red — Must be sprayed for apple-scab.
*Gravenstein — Of exceptional quality here.

Jonathan — Must have a warm sunny location and deep soil.
*Northern Spy — In warmer sections; with deep and rich soils.
*Wagener — The favourite apple ; plant on benches.
"Ontario — Does very well.

Baldwin — Yields heavily.

Cox's Orange — Of good quality and keeps well.

(15.) EAST KOOTENAY.

This territory includes the valleys of the Upper Columbia and the Upper
Kootenay, embracing a large area of agricultural land estimated at approximately
1,000,000 acres, most of which is available for mixed farming, by dry-farming
methods without irrigation. The territory stretches from the International Boundary
north-west through the Cranbrook and Windermere country, up to and including
the Golden section.

The climate of the district is semi-humid in character, the total annual precipi-
tation averaging about 1C to 19 inches, of which a considerable proportion falls in
the second quarter of the year, at least in the southern half of the district. The
records for Golden, Cranbrook, and Wilmer indicate a growing season of between
175 and 190 days, the most favourable records being from the Windermere country.
The number of heat units runs from 9,250 at Golden to 10,000 at Cranbrook, 10,750
at Wilmer, and 10,750 at Tobacco Plains, in the Elko District. Similarly, the mean
temperature of the six hottest weeks is GO.l degrees at Golden, 02.2 degrees at

49

Cranbrook, G3.S degrees at Wilmer, and C3.9 degrees at Tobacco Plains. The grow-
ing season is therefore short and cool, and this, by diminishing the amount of
evaporation, helps to make more useful the amount of precipitation received. Dry-
farming methods are producing very satisfactory crops of potatoes in the St. Mary's
District, near Cranbrook, while alfalfa is being produced, mainly with supplementary
irrigation, throughout the entire territory dn small areas at the present time. Winter
temperatures run sufficiently low to make the growing of most varieties of applos
more or less unsatisfactory, and only the hardy varieties, which should do best in
this district, are recommended by the Department.

The district is one which will eventually support a large population, based on
mixed farming, with fruit-growing more or less as a side-line, as its possibilities
become demonstrated. There is no reason why small-fruit culture should not obtain
considerable success.

The soils are variable, but, the precipitation being light, they have not been
leached of their valuable plant-food, and analyses made at the Central Experimental
Farm, confirmed by practical farming experience in the district, show a very satis-
factory supply of potash and lime, with variable amounts of phosphoric acid, and,
as is usual in Dry Belt soil, a low content of nitrogen, in, however, a very available
form. Much of the soil is a very fine, deep, rich loamy silt, and there are, of course,
all extremes.

Most of the land carries a small growth of timber, which costs at present
prices ,$30 to $50 per acre to clear. Irrigation is being applied on several large
projects, especially in the more arid part of the Upper Columbia District, and settle-
ment is proceeding most rapidly in these areas.

Up to a few years ago, the district was largely used as range land by a few
large cattle-ranches, and thousands of cattle were exported yearly over the
Crowsnest line and the C.P.R. main line. With the development of mining in
the Crowsnest, and lumbering through the territory wherever railway facilities were
suflicient, a local market has been gradually created for practically everything that
is produced. The district has not been developed far enough to undertake to look
after outside markets in any lines. There is no doubt that small fruits from the
upper part of the district will be marketed in the Prairies in a few years, and
should bring very good prices. Alfalfa is doing well, and the country has all
the requirements for a successful dairying and mixed-farming industry. Practically
no fruit-growing is being done outside of a very few small orchards here and there,
principally of the earlier and hardier varieties, the fruit of which keeps exceptionally
well owing to the short and cool season, and is marketed at very remunerative
prices locally.

The following list of fruits recommended by this Department has in view hardi-
ness and adaptability to conditions: —
Strawberries —

Bederwood.

Dunlop.

Williams.
Raspberries —

Herbert.
Red Currants —

Victoria.

Red Dutch.
Black Currants —

Saunders.

Victoria.
Gooseberries —

Oregon Champion.
Sour Cherries —

Early Richmond.

Montmorency.

no

Sweet Cherries —

Reiiie Hortense.

Vilne Sweet.
Plums and Prunes —

Wolf.

llawkeye.

Stoddard.

De Soto.

Cheney.

Also other American plums. Try also Shropshire Damson and Heine

Claude.
Crab-apples —

Whitney.

Martha.

Transcendent.
Pears —

Flemish Beauty.
Apples —

Yellow Transparent.

Char m aloft.

Tetofsky.

Duchess.

Wealthy.

McMahon White.

Longfield.

Mclntosh Red )

Scott's Winter \ Wortliy ot trial«

Milwaukee.

North-west Greening.

(16.) CENTRAL BRITISH COLUMBIA.

Outside of the areas described under previous headings as the fruit districts of
southern British Columbia, there remains the greater part of the possible agricul-
tural area of the Province which falls east of the Cascade Mountains and north
of the main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Through this country the main
lines of the Canadian Northern and the Grand Trunk Pacific will run, and here
it is that tremendous agricultural development will undoubtedly take place in the
near future. All authorities who have visited this great and hitherto unknown
country unite in according it a great future in mixed farming and general agricul-
ture. On account of the character of the growing season, which is inclined to
be somewhat short and cool, with occasional summer frosts, together with winter
temperatures, that will prove too severe for most of the commercial varieties of
fruit, the district is not expected to become one for commercial fruit-production.
There will, of course, always be a ready local market for whatever fruit is produced,
but the principal function fruit-growing will have will be that of providing some-
thing for the farmer's home.

This great area includes those valleys of the north which are now so much
in the public eye, including the Upper Skeena, the Upper Fraser, the Bulkley,
Stewart, the Nechaco, and all the territory described now as the Fort George
country.

The reports in the hands of the Department of Agriculture would indicate
that while the soils throughout this country are variable, as in the rest of the
Province, yet there is a large proportion of good agricultural land which will be
quite suitable for experimental work with fruit. Up to the present time there
have not been brought to the attention of the Department any fruit-trees farther
north than Soda Creek and Quesnel in the Fraser basin, except some which have
been planted in the last two years. We believe that, with the choice of the hardier

51

varieties, home orchards could be made quite general through the entire area, the
winter climate being but little more severe than that t>f Ottawa.

The Department of Agriculture has distributed a number of trees for erperi
mental purposes in this district, and more will be known in a few years about its
capabilities. In the meantime, the following list of varieties is submitted as
containing those most worthy of trial:—
Strawberries —
Bederwood.
Dunlop.
Williams.
Raspberries —

Herbert.
Red Currants —
Victoria.
Red Dutch.
Black Currants —
Saunders.
Victoria.
Gooseberries —

Oregon Champion.
Sour Cherries-
Early Richmond.
Montmorency.
Orel 25.

Plums and Prunes —
Wolf.
1 I;i\vkeye.
Stoddard.
De Soto.
Cheney.
Also other American plums. Try also Shropshire Damson and Reine

Claude.
Crab-apples —
Whitney.
Martha.
Transcendent.
Pears —

Flemish Beauty.
Apples—-
Yellow Transparent.
Charmaloff.
Tetofsky.
Duchess.
Wealthy.
McMahon White.
Longfield.
Mclntosh Red.
Scott's Winter.
Milwaukee.
North-west Greening.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS TO ORCHARD-PLANTERS.

All fruit-trees sold in this Province are inspected by the Inspector of Fruit
Pests' Branch of the Department of Agriculture. They may be accepted as practi-
cally free from all insect pests, and are not likely to show any fungous or bacterial
disease at a later date ; as far as inspection can render them clean, they are so. In
addition, all the nurserymen of this Province, and all the nurserymen outside the

52

Province who have agents in the Province, are licensed, and bonded in the sum of
$2,000 each, as indicated in the following excerpts from the " Agricultural Associa-
tions Act " :—

" 00. No person shall sell within the Province, as principal, agent, solicitor,
or otherwise, fruit-trees, plants, or nursery stock without the licence therefor by
this Act required.

" 61. Any person may obtain frb'm the Minister a licence to sell within the
Province fruit-trees, plants, and nursery stock upon payment of the licence fee
hereinafter provided, and upon filing with the said Minister a bond to His Majesty,
satisfactory to said Minister, in a penal sum not exceeding two thousand dollars,
conditional that the obligor shall pay all damages that may be occasioned to
any person in the Province through the sale to such person by the licensee, his
agent or agents, of any infected fruit-trees, plants, or nursery stock, or of any
fruit-trees, plants, or nursery stock that are not of the variety and character
represented by the licensee, his agent or agents, at the time of sale.

" 62. Any person in this Province who shall sustain damage through the sale
to him by the licensee, his agent, or agents, of any infected fruit-trees, plants,
or nursery stock, or of any fruit-trees, plants, or nursery stock that are not of the
variety and character represented by the licensee, his agent or agents, at the time
of sale, shall have a right of action in the Courts of this Province upon said bond
for such damages, notwithstanding the provisions of any contract of agreement to
the contrary.

" 63. A licence under section 61 hereof shall not be for a longer period than
one year, and shall expire on the thirty-first day of December of the year in
which it is issued.

" 64. The fee for such a licence shall be five dollars for nurserymen and five
dollars for each agent.

" 65. Any licence granted under the foregoing sections may be suspended or
cancelled by the Minister, upon evidence satisfactory to the Minister that the
holder of the licence has sold infected fruit-trees, plants, or nursery stock, or fruit-
trees, plants, or nursery stock that were not of the variety or character represented
at the time of sale."

This Act has been passed for your protection. It is, however, necessary for
you to read it carefully and understand it in order to obtain the benefits which
it confers.

Some nursery stock is sold here by mail. Legally, no protection can be
afforded the purchaser who sends his money out of the Province in a mail order,
and on this account it is wiser to avoid those nurserymen who refuse to put up
bonds and do business through agents.

A list of the principal firms growing nursery stock in British Columbia is
as follows: —

Vancouver Island.— The Layritz Nurseries, Victoria; Vancouver Island Nur-
series, Somenos; G. A. Knight, Mt. Tolmie.

Lower Mainland. — Fraser Valley Nurseries, Aldergrove

Interior.— Coldstream Nurseries, Vernon ; Layritz Nurseries, Kelowna ; Riverside
Nurseries, Grand Forks.

Buy from reliable, established, and responsible firms. Buy only stock which
has been grown by the nurserymen who sells it to you. There is a double risk in
buying from the nursery-stock jobber, and there have been more unsatisfactory
results from stock so purchased than from stock bought direct from the nursery
which grows it.

You are recommended to purchase stock grown under similar conditions of soil
and climate. Coast-grown stock, generally speaking, does better on the Coast, and
Dry Belt stock better in the Dry Belt. There are plenty of exceptions to this
general rule, but the principle stands.

In buying in British Columbia you get the trees quicker, and at lower costs for
freight and other charges; you avoid inspection, and possible fumigation, at

Vancouver, to which all imported stock is subjected; and we are able to state that
British Columbia stock is liable to be more free from pests than most of that
grown in districts not so well protected from injurious insects.

It is well to place orders early in September rather than in December. For
planting on Vancouver Island or in the West Kootenay, which it is desirable to do
in the fall, orders may be placed still earlier, and the stock delivered late in
October.

In buying from agents, remember that the accredited agent will have his licence
to show. Keep a copy of the order given and insist on the delivery of the varieties
you specify. It is better to make a personal inspection of the stock at the nursery,
and one man might very well do this for himself and a number of neighbours at
the same time. In such case stock should be inspected before it is dug and stored.

SELECTION OF NURSERY STOCK.

It is now generally agreed that the one-year-old tree has such great advantages
as to be most desirable for nearly all conditions. For fall planting in the Lower
Mainland a two-year-old tree may be better, and for most types of cherries, in any
Coast section, the two-year or even the three-year-old tree may stand transplanting
to better advantage than the one-year-old. As a general rule, however, the one-year-
old top on either a two- or three-year-old root is satisfactory. For home orchard
use, a two- or three-year-old tree may be brought into bearing earlier, and will
make a dwarfer tree.

The type of the stock selected is of importance. For all parts of the Interior
it is a great mistake to plant trees which grew 5, 6, or 7 feet high in the nursery.
The best stock is 3l/2 to 4^ feet high, one year old. This can then be headed at
20 to 24 inches to very good advantage. There is a tendency on the part of
inexperienced growers to purchase big trees. In fact, the nurserymen claim that
they insist on having the big stock. The results are usually much less satisfactory
than with smaller, well-matured stock, in many ways.

There is much discussion as to the relative merits of grafted or budded trees
in the purchase of apples and pears. There is a great deal to be said on both
sides, but the net results of the discussion are about evenly balanced.

Pests and diseases are rare on British Columbia grown stock, first because it
is inspected regularly; second, because it is grown in districts naturally free from
pests; and, third, because the whole of the stock is dug up each fall and sold
out. With two- or three-year-old stock there is a chance for pests to accumulate.

The trees as delivered should be in good health, as shown by the healthy appear-
ance of the bark. They should be well matured and with good strong buds. The
root systems should be large, roots numerous, and with plenty of fibrous roots. The
side shoots on the trunks of the trees should not have been removed, or at least
enough of them should be left to form a head at the proper height.

CARE OF TREES ON ARRIVAL.

Nursery stock should be removed from the railway-station promptly on advice
from the railway agent; it should be taken out to the place where it is to be
planted, and if not to be planted immediately, then should be heeled in. If frozen
in transit, the packages should be placed in a cool, shady spot, and allowed to
thaw out very gradually. If the stock is dried out, it should be covered with moist
soil pretty well up to the tops of the trees, instead of heeling in just to the depth
the trees were in the nursery, as is usually to be done. If growth has started,
the trees must be very carefully handled, and should be shaded after being unpacked,
so as to save the new shoots if possible; if growth has started very materially,
success is not very likely. In heeling-in in the fall, trees should be placed on a
slant in a trench, about 10 inches deep, with the roots well covered with moist
earth, which should be shaken down well among them. The tops of the trees
should face towards the south to prevent sun-scald. In severe climates some

54

evergreen boughs may be thrown over the trees for protection. The place to heel
in should be high and well drained and protected from mice.

PLANTING.

For the greater part of the Province, planting should be done in the spring,
as indicated above. Fall planting m,ay be done up to about November 1st with
safety in the Kootenay, and about the middle of November on Vancouver Island.
The time for planting in the spring is determined very largely by the amount to
be done, the preparation of the land, and the men available, but it is best done
as early as possible after heavy frosts are over. The holes should be large and dug
early. Good soil should be placed in the bottom. The roots should be pruned so
as to give good healthy wood at the tips of all the main roots. The tops should
be headed back to from 20 to 24 inches. The trees should be protected from drying
oat by having the roots wrapped in a wet burlap sack, or by being carried in a
packing-case, the bottom of which is filled with wet moss or wet bags, with which
the roots are also covered.

The trees should be set very firmly and should be immediately irrigated if
the soil is dry, but the irrigation should not touch the trunk of the tree. In planting
on the Coast the tree should be set a little deeper than it was set in the nursery,
up to about 2 inches deeper in open or sandy soils. In the Dry Belt they may be
set from 2% to 4 inches deeper, depending pn the soil-texture and character of
the subsoil. In the humid regions of the Interior they should be set on an average
2 to 3 inches deeper than in the nursery.

Our nurserymen as a rule pack their trees carefully, and with due regard to
the time they will be in transportation, so that usually stock arrives in good
condition. A great deal more damage is done to young trees by carelessness in
handling and planting, especially by drying out, than can be readily believed. The
greatest possible care to prevent drying out, to keep the trees vigorous, and to
prevent loss of vitality in any way is the best possible insurance for a vigorous
start.

VICTORIA, B.C. :

Pi-intod by WILLIAM H. CUI.LIN, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty.

1.013.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

VICTORIA.

Hon. Price Ellison, Minister.

MAP OF THE PROVINCE OF

BRITISH COLUMBIA,

Showing Districts for which Lists of
VARIETIES OF FRUIT

are

RECOMMENDED.
1913.

PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

BULLETIN No. 52

ANNUAL REPORT

ADVISORY BOARD OF
WOMEN'S INSTITUTE

Printed by Authority of the Legislative Assembly

II

VICTORIA, B. C.

PRINTED BY WILLIAM H. CUIJJN, PRINTER TO THB KIN
MOST EXCSIVLSNT MAJESTY

OF THE
COLLEGE OF

PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

BULLETIN No. 52

ANNUAL REPORT

ADVISORY BOARD OF
WOMEN'S INSTITUTE

Printed by Authority of the Legislative Assembly

VICTORIA, B. C.

PRINTED BY WILJ.IAM H. CUT-IN, PRINTER TO THE Kixr.'s
MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY

1913

Department of Agriculture,

Victoria, B.'C., March 18th, 1913.
Hon. Price Ellison,

Minister of Agriculture.

Sir: — I have the honour to transmit herewith Bulletin No. 52, being
the Annual Report of the Advisory Board of Women's Institutes in British
Columbia for the year ending August 31st, 1912.

I have the honour to be, Sir,

Your obedient servant,

W. E. SCOTT,

Dsputy Minister of Agriculture and Superintendent of Institutes.

MEMBERS OF THE ADVISORY BOARD.

Hon. Price Ellison, Minister of Agriculture, Victoria.

Wm. E. Scott, Deputy Minister of Agriculture, Victoria.

Mrs. W. V. Davies, €hilliwack. President.

Mrs. R. L. Lipsett, Summerland.

Mrs. J. F. Kilby, Nelson.

Mrs. A. T. Watt, William Head. Secretary.

CONTENTS

PAGE

Record of Women ' s Institute Meetings and Membership 6

Annual Report of Board by Secretary 7

Chairman's Report, Ivower Mainland District 18

Mrs. L,ipsett's Report, Okanagan District 21

Mrs. Kilby's Report, Kootenay District 22

Mrs. Watt's Report, Vancouver Island District 25

Minutes of Meetings of Board 26

Recommendations of Board 36

L/ecturers and Demonstrators 37

Institute Calendar 39

CONGRESS OF FARM WOMEN—

Report of Official Representatives 40

Mrs. L/ipsett's Report 46

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ANNUAL REPORT OF ADVISORY BOARD
WOMEN'S INSTITUTES, B. C.

Auguft, 1911, to August, 1912

The first meeting of the Advisory Board was called by the Minister
and held at the Parliament Buildings, August 21st and 22nd, 1911.
Preliminary organization was effected and a programme of work laid
down. The minutes, abstract of the proceedings of this meeting, with the
recommendations made, was published in Women's Institutes Bulletin
No. 43. The minutes of the meeting were submitted and approved.. No
further account of these proceedings is therefore submitted in this report.
At this meeting a chairman, Mrs. Davies, was elected and a secretary,
Mrs. Watt, and their work and that of the other members of the Board
was assigned by the Superintendent.

Generally speaking the work of all members of the Board is to
stimulate the interest in their respective localities in Women's Institute
work in what ever way seems advisable. The chairman in addition is
head of the Board and instructs the secretary in carrying out the wishes
of the Board. The secretary is the executive officer of the Board, carries
out the instructions of the chairman, does such special work as is referred
to her by the Department and conducts the correspondence.

Immediately after the meeting, the minutes, as approved, were written
out in full and sent to the Department and the members. The recom-
mendations as made by the Board were all in the form of Resolutions
and required re-drafting. These recommendations1 being the embodiment
of our first work were published in our Bulletin.

ORGANIZATION OF THE BOARD.

The first important work undertaken by the Board was its organization
under the authority of the Minister. There is no precedent to guide in
the formation and organization of a Board, at once advisory to the Depart-
ment, executive in its capacity, and with functions such as acquiring and
disseminating information. The Act under which Women's Institutes
are organized has little to say on the subject. Rules and Regulations
of Women's Institutes authorize the appointment of such a Board with
stated membership, but there is not much to go upon. So that the interior
organization of the Board, the explicit defining of this relationship to
the Institute, its status with the Department and so forth had at once
to be considered. By-laws were drafted, approved and are now ready
to be incorporated with the rules and regulations as revised and approved.

The secretary was instructed after the first recommendations were
approved to bring these into effect as soon as possible. This was done

BRITISH COLUMBIA

and the specific matters concerned were satisfactorily dealt with. Some
of these are mentioned later.

On the instructions of the Minister, efforts were made to get in touch
with similar organizations, and with Institutions having courses bearing
on our work. Connection was established with the Ontario and New
Brunswick branches, with Simmons College, with the Boston Domestic
Science Schools, with Cornell University Department of farmers' Wives
organizations, with Home Economics Association of Manitoba, with the
new Institute Branch in Alberta, with Macdonald College, with the House-
hold Science Department of Toronto University, with the American School
of Home Economics, with the Home Economics Association, and with other
organizations.

As a result of these connections, a great deal of valuable information
has been received in the guise of pamphlets especially. The members of
the Board have thus become informed of the progress of Home Economics
elsewhere and this information has been disseminated as far as possible,
through the Institutes. Attention has also thus been directed to the
Province among a class of people who are looking for homes for women
workers.

THE INSTITUTES.

It was necessary also to get in touch with the Institutes and here
also all caution had to be observed since there might be thought to be
interference with individual Institutes. The contrary has been abundantly
proven, since as soon as the idea of the Hoard and its usefulness per
meated, full advantage was taken and the correspondence has greatly
increased. It has taken the entire year to got completely in touch with
Institutes. While some responded at oner, others have only within the
last month wakened to lh.- fact that the Hoard needed information and
the Institutes needed help: Now, however, every Institute is replying
with fair promptness and is taking advantage of the Hoard being in a
position to give information or solve certain difficulties.

Various methods have been tried in order that the members might
keep in touch with the Institutes for the sake of the general progress
of the work. A great many personal letters have been written [and
it is the unanimous opinion of the members of the Board that there
is nothing more effective than personal letters] and visits from the central
worker to the branch Institutes. There has been little routine, co' respond-
ence for each letter has presented a special need and has had a reply
dealing with that need and adding words of counsel or encouragement.
The bes!, benefit of all that of personal visits by the members of the Board
has been used to great advantage. The members are perhaps more
reluctant to visit the Institutes than they should be owing to the fact
that distances are great in this Province and travelling expensive. The
instructions of the Superintendent are clear on the subject and it is li'kely
that more vifsiting will be dene another year as means of transportation
becomes easier. It is undoubtedly true that the usefulness of some
Institutes would h.ave been over but for the encouragement of these visits.

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT.

Institutes are far apart and lack the stimulus o'f visits from one another
and the isolated Institutes have suffered considerably, partly for this
reason and partly because they Were originally organized in an incomplete
manner arid since left to themselves.

Through the medium of the Secretary of the Board, papers by Women
Institute members are now being .exchanged among the Institutes and u
friendly feeling is thus engendered. If the reports from the Secretaries
could be made in triplicate so that the Secretary of the Board could have
a copy, there would be still better connection with the Institutes. Still
another means was the publication of our Women's Institute Bulletin.
This publication with its department, "Notes From The Institutes" was
a happy medium in closer connection. The Board has tried also during
the year to keep in touch with the work of the Institutes by sending out.
articles to different publications dealing with their special work. These
articles bring a direct message from the outer world and have often led
to free discussion at the meetings. Pamphlets of a special interest
published elsewhere have from time to time at the request of the Board
been purchased by the Department and sent to the Institutes. This has
been another feature in linking up our Institutes.

CORRESPONDENCE.

Tl.t'3 main work of the (Secretary of the Board has been the corre-
spondence. Some idea of how this has increased may be judged by ths
fact that in April and May over 300 letters were dealt with. An average
<?f 100 letters a month has been kept up. As has been explained little
of this is routine correspondence, as every Institute presents different
problems, and requires varying attention. Great care has had to be
exercised with the letters sent out from the Board. The members are
new to their position; to acquire the special official view point, to give
sympathetic attention to the divers problems suggested, and yet not in
any w<o to exceed their duties, but in every way to fulfil! their responsi-
bilities was not an easy task for women occupying for the first time,
positions of this nature. That, however, we have succeeded in fitting
in without trouble. It must be recognized as in part due to the care with
which the correspondence was conducted. This part o? the work has
been most interesting, and the members feel that they have been able
to be of some direct benefit.

LITERARY WORK.

Tho literary work of the Board has naturally devolved upon the
Secretary, and has been an important and pleasing part of the work.
Manuscript has been sent from time to time to the Cranbrook Prospector,
The Victoria Times, The Vancouver Chronicle, and regularly since it was
selected .as our official journal, to the Canadian Home Journal. Attention
is drawn to the fact that although matter has been sent regularly so far
only the introductory notice has appeared and even that not headed as
sent. The Secretary should be instructed to take the matter up with the
journal. A number of other newspapers and magazines on the Pacific

10 BRITISH COLUMBIA

Coast, and Agricultural Journals throughout Canada would be glad to
have matter regarding our Institutes, and several requests have come to
the Secretary lately for articles and accounts of our work.

When there are better office appliances available more can be done
in this direction in the way of supplying matter and in distributing
newspapers, etc., containing Women Institute items to the Institutes.
The Chronicle of Vancouver has been sent each week to some of the
Institutes, according as the articles therein seemed appropriate to their
work. The preparation of circular letters to the Institutes regarding
matters of general interest has been regarded as a means in the work.
The subjects treated with have been such as should be brought to the
attention of the Institutes and the fact that the letter is written directly
to the Institute on any subject must arouse some attention. It is plain
that in this manner a number of topics have been taken up at meetings,
which perhaps otherwise would not have been considered.

The planning of study courses for the Institutes will have to be a
matter for early consideration, but it is a heavy task and unless there
is a general demand on the part of the Institutes for such assistance it
is probable that for the present it may have to be left to individual efforts.
One Institute has already a systematic course of study with the develop-
ment of this work in Ontario of late years, it is likely we will soon have
to fall in line.

The matter of the official journal for B.'C. is, as stated, a problem
requiring still further elucidation. Only papers and accounts of meetings
of general interest are desired by the Canadian Home Journal, whereas
our interests, in order that the work may spread, need an organ wherein
space may be freely used. The Secretary hopes that early consideration

be given this matter.

OFFICE EQUIPMENT.

The equipment of the Board for this work so far has not been
sufficient. The fault lies largely with the members themselves, since at
the outset they did not know what they should need, and since then have
been backward in their requests. There are now in the hands of the
Secretary, the twelve volumes of the Library of Household Economics,
published by the School of that name in Chicago, and the following
magazines are coming regularly: "The Canadian Home Journal," "Good
House-keeping," and the "American Journal of Home Economics."
Pamphlets also come from various colleges, experiment stations and depart-
ments. The Secretary also is permitted to purchase such pamphlets and
magazines as seem desirable in the interest of the Institutes. Number*
of the Garden Magazine, The House Beautiful, Country Life, The Delineator,
and other publications have been purchased and sent out from time to
time to the Institutes. The excellent publications of the Seattle Board
of Health, which are especially suitable for housewives and mothers,
have been sent to every Institute. Pamphlets and Bulletins of different
Colleges have been also distributed or handed about.

Attention is particularly directed here to the Bulletin lately issued

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT. il

by the Good House-keeping Magazine Department, of investigating
and testing household appliances containing results of investigation into
recent domestic utensils. This fs" so exceptionally valuable a publication
that it would seem as if at least the officers of every Institute should
have a copy. It would be well also if this excellent magazine, certainly
the best of its kind in the world, should be more widely known among
our members. There should be a 'Canadian Good House-keeping Magazine.

The filing and arranging of papers has occupied far more time than
it should had proper Filing Cabinets been at the disposal of the Secretary.
A typewriter is also urgently needed. The necessary waste of time in
making copies can thus be avoided and the official communications or
the Board present a better appearance.

Suggestion was made that a room be set apart perhaps in the ne\\
Parliament Buildings for the use of the Women's Institute work. In
such, a room the Home Economics Library could be installed and Women'b
Institute exhibits be placed there. There could be desk room also for
the members of the Board when in Victoria and later there could be a
woman worker in charge, who would be ready to give information abouc
this work to visitors.

COLLECTION INFORMATION.

When the Secretary assumed office there seemed to be little available
statistical information concerning the Institutes. The Secretary of the
Department stated that the Institutes did not send in reports or statistics,
changes in officers, as regularly as should be done. The Secretary has
now, however, collected, a matter of some time, full statistical and up-to-
da.te information about the Institutes. She is now in a position to answer
inquiries in this regard and indeed these are frequently received. The
recommendation 'made by the Board of having the. Institute report in
triplicate should produce good results. [The reports also of the different
members of the Board have this information.] The reports of the lecturers
sent out by the Department could easily contain more valuable information
than they do. We would respectfully ask that lecturers be urged to
give as full report as possible, and that consideration be given to our
recommendation that the lecturers be allowed some extra time to make
up their reports. Too much importance cannot be placed on this branch
of the work. It is absolutely necessary that the central workers are kept
fully informed of all that concerned the work of the branch Institutes.
It is very hard to awaken Institute Secretaries to their responsibility in
this direction. Some of the Secretaries are fully alive not only to their
own needs in this regard, but to those of the other Institutes, but most of
them fail to realize that the work will never spread and will never be
recognized by their Province as successful unless publicity is freely given
to the work.

It has been part of the duties of the Secretary this year to collect
and transmit items of interest to the Institutes. Considerable studying
and reading has been done with this idea in view, and all the members
of tjie Board feel much better equipped now than they did at the outset.

12 BRITISH COLUMBIA

They have recognized that this work must be their chief concern and
their reading and studying has been in this direction. It is not astonishing,
therefore, that progress has been made and enthusiasm evoked. The
improvements in household appliances of .late years has been especially
considered. The Secretary has visited a number of shops in the large
cities on the coast, with a view to investigating the new labor saving-
appliances and has acquired many new ideas.

Many special lines of work have been undertaken at the direction
of the Superintendent. The most important was the preparation of the
Women's Institute Bulletin. Of this Bulletin, the members of the Board
feel that they have a right to be proud. It has been received with
universal interest by the Institutes and has been greatly in demand from
the other Provinces. The information about the work in B. C., secured
and published in this Bulletin, was a matter of surprise to the members
in the Province. Prior to its publication there had been little interchange
of ideas or communication between the Institutes.

This information was collected from many sources, from personal
letters, from visits, from newspaper items, from reports, and often by
hearsay, which had to be verified. Papers, sent in by members, were
many of them of a high order and helpful; they came from members
all over the Province. The articles contributed by the members of the
Board were on topics of common interest to the Institutes. The arrange-
ment and compiling of the Bulletin were approved by the Superintendent
and his kind word of praise made the work easier. It is expected that
the next Bulletin will be even better as the Board will have more help
from the Institutes in its compiling. The outline has been drafted,
presented to the chairman, and approved, but it will not be possible to
get out a bulletin of any value until more material conies in. It is not
likely much^ will be received until after the annual meeting in
January. The publication of this report, however, if authorized, will fill
the present need, as it includes the Institute calendar, book list, list of
lecturers available, and other data of present interest.

SPECIAL WORK.

Under instruction from the Superintendent, the preparation of a book
list was undertaken. A number of experts in special lines of home work
were consulted and the list as completed and printed has their approval.
Lists of magazines and pamphlets were also prepared for the Provincial
Librarian, so that according to our request he could include in his Rural
Travelling Lib'-ary, books of special interest to homemakers in the country.
The Secretary would like further to suggest that the matter of the McGill
University lending Libraries and of the Toronto University lending Lantern
Slides for use in Institutes be taken up.

The preparation of a Calendar or time table of Institutes containing
the place, date, and time of regular meetings and also the list of officers,
has been completed. This will, with your permission, be printed and will
be valuable as a reference for all interested in Women's Institute work.

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT. 13

It is hoped that many more visitors and possible members will thus
attend Institute meetings and thafr'newcomers will be thus able to come
quickly in contact with the Institutes.

A list has also been prepared to date of speakers and demonstrators
available for Institute work in B. C. There are probably many equally
good, but these ladies have applied or have been recommended to the
Department for this work on instruction. The Board has investigated
the qualifications of these ladies for Institute lecturing and demonstrating
land is in a position to give any further information desired. It would
seem as if the Institutes should feel some responsibility in the matter
of providing extra speakers, that is, speakers other than those sent out
from the Department in the spring and fall. The cost will not be great
and the resultant benefit to the Institutes will be very noticeable. Other
work assigned has been that of investigating the qualifications and merits
of those desiring to be connected with this work and of the plans and
suggestions regarding different lines of work sent in to the Department
or to the Board. It is perhaps not generally recognized how many ideas
and plans are brought to the attention of the 'Central Workers, on all
lines of women's work in the country.

There are many plans for the settlement of woman farmers in this
Province and for the spread of Institute work, which requires most careful
consideration and which are often found to be such as we should like
to see adopted, and perhaps the hardest part of the work is to report
unfavorably upon plans, which may have great merit, but which are
impracticable at the time when they were brought forward. The members
of the Board would like to be well equipped for the discussion of agricul-
tural problems relating to women and it is hoped that we will be given
an opportunity for meeting those who come to this Province with plans
for the settlement or work of women in the country. In this way we
may receive new impressions and new points of view and thus be able
to be of greater use in this work.

Th'} planning of certain work among the Institutes has been referred
to the Board,' that of competition among Women's Institutes, whereby
the endeavors of the members, both individual and in the Institute, may
be recognized. We hope the plan we are submitting will meet with your
approval.

[We are also submitting at your request a plan for Department assist-
ance to the Women's Institute exhibition work, which we hope will be
suitable.]

An important piece of work was that of the following up of the
decision to select motto, badge and colors for the B.C. Institutes. After
considerable shifting of the responsibility back and forward between tho
Department and the Board, the Secretary was able finally to announce
to the Department the decision to recommend the motto, "For Home and
Country," as used by Ontario, and for badge the pin of Ontario, but in
our own colors and with the initials of our own Province. The choice
of colors made was green, white, and gold, and has met with great

14 BRITISH COLUMBIA

favor from the Institutes. Reasons and significance for this choice are
given -it some length in our bulletin. A request came from the Cranbrook
W. I. for an official ribbon, but it was not felt that this expense could
be at present recommended.

A statement was made in the newspapers that the Dominion Depart-
ment of Agriculture was to give an annual grant to the Province to aid in
the development of agriculture. The Secretary at once communicated
with the members of the Board to see if they would make recommendation
that part of this sum be applied to the encouragement of women in agri-
culture. The members agreed that if a proportion of this sum could
be secured it would stimulate the interest of women in agriculture. A
request, that this aspect of the matter be considered was transmitted
through the Superintendent to you, Sir, and to the Hon. Minister of
Agriculture for the Dominion, ani we hope that definite action will be
taken. On the instruction of the Superintendent a plan has been prepared
for the use of this fund should such be granted.

RULES AND REGULATIONS.

The matter of the rules and regulations regarding Women's Institutes
was taken up under direction of the Superintendent. The officers of the
Institutes were consulted as to what changes or additions seemed necessary
in view of the changing conditions of this work. The members of the
Board also made a careful study of the rules. A meeting was held to
specially consider them and certain recommendations were made. These
recommendations were for the most part approved by the Superintendent
and the Secretary was instructed to draw up the rules again, embodying
these changes, but the work is still to be dealt with.

ITINERARIES.

After the first meetings of the Board its recommendations regarding
the fall itinerary were carried out. The Institutes were favorably ap-
proached in the matter of the Prize Menus and the suggestions being
favorably regarded, the matter was set in train and the details of the
competition worked out in conjunction with Miss Livingstone, who had
agreed to undertake the fall lectures and demonstrations. The Secretary
kept in touch with Miss Livingstone until her tour was over, the menus
sent in and judged, the prize winners announced and all results tabulated.
By way also of further emphasizing her work, articles and clippings on
"cookery" were sent to each Institute within a short time of the close
of her tour. The Secretary also went with Miss Livingstone to Colwood
and to Metchosin to her first meetings and was able to see that all had
begun satisfactorily. A good deal of correspondence was involved in the
arranging and carrying out of this tour and its special features, but in
view of the splendid results and the gratification of the Institutes, the
time need not be grudged.

The spring itinerary was arranged after the Conference by the chair-
man and secretary of the Board, of which mention will be made later.
H was decided to send a lecturer who should take up agriculture and

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT. 15

horticulture as occupations for women. Many of the Institutes were
desiring information along these lines and it was felt by the Members
of the Board that such a series of lectures would be particularly helpful
in the spring of the year.

The services of Mrs. Davies were secured, who lectured on Market
Gardening, Floriculture, (Poultry and Dairying For Profit, with special
references of the undertaking of the various branches of its work by
women. In connection with her tour it was planned to have Flower Shows
held by such Institutes as were willing to do so. The tour of Mrs. Davies
was a great success and was found especially helpful to newcomers on
small acreage desiring to make a living therefrom. The greatest interest
was displayed in her lectures and a general stimulation of horticulture
ensued. Mrs. Davies' report on her trip was most interesting and showed
her to have been a careful observer. More of such reports would enable
us to have more satisfactory knowledge of the work of the Institutes.

The flower shows held at the time of her visits to the Institutes
and some later in the year deserve a special mention. At the outset a
circular letter was sent to the Institutes, asking for their opinion of this
matter. Later explanatory letters were sent and favorable responses began
to come in. The Secretary was able to be of assistance to the Institutes
with the exhibits. Prize lists were sent from one Institute to another.
Letters, articles, and pamphlets of gardens and shows were sent out to
the Institutes and help gladly given. The intention was, of course, that
all arrangements should be left to the Institutes themselves, but as the
work wns new there were many enquiries made and we hope satisfactorily
replied to. The 'Superintendent, considering the idea a worthy one, author-
ized the presentation of prizes from the Department at each Flower Show
held. The Secretary of the Board was directed to secure these prizes.
A number of beautiful books on gardening were secured from the local
booksellers. An inscription was put in each of the prizes sent out in
the name of the Department. The Superintendent also kindly allowed
members of the Board to attend these Flower Shows and present the
prizes. The shows were a great success and the Institutes have decided
to make this an annual event of Institute work in B.C.

In anticipation of these shows being held next year, many of the
Institutes are co-operating and ordering large quantities of bulbs ami
seeds. The members will thus have the benefit of cheaper prices. It is
hoped that an appreciable difference will be made in the appearance of
country homes by this stimulus to horticulture. Many more perennials
as well as bulbs are being provided and it is hoped that work will bo
stimulated still further next year.

EXHIBITION WORK OF INSTITUTES.

In connection with the Flower Shows many of the Institutes held an
exhibit of women's work and many of the prize lists were sent to the Board.
This seems to be a part of Women's Institute work of a special interest
and value and it is hoped that before next year some definite decision may
be arrived at as to how these exhibits can best be conducted and aided.

16 BRITISH COLUMBIA

DOMINION WORK.

On instruction the Secretary has been trying to work up the idea
of co-operation between the 'Provinces of Canada. Communication has been
established with Ontario. We paid a tribute to their pioneer work by
adopting their badge and motto, and frequent interchange of letters and
pamphlets. We have approached all the Provinces of the Dominion in
this regard. New Brunswick responded in a gratifying manner by agreeing
also to take the motto and badge of Ontario. Nova Scotia will do the
same when fully organized. Alberta, which is also completing organization,
intends to do so and Manitoba and Saskatchewan have the matter under
consideration. There will be much more to report concerning Dominion
co-operation later as several matters under co-operation are now being
undertaken, notably, official publications, Central Council, Official Organ.
and so forth.

WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE.

The members of the Board would like to see the matter of women
in agricultural pursuits brought forward. The Secretary has interviewed
a number of women who have come here chiefly from the Old Country
with a view to settling as women farmers in B. C. Many women, English
women especially, are particularly fond of these outdoor pursuits, and
little encouragement is given by the educational system or the Departments
of Agriculture to would-be women farmers. Women cannot work under
exactly the same conditions and exactly the same ways as men, and \vhi!<>
so much money has been spent on the improvement or agriculture, it
seeixis only fair that women should have a fair proportion. Horticultural
and agricultural occupations should be as much a part of the school
training of girls in the country as any other technical instruction, except
that of Home Economics, which should come first. The Secretary has
done special work in this regard as convener of the committee on this
matter and is of the opinion that the time has arrived for this matter
to be taken up in earnest. The Board is asking that women be placed on
committees on agriculture and on other commissions which deal in parr
with women's work.

FARM CONGRESS.

Special mention should be made of the bringing of our Institute into
touch with the Congress of Farm Women to be held at Lethbridge in
October. This great gathering will be of notable interest, and it is hoped
that the information which the Secretary has had transmitted to the
Institutes regarding this Congress will lead to a large delegation being
present. The Superintendent h?,s kindly promised the support of the
Department to our efforts to take some part in this Congress.

REPORTS FROM THE MEMBERS.

Each member of the Board has submitted a report concerning the
Institutes in the district in which she resides, and these reports are full
of interest. The iChairman, Mrs. Davies, owing to ill health, was absent
from the Province for several months. She. however, as her health per-
mitted, visited various Institutes and education institutions whose line

\YOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT. 17

of work is similar to ours, so that she has been able to bring back many
valuable ideas. Mrs. Lipsett was also away for some months at another
time of the year, and saw many phases of women's work. The reports
of the members are appended to this report.

MEETINGS.

The second meeting of the Advisory Board was held on August the
5th in the Parliament Buildings, the Chairman, Mrs. Davies, not being
able to attend. While her absence was keenly felt, a great deal ot work
was got through with. A new feature of the meetings was a, visit of
women workers, mostly new arrivals in the Province, who wished to take
over plans of work. Many of the letters were dealt with and their carrying
out will form part of the work of the Board for the next few months.
The minutes of the meetings were submitted and approved. The minutes
of the meetings as approved were sent to the Superintendent, and his
consent formally obtained to the carrying out of the recommendations
approved of. It was asked that these minutes be published in the annual
report.

In conclusion, I would draw your attention to the spread of the work
since the Advisory Board was appointed. For some three years, the
membership of a number of Institutes had remained almost stationary
up to the time of the appointment of the Board. By the time this report
is in your hands there will have been an increase in membership and
number of Institutes which is most gratifying. There have been 7 new
Institutes formed within the year and three more in process of formation.
The membership has increased from 800 to 1100. At this rate of progress
there will probably be soon as many Women's Institutes as Farmers'
Institutes. We feel that we have been able, under your authority and
with your support, to do some good work and we hope that our Institute
work will keep pace with the advancement of the Province. We may,
perhaps, be permitted to say that already the name of your Superintendent
of Institutes is well known throughout Canada as that of an Institute
worker thoroughly in sympathy with the aims and objects of Women's
Institute work. The members of the Board are fully aware that their
best efforts would have amounted to but little but for the support anil
sympathy of the Superintendent.

I have, etc.,

M. R. WATT,

Secretary, Advisory Board of Women's Institutes, B. C.

18 BRITISH COL v

LOWER MAINLAK - r STRICT.
Report of the Chairman « Ulvisory Board.

W .E. Scott, Esq.,

Superintendent of Institutes, B.C.

Sir, — I beg to present my annual report of work done among the
Women's Institutes of the Lower Mainland, B.C.

I have, etc.,

M. S. DAVIES,

Chairman, Advisory Board, Women's Institutes, B.C.
September, 1912.

My first visit was to the Langley Institute. I was kindly met at
the Tram (Station and driven to Fort Langley to the home of Mrs. Coulter,
the President of the Institute, who entertained me.

About 2.30 we went over to the Agricultural Hail, where the members
were assembling. A pleasant hour and a half was spent — 14 ladies were
present

A little business was transacted. Then the President called upon
me and I spoke for a short time on Institute work. It was a most informal
session, questions being asked as to their work and aims and they
in turn questioned me. I may say that this was the order ;it each Institute
I visited and I think resulted in benefit on both sides.

The Langley Institute have conducted a Flower Show for the two
summers they have been in existence and have devoted all their funds
towards making this a success. Last summer the expenses amounted to
$46.00, leaving them with very little in the Treasury. They have taken
up sewing in some of their sessions, having a dressmaker come in and
illustrate cutting.

It was a Langley member who suggested having a W. I. pin. The
majority of the members live so far away that the attendance is never
large.

From Langley I went down to Central Park. They have a smaller
membership, only 16. Of these 11 were present. They are not in as
flourishing a condition as some others. The proximity to Vancouver
accounts for this, they said.

In 1910 they gave sewing prizes for children at the Exhibition. In 1911
the prizes amounted to $4.00. They had $8.00 in Treasury, but did not
feel like taking up any special work. The ladies are capable and will
in time prove themselves, I teel sure. They meet in the Agricultural
Hall, through the courtesy of the Agricultural Society.

Agassiz has a good Institute with able members. They meet in the
Town Hall and pay 75c a meeting rental. At the Fall Fair, they gave
$13.65 in prizes to children for flowers and vegetables. They have $34.00
in the Treasury. The Secretary sends notice of meeting to each member
with topic to be discussed and asks them to come prepared to ask the
leader of discussion two questions, quite a novel idea,

t Vs INSTITUTE REPORT. 19

-on

They have a membtf^v •*£ a&. Of these 15 were present.

At each one I urg possible the appointment of a Programme

Committee, the social sid meetings, the using of the Travelling Libraries

when they come, magazine clubs. They all have Institute picnics in the
summer.

Matsqui was my next call. I was most hospitably entertained by
Mrs. Cruickshank. This Institute is alive, finds work to do in the
community and does it well. Their membership is 24 besides 14 honorary
members. There were 22 ladies at the meeting, but the usual attendance
is c^ly 12. One pleasing feature was the number of young ladies, mem-
bers, and taking an interest in all the work and plans. A year ago they
gave monthly social evenings all fall and winter, using the funds thus
raised to finish payments on a piano for the Town Hall, where these
were held. They had $120.00 in the Treasury and voted at this meeting
to use it to paint the Town Hall and raise more to properly finish the
Hall. The members answer the roll call with helpful verses.

Cloverdale was the next Institute visited. Those interested' find it
very hard to keep it alive. There are 14 members but the attendance
is only 3 or 4. Their funds are $7.20; they spent $4.50 in the spring
planting trees around the recreation grounds. Mrs. J. Croft, the Secretary,
kindly entertained me.

Chilliwack Institute came next. This is the only Institute I visited
having a Programme Committee, who arrange all meetings, provide printed
programmes, demonstrations, etc., and serve refreshments at the meetings.
The Programme Committee arranges a social afternoon once a month at
the house of one of the members, and have an informal social time. Each
brings their needlework, new members are introduced, refreshments served
and a lOc collection taken. A rest room is maintained at a cost of about
$215.00 a year. The merchants each give from 25c to 50c a month towards
the maintenance and the Municipal Council $3.00 a month.

My next visit was to Mission City Institute. They had 13 members and
two ladies joined at the close of our session. Their meeting place, the
old school-house, is not very comfortable and I suggested if they could
meet in a private home for the winter it would be cosier. /Six ladies were
present at the meeting, the usual attendance I was told. They had $4.00
in the Treasury, no Government grr.nt being received this year. Matsqui,
lying just across the river, I suggested the return of visits from one Institute
to another; this often is a great help to both Institutes. Mission Institute
takes up no special work. I was entertained by the Secretary, Mrs.
Abercrombie.

April 2nd: — 1 visited Cloverdale Institute by invitation. There was
a splendid attendance of 18 ladies. The membership is more encouraging
this year. Mrs. Croft gave an interesting paper on "Sleep" and I spoke
for a short time on "Dust and Its Dangers." There seems to be a spirit
of enthusiasm about this Institute now. On April 4th I met the Secretary
of the Board of Victoria and we had a busy day, read material for Bulletin,
discussed plans for spring itinerary, Institute pins, lectures, etc,

20 BRITISH COLUMBIA

The recommendations passed upon were presented to the Supt. of
Institutes, Mr. .Scott, and thorough^ discussed. These have been sent
to the members of the Board.

On reaching Vancouver Friday evening, April 5th, I interviewed Mrs.
S. K. Davies, concerning the spring lectures and explained the plans
discussed by the Supt. of Institutes with the President and Secretary of
the Board, regarding the flower shows and her part in them.

April 18th: — Upon invitation sent by Mrs. Hardy, of Hazelmere, 1
went there to assist in the organization of an Institute. Leaving the
B.C.E.R. at Clover Valley, I was met by Mr. Hardy and by Mrs. Currie,
Secretary of Cloverdale Institute. After a pleasant drive of four miles, we
reached our destination. A splendid meeting was held during the after-
noon at the Union Church, 16 ladies being present.

Mrs. Tucker was voted to the chair and Mrs. G. Hardy appointed
Secretary. After a few remarks from the Chairman, I was introduced an<!
spoke on Women's Institutes, the need of them in rural communities,
benefits to members, etc.

The Hazelmere W. I. has an energetic and resourceful staff of officers
and bids fair to rank soon among the largest Institutes. Though less
than six months in existence, it has a membership of 60.

The roll-call at the August meeting was answered by "The Name
of Our Birthplace."

There were responses from every Province of Canada, except P. E. I.,
from 13 different States of the Union, from England, Ireland, Scotland,
Denmark, France, Germany, Switzerland, Spain, and one from Hall's
Prairie, B.C., where the Institute is situated.

The President says, "I was surprised by the cosmopolitan membership
and a more agreeable society of ladies I have not met." There were two
interesting papers read at the October meeting, "The Benefit of Music
in the Home," and "The Thanksgiving Dinner." These with music and
a friendly cup of tea made a splendid meeting.

There were between 35 and 40 ladies present.

Resolutions were passed to form a Hazelmere W. I. and also to
canvass till the necessary 25 names were procured. At the next meeting
over 25 ladies signed the membership list and requisition was made for
recognition from the Department. There is now a membership of 60.
The nine Institutes in my district were written to at the beginning of the
year 1912, asking for copies of their annual reports, also for reports from
time to time. Six responded within a month, but have received no further
report;?. I felt that only in this way could I keep in touch with them
and be informed of their progress and work.

Langley, Matsqui and Chilli wack have given me their monthly pro-
grammes for 1912, and they show a careful study of helpful and timely
topics. In each of these Institutes, the officers declare that there is a
decided increase of interest among the members both in regard to the

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT. 21

regular meetings by reason of these programmes and also towards each
phase of Institute work.

From August 1st, 1911, to August 1st, 1912, I wrote Institute letters,
not counting the correspondence with tha Secretary OL the Board. I regret
that, owing to ill health, I was obliged to lay aside active work on the 1st
of May, and go away for a rest. While away I visited an Institute at
Lakefield, Ont., and one at Dunham, Province of Quebec, besides a Home
Economics meeting at the St. Johnsburg, Vermont, Woman's Club. They
were pleased to hear of Women's Institute work in B.C., and sent greetings
back to our Sister Societies here.

I also visited the Macdonald College at Ste. Anne, near Montreal,
and spent a week visiting the different classes of Domestic Science. I hope
that our Board may be instrumental in having such a splendid Institution
started in our own fair Province where our girls may gain practical, useful
and often sorely needed training to fit them for the best homemakers.

Respectfully submitted,

MARY S. DAVIES.

OKANAGAN DISTRICT.

Mrs. Lipsett's Report.

Summerland, B.C., August 19th, 1912.
Wm. E. Scott, Esq.,

Superintendent of. Institutes, Victoria, B.C.

Sir, — I beg to present my annual report of work done among Women's
Institutes of the Okanagan District for 1911 and 1912.

There are three Institutes in this district, at Salmon Arm, Summer-
land and Tenticton.. I met with the ladies of the Salmon Arm Institute
in the latter part of August, 1911, and found them very enthusiastic in
their work.

The Secretary reports a membership of 48. They had been hampered
very much by a lack of matter on the subjects taken up. This will be
overcome by the suggested help sent out by the Department. Their year's
work has -given the ladies a great deal of useful information as well as
pleasant recreation, and all consider the Institute a boon both to the
family and the community.

The Farmers' and Women's Institutes work together in getting up
socials and entertainments. The women always take the first part of
the entertainment, and thus their work is brought prominently before
the public. They have found this method a success both socially and
financially.

The Institute gave $50.00 towards the building of an Agricultural
Hall. When completed the ladies will have a room for meetings, demon-
strations, etc. Several papers had been read at the meetings. Two
"Economy in the Home" and "Hospitality," with a few original recipes,
I forwarded to the Secretary of the Advisory Board.

22 BRITISH COLUMBIA

SUMMERLAND.

In August, 1912, the Secretary reports a membership of 70; nine
meetings, all well attended. Papers had been read on "Bees," "Chickens,"
"Roses and Dahlias," "Making of Lawns," and "First Aid to the Injured."
They have had demonstrations on shirtwaist making, boning chicken,
biscuits, strawberry shortcake, etc.

Special prizes had been given for women's work at the fall fair.
Sociability is encouraged in every way and real friendship is awakened
between far distant neighbors. Miss Livingstone's visit in November was
very much appreciated. The ladies turned1 out in force, and her talk
on balanced rations for children, invalids and adults set all thinking.
Her suggestion that members write out on seven slips of paper seven
everyday dinners was responded to later by three ladies. Between 50
and 60 ladies attended each session, the well-filled notebooks showing
their determination to profit by what they heard.

On June 17th, Mrs. Davies, of Vancouver, spoke on Market Gardening
and Floriculture for Profits. Many questions were asked and answered
on the above subjects and on Poultry Raising From a Commercial Stand
point. Many useful lessons were received, which the ladies considered
would be of practical benefit to them in their future work.

An attempt was made to organize an Institute at Naramata. The
ladies there had their club and concluded they would prefer to join the
Summerland Institute for a time. 'Seventeen ladies have since joined.

PENTIICTON.

This Institute reports 37 members and eight meetings. Their sessions
are always interesting and fairly well attended. Their fees and the money
received from the Government was used for Institute purposes. They had
a tea room at the Fall Fair and also had a Tag Day. The money received
from these they were raising for the furnishing of a hospital, which will
be built soon.

The Institutes are all anxious to know how to make their meetings
more interesting and how to get the different women to work and
the girls interested'. We shall try to bring real results from this question-
ing in the next year. I have written the Institutes several times. I shall
try tjo get more in touch with them next year so as to bring the interests
of the Institutes nearer together.

R. L. LIPSETT.

K(K>TENAY DISTRICT.
Mis. Kilby's Report.

Superintendent of Institutes,

Victoria, B.C.

Sir, — I beg to present my annual report of work done among the
Women's In§ij;itutes of the Kootenay District.

The four Institutes in the Kootenay District are in a flourishing
condition and each doing good work. On the 27th of October, 1911, 1

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT.

visited the Kaslo Institute, where owing to church tea taking place that
afternoon at one of the member's hordes, the attendance was not as large
as it would otherwise have been. l' found the ladies present very en-
thusiastic and justly proud over the success of the fall fair, which, by
the courtesy and assistance from the Department, they were enabled to
carry on. From the proceeds of this fair, the Kaslo Institute was enriched
by $424.00, a very creditable showing for an Institute whose members
number only 47.

At this meeting a resolution was passed to petition the B.C. Govern-
ment to amend the Statutes governing the Dental laws, so as to enable
a dentist to come into the Province and practice without having to wait
six months before doing so. This has since been brought to the attention
of the Department through the Advisory Board and though we found that,
owing to it being a matter of legislation asked for, little could' be done.
We hope, however, to get results for Kaslo in other ways. I may say
that Nakusp is in the same position, and a dentist locating at either place
would be royally welcomed.

September, 1912. — I had a letter from their Secretary a few days
ago and she reports a membership of 81.

On November 7th I visited the Cranbrook Women's Institute on their
regular meeting day, and found from a membership of 33 an attendance
of 30, which speaks well for the Institute. After the business of the
meeting one of the members, Mrs. Murgatroyd, demonstrated the making
and icing of a mocha cake, which was afterwards served with tea, and
the balance of the meeting was spent socially. This Institute holds an
annu-al picnic each summer, to which every one is invited. The matter
of having an evening a month for the social side of the Institute was
decided upon^ Papers have been read and various recipes and demonstra-
tions have been given at the meetings. Miss Livingstone's lectifres and
demonstrations were greatly enjoyed by all the Institutes in this district,
and great satisfaction was expressed by the Cranbrook Women's Institute
at the granting of two days instead of one for the'se demonstrations, as
it was from a suggestion by this Institute brought up at the Advisory
Board meeting last summer, that the change was made.

On December 13th I arrived at Nakusp, where the President, Secretary
and one of the members met me and escorted me to the home of Mrs.
R. A. Quance, (the present President), where I was entertained during
my stay. The meeting was held during the afternoon at the home of
Mrs. Abbie. The Institute meetings here are held monthly at the homes
of the different members. Papers are written and read by members,
followed by discussions, and there are demonstrations too, suitable to
the time of the year. The Nakusp Women's Institute is the only one
in the Kootenay District so far that has the yearly printed programmes.
This Institute started two years ago with a membership of nine, which
has since increased to 36 members, the average attendance being 20.
A prize was given at the fall fair for the best hand-made apron made by
a member, and a rest room was also fitted up by the Institute for the

24 BRITISH COLUMBIA

ladies during the fair. The good work of having the cemetery fenced
and looked after has also been undertaken.

At the Nelson Institute, interesting meetings have been held, at which
various demonstrations in cooking have been given, such as boning a
turkey, soup-making, the making of different kinds of cake, icing a cake,
quick desserts, the moulding of butter in fancy shapes for the table,
marmalade making, candy making, paper bag cookery, by the local Domestic
Science Teacher. Ten papers have been read, sewing and millinery lessons
also being given. The meetings are usually opened by musical selections
and solos given by the best local talent. The meetings are always well
attended, and altogether, I can safely say that the Institute has been a
help to the women of Nelson in many ways. Last fall, at the fair, a.
rest-room was fitted up, which proved a boon to many a weary mother,
as a nurse was engaged for the two days to care for the babies, and
another woman took charge of the parcels, which were checked for the
small sum of ten cents each. To help defray expenses, a cake donated
by a member, was each day raffled. The Nelson Institute meets in its
hall or permanent rest-room, where all last winter it ran a Women's
Exchange of fancy work and home cooking, which was open six days a
week with a caretaker in charge. This Institute started two years ago
with a membership of 23, which has since increased to 107 members.

iSince my appointment on the Board I have had considerable corre-
spondence to attend to, all of which I have tried to do promptly and to
the best of my ability. From this district I have also collected and
forwarded to the Secretary of the Board for publication: Two papers from
the Nakusp Institute, two from Kaslo, one paper and a "write-up" from
Cranbrook, and* three papers and one "write-up" from Nelson.

At a meeting of the Nelson W. I. last month a paper was read on
"How to Get Rid of Flies," and afterwards thoroughly discussed. The
members hope to start a movement which should help materially towards
ridding Nelson of this pest. A committee was appointed at this meeting
to wait upon the managers of the Picture Shows here and request that
films be obtained to illustrate the amount of harm done by the insignifi-
cant fly.

The Flower Show at Nelson did not materialize owing to the scarcity
of flowers at the time of Mrs. Davies' visit. The city had also to postpone
their show for the same reason. At the Fair this fall the Institute is
giving a prize for the best collection of pansies by members, as well as
prizes for the best hand-made kitchen apron. A standing W. I. exhibit
of canned soups, vegetables, meats, berries, fruits of various kinds, etc.,
is also under consideration by the Nelson members, of which I hope to
report upon more fully at a later date.

At the present time (August 5th, 1912) I am pleased to report that
the Nakusp Institute have almost enough to pay for. the four lots and
fence purchased for the cemetery, the price of lots being $46.95, fence,
$85.00, making a total of $231.95.

This money was raised by the giving of teas and two ice cream socials

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT. 25

at one of which $58.00 was realized. The President, Mrs. R. A. Quance,
reports very successful meetings, which very often commence at 2 p.m.,
and they find very hard to conclude at six. The Nakusp Flower Show
was also a great success and Mrs. Davies' lectures were much appreciated.
The Department prize was awarded for the best collection of wild flowerfe
gathered and arranged by children, the second prize being $1.00.

For the best collection of house plants, a prize of $3.00 was given;
second prize, $1.00. For the best bouquet of cut flowers, $1.50 was given.

A demonstration on the making of ice cream was given at this
meeting, after which the cream was sold and enough made to pay for

the prizes.

I have, etc.,
S. KILBY.

VANCOUVER ISLAND DISTRICT.
Mrs. Watt's Report.

The Superintendent of Institutes,

Victoria, B.C.

Sir, — I beg to submit a brief report of my special work among the
Vancouver Island Institutes. On Vancouver Island, two new Institutes
have been formed during the year — at Duncan and at Ladysmith. Both
started under favorable conditions. I visited Ladysmith on request of
Mrs. John Stewart, and spoke at two meetings. A few days later the
Institute was formed with a membership of 37, and since, I believe,
has increased its membership.

The Duncan Institute was formed by Miss A. Hadwen. Miss Hadwen
is to be congratulated on forming an Institute in a district which has
previously been unresponsive. This Institute will, probably, however, do
a very good work, and there are certainly great prospects in Cowichan
District. There are many talented women in the locality and a spirit of
progress, so that we felt a good move has been made. Requests have
come in from Parksville, Nanaimo and Alberni for information regarding
Institute work, and it is possible Institutes may be formed in these places.
That is as far as Institutes can spread on the Island at present.

The Gordon Head Institute I have not been able to visit this year.
On several occasions I planned to do so. The Secretary, however, answers
all letters promptly. The Institute is in good condition. I hope to visit
it next year.

I have attended regular meetings and Flower Shows at Metchosin,
Royal Oak and €olwood. In all of these places there are flourishing
Institutes well conducted, and under good leadership are making good
progress in the work. Lake Hill is another Institute of which Vancouver
Island may well be proud. Sooke keeps up its good record. Comox,
considering its more isolated position, is doing good work.

I have, etc.,

M. R. WATT,

Secretary, Advisory Board Women's Institutes, B.C.

26 BRITISH COLUMBIA

MINUTES OF MEETINGS, ADVISORY BOARD OF WOMEN'S

INSTITUTES.

Department of Agriculture, B.C.

Parliament Buildings, Victoria, B.'C., August 5th to 7th.
Present the Hon. the Minister of Agriculture, the Superintendent
of Institutes, Mrs. Lipsett, Mrs. Kilby, Mrs. Watt (Secretary).

The Minister was introduced by Mr. .Scott, who asked the Board to
take up at once with the Minister matters requiring his special attention,
as he would be unable to be present in the afternoon.

Mrs. Watt then presented on behalf of the Board a number of reports
and other matters. A list of suggested speakers for Institute meeting*
was shown Mr. Ellison. He advised caution in the matter, especially in
dealing with local speakers, to exercise care in selection so that speakers
should not talk before Institutes in their own neighborhood unless asked.

A list of matters which the Board was to take up at this session
was then given the Minister and he took up several of these and discussed
them fully. The first matter dealt with was the Federal Grant, a sum
of money given by the Dominion to the Provinces to assist agriculture.
The Board had earlier in the year recommended that a part of this grant
be asked for and the matter had been taken up both with the Minister
of Agriculture for the Dominion and the Minister of Agriculture for B.C.
The Superintendent had expressed his approval and the Board now wished
to see what could be done. The Minister expressed his sympathy with
the idea and Mr. Scott spoke in approval, pointing out that there was
no reason why a proportion of this grant should not be devoted to the
encouragement of women in agriculture. The Minister wished to know
what the Board would suggest how to use this part if it were given. Mrs.
Watt said that the idea which the Board had in mind was to establish
some form of Farm (Settlement, where women farmers could learn local
conditions before starting on farms of their own, and where they could
stay while they were looking out for land. It was felt that women farmers
would be a great asset to the Province and that it would be a good thing
to thus protect them on .arrival from loss of money in different ways.

Mr. Scott stated that various enterprises which had the idea of such
settlement had been brought to his attention during the past year and
the co-operation of the Government seemed to be all that was lacking in
some instances. He cited the -Colonial Intelligence League and its pro-
posals. The matter was fully discussed with the Minister and this use
of part of the funds was endorsed by all. The Minister then asked the
Board to go into the question carefully and make a report to him.

The next matter taken up was the holding of the flower shows by
the Institutes during the present year. The Minister was pleased that
the idea as promulgated by the Board had been so well taken up by
the Institutes, and inquired as to other features of the shows. Mrs.
Lipsett explained that in Summerland the occasion was made a display
of women's work of various sorts as well as of flowers, and she understood

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT. 27

that other Institutes had (k>ne likewise. She thought that the encourage-
ment of this sort of fair was greatly in the interests of the Institutes.
The Minister expressed his entire ^concurrence with these views and
explained the manner in which he .thought such fairs should be conducted.
His suggestions were listened to with deep interest by the Board. He
considered that a way might be found whereby articles exhibited might
be sold for the benefit of the Institutes or of the owners. The latter
course might open ways of earning money for women in the country.
It was surprising often what splendid displays were made.

Mr. iScott spoke of what assistance might be given in the event of
such shows being an annual event. He said that the Department prize
of a book at each flower show this year had been much appreciated and
Mrs. Watt added that tire giving of this prize had stimulated interest
more than anything else and that the entire cost had been slight, especially
in view of the results.

Mr. Scott thought that a per capita grant might be given of say, 25c,
in addition to such book prizes as might be given to special lines of
endeavor, horticultural or otherwise. The members agreed that this
assistance would likely stimulate almost all the Institutes to hold such
fairs.

Mrs. Watt reported that 19 out of the 24 Institutes had held Flower
Shows, although many had only a few weeks' time to prepare. It was
also her pleasant duty to announce that, according to late returns, there
are now 1100 members in the Province as against 800 last year. All
present expressed pleasure at this evidence of progress.

Tho next matter was that of the Farm Congress at Lethbridge in
October. The members of the Board expressed the opinion that the
Secretary of the Board should be sent to represent the Province at this
International Congress of Farm Women, The Secretary stated that 'if
a member of the Board were sent it should be the Chairman, but as Mrs.
Davies' return was uncertain and it was doubtful whether she would
wish to leave home again so soon, the other members thought it best to
make certain of having the Secretary go. The Minister thought the point
well taken as to the official representation, but as he had already agreed
to pay the expenses of Miss Ravenhill, who was going there to speak on
Domestic Science, he had not further considered the matter, but would
do so now with Mr. .Scott and let the Board know his decision.

The new Bulletin of the Advisory Board was then considered. Mr.
Scott stated that it was a fine piece of work and that he was more than
pleased with it. He counted on its greatly assisting the work of the
Institutes. The Minister inquired as to the number of copies ordered.
Mr. Scott stated that 3000 had been ordered, an unusually large number,
but he felt that it could be sent out with resulting benefits to the Province.
There was likely to be a great demand for it. The Minister also praised
the work, but as it had just been put in his hands, he would consider
it later. It seemed to him to be just what the Institutes needed.

Mrs. Watt said that ttie hardest part of the work had been the

28 BRITISH COLUMBIA

securing of information about what the Institutes were doing. Many of
the Secretaries had very little information to give and there was very
little or' value on record. She was glad that the Bulletin met with such
approval.

The Minister then addressed the Board. He made a most encouraging
speech, expressing his pleasure at the work, which had been accomplished,
and the manner in which it had been done. He gave practical and instruc
tive counsel and promised his personal attention to all matters the Board
laid before him. He stated that in view of the excellent results obtained
by the Board; that he was prepared to go further and spend more money
this year, and hoped to get still better results. The appropriation was
double this year that of last for the work of Women's Institutes and
there would always be the necessary money so long as the results were
being had. He hoped that the work would continue and that wherever
there was need that the Board would try their utmost to help out. He
agreed that only the best lecturers should be sent out and that the idea
of Institute competitions, as outlined by the Board on Mr. Scott's instruc-
tion, was good and he would consider further suggestions on the subject.
He assured the Board of his deep sympathy with the objects and aims
of the Institutes and promised the fullest departmental co-operation in
any work recommended.

Here the Minister further stated that he considered that the longer
sessions of demonstrators as recommended by the Board was beneficial. He
favored courses of study and lectures. Too often lecturers came and went
and their words were soon forgotten. He would like to hear of some plan
whereby the best results could be obtained from the lecturers' visits. He
was afraid that distances were too great in this Province for the dairy
vans, travelling schools, model kitchens, and so forth, which were sent
about in European countries, but he would like the Board to keep that
idea in view of getting the best results from the demonstrators :»nd to work
out plans by which more extensive instruction could be given.

The Minister then wished the Board success and said that if any
other matters came up requiring discussion with himself that he would
be available.

Mrs. Lipsett thanked the Minister for his most encouraging address
and hoped that the work of the Board would continue to meet with his
approval and that of Mr. Scott, who was also doing so much to help.

Afternoon Session, August 5th.

Mrs. Watt in the chair.

Most of the afternoon was taken up with interviews. Mr. Scott
introduced Miss Gerrard, who had brought a letter from Hon. Martin
Burrell. Miss Gerrard explained her work in England as Dairy Instructor
in a travelling dairy school. The Dairy Van, she explained, is taken from
place to place with an instructor, often remaining only one day in each
place, but giving in that time expert instruction in butter-making, separa-
tion, milk-testing, use of thermometer and' so forth. Miss Gerrard gave
most interesting descriptions of this work in England.

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT. 29

Mrs. Hutchinson, the new President of the Royal Oak Woman's Insti-
tute, laid before the Board a suggested series of Institute competitions. The
idea was to have a competition each month and to have silver spoons
with an official insignia on them as prizes, and to stimulate members to
work for a collection of these spoons. She felt that women might be
induced to take up lines of work in which they would gain proficiency
and .perhaps later use in earning money. The members of the Board
expressed sympathy with the idea. Mrs. Kilby thought it might be tried
to advantage in many institutes. Mrs. Lipsett said there was nothing
more needed than remunerative work for women in the country. It
was later moved that after Mrs. Hutchinson had worked out the idea
in her own Institute, she be asked to report on its success. The Board
could then take action and recommend, perhaps, that Mrs. Hutchinson
promulgate the idea before the other Institutes. Mrs. Hutchinson was
thanked for her suggestions.

Miss Wells, Sewing Instructor, was interviewed by members, and
samples of her work examined. Mr. Scott stated that sewing demonstra-
tions were desired by the Institutes and he would be glad if the Board
could find some one who could give expert instruction along these lines.
Mrs. Lipsett pointed out that it was not so much sewing instructions
that was desired as dressmaking demonstrations, and for that purpose
only an expert dressmaker up in the latest methods would be of any
value. The work of Miss Wells was excellent, but it was felt that the
Board could recommend her only as an instructor in plain sewing, millinery,
children's clothes, underwear, and that at the present a dressmaker
was most required.

The annual report of the Board was then taken up and the outline
as laid down by the Secretary was approved. Mr. Scott concurred and
said he would authorize the printing of it.

It was then moved, —

Resolved that the Annual Report of the Board be published and
contain —

Sections of Act relating to Board.

Bylaws of Board.

Personnel as at present constituted.

Minutes of Meetings and of Conference.

Reports of Chairman, Members and of Secretary.

The next bulletin was then discussed. It was recommended that
the outline as suggested by the Secretary be approved, but that the mem-
bers might make such additions as they thought advisable later.

Resolved: That the next bulletin of the Board contain, —
Personnel of Board and Institutes with a few notes.
Papers by members.
Accounts of 'Flower Shows.
Reports of special meetings.
Institute calendar.

30 BRITISH COLUMBIA

Lists of available speakers and demonstrators.

Lists of new economic and agricultural publications.

Names of papers which publish accounts of work in Institutes.

A further discussion of the flower shows took place. The plan of
the Surnmerland Institute of having a women's work fair in connection
with the flower show was heartily approved. Mrs. Watt stated that the
Colwood and the Mechosin Institutes and the Langley Institute and sever?.!
others had the same idea, an exhibition of women's work, although it
in some instances took the part of a sale of work. All the members
expressed their personal gratification with the success of the flower shows
and staled that they felt that this was a matter in which the Board could
fairly claim to have been of benefit to the Institutes and their neigh-
borhoods.

Mrs. Kilby hoped that there would be some way by which the beautiful
books tent out by the Department as prizes would be again bestowed.
The garden pictures were a great inspiration. It was also felt that the
Institutes ought to be notified this fall of any prize award so that really
good fairs could be given. Many Institutes intended holding an annual
show and approval of the idea could be expressed.

Resolved: That it be recommended to the Institutes that their ex-
hibition work may well take the form of an annual exhibit of women s
work and flower show.

Resolved: That the Department be asked to continue the giving of
books as prizes and also a per capita grant to Institutes holding fairs

A letter from the Cranbrook W. I. was read asking the Board to
recommend an official ribbon. This Institute has already had pins made
before the official pin was ordered and wished now to use their own
pins and felt that the use of an official ribbon in addition would make
the Institutes ir-f line. The Board regretted that this Institute was thus
hampered but agreed with Mr. Scott that the cost of the ribbon would
be much greater than the cost of the pins to the Institute. It was then
moved, —

Resolved: That the low cost of the official pins be pointed out to
the Cranbrook Institute, a sample pin be sent them and that the Institute
be urged to come in line with the others.

The difficulty of getting full information about the Institutes was
brought up by the Secretary and after discussion it was moved, —

RrEolved: That the Department be asked to notify the Secretaries
of Institutes to send in their reports in triplicate, one copy for the Depart-
ment, one for the Secretary of the Advisory Board, and one for the member
of the Board in the district.

Mr. Scott brought to the attention of the Board the manner in which
returns were made to the Department and stated tnat the returns were
not made to his satisfaction and that he thought the members of the
Board might help in this matter by fully explaining to the Institutes
just what was required by the regulations and the ease with which proper

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT. 31

returns could be made if the printed forms were used. He instructed
the members to take with them copies of the forms and draw the attention
of the Secretaries to their use.

A further discussion on the Farm Congress took place and the resolu-
tion to ask for the Secretary to be sent as the official representative of
the Province was passed and the Secretary asked to transmit it to the
Minister through the Superintendent. Mrs. Watt, however, dissented from
the motion, stating that the Chairman ought first to be given the oppor-
tunity. Mrs. Lipsett stated that were Mrs. Davies present she would
rndorse the motion, since it was necessary that whoever should go would
be a good speaker and familiar with agricultural conditions in the Province
as well as Institute work. Mrs. Kilby repeated that the matter ought
to be gone on with at once and as Mrs. Davies' return was uncertain and
that it was unlikely that she would wish to leave home again, she con-
sidered the recommendation as made should stand. The motion passed,
Mrs. Watt dissenting.

Resolved: That the Minister be asked to send the Secretary of the
Board to the Congress of Farm Women as the official representati>e of
the Province.

It was pointed out by Mrs. Watt that as there was no annual con-
vention as yet of Women's Institutes, it would be a good thing to let
the Institutes know of the Congress since some of them might be in a
position to send delegates. All the Institutes were entitled, as would be
seen by a reference to the call, to send delegates, and she was sure that
any Institute sending a delegate would receive great inspiration on her
return. Mrs. Lipsett agreed and thought it ought to be understood that
if the President wished to go that the Institute ought to make an effort
to send her or the Secretary. It would depend on which could bring back
the best report. But this was of course for the Institutes to decide.

Resolved: That the Secretary have an invitation sent to each Institute
.hrough the Secretary of the Farm Congress, that is one of their Con*
verition calls.

Resolved: That the attention of the Institutes be called to the Congress
and information as to rates sent them.

In the matter of the Dominion motto and badge, the Secretary
reported what had been done, and it was moved, —

Resolved: That the Secretary keep on working at the matter until
the Provinces are all in line.

The matter of a Dominion Council as suggested for Institutes of all
the Provinces was held to be a good idea, but somewhat in advance of
the times since organization was not yet complete in all the Provinces.

Resolved: That the idea of a Dominion Council be considered later,
(trhen there were Women's Institutes in the other provinces.

The members also wished to go on record as approving the having
if women on such commissions as were inquiring into matters of interest

32 BRITISH COLUMBIA

to women, such PS a commission inquiring into agricultural conditions,
into technical education for boys and girls in the country, and so forth,
but no formal resolution was moved as there was no Commission being
appointed at present which would be of large enough personnel to include
women.

It was also wished to encourage in some way the interchange of visits
between Institutes and inquiries were made of Mr. Scott as to whether
it would be possible to secure cheaper rates for members thus going from
one Institute to another. He explained that the special rate the Depart-
ment secured was for lecturers only.

It was also asked if the Department would pay transportation of any
lecturers outside of those in spring and fall tours, but Mr. Scott said
that the Department were doing all that could be expected when they
bore the expense of the regular speakers. It was not thought advisable
to do everything for Institutes. They ought to help themselves. The
Board agreed with this position.

Afternoon Session, August 6th.

The Secretary called the attention of the Board to the results of
the testing of new household appliances in the Good House-keeping Experi-
ment Station and the publication of their Bulletin, embodying the results
of their year's work. It was suggested by Mr. Scott that it would bt
well to have this Bulletin in the hands of Institutes, and the Secretary
was instructed to estimate the cost of having one sent to each Institute.
A further discussion took place on the improvement of late years in
regard to household appliances and the establishing of Home Experiment
Stations, Model Kitchens, and so forth was dwelt upon.

The Secretary reported that the official pins were now on the way
and the members expressed pleasure at the final accomplishment of this
work.

The Secretary expressed dissatisfaction with the amount of space
given the B.C. Institutes in our official organ. She reported having
forwarded papers from members, accounts of entertainments, meetings,
etc., and that up to date nothing had appeared save the first introductory
notice. She was instructed to write the proprietor that unless a page
could be given with the heading wished for, that the Women's Institutes
of B.C. would be obliged to get another organ. Copies of publications
desiring news of Institutes were laid on the table and also some paper
cups and towels which the Board considered admirably adapted for the
use of rural schools. It was moved, —

Resolved: That the Institute be informed of the present low cost
of paper cups, towels, etc., and the hope expressed that they niight be
able to induce their use for sanitary and hygienic reasons in the rural
schools.

An interesting discussion took place on the need for the instruction
of girls in the country in Domestic Science, and it was resolved to try
and get the Minister of Education to take some steps in this regard.

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE .REPORT. 33

Resolved: That an officer of the Advisory Board with others, the
women members of the Vancouver and Victoria School Boards, wait
upon the Minister of Education and ask that: (a) training at the normal
schools include domestic science; (b) that at least partial domestic training
be given at rural schools.

The Institute Competitions as suggested by Mr. Scott and of which
the details had been worked out at his instruction by the Board were then
discussed and the details agreed upon. The recommendations were left
to be embodied in a further detailed report and the hope expressed that
an early intimation might be given to the Institutes so that there will
be plenty of time for those entering to prepare work. Mr. Scott said
that the prizes in the case of Institutes would likely be books up to a
fixed amount, in order that the nucleus of a library might be had. The
individual prizes might be money, but he had not yet decided.

Morning Session, August 6th.

Mrs. Watt in the chair; Mrs. Kilby, acting Secretary.

The first matter taken up was the consideration of the use of part
of the Federal Grant in the establishment of a Farm Settlement for women.
Mrs. Watt explained in detail the proposition made by the Colonial Intelli-
ence League through the Hon. Mrs. Grosvenor to the Government. The
members thought the idea an excellent one and that the benefits to the
Province ought to be unquestionable. The imperial aspect of the matter
ought not to be un-noted. The scheme was mutually of benefit to the
Mother Country and to Canada.

Mrs. Lipsett considered that the greatest care ought to be exercised
in the selection of the girls sent out. Mrs. Watt felt concerned that the
previous training ought to be commercial as well as scientific, but Mr.
Scott said he had seen the girl farmers being trained and he felt satisfied
that the training was excellent. Mrs. Kilby thought that the first settle-
ment ought to be near the capital and if it were successful that others
might be established.

After the subject had been carefully talked over from many points
of view the following recommendations were made and embodied in a
report to the Minister. (Report subjoined). The following motion was
passed, —

Resolved: That the first settlement farm should be within twenty
miles of Victoria for reasons set forth.

The Board then took up the matter of the salary of the Secretary
and made a recommendation to the Minister in this regard. The work
of the Secretary had proved to be much greater than had been at first
anticipated and with the natural growth of Institutes would prove to be
still greater. The Secretary stated that there had been over one thousand
letters to deal with besides the press and special reports and so forth.
It was difficult to do the work without a typewriter and proper filing-
cabinets. Mrs. Lipsett agreed and also stated that in her opinion the
official matters dealt with by the Secretary should be typewritten. Mrs.
Kilby concurred and it was moved, —

34 BRITISH COLUMBIA

Resolved: That the Department be asked to supply the Secretary
with a typewriter and proper filing conveniences.

Tlie matter of reports from lecturers was discussed and it was
moved, —

That in view of the valuable information which should be gained,
that it be, resolved: That extra time be given the lecturers to make up
their reports and that reports be considered part of their work and be
required from each lecturer and demonstrator.

Mr. Scott spoke of the inauguration of the new W. I. at Hazelmere,
and stated that it was his intention to ask the nearest member of the
Board to be present at an inaugural meeting so as to speak on Institute
work and give the help at the outset that a new Institute was sure to
need. He instructed Mrs. Watt, as Mrs. Davies was absent, to attend
the inaugural meeting of the Hazelmere Institute.

He also brought up a letter from the Matsqui Institute,- asking him
to attend the flower show there and to send some one to speak on the
value of flower shows. He instructed the Secretary to find some one
to go and speak on the value of flower shows. Mr. Scott thought that
some one could be secured in Vancouver, and the Secretary was directed to
get some one frpm there if possible.

The matter of there being a need for a better knowledge of procedure
among Institutes was discussed. It was decided to ask if it could be
recommended to the Institutes to have at hand some authority on pro-
cedure. Mr. Scott thought it would be possible to have them provided
with a work on order and conduct of meetings and so forth if the cost
were not too great. He instructed the Secretary to submit estimates
of various works. Mrs. Watt thought that the Year Book of the L. C. W.
gave in a condensed form all the necessary information. It was a com-
pilation from the Canadian authority, Bourinot.

Morning Session, August 7th.

The first business taken up was the examination of the qualifications
of the lecturers and demonstrators who had applied to the Department
for work of this sort, and of others who had been recommended by Insti-
tutes or private members. The members expressed gratification that
there was such a good list of available speakers now in the Province.
It was finally decided to recommend for the fall itinerary certain lecturers
and to publish a list of others who would be available and whom the
Institutes could themselves secure as they so wished. The list of speakers
was then carefully drawn out and the following recommendations were
made.

Resolved: That wherever possible and in subjects where there are
professional standards, that only those lecturers and demonstrators who
have academic or professional standing should be secured for fall or spring
itineraries.

Resolved: That the members of the Board investigate the suitability
Of those who are recommended from their localities and that until such

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT. 35

recommendation is made that these names be not included in the list of
available speakers.

Resolved: That the thanks of tti-e" Board be tendered to Hon. Mr.
Burrell for sending Miss Gerrard, and that he be asked to let the Board
have from time to time the names of suitable lecturers whom he knows
of as coming to this Province.

Resolved: That it be recommended for the fall itinerary that the
services of a dressmaking expert be secured who would demonstrate for
two days at each Institute and that in conjunction with her lessons there
be secured a pleasant speaker on some contrasting theme who would
relieve the strain of the lessons.

The Secretary explained that the dressmaker might have to be adver-
tised for, but that the speaker on Patriotism and Civic Work could be
secured in Vancouver or Victoria where there were several good speakers
available. Mr. Scott thought this a good idea and the Secretary was
authorized to get a list of dressmakers and speakers and report later.
Mrs. Townley, of Vancouver, was mentioned as an especially pleasing
speaker, and the Secretary was instructed to write her and also to insert
advertisements in Vancouver and Victoria papers for an expert dress-
maker.

It was further recommended by the Board that an alternate lecturer
and demonstrator be named in the event of the dressmaker and Mrs.
Townley being not available, or secured. A further recommendation was
then made, —

Resolved: That as alternate the services of Miss Had wen be secured
to demonstrate on Household Appliances and Management, and those of
Miss Elizabeth Cruickshank, of Matsqui, to speak on the extermination
of flies and mosquitoes with demonstration and lantern slides.

Mr. Scott spoke on the time of the fall itinerary, pointing out that
it must not clash with the fall fairs nor yet run too close to Christmas.

The last resolution on this subject was, —

Resolved: That a list of speakers as drawn up with such additions
as could be made on the recommendations of the Board, and published
in the new Bulletin.

It was also considered that the list should be in the hands of the
Secretaries of Institutes as soon as possible and the Secretary was instructed
to send a list to each Institute as soon as completed.

The consideration of the Rules and Regulations was the next work.
All the recommendations which had come in from members of the Board
and from Institute officers as to changes were carefully gone into and
a report drawn out and presented to the Superintendent.

Mr. Scott then fully discussed the report and its various suggestions.
The recommendations were for the most part approved and the few cases
where Mr. Scott thought the change or addition unnecessary were set
aside.

36 BRITISH COLUMBIA

The Secretary was then instructed to submit a full report in writing
embodying what had been agreed upon and to redraft portions as in-
structed and to make such additions as the Superintendent considered
in the best interests of the Institutes.

A synopsis of the deliberations of the Board was then presented
and Mr. Scott took up the recommendations seriatim and gave such in-
structions as to their carrying out as seemed to him advisable.

Mr. Scott then addressed the Board. He complimented them on the
work accomplished during their first year, stating that if this were an
earnest of the future, he would expect great things from their work in
the next few years. He explained that it was not the intention to change
the personnel of the Board so long as satisfaction was being given. He
considered that the recommendations made had been carefully considered
and the demands made had been moderate. Much of the work had
been done at slight expenditure, but he now felt justified in making
greater expenditure possible. There was more money available and he
felt no hesitation in confirming what the Minister had said that when
it could be shown that beneficial results would ensue from expenditure,
that the money would be forthcoming. Although the Institutes had
really been legally organized only last year and the Board had been In
existence only during the year, he was more than pleased with the progress
made. He instructed the members to pay such visits to Institutes as
seemed to them advisable without special instructions. He confirmed
what had been the understanding that when the members left home on
official business their expenses would be met and their time remunerated
at the Institute rate of payment. He stated that the Secretary's salary
had been fixed by the Minister and that her visits would be paid for as
in the case of the other members. He explained the special work as to
competitions, fall fair work and other business, which he wished the Board
to go into more thoroughly. He closed by wishing the members a pleasant
return journey and a good year's work.

The members expressed their great gratitude to Mr. Scott for the
manner in which he made the work progress, for liis courtesy and most
kindly dealings with the Board and Institute workers.

The meeting then adjourned.

RECOMMENDATIONS OF BOARD.
Re Farm Settlement for Women and Federal Grant.

August 14th, 1912.

1. That a proportion of the Federal Grant be used every year in
the encouragement and assistance of women wishing to engage in agricul-
tural pursuits, although not necessarily in the same specific manner as
designated for this year's.

2. That a farm settlement for women be established along the lines
proposed by the iColonial Intelligence League of London, England, and
that, if deemed advisable, the co-operation of this organization be secured.

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT. 37

3. That it would seem the best plan of expending the money avail-
able for the Province to purchase thQ/jiecessary land, erect the necessary
buildings, and lease the same (at a nominal rental) to the Colonial In-
telligence League, or some similar organization equally worthy, which
would furnish, equip and maintain the settlement. The Province would
be thus protected against possible loss since it would own the land and
permanent buildings.

4. That it be provided for that women and girls from British Colum-
bia or other Provinces of Canada would be able by suitable and fair
financial arrangement (mutually agreed upon by the Province and Colonial
Intelligence League or other organization) to participate in the benefits
of such Settlement.

LECTURERS AND DEMONSTRATORS AVAILABLE FOR WOMEN'S

INSTITUTE WORK.

The following speakers and demonstrators residing in British Columbia
are available for lectures and demonstrations to the Women's Institutes of
the Province. The Secretaries of the Institutes can communicate with
these ladies at the addresses given and make arrangements directly with
them for any work of this nature, which the Intsitute may decide to take
up. Many of the Institutes desire to secure speakers from elsewhere at
some meeting of the year, and the list is published for their convenience.
The Department of Agriculture takes no responsibility in the matter of
their extra speakers other than that the Advisory Board has compiled the
list and has investigated the qualifications of the lecturers and is therefore
in a position to give any further information desired.

The Members of the Advisory Board — Organization and Work of Women's

Institutes.

Mrs. W. V. Davies, Chilliwack, B.C.

Study Courses.
Mrs. A. T. Watt, M.A., William Head, B.C.

Literary Talks, Libraries.

Miss Bessie Livingstone, Graduate Domestic Science School, Boston and
New York School of Cookery, P.O. Box 1326, Vancouver, B.C.
Cookery, D9mestic Science.
Mrs. S. Davies, Graduate Warwick Agricultural College for Ladies, 210

Grant Street, Vancouver, B.C.

Poultry, Dairying, Floriculture, Market Gardening.

Miss Sibylla Hadwen, Graduate Macdonald College, Guelph, Ont., Graduate
St. Luke's Training .School for Nurses, S. F. Amblecote, Duncan.
Domestic Science, .Cookery, Nursing.
Mrs. E. Norman, Mirror Lake, B.'C.

Canning of Fruits, Vegetables, Meats, etc.

Miss M. Pettit, Nelson, B.C. (Available Holidays). Graduate Lilian
Massey School, Household Science, Toronto University, Nelson,
B.C.
Domestic Science, Cookery.

38 BRITISH COLUMBIA

Mrs. C. R. Townley, 501 Hastings Street, Vancouver, B.C.

Civic Work for Women, Patriotic Lectures, Gardening.
Mrs. Gillespie, Summerland, B.C.

Evolution of the Kitchen.
Mrs. H. E. Macgill/B.A., M.A., Mus. Bac., 1492 Harwood Street, Vancouver.

Procedure and Conduct of Meetings, Women's Organizations in Van-
couver.
Miss Olive Atchison, Tynehead, B.C.

Sanitation, School and Home.
Mrs. J. S. Drummond, B.A., 2624 8th Avenue, Vancouver, B.C.

A Women's Poultry and Fruit Farm, Our Native Trees, Opportunities

for Girls.
Miss Bessie Cruickshank, Matsqui, B.C.

Pure Food, Extermination of Flies and Mosquitoes, 'Laws of B.C.

Relating to Women.
Miss M. S. Wells, Victoria, B.C.

First-class Diploma, Battersea Polytechnic, London, England.

Dressmaking, Millinery, Plain Needlework.
Mrs. Jenkins, Fernwood Road, Victoria, B.C.

Procedure at Meetings, Women on School Boards, Women's Organ-
izations, Victoria.
Miss Mabel Rivington, Vancouver, B.C.

Sewing Demonstrations.
Mrs. Evans, Salmon Arm, B.C.

Orchardist.

Miss Catherine Moule, Salmon Arm, B.C., Graduate Lilian Massey School,
Domestic Science.

Domestic Science.
Miss Gerrard, Royal Oak P.O., B.C.

Dairying for Women, the Travelling Dairy, etc.

Mrs. Hutchinson, Royal Oak, B.C.

Musical Kindergarden, School Gardens, W. I. Competitions.
Miss Elsie M. Hockin, P.O. Box 556, Kelowna, B.C.

Dietitian.
Mrs. Smith, Cranbrook, B.C.

Domestic Science.
Mrs. Atkinson, Nelson, B.C.

Nursing, Motherhood.
Miss Taylor, 314 Fourth Street, New Westminster, B.C.

Dressmaking Demonstrations.
Mrs. A. L. Stacy, Burgoyne Bay, Salt Spring Island, B.C.

Dressmaking Demonstrations.
Miss Violet Stebbings, Vancouver Heights P.O.

Household Hygiene, etc.

Miss C. Thomas, Princeton, B.C., Late Lecturer Middlesex County Council,
England.

Nursing and Hygiene.

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT. 39

CALENDAR OF WOMEN'S INSTITUTES OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

Agassiz W. I. — President, Mrs. H. Fooks, Agassiz; Secretary, Mrs. A. E.

Ogiivie, Agassiz. Meetings, r.O.G.T. Hall, Agassiz, 3rd Thursday,

2.30 p.m.

Boundary. — Secretary, Mrs. D. Thompson, Greenwood.
Burton City. — (President, Mrs. iClark Marshall, Burton City; Secretary,

Mrs. R. Islip. Meetings, Members' Homes, 2nd Wednesday, 3 p.m.
Central Park. — President, Mrs. Bell, Britcola; Secretary, Mrs. Hadfield,

Britcola. Meetings, Central Park Hall, 3rd Thursday, 3 p.m.
Colwood. — President, Mrs. Bickford, Langford P.O.; Secretary, Mrs. Hall,

Colwood. Meetings, Hall, Colwood, 3rd Monday, 3 ip.m.
Comox. — (President, Mrs. Wm. Duncan, Sandwick; Secretary, Mrs. W. J.

Carroll, Courtenay. Meetings, Sandwick, 2nd Wednesday, 2.30 p.m..
Coquitlam. — President, Mrs. R. D. Irvine, Coquitlam; Secretary, Mrs. John

Smith, Norfolk House, Coquitlam. Meetings, Council Chamber, last

Wednesday, .3 p.m.
Cloverdale. — 'President, Mrs. R. B. Whiteley, Cloverdale; Secretary, Mrs.

A. P. Currie, Cloverdale. Meetings, Hall, Cloverdale, 1st Thursday,

3 p.m.
Chilliwack. — President, Mrs. W. V. Davies, Chilliwack; Secretary, Mrs.

D. H. Day, Chilliwack. Meetings, W. I. Rest Room, Chilliwack, 3rd
Thursday, 3 p.m.

Cranbrook. — President, Mrs. B. Palmer, Box 95, Cranbrook; Secretary, Mrs.
John Shaw, Box 442, Cranbrook. Meetings, 'Carmen's Hall, Cran-
brook, 1st Thursday, 3 p.m.

Duncan. — President, .'Mrs. Hayward; Secretary, -Miss Hadwen. Meetings,
Miss 'Clark's Home, Duncan, 2nd Tuesday.

Gordon Head. — President, Mrs. Watson, Gordon Head; Secretary, Miss
Annie Somers, R.M.D., No. 4, Victoria. Meetings, Hall, Gordon Head,
2nd Friday, 3 p.m.

Hazelmere. — -President, Mrs. T. D. Tucker; Secretary, Mrs. M. J. .Hardy.
Meetings, Union Church, 2nd Thursday, 2.30 p.m.

Kaslo. — President, Miss Mildred Twiss, Kaslo; Secretary, Miss Katie Milton,
Mirror Lake. Meetings, City Hall, Kaslo, last Friday, 2.30 p.m.

Ladysmith. — President, Mrs. Gilchrist, Box 108, Ladysmith; Secretary,
Mrs. H. B. Dier, Box 92, Ladysmith. Meetings, Odd Fellows' Hall,
last Saturday, 2.30 p.m.

Lake Hill. — (President, Mrs. S. D. Tolmie, Box 226, Victoria; Secretary,
Mrs. W. Palmer, Lake Hill P.O. Meetings, Schoolhoyse, 3rd Monday,
3 p.m.

Langley. — President, Mrs. D. M. Coulter; Secretary, Mrs. A. Kent. Meet-
ings, Town Hall, Langley, 3rd Tuesday, 2.30 p.m.

Matsqui. — 'President, Mrs. S. Cruickshank, Matsqui; Secretary, Mrs. Lesta

E. Wright, Matsqui. Meetings, Hall, Matsqui, 2nd Wednesday, 3 p.m.
Metchosin. — 'President, Mrs. Wm. Sweatman, Metchosin; Secretary, Mrs.

J. H. Smart, Metchosin. Meetings, Metchosin Hall, 1st Tuesday,

2.30 p.m.
Mission City. — President, Mrs. H. B. Walton, Mission City; Secretary, Mrs.

H. M. Abercrombie, Mission City. Meetings, Council Hall, 4th

Thursday, 2.30 p.m.
Nakusp. — 'President, Mrs. R. A. Quance, Nakusp; Secretary, Miss Bessie

Abriel, Nakusp. Meetings, Members' Homes, 2nd Wednesday, 3.30

p.m.
Nelson. — President, Mrs. J. T. Black, Nelson; Secretary, Dr. Isobel Arthur,

Nelson. Meetings, W. I. Room, corner Ward and Victoria streets,

Nelson, 1st Tuesday, 3 p.m.

40 BRITISH COLUMBIA

Penticton. — President, Mrs. McGregor, Penticton; Secretary, Mrs. Frank

Richardson. Meetings, 2nd Thursday, 3 p.m.
Royal Oak. — President, Mrs. M. Hutchinson, Royal Oak; Secretary, Mrs.

J. R. Carmichael, Royal Oak. Meetings, Hall, Royai Oak, 2ml Tues-
day, 3 p.m.
Salmon Arm. — President, Mrs. P. Owens, Salmon Arm; -secretary, Mrs.

W. P. Rich, Salmon Arm. Meetings, Members' Homes, 3rd Thursday,

3 p.m.
Salmon River Valley. — 'President, Mrs. W. J. Andrews; Secretary, Mrs.

H. E. Thompson. Meetings, 2nd Thursday, 2.30 p.m.
Summerland. — President, Mrs. G. J. C. White, Summerland; Secretary,

Mrs. G. Anderson, Summerland. Meetings, Men's Club Parlor, 3rd

Friday, 3 p.m.
Sumas. — President, Mrs. Bowman, Huntingdon P.O.; Secretary, Mrs. W.

H. Hadden, Huntingdon P.O. Meetings, Huntingdon, 2nd Tuesday.
Sooke. — President, Mrs. John Murray, Sooke; Secretary, Mrs. French,

Sooke. Meetings, Schoolhouse, 1st Monday, 3 p.m.
Tynehead. — 'President, Mrs. Bothwell; Secretary, Mrs. 'S. W. Atchison.

Meetings, Member > Homes, 2nd Wednesday.

CONGKKSS OF FARM WOMEN, 1912.
Report of Official Representative From B.C. Women's Institutes.

In accordance with your instructions I attended the session of the
International Congress of Farm Women at Lethbridge in October, 1912.
There were present from Women's Institutes of B.C. eight delegates —
Your official representative, Mrs. A. T. Watt; Mrs. R. L. Lipsett, member
of the Advisory Board; Mrs. Hutchinson, of the Vancouver Island Insti-
tutes; Mrs. Palmer, Mrs. Gill, and Mrs. Smith, of the Cranbrook Institute;
Miss Twiss and Mrs. Turpin, of the Kaslo Institute. The delegates
elected Mrs. Lipsett to represent them on the nominating Board of the
Congress. Mrs. Watt was named on the Committee on Resolutions named
by the President of the Congress. The delegates all took notes and will
report to their Institutes. They attended all sessions, took a marked
interest in the proceedings, entered into some of the discussions and made
a favorable impression upon the Congress.

GREETINGS.

I had the privilege of extending to the Congress a few words of
greeting from the Deputy Minister of Agriculture and Superintendent of
Institutes,B.C., expressing his best wishes for the success of the Congress.
He said that a noble work was being undertaken for the improvement
of conditions of rural life, and that such had his warmest support.
He hoped that the work undertaken by the Women's Institutes of British
Columbia would be found in line with the most progressive movements
elsewhere. His greeting was warmly received, and a tribute paid to Mr.
Scott for his co-operating in the line of women's work, of which he
is the official head.

MEETINGS.

The meetings of the Congress were full of interest. The subjects
dealt with concerned all kinds of women's work. Attention was directed
to the farm home, to child-iwelfare, to agricultural education, to kitchen

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT. 41

equipment, to young people, to Women's Institutes, to women farmers,
and to various problems of Home Economics. The most notable address
was that given by Dr. Liberty Bailey on women's part in the country
life movement, although many papers of equal interest were provided.
There were several speakers from this Province: Miss Ravenhill, who
spoke on foods and care of children; Mrs. Hutchinson, who spoke on
Musical Kindergarten; Mrs. Norman, who gave a demonstration on the
home canning of fruit, vegetables and meat; and Mrs. Watt, who reported
on the work of Women's Institutes in Province.

GENERAL IMPRESSIONS OF THE CONGRESS.

No one could fail to be impressed with certain general aspects ot
these series of meetings.

RURAL SCHOOLS. — The matter of the education of the country
boy and girl was made a prominent feature of nearly all the addresses,
and evidently was felt to be a movement of the deepest importance to
the future farm life of the continent. Speaker after speaker pointed out
that in the matter of technical training and teaching for home-makers the
country schools were behind the times. It was impossible to avoid the
conclusion that Departments of Agriculture and Agricultural Colleges are
providing courses in Home Economics, because the Public Schools had
failed to recognize, the needs of the children in the country. It was
pointed out that unless the country boy and girl were able to receive
technical instruction, or instruction in Home Economics in the rural
schools, it was hopeless to expect the country school to turn out farmers
and home-makers. It was urged with the greatest emphasis that the
rural schools needed regeneration, and it was pointed out that this was
the plain duty of women's organizations in the country to make over
the country school both inside and out, and revise its character until it
was in line with modern educational demands.

In his report, Mr. Putnam, of the Ontario Women's Institute 'Branch,
who is undoubtedly a great authority on the work of farm women, made
a special point of the Women's Institute work for country schools. He
stated numerous examples of cases where the Institute had been able to
make a good school from a poor one, and advised further work along
these lines. Women teachers from various colleges also spoke on this
matter and most unsparingly condemned the inadequate equipment, un-
lovely surroundings and insanitary conditions of country schools. They
stated that the courses in Home Economics for growing girls had been the
greatest feature for good in modern education. Distinction was made
between Home Economics and Domestic Science, and it was pointed out
that Domestic Science was the lesser term with the meaning generally
attached, but that Home Economics included everything pertaining to
the home.

PROGRESS OP FARM WOMEN. — The wonderful progress made in
mental and social equipment by the farm women was made evident at
every session of the Congress, and is the more remarkable as the women
who are the present day makers of farm homes are not those who have
themselves h,ad the benefit of modern educational methods. They have

42 BRITISH COLUMBIA

imbibed that which is making them successful and up-to-date, from several
sources, and none of them directly in the first place. The distribution
of literary matter by the various Agricultural Departments and Agricultural
Colleges, by Household Experiment Stations, Schools on Home Economics,
and so on, make an appreciable difference in the reading matter of
country homes. Then, too, the Women's Magazines and the Home Depart-
ment of Agricultural papers, while there is still room for great improve-
ment, are more scientific and more interesting than they were some years
ago. The daughters are now returning from Colleges where Home
Economics play a part in the curriculum and are bringing to their motners
the results of their studies. A great factor is the formation of rural
home organizations. Country women are receiving by these meetings
courses in technical education and the more energetic women are taking
full advantage of all these opportunities. It was perfectly plain at this
Congress that an upward and onward movement was in full swing among
farm women, and this fact, so important to the life and growth of the
future race, is the greatest guarantee of the continuance of country life.
It must be apparent to the most casual observer that agricultural develop-
ment both in Canada and the United States is dependent upon the women
who maintain homes in the country. The permanent settlement of the
country demands homes and the importance of improving the conditions
of rural home life was acknowledged by all the men speakers. The
Minister of Agriculture for the Dominion, Hon. Martin Burrell, stated
that the national prosperity depended upon the country home. The
President of the Dry Farming Congress, Mr. Widsoe, said that no work
more important devolved upon the nation than the preservation of rural
home life.

SCIENTIFIC HOUSE-KEEPING. — Possibly more emphasis was
directed at this Congress uhan will be the case at future ones to scientific
house-keeping. By the tinae of another Congress it will be pretty generally
recognized that farm homes all over our continent are equipped for
scientific- house-keeping, and that such as are not so equipped are IKK
thus for lack of knowledge but for other reasons. The most up-to-date
methods in home-making were discussed, chiefly from the point of view
of labor and time saving devices. Papers were given dealing with kitchen
equipment, laundry and cleaning methods and such modern household
appliances in water supply, heat and light as can be undertaken in
conjunction with farm machinery. The future prospect or co-operation
between farm and domestic machinery was discussed, as was also that
of the members of the family on the farms. Your delegates were pleased
to note ^hat all of these holsehold improvements had been discussed in
our Institutes. Further than that all the up-to-date literature on these
subjects spoken of at this Congress had been in the hands of the Secretary
of the Advisory Board of B.C.

PROGRAMME. — The programme for these eight sessions of the Con-
gress was very full and the general comment was that there were too
many papers, and too little, discussion. No doubt considerable difficulty
was found by the officers in arranging that the different organizations of
the country should be represented, but some of the papers might have

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT.

been left out to advantage and more discussion allowed. The discussions
were of great interest to your delegates, and the fact that many farm
women can speak so well in thisvfmpromptu manner, on subjects requiring
some special knowledge, was pleasing and significant. The standard of
the programme was, I think, on the whole, not so high as that of Conven-
tions in Eastern 'Canada. It is likely that by another Congress a better
programme can be arranged. It is no easy task to select from an
abundance of material and there were so many notable speakers present
at the Dry Farming Congress that it was felt thaht not to take advantage
would result in great loss. This also added to the congestion.

DISTINGUISHED SPEAKERS.

There were many prominent men and women at the Farm Women's
Congress as well as the Dry Farming Congress. It was gratifying to note
the hearty co-operation of men in the work of the Farm Home. Many
expressions of regret were heard that the Hon. Price Ellison could not have
spoken at the Congress and the Conference. It is plain from the speeches
made that there exists and will exist to a greater degree strong and willing
co-operation between men and women farm workers, and home-makers. I
cannot help telling of the great personal pleasure it gave me to listen
to speakers from such widely different localities, to the eloquent Persian,
His Excellency Kuli iKhau, to Dr. Aaronson, of Palestine, on the work
of women in the Holy Land, and to Dr. Bailey, whose books are so valued
by all horticulturists.

CHILD WELFARE.

It was thought fitting that a day of this big Congress should be
given to child welfare, and everything relating to children was talked of
by mothers and teachers, including the new science of Eugenics, care and
feeding of children, the special education of country boys and girls, the gen-
eral trend of discussion seemed to be that hygiene is recognized as a prime
necessity. The basis of sound health was insisted upon and everything
which would point to loss of strength or growth was decried. There
seemed to be a better understanding of the needs of young children for
rest, quiet, and simple fare, and all advice on this matter was greatly
sought for. The old idea that people are born mothers and nurses seemed
to have passed away and the young mothers seemed especially anxious \o
get all new and important information.

WOMEN IN OFFICIAL LIFE.

Considerable interest was evoked in the fact that many women in
attendance at this Congress are occupying official positions in the various
Provinces and States. This seemed to be regarded as a fact of importance
in the proper development of work. In some States the Women's Institute
Branch is a separate Department in charge of a woman superintendent.
In others there are women in charge of organizations for farm women
connected with the Department of Agriculture. In some cases the Exten-
sion Department of Agricultural Colleges takes charge througn a woman
teacher of the Women's Institutes or the corresponding organizations. It
seems also generally recognized that this work is more efficiently done
when there is a woman in charge of the central organization. Miss Stevens,

44 BRITISH COLUMBIA

a graduate of Macdonald College, Guelph, is now in charge of the newly
organized Women's Institutes of the Province of Alberta. Miss Dunbrack
has occupied the same position in New Brunswick for some time. Mrs.
McCharles is the president of the Home Economics Club of Manitoba.
Miss Salisbury is Secretary. The work is done by women lecturers of
the Agricultural Colleges in Saskatchewan. Mr. Greenway, of the Agri-
cultural College, acts as supervisor, but it is expected that when this
province comes into line with others in Women's Institutes, some change
will have to be made; either an Advisory Board, as in B.C., will be ap-
pointed or a woman officer in the Department. Considerable interchange
of experiences and methods in vogue was made among these women
officers and it was a pleasure to meet these women, most of them with
fine executive ability, with keen local pride in their work and with special
educational equipment. And it would seem as if the proper outlet had
been found for the activities of these specially trained and capable women
in the official positions they are now occupying in Departments of Agri-
culture and Extension of College work among farm women.

INTEREST IN BRITISH COLUMBIA.

Your delegates found that a great interest was displayed ia British
Columbia. The fame of the Province seemed to have spread all over
the continent and indeed the delegates from all over Europe and Asia
seemed equally conversant with the fact that the far western Province
of the Dominion is of unusual value to the country life movement. No
doubt the wonderful fruit exhibit of the Province and its beautiful arrange-
ment contributed largely to this interest. There was a great demand
for literature from the Province and a list has been forwarded to the
Secretary of the Department of Agriculture of some women who were
specially anxious to receive our literature. The strength, too, of our
delegation gave the idea that great interest existed in B.C. for the work
among country women. Then, too, the organization of our central
workers seemed to attract attention. The fact that an Advisory Board
of four women were connected with the Department of Agriculture seemed
to many of the workers to present an effective solution to the problem
of central workers and official connection. It was explained that the
geographical conditions of the Province made a division of this sort
practicable.

MiRS. WATT'S ADDRESS.

The address of the Secretary of the Board on the Women's Institute
movement in B.C. was historical, and explanatory, but there was no time
to make any reflections on this movement or to enter into any discussions
with other Institute workers or to point out our ideals in this regard.
It was unfortunate that -this paper came. last thing in the 'Convention on
the closing day and every one was tired and there was no time left for
discussion. The same treatment was meted out to Mr. Putnam, but on
making representation to the Secretary we succeeded in getting his most
important address put on earlier.

It was freely commented on all sides that not sufficient time or
attention was given to the work of Institutes at this Congress. It was

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT. 45

generally considered tEat the Institute organization for country women
is by far the best of any women's organization in the country. Had more
time been allowed for presenting"* the aUns and objects of Institutes no
doubt a greater spread in the movement would have resulted throughout
the States, as the Institute seemed to meet the case of the farm woman
better than any other rural society.

PRESS MEETINGS.

There were many newspaper women in attendance at the Congress
and an International Press Association was formed of the women writers
present. Your official representative and the delegate from Vancouver
Island Institutes were both eligible for membership and were invited to
join. Mrs. Hutchinson and I therefore joined this Association, and we
hope that considerable advertisement of the Province will accrue from
our connection with these women writers from all over the Continent.
The meetings held were very interesting and one direct result will no
doubt be the immediate improvement of the home section of Agricultural
papers throughout the States and Canada. The low standard hitherto
existing in this section of the country papers were heartily condemned,
and all present pledged themselves to use their pens and influence for
the betterment of these Women's Departments. This in itself ought to
make a great difference to the conditions of country life.

A dinner was given to the representatives of the press of the whole
Congress. About eighty men and women members were present. Your
representative was given the seat of honor next to the Minister of Agricul-
ture for that Province, and was able to glean a good deal of useful
information regarding plans for Women's Institute work in Alberta. A
short speech was given by the Minister, the Hon. Duncan Marshall, then
several other brief and interesting speeches were made.

UNIVERSITY GRADUATES.

We were unable owing to the full programme to get any statistics
as to the number of University women present. There were undoubtedly
a large numbe'r in attendance, and we noted the importance of this fact
in considering the conditions of country life. We called a meeting of
graduates, but many were unable to be present. It was, however, noted
that at every session there were a number of college women present, and
it was regarded as a helpful sign fhat college trained women were giving
their attention to the country life movement. Gratification was expressed
that the Secretary of our Advisory Board is also a member of the Senate
of B.C. The comment was made that the link was thus effected between
higher education, and the problems of country women.

CONFERENCE OF INSTITUTE WORKERS.

At the suggestion of your Advisory Board, Mr. Putnam, head of the
Ontario Branch, asked the Secretary of the Congress to call a Conference
of Institute Workers in Canada. This Conference was held, Mr. Putnam
presiding, and official representatives from almost every Province were
present. It is dealt with in a separate report enclosed herewith,

46 BRITISH COLUMBIA

MANAGEMENT AND ACCOMMODATIONS.

I regret that I cannot report favorably upon the arrangements made
for the Women's Institute delegates from B.C. to the Congress, and in
the opinion of the delegates, blame is not to be attached to the local
authorities but to the management of the Congress. The accommodations
arranged for women were insufficient and in many cases not such as
ought to have been offered to any one. I make no reference to the
accommodations in private homes, which naturally were of a varied
character, but to that arranged for in other buildings in the city. There
seemed to be no co-operation between the management of the Women's
Congress and the women of Lethbridge so far as the comfort of the
women delegates were concerned. Should you care to have more specific
accounts of this failure to arrange proper accommodations it can easily
be had from many of the delegates. We made no formal protest at the
meeting as it was not our business to do so, but it would seem as if some
protest should be made in the interests of what is undoubtedly a good
work. The Congress of Farm Women presents wonderful opportunities
but its management should be most careful and of an unimpeachable
character.

HONOR'S TO BRITISH COLUMBIA DELEGATES.

Every disposition was shown to include B.C. in any honors which
the Congress had to distribute. Your representative was elected Second
Vice-President of the Congress. I was not present when election took
place, as the meetings being over, I had left that morning. I regret
this as I should have liked to express our gratification of B.C. being
thus recognized. I went across the Continent immediately after this,
and saw a great many American papers. The fact that a British Columbia
woman had been chosen for one of the four officers of this great inter-
national organization was widely commented upon throughout the
American papers. I hear also tha; Canadian papers made favorable
comments. This in itself would justify the fact of your having sent
delegates to this Congress.

I hope you will consider that the British Columbia delegates . from
Women's Institutes made the most of their opportunities and that the
Province will receive corresponding benefit.

I have, etc.,

M. R. WATT,
Secretary, Advisory Board Women's Institutes, B.C.

Report of Mrs. Lipsett, Member of Advisory Board of Congress of Farm

Women, 1912.

The Second International Convention of Farm Women, opened in
Lethbridge on October 19th to 26th.

Following prayer by Rev. Mr. Cameron, the Cardstone Choir rendered
the National Anthems of Canada, United States and England.

Welcome was extended in turn for the Dominion by Mrs. Bulyea, wifo
of the Lieut. -Governor of Alberta, Mrs. Marshal, for Alberta, and Mrs.

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT.

Dormer, for Lethbridge. They were united in expressing the sentiment
that the coming of the Congress to Lethbridge was a great benefit to
the Canadian Northwest, Alberta bejng the first of the Canadian Provinces
to entertain a session of the Congress.

Mrs. Stavert, in opening the Congress, said: "It is my great pleasure
to welcome you to Lethbridge and the sessions of this Congress, on behalf
of the Officers and Executive Boards of this organization. [W6
deeply appreciate your presence and heartily greet you.] I want to
thank the women for the sympathetic help given me in my share of the
work in this Congress. The purpose of our existence is to better rural
home conditions. Each nation, state, province and small community has
its own particular way to solve its problems, and that is why it is good
for us to come together and compare notes."

The Congress was then declared open.

Greetings were extended to the 'Congress by the President of the
International Dry Farming Congress, Dr. John Widstoe, of Utah.

He spoke of the necessity of knowing facts concerning household
management, thus making it scientific, as farming had been made scientific
by the collecting of facts in that regard. President Widstow avowed
himself a suffragette, that is, he said he was perfectly willing to give
wom'3ii the ballot so they might go to the polls and vote for the men.
He stated that the Congress needed the co-operation of the women in
order to have the work done as it should be. People were realizing more
and more that the work of the men would not advance unless the women
were kept side by side with them. "I am not ashamed to state that I
am a 'Woman's Rights man.' In our State the government has been
bettered because the women have taken hold.

Miso Ravenhill, of Victoria, brought greetings from the Mother Coun-
try, assuring the people of the keen interest felt by England on all
educational movements. She spoke of the importance of the interchange
of ideas to develop the individual and' the homes.

Mr. Kulu Kahn, Persian ambassador at Washington, D.C., representing
his wife, an American lady, gavo a most interesting address, telling of
the part the women of Persia take in this work. He said we have wrong
ideas about woman's position in Persia. They always go veiled, because it
is a custom of the country, but they have as much freedom as women in
other countries. They are educated and cultured. The beautiful Persian
rugs we see in this country are made by women. They are wonderfully
gifted in this respect and weave the most intricate designs without a
pattern. He spoke of their bravery and gave an instance. Three years
ago, during the war in Persia, a band of two hundred defended their
position against fifteen hundred men. Eighty out of the two hundred
were killed and it was found that sixty of these were women.

Hon. Neil Neilson, of Australia, brought greetings from the farm
women of Australia. He said Canada is the nearest white neighbor wo
have. He struck a note of enthusiasm in the audience when he said
there were no suffragettes in Australia. They do not need them as women

48 BRITISH COLUMBIA

vote there, and they were given the right to vote in simple justice. It
has developed into nothing but good during the twelve years it has been
in operation. Clubs and societies have been organized to better the
conditions of the working woman. They have succeeded in making the
life of the worki.ng girls more pleasant and happier. The civilization of a
country is shown by the way in which women are treated. The most
progressive country is where women are co-helpers in settling the moral
questions of the day. Australia is the cheapest place in the world to
live. Mutton is five cents a pound, and one can get 13 loaves of bread
for six cents. (Clothing costs half the price it does in Canada. The
reason for this is the producer and primary consumer are brought together
and the services and wages of the middleman are done away with.

Dr. Aaronhson brought greetings from the women of Palestine. He
said: "We are separated geographically, but our women are united in
spirit with you towards the uplift of the world. You do not understand
our country. Most reports of it come from visitors who consult a Guide
Book, arid remain with us for a day or two. Our women are good and
are willing to sacrifice when sacrifice is needed. If you could see into
the inner Hfe of Palestine you would find that the women unite with
the men in working for the emancipation of the world."

Miss Harkness, of Boseman, Montana, presented greeting in the form
of a letter from the President of the Women's Farm Institute of Belgium.

Tuesday Afternoon Session.

Dr. J. H. Worst, President of the North Dakota Agricultural College,
Fargo, spoke on "Educating the Boy for the Farm." He said: "I have
never before had the privilege of speaking to so many women. I think
my subject should be 'Educating the Girl for the Farm.' I am glad that
the women of Canada and the United States have organized to better the
conditions of farm women. Many a mother toils hard and then looks
forward to the future. with dread. I have thought it would be a good
thing if we could eliminate some of our ancient history and algebra from
our curriculum and educate along more essential lines. We teach our
children to be extravagant. That one cent a day for gum he should be
taught to save. Let him see that present sacrifice is future happiness. If
we can teach boys they can have the modern comforts on the farm at
as little expense as in the city, the boys will stay on the farms. To make
the child follow a systematic principle of saving will not make him a
miser. There is no growth until the seed is planted. In the United
States there are 5,000,000 men in the bread line. If they took the money
of five cheap cigars a day and invested it for fifty years, they could buy
all the farms in the United States and pay cash for them. In order that
the boy may be content on the farm, the home must be inviting and
delightful with all the comforts found in any city home."

Miss Irena Matthews gave a most interesting address on "Our Farm
Home." Miss Matthews is Superintendent of Oklahoma Women's Institute.
She said: "So many of us know what the homes are, but so few of us know
what they could be. So many know the weary routine and monotony
of the fanr home. There are two avenues through which pur farm homes

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT. 49

are inspired, namely, through the father and mother. Let us hope that
this Congress, made for us, by us, may continue to improve conditions
among farm women. How many ^arm homes do we find that are sad
and gloomy? There is no caste on the farm. The homes are better for
each little effort. There is just as much demand for the lovely and
beautiful in the country as in the city. We are striking out hospitality
in the rush for dollars and cents. We can only live so much, and it
is up to us to live it the best we can. God created the beautiful in us,
but we let the grind of life blot it out. The broadest education is that
which makes you think most of your life, your friends and your community.
The less nagging we do, the bigger we are. So often the mother is separate
and apart. She does the work but she cannot converse with her daughters'
and sons' guests. We want to alter such conditions, until each woman is
the biggest woman she can be. We need the libraries and magazines in
the farm homes, and we are getting them. Civilization has come as soon
as the woman has brought refinement into the home. Then our women
will have learned the value of saving time and woman instead of time
and money.

Miss Harkness, Professor of the Department of Home Science, Boze-
man, spoke on the "Woman Who Spends." She said we hear much about
the high cost of living but little about the remedy. ' The trouble is the
principles of economics have not been studied in relation to everyday
life. In Montana we are finding out the cost of living in different homes
under different circumstances. Women do the greater amount of buying
and the whole of home life centres about the spending of the money.
We must work for pure food laws and satisfy ourselves that the workers
on our clothing, etc., are under sanitary conditions and are paid aright.

On Tuesday everting the new Auditorium was the scene of a brilliant
social function on the occasion of a reception which was tendered the
delegates and notable visitors to the Dry Farming Congress. A pretty
feature of the evening was the presence of the "Queen of the Congress,"
in the person of Miss Edna Hatch, daughter of the Mayor, and a train
of the prettiest young girls in Lethbridge. Miss Hatch was the selection
of a majority of the citizens in a contest preceding the Congress.

The walls of the Auditorium were hung with the flags of many
nations, while the stage was beautifully banked with ferns.

Her Gracious Majesty, Queen of the Congress, was gowned with white
satin with a crimson robe and court train edged with ermine, a jewelled
tiara and a sceptre of wheat stems. The Ladies in Waiting and the two
small pages fulfilled their duties well.

The Lieut^Governors of Alberta and of Saskatchewan, with their
wives, and the Provincial Members and Officers of the Congress were
the hosts and hostesses, and receiving with them, in a long line, were the
following delegates:

Ambassador Ali Kuli Kahn, of Persia; Senor Bradies and Senor
Eschor, of Mexico; Messrs. Kol and Rosen, of Russia; M. Hsieh, of 'China;
Mr. Coleman, of India; Hon. Neil Neilson, of Australia; Baron Lochneysen,

50 BRITISH COLUMBIA

of Germany; Dr. Trochman, of the Netherlands; Mr. Aarnson, of Palestine;
Chevalier Rossah, of France; Mr. Rogers, of South Africa, and several
others. Twenty-ifive hundred people were in the Hall and over fifteen
hundred weje presented. After the reception, the Queen awarded the
prizes and short speeches were made by the recipients. The famous
Cardstone Choir occupied seats on the platform and rendered pleasing
selections.

Wednesday Morning.

Mrs. A. M. Kepper gave an interesting address on "One Farm Woman
to Another." She said farm women hold an important place in the world.
They create new wealth. By their efforts the poultry industry is now
a source of wealth, and millions of pounds of butter vouch for their
unremitting toil. The home garden shelves, laden with filled fruit jars,
bear testimony to their thrift. Farming life need not mean isolation, for
no one is lonely who has the companionship of authors. By systematic
reading we may .get much knowledge that will serve us well. The world
is an educator. Get out in it and elbow along. The farm mother has
better opportunity to keep close to her boy than the mother in the city
where so many things beckon. The whiff of the field is not the same
thrft hovers over the saloon bordered sidewalk. Our boys are safe with
nature as a companion. We should add beauty touches to our home.
The country needs the artistic as well as the city.

Mrs. John Habert, of Colorado, read a very practical paper on "Modern
Kitchen Equipment in Dollars and Cents." She said:

"I come from the rank and file of farm women who do their own
work. II prepare three square meals a day, wash dishes, wash and iron
my own clothes, and look after a large flock of poultry, superintend the
care of a cherry orchard, which Ts the pride of my heart. I can fruit,
vegetables and meat, and keep my home clean and neat. I find time
for all these duties because I have labor saving devices in my kitchen,
run by electricity. One electric motor runs the sewing machine, washes
the dishes and clothes, supplies with power the ironing mangle, the electric
iron, the toaster, the electric fireless cooker, at the average cost of three
cents an hour. Nowhere do we find so many instances of lost motion
as in kitchen work. House plans should be directly related to the kitchen
labor." Mrs. Habert spoke of the desirability of plain aluminium surfaces
on ranges, of an apron over the stove to carry off all odors and steams;
of a color scheme pleasing to the eye; of flowers in view of kitchen
windows and all the attractive points that make one want to stay there
and use the equipment. All the above devices can be installed for the
price of the piano in the parlor, and, if she can get these first, she can save
time enough to practise on the piano later.

Mrs. Cooper, of Treesbank, Manitoba, discussed the chicken business
in its different aspects, giving her experience from early pioneer days
to the present time. She says her business is paying, both in the satis-
faction you can get out of producing such necessary products, and it also
pays well financially. Mrs. Cooper exhibited some useful devices in the
way of coops, trap nests, etc,

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT. 51

Mrs. Howie gave a very interesting and impromptu talk on dairying.
She gave an insp^ing account of her visit to an Ayrshire dairy in County
of Ayr, Scotland, and also a visit tcTQueen Victoria's dairy.

Wednesday Afternoon Session.

Dr. Bailey, of Cornell University, gave a splendid talk on "The
Woman's Part in the Country Life Movement." He said:

"As it takes two persons to form a family, so the efficiency of the
home depends on the co-operation of both, and there must be equal institu-
tions and opportunities for both. Women have not yet had their recognized
place in education in the public schools of today. Improved farming aa<t
improved home making are needed. The woman who keeps house i&
the one to better farm life and to influence for good the affaire of the
community. The introduction of home economics in the public sch«ol is
a step towards the education of woman. Any occupation that is worth
while is worth putting in the schools. The day of training women for
accomplishments is past. These should come as a result of other lines.
The country woman must broaden her own sphere and must master her
own problems before she can solve other problems. The crude and raw
should be eliminated from the farm architecture and the home must
express the ideals of the woman. iShe should have intellectual resources
in her work that would develop mind and train character."

Ravenhill, of Victoria, BJC., gave an address on "Our Daily
Bread." She said:

"The knowledge of the use of food to the body is necessary to the
provision of suitable diet for the individual and the family. The suffering
brought on by the errors of diet points to the need of more general
education in this respect."

Miss .Berry, of the Pullman College of Washington, talked on "Econ-
omy Functions of Home Making Women." She spoke of the necessary
education to fit woman for that greatest profession on earth, Motherhood.
Miss Berry brought greetings from the College and the Federation of
Women's Clubs."

Mrs. Ernest Norman, of Mirror Lake, B.C., gave a splendid talk and
demonstration on "Home Canned Vegetables and Meats." Mrs. Norman
won the International Ribbon on Ixer fruit and vegetable exhibit.

Thursday Morning Session.

The Congress opened with an address on "Eugenics," by Dr. Alfred
Atkinson, of Bozeman, Montana. He said:

"Eugenics or the limitation of marriage to the physically and men-
tally fit goes hand in hand with the preservation of a nation. Studies
in heredity by scientists have proved that eye color, hair color, memory,
epilepsy, criminality, etc., are passed on from one generation to another.
The possibility of free marriage has made many complications. He referred
to "The Human Harvest," a little book by David Starr Jordon, of Stanford
University. After reading this book, Mrs. Herron, a wealthy woman of
the United States, gave a million dollars to expend on furthering the

52 BRITISH COLUMBIA

cause of Eugenics. The modern age is realizing that a nation must
preserve its best men and thus they cannot engage in long wars of contest.
The main object of Eugenics is to create a sentiment that shall cause
persons of marriageable age to choose companions of physical and mental
fitness. They think those unfit should be controlled by the State.

Miss Raveiihill, of Victoria, B.C., gave an address on "Physiological
Growth and Development in Childhood and Adoloscense." She said:

"Man is born the most helpless among animals. The periods of
growth are: (1) Infancy; (2) Early Childhood; (3) Later Childhood;
(4) Adolescense. The latter is a period of change in mind and body.
It is a time for training in hygiene and self control. Allowance should
be made at this time for the instability consequent upon the many physical
changes active at this period of life."

The afternoon session opened with a solo by Mr. Fleming.

Mr. W. L. (Mark, of Leamington, Ontario, gave an interesting address
on "Farmers' Sons." He emphasized the importance of teaching the
boy what he should know. The keynote of his address was the necessity
for purity.

Prof. Geo. Putnam, of Toronto, gave a report of the Ontario Women's
Institutes. He said:

"We cannot emphasize too much the importance of high ideals in
the home and which are reflected on the national life. While the fieH
of greatest promise lies in educating the young, still we have a present
duty in affording facilities for self improvement, to those who are now,
and have been for years, face to face with the problems of home making
and home keeping. One of the organizations which has been very success-
ful fn this line is the Women's Institute of Ontario."

Mr. Putnam outlined the beginning of this work and followed its
growth and expansion into 700 branches with a membership of 21,000.
Each organization is doing something towards instruction in food values,
methods of cooking, care of children, sanitation in the home, and other
features that bear directly on the individual and the home. The Institute
is a force today because it does things on its own account. The Institutes
deal with problems of interest to the community and the Province; School
problems, rest rooms for women who come to town for a day, civic im-
provements, libraries,^ etc., are receiving attention, and those who are
in touch with Institute work see greater possibilities ahead.

Mrs. Muldrew, Principal of Alberta's Ladies' College at Red Deer, gave
an address on "Education of Girls." She said:

"As a rule we have used more wisdom with the education of our
boys than with our girls. This is because we look upon our men as the
producers of wealth. When a boy leaves the High School and we can
afford to give him more training, we make it bear on his vocation, so
that whichever line he follows, he will be a better producer of wealth.
We have not used the same wisdom with our girls. Education should
meet the nation's greatest need. If the training of our girls has failed

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT. 53

to develop executive ability, absolute honesty and independence of judg-
ment, what shall be the result when they are thrown on their own re-
sources? GTirls should be taught thej are to be educated for help in life,
not for the drawing room. A love of home should be implanted in the
minds of the growing girls, so that they will appreciate and understand
the requirements, of good homes."

Mrs. Watt, of Victoria, B.iC., conveyed greetings from British Columbia
to the International Congress of Farm Women. Mrs. Watt regretted that
she could not deal with the subject as announced, as she felt that, as
a delegate from British Columbia, she should give a report of Women's
Institutes in that Province.

Mrs. Watt spoke of the expansion of the work during the past year,
of the pin and its coloring as symbolic of the work of Women's Institutes;
of the help sent out by the Department in the line of Bulletins add
Literature; of the financial aid given the Institutes by the Department,
as well as its supply of expert demonstration for the Spring and Fall
me'etings.

Mrs. Watt also spoke of the successful Flower Shows held by the
Institutes this year and of the increased interest in consequence. Suggested
competitions between the Institutes was mentioned, by which it was hoped
the best in each could be developed. The first need of an Institute was a
regular meeting place equipped with modern conveniences for demonstra-
tion. Co-operation between Institutes and School Boards is necessary,
so that interest may be awakened sufficiently to introduce Domestic Science
in the rural schools.

Revr. Matthew McNeill, of Illinois, spoke on "Modern Methods in
the Country Church." He said the Church and the Farmer are two
of the most important institutions in the world. Through the . one the
Bread of Life is dispensed and through the other the Staff of Life, food
for the soul and food for the body. Unless country life deals with its
local problems it becomes narrow and mean. The Church deals with
ideals rather than things. Righteousness is one of these ideals. This
virtue prevents men from putting the large, smooth, red apples on top
of the box when there are runty scabby ones on the bottom. The world
will be better when men recognize a brother in everyone they meet.
bZJesus said, "Go ye," etc. We emphasize the first, and forget to live
out the last part of the command. 'Let our lives be one of service
and we will be following the example of Him who gave His Life a ministry
to others.

Mr. John T. Burns, speaking for Mrs. Burns, suggested the building
of a monument to the pioneer woman of the West. The idea of the
monument originated with C. Christador, of Point Loma, California. The
suggestion was received with enthusiasm. The model, wrapped in the
Stars and Stripes and the Union Jack was uncovered. It was an artistic
statue of a typical farm woman, standing at the door of her home, with
one arm outstretched around the shoulders and neck of her boy, her
eyes towards the horizon with a look of anxiety in her face, awaiting

54 BRITISH COLUMBIA

her husband's return from his labor in the field. It is proposed to
construct the monument of bronze and have it of massive size.

It was suggested at first that the monument be placed in the Hall
of Fame at Washington, B.C., but this was thought to be too far away
from the pioneer country in which the farm woman became famous. It
was decided to start a contest between the largest cities of the West.
Every woman on every farm in the United States and Canada may cast
a vote for the location of the monument, and for each vote cast, a dime
is to be subscribed to create the fund that assists in raising the $150,000.00
that will be necessary for its completion. The idea was received with
enthusiasm and a committee formed to undertake the work. The sum
of $47.50 was collected before the meeting closed.

The officers for 1913 were announced: President, Mrs. John Hubert,
Colorado; Secretary, Mrs. John Burns, Lethbridge; First Vice-President,
Mrs. Havert, Winnipeg; Second Vice-President, Mrs. Watt, Victoria; Third
Vice-president, Miss Matthews, Oklahoma.

The afternoon session was devoted to a lecture on the economic
and nutritive value of foods by Miss Bawden, of Lethbridge. An electric
stove was used and each person in the crowded room was supplied with
a typewritten copy of the recipes used in the demonstration. Miss Bawden,
while preparing the many dishes, kept up a commentary on the economic
principles of cooking on thoroughly scientific lines. Many questions were
asked which showed the keen interest in the subject of Domestic Science.

Abaut the Institute exhibits I can only remember the following:
Magrath Institute had a very unique booth — a potato roof and potato
fireplace, vegetable vases and jardinieres made of turnips and carrots
scooped out. Their exhibit included home work, needle work and do-
mestic arts.

There was a collection of work from a Home Economics Society in
Manitoba which got first prize.

Mrs. Norman, of Mirror Lake, B.C., won the international ribbon
for an exhibit of canned meat and fruit.

Miss Twiss, of Kaslo, B.C., won first prize for the best exhibit of
fruit and jelly in glass by farm women of one neighborhood. I am not
sure the Institutes were represented in the latter exhibit.

Cardstone, Alberta, Institute had a fine booth under the grandstand —
needlework, home cooking, painting and candy making were included in
this exhibit.

WOMEN'S INSTITUTE REPORT. 55

NOTICE.

The Department of Agriculture is issuing the following series of
bulletins prepared by Miss Alice Ravenhill, Shawnigan Lake, B.C., to be
available for distribution among the members of the Women's Institutes
throughout the Province:

No. 35. — The Place and Purpose of Family Life.

No. 36. — The Preparation of Food.

No. 37. — The Preservation of Food.

No. 41. — Some Labour-saving Devices in the Home.

No. 46. — iFood and Diet, Part 1.

No. 47. — IFood and Diet, Part 2.

No. 50. — The iCare of, Children (to be issued).

No. 43. — Women's Institute Work in British Columbia. (By the Advisory
Board of Women's Institutes).

BULLETINS ISSUED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

No. 30. — 'Guide to Bee-keeping.

No. 32. — Control of Tuberculosis.

No. 33. — Fruitgrowing Possibilities of the Skeena River.

No. 34. — ^Black-spot Canker.

No. 38. — Construction of Silos.

No. 39. — Natural and Artificial Incubation Brooding.

No. 40. — Alfalfa.

No 42. — Apiculture in British Columbia.

No. 44. — Irrigation in British Columbia.

No. 45. — Agricultural Statistics, 1911.

No. . — Tobacco-culture.

No. .—Cultivation of Fruit-trees in Cold Climates.

No. . — List of Poultry-breeders.

No. 22. — New British Columbia.

No. 48. — Exhibiting Fruit and Vegetables.

No. 49. — Market Poultry.

No. 51. — Information for Fruit-growers.

No. 52. — -Annual Report of the Advisory Board of Women's Institutes.

CIRCULARS.

No. . — iFresh-air Brooders.

No. 1. — Clearing Logged-off Lands and Char-pitting Up-to-date.

No. 2.— JField-crop Competitions, 1912.

PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

(WOMEN'S INSTITUTE)

BULLETIN NO. 53

THE CARE OF YOUNG CHILDREN

By

MISS ALICE RAVENHILL
Fellow of the Royal Sanitary Institute, etc., etc

TWE GOVERNMENT OF
THE PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

PRINTED BY
AUTHORITY OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY.

VICTORIA, B.C.:

Printed by WILLIAM H. CULLIN, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty.

1914.

PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

(WOMEN'S INSTITUTE)

BULLETIN No. 53

THE CARE OF YOUNG CHILDREN

By

MISS ALICE RAVENHILL
Fellow of the Royal Sanitary Institute, etc., etc.

THE GOVERNMENT OF
THE PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUHBIA.

PRINTED BY
AUTHORITY OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY.

VICTORIA, B.C.:

Printed by WILLIAM H. CULLIN, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty.

1914.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

VICTORIA, B.C., March 9th, 1914.

Hon. Price Ellison,

. Minister of Agriculture.

SIR, — I have the honour to transmit herewith Bulletin No. 53, entitled
" The Care of Young Children," prepared by Miss Alice Eavenhill, Fellow
of the Royal Sanitary Institute, etc., for distribution to the members of
the Women's Institutes throughout the Province.

I have the honour to be,

Sir,
Your obedient servant,

WM. E. SCOTT,

Deputy Minister of Agriculture,

Superintendent of Institutes.

THE CARE OF YOUNG CHILDREN.

WE are all agreed to-day as to the value of child-life, for is not this quite
commonly described as " the century of the child? " But could we all, if
called upon to do so, give sound reasons for this faith we profess to hold?
As a matter of fact,

THERE ARE MANY GROUNDS FOR THE OPINION.

It may be the outcome of the anxiety caused by the steadily diminishing birth-
rate ; or by the appallingly high rate of infant mortality ; or the annual toll taken by
preventable disease in the early years of life; a series of stern facts brought more
and more prominently before the public in the reports of medical and sanitary
experts and by a discerning press. Truly they represent a menace to

THE PROGRESSIVE EXISTENCE OF CIVILIZED NATIONS;

because, in a quarter of a century, more or less, there will be a deficiency of sturdy,
strenuous, middle-aged burden-bearers in the population and an excess of those
whose capacities as Empire-builders are enfeebled by age or undeveloped on account
of childish immaturity.

To the sanitarian these unpalatable facts speak, too, of thousands of damaged,
debilitated lives, unfit for the stress of modern life, unable to "realize their latent
powers; for scientific observations, associated with carefully collected statistics,
prove conclusively that

THE YOUTHFUL SURVIVORS

of conditions fatal to the more weakly bear obvious traces of their infantile struggle
for existence. Many of these lifelong scars may be detected in the form of stunted
stature, enfeebled powers of resistance to disease, lowered capacity for work, or in
defects of brain, body, sight, and hearing.

Or it may be that our attention has been called to the importance of childhood as

A PERIOD IN LIFE RICH IN POSSIBILITIES,

upon the orderly realization of which depends adult efficiency. It may be that some
remarks made in our favourite periodical upon the relative influence of nature and
nurture upon the young human being have awakened our interest and aroused in
us a deeper respect for this marvellous " clay cottage " in which our spirits are
housed.

By whatever means the impression has been made, the fact remains that in most
cases

IT IS DEEP AND ENDURING;

hence the growing desire to learn from reliable sources in what consists the
intelligent care of child-life.

Societies for the purpose of such study have existed in the Motherland and in
the United States for at least twenty-five or thirty years. The Parents' Educational
Union, the Mothers' Union, the Child Study Society, the Froebel Society, for instance,
have branches all over the United Kingdom ; while, of more recent date, the Eugenics
Education Society and the National Society for the Welfare of Infancy are
emphasizing still other aspects of this comprehensive subject, which embraces every
phase of existence and development, physical, mental, and moral; ante- and post-
natal childhood and adolescence.

Attention has been called in the last throe years to the

WASTAGE OF INFANT-LIFE IN CANADA

by Dr. Helen McMurchy, in her series of stirring reports on " Infant Mortality,"
printed by order of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario ; while a considerable pro-
portion of the pages of the journal which represents the still youthful Canadian
Public Health Association are devoted monthly to the intelligent management of
children. It is most fitting, therefore, that it should form an item in the study
programme of the Women's Institutes.

For, after all, does it not seem a strange thing that hitherto so little time and
thought have been given to the influences which contribute to the child's chances of
becoming, that

NATIONAL ASSET

about which many of us talk so glibly? The delusion dies hard that maternity
carries with it the knowledge necessary to the healthful rearing and intelligent
training of children. It is true that the realization that an infant's prospects of a
healthful and prosperous maturity are promoted or prejudiced by its ancestors is
very slowly dawning upon the public mind; but that the parent of to-day is making
or marring his descendants in the third or fourth generation is by no means generally
recognized.

SOME CENTURIES AGO

a king of France stood watching an ancient man as he laboured without pause,
planting date-kernels. " Why," asked the King, " do you sow the seeds of a tree of
such slow growth, seeing that the dates will not ripen till a hundred years lie
passed?" Prompt was the answer to the question: "Am I not now eating the
fruit of trees planted by my forefathers, who took thought for those who were to
come, and shall not I do likewise? " Is it possible that Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes
had this story in mind when he framed his reply to a lady who inquired

AT WHAT AGE IT WERE WELL TO BEGIN THE EDUCATION OF HER CHILD.

" Madam," said he, " a hundred years before birth."

The ancient sower of date-kernels voiced a deeper truth than even he suspected
when he spoke of his responsibility to future generations; the witty reply of "the
Poet of the Breakfast Table," forecasted a line of teaching but now receiving tardy
attention — namely, that the progenitors of the past transmitted their qualities t«>
many more than their immediate offspring, and that a duty is owed to the unborn,
whose lives will be affected for good or ill by our actions in the present and by
those of our forefathers in the past.

To study the facts of inherited tendencies: to impress upon the world its
responsibility to succeeding generations; to direct the attention of parents to the
right of every child to be " well born," is the mission of the Eugenics Education
Society, which derives its name from the Greek words " good birth " ; for its members
perceive that the diseased, the insane, the alcoholic, are incapable of transmitting

THE TORCH OF LIFE

undimmed to their descendants; far less can they hand it on brighter, more brilliant,
than they received it.

This part of my subject is too complex and vast to be entered upon in this
bulletin ; but even a brief reference will illustrate its supreme importance to parents,
if only for the light it throws upon a problem often found to be as inconvenient as
it is perplexing — namely, the diversity of character and appearance, the variation in
rapacity to resist infection, the disparity in standard of health, among the members
of a family. -John is a hopeless truant; Ted is as steady as Old Time; Jane is a
veritable angel in the house, while Clara is a firebrand. Mary "catches" every-
thing that comes her way and is always ailing, while P>ill enjoys riotous health all
his days!

G

WHY IS THIS?

A common expression when a child shows a marked resemblance to some near
relation is to describe him as a chip of the old block.

Now, if a block of marble be subjected to close examination it will be found to
consist of countless myriads of particles, welded together into a compact mass.
Similarly, a human body is composed of millions of microscopic particles, called
cells, from which are built up bone and muscle, nerves, and all its other parts.

At first glance, all blocks of marble and all human bodies seem to resemble each
other so closely that it is hard to distinguish between them when we see them for
the first time. But a more careful examination will in each case reveal peculiarities
possessed by each individual, whether block of marble or human body. No two
chips off a block are identical, much less are two human beings ever exactly alike.
Infinitely minute as are the "cells" which build up our bodies, nevertheless their
characteristics and combinations are influenced in some mysterious way by our
ancestors.

If we count the

NUMBER OF THESE ANCESTORS

even to the tenth generation only (two parents, four grandparents, eight great-
grandparents, and so on), we shall find to our surprise that more than a thousand
forbears have been transmitting more or less of their personality to us in the course
of about 250 years. Pursue the calculation for a further period of 250 years and
our brains will reel at the formidable number of those who have contributed to our
"make-up," moral, mental, or physical. (See Fig. 1.) Thus, each child, while a
veritable chip of the old family block, is also a distinct individual, in whom the
admixture of family features and characteristics results in a new blend. Sir Francis
Galton has foretold that at no distant date a careful record will be kept in every
home of the life-history of its inmates, so that among the most cherished possessions
of the Empire will be its

GOLDEN BOOK OF THRIVING FAMILIES,

containing the unblemished chronicles of a healthful, moral people, proud of their
distinguished ancestry (distinguished by freedom from disease and vice), proud of
their capacity to furnish their country with a sane and sound population.

But, though every child has certain definite characteristics inherited from his
parents, he has others which are acquired through his own experience in life; that
is to say, every individual is the result of two forces —

NATURE AND NURTURE;

and it is extremely difficult to determine which of these two plays the more important
part in the production of those characteristics which, when found in combination,
we call health. Speaking broadly, we may say that

HEREDITY OR RACE

has much influence in such particulars as the build of a child, the colour of hair
and eyes, the type of feature, etc. On the other hand, diseases are not usually
inherited, though it must be clearly understood that predisposition to disease IS
commonly transmitted from parent to offspring. Take, for example,

THE CASE OF CONSUMPTION.

There are certain families whose children are predisposed to this disease; that
is to say, the constitution of the children is such that it provides a better soil for the
seeds of consumption to grow in than do the bodies of children not so predisposed.

Again, there are families naturally resistant to certain forms of disease, who,
owing to

BAD HOME CONDITIONS OR TO BAD PERSONAL HABITS,

have had their powers of resistance so much weakened that they become susceptible
to infection. Evidence has been collected By medical men all over the world which

proves that, no mutter how healthy a child may be at birth, good home circumstances
are necessary if that health is to be maintained, while the condition of the home
depends largely upon the habits of its inmates. A delicate child placed under good
conditions of air, light, food, rest, and exercise, and consistently trained in good
habits of cleanliness, mastication of food, daily attention to relieving the body of

waste and injurious matters, self-control, and prompt obedience, may attain and
maintain a standard of health and power of productive work in maturity never
realized by a companion who, from the standpoint of heredity, had infinitely superior
chances at birth.

In speaking here of health, will my readers bear in mind that I refer to mental
and moral, as well as to physical, health.

Every individual who assumes responsibility for the care of human life, but
more especially of

YOUNG HUMAN LIFE,

should be aware that the processes of that life are governed by laws, as are com-
munities and nations. Among these laws are those of —

Heredity, which control the general resemblance of a child to his ancestors :
Variation from a common type, so- that each child has qualities peculiar to

himself :
Modification by surroundings, by which strong points may be developed or

destroyed by the conditions of life:

Adaptability, or the power we all possess to adapt ourselves more or less success-
fully to our surroundings:

Predisposition, or individual tendency to certain lines of conduct ; to contract or
to resist certain kinds of disease; or to excel in certain arts, crafts, or
professions.

As a knowledge of the existence of these laws has dawned gradually on the
world, thanks to the wonderful work and discoveries of scientific observers during
the past sixty or seventy years, it can no longer be a matter for surprise that all
life becomes more dignified in our eyes, and that

THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF PARENTHOOD

assume a greater importance. We can no longer pretend that a child comes into the
world resembling a sheet of white paper, upon which we are free to write the habits
and tastes we choose. We are now aware that each infant is a mass of inherited
tendencies, the development or repression of which depend upon the surroundings
we provide, the food we furnish, the activities we encourage, the sleep and play we
permit. To train for the

RIGHT REARING OF CHILDREN

is a duty imposed, not upon parents only, but upon all those who are in any way
concerned with their nurture and education. The subject is as vast as it is full of
absorbing interest. Several years of my own life have been devoted to gathering
information on its many characteristics and phases, and in passing on this informa-
tion to those whose lives did not allow them to secure it at first hand; to busy
parents, to hundreds of teachers, to many of the workers for the world's advance-
ment. One of the first points to claim our attention is

THE DURATION OF CHILDHOOD.

Under the several names of infancy, childhood, and adolescence, this phase of
life actually covers the whole period of immaturity in physical development, which,
in the human being, extends for twenty-five years after 'birth (birth itself being a
stage in life, not its beginning, as is popularly and conventionally assumed) though
it is customary to limit it to a much shorter time.

Two facts of great consequence arise out of this knowledge : —

(1.) The significance to the child's welfare of its antenatal life:

(2.) The recognition that definite training and guidance should be extended to

our young folk to a later period than is now usual.

The most critical years of mental growth are those from fifteen to twenty-two
or twenty-three; it is during these years that the faculties of moral self-control
should develop. If they are left unexercised they fail to do so, for it is exercise
which stimulates normal growth. The result is a population prone to following the
line of least resistance, content with a lower standard of ideals and attainments than
it should be.

Do not assume that I am advocating a i>olicy of

"LEADING STRINGS";

far from that. Young folk must try their wings, must buy their experience. My
point is that, by comradeship with their elders, by means of suitable hobbies, recrea-

o

tions, and occupations, they shall unconsciously be guided to exercise those powers,
all ripe for development, which, in the absence of systematic use, never influence
conduct.

Remember that the long period of immaturity means power to progress. During
immaturity there is plasticity; new habits can be formed, new powers cultivated,
increased control of surroundings acquired.

All this, when summed up, represents what we call

EXPERIENCE,

or ability to use the lessons of the past to benefit the future. Consequently we find
that where animals take a longer period to attain maturity their lives are longer,
so that they can utilize what they learn, as well as enjoy their greater powers of
adapting themselves to more varied conditions.

COMPARE A GUINEA-PIG WITH A HORSE.

The limited capacities of a guinea-pig necessitate a very short antenatal life
(seven weeks) ; in seven months it is mature and can reproduce its kind, but its life
rarely extends to seven years, neither does it at any period of life or in any genera-
tion develop beyond the stage attained by countless generations of its ancestors.

The horse, on the other hand, possesses so much more elaborate a nervous system,
so much more capacity for training, that an antenatal period sevenfold as lon^' is
essential to " laying down " its outlines and six years is necessary to its develop-
ment ; BUT a horse can be trained in many useful habits and can remain of service
for twenty-five or thirty years.

To a far higher degree, mankind

POSSESSES UNREALIZED CAPACITY FOR PROGRESS,

if the quality of the stock is maintained, if the conditions of normal growth be
respected, and if due opportunity be offered for the exercise of powers latent in brain
and body. It has been well said that, where, from absence of judicious training in
youth,

LIBERTY, LUXURY, AND LICENCE CHARACTERIZE MATURITY,

vital bankruptcy is the inevitable result.

Leaving on one side the influences of a child's forefathers, the health of an
expectant mother has of late years assumed an importance too long overlooked. It
is during these months that her " weak spots " are likely to show ; their appearance
must on no account be neglected. Errors in diet, exercise, clothing, sleeping, or
surroundings must be corrected. Not that there are special laws of health for this
period, but, in almost every case,

SPECIAL APPLICATION OF ORDINARY RULES OF LIFE

is needed. The future of the infant may be threatened by premature birth, by
infection with what are known as " racial poisons " (syphilis, alcohol, or lead), or its
vitality may be lowered by the defective nutrition of the mother.

The grievous results to the offspring of syphilitic infection eat like a canker at
the root of our national life; they could and should be known by all potential
parents. The disastrous effects of antenatal poisoning with alcohol have been veri-
fied past dispute. They appear as children grow up in the form of epilepsy, warped
minds and stunted bodies, mental instability which predisposes to crimes of violence,
insanity, and, what is almost worse, feeble mindedness. Chronic alcoholism, too, is
a frequent cause of marked malformation in the offspring, although many cases
occur in which no history of alcoholism can be traced. Nevertheless,

IN THE OPINION OF THE BEST AUTHORITIES

alcohol in even small quantities has an evil influence upon antenatal life, and should
be as religiously eschewed by the nursing as by the expectant mother.

10

The following simple rules for the expectant mother summarize the opinion of
the leading physicians of to-day: —

(1.) She should go about her ordinary duties as usual, unless orders to the

contrary are given l)y lier doctor:
(2.) On no account should she remain inactive or give up exercise in the open

air:
(3.) She should, however, avoid undue excitement and overfatigue, as well as,

so far as is possible, mental strain and worry:

(4.) Her food should be plain, wholesome, and free from any form of alcohol:
(5.) She should live and sleep in well-ventilated rooms, and spend all the time

she can in the open air :
(6.) Her dress should not be tight or heavy, and her skin should be kept healthy

by baths :

(7.) Special attention should be given to her teeth, for one decayed tooth inter-
feres with nutrition and exposes the body to a process of slow poisoning :
(8.) No symptom of disorder or of ill-health should be neglected. In justice to

the unborn child, medical advice should be sought. Only the expert knows

how often " one stitch in time saves nine."

CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDHOOD.

Most mothers, if asked to describe the characteristics of a healthy child, would
most probably and properly reply that these depend upon its age. During infancy
the capacity for profound sleep is the most striking characteristic; a year or two

Fig. 2. Showing relative proportions of a child and adult.

later the ceaseless activity of a normal little boy or girl is often a source of actual
inconvenience to the busy mother, especially when to this restlessness is shortly
added an insatiable curiosity. Little fingers insist upon carrying out all sorts of

11

investigations ; small feet carry their owner into every nook and corner of the home ;
and meanwhile the little tongue is never still, but persists in putting an endless series
of often unanswerable questions.

THIS STAGE OF ACTIVITY

is associated with remarkable facility for imitation, which gradually develops into
self-initiated "make-believe" games, wholly absorbing to the player, who will work
with perseverance and vigour to attain some desired result. What part do these
characteristics play in growth and development? What does each of them contribute
to the upbuilding of that most wonderful thing in the world — a normal human being?

THE PERIOD OF INFANCY

is concerned with the unfolding of life; for, at birth, the baby is but a sketch of what
it will eventually become. Its very proportions testify to its incompleteness. Look
at the enormous head, one-fourth the length of its body (the head of a well-pro-
portioned adult is but one-eighth of his height). Look at the ridiculous little limbs;
the arms must become four times their length at birth, and the legs must elongate
fivefold before maturity is attained at twenty-live years of age. The shape and
proportions of the trunk must pass through many phases and stages before they
assume their permanent form. Each internal organ, each system and part of the
body, shares in these profound changes, which continue for a full quarter of a
century; in the case of the brain, indeed, there is no term set to its possibilities of
further development. In the case of the muscular system this usually ceases between
forty and fifty years of age.

The healthy infant is a passive, placid creature, whose chief business is to grow
(a baby should nearly treble its weight at birth during the first year of postnatal
life). At the same time it is adapting itself to its new surroundings and gradually
exercising its unknown powers. The ceaseless activity and insatiable curiosity of
the little child during its waking hours are necessary to nutrition and growth, equally
of mind and body; if unwisely checked, normal development is impossible.

THE CHIEF REQUIREMENTS OF INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD ARE:

Prolonged periods of quiet sleep, undisturbed by noise, light, movement, or other

interruptions :

Food suited to the age, taken at right intervals, with machine-like regularity:
Scrupulous cleanliness of person, clothing, and surroundings:
Pure air, warmth", sunshine, and suited exercise; last, but not least, consistent

training in good habits.

To deal adequately with even a portion of these requirements would call for a
wrhole bulletin ; space permits of the most cursory details only.

SLEEP

is a state of healthy repose during which energy is recruited, all kinds of physical
growth promoted, and the results of fatigue removed. If exposed to noise, bright
light, or movement during sleep, the process of repair and the general refreshment of
the body are interrupted ; the sleeper awakes with feelings of weariness and nervous
exhaustion; while, in the case of children, growth is stunted and mental instability
is fostered.

A glance at Fig. 3 will show the number of hours which should be absorbed by
sleep during early life; it also shows the average number of hours which were the
portion of several thousand girls and boys in England when I pursued my investiga-
tions seven or eight years ago. It is a matter for thankfulness that the attention
attracted by the publication of these results has been one factor in securing improved
conditions for many children. It is equally a matter for regret that in this new
country, free from many of the economic problems which make life hard on the
poorer part of the population in the Old World, the habit of prolonged quiet sleep is

12

not being systematically formed in the children. Yet the first authorities on nervous
diseases and insanity are unanimous in their opinion that it is the soundest insurance
against mental instability, so sadly prevalent in modern life.

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IT IS UNJUSTIFIABLE

(1.) To carry babies to places of entertainment or to private social gatherings,
where lights are bright, air vitiated, and there is much noise; or

(2.) To transport them constantly in conveyances without springs, such as the
modern "go-cart," or in noisy street-cars and trains.

THROUGHOUT LIFE

sleep should ho enjoyed in a bed comfortably warm (never be afraid to use hot-water
bottles or hot bricks). Cold feet mean growth checked and heavy bed-covers are
unwholesome.

The windows of a bedroom should be always open, except in very severe frost,
when the occupant is in bed. and the light must always be shaded from the sleeper's
eyes ; which reminds me to draw attention to

13

AN UNCONSCIOUSLY UNKIND ACT

011 the part of many in charge of young children — namely, laying them flat in
perambulator or cradle without shielding their eyes from the bright light, or even
from direct sunshine. A moment's experiment with ourselves in a similar position
will fill us with self-reproach. By preference such shades should be a pale green;
on no account resort to a flapping and bewildering sunbonnet or floppy hat ; though,
on the other hand, no young child should be taken out with unprotected head. The
bones of the skull are very immature during these early years and, in conjunction
with the scanty hair natural at this stage of life, afford no adequate protection from
the sun.

FOOD IN INFANCY

should offer no difficulty. Nature provides all that a baby needs for the first nine
postnatal months. Week by week this supply is adapted in quality and quantity to
its growing requirements. Few people are aware of the subtle, marvellous changes
in these respects which take place in Nature's own laboratory, the mother's breast.
To imitate or replace them by artificial means is absolutely impossible. " The only
way in which

TO ADAPT COW'S MILK TO AN INFANT'S NEEDS,"

writes one of the first authorities on the management of babies, " is to pass it through
the mothers body." It suffices to say that the death-rate among hand-fed children
is from twenty to thirty times greater than among those whose mothers fulfil their
maternal duties in this respect; while here, again, must be borne in mind the risk
of damaged physique among the children who survive being fed on cow's or other
forms of milk, though it may be years before the damage shows.

NO TROUBLE IS TOO GREAT

to enable a mother thus to safeguard her infant during these months of helplessness
and dependence. The latest teaching on the intervals between feeds advocates three
hours after the first fortnight, from 5 a.m. until 11 p.m., with a six-hours interval
at night, which allows the mother necessary repose and rests the digestive organs of
the infant.

Never break the habit of absolute regularity. There are many other reasons for
crying than hunger, and a teaspoonful of warm boiled water will often soothe a
fretting baby, who cannot voice ifis thirst by any other means.

HAND-FED INFANTS USUALLY SUFFER FROM EXCESS OF FOOD.

Fig. 4 illustrates the exact size of a baby's stomach at birth ; most feeding-bottles
hold 8 oz., a capacity not attained by the stomach under at least three months; and
our sensations must have taught us at some period or other of our lives that to fill
the stomach to its utmost capacity is accompanied with feelings of great discomfort !
The use of tube feeding-bottles is forbidden by law in France and discouraged in
every country.

Fig. 4. Infant's stomach at birth ; exact size
14

A child is weaned about the tenth month, but milk should remain its staple food
for the next three years, and should play an important part in its diet until nine or
ten years old. For this reason, sugar should not be introduced too early to a child's
notice, or it loses its taste for milk, which contains sugar, it is true, but in another
form from that served at our tables or manufactured into candies.

DO NOT BE AFRAID

to give crisp bread, toast, or cracker to little folk so soon as they have cut four teeth
and can begin to train their jaws to chew. At first, after weaning, much of their
food must be soft (the lightly boiled yolk of an egg, potato mashed in gravy, pounded
fish or chicken, milk-puddings, etc.) ; therefore see to it that the necessary exercise
of jaw and teeth, the essential training in mastication, are provided by a systematic
supply of crisp breadstuffs.

THE HEALTH OF THE MILK-TEETH

is decided by the nutrition of the mother during the antenatal period ; the well-being
of the permanent teeth depends upon whether or not they are infected by the decay
of the first set of teeth, and upon the regular and sufficient exercise of the growing

Chewing or Masticating Teeth Canine Incisors or
Tooth Cutting Teetli

Wisdom Tooth

comes at from

18th to 25th

year.

Wisdom Tooth

Incisors or

Canine Cutting Teeth
Chewing or Masticating Teeth Tooth
8id« View of Upper and Lower Permanent Teeth of Right Side : these
begin to appear at 6 years of age and are complete at 12, with the
exception of the Wisdom Teeth which appear at from 16 25 years

FIG. 5. DIAGRAM OF TEETH OF CHILD.
(Reproduced from Dental Charts for School Use.)

jaws. A decayed tooth must receive immediate attention from the dentist, otherwise
the remaining teeth are infected. Besides which, if one tooth of either set be lost,
two other teeth have their work hindered. Look at Fig. 5. The truth of this state-
ment is conclusively proved.

TWO INVIOLABLE RULES

must govern the care of children's teeth : —

(1.) Each meal after weaning must close either with a drink of water; the
chewing of a piece of crisp crust, or toast or cracker ; or a few teaspoon-
fuls of orange-juice. After the age of seven or eight a crisp apple or even
one or two nuts may replace the other forms of mouth-cleansers:
(2.) So soon as a child has two teeth side by side the mother must accustom it
to washing the teeth with warm water and a simple powder (not paste or
fluid) at bed-time, and preferably in the morning also.

NOTE.— Under no circumstances may a child be sent to bed with candy or sweet-
cake or biscuit after the washing of its mouth.

While on the subject of a child's diet, it may be well

TO DISCUSS FOUR POINTS

which often present difficulties to mothers. I refer to the character and quantity of
a child's drinks; its distaste for fat; its strong desire for snacks between meals;
and the too prevalent tendency to constipation.

15

Do not be afraid to let a child drink freely of wholesome water. A healthy,
active child of six or seven will drink nearly three pints in twenty-four hours in
warm weather. The body cannot carry on the processes of growth and nutrition if
there be a deficiency of water in the tissues ; but it can easily get rid of an excess of
water through the skin, the kidneys, the bowels, or the lungs.

DO NOT CULTIVATE A HABIT

of drinking just before a meal; but if a child rushes in very thirsty as dinner is
being served on a hot day, let it drink freely, or it will be unable to eat and digest
the food necessary to its support. It is well to train a child, also, to eat its meat
before drinking, and then not to drink again till the close of the meal. No harm
will follow reasonable drinking of water, between meals. A thirsty child is a poten-
tially naughty, and certainly an inattentive, one.

MILK IS A FOOD, NOT A BEVERAGE;

it becomes solid directly it is swallowed ; do not therefore rely upon it as a thirst-
quencher. Water flavoured with toast, lemon, or apple, very slightly sweetened, is

OUNCES of FOOD.

•QOOJ

acceptable to young folk, but set your face sternly against tea or coffee as beverages
until towards the age of thirteen or fourteen. Children suffer more from the harmful
element in these beverages than we do. Cocoa makes a pleasant flavour in hot water
and often induces growing boys and girls to take milk ; but, so far as nutriment is
concerned, the quantity taken is too small to be of any worth to the body.

ALCOHOL IN ANY FORM IS INADMISSIBLE;

if to be given under doctor's orders, inquire if it may be combined with jelly, which
minimizes the risk of a taste being contracted for the flavour as a beverage.

Fat ought to play a considerable part in a child's diet, as will be seen on reference
to the chart of relative proportion of nutrients required at different age periods.
(Fig. 6.) Unfortunately, this is often distasteful., except in its most expensive forms
of cream and butter. Where these are available, cream with stewed fruit at break-
fast and dinner and a plentiful supply of bread and butter (except with hot meats)
are excellent foods. Where their supply is limited,

FIRST-CLASS SUBSTITUTES

are provided in dripping, finely chopped fresh suet, and lard ; these last forms of fat
must be served in one of the many disguises offered by steamed or boiled puddings.
The mixture can be flavoured with molasses or ginger, combined with sultanas,
raisins, or fresh fruit (currants are too indigestible to be included in any child's
dietary), eaten with sugar, preserves, jelly, or soup; while, in winter-time, home-
made toffee is a wholesome addition to breakfast or lunch for a healthy child, but
must never be eaten between meals.

Fresh eggs, too, contain a most digestible form of fat; but fat fish, such as
salmon, herring, or mackerel, are not good for young children.

NO FRIED FOOD, PASTRY, OR HOT CAKES

should be given to little folk, neither are nuts (a food very rich in fat) allowable
under the age of nine or ten, and then only in small quantities, taken as a part of a
meal.

Children crave for fruit but often dislike vegetables. If freely supplied with
fruit in a suitable form, the craving for sugar (of which there is a relatively large
proportion in fruits) is legitimately gratified. For the first two years of life the
juice of an orange is alone permissible; then a little of the pulp of a baked apple
may be given, prunes stewed and finely mashed with a fork, or baked banana.

ALL FRUIT SHOULD BE COOKED

before it is given to children under nine ; especially bananas, plums and other stone-
fruit, from which the skins must also be removed. All fruit containing seeds, such
as berries and grapes, must have the seeds removed. In the case of berries this
means rubbing through a sieve. It cannot be too forcibly impressed that a child's
digestive system is

THE WEAK LINK IN ITS CHAIN OF HEALTH.

The extreme delicacy of the membrane lining the bowels renders it very
susceptible to damage by coarse particles (such as are present in coarse oatmeal or
whole-meal bread), and by the seeds in fruit, such as strawberries, or by currants or
carraways in cakes, or by imperfectly chewed and undigested morsels of nuts. The
germs of consumption or of diarrhoea, to mention two common sources of death
among our child population, may gain access to the body through the tiny abrasions
which are caused by these internal scratches; while, in the absence of such infection,
the products of the process of digestion, which should be excreted, are liable to bo
absorbed into the blood-stream, and bring about a kind of self -poison ing, which
showrs itself in "bilious attacks," ill-temper, debility, and many other symptoms of
depressed health.

17

THE DESIRE FOR SNACKS

between meals may arise from one of several causes: —

(a.) It may be from a deficiency of sugar in the diet; if so, a more liberal
supply of fruit suitably prepared, witb the meals, will soon remove the
unwholesome craving. Over and over again it has been proved that the
wish for candies (one of the most pernicious of habits) can be checked in
this way :

(&.) It may be from some defect in the digestive process, so that the child is
really hungry, although well furnished with food. This is a case for
medical advice:

(c.) It may be, and too often is, merely a bad habit, which must be broken, no
matter at what expenditure of patience and perseverance. It takes its rise
in infancy, when the mother responds to every wail with food (sheer cruelty
instead of kindness), or stuffs a "comforter" into the baby's mouth to
keep it quiet.

THE HABIT OF CONTINUAL SUCKING

is thus formed, and the craving for some object constantly in the mouth is established.
Apart from the immediate injury to health by the exhaustion of the digestive organs
for want of rest, and the damage to the teeth from a too liberal supply of nutriment
to the organisms which cause decay, this detrimental habit of candy-sucking and
gum-chewing leads on to early cigarette-smoking in boys, and very frequently to the
practice of perpetually desiring " nips " of alcohol to stimulate the jaded palate.
Now, these constant " nips " are found to be more deteriorating to the individual and
his offspring than rare bouts of drunkenness, bad as these are. Therefore,

THE MOTHERS OF CANADA

cannot be too watchful against the acquirement of either habit by the future parents
of the country.

THE SUBJECT OF THE INFANT COMFORTER

may here be fitly introduced, for, as Dr. James Cantlie remarks, " It seems of late
years to constitute a chief part of a baby's equipment." He describes it as one " of
the most deleterious and destructive " agents to health ever invented. " The evil
effects of the prolonged use of the ' comforter ' are not merely temporary," he writes ;
" they continue throughout life, causing a permanent deformity of the mouth, and
of the air-passages generally, frequently inducing many associated deformities and
disfigurements, resulting in conditions difficult to remedy and incompatible with
robust health. To begin with, the marked prevalence of

ADENOIDS

and the introduction of the 'comforter' came in together; ... the roof of
the child's mouth is pushed upwards (see Fig. 7), the floor of the nasal cavity is
encroached upon, and the passage of the air through the nose is impeded. The child
finds breathing by way of the nose difficult, and mouth-breathing with all its
attendant evil effects sets in. The natural channel by which the air enters the
lungs is through the nose, where the air is moistened and warmed before it reaches
the windpipe and lungs. When the air enters directly by the mouth the throat and
tonsils are subjected to irritation, and resulting enlargement of the tonsils still
further impedes respiration ... air is inhaled in lessened and insufficient
quantity, leading to diminished expansion of the lungs, narrowing or flattening of
the chest, and imperfect purification of the blood." Dr. Cantlie proceeds to describe
in detail how adenoid growths are brought about, in what ways the jaws become
deformed (this affects the tone of the voice and the right position of the teeth), and
how the whole process of digestion is rendered feeble and inefficient by reason of
the constant irritation caused by the presence of this filthy, heating, unnatural object
in the mouth. This is his conclusion : " A ' comforter ' causes deficient respiration,
a deformed mouth, a miserable chest, a ruined digestion, adenoids, and ear-troubles."

IS

In the face of this expert evidence it is to be hoped that this vile habit may be
banished from this Province. It is wholly unnecessary if a baby is well trained
and well managed. I have persuaded many mothers to abandon its use, and they
tell me that in two or three days they find the habit can be broken; only, let me
remind you that to substitute "thumb-sucking" is almost as pernicious and quite
as unnecessary.

LEARNING TO EAT FOOD IN THE RIGHT WAY AT THE RIGHT TIMES

is a part of a child's education. An excellent plan with fanciful children is to
treat any kind of food they ought to eat, but do not care about, as one much
appreciated by their seniors, only allowed as a treat to juniors. Green vegetables,
milk-puddings, or other such simple fare become popular by this method. By the
way, raw cucumbers, onions, or tomatoes are very undesirable for young children,

Fig. 7.

Sections of nose and mouth.
Normal relation of parts. Distortion caused by " comforter."

so are radishes and other salads, especially when combined with rich sauces. Their
stringy, indigestible character class them with rhubarb as unfit for children under
ten or eleven years of age, and then only sparingly. It should be — but, sad to say,
is not — unnecessary to state that no child should ever taste pickles or sauces.

WARM FOOD IS BETTER FOR CHILDREN

than cold, because it is in almost all cases more easily digested. If cold food, such
as bread and butter, form the principal item in a meal, then provide a hot drink;
water, so hot it can only be sipped, is quite good if cocoa or milk are not at hand.
It would be waste of time to point out the unsuitability of ice-cream as a food for
small people. No one wrould trouble to believe what is nevertheless a fact. To take
ice-cold food at any age imposes a great strain on the body, but adults have much
greater capacity to resist such a tax on their powers than is the case with children.
The only occasion when iced food is allowable is during a heat-wave, and then, if
given to little children, it should stand until the extreme chill has passed off.

"MY CHILDREN TAKE NO HARM"

will be the exclamation of the majority of mothers. Let me draw their attention
to a discovery of recent years, which is confirmed by every advance in the sciences
of anatomy, physiology, and sanitation — namely, that the result of unwise actions
or of prejudicial habits or of ignorant and careless neglect do not show themselves
in a high percentage of cases until many months or years after their occurrence.

YOUNG HUMAN NATURE !S SO ADAPTABLE,

so elastic in its response to the conditions under which it lives, that it is only when
some severe strain is imposed by accident, illness, overwork, the shock of a sudden
bereavement, or the fulfilment of the function of maternity, that the flaw is revealed,
the weak spot gives way, or some unsuspected damage leads to a break-down of the
vital machinery.

A wise variety of food is beneficial after the first three years of life; but, and
this is a " but " of primary importance, intelligent regard must be had to a child's
age and a child's tastes.

Food which is hated is food undigested, and no child can be starved even for
a day without risk. When porridge, or meat ns well as its fat, or any one kind of
fish, or even eggs, are obviously odious, so that the boy or girl will go hungry rather
than eat them, do not attempt to force them down. There are quite definite

FOOD IDIOSYNCRACIES

at all ages, and these must be respected. They may be outgrown; if they are, so
much the better.

A child's chief meal should be at midday; to eat heartily just before bed-time
is not to be recommended; preferably there should be at least an hour's interval.
This introduces the subject of

SCHOOL LUNCHES,

for many children have to take their midday meal away from home. To provide
and pack a suitable lunch daily for two or three growing boys and girls calls for
considerable management and time; it is far more satisfactory when arrangements
are made for a good, hot meal at the school, a method most skilfully developed in
the United States, even in rural districts; more slowly adopted in Great Britain,
and scarcely yet attempted in Canada. The subject calls for the early attention
and prompt action of the Women's Institutes.

THE QUANTITY OF FOOD

required by individual children from infanry upwards varies widely: it depends
upon size rather than upon age. If the face be set sternly against " between-meal
snacks" in any form, unrestricted consumption at meals may usually be permitted,
if demands for "more" are satisfied by bread and butter or simple puddings. If
these are contemptuously refused, there is no reason to suspect unsatisfied hunger.
Finally, meat or fish should not be given more than once a day under ten, and not
more than twice a day during school-life. When a boy begins a man's work he
needs a man's diet.

THE PREVALENT TENDENCY TO CONSTIPATION

in early life is usually the result of failure to train in the necessary habit at a
sufficiently early age, or of laxity in the superintendence required to see that as
a child becomes more independent he does not ignore the call of nature for relief,
owing to his absorption in play or other pursuits.

A clever nurse can train an infant to regularity in this respect by the age of
six weeks, with the result that the habit becomes so firmly established that purgative
medicine is never needed, to the enormous advantage of the individual; but, and
once again this is an

IMPORTANT "BUT,"

regularity of time at which the bowels are trained to act is not the only element
in successful training; the intestines must act strongly and forcibly, so that their
contents can be expelled. This brings in the factor of diet, for there is no strength
without work, and the bowels must be trained to work equally with other parts
of the body. The food must contain sufficient bulk, which is secured after early life
by eating suitably cooked cereals, fruit, and vegetables; it must contain enough
fat (the addition of more cream to the diet, or of a little olive-oil or a slice of cold
bacon, often removes constipation), and plenty of water must be drunk. Hence
the well-known remedy of a glass of water on rising and on retiring to bed.

20

Remember that there must be no interruption to the habitual hour; and
children must be trained to respect this physical need, and to rank it even higher
than the brushing of their teeth.

As you value your child's health in later life, never resort to drugs, injections,
or suppositories until success by diet has been well tried, and then it is far wiser
to seek medical advice.

CLEANLINESS OF PERSON

follows very consistently upon this subject of attention to the relief of the body
from injurious material, for the establishment of habitual control of the bladder and
bowels is at the root of infant hygiene, making as it does for bodily cleanliness,
external as well as internal.

It is wise to remind ourselves that warm water and soap are necessary factors
in cleanliness of the skin ; therefore each child should have a rapid cleansing of the

21

whole body daily with these agents, followed by a brisk rub with a Turkish toweL
A large quantity of water is not necessary. At first the process can be performed
as the baby lies on a blanket on its mother's lap before the fire; later on, the child
can stand in a shallow pan of warm water, also near a fire in cold weather, and
itself assist in the refreshing performance.

Very careful habits of washing the hands before eating or touching food must
be early established, and a pride in clean nails must be cultivated. Apart from
the unpleasant appearance of dirty hands, modern science demonstrates the lively
existence of countless undesirable and infectious germs in the folds of the skin, the
creases of the hands, and the crevices of the nails.

On the importance of dental cleanliness enough has been said; and attention to
care of the scalp and hair must now surely be universal, though the wise mother
of a large family will keep her girls' hair short as a precaution until they are twelve
or thirteen years of age.

WHAT IS THE PLACE OF A COLD BATH?

will be the next question. Is it bracing or does it only depress a child? Its effects
depend chiefly upon the early training given to the heat-regulating capacity of a
baby's brain. A child can be most advantageously trained to accommodate itself to
sudden changes of temperature, as well as to intense changes of temperature, and
where this training has been given chills and colds become unknown miseries, unless,
of course, the child be infected by some one else who is suffering from a cold.

THE TEMPERATURE OF THE FIRST BATH

should be 99° Fahr., and for some days after birth no change should be made;
then slightly cooler water may be used at intervals of two days until the baby will
enjoy a morning tub in water 25 or 30 degrees below that of his first experience.
Such baths must be short, given before a fire, and followed by rapid drying and
dressing. Or a douche of gradually cooled water may be given to the baby's spine,
day by day, until at three months old he can stand a douche of cold water with
the utmost indifference. Where this training has been neglected, few children benefit
from a cold bath.

A WORD OF WARNING

is here in place as to the serious strain on children of what are miscalled " hardening
methods," such as sending them about in cold weather with bare arms and legs, or
exposing unprotected heads to a burning sun, especially when their feet are immersed
in cold water at the seaside or on the lake-shore.

The temperature-regulation machinery in the brain is quite overtaxed by its
efforts to keep the bare legs warm and the heated head cool ; the delicate nervous
system is upset, and the results show themselves in what are described as bilious
attacks, chills, etc., the true cause of the ailment being utterly unsuspected by those
in charge.

CHILDHOOD IS NOT THE PERIOD FOR HARDENING,

in the popular sense of the term, but essentially it is the age for careful and
continuous cultivation of good habits, whether these are habits of prompt obedience
to parents, of self-control in moments of pain or excitement, or in physical habits
of mastication, cleanliness, and ready, though unconscious, response to changes of
temperature.

Given fair chances of developing well-grown bodies to our boys and girls, and
they will be " hardy " enough in later life.

ONE SECRET OF HEALTH IN CHILDHOOD

is warmth, furnished by food, clothing, and exercise, not by overheated rooms or
coddling. Clothing throughout childhood should be light in weight, easy, elastic,
suited to the temperature, washable, and distributed evenly over the surface of the-
body.

22

A woven woollen combination reaching from neck to ankles, varying in substance
according to the season; a woven woollen bodice to which are attached a pair of
woollen knickerbockers, woollen stockings supported by suspenders, a knitted jersey
coining well down over the hips, completed by a skirt for girls and knickerbockers
for boys, is the ideal costume until school-days are over. The boots and shoes should
be broad and easy, writh low heels ; on no account should high heels and pointed toes
be allowed; and open-work stockings should also be taboo.

IT MUST BE BORNE IN MIND

that the younger the child, the larger its surface in proportion to its bulk. Indeed,
it is usual to estimate a child's surface as three times as great as that of an adult

Fig. 9.
An improperly clothed child. How to interfere with health and check growth.

Iii proportion to its size. Now, the body loses heat chiefly from its skin, while
warmth is more necessary to a child than to a grown person, because growth and
nutrition are checked by cold; consequently suitable clothing is of special importance.

SHEER THOUGHTLESSNESS AND IGNORANCE

leave unprotected just those parts of a child's body where loss of heat is most
rapid or attended by most serious results. (See Fig. 9.) I refer to the wrists,
knees, and ankles, where the large blood-vessels are very near the surface (conse-
quently, if these are left bare and naked, large volumes of blood are perpetually
being chilled), and also to the upper part of

THE LUNGS AND THE ABDOMEN.

If the lungs are insufficiently covered, as when a low-cut frock is worn, their
most sensitive part is exposed to the risk of chill ; while in the case of the abdomen
this risk extends to the intestines, which are close to its surface; the processes of
nutrition and growth are hampered or checked in each case, while the predisposition
to contract disease is increased. A great authority on the subject of clothing asserts
that many boys are stunted for life because they are clothed at too early an age
in sailor or other fancy costumes, which leave the abdomen insufficiently protected.

23

In this country, where changes of temperature are
SUDDEN AND VIOLENT,

woollen clothing is imperative for children. Recent researches, carried out with
every care, abundantly confirm all former teaching upon the superiority of wool
over every other material, especially for wear next the skin. Limits of space forbid
a recapitulation of the sound reasons for this statement, but they are convincing
and indisputable.

One word of warning must be given on the subject of the

INFLAMMABILITY OF FLANNELETTE,

unless it be subjected to a special treatment before its sale to the public. Hundred*:
of agonizing deaths annually are the direct result of this high inflammability, entirely
preventable deaths.

Flannelette is made of cotton, and plant-fibres are in nearly every case highly
inflammable, owing to the large proportion of cellulose they contain, a substance
which consists of about 50 per cent, of oxygen.

THE FIBRES OF ANIMAL ORIGIN MERELY SMOULDER;

if set on fire, they do not flare up into a blaze as vegetable fibres do, because they
contain but 20 per cent, of oxygen, besides a large proportion of nitrogen, which does
not support combustion.

FEW GARMENTS ARE MORE HEALTHFUL AND SUITABLE

than woollen sweaters ; they are warm, elastic, and protect lungs, wrist, and abdomen.
Long woollen stockings, supplemented in cold weather by gaiters and stout boots,
equally efficiently protect the legs.

Please remember, it is not the number of garments worn by a child which
protect it from excess of heat or cold, but their suitability in material, colour, form,
and texture.

THE PLACE OF PLAY IN CHILDHOOD

is the next subject to engage our attention. Why is it that the infant loves its
daily baby play upon its mother's knee; why is it that institution babies flag, in
spite of the elaborate arrangement made for their well-being? Because from the
earliest days of life

PLAY IS THE GREAT EDUCATOR,

the means by which a child comes in touch with the great unknown world around
it; the channel by which it learns the parts of its own body and the capacity it
possesses for movement, for sight, for hearing, for touching, tasting, or smelling.

At first, the tiny infant needs a playmate, and should find one in its mother
or nurse; whereas, when one of many in a large institution, there is no time for this
form of tender play; so the unexercised powers lie dormant or develop very slowly.

AFTER A FEW MONTHS

the small child will play for hours alone, only asking for the sympathetic interest
of its mother. All the time it is testing its faculties and powers, making experiments
with the things around it, exercising patience and observation, perseverance and
endurance, as well as its senses, its lungs, and its muscles. Happy the child with
brothers and sisters to imitate, to teach, to share its pleasures with and to console
in sorrow.

TOWARDS THE AGE OF SEVEN OR EIGHT

the spirit of competition becomes more or less active, and fosters fresh effort and
innumerable forms of muscular exertion. Then the advantage of combination to
attain an end dawns on a child's mind, and in company with its friends wonderful
feats are performed by imaginary pirates, or Redskins, or shipwrecked mariners,
or robbers!

24

WHAT DOES ALL THIS MEAN?

Why do we advocate plenty of play for our young people? Because, by means
of self-initiated play, and through the agency, later on, of group games,, in which
the one subordinates himself to the many, our young folk are training their bodies,
forming their characters, preparing their immature powers for future usefulness;
learning the many and great lessons of life, in the way best adapted to their ages
and most suited to their capacities./*

CHILDREN DO NOT NEED COSTLY TOYS,

but they do need a sufficient space in which to play (hence the urgent need for
playgrounds in all cities) ; they do need sufficient time for free play (for the first
eight years of life, play is the child's work) ; they need companions of their own
age, and they need some kindly supervision, to stimulate or to restrain, to regulate
or to soothe. A tin box, some string, a few nails and odd bits of lumber, a sand-pit,
a hammer, a swing or a see-saw — these are priceless treasures to healthy children
and will furnish them with endless amusement.

BEWARE OF THE MODERN TENDENCY

to lead children to depend upon excitement, which often only causes friction and
exhaustion, or upon ready-made distractions and not upon his own resources in his
play-hours. Plow seriously abused, for instance, is the moving-picture show, which
might constitute a real educational and also pleasurable agent for our children.
So powerful is the craze to frequent these shows that it leads children, in some
cases, to commit theft in order to gratify it; while there is only too good reason to
believe that certain undesirable pictures are directly responsible for an increase in
juvenile crime, as well as the cause of a definite form of serious eye-trouble.
A few words on the subject of

EDUCATION IN EARLY LIFE

must bring this bulletin to a close, though it may be that some of rny readers
would like some guidance as to the age at which work, in the sense of definite
occupation for self-support or to assist parents, should begin. This matter does not
come within the scope of my subject, for work in the sense of responsible duty
cannot be enforced during those early years with which these pages are concerned.
The young human being suffers in numerous directions from premature work,
for childhood is but a preparation for the period when capacity for skilled occupation
is ripe for development.

THE FORMATION OF GOOD HABITS

from birth onwards is the best preparation for a productive maturity. The entire
object of true education, writes one of our finest educators, is to make people not
merely do the right thing, but enjoy the right thing. The parents who have studied
the phases of child-development, the capacity for imitation and training so strong
in a youth, who have systematically and sympathetically trained their family in
habits of physical, mental, and moral control, will have prepared a soil upon which
the arts, crafts, or sciences necessary to future successful work will grow and
flourish to their hearts' content. It cannot be too often repeated that

HABITS ARE THINGS THAT "HAVE US."

See to it, therefore, that some system governs the habits you grow in the young
children for whom you are responsible; that they are those which make for health
of body, balance of mind, and nobleness of soul.

Train to implicit and prompt obedience, to absolute regularity in the needful
response to the requirements of the body, in consideration for others, and a love of
service. It may seem

A TRIVIAL THING

to train a baby from birth in regularity of action of bowels and bladder, in long
hours of profound sleep, in the power to regulate its temperature rapidly, and, a
little later on, in habits of careful mastication, in prompt obedience, in helpful

OK

service of others, in respect for the good, the true, and the beautiful. But mind
and body are so closely intertwined, habits are formed at so early an age, thai
the character and efficiency of a nation hinge upon the methods pursued by its
mothers in the early stages of their children's lives.

NO NOBLER WORK

can be conceived than thus to mould the future of a great people. " What the
mother is, the children are," said John Burns. "Let us, therefore, glorify, dignify,
and purify motherhood by every means in our power." " Nations are gathered out
of nurseries," wrote Charles Kingsley. How needful, therefore, are opportunities
for training in the responsible profession of motherhood; how important that all
women should cultivate in themselves those qualities and virtues which will equip
them to be Empire-builders.

"O'er wayward childhood, wouldst thou hold firm rule,

And sun thee in the light of happy faces;

Love, Hope, and Patience, these must be thy graces,
And in thine own heart let them first keep school."

ALICE RAVENHILL,

Fellow of the Royal Sanitary Institute; Certificated Lecturer
National Health Society, Great Britain and Ireland.

Author of "Practical Hygiene for Use in Schools";
"Elements of Sanitary Law"; "Some Characteristics
and Requirements of Childhood"; "Household Admin-
istration"; "Household Foes," etc.

Late Lecturer on Hygiene, University of London, King's
College for Women.

2(5

BULLETINS AND CIRCULARS AVAILABLE.

Date issued.

No.

Name.

May 21st, 1901

8

Feeding Farm Animals (Dairy Cows).

November, 1908

25

Orchard Cleansing.

July 19th, 1913

26

Practical ' Poultry-raising. (4th Edition.)

March 17th, 1911 . . .

30

Guide to Bee-keeping.

April, 1911

32

Control of Tuberculosis.

February 1912

33

Fruit-growing Possibilities, Skeena River. (Reprint.)

January, 1912

35

Place and Purpose of Family Life.

November, 1911

36

Preparation of Food.

February, 1912

38

Preparation of Silos.

February 28th, 1913

39

Natural and Artificial Incubation and Brooding.

March 1912

40

Alfalfa. (3rd Edition.)

March llth, 1912 . . .

41

Labour-saving Devices.

June, 1913

42

Apiculture in British Columbia.

May 7th 1912

44

Irrigation in British Columbia.

April 29th, 1912

45

Agricultural Statistics, 1911.

December, 1912

46

Food and Diet. (Part I.)

January 15th, 1913 . .

48

Exhibiting Fruit and Vegetables.

September 3rd, 1913

49

Market Poultry. (2nd Edition.)

March Sth, 1913

50

The Art of Right Living.

March Sth, 1913

51

Information for Fruit-growers.

April 15th, 1913

52

Annual Report, Advisory Board of Women's Institutes.

November ISth, 1913

53

Care of Young Children.

November 20th, 1913

55

Care and Marketing of Eggs.

December 13th, 1913

56

Field-crop Competitions, 1913.

February 26th, 1914

57

Boys and Girls' Field-crop Competitions.

AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT CIRCULARS.

December 4th, 1912

2

Results of Field-crop Competition, 1912.

April 29th, 1913

4

Hints on Caring for School Gardens.

December, 1913 ....

5

Field-crop Competitions, 1913-14.

June 12th, 1911

••

How to grow Tobacco from Seed.

CIRCULAR BULLETINS.

April 29th, 1913

2

Tuberculosis in Poultry. (2nd Edition.)

July 23rd 1913

3

Construction of Fresh-air Brooders. (2nd Edition.)

October 14th, 1913 . .

4

Management of Turkeys.

December 13th, 1913

5

Clover Dodder.

REPORTS.

May 9th, 1913

Fourteenth Annual Report, Farmers' Institutes, 1912.

September 5th, 1913

. .

Fourth Annual Report, Agricultural Fairs Association.

September 22nd, 1913

Report of Meeting, British Columbia Entomological

Society.

June 1913

British Columbia Dairymen's Report.

VICTORIA, B.C.:

Printed by WILLIAM H. CULLIN, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty.

1914.
07

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