^-'4.' ^M^^^;[~rj^^-^' L I B I^AFLY OF THE U N IVLRSITY or ILLINOIS 711. 1 ho.l-Z Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign J http://www.archive.org/details/practicaloperati02john NATIONAL SAND AND GRAVEL ASSOCIATION NATIONAL SAND AND GRAVEL ASSOCIATION 900 Spring Street Silver Spring, Maryland 20910 tf.WS^/ 7I(- ' Practical Operating Procedures For Progressive Rehabilitation 9f Sand And Gravel Sites 3y Craig Johnson Jniversity of Illinois ^MmmnoF mm THE LIBRARY OF THE iviMi ;ii 1966 I i <^ 1964-1965 ^ FHIS RESEARCH PROJECT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS WAS SPONSORED BY THE NATIONAL SAND & GRAVEL ASSOCIATION, SILVER SPRING, MARYLAND. Practical Operating Procedures for Progressive Rehabilitation of Sand and Gravel Sites * *' By Craig Johnson Research Assistant Department of Landscape Architecture University of Illinois Urbana, Illinois THIS RESEARCH PROJECT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS WAS SPONSORED BY THE NATIONAL SAND & GRAVEL ASSOCIATION, 900 SPRING STREET, SILVER SPRING, MARYLAND Copyright © 1966 National Sand and Gravel Association Litho in U.S.A. Foreword This publication is the second pubhshed report based upon the Research Program sponsored by the National Sand and Gravel Associa- tion at the Department of Landscape Architecture of the University of Illinois. The first report, "Simultaneous Excavation and Rehabilitation of Sand and Gravel Sites," by Anthony M. Bauer, was published one year ago, and the research for the third report is already underway. The Research Program is sponsored by the Association through its Committee on Public Relations and is supervised by a Research Advisory Committee, the membership of which includes: Chairman: Wm . G. Carnes, Department of Landscape Architecture, University of Illinois; Cecil G. Cooley, Cooley Gravel Company, Arvada, Colo.; Ken- neth L. Schellie, Schellie Associates, Indianapolis, Ind.; Walter I. Thieme, American Aggregates Corporation, Greenville, Ohio; Louis B. Wetmore, Deputy Commissioner, Department of Development & Planning, Chicago, 111.; and Vincent P. Ahearn, Jr., Assistant Managing Director, National Sand and Gravel Association. This report represents the conclusion of the second year of a four- year research plan. Industry and professional response to the results of this Research Program has been so universally favorable that a second four-year plan has been approved, to commence in September 1967. While the research topics assigned for this first four-year plan have been general in scope, we believe that they have had specific and prac- tical value to all members of the Association and to many professional landscape architects, land use planners, conservationists and others with a professional interest in the subject matter. This report, together with the first report and "Site Utilization and Rehabilitation Practices for Sand and Gravel Operations," by Kenneth L. Schellie, now provide a substantial beginning of a library of knowledge on the subject of rehabilitation of sand and gravel properties. In addition to the practical value of these reports, there has been additional value in the promotion of rehabilitation throughout the industry as evidenced by the increasing number of producers who are retaining professional landscape architects and planners on a permanent basis. Research Advisory Committee u Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction Background — Problems — Opportunities — Objectives — Research Method 3 Summary of Findings 5 Chapter 2 Equipment, Operations and Proposals BACKGROUND Equipment Evolution — Introduction to Operations 7 CLEARING Description — Results — Rehabilitation Potential — Proposals 9 Summary of Proposals 13 STRIPPING, STOCKPILING, AND EXCAVATION Description — Operation Results — Potential — Proposals 13 Summary of Proposals 31 PROCESSING AND TRANSPORTING Description — Operation Results — Rehabilitation Potential 32 Summary of Proposals 39 Chapter 3 Case Study A Description of Planning Procedures Covering the Progressive Development of Three Lakes Community, a Suburb of Denver 40 Illustrations of the Three Lakes Community Project 45 Chapter 4 Conclusions Introduction — Planning — Recommendations 57 Equipment Appendix 61 Illustrations and Descriptions of the Various Items of Land Forming Equipment in Common Use for Rehabilitation of Sand and Gravel Sites Acknov/ledgments 73 Bibliography 74 Preface jHL u'ise conservation program should strike a bal- ance hetiveen our needs of today and the needs of tomorrow. This does not mean that we are not to touch existing resources and are to leave them for future generations; hut it does mean that univise use and needless waste should be avoided, that every effort should be made to obtain the maximum bene- fits from the use of all our natural resources for the greatest nufnber of people — noiv living or yet to live. John C. Caldwell Chapter 1 Introduction "The processing of sand and gravel and rock — the basic aggregates of the constrtic- tion industry is as old as civilization itself. Man's endeavor in this ancient respect has changed very little — only the quantities required and the equipment necessary for volume production have changed drastically." From a Euclid publication. Background The population of the United States is expected to double by the year 2000 to roughly 350.000,000 people according to projections made by sociologists and census experts. These pro- jections also note that the population will be concentrated in complex, technically oriented urban centers or chains of urban centers that are focalized at points of cultural, commercial, or industrial exchange. Current census information shows that 65% of today's population is centered in urban areas and the trend is toward an even higher percentage. The demand gener- ated by these urban areas for building aggregates to construct roads, airstrips, bridges, dams, reservoirs, homes, building util- ity systems and many other facilities will place an increasing drain upon available sand and gravel resources. Already sev- eral states are beginning to notice a shortage of material to meet market demands. Under present economic circumstances and transportation limitations, it is necessary for sand and gravel operations to exploit deposits near the market because sand and gravel is a bulky, low-cost product which can incur little increase in hauling distance from excavation site to consumer without a prohibitive increase in product cost. Thus it would not be economically feasible to transport Fig. 1 —The Mining Environment sand and gravel from rural Minnesota to meet the needs of Newark. New Jersey. Consequently most sand and gravel op- erators have gravitated to those as yet unbuilt upon deposits near the periphery of urban centers in an effort to satisfy the demand for their product. Today 75% of all sand and gravel operations are located within this urban-suburban zone area of development, (fig. 2.) Problems The necessity to operate near the market area has placed the sand and gravel industry, a mining operation, in direct competition for sites with the immediate and more glamorous proposals for urban development such as residential subdivi- sons, commerial centers, industrial complexes and public open- spaces, to mention a few. In light of past operating practices, attempts by sand and gravel producers to secure a mining per- mit, special use permit, or zoning ordinance change to allow the excavation of sand and gravel on these sites are frequently rejected, and other types of development are rapidly covering the dwindling sand and gravel resources. The underlying reason behind much of the unwillingness on the part of communities to accommodate sand and gravel operations within their area of jurisdiction stems from an assumption, often erroneous that a sand and gravel operation is inherently a noisy, dusty, incom- patible land use which creates unsightly and unusable blemishes in the landscape and does not contribute toward the welfare of the community. Opportunities "The sand and gravel industry is in a unique situation insofar as rehabilitation is concerned. It utilizes heavy earth moving equipment, and often has large volumes of material, unsuitable for processing, available for creating functional land forms. Since it is necessary to move this material in order to extract the desired natural resources, it becomes a matter oj manipulating the equipment in a manner that will achieve the most desirable land areas. Also, the location of the operation offers unique oppor- tunities in land development. Not only are land values higher with numerous uses vying for a piece of land in the area in which operations e.xist, but the results of the excavation pro- cess may create unique features, such as large bodies of water that might not otherwise be available for development. A financial gain is naturally one of the basic objectives of a rehabilitation program. A substantial gain has been realized in many of the existing projects. However, there are such intang- ible benefits as good will and community acceptance that will open the door for further development of otherwise inaccessible deposits."* Objectives In the face of mushrooming population and the subsequen demands for land for all types of public and private urbai development, the sand and gravel industry is beginning t< realize that the rehabilitation of depleted sand and gravel site: is becoming as important as the extraction of sand and gravel The sand and gravel industry must now perform a dual func tion: The production of sand and gravel and the creation o usable land areas. The hypothesis upon which this research is based is tha sand and gravel operations can be effectively planned ( 1 ) foi the reduction of inherent noise, dust, and visual disorder am (2) for the development of an optimum, practical and esthetic use for the site after operations have been terminated. Lane development can occur simultaneously with excavation withou reducing the efficiency of either operation. The two specific objectives of this report are ( 1 ) illustrate how sand and gravel operations, performed by standard typei of equipment, can be conducted in an orderly non-objection able manner and (2) illustrate methods for utilizing equipmen and operation potential to progressively create usable and es thetically pleasing land forms during the course of the extrac live operations. Research Method The execution of this study was organized as follows: 1. Survey A variety of surveying techniques were utilized to becom acquainted with and obtain an insight into the sand and grave industry, its rehabilitation problems and potentials. Collecting and recording basic data obtained by reviewin; pertinent literature was the first method. Three survey area were outlined: A. Deposit and resource information. 1. Geological information 2. Hydrology data 3. Test boring analysis discussions B. Information directly associated with the sand and gravel industry's operations and equipment. 1. Operational procedure 2. Equipment rehabilitation capabilities and limitations 3. Characteristic, excavation created land forms C. Site planning information related to mining site rehabilita- tion. 1. Review of current information on coal, iron, phosphorus and other mining industries rehabilitation practices 2. Reviews of all NSGA publications A field reconnaissance was conducted of 24 mining sites ii Illinois. Indiana. Colorado, Maryland. Virginia. New Jersey ani New York. The primary aims of such field reviews were t( *A quotation from "Simullaneous Excavation And Rehabilitafion Of Sani And Gravel Sifes" by Anthony M. Bauer. Fig. 2 — Pit in the Path of Urban Development obtain a realistic background and understanding of the scale of various types of sand and gravel operations, and of their visual, functional, and ecological influences upon the landscape. Num- erous aerial and eye level photographs were taken to record the findings for future reference use. Attention was also given to the conventional uses of equipment in performing normal ex- tractive and rehabilitation operations. This was to determine potential of equipment in the development of depleted sites. 2. Analysis All information was recorded and combined in written, graphic, and photographic form. Assembled, it provided a perspective of the sand and gravel industry's role in rehabilita- tion, determined exactly what development problems existed, their causes, and pointed out the rehabilitation potential with the use of equipment during normal operation. 3. Deduction On the basis of a survey and analysis of site, equipment and operation recommendations for the application of equip- ment to solve development problems and meeting rehabilitation objectives were formulated. Hopefully, this report will be as helpful as others have been in encouraging the development of rehabilitation pro- grams. Reports in themselves do not remove operational nui- sance problems, nor create usable land and water bodies. Neither do reports improve the appearance of landscapes phys- ically scarred by sand and gravel operations. Solutions to these problems only result from the initiative exercised by each pro- ducer in organizing and implementing a rehabilitation program. These challenge^ have been definite assets to the community, while bringing credit to the sand and gravel industry (fig. 3.) Cases of complete site rehabilitation must become the rule rather than the exception if the industry is to make a wide- spread contribution to an improved American scene, and if it is to improve its national image as an industry. One case study was developed to test the conclusions and de- monstrate the feasibility of recommendations. Summary of Findings: Practical Operating Procedures For Progressive Rehabilitation of Sand and Gravel Sites Each operational step contributes in its own way to the production of sand and gravel and each step also offers oppor- tunities for site development. Clearing affords an opportunity to selectively clear the site, thus conserving vegetation any- where that it will not interfere with extractive operations. Stripping and stockpiling operations may provide hundreds of thousands of cubic yards of unusable material for a variety of land forming purposes. Excavation affords the opportunity of creatively molding the site to meet the topographic require- ments of the previously determined land use, so that it can be economically and visually adapted to the site. The types of equipment that perform the various operations comprise the tools that are used for the extraction of sand and gravel and can be used simultaneously for site rehabilitation. Each particular type of equipment is designed to perform a certain extractive operation or sequence of operations and each has a pattern of operation within which it operates most efficiently. All types of equipment possess capabilities for re- habilitation. Ideally, the most efficient way to capitalize upon these capabilities is to utilize the equipment for rehabilitation while it is in the extractive operation. There are two reasons: ' ' iM . :■■■ ■ Fig. 3 - Rehabilitated Site 1. Equipment is used for the excavation of sand and gravel while it is achieving site development objectives. 2. Equipment operating patterns can be organized efficiently so that rehabilitation is accomplished within the framework of normal operating patterns; thus, production efficiency is not sacrificed for rehabilitation. The contents of this report are a detailed elaboration upon these general findings. Simultaneous Excavation And Rehabilitation Of Sand And Gravel Sites by Anthony M. Bauer The sand and gravel industry is in a unique position to con- tribute to the growth and development of the nation. Not only does it process a basic resource essential to the construction in- dustry, but it contains resources and potentials within the sphere of its activities that provide highly favorable oppor- tunities for molding the excavated lands into real estate that is an asset to both the producer and the community. Three typical characteristics of the industry that contribute most to the development potentials of a sand and gravel site are: 1. Material unsuitable for processing 2. Heavy earth moving equipment 3. Location— in relation to the urban environment Current rehabilitation practices are primarily directed to- ward improving the conditions created by the excavation pro- cess. A number of these sites contain successful land use projects. Often the fullest potential was not achieved, with various unusable land and water areas resulting. In addition, minimum effort was being directed toward improving the ap- pearance and reducing the conflict of the plant and excavation area during the life of the operation. The established undesir- able image of the industry is thus perpetuated. There are several factors that limit or deter rehabilitation activity. These factors must be dealt with before a plan for development is formulated if the industry is to cope satis- factorily with the obstacles they present. The most significant of these are: 1. Low land values. 2. Lack of suitable grading and earth moving equipment. 3. Extensive and dramatic pit conditions. 4. Ownership. 5. Separation of rehabilitation and excavation operations. Development of the ultimate land use potential of a sand and gravel site requires an organized planning program to cor- relate site, operational, and environmental factors with a con- current excavation and development process. The proposals and subsequent development procedures are based on the char- acter and structure of the site, the capabilities of the equipment, and the influences of the environment, utilizing the assets and reducing the conflicts of the total activity. Information about these influencing factors is essential in identifying the most effective approaches to land development. The detail of this information will determine the success of the plans. Following is a brief summation of a planned approach tc the development of a sand and gravel site: 1. Initiate the planning program upon purchase of sand and gravel property. 2. Review information pertinent to planning decisions about the: a. Deposit b. Operation and equipment c. Environment 3. Screen any anticipated objectionable characteristics. 4. On the basis of the above information determine appropri- ate land use and land patterns. 5. Integrate the development of these land patterns with the excavation process. 6. Improve the general appearance of the plant area. 7. Progressively develop the proposed land use potentials. In addition to creating functional land areas, a developmen program should improve the physical appearance of the plant thereby making the operation more compatible with the sur rounding land use. These two objectives can be accomplishec because the capacity for land development and improvement o physical conditions is contained within the site, the operations and the surrounding environment. Planned development ex ploits this capacity. Chapter 2 Equipment, Operations and Proposals Section 1: BACKGROUND Equipment Evolution Looking at the evolution of earth moving equipment and its role in performing sand and gravel operations, it seems that only yesterday a producer's inventory of equipment included, a team of horses, a Fresno bucket, a fleet of wagons, and a dozen hand shovels. These simple tools were adequate to satisfy a young America's limited demands for construction materials in the mid 1800's. Little thought was given to the use of equipment or operation for developing the excavated sites be- cause land ethics were still clothed in the pioneer spirit in which nature was an element to be exploited and resources were limitless. There was no public pressure for rehabilitation because unspoiled land was abundant and urban development simply avoided surrounding mining operations, industrial dis- tricts, and railroad yards. By 1900 America was prospering, its cities were growing, and its citizens demanded a better living environment. From these growing pains, pressure was trans- mitted to heavy equipment manufacturers by sand and gravel producers, industrial builders and large construction companies. Old equipment and methods of operations were slow, cumber- some, and "inadequate to keep pace with the growing need for dams, bridges, roads, homes, and commercial buildings. The construction and mining industries demanded bigger, faster, and more efficient machinery to cope with new and more complex extraction and construction problems. One of the first mechanized monsters was the custom made boiler plated steam shovel which hissed and boiled ominously as its half yard bucket systematically scooped out sand and gravel. This was immediately succeeded by the streamlined, gas-engine, shovel. The most rapid period of development in the evolution of earth moving equipment occurred between 1935 and 1945, when the armed forces required better types of earth- moving equipment to construct bases throughout America. This period ushered in the dump truck, the crawler dozer, and the rubber tired scraper to complete the modern cast of earth- moving characters. The continuous evolution of earth moving equipment will play a lead role in bringing into realization the growth and development of America as it rapidly progresses toward doub- ling its living, working, and recreation facilities in the next 35 years. Today, modern equipment, huge trucks with 50 ton capacities, draglines that can hog 90 yards of material in one cast, and scrapers that can strip 35 yards of material in less than a minute, can move material faster, farther, more cheaply and with less waste than ever before. They have opened the door to resource deposits that were formerly listed as unmin- able and have made rehabilitation feasible on sites where it would have been considered impossible by conventional methods. Pressure for land around urban centers, a growing public awareness of the functional and esthetic values of the land- scape, and imaginative conservation thinking are events which have paralleled the evolution of earthmoving equipment. The White House Conference on National Beauty was an expression of these concerns and an effort at the national level to bring the entire resource picture into focus. From the discussion it became obvious that Americans can no longer look, as the pioneer did, at the limitless resources of this vast country. Open space, wilderness areas, sand, gravel, were discussed as a few of our resources that are dwindling rapidly. These and many other areas will require immediate attention if resources are to be put to their optimum use. The increasing, complex problems of resource development have placed new responsibilities on the sand and gravel pro- ducer, for he is an extractor of resources and a potential de- veloper of buildable land forms. It falls on his shoulders to utilize his operational potential and the tremendous possibilities of modern earth moving equipment to extract the sand and gravel without waste and develop the excavated site in such a manner that it can be put to the highest and best use possible, for future generations, after excavation is completed. Introduction to Operations Every sand and gravel operation is a unique developmen resulting from a variety of site, equipment, and environmenta characteristics. Composition, quality and quantity of material market desired, plant capacity, topography and zoning are somi of the rudimentary factors that contribute to operational indi viduality during the excavation sequence. The diversity of methods for performing sand and grave operations is perhaps analogous to the variety of batting stance among baseball players: There are as many batting stances o methods of operation as there are batters, or producers. But when differences in site, deposit, and personal equipment ar removed, most operations like the swing of the batter will in elude the same sequence of motions, or more appropriately, thi basic operation steps; which would include: clearing stockpiling transporting stripping excavating processing In most cases today's producers have an operating plai that co-ordinates the use of equipment in all these steps in ai effort to direct the flow of sand and gravel from the excavatio: site to the processing plant in the most efficient manner. Th purpose of an operations plan is to gain the maximum outpu from men and machines, to produce quality aggregates profit ably, and to sell these construction materials to the consume at the lowest possible cost. Unfortunately, the operations plan, in itself, does not con tribute significantly toward site development. But, it can if it scope is broadened! Consider the definition of "planned de velopment" taken from "Simultaneous Excavation and Rehabili tation of Sand and Gravel Sites": "Planned development is process of arranging the possibilities that evolve from the site the operation, the equipment and the environment that wil eliminate the creation of unusable land areas and reduce inher ent operational problems." This implies that operation ani equipment receive a second look. It suggests that we not onl consider what each operational step or use of equipment doe to carry on production of sand and gravel but also what prob lems it creates, what development opportunities it possesse; and what it contributes visually and physically to the er vironment. In essence a rehabilitation plan is a propose- sequence of operations, (an operations plan) for the esthetic of the community, proposed land-use, and the owners operj tional capabilities and sequence. This chapter is an inventory and analysis of equipment an normal operating procedures. The purpose is to illuminate thei individual roles in the extractive process and their potentif for progressive rehabilitation. The chapter is structured in the following manner: 1. Description of the operation 2. Analysis of the operation results inter-related to rehabili- tation 3. Rehabilitation potential of equipment & operations 4. Proposals for use of equipment and operation potential to progressively develop the site 8 ■^ - -> .■» / - ■ .. Section 2: CLEARING Description Clearing the site prior to excavation involves the removal of trees, shrubs, boulders, and structures thus allowing equip- ment to move freely over and into the earth's surface in the performance of the excavation operations. The bulldozer is the most commonly used type of equipment for the clearing oper- ation. Results of Operation Visual Impact: Clearing operations remove the vegetation which formerly screened the site and linked it with the surrounding landscape, thus creating the first visually negative impression of a sand and gravel operation. The impact of clearing depends upon several factors: the amount and type of vegetation removed, the size of the cleared area, the percentage of the site cleared at one time, and the landscape character of the area. For ex- ample, the removal of one or two small trees on a prairie sand and gravel site will be noticed only by those intimately familiar with the area. By contrast, the removal of 400 acres of mature trees from a densely forested site in one operation will gen- erally create a drastic contrast with the surrounding landscape which can be readily seen by passing viewers, (fig. 4 & fig. 5) Ecological Change: Micro-climatic alterations both on and off the site caused by clearing operations disturbing natures balance and thus cre- ate ecological change. The severity of the disturbance is great- est on sites where the amount of clearing is extensive. Signifi- cant micro-climatic elements that change include wind veloci- ties, light levels and rain penetration. These alterations may seem academic in comparison with the drastic changes that excavation phases of sand and gravel operations impart to the landscape. However, in many cases the initial disturbance caused by clearing has direct bearing upon site rehabilitation, particularly preservation of existing plant materials for screening and de- velopment purposes. As an illustration, consider an optimum change situation. A large site that is densely forested with pine trees. Prior to clearing these plants formed their own competi- tive but self-sustaining and mutually protective society. When clearing operations began the balance in the society was dis- rupted. Low growing trees, when removed from the edge of the site, no longer break the force of erosive winds. Thus, what were once normal winds, in the crowns of these trees, now have the potential to blow trees down and cause extensive damage both on and off the site. Increased light, which floods the newly cleared opening, spells doom for the shade loving Fig. 4 — Site Before Clearing Fig. 5 — Site After Clearing ?y|\^*K? ^ do not hold true in every case. A site may contain one or more of these results. The point is to illustrate that: there is a re- lationship between deposit, excavation equipment, operations and the final excavated form. It is advisable to study these relationships before any rehabilitation proposals are made to determine what type of res'ults can be expected and what pro- cedures are necessary to direct these results toward the realiza- tion of ultimate development objectives. Potential The producer excavating sand and gravel is a sculptor at a grand scale. The earth and its sand and gravel deposit are similar to rock, wood, or metal molded by the studio artist anc ^ Fig. 18 — Typical Stockpiling and Excavating Patterns of the Dragline 16 Fig. 19 — Oriental Character Pervades in this Dragline Excavated Lake Fig. 20 — A Beautiful Lake Formed by Dredge Excavation Fig. 21 —Lost Potential: A Water Area Choked with Overburden from an Unplanned Dragline Operation 17 Fig. 22 — Shallow Water Area the excavating equipment is different only in scale from the artist's hammers and chisels. For the producer and his equip- ment to achieve the most sculptural and functional forms for the site, two rehabilitation principles should be observed: (1) In terms of ultimate site development, maximum results can be achieved with minimum additional expenditures of funds and effort by integrating rehabilitation with excavation to meet the final site requirement and esthetic considerations. Rehabilita- tion during excavation will avoid expensive land alterations at the completion of the project. (2) The use of equipment and operations for site development should be planned prior to excavation so that the potential of each is utilized efficiently. Proposals In this section, the use of equipment is discussed as it ap- plies to typical operational results, slopes, basegrade, water areas, and, its use in creating some special features. Equipment Utilization: Screening The objectives of screening are to block views of the ob- jectionable portions of sand and gravel operations, frame in- teresting portions of the site, such as the processing plant, water areas, -or rehabilitated land, and reduce noise and dust ^^^^ tk^lt C^ ^n^l^CLCrTS ?*■--■*' -X. ^ *c(^-^^^ Overburden Mounds ( r 4>^ 1 / F "^^ \ A Jk\\ ' " ' ^'*'^ I . r V^ x\\*' \ ^/\. V\ » ' ^v * I / II * M 1 1 II * M 1. l\\ \* \ /n,\ \v "^V '• 1 1 11 ^ m J /^)' \ / ^^^0\v \Nv '.' ^V • / lu M y '- X ^^ 1 ^\^\\\ '• ^v "* / / If • m ^ /^/ X? 1 ^\\\\ ■ • ■• ^^ iM ^ "^ \u/ s I •• ^\S^^^5^^^^>-^ ■ ^^ \// If M V ^ ■H / _\ \ ' ^^^S^^^^^?:\" '. ^-^ 4 ^F 4 W / v\ / \ ' ^ ^*=5=-flI*fc- \\ //* - w / /III / % \ ^ — •""—— -^jTrimc 1 • ' y J k m \ *•••• ^"""^jtifc^ ^i^ • y 1 y V^ . .' ^"i^ / V ,/• •// / / y ^V '. y X ^^ // ]/ ^^^ V^". /'' V ^> ^---- ^ Fig. 23 — Scraper-Mound Screen 18 Fig. 24 — Dozer, Dragline, Mound Screen problems. Overburden provides an immediate source for screening material since portions of it are usually stockpiled along the periphery of the site where it can be used as a buffer between operations and the surrounding land uses. Overburden can be used, as needed, for fill material after being used as a screen, unless it is desirable to maintain screening for further land uses as specified in a development plan. In such case the mound should be made a permanent land feature at the time it is placed on the site periphery. All types of equipment used for stripping or stockpiling are capable of creating overburden mounds of one form or another. Scrapers and draglines are the two most common types of equipment used for stripping and stockpiling and thus should become directly involved in forming screening mounds. Scrapers, with their ability to deposit fill in smooth forms, are well adapted for creating interesting undulating screening mounds of varying heights, (fig. 23) Mounds formed by drag- lines often look like a regimented series of mounds marching along the property line. To improve the appearance of these mounds it is recommended that a dozer be utilized to shape the mounds into pleasant forms, (fig. 24) Possibilities for shaping mounds into interesting forms de- pend upon set back requirements and the quantity of over- burden, as well as equipment. In narrow set back areas, the shaping of mounds is limited to rounding the top and sloping the sides because there is not enough room to manipulate the material into artistic forms. In such cases, it may be desirable to bring mounds back into the site over marginal deposit areas and relieve the barrier-like appearance of a long thin mound form. Sites with large set back requirements offer ample space to create interesting screening compositions. Slopes on all mounds should be constructed so that they can be mowed to control weeds and/or maintain a cover crop. A 3:1 slope is maximum machine mowable grade. Cover crops should be planted too, on the mounds, to stabilize slopes, help control weeds, and improve mound appearance. There is no ideal size or shape for screening mounds. The height necessary to obstruct objectionable views depends upon the height of the observer and the distance between the ob- server and the object. A general rule is to construct mounds that will completely screen objectionable views. Those which hide only a portion of the objectionable features of a sand and gravel operation will only increase the viewer's curiosity to see what is behind the rest of the mound. A mound along and close to a road, for example, should not become too large or overpowering, because it may create a visual image as objec- tionable as that which it is trying to screen. In some cases, screen planting can be used to accent the mounds or expand the possibility of screening views on or off the site. It may be desirable to make some quick elevation sketches relating the observer's eye level (five feet, six inches for a man standing, and' four feet, seated in a car) to the mound from various points to insure that objectionable views are screened and that the mound forms are desirable and in scale with the surroundings, (fig. 25) Slope Development The objectives of slope development for pit walls or hill- sides is to create slopes that are stable (will not erode) and, if possible, slopes that are usable parts of the site. There are three basic approaches to slope development: (1) Controlled use of excavation equipment to create gradual slopes or ter- races and to cover them with overburden during the course of the excavation operation (applicable to sites with small quan- tities of overburden). (2) Use of overburden to fill out the slope, following closely behind excavation operations, (appli- cable to sites with large quantities of overburden). (3) Use excavation equipment to round off the slopes from above or to cut them back from above and cover them with overburden after excavation. Approach 1 In most operations the pit wall can be sloped to a desired percentage during the excavation operation. This requires that Fig. 25 — Elevation— Mound Screen 19 Overburde :^^x-y Sand and Gravel / Fig. 26 — Scraper— Terracing the specified slope gradient be adopted prior to excavation. Sand and gravel will not be mined behind the designated toe of the slope. To create the desired slope, excavation equip- ment should proceed along the cut line at the specified percent of gradient from the top of the slope to the pit floor. Once the desired slope is created, overburden can be pushed down the slope or built up from below. It should be noted that the percent of the deposit left untouched increases with a decrease in the slope grade; slopes should be kept to a 2:1 or 3:1 range to minimize deposit waste unless development-returns, in the form of increased land value from buildable sites, from a lesser gradient, make such slopes feasible. Terracing is a form of controlled excavation. The idea be- hind terracing of pit walls or hillsides is to work the slope in a series of benches. Terraces serve several functions: They break the erosive force of surface water which will reduce erosion; they catch debris falling from above, that may cause damage or injury to development or people below. They also provide shelves for planting and for buildings, roads, warehouses, trail systems, etc. The horizontal width of the terrace will depend upon the gradient of the slope, the type of excavation equipment, its digging reach, and the physical requirements for a land use, if any are proposed. Generally the terrace widths should allow space for the excavation equipment to maneuver. Scrapers will require turning space; the boom type excavators will need ro- tating room for casting overburden and loading trucks. In some cases, room for transportation equipment will need to be pro- vided on the terrace. It is recommended that the terrace width be kept to a minimum unless large widths are required for a specific land use where losses in unmined material are justified by increased land values. The terrace should be pitched back toward the slope to drain water into the cut. This forms a diversion ditch for water which can be collected at various points along the bank and drained down grassed or paved waterways to collection areas at the bottom of the pit. Terracing by scrapers is a process of excavating a con- tinuous series of gradually descending benches. The scraper operations should be organized so that the overburden, cover- ing the first terrace, is stripped and transported to the site periphery, where a screening mound can be developed. Once the first terrace is formed, overburden covering the second ter- race should be stripped and deposited on the first terrace while the second terrace is being excavated, etc., until the pit floor or basegrade of the hillside is reached, (fig. 26) Shovels, clamshells, or draglines can be used to create terraces if excavation along the pit wall or hillside is organized into a series of gradually descending benches. If these types of equipment are used for stripping and stockpiling as well as ex- cavating, it is recommended that the overburden be cast back onto the previously excavated terrace or the material can be loaded into trucks and dumped on the above terrace, (fig. 27) If scrapers are used for stripping purposes, prior to excavation, it is recommended that they be used to resurface the terraces Overburden / / - I J ' Sand and Gravel / I ' ' f . o Step 1 Overburden / / Sand and Gravel D Step 2 Overburden Sand and Gravel Step 3 Fig. 17 — Dragline— Terracing 20 Overburden I Stripping Overburden Over- burden Forming Slope Final Slope J .Overburden Over- burden Over- burden Fig. 28 — Scraper— Filling Out Slope Fig. 29 — Dragline-Truck-Dozer— Filling Out Slope with the overburden. This overburden can be leveled out so the terrace may serve as a haul road or, if it is not neces- sary, trees, shrubs, and grasses can be planted (during slack periods in the spring or fall). up near the bank where it is needed. Bulldozers can then be used to smooth out the overburden into an even grade or more material can be dumped over the slope from above to achieve the desired gradient, (fig. 30) Approach 2 Approach 3 Sites with large quantities of overburden have an asset for slope development. Excavation can proceed as normal right up to the set back line, so that the maximum quantity of sand and gravel can be removed. This will leave a near vertical pit wall which can be filled to the desired grade with overburden. Scrapers can be used for this type of slope development by dumping the overburden removed during stripping operations on the excavated pit floor up against the pit wall and to grad- ually build up the slope, (fig. 28) Trucks used in combination with boom type stripping equipment can follow a similar pro- cedure by trucking and dumping overburden from the excava- tion site to the base of the pit wall. (fig. 29) Boom excavators, particularly the dragline, can stockpile in an incline manner (tallest piles nearest the bank, becoming smaller as they move away from the bank), thus putting the largest quantity of earth The simplest approach to slope development, for all types of excavating equipment, is to excavate in the normal manner, leaving a vertical working face. '! hen, after excavation has moved away from the pit wall, the bank can be pushed in from the top by bulldozers to create a slope which will assume the material's natural angle of repose, (fig. 31) Overburden and topsoil can be pushed over this slope from above to form a base for plant growth. Since a slope formed in this manner is an uncompactablc fill, it should be formed only where it will initially receive limited use so that it can properly settle after which it can be developed for a variety of uses. The dragline can work from above the bank and cut a slope back toward itself. Since the operation is cutting a bank that has been naturally compacted, the slope created will be stable. The dragline remains at the top of the slope, casts its bucket to 21 Overburden uii^iiii^iii^^^^' ' '-^ 0 . Step 1 Overburden Step 2 Overburden Step 3 Overburden Step 4 Fig. 30— Dragline— Inclined Stockpiling . ? - ■ .0 • . 3 . Gravel • • 0 * • Step 1 Overburden Step 2 Step 3 Overburden Step 4 Fig. 31 — Dozer— Cutting Back Slope 9T the bottom, and then pulls it up through the sand and gravel, cutting a slope toward itself. Once the desired slope is achieved, the dragline can cast the overburden that is stockpiled along the site periphery down the slope, (fig. 32) It is suggested that such slopes be formed where they will receive only limited use, at least until the bank has had time to settle properly, because the material is uncompacted and will not withstand intense use without erosion. Basegrade Preparation Basegrade preparation procedures (the construction of drainable and buildable topography on the bottom or hillside of a pit) consist of: Excavating to elevations specified in the grading plan, and covering the excavated area with overburden and topsoil. Basegrade preparation becomes the important rehabilitation procedure after excavation operations have worked away from the edge of the property and down to the base of the deposit. As with slope development, basegrade preparation should be continued simultaneously throughout the duration of excavation operations so that the site can be pro- gressively rehabilitated. The objectives of a basegrade prepa- ration plan are similar to any grading plan: To insure proper site drainage; to create an adequate foundation for land uses and other functional necessities, and to sculpturally mold the land into esthetically pleasing forms. The procedure necessary to implement a basegrade preparation program is strongly in- fluenced by the type of excavating equipment and its operating characteristics because each type of equipment offers oppor- tunities and limitations that must be considered. Scrapers: The rubber-tired scraper and the tractor-drawn scraper have the ability to strip the overburden off the deposit, excavate the sand and gravel to the planned specified depth, and redeposit overburden in the desired location, to the desired depth without the aid of other grading equipment. In essence, the normal operating procedures for these types of equipment are the same as the "Progressive Rehabilitation Cycle", (fig. 33) All that is recommended to maintain operating efficiency, as well as achieve rehabilitation objectives, is a flow diagram which will balance long and short hauling distances for the redeposition of overburden to insure that the average hauling length remains within the efficient operating range of the equipment. Rubber-tired and track excavators are also used for strip- ping and stockpiling purposes on sites where boom equipment, cable excavators and dredges are used to excavate sand and gravel. Consequently, the cycle for basegrade preparation, just discussed for scrapers, can be adapted to these operations by interjecting the type of boom, cable, or dredge excavator into the diagram at the excavation stage. The role of the boom or cable excavating equipment in a combined operation is to ex- cavate to the prescribed depth, while the scraper resurfaces the excavated area with overburden and topsoil. Numerous il- lustrations throughout the text show the use of the scraper for stripping and rehabilitation purposes in conjunction with other types of excavating equipment, (fig. 34) & (fig. 35) Boom Excavators: In some cases boom types of excavating equipment — drag- lines, clamshells, and shovels — are not proceeded by other types of stripping machinery. Draglines, for instance, frequently perform stripping, stockpiling and excavating operations simul- taneously and can be utilized for basegrade development. Drag- lines or other boom types of equipment used for stripping shallow overburden (3-5 feet deep) prior to excavation, and casting it into stockpiles in previously excavated areas, can be easily adapted to a basegrade preparation program because the stockpiles are small enough to be regraded by dozers. All that is required is a systematic plan to redistribute these small over- burden stockpiles with dozers or loaders into an even mantle, completely covering areas exposed by excavation, (fig. 36) It is recommended that the material be redistributed as soon as possible after excavation so that planting can begin. Difficulties can arise where boom types of equipment are used for stripping extensive deposits of overburden. I he solu- Fig. 32 — Dragline— Cutting Back Slope To Processing Plant: Stripping '. . \ Excavating in Place Stockpiling Fig. 33 — Scraper— Developing Base Grade 23 Fig. 34 — Clamshell-Scraper— Developing Base Grade Overburden Overburden Overburden Fig. 35 — Combination of Equipment— Hillside Development 24 Fig. 36 — Dragline-Dozer— Base Grade Development tit)n is to limit stockpile size and form to a proportion that can be economically redistributed into usable and drainable grades by dozers and scrapers. Redistributing the material is necessary to remove the undulations, often 20 feet high or more, from the characteristic scrubboard pattern of dragline operations. Modifying the normal operating pattern by organizing an excavation program that will incorporate short frequent moves along the digging path and stockpiling the material into two small windrows is one method of keeping stockpile size to a workable proportion. The two windrows of material will, in essence, form a plateau, which dozers or even scrapers can level out and make confluent with succeeding windrows, (fig. 37) Shortening the boom length or adapting operating patterns that reduce the space between windrows, shortens the distance necessary for regrading equipment to move the material to establish a uniform grade. These solutions may necessitate a smaller excavation area and thus require an increased number of digging passes to ex- tract the sand and gravel. Consequently, production cost will increase slightly, but in most cases the increase in land value, because of planned rehabilitation, will more than cover these expenses. Utilizing trucks in combination with the excavating ma- chinery to redistribute part of the overburden is another ap- proach. Trucks would add the mobility feature to the operation and allow overburden, to be deposited beyond the normal cast- ing reach of boom equipment in locations where it is most beneficial to site development. A system could be organized whereby trucks remove only a portion of the material to be stockpiled, leaving an adequate amount for bulldozers to grade over the exposed sand and gravel in the immediate excavation area. Manhandling the windrows of overburden, after excavation, is recommended only on sites where no other method is feasible. This procedure begins by leveling one of the win- drows to create a platform for the excavating equipment. The equipment then works ofi" the top of this platform along the axis of the windrow, excavating the overburden from the windrow, and depositing it in the low area between windrows, until the area is leveled. Manhandling the stockpiles is the least desirable basegrade preparation technique for several reasons: It is more expensive than the previously-mentioned techniques because it involves a second and possibly third han- dling of the material; it is dangerous because equipment work- ing on top of an uncompacted windrow can easily slide off the pile; and rehabilitating after excavation fails to realize the benefits of progressive site rehabilitation. (Progressive utiliza- tion of the site by land uses and cover crop seeding and plant- ing, as soon after excavation as possible so that vegetation can become established.) Cable Excavators To insure proper development of the basegrade, excavation by drag scraper or slackline cable should be controlled by a grading plan and the oVerburden should be replaced in pre- viously excavated areas by the method applicable to rubber- tired or boom excavators. Water Areas Most uses for water areas, such as swimming, boating, fish- ing, manufacturing, and fish hatcheries, to mention a few, are most successful in lakes which are clear and deep. Relatively few uses, with the exception of bird sanctuaries, hunting pre- serves and other similar extensive uses, can utilize water areas that are shallow, stagnant and choked with overburden and weeds. Thus, on most sites, the objectives of equipment utili- zation for water area development are to: (1) create water areas that are free of windrows of material and deep enough to meet the demands of the proposed use and (2) develop the land surrounding the water into usable portions of the site. Scrapers: The scraper is often involved in wet site operations as a stripping and stockpiling tool, in advance of excavation oper- ations by dredges, clamshells, cable excavators and, in some cases, draglines. The use of the scraper for this purpose ac- complishes two objectives that are important for rehabilitation: (1) It eliminates windrows of overburden in the water, (2) and provides the possibility of using the overburden as fill material, to create peninsulas of buildable land, and (increas- ing the land areas) from the shoreline into the water area. The possibilities for creating buildable land on a site de- pend upon the amount of overburden available for land form- ing, the depth of water where filling will occur, and the physical composition of the overburden used for filling. Before land development operations are undertaken, it is recom- mended that enough overburden be set aside to completely resurface exposed areas of sand and gravel left by excavation, as described in the 'Basegrade Development" section. For economic development, the size of the land form should be adequate to meet the functional requirements ol the proposed land use. Residential, commercial and industrial land uses have definite space requirements for buildings, parking, utilities and other services which must be satisfied if they are to be economically adaptable to the site. For example, if a peninsula land-form were to be developed for residential pur- 25 Dual Row Stockpile Of Overburden Fig. 37 — Dragline-Scraper— Dual Row Stockpiling and Base Grade Development 26 Normal Operating Pattern And Result n n n r^ ♦~i 4r^ r^ \J_ I 4r^ 1 4/"\-^ 4'rLr Stockpiling Direction Digging Pattern Overburden Pattern Alteration No. 1 Water Area Over- burden 1 Vf .3# //: \^MM Pattern Alteration No. 2 Water Area Over- burden Digging stockpiling Direction Pattern -a^ Fig. 38 & 39— Dragline Pattern Alternation— Water Area Development 27 Fig. 40 — Dozer and Truck— Land Forming poses, a width of 260 to 300 feet would be sufficient for con- ventional types of housing. This width would provide space for a 60 foot road with lots on both sides of 100 to 120 feet depth and an economical utility system. If the peninsula were only 150 feet wide it would have only one half as many lots as the preceding example but would require the same utilities to service the development and the utility costs per lot would be doubled. Less intense land use, such as parks, hunting and fish clubs, can use land forms of almost any shape, form or size because picnicking areas, fishing banks, hunting passes or over- looks do not have definite space requirements. Compaction procedures, which are the steps necessary to tamp the land fill, depend upon what the land will be used for. The compaction by the dumping and grading equipment is often sufficient for less intensive land uses, such as wilderness and park areas. But if structures are going to be erected, as in the residential example above, it is recommended that the pro- ducer consult a landscape architect or civil engineer to deter- mine the exact compaction procedures necessary to meet the specific soil bearing capacities needed to support these struc- tures. Dredges, Clamshells and Cable Excavators: Excavation operations by these types of equipment are usu- ally preceeded by stripping operations which are performed by other equipment. Since the scraper is often the tool used for stripping operations, (the other equipment), much of the above-mentioned procedure is applicable. Thus, the primary role of dredge, clamshell, and cable excavator, in water area development, is to excavate the water to a depth which will be desirable for the predetermined use. This may involve excavat- ing below the natural depth of the deposit in a shallow deposit area, to achieve the desired depth. This is only possible if the underlying material is minable, such as clay. Thus, it may be desirable to fill shallow water areas, or leave the shallow area unexcavated on sites where excavation cannot create water areas of the desired depth. Draglines: Draglines strip, stockpile and excavate simultaneously and usually cast the stripped overburden hack into excavated areas. On sites with deep deposits or shallow overburden, this does not present any serious problems because the amounts of ma- 28 Overburden Fig. 41 — Dike Construction— Dragline terial returned to the water will not appreciably affect water depth. On sites with large quantities of overburden, pre- cautions should be taken to avoid filling in portions of the water area or chopping it into unusable segments with win- drows of material. In this situation, best results can be achieved when excavating patterns are planned in a manner that will consolidate the overburden in specific areas and leave large open water areas. Any number of operating patterns are possible; two are illustrated, (fig. 38) & (fig. 39) On both types of sites it may be desirable to utilize the dragline to load overburden into trucks instead of casting it into the water. Trucks can then haul the material to the de- sired land form location, dump it into the water and gradually expand the land form to the desired proportions. Bulldozers can assist in distributing the material evenly and will also help to compact the fill. The dragline, truck, dozer combination is recommended as a means of capitalizing on land remnants near shore and turning them into development assets, (fig. 40) If it appears, from prelimin;vry studies, that the quantity of overburden returned into the water will be too large to create usable water areas, even if the operation pattern is altered, it may be desirable to sub-contract stripping operations to outside firms. This may be feasible on wet sites where stripping oper- ations, with the producer's equipment, would usually create windrows of overburden in the water, destroying the aesthetic and/or functional qualities of the lake. Utilizing scrapers for stripping may mean the difference between a site with lake site lots worth $5,000 an acre, or an unusable, stagnant swamp. An example of the above procedure has been utilized by a producer in Lincoln, Illinois who sub-contracted his strip- ping operations to a road contractor. The contractor does the stripping job with scrapers every fall, before he puts the equip- ment away for the winter. The stripped overburden has been stockpiled along the shoreline, and is used for fill to form buildable land areas for seasonal cabins. After stripping has been completed, this producer has used his excavation equip- ment to create several beautiful lakes, one of which contains public beach facilities. If this practice appears to be unfeasible, it may be necessary to fill in the water area with overburden, fines, waste sand, or sterilized industrial or sanitary waste. Draglines, Trucks and Scrapers — Diking Overburden is an inexpensive material that can be used for the construction of dikes to contain waste sand for the creation of land areas out into the water. Diking is applicable on sites where a desander is standard processing equipment. For drag- lines, dike construction is simply a matter of stockpiling the overburden around the area where the waste sand will be de- posited. (FIG. 41) Trucks can create a dike by building an enlarged haul road out into the water, which will enclose the desired waste sand disposal area. (fig. 42) Dikes should be located where the land forms they will create are most beneficial, either as a positive asset, such as land for development, or to remove a negative site feature such as land for development, or to remove a negative site feature such as filling in a shallow water area. Such locations Overburden Fig. 42 — Truck— Land Forming 29 include the lop of no dig areas, around shallow water areas, near low spots on the site, or where screening may be desirable. No specific information is available pertaining to dike con- struction, such as widths or cross-section designs, capable of withstanding the pressures of wet waste sand. Since an over- burden dike, constructed in the water, is similar to an earthen dam containing water, the following information from the book by Herbert I.. Nichols, "Moving the Earth" may be pertinent. "The dam should be at least six feet thick at the water level and slopes should not exceed 2:1 on the downstream side nor 3:1 upstream."" Dike dimensions above the water on a no dig area used in an Indianapolis rehabilitation project were: A 20 foot base. 3:1 slopes and an average height of 15 feet. Exact information can be obtained from local civil engineers or land- scape architects who are familiar with local soil conditions. Improved Operations: Grading Plan: It is recommended that a grading plan be developed to guide equipment operations, in preparing the site efficiently and economically for its ultimate utilization. The goals of the grading plan in terms of land forming will depend on the re- quirements for the site"s projected land use and the esthetic objectives. Grading plans may be developed by several pro- fessions, but the landscape architect is especially trained to create sculptural land forms that are esthetically pleasing, as well as functional. The preciseness of the grading plan depends upon the functional requirements of the future land use. Generally, ac- curate grading is required for the intensive land uses. For instance, a site to be developed for high density housing im- plies a host of utilities such as roads, walks, sewers, power lines, and parking areas, all requiring quite specific gradients which dictate a very carefully-controlled grading program. At the other extreme, a sand and gravel operation, destined for reuse as a regional park, would require accurate grading only along roads or other intense use areas with only touch up grading and replacement of topsoil necessary in the more remote areas since a somewhat rugged character is typical of this land use. Approximate Gradients for Potential Site Users Gradient Gradient Gradient Potential Use Range Potential Use Range Potential Use Range Per Cent Per Ceat Per Ceat Truck farm 2-4 Single family residential tracts Hunting resort 5-20 Nursery 2-4 (medium density) 2-10 Outdoor warehousing 2-4 Seasonal cottages 2-10 High rise residential tracts 2-30 Industrial sites 2-4 Research center 2-10 Amateur missile launching area 2-30 Commercial sites 2-4 Riding club 2-10 Auto test course 2-30 School sites 2-4 Country club 2-10 Missile test site 2-30 Single family residential tracts Single family residential tracts Game preserve 2-30 (high density) 2-4 (low density) 2-10 Ordnance storage 5-20 Regional park 2-50 Church sites 2-10 Golf course 5-20 Woodland 2-50 Zoo 2-10 Tree farm 5-20 Open space 2-50 Golf driving range 2-10 Camp sites 5-20 Gradients for Site Facilities Facility Gradient Facility Gradient Facility Gradient Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Buildings 0 Minor streets 1-7 Archery range 2-10 Football fields 1 Sidewalks 1-8 Hiking trails 2-25 Softball fields 1 Driveways 1-10 Ground cover areas 2-50 P^ved game courts 1 Paved patios 2-4 Swimming beach 3-4 Recreation apparatus areas 1-3 Horseshoe courts 2-4 Sled slopes 5-15 Secondary thoroughfares 1-4 Picnic areas 2-8 Ski slopes 5-25 Par^^ing areas 1-5 Lawn areas 2-10 Motorboat launching ramp 17-26 30 The grading plan should be completed in two stages. In- itially only a sketch plan, which specifies high and low points, drainage swales and water collection areas, is necessary to gm'de excavation operations. Since excavation usually extracts the deposit to its natural limits, these elevations will usually correspond with the base of the deposit. However, some earth sculpture may be required to transl'orm the site into usable real estate property. Therefore, the grading plan may specify low areas to be filled, various slopes, treatment of pit banks to retard erosion, and the removal of unminable portions of the deposit, shaping of the pit floor or other grading procedures that may be required to accommodate a specific land use. As excavation proceeds and the overburden is placed in the proposed locations, on excavated areas, a second stage to the grading plan becomes necessary. The second stage should be a refinement of the sketch plan to establish permanent subgrade elevations prior to topsoiling operations. To achieve the desired accuracy, this grading should be drawn correctly and to scale, showing finished contours at one or two foot intervals. It may also be advisable to make a model of the proposed contours to help in visualizing the topography. Summary of Proposals I. Use of Equipment A. Screening 1. Scrapers 2. Dragline B. Slope Development — Various Types of Equipment (Fig. 43) 1. Controlled excavation 2. Overburden fill 3. Cut sloping C. Basegrade preparation (Fig. 44) 1. Scrapers 2. Boom excavators 3. Cable excavators D. Water areas (Fig. 45) 1. Scrapers 2. Dredges, clamshells and cable excavators 3. Dragline 4. Draglines, trucks, and scrapers — Diking II. Improved Operations A. Grading plan B. Approximate Grade for Land Uses \ Fig. 43 — Sloping and Terracing with Dozer and Dragline Fig. 44 — Base Grade Developed by Scraper, Seeded with Rye Grass Fig. 45 — A Successfully Rehabilitated Water Area 31 V. Section 4: PROCESSING AND TRANSPORTING Description The processing plant is a combination of screens, crushers, classifiers, desanders, conveyor hoppers, and loading equipment forming a unit that achieves a specific rate of production and a quality grade of material. Each plant is designed to meet a variety of building material specifications. In addition to the main plant, short term operations with small portable plants may be used. Associated with the processing plant are stock- piles of material and in some cases waste sand deposits and settling basins. In a typical plant operation the unrefined material is trans- ported from the excavation site to the top of the processing equipment. The raw sand and gravel travels through the plant on a series of conveyors and at various stages along the route it undergoes a series of washing and screening operations. The methods of transporting the material from the excavation area to the plant are selected on the basis of site conditions and the operators preference. There are two basic modes of transpor- tation: The relatively stationary forms such as conveyors and pipelines, which are moved infrequently if at all, and mobile forms such as trucks, carryalls, and loaders which deposit the material into hoppers that feed the material to the processing plant by conveyors. In some instances a combination of these transportation methods may be used. Operation Results The average area required for processing equipment, stock- piles, and transportation circulation is about 10 to 20 acres. On most sites this is a minute portion of the total operation area. However, surprisingly large numbers of nuisance prob- lems, especially during the course of operations, may emanate from the plant area. Noise from crushers grinding the ma- terials, the chatter of vibrating sorting screens and the clatter of sand and gravel smashing against the side of steel hoppers are noises that may carry far off the site. Dust stirred by trucks moving over roads of pulverized soil may also be carried by the wind off the site onto adjoining properties. Consequently, the processing plant has received the brunt of public criticism, especially if its appearance is disorganized and it is in a un- repaired condition that will attract attention to itself and the problems it may be creating. On most sites the processing plant is the identifying feature of a sand and gravel operation, (fig. 46) Its visual impor- tance is based upon many factors. Among them are the plant relationships to the landscape and excavation area, the fre- quency with which the plant is exposed to view, the structural character, upkeep of the plant, and the size of stockpiles. Plants on a flat site are exposed to view on all four sides. The massive structures and multitude of conveyors with the towering stockpiles may become colorful and exciting compo- sition which dominate the surrounding landscape. To some sympathetic citizens the processing plant is prized as a subject for water color painting, but to the vast majority it is an objectionable addition to their community, (fig, 47) On hillside sites, the processing plants are usually located near to the excavation area and consequently screened on three sides by the excavation, leaving only one area exposed to be viewed. The plants visual significance is often overshadowed by the steep, vertical working face that projects above the mining area. Stockpiles of processed material are likewise lost against the dominant wall of exposed sand and gravel. Rehabilitation Potential There is a great deal of potential for ultimate site develop- ment in both processing and transporting operations. There is also potential for improvement of the industry's public image by a cleaning up of the appearance of the plant area, especially since the plant is regarded by a majority of the public as the symbol of the industry. Processing equipment, specifically the desander. provides material for land forming in the form of waste sand. (fig. 48) & (fig. 49) The desander's pumping system and pipelines are a built-in transportation network that allows the material to be deposited within the discharge radius of the pump. Thus a variety of uses for rehabilitation are pos- sible such as: land forming, filling, and beach and shoreline development. Proposals Equipment Utilization: Processing Equipment The desander removes excess sand from the final product and is the most important item of processing equipment for ultimate land development. The waste sand can be used in 32 Fig. 46 — A Processing Plant That Dominates the Skyline r .^^•4i^v i ^^^* \ Fig. 47 — Character in a Processing Plant Fig. 48 — Fan Shape of a Waste Sand Deposit Fig. 49 — Land Forming Possibilities of Waste Sand 33 «... « ■» .-<■■-- Desander After Excavation Waste Sand Filling Waste Sand Pipe ..-<:' Plan View Finished Shore Line Fig. 50 — Shoreline Development— Desander creating inlcrcsiing larul tiniiis. oiittloor spaces, and screening mounds to block objeclionahie views around the site. Proces- sing plants which sort out fines (silt or clay) can be utilized for rehabilitation in the same manner as the desander. The first step in utilizing the desander for rehabilitation is to determine areas where waste sand will be most beneficial for development. This will vary with each site but some sug- gested locations would include: areas for beach development; fill in shallow water; shoreline development; fill in low areas; and sites for buildable land forms. The second step is to conceive methods for conveying waste sand from the desander to the desired location. In this regard pump output capacity, the maximum distance which the pump can transport waste sand, and the flexibility of the conveying pipe may become limiting factors. The desirable fill areas beyond the pump"s maximum reach will have to be eliminated unless a semi-portable desander which follows excavation op- erations is used or in some cases it may be advisable to use larger pumps, which can move waste sand farther if. for in- stance, an unbuildable sliver of land can be converted into ten $6,000 home sites. In such cases the additional pump cost is usually absorbed by the increased land value facilitated by a better site development. Beaches and Shorelines: The affluence of clean, fine sand, discharged by normal de- sander operations in the immediate vicinity of the processing plant or portable desander. creates huge. wide, gently-sloping 34 Desander Overburden myrfixaummssaaa No Dig Area Dredge ^Overburden Dike Water No Dig Area Dredge Desander Waste Sand A^jltii^* t.fc**"nk was dcvclopctl south of Jackass Hill Road. The city of Littleton already owns a large portion of this area for well sites. It was felt that a good public relations venture would be to donate or sell the remaining portion of the site to the county for park space. The park has excellent access to Jackass Hill Road, and offers sandy beaches seldom found in the Denver area. Ihc park would be connected with Littleton by a system of trails and bike paths along the levee so young- sters could travel to and from the park by themselves. A small rowboat marina was pi\)posed. in conjunction with the beach. so that the small islands could be developed for picnic pur- poses. The Arapahoe County Planning Commission felt this type of park development would be very desirable in this location. The lakes will be stocked with a quantity of game fish in- cluding bass, blue-gills and crappies. Shallow water areas in the eastern portion of the site, paralleling the main entrance road are proposed to be left undeveloped so such areas could be planted with aquatic plants to establish fish spawning areas. Thus, the fish could maintain their own population level with- out frequent restocking. DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS Orientation Sheet The orientation sheet locates the site and its area of in- fluence within the Denver Region and illustrates the re- lationship of the site to the land use that occurs along the South Santo Fe Drive from the Denver Central Business District to the rural landscape. Site Analysis The site analysis is a graphic representation of the various natural and cultural factors such as vegetation, surround- ing land use, and flood levels that affect the site. This sheet of information is the basis for many of the land development proposals mode in the master plan. Deposit Analysis and Sections These three sheets are an analysis of the deposit char- acteristics: depth, quantities of sand and gravel, and quantities of overburden. The legend on the deposit analysis sheet describes what each contour line represents. The sections illustrate the information on the deposit an- alysis sheet. Concept Drawing The concept is a diagrammatic sketch of design thoughts and relationships. It represents in abstract form a design synthesis of all the site, deposit, and operation informa- tion. Master Plan This drawing is an articulation of the concept in physical form, drawn accurately to scale and illustrating landforms, roods, parking areas, structures, waterbodies and eleva- tions. Model The model was constructed as a three dimensional study of the masterplan. By mentally shrinking in scale one con place himself in the model, sense the spatial sequence along the roads and walks, feel the relationships between buildings and the landscape and thus critically analyze the design as a spatial and functional composition. Sketches The primary purpose of the sketches is to illustrate the character of development that is anticipated. Quantities This drawing illustrates the cubic yards of waste sand necessary to create the proposed land forms. The dashed lines delimit the area of the existing deposit that will supply the required quantities of waste sand. The arrows show the direction of disposal required for the desander to dispose of waste sand. Operations The operating plan is based on a maximum pumping distance of 600 feet for the desander. Consequently, the maximum distance for dredge digging operations is 600 feet from the outside edge of the land form that is reusing sand from the desander. The operations drawing illustrates the patterns of excavation required to deposit waste sand in the desired location. This operation pattern fulfills the quantities of waste sand expressed in the quantities drawing. Staging This sheet identifies the areas to be developed according to a time sequence schedule and what types of develop- ment should occur during the course of sand and gravel operations. 44 SHEET INDEX SHEE-r 1 ORIENTATION SHEET 2 SITE ANALYSIS SHEET 3 DEPOSIT ANALYSIS SHEET 4 SECTION SHEET 5 SECTION SHEET 6 CONCEPT SHEET 7 MASTER PLAN SHEET 8 SKETCHES SHEET 9 - 10 MODEL SHEET II OPERATION SHEET 12 LANDFORM QUANTITIES SHEET 13 STAGING AGRICULTURAL LAND SOUTH SANTA FE CORRIDOR Fig. 59 — Orientation Sheet SHEET \ ■ 13 CRAIG JOHNSON SCALE AS NOTED iii^^#;::^-aB^»s^^^it^.«is.M.te^.«^.^iai^iiMMi^^ SECTION NO. 2-2 SOLE - I »0 Fig. 60 -Site Analysis SHEET 2-13 SCALE r-400' CONTOOR INTERVAL 2 SURFACE ELEVATION — BASE OF OVERBURDEN WBin BASE OF PIT TOPO. BY COOLEY CO. Fig. 61 — Deposit Information SHEET 3 13 SCALE 1"- 200 '■'■■-/■/■■r;;'^-:-. 50K)0 I ! ' : . iv- i ■ ' ■ J ■ - 45+00 1 ! ■ 1 40+00 ■ • 7 ' ■ ■ 1 "-i-- p.\ 0 :iV-"~ ••■,■'■1 ■'■' •ri \' ■ l ■Sk 1 1 s ■ •: \ ■ , ■ . ' I ■ vi'T i- 35t00 r ' ■ 35+00 1 . . t-- ' -_u- ■ , -■ f ■ k4 — . V 1 - ( ■ i i ■ ■ ■-■- ■!-■■■ ^■M\ ' ■ ■■■'■ \ "■ ' :• - :: ]' ■ ' ■ ■•. - • ; -p. i--rr ^ - ■ i , : i ■ : i : : - m ' ■ .. I ■ i . : . 1 i-i-^^l ':.-■{ - ' \ 1 1 ■i ■ ■■ -ri' ^ r f ! I ■■ 1- ■ V ■ •!-ii 1 -. : ■■■ ; i ■ ■ r ^:i-iM- 30+00 ^V ^- ' \ 7 ■ ' " i. 30+00 -■■; ■■.;.• ■ -, (■■-- • ■■-. — '■"■-■' " ' \ ! ri . ■ r ' T -" 1 ■ .,,.,, ,,, j^ „ _,^ Mr-' Ml ^ ■■- \ 1 ■ ^■"■■- i - I ! ■ i t-- — y^-' ! "^ p ' ^ ■ * ■ 1 ¥- \ '■■: : r ^ 1 ■ .1^" :' 7 ■ ".-■/"- 1 - '.- \ ■ i '> ' ■ / r ':": ■ > ' / ' : ; - \ ■ m k. ■■■ / 25+00 ; '■'\ ■/ 25+00 . ) ; 4 ■ 1-— ^ ■L J J^'i .. - ■ ■ ! i - ; ' M 't^ ■ . — ^ / 1 J - . ■ i ■'/ ■• "'^. . ■ - ' -•> VJ' i 7 A j i . 't ;^^t^ P" -^ ■^ UIj; ; ,, ? 71 ' ■ ' . '■' '\-. jjjPI Hi iH \ III ii'fiiiij m w 4 ■ ■ ■u III III II I w p 'I m P- il3 ; .. ■^" .- U 20+00 Mlili p 0 (^ 20+00 / pi^ ( / 15 + 00 ( / / 1 > 1 > 15+00 i r \ lOfOO cH J "rr ?^■ c . 10+00 \ / 5 + 00 ii^ In? 111! 1 1 1 1 5+00 < > / f >^ IO 1 1 J _i_ h> 1 ( i>' IO ^ ■«■ \ z o 1 1- 1^ Hi Hi K, z o 1- z o 1- o ?i o o / \ j Ul UJ / UJ \ to >■ u> o O O O O o O 0) lO * fO cvi — O < \J <£ m * IO (vi — O cv SS'2'2'^'^'^'5 1^ lO ro ro rO fO ro r 3 S rOrorOiOfOfOro rO IO IO lO IO lO K) If lo in IO m lo irt 1 mminioininio in IO ID m in in in in SCALE 1" 20' VERT. !"■ 200' HORZ SAND a GRAVEL ^ ^'A^j^'^S^ s'?^ WATER r =;=: OVERBURDEN lllllllllllllllllllllll niillF'TlllllllllllMII SHEET 4 ■ 13 Fig. 62 - Sections iFPiiri SCALE AS NOTED 00 I o o 111 s o ? O O O O O lO lO lO K) ro ro R n m m ID lO r) o o o O (O in t R in K R o o o o O o o o> CM y o rg K> lO lO fO in in in in o o 5f o o SCALE I" 20' VERT I " ■ 200 ' HORZ SAND a GRAVEL ■■^■-^■f:.'-'i>'^ii^A'i WATER OVERBURDEN ' iMIIiinillllini Fig. 63 — Sections SHEET 5 13 SCALE AS NOTED Fig. 64 — Concept SHEET 6-13 SCALE r 200' 114 DETACHED HOMES 58 TOWNHOUSE UNITS 40 HIGHRISE UNITS C€NSITY-2 DWELLINGS PER ACRE Fig. 65 — Master Plan SHEET 7- 13 SCALE r- 200 z*k Fig. 67 & 68 - Model 53 DREDGE PATTERN DIRECTION OF WASTE SAND DIKES K-fe^-^^--^'^.!..-V?^^^i^v>j;i LANDFORM OUTUNE Fig. 69 — Operation Pattern ES SHEET 9-13 SCALE I" 200' QUANTITIES ARE IN CUBIC YARDS 40% DEPOSIT- WASTE SAND DIRECTION OF WASTE SAND ^ LIMIT OF REQUIRED QUANTITIES Fig. 70 — Land Fill Quantities SHEET 10-13 SCALE I" 200' r" -L. r' PLANT SCREEN IMMEDIATELY n STAGE 4 STRIP TOPSOIL EXCAVATE GRADE TOPSOIL SEED PERENNIAL COVER CROP LAYOUT ROADS COMPLETE TREE PLANTING STAGE 3 STRIP TOPSOIL EXCAVATE GRADE TOPSOIL SEED PERENNIAL COVER CROP LAYOUT ROADS COMPLETE TREE PLANTING STAGE 2 STRIP TOPSOIL EXCAVATE GRADE TOPSOIL SEED PERENNIAL COVER LAYOUT ROADS COMPLETE TREE PLANTING CROP STAGE I TOPSOIL GRADED SEED PERENNIAL COVER CROP LAYOUT ROADS 8 PARKING COMPLETE TREE PLANTING Fig. 71 —Staging SHEET 13 -13 SCALE l"'200' Chapter 4 Conclusions Introduction To date, most rehabilitation occurring on sand and gra%el sites has been oriented toward fixing up depleted sites. Re- habilitation of this nature has not been completeh successful because the expense and effort in\oKed in completely healing the scars of unplanned excavation ha\e been prohibiti\e. The dramatic picture portra\ed b\ unrehabilitated or par- tially rehabilitated sand and gra\el sites has been a severe handicap to the sand and gravel industry. Many communities have adopted zoning regulations to curtail operations and have refused to issue excavation permits in an effort to keep out surface mining. As a result, other t\pes of development have occurred on the potential excavation sites, covering thousands of cubic yards of sand and gra\cl annualK beneath a mat of concrete and asphalt. In the face of a mushrooming population and the subse- quent increase in demand for sand and gravel products and land for all types of public and private development, the sand and gravel industry must perform a dual function. It must con- tinue to produce quality sand and gravel products and develop its sites progressiveK into land areas that can be adapted to a variety of uses on completion of excavation. Planning Simultaneously planning excavation operations and site de- velopment, prior to excavation, is the most efficient way to perform the dual role of resource extraction and land rehabili- tation. Planning should include an inventory and analysis of: 1. site 2. deposit 3. cultural features 4. equipment 5. operofions The benefits of planning, related specifically to the applica- tion of equipment and operations for site development, are many. 1. Site analysis including cultural features will reveal spe- cific site features that should be preserved or altered by proper operation planning and the use of equipment. It may also in- 57 dicate portions of the site that will require screening or other such features to reduce operation nuisance problems so that excavation can proceed in the least objectionable manner pos- sible. 2. A graphic analysis of deposit characteristics will il- lustrate the topographic character of the site after excavation and the quantities of material available for various land de- velopment uses. This information will suggest what operational steps and use of equipment will be necessary to achieve the desired ultimate site form. 3. The inventory and analysis of equipment and operations will point out the potentials of each item of equipment and operation for site development. Once these potentials are known, they can be exploited during the course of normal op- erating procedures and organized with a time and motion diagram to maximize site development and minimize time, ef- fort, and interference with production. Most of the detailed plans will be completed during and after the excavation to adjust alignments, land forms, and ele- vations to fit in with unexpected deposit variations. In addition, due to the long life of many deposits, environmental changes may require alterations of the detailed plans. Master plans are not absolute in the sense that final elevations shall be within a few inches or that the land forms shall be in the exact area and form proposed. Equipment, Operations and Recommendations The following discussion is a generalized summary of op- erations results, and recommended procedures to capitalize upon equipment potential for site development. Clearing 1. Clearing of necessity removes the vegetation from the excavation area and produces the first visually significant im- pact of operations. 2. Clearing equipment, primarily dozers and loaders, can be used for a variety of clearing associated rehabilitation pro- cedures including: A. Selectively clearing only those trees within the excava- tion area and avoiding damage or injury to plants that are to be conserved. B. Moving and transplanting small trees and shrubs from the clearing area to the site periphery. 3. Clearing operations can be improved to avoid waste disposal of timber. 4. Planting of trees, shrubs, and grasses is recommended for screening in areas that will not be cleared or excavated. Stripping, Stockpiling, Excavating Stripping and stockpiling operations remove the various layers of overburden that cover the deposit, and excavation op- erations remove the sand and gravel usually to its natural depth limitation. The land forms that result from these oper- ations are affected by deposit depth, quantity of overburden, and the type of excavating equipment. Commonly created land forms include: 1. slopes of varying heights and gradients 2. basegrade topography in a variety of topographic con- figurations 3. water areas of varying depths and sizes. A site may contain one, all or a combination of these various land and water features. The topographic characteristic of these various land and water forms becomes areas of concern for rehabilitation be- cause the proposed land use for the site must be fitted into the topography and this wedding of site and land use can occur and should be accomplished in the most economical and esthetically pleasing manner possible. Thus, one of the primary objectives of rehabilitation plan- ning is to excavate the site so that its topography can be readily and economically inhabited by the proposed land use and will drain properly to protect development. A grading plan should be adopted as a guide to excavation for achieving the above mentioned objectives. The plan should set the base- grades and slope grades and the gradients of drainage ways. It should be precise enough to meet the requirements of the proposed land use. Generally, less accurate grading is required for extensive types of land uses such as parks and wildlife preserves. Equipment and operations should be organized into a pro- gressive rehabilitation cycle which can be an integral part of extractive operations. The rehabilitation cycle consists of the following steps. 1. Staged stripping of overburden 2. Excavating to the predetermined elevations set by drain- age and land use requirements. 3. Replacement of overburden and topsoil upon the pre- viously excavated areas to meet the finished grade requirements specified in the grading plan. Equipment commonly used for excavation of dry sites in- cludes draglines, shovels, clamshells, scrapers, and cable exca- vators. Of these, the dragline and scraper are used extensively for stripping and stockpiling operations as well as excavation. All these types of equipment or combinations of equipment are capable of utilizing the rehabilitation cycle. The only dif- ference is in the specific details of procedure required to fit the various operating patterns of equipment. The application of equipment for rehabilitation is primarily oriented to creatively developing the site, its slopes, and its basegrade topography into usable portions of the site and has produced the following suggestions: Screening Scraper 1. Creation of interesting screening mounds by the deposit of overburden in interesting patterns. Dragline, Dozers 1. Dragline used to deposit stockpile mounds along the site periphery and the dozer is used to shape the piles into interesting forms. Slope Development The objective of slope development is to create slopes that are stable, safe, and if possible usable parts of the site. Equip- ment can be used in the following manner to achieve these objectives. Dragline 1. Controlled excavation to achieve the desired gradient. 2. Inclined stockpiling to fill out the slope. 3. Terracing. 4. Backsloping. Scrapers 1. Controlled excavation to achieve the desired gradient. 2. Filling out the slope with overburden from the pit floor upward. 3. Terracing. Shovels, Clamshells, Cable Excavators 1. Controlled excavation to achieve the desired gradient. 2. Terracing. 3. Combining excavation operations with overburden disposal using trucks or scrapers to fill out the slope from the pit floor upward. Dozers 1. Cutting back the steep slope and covering it with over- burden. 2. Terracing. 3. Assisting in all the above mentioned techniques for slope development. Trucks 1. Dumping overburden from above previously excavated slope until the desired gradient is reached. 2. Filling out the slope from the pit floor upward. Basegrade Preparation The objectives of basegrade preparation are to prepare the 58 ) r pit or hillside floor so that it drains properly and can be utilized by the predetermined land use. Dragline 1. Controlled excavation and controlled stockpiling in the previously excavated areas. A. Regrading of stockpiles by dozers where stockpiles ore small. B. Dual row stockpiling and regrading by dozers or scrap- ers where stockpiles are large. Scroperj 1. Controlled excavation and in place deposition of over- burden over previously excavated areas. Shovels, Clamshells, and Cable Excavators 1. Controlled excavation and replacement of overburden over previously excavated areas by whatever type of stripping precedes excavation. Dozers and Graders 1. Regrading and shaping of basegrade, overburden, and topsoil. 2. Development of special site features. Trucks 1. Used in combination with boom and cable type excavators to transport and deposit overburden in desired areas. Water Areas The objectives of wet site development in most cases is to develop water areas that are deep, have large areas of open water and are clean. Water area development may also include land forming and diking which is a technique to use to increase the number of buildable sites near the water. Equipment com- monly used for wet site excavation includes draglines, dredges, clamshells, and cable excavators. Of these only the dragline is used extensively for stripping and stockpiling; scrapers may be called upon to strip and stockpile the overburden. Drog//ne 1. Excavating in various patterns which will consolidate over- burden windrows and create open water areas. 2. Double casting overburden to create larger water areas. 3. Removal of "no dig" areas from water. 4. Shaping of shore lines. 5. Dike construction. Scrapers 1. Stockpiling overburden where it can be used for land- scaping. 2. Dike Construction. Clamshells and Cable Excavators 1. Controlled excavation to achieve the desired water depth. 2. Combined operations with stripping equipment for land forming and diking. Dozers ond Trucks 1. Assist in dike construction and land forming. Processing and Transporting The processing plant, storage area, and related surge piles of unrefined material are the imageable features of a sand and gravel operation. The immediate processing plant area is the primary generator of noise and dust problems and the primary tool offered for the planned disposal of waste sand. Proposals 1. Processing plants which are equipped with a desander hove an excellerit potential for land forming. Several fac- tors are important in utilizing the desander for this purpose. A. V/aste sand deposit areas should be located where they will be most beneficial to site development. Such locations would include: Fill in shallow water areas Areas for beach development Fill for low dry land areas Shoreline development Landforming of various types B. Waste sand used for land forming should be pumped behind or into container dikes or check dams so that the maximum use of waste sand for fill material will be realized. Since overburden is an unprocessable material common to most sites, it is recommended that it be used for dike construction on wet sites. Wood and corrugated metal may also be used for diking purposes. C. Areas filled with waste sand should be covered with overburden and topsoil to provide a base for vegeta- tion. 2. Noise and dust problems should be eliminated at the source when possible. 3. A location for the processing plant should be selected that is easily accessible to circulation routes, yet is as unobjec- tionable as possible. 4. Screening with overburden, surge piles and vegetation should be used to further dissipate noise and dust prob- lems. The screening elements should be organized in an interesting manner to form a composition that will project an interesting and dynamic compatible image of the operation. Benefits Development of the optimum land use and reduction of normal objectionable operating conditions can best be achieved by adopting a plan prior to an excavation and implementing it during the execution of operations. The plan must capitalize upon natural site assets and utilize equipment and operating potential as they become available throughout the duration of operations, if it is to be implemented economically. A re- sponsible predetermined land development program will con- tribute to the welfare of the producer, the community and the country in four ways: 1. Development plans drawn up prior to excavation will not impede the producer's efforts to supply a growing demand for sand and gravel products. 2. A demonstration of responsible land development prac- tices on the part of the producer will improve his public image. 3. The development of a depleted site will not plague the community with what may have been an ugly scar upon its landscape complexion. Instead, rehabilitation can create land- forms that are usable for a variety of public and/or private functions. 4. The developed site will likely present the producer with a real economic gain as valuable real estate for resale upon the completion of operations. Future Research Future research will be devoted to ultimate land use and public relations. The major objectives shall be to identify the characteristics and potential of typical site features resulting from sand and grave! operations, to determine typical site re- quirements for various potential land uses and to demonstrate how the finding may be applied in the planning procedure for ultimate use of sand and gravel sites. Public relations prob- lems of operating and abandoned sand and grave! sites and demonstrations of how site planning techniques may be ef- fectively utilized to alleviate objectionable site conditions will be introduced with examples of suggested solutions. A thi>ig is right only when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the conniutnity: and the covimunity includes soil, water, fauna and flora, as well as the people. — Aldo Leopold 59 APPENDIX This appendix is an inventory and analysis of equipment com- monly used in sand and gravel operations. The purpose is to orient the layman and the planner-designer, unfamiliar with the sand and gravel industry, to the working capabilities and limitations of the equipment used in excavation, their normal operating patterns, and typical land form results. QrO Processing Plant w Direction of Excavation Return OJ'V/X/xk Direction of Stockpiling WVV> Dump m Self Transportation IniT^ Transportation by Other Vehicles ]m Pipeline Transportation 60 Rubber Tired Equipment LOADER ^ Patterns X iiiiMiiniiiii^//^ •fr iM«VVMMII iin/i(i|C Excavated Land Form i.|.|.).|.|.). Loaders are the most recent addition to the sand and gravel producer's line of equipment. They were designed by heavy equipment manufacturers to provide the earth moving industry vi/ith a fast, ma- neuverable item of equipment capable of loading loose material in a short time, and being able to move from one working site to another rapidly under its own power. There are several different types of loaders, but the two-wheel and four- wheel drive front end loaders are the most common in the sand and gravel in- dustry. They feature bucket capacities up to six cubic yards. They are moved along at speeds up to 30 mph by 200 to 500 horsepower motors. The turning radius for most models is about twenty feet, making loaders very flexible and capable of working in tight quarters. Loader opera- tions are only nominally affected by grades because the normal loading cycle distance is usually less than fifty feet. Most loaders are used in sand and gravel operations for loading trucks at the excavation site and the processing plant. In a limited number of cases they may be used where the sand and gravel deposit crumbles easily to the pit floor and can be scooped up by the loader. Loaders are also handy pieces of equip- ment for clean-up work and diverse de- tailed tasks, such as feeding the main intake hopper at the processing plant. 61 Rnbber Tired Equipment SCRAPER Cut Pattern Hailed by many as the most important innovation in the earth moving industry, the scraper is gaining wider acceptance by the sand and gravel industry because of its speed, mobility and hauling ca- pacity. Its biggest advantage is its ability to dig, haul and spread the material all in one motion, it operates on the same principle as the Fresno bucket; but that's where the similarity ends. Modern scrap- ers can load 17 yards of material and deposit them at high speeds up to fifteen mph, requiring less than twenty seconds to empty the pan. They are moved by powerful engines up to 450 horsepower which can move an empty pan 30mph on the return phase of the hauling cycle. The four basic types of scrapers in- clude: the two-wheel over-hung scraper, four-wheel scraper, twin engine scraper and the crawler-drawn scraper. Each spe- cial piece has its own operational ad- vantages. The four-wheeled scraper is most efficient over short hauls, 1,500 feet, and with the overhung cab, it is capable of turning 90"^ corners with ease. The turning radius wheti operating a1 speed is about 25 feet for most models, The twin-engined scraper has two syn- chronized engines, one in front and one behind the pan. The power generated by these two motors eliminates the need foi a pusher dozer. Twin engined scraper: are frequently used where heavy strip ping or excavating is encountered. How ever, the two motors greatly increase equipment weight and reduce the effi- cient hauling distance to less than 1,50G feet. The slowest of all scrapers, but very maneuverable, is the crawler drawn type with a working speed of five to ten mph. It is very efficient in heavy strip- ping because of the increased traction offered by the crawlers. Scrapers are sensitive to both grade changes and weather conditions. The grade resistance in terms of percent o1 gross vehicle weight is the same as the percent of grade, thus reducing efficiencj proportionately. From reviewing job re- ports it is evident that scrapers have the highest lost-time record due to rain and bad weather. In a sand and gravel operation, scrap- ers are used for stripping, stockpiling and excavation purposes. They are used mainly for dry operations or for excavat- ing above the water table on wet sites and regions where the overburden and deposits are free-flowed and contain few large boulders. 62 Rubber Tired Equipment GRADER The early graders were horse-drawn, hand-operated pieces of equipment. Mod- ern graders are powered by 200 horse- power motors with operating speeds of twenty mph. The pitch and angle of the grader blade is hydraulically controlled. For most models the minimum inside turning radius is 35 feet with an average blade length of twenty feet which can be moved off center if desired. Graders or road patrols, as they are called, are used principally for finishing and shaping rath- er than digging or transporting. The most common type of grader is the single piece unit; but where rough grad- ing in small areas is required, there are grader blade attachments for trucks and tractors. Graders can work effectively over un- limited linear distances as illustrated by grading operations in large road projects. They reach the peak of their efficiency curve when operating in this manner and any additional turning or jockeying around will lower output. Graders have the potential to negotiate fifteen percent straight grades and can work 1:1 side slopes when winched over an edge by bulldozers. However, because of their high center of gravity, graders are not efficient at working side slopes over twenty percent when unassisted by other equipment. Because of their specialized design for finished work, graders are limited in the number of functions they can perform. Scarifiers, rippers and dozer blades are a few attachments that increase versatility. Graders are not commonly used in con- junction with sand and gravel operations; but on sites where they are utilized, they maintain haul roads, shape stockpiles, provide the finished grading to dress up stockpiles for screening and land forming, and grade topsoil over rehabilitated slopes. 63 Rubber Tired Equipment TRUCK 3 s-V M = \ = I ^ I Pattern aS„,„„unUU^^^^^ ,XXN^^^^^'"^'''% ^'//// Consumer The two basic types of trucks include: 1) the slow, powerful, large-capacity, off- highway vehicles which work within the confines of the site because of their size; and 2) the smaller, faster, conven- tional road trucks which operate both on and off the site. Road trucks have up to 265 horse- power with sixty ton capacity and road speeds of sixty mph. With increased speed and dump capacities, truck evolu- tion has been instrumental in increasing production and distribution rates. Bottom dump, end dump and side dump are typical types of off-highway trucks. Their capacities of thirty to forty yards are three times as large as con- ventional trucks. Top speed is usually about 30 mph and inside turning radii for most models is about 30 feet. They are capable of working on 15% or 20% straight grades but once uphill grades exceed 5%, efficiency curves nose dive. End dump trucks are most efficient on steep grades. Bottom dump and side dump trucks exhibit better traction in soft material. Side dumps specialize in building up the edges of fills over long distances because of their large capacity and ability to deposit material off to one side of the cab. The smaller road trucks have no haul- ing distance limitations, but the eco- nomic pressure of the cost-distance ratio will control haul lengths from the plant to the consumer. Some producers use a fleet of these smaller trucks for work on the site offsetting the large capacities of the off the road vehicles with the faster cycle time of the smaller vehicles. How- ever, their main function is delivering finished products to the customer. In sand and gravel operations, trucks are used primarily as transporting equip- ment. Their main function is to transport raw sand and gravel from excavated areas to processing plant and from the plant to the consumer. Trucks may also be combined with draglines or shovels dur- ing stripping operations to remove over- burden from the excavation area and to deposit it elsewhere. 64 Track Equipment BULLDOZER Land Forms and Operating Pattern strength, versatility, and a variety of accessories to handle unique problems make the bulldozer a real workhorse in any sand and gravel operation. Bull- dozers, (dozers for short), are the short range member of the family of excavators that dig and transport material to a dumping point. Dozer sizes range the from 70 horse- power midgets used for small scale detail- ed work to the 400 horsepower mountain I moving giants with working speeds of 6 miles an hour. They can work straight slopes of 45 , but such operations are treacherous in loose material; 30 slopes are considered safe for most soils and weather conditions. The wide track mod- els can work 20 side slopes with ease. The two basic types of bulldozers are the cable lift dozer and the hydraulic lift dozer. The names denote the method by which the blade is raised or lowered. 65 Both types are very maneuverable and can turn 90" corners within the length of the machine by locking one tread, ap- plying power to the other, and rotating on the locked tread. Except for wet swampy conditions, bulldozers are at home work- ing with any type of soil. Where soils are workable, bulldozers are capable of scraping and spreading material to close tolerances. Tremendous power and slow working speeds are design characteristics of the dozer that limit their efficient op- erating range to less than 100 feet. Mov- ing earth more than 100 feet is more ef- ficiently done by mobile means of trans- portation such as scrapers or shovels and trucks. A rule of thumb states that dozer efficiency drops off in a direct ratio with distance. During the course of sand and gravel operations, bulldozers perform a number of tasks including clearing, stripping over short distances, push loading scrapers, and miscellaneous clean up work around the processing plant. Almost every sand and gravel operation has one or more bulldozers on the site used periodically for one of the above-mentioned tasks. During slack periods when they are not employed in excavational operations, dozers are often used to shape overbur- den, dress up slopes, or other rehabilita- tion work. Track and Boom Equipment SHOVEL Cut //. Patterns One of the first mechanized pieces of earth moving equipment was the steam- powered shovel. Today they are operated by gas, diesel, and electric pov-^r but to most everyone they are still "steam shovels". The principle of shovel oper- ation, a scoop with a trapdoor bottom mounted on an arm connected to a rotat- ing disc, is still the same, but perform- ance standards are much different than those of the methodical monster of yes- teryear. There are still V2 yard buckets like the shovels of old, but standard sizes go up to 14 yards with the average capacity of 4-5 yards. The load, pivot, and dump cycle times are now down to 35 seconds, and are most efficient within arcs of 35- 40". One 14 yard bucket, used in con- structing a dam, moved 145,000 yards of material during two, 10 hour shifts. Shov- els have a 360 area of operation with an average digging radius of 35 feet. Man- euverability is limited because of the cumbersome boom and the slow move- ment of the crawler mounted vehicles. The three most common shovels are the dipper shovel, the crowd shovel, and the pull shovel. Dipper shovels are most ef- ficient at bank excavation and working into a pit wall. They are capable of up- cutting 20 feet into a working face and when the height of the pit wall exceeds this dimension the top of the pit is caved in by dozers. The shovel can then pick up the sand and gravel from the pit floor. Both of these shovels are less efficient when required to excavate downward from a surface plane because the mechanical advantage of the leverage arm is reduced. The pull shovel is a more specialized type. It is used for excavating narrow ditches and for straight face excavation from above the pit. The pull shovel is operated by lowering the bucket down- ward into the pit and scooping the mate- rial out by pulling the bucket up against the working face toward the base of the shovel. Shovels are still one of the most com- mon pieces of equipment in the sand and gravel industry. They are used almost ex- clusively for bank excavation and loading. They are very efficient at handling a de- posit because of large bucket sizes and the leverage power of the digging arm. However, they are strictly a land-based piece of equipment limited to dry oper- ations. 66 Track and Boom Equipment DRAGLINE i 5i5 fxAJ- Cut ± Pattern Stockpile iii^ The dragline is a combination of the boom features of the shovel and the bucket features of the scraper which creates a unique piece of equipment. It lacks the positive digging strength of the shovel because the bucket is lighter and it doesn't have the structural digging arm. But it has some advantages such as long reach for digging and dumping, up to 250 feet, because of the lighter, longer boom and a very fast cycle time. The two most common types are those powered by diesel motors and the elec- trically operated machines. There is an increased use of electric draglines on large sites because of the reduced main- tenance on electric motors and in urban areas it is gaining wider acceptance be- cause of the almost silent operating char- acteristics. The average bucket capacity for both types is about 4-5 yards but some of the huge models used in large sand and gravel operations and on dam sites may reach 85 yard capacities. Drag- lines are capable of casting the bucket beyond the radius boom point but most digging is done beneath the boom tip. Boom length and the angle of inclination between the boom and the base plate determine the horizontal distance that a dragline can excavate and dump. If the horizontal distance is increased, a bucket of smaller capacity must be installed or counterweights added to the dragline's cab to keep the dragline balanced and avoid tipping the machine. A walking dragline is a special adapta- tion for working large deposits in flat topography. It moves in a fashion similar to a man crouched down with both hands at his sides, palms down on the floor. As he rocks forward his hands hold his body up until his feet touch the ground in front of him and then he moves his hands into position at his sides again to repeat the cycle. This slow cycle is repeated by the walking dragline continuously at the rate of 15 of a mile an hour until the destination is reached. The dragline is one of the most com- mon items of earth moving equipment used in the sand and gravel industry, especially in wet sites, because of the diversity of functions it performs— strip- ping, stockpiling, and excavating and its fast cycle time for loading trucks and hoppers. 67 Track and Boom Equipment CLAMSHELL Cut Patterns . • 1 UIIIU __ ->/, '^l^\\^^^^^ The clamshell is the Jack-of-all-trades in the excavation end of sand and gravel operations, capable of performing all the operations of the dragline and the shovel, but with less efficiency. The clamshell has a slower cycle time than the drag- line to allow for the additional step of opening and closing the bucket. Its specialty is digging straight sided pits, working from the top of the pit down- ward. The depth to which a clamshell can excavate is limited only by the height of the boom and the cable capac- ity of the uptake drum. Bucket capacities vary from 1/2 to 8 yards and operate much like the "dig- gers" at the penny arcade. The bucket is dropped with the mouth open into the deposit. The operator loads the bucket by closing it with a biting action and the load is raised from the pit floor to be loaded into trucks or hoppers. The crawler mounted clamshell is slow-moving and maneuverability is limited because of the long boom and slow speed of crawler mounted models. The clamshell is at home in both wet and dry operations. With a heavy bucket, it is capable of digging in any type of material except solid rock, and is used mainly for excavation in sand and gravel operations. 68 Floating Equipment DREDGE 7 B m •^ W ' "-^^v. -^ >c ♦^. w ■ ■?3<» ,x V. The dredge is a naval extension of sand and gravel operations. It is used for the excavation of large river deposits and on large inland wet operations. Some dredges have incorporated the processing plant on board, such as one rig in the Denver area which has the whole opera- tion shipside, with the exception of the office and weighing station. The two basic types, the hydraulic dredge and the ladder and bucket, have been hybridized with accessories and modified by producers to meet various operational problems. Both types are powered by either diesel or electric pow- er for dredges operating in urban areas because the silent operation is less dis- turbing to surrounding land users. The ladder and bucket dredge is not as common as the hydraulic dredge, but it is frequently used on sand and gravel sites. It operates on a principle similar to the water wheel— a continuous cycle of buckets that dig into the deposit, load, dump onto the dredge and return to dig again. The hydraulic dredge works on the same principle as the vacuum cleaner and is used commonly on inland wet pit operations. It consists of floating vacuum pumps which suck in sand, gravel and water and deliver them to the processing plant. Ordinarily the maximum digging depth for both types of dredges is about forty feet. Some hydraulic dredges have gone to a depth of 120 feet, but as excavation depth increases, additional booster pumps, new hoists, ladder extensions, and more counterweights increase pro- duction cost. Hydraulic dredge production capacity depends on the size and height of the discharge pipe which affects back pres- sure on the pump, depth below water of the working face, percent of solids drawn in, and pump capacity. The most im- portant factor is the percent of solids drawn in. Except under overload condi- tions, there is little difference in volume or costs between pumping low and high percent of solids. The limiting factor is the plugging point of the pipe which is lower for less solids and low velocities, especially when working in gravel de- posits. The dredge is one of the most special- ized pieces of equipment found in sand and gravel operations and is used exclu- sively for excavation. 69 Cable Excavators SLACKLINE CABLE Pattern Excavated Land Form Slackline cables and drag scrapers are the old standby of the mining industry. They are simple, efficient, and reliable, — a bucket between two stations pulled through the deposit. The digging line is changed by moving the tail anchor which eventually leaves a fan shaped pattern similar to the ridges on a brachiopod shell. The difference between the two types of cable excavation is in the bucket de- sign. The slackline cable bucket has a bottom in it and once it fills with ma- terial, it is raised into the air and drawn back to the mast head. The drag scraper bucket is bottomless and when it is full, the cutting edge of the bucket is de- signed to "float" up, and is dragged along the surface of the ground, back to the mast head. The average digging span for both models is 300-500 feet and bucket ca- pacities range from 1/2 to eight yards. Engines which pull the bucket are gaso- line, diesel and electric, and may have as much as 200 horsepower. Slackline cables and drag scrapers have a very slow cycle time when volume per unit of time is compared with other excavating equipment. The drag scraper is the slow- est of the two since the ground resist- ance on the bucket slows the return cycle. Both types work well in homo- geneous deposits but when coarse ma- terial or boulders are encountered, effi- ciency drops because the straight digging line reduces the ability to maneuver past such obstacles. Slackline cables and drag scrapers are used almost exclusively for excava- tion purposes in a sand and gravel opera- tion. 70 Conveyors BELT CONVEYORS ■■**^^?'==s ^ Conveyors are cycling belts used to transport large volumes of loose material along a designated route from a large source. They v)/ork well in both flat and hill terrain. The tw/o basic types are the stationary variety and the semi-mobile equipment attached conveyors. Stationary conveyors are used to move material over long distances often to convey material from the excavation area to the processing plant located off the site. Conveyors reduce the noise and dust problems of a plant operation in a de- veloped area, by carrying raw materials to the processing plant, which can be located some distance away in the hinter- • • i ^ ^^=2^ ■1- ^ Pattern ^^ _r^ r- land. The remote location eliminates ob- jections to noise and dust by residents in the general area. The most common conveyor width is thirty inches. When it is moving at a speed of 450 feet per minute, average for most conveyors, it can transport 520 yards of material an hour. A flat belt conveyor is capable of working on in- clines of 28 and with cleats or buckets it can work at slopes of 45 to 90 . Semi-mobile units may be a complete unit or attached to other pieces of equip- ment. The direct digging type pulled by crawlers may be used to scoop up wind- rows of sand and gravel. It is very man- euverable and capable of greater than 90" turns with a total turning radius for most models of 37 feet. The self- propelled paddle loader, a complete unit, eats into surge piles with a rotating mo- tion, conveying the material over the top of the machine, and depositing it into waiting trucks. The bucket loader, a series of buckets on the conveyor belt, operates in the same manner. Both types are ex- cellent for working with stockpiles be- cause of their short cycle time of forty seconds and because of their maneuver- ability. Conveyors are used exclusively for car- rying material and loading transporting equipment. 9 i 71 Processing Equipment DESANDER The desander, usually associated with wet sites is an item of processing equip- ment which funnels out excess quantities of sand, sand in excess of market de- mand. It may be an integral part of the processing plant in which case the waste material, a mixture of sand and water is piped out to waste deposit areas close to the plant area. Some desanders are small semi-portable units which follow excavation, intercept, screen out, and pump the waste sand back into the ex- cavated area enrouteto the plant. Pumping distances may reach 1,200 feet. The characteristic discharge pattern is a flat, five to ten percent, fan of sand. 72 Acknowledgments The assistance received from the members of the National Sand and Gravel Association in supplying information and ideas is appreciated. They have been extremely cooperative and help- ful. Special credit is due to the following members for the time they have devoted to this study, to the information they have con- tributed, and for the stimulation they have provided: Mr. W. I. Thieme, American Aggregates Corporation, Greenville, Ohio; Mr. Cecil Cooley, Mr. James Cooley, Mr. William Adams, Cooley Gravel Company, Denver, Colo.; Mr. A. H. Smith, A. H. Smith Company. The author acknowledges the helpful advice, criticism and assistance received from Associate Professor of Landscape Archi- tecture, Thomas C. Hazlett, and research assistants Anthony Bauer and David Jensen in organizing the contents of this study. The author also wishes to acknowledge James G. Coke, Director of Community Development who donated his time and skills as a pilot for a day long reconnaissance flight. The guidance received from the Research Committee has been of great assistance. The committee includes: Professor Wm. G. Carnes, Chairman, Department of Landscape Architecture, University of Illinois; Louis B. Wetmore, Deputy Commissioner, Department of Development and Planning, Chicago, 111.; Mr. C. G. Cooley, Cooley Gravel Company; Mr. Kenneth L. Schellie and Anthony Bauer of Schellie Associates, Planning Consultants; Mr. W. I. Theime, President of the American Aggregates Corpor- ation; and Mr. Vincent P. Ahearn, Jr., Secretary, Committee on Public Relations, National Sand and Gravel Association. ed and Produced by 73 •ALL AND SCHAEL JMwalk, Connecticut Bibliography Planning Ahearn, Vincent P., Jr., Land Use Planning and the Sand and Gravel Producer, National Sand and Gravel Association, Silver Spring, Maryland, 1964. Bauer, Anthony M., Simultaneous Excavation and Rehabilitation of Sand and Gravel Sites, 1965. National Sand and Gravel Association, Silver Spring, Maryland. BooER, H. L., Planning Practice for the Sand Industry, Sweet and Maxwell Ltd., London, 1959. Fairfax County Planning Division, A Natural Resource Development Plan, Fairfax, Vir- ginia, 1961. Lynch, Kevin, Site Planning, M.LT. Press, Cambridge. Massachusetts, 1962. SCHELLIE AND RoGiER, Site Utilization and Rehabilitation Practices for Sand and Gravel Opera- tions. National Sand and Gravel Association, Silver Spring, Maryland, 1964. SiMONDS, T. O., Landscape Architecture — The Shaping of Mass Natural Environment, F. W. Dodge Corporation, New York, 1961. Operations and Equipment Carson A. Brinton, General Excavation Methods, F. W. Dodge Corporation, New York, 1961. Goldman, Harold B., Sand and Gravel in California, Part A — Northern California. Cali- fornia Division of Mines, Bui. 180-A. San Francisco, California, 1961. National Sand and Gravel Association, Engineering Problems of Sand and Gravel Pro- duction. (An open forum presented at the 1961 Annual Operating Session of the NSGA) Cir. 86, Silver Spring, Maryland, 1961. Nevin Charles M., The Sand and Gravel Resources of New York State. New York State Fair Museum, Bui. 282, Albany, New York, 1929. Walker, Stanton. Production of Sand and Gravel. National Sand and Gravel Association, Cir. 57, Silver Spring, Maryland. 1954. Numerous Technical Brochures and Publications about equipment specifications by equip- ment manufacturers. Nichols, Herbert L.. Modern Technique of Excavation, North Castle Books. Greenwich, Connecticut. 1956. Nichols, Herbert L., Moving the Earth. The Workbook of Excavation, North Castle Books, Greenwich, Connecticut. 74 Rehabilitation Grandt, a. F., and Land, A. L., Reclaiming Illinois Strip Coal Land With Legumes and Grasses, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, 1958. Hackett, Brian, The Landscape of Waste, Landscape Architecture, Volume 52, No. 2, pp. 101-102, January, 1962. LiMSTROM, G. A., and Deitchman, G. H., Reclaiming Illinois Strip Coal Lands by Forest Planting, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, 1951. Ministry of Housing and Local Government, New Life for Dead Lands, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1963. National Sand and Gravel Association, Case Histories: Rehabilitation of Worked Out Sand and Gravel Deposits. Public Relations Bulletin 301, Silver Spring. Md., 1960. Wiederman, Glenn K., Borrow Pits Can Be Assets, Landscape Architecture, Volume 52, No. 2, pp. 92-93, January, 1962. ZUBE, Ervin H., Taconite and the Landscape, State of Wisconsin Department of Resource Development, Madison, Wisconsin, 1963. Case Study Chaney, Charles A., Marinas: Recommendations for Design and Construction, National Association of Engine and Boat Manufacturers, Inc., New York, 1961. Inter County Regional Planning Commission, Metropolitan Growth Plan, Open Space Plan, Storm Drainage, Sand and Gravel Resources, and Sanitary Landfill, 1961 to 1963. National Association of Home Builders, Home Builders Manual for Land Development, Washington, D. C, 1958. Urban Land Institute, The Community Builders Handbook, Washington, D. C, 1960. U. S. Army Engineering District, Omaha, Nebraska, Volume 1 Summary Report: South Platte River, Waterton to Brighton, Colorado, Denver, 1963. Wheller, W. W., Hydraulic Investigation For the Proposed Reclamation Program at the Cooley Gravel Works Near Littleton, Colorado, Denver, 1959. General Ahearn, Vincent P., Jr. and Charnfy, Donald K., Production and \'aluc of Sand and Gravel in 1963. National Sand and Gravel Association, Silver Spring, Md., 1964. Carnes, William G., Today's Research — Tomorrow's Resources (Speech delivered to the Annual Convention of the National Sand and Gravel Association). Chicago, Illinois, 1964. Clay, Grady, Those Troublesome Holes. An article in the Louisville Courier-Journal. Louisville, Ky., 1963. Cotter, Percy and Mallory, Jewel B., Sand and Gravel. 1962. Minerals Yearbook. Vol. 1. Metals and Minerals (Except fuels). Bureau of Mines, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Engineering News Record and Construction Methods Equipment, Tools of the Road Builder, McGraw Hill Co.. 1957. Von Engeln, O. D., Geomorphology, MacMillan Co.. New York, 1942. Whyte, William H., Cluster Development, American Conservation Association. Inc., New York, 1964. 75 1 •=% » tiv ■' r ■•*& ^ ^ J "\ ' f^lrt^^ j^^^^^^^H^^H^^P W*^-'~. ■•'""'''"''■SBWHP*^'"'"'' • - aa^^ ^ — - NATIONAL SAND AND GRAVEL ASSOCIATION 900 Spring St., Silver Spring, Maryland 20910 PRINTED IN U.S.A. 1,00 I